Skuleskogen National Park

Skuleskogen National Park (, literally "The Skule Forest National Park") is a Swedish national park in Västernorrland County, on the coast of the Baltic Sea, in northern Sweden. It covers , constituting the eastern part of the Forest of Skule.
The park is characterized by a very rough topology with many rocky peaks, of which the highest is Slåttdalsberget, in altitude, rising directly from the sea. The topography is also marked by the presence of deep crevasses and caves. This particular topology can be found throughout the entire High Coast (), a region of Sweden so named because it constitutes the highest section of the coast of the Baltic Sea. This region is in our day principally known as a favoured site for the observation of the phenomenon of post-glacial rebound. Most of the region was under the sea less than 10,000 years ago, after the ice sheet that blanketed it melted. But thanks to the melting of this mass of ice that had been pressing down upon it, the ground is rising year by year, at a current speed of per year.
Humans have left their mark upon the park, although they probably never established themselves there in great numbers. Numerous Bronze Age funerary cairns are still visible along the ancient coastline. Later, the forest was mainly used as pasture. Things changed in the middle of the 19th century when the logging industry spread throughout Sweden, affecting almost all the forest of the park. This exploitation ceased, however, at the end of that century, so that the current forest is dominated by trees more than 100 years old. This forest has thus been able to recover a part of its ancestral richness, and so contains an important fauna and flora, with several endangered species, such as the lichen , which is the park's symbol. This geological and biological richness led to the creation of a national park in 1984, followed by the inclusion of the park with the rest of the High Coast in 2000 in the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Today, despite its distance from areas of dense human population, the park is a relatively important site of tourism with 20,000 visitors per year. The principal attraction of the park is the deep crevasse of Slåttdalskrevan, which is easily accessible by numerous hiking trails, including the Höga Kustenleden, which goes along the whole of the High Coast.
Toponymy.
The national park takes its name from the forest of Skule, of which it constitutes the eastern part. The name in Swedish means "the forest of Skule", the word being common in the place names nearby, with for example Skuleberget ("mountain of Skule"), Skulesjön ("lake of Skule") or even the villages Skule and Skulnäs. However, there is a debate as to which toponym came first and was then transmitted to the others, as well as the meaning of this toponym.
A first hypothesis is that the name would have issued from the mountain Skuleberget, this being a point particularly notable in the landscape and one which would thus have been rapidly named. This name already appears in 1539 in the form and would derive from meaning "hiding place", the famous cave in the mountain having been in the past a refuge for brigands. Another hypothesis is that the name would have come from the village of Skule; Skuleskogen thus being "the forest on the way to Skule" or "the forest which belongs to Skule", Skule being the village allowed to pasture animals in the forest. This last hypothesis does not imply that the mountain did not have a name before the village of Skule came into being; the original name would have been a name which one ought not to pronounce, as is true of many places in the country, another name not forbidden then coming into common usage and replacing the old one.
Geography.
Location and borders.
Skuleskogen National Park is in the municipalities of Örnsköldsvik and Kramfors, both of Västernorrland County, both in the historical Swedish province of Ångermanland. It is south of the city of Örnsköldsvik and north of the city of Kramfors, the respective capitals of the municipalities mentioned above. It covers a surface area of of which are maritime, the park stretching, in fact, along the coast of the Baltic Sea.
Topography.
The park is included in the region called the High Coast, a zone of very rough relief, forming a joint valley landscape (): a landscape gouged by many small valleys formed by the erosion of fissures and faults in the bedrock. The High Coast is generally defined as the portion of the eastern coast of Sweden between the cities of Härnösand and Örnsköldsvik. The name of this region comes from the fact that it is the highest section of the coast of the Baltic Sea, numerous summits elevating themselves from the sea to attain altitudes of 200 to . This rugged terrain stretches even under the surface of the sea; so, it is in this region that one finds the deepest point of the Bothnian Sea, Ulvödjupet, with a depth of . The park itself covers the eastern part of the forest of Skule, characterized by a terrain forming a sort of wall separating the north and the south.
The topography of the park is characterized by these small valleys (), some even taking the appearance of vertitable crevasses, the most impressive being Slåttdalskrevan ( deep, long, wide), but also significant being Trollporten (the "Trolls' Door"), a small crevasse celebrated for the rock that rests across the top. Another characteristic element is the presence of many caves, although the most famous, "Skulegrottan", in the mountain Skuleberget, is not inside the park. The park's highest peak is Slåttdalsberget, at of altitude.
Climate.
The national park is bathed in a subarctic climate (Dfc according to the Köppen classification). The maritime influence explains why its early summers are colder than they are farther inland, but its autumns are in contrast more mild. The topography causes important local variations.
The climate is humid, with about of precipitation per year, of which more than a third in the form of snow, forming a snow cover lasting on average 175 days. Spring is the driest season, and in certain years this relative dryness has important consequences for the environment, especially because the thinness of the soil retains moisture poorly. In the regions acid rain most powerfully affected, surveys indicated that the situation is getting better, the pH of the precipitation gently increasing.
Hydrology.
Many streams run through the park, feeding many lakes. The principal lakes are Tärnättvattnen () and Stocksjön () belonging to the watershed of the streams Skravelbäcken and Långtjärnen (), belonging to the watershed of the stream Nylandsbäcken. A non-negligible section of the park () is made up of fens.
Geology.
Bedrock.
The principal rock of the park is the granite of Nordingrå, the park belonging to the Nordingrå massif. It consists of a rapakivi granite, formed about 1500 million years ago. It has a characteristic bright red color and erodes easily. To the north-east of the park, one can also find diabase, which was formed 1200 million years ago in the faults of the Nordingrå massif. Since granite forms a substrate very poor in nutrients, the diabase constitutes by contrast a very fertile terrain, which permits a richer vegetation.
The national park is traversed by several faults, like the rest of the High Coast. These faults were filled by deposits which marine erosion sometimes later removed. One of the most impressive examples of this phenomenon is Slåttdalsskrevan, east of the park : a crevasse of depth and width, which is one of the park's most visited sites. This crevasse was a fault filled by a vein of diabase, which was however eroded later, in part by the sea.
The High Coast.
At the height of the last ice age, 20,000 years ago, the ice sheet, which covered all of Northern Europe, had its center in the sea near the High Coast. The ice's thickness attained , exerting significant pressure on the soil, which was thus situated below the current level of the High Coast. When the ice melted, the soil rose progressively, a phenomenon called the post-glacial rebound, at a speed of per year. The zone was only freed of ice 9,600 years ago. As the land emerged from Lake Ancylus (ancestor of the Baltic Sea), the waves affected the terrain of today's park. The coastline of that era can now be found at an altitude of , measured from Skuleberget, southwest of the national park, which constitutes an absolute record. The peaks of the park were islands at that time. The ancient coastline is notably made visible by vegetation caps, which cover the areas not submerged after the retreat of the glaciers, explaining the name ("mountain cap") given to certain mountains of the region and the park. These vegetation caps had been able to install themselves since, at these places, the moraines were not eroded by waves, and they thus constituted a place where vegetation could attach.
The post-glacial rebound continues even today: the island of Tärnättholmarna, inside the park, is becoming bit by bit a peninsula, and the bay of Salsviken is now a lake isolated from the sea by a small strip of sand.
Environment.
Fauna.
The park is home to many species of mammal characteristic to northern Sweden, in particular the Eurasian lynx () and the brown bear (), considered endangered in the country. Besides these two species, one can find the red fox (), the European badger (), the European pine marten (), the moose (), the Eurasian beaver (), the grey seal (), and the muskrat (). One can also find small mammals, such as the Eurasian red squirrel (), the American mink () and the stoat (). The territory of the lynx is much more vast than the park itself, which is therefore not sufficient to protect these animals. Indeed, the population of lynx in the region is decreasing, probably because of habitat fragmentation as a result of European route E4.
With respect to birds, many species are also on the endangered list in Sweden, such as the Siberian jay (), the three-toed woodpecker (), the red-throated loon (), the European honey buzzard (), the rough-legged buzzard (), the greenish warbler (), the red-breasted flycatcher (), the red-backed shrike (), the spotted nutcracker (), the common rosefinch (), and the ortolan bunting (). The park also houses important populations of grey-headed woodpeckers (), common cranes (), grey herons (), Eurasian wrens (), de Eurasian wrynecks (), and hazel grouse ().
The rivers and lakes of the park are relatively poor. They are home mainly to European perch () and brown trout (), but the stream Skravelbäcken is also home to brook trout (). The sea has Atlantic herring (), but also northern pike (), trout, and perch, the Baltic Sea having low salinity.
Little is known of the park's insects. It is the zone most rich in beetles in the county.
Flora.
Skuleskogen is located on the northern border of the range of several plant species. Thus several deciduous tree species are present in the park, such as the little-leaf linden (), the common hazel (), the guelder-rose (), and the Norway maple (). The presence of these species is considered more of a relic of a warmer era than a feature of the current times. Their survival has been rendered possible by the unusual conditions encountered at the foot of certain mountains called (literally "mountain of southern-like vegetation"): the orientation of the rock face to the sun and the humidity brought about by the mountain offer a favorable microclimate which, in conjunction with the fertile soil, permits plants which do not normally grow at so high a latitude to thrive.
However, deciduous forest only covers , barely more than 1.4% of the surface area of the park. Thus, the forest is principally coniferous forest, characteristic of the Scandinavian and Russian taiga ecoregion. This forest is mainly made up of Norway spruce (), but at the frontier with the barren zones, the main species is Scots pine (). Pines dominate because forest fires are less frequent than previously, since birch and Scots pine are the first species to return after a fire. It seems that fires occurred naturally over the ages, but there has not been a fire for two centuries, humans actively fighting against their propagation. The maximum age of the trees of the forest is 100 years, but certain pines have reached 500 years, being particularly inaccessible and thus spared by loggers. However, during the last 100 years, the forest has partially recovered the richness which characterizes old growth forests.
In the coniferous forests, one can find several shrubs, of which the most common are blue whortleberry (), lingonberry (), and woundwort (). In the richer soil, one can also find , Alpine blue-sow-thistle (), wall lettuce (), as well as several species of ferns, such as worm fern () et la common lady-fern ().
A large part of the park (36%) consists of naked rock, and is thus a poor substrate for vegetation. The principal trees are dwarf pines which have not been affected by logging and which thus can be up to 500 years old. Besides these small trees, the vegetation is almost wholly of a shrubby nature, with common heather (), common juniper (), or bearberry (). These zones are also home to a large number of species of mosses and lichens.
Many mosses and lichens of the park are considered endangered in Sweden, in particular , which is now the park's symbol.
History.
Protohistory.
Because of the topography and the nature of the terrain, the area did not lend itself to human settlement and no trace of permanent habitation had been found in the park. Some traces of habitation dating from the Stone Age were found northwest of the park, at Bjästamon. These habitations were probably maintained until the Bronze Age. During the Bronze Age, many funerary cairns were placed along the coast as it existed at that time: one can find 28 inside the park, as well as two megalithic monuments. Many of these cairns, often circular, have in their centers lone rectangular cists. All these monuments are now 35 to above the current sea level. Just southwest of Näskebodarna, a dozen of these cairns, some of them relatively imposing, are arranged into a kind of cemetery ; the reason for this arrangement is unknown: it probably has to do with marking the territory or showing the way to the village, probably situated in the bays to the north or south of the park. One supposes indeed that at that time, navigation by boat was already developed and the sea was an essential resource for the settlers.
No traces dating from the Iron Age have been discovered.
Exploitation of the park.
The forest of Skule has always been a topographic barrier. For example, it would have perhaps have been the northern frontier of the kingdom of Svealand before the year 1000, and thus the border between adjacent municipalities and parishes. The villages it separated had very limited contact with each other and, because of the poor agricultural potential of the forest, there was never a permanent settlement in the forest. The forest was, however, traversed by a trail, which later took the name of "Kustlandsvägen" and which corresponded roughly to the path of today's European route E4. For a long time, this path constituted the only road to the north of the country. The zone was thus the property of the Swedish crown, which could decide who could use the forest as pasture or engage in logging there. In the 17th century, unlike many of the northern Swedish forests belonging to the crown, Skuleskogen did not see any colonization by the Forest Finns (), and thus did not undergo slash-and-burn cultivation techniques. The forest was instead used as a summer pasture (transhumance), and the hay of the marshes was used as well, although in a very localized fashion. As a result, in today's national park there were four summer pasture cottages, three having existed up until the turn of the 20th century, while the last (Näskebodarna) remained active up until the end of World War II. This last is now used, maintained in its old state, for tourism. The forest would seem to be more open in those days than now.
At the same time, it would seem that the Sami were using the mountains as a winter pasture for their reindeer until 1919. They would pass the summer in the mountains of Jämtland, and would travel to the coast between November and April.
After the Great Northern War at the beginning of the 18th century, Sweden encouraged the foundation of villages on its territories by tax exemptions. As a result, a few isolated villages were established in the forest of Skuleskogen, but none in today's park. Until the middle of the 18th century, logging was limited to the area directly around the villages and thus only minimally affected the forest of the park. But that soon changed, the state taking an active part in the exploitation of the forest. Logging became the principal activity in the area of the park. In a few years, a dozen mills, including a steam mill, were constructed in immediate proximity to today's park. The sawmills driven by water wheels only had weak capacities in general and only functioned during certain periods of the year. The number of steam mills grew thereafter. At first, only the trees with trunks over a fixed length in diameter were able to be cut, but bit by bit, these rules changed, and in the end all the trees were able to be felled. Logging slowed down markedly at the turn of the century, allowing the forest to regenerate. About 15% of the forest was affected by a new period of exploitation before the protection of the area. The forest's oldest trees therefore date from the start of the 20th century.
Protection.
Upon a great inventory of the environment of the county in the middle of the 1960s, Skuleskogen was noticed for its great natural value. So, in 1968, it was decided to protect a part of the massif. In 1971, the management plan for the territories of Sweden resulted in the High Coast being classified as a zone of national interest, and next in 1974, a part of the zone was classified as a temporary nature reserve. However, conflict arose between the land owners and the authorities of nature protection, the latter maintaining that no exploitation of the forest could occur and that the zone ought to be classified as a national park. To accomplish this the terrain would have had to be purchased by the state, but the land owners did not accept the deal that they would be given equivalent areas of forest nearby. However, the NCB company, which owned about 70% of the land, was in great financial difficulty and had to sell its land; the state was therefore able to buy the lands inside the proposed park, as well as some surrounding land, to compensate the other land owners. The county therefore proposed in 1978 the creation of a natural park to Naturvårdsverket which transmitted the proposal the following year to the government. The decision was not, however, made, because some parts of the proposed park were still privately owned. The zone was classified as a result only as a nature reserve in 1979.
The creation of the national park took place in May 1984. The official motive for the creation of the park was "to preserve a heavily deforested coastal landscape, of rocky terrain and fracture valleys, in a relatively intact state, where fauna and flora can develop freely. Negotiations for the purchase of the land could not be completed for certain properties, and the lands concerned remained therefore protected as a nature reserve. An area to the northwest of the park was added to the park in 1991, when it was discovered that an endangered species of lichen () was growing there. In 1996, the area was included in the Natura 2000 Network, and in 2000, they park was important in the High Coast becoming a UNESCO World Heritage site. The area thus classified was extended by UNESCO in 2006 by the inclusion of the Finnish archipelago of Kvarken, the entire zone henceforth being called "Archipelago of Kvarken/High Coast". In 2009, the park was again expanded by the addition to the northwest and south of land from the nature reserve of Skuleskogen.
Management and administration.
Like most of the national parks of Sweden, management and administration are divided between the Swedish environmental protection agency () and the administrative council of the Swedish counties (). is responsible for proposing new national parks, upon consulting with the councils of administration of the counties and municipalities; their creation is endorsed by a vote of the Swedish parliament. The state then purchases the land, through the intermediary of Naturvårdsverket. The management of the park is then principally the responsibility of the county; in the case of Skuleskogen, this means the administrative council of the county of Västernorrland.
The park is divided into three zones, each having a purpose, in order to reconcile the protection of the park and the welcoming of tourists. The majority (65%) of the park is classified as zone I, that is, as a low-activity zone: this space is the heart of the park and has scarce tourism infrastructure, so that the environment remains intact. The eastern third of the park is classified as zone II, the high-activity zone. In this zone you can find most of the trails and cabins, as well as the most popular sites. Finally, a very small part () is classified zone III, being that zone in immediate proximity to the entrances. This zone can accommodate a great number of visitors before channeling them towards the main trails.
Tourism.
The park is very accessible and its location at the heart of the High Coast, a UNESCO World Heritage site, earns it visitors a year, which is relatively large, given its location in Norrland.
The park has three entrances, one each to the north, south, and west, the north entrance being the main one. The three entrances are near European route E4, which is the main road in northern Sweden, and which traverses the country from end to end. Near these entrances one can find parking and information panels about the park. It is possible to spend the night in the park in one of five shelters (Norrsvedjebodarna, Tärnettvattnen, Tärnettholmarna, Tärnettsundet, and Näskebodarna). These were private homes before the foundation of the park. It is also possible to go camping in the dedicated campgrounds.
Many hiking trails run through the park, especially through its easternmost third. In particular, the grand hiking trail (the trail through the High Coast) traverses the park from north to south over . This trail can moreover constitute a means of accessing the park from the villages of Docksta and Bjästa, which are themselves accessible by public transport. Besides by hiking, it is also possible to discover the park by skiing in winter; its topology even permits alpine skiing. It is also possible to go kayaking along the coast and to go swimming, in particular at the sandy beaches of Tärnättholmarna or in the lagoon of Salsviken to the north, where the water can attain warmer temperatures. Biking is allowed on the trail along the coast.
The most visited site in the park is probably the crevasse of Slåttdalsskrevan, but also popular are the view from over the archipelago from the nearby summit of Slåttdalsberget, as well as the Bronze Age funerary cairns.
Skuleskogen in popular culture.
Skuleskogen is the setting of the novel "The brigands of the forest of Skule" () by Kerstin Ekman. The book tells the story of Skord, a troll of human appearance from the forest of Skule. His curiosity about humans leads him into numerous adventures across the ages (he is immortal). The title references a local legend, that robbers arrived in the area in the 7th century, but were rejected by the villagers of the area. They had to take refuge in the cave Skulegrottan not far from the park. These brigands committed numerous misdeeds, attacking those who crossed the forest. They ended up getting done in by a young peasant who succeeded in joining their group by saying that the villagers had rejected him too.


Cronulla sand dunes

The Cronulla sand dunes, also known officially as the Cronulla Sand Dune and Wanda Beach Coastal Landscape, are a heritage-listed former sand mining, film making, pastoral property and visitor attraction and now nature conservation, open space and visitor attraction located on the Kurnell Peninsula at Lindum Road, Kurnell in the Sutherland Shire local government area of New South Wales, Australia. It is also known as Part of Kurnell Peninsula Headland and Cronulla Sand Hill. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 26 September 2003.
History.
The sand dune system which is also referred to as the Kurnell sand dune is estimated to be about 15,000 years old. It was formed when the sea reached its present level and began to stabilise, between 9000 and 6000 BCE. The Georges, Cooks and Towra Rivers flowed to the south-east beneath the present sand dune system near Wanda and joined the ocean at Bate Bay. This resulted in the isolation of Kurnell which was an island from the mainland. The rivers eventually became blocked with accumulating sand and sediment as the sea level rose. As the rivers gradually silted up they were forced into changing their course and were led out to sea via La Perouse rather than continue to maintain an opening in an ever-growing sand barrier near Wanda. This resulted in a tombolo being formed and joined Kurnell with the Cronulla mainland. The deepest part of the ancient river channel now lies below the surface at the southern end of the peninsula, near Wanda Beach.
Aboriginal culture.
The sand hills of Kurnell possess historical, cultural, scientific and natural significance as a place of early European contact with the Gweagal people. The site has significant Aboriginal signs of habitation, from carvings, ceremonial sites, middens and sites of flaked sharpening stones. The site is of significant interest to the Aborginal community, as many of the other hills and dunes that were inhabited by their ancestors have now disappeared. As the dunes move or drift, most of the sites once occupied by the Aboriginal people have been covered and preserved.
The original inhabitants on the Kurnell Peninsula were the Gweagal people, a clan of the Tharawal (or Dharawal) tribe who occupied the region for thousands of years. Their tribe spanned the areas between the Cooks and Georges Rivers from the shores of Botany Bay and westwards towards Liverpool. According to a Gweagal elder, "Dharawal is similar to a state and Gweagal is similar to a shire within the state, Cunnel (Kurnell) is a family village within the shire". A clan consisted of approximately 20 to 50 people who lived in their own territory. They had no written language and each tribe had its own dialect. They knew how to light fires long before the arrival of white man. Their clothing consisted of a woven hair sash in which they used to carry tools and weapons and sometimes the optional possum-skin coat for the winter season. The Gweagal were the northernmost people of the Dharawal nation. They fished from canoes or from the shore using barbed spears and fishing lines with hooks in and around Botany Bay and the Georges River. Waterfowl could be caught in the swamplands (Towra Point), and the variety of soils would have supported a variety of edible and medicinal plants. Birds and their eggs, possums, wallabies and goannas were also a part of their staple diet, in which they made fur coats and ceremonial attire. The abundance of fish and other foodstuffs in these heavily timbered waterways meant that these natives were less nomadic than those of Outback Australia. The various middens, rock carvings and paintings in the area confirm this.
The Gweagal were the guardians of the sacred white clay pits in their territory. Members of the tribe walked hundreds of miles to collect the clay, it was considered sacred amongst the indigenous locals and had many uses. They used it to line the base of their canoes so they could light fires, and also as a white body paint, (as witnessed by Captain James Cook). Colour was added to the clay using berries, which produced a brightly coloured paint that was used in ceremonies. It was also eaten as a medicine, an antacid. Geebungs and other local berries were mixed in the clay and it was eaten as a dietary supplement with zinc. Today members of the Tharawal people still live near the Cronulla sand dunes and participate in their traditional Aboriginal art and culture.
European settlement.
On 29 April 1770, Captain James Cook, on board the HM Bark "Endeavour", landed in Botany Bay, stepping ashore near Silver Beach. Shortly after, James Cook looked down from the sand hills at what is now known as Cronulla Beach. The sand dunes were completely covered in vegetation, so Cook made no mention of any sand dunes during his visit to the Kurnell peninsula. Cook along with his crew stayed in Botany Bay for eight days. During his visit he collected botanical specimens, mapped the area and tried to make contact (unsuccessfully) with the indigenous population. When Cook reported back to England he said that the land was suitable for agriculture, it had sandy soil and the area was lightly wooded. Captain Arthur Phillip, arriving with the First Fleet, stepped ashore on 18 January 1788, after following Cook's advice. They began to clear land and dig wells, but a week later decided to abandon the site and sail north to Port Jackson.
Less than 100 years after Cook's landing, most of the original vegetation had been cleared and burnt, larger trees had been ring barked or simply cut down. Thomas Holt who was the first owner of the area (and who also owned most of what is today the Sutherland Shire) planned to use the dunes for farming sheep, this industry failed more or less. To promote grass growth he destroyed as many of the oldest trees as was viable and to his dismay all that regrew was dense impenetrable thorny scrub. By 1868 the forests of blackbutt and ironbark were cut down for houses and bridge construction whilst the remaining vegetation was cleared for grazing. The first land grant was issued in 1815 when a whaler and merchant by the name of James Birnie, was given of land and of saltwater marshes on the Kurnell Peninsula. The grant included Captain Cook's landing place. He called it ‘Alpha Farm’, and built himself a cottage there. In 1801 John Connell, an ironmonger, arrived in Sydney as a free settler. In 1821 Connell was granted at Quibray Bay next to Birnie's grant. When James Birnie was declared insane in 1828 John Connell gained possession of his property. John Connell now had full ownership of the Kurnell Peninsula. Connell erected a new house, which he named ‘Alpha House,’ built on the foundations of Birnie's original cottage.
James Connell and his two grandsons, Elias and John Laycock, were the first land owners to log the peninsula. They began to harvest timber from the estate in 1835. In the 1840s a canal from Woolooware Bay was built so that logs could be floated into Botany Bay, loaded onto ships and sailed up to Sydney. When John Connell died in 1848, he left his estate to his two grandsons. The first Crown land auctions in the area took place in 1856. It was here that John Connell Laycock bought another . This increased the size of the estate to .
Holt purchased Laycock's entire estate on the peninsula in 1861 for A£3,275. Holt, originally from Yorkshire, sailed into Sydney sometime in 1842. He made his fortune during the gold rushes of the early 1850s. Holt moved to Sutherland and further increased the size of his property to approximately . He erected several mansions, ran his ‘Sutherland Estate’ in the English manner, and travelled into Sydney to manage his business affairs. In 1868, Holt's land was still mostly uncleared virgin bushland. After Holt had cleared most of the timber, he began to plant grass seeds imported from Germany. The Sutherland Estate was divided into eleven portions. It was then divided into 60 smaller paddocks using Brushwood fencing. The fence posts used to divide these lots can still be found in Towra Point, which is also part of the Kurnell Peninsula.
Holt attempted grazing, first with sheep which had to be destroyed when they became infected with footrot, and then with cattle. The land on his estate was not suited for intensive grazing, so after most of the trees were felled, herds of cattle then removed the stabilizing grass cover and exposed the sand dunes underneath. Large expanses of sand had been exposed along the coastline. The dune system that covers an area of , measuring above and below sea level, became unstable and began to move north at a rate of a year. Land clearing and cattle grazing resulted in a degraded landscape, but created the distinctive Cronulla sand dunes of today.
Development of the area since the mid-1880s.
In December 1885 the train line from Oatley to Sutherland opened. It was extended to Waterfall in 1886, and finally to Kiama in 1888. The area began to attract visitors and day-trippers from Sydney. Popular destinations were Oatley, Como and Waterfall. Horse-drawn coaches began to travel the distance between the railhead at Sutherland to Cronulla on the coast, and in 1911 a steam tram service began operation. This opened up the area to seaside holiday-makers. By the 1920s and 1930s the sand dunes were acknowledge to be a desolate and desecrated landscape and their economic viability was minimal. However, by the 1920s Cronulla had become famous for its surf beaches with uninterrupted golden sand which stretched for along the coast and the bare dunes became synonymous with Cronulla. Though desolate, the large expanses of sand became a popular playground for generations of children.
Between 1920 and 1930 the sand hills were acknowledged to be a deserted and desecrated landscape, and their economic value was minimal. However, by the 1920s Cronulla had become notable for its beaches with over five kilometres of sand stretched along the coastline. The bare sand dunes became synonymous with Cronulla. Between the 1920s and the 1950s the large expanses of sand became a popular playground for generations of children for activities such as sandboarding.
In 1933 Sutherland Shire Council declined an offer to set aside between the Cronulla Golf Club and Kurnell as a reserve. In 1937 it declined another offer to buy of sand hills. In the 1930s the Holt family began to remove sand for use in the building industry.
The desert atmosphere attracted filmmakers. In 1941, the Charles Chauvel movie, "Forty Thousand Horseman" about the Australian Light Horse Regiment during World War I and starring Chips Rafferty, was filmed on the sand hills. The site has been used as a backdrop for several Australian movies, such as the epic "40,000 Horsemen" (1941), "The Rats of Tobruk" and more recently "Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome".
On 11 January 1965, the bodies of two 15-year-old girls, Marianne Schmidt and Christine Sharrock, were found in the sand hills just off of Wanda Beach. They had been beaten, stabbed and sexually assaulted. Despite an extensive police investigation, the killer has never been identified and the case remains one of Australia's most notorious unsolved crimes, known as the Wanda Beach Murders.
Sand mining.
In 1933 the Sutherland Shire Council asked the Government to set aside the between Cronulla Golf Club and Kurnell as a reserve. In April 1937, Haymarket Land and Building Co. offered Sutherland Shire Council of land near the entrance to Kurnell for eight pounds per acre. Most of the councillors wanted to declare the site a National Park. They wanted it to be titled "the Birthplace of Australian History and Gateway to Captain Cooks Landing Place." The dunes at Towra Point were to be included in this park. The Council was evenly split, but Joe Monro, the Council's President [now referred to as the Mayor], argued that because the site "was nothing but sand it was completely useless". He decided to vote against the purchase. The sandhills were doomed from that point. The Government couldn't see any reason to establish another National Reserve so near to Captain Cooks Landing Place Reserve.
In the 1930s the Holt family began its sand mining operations to supply the expanding Sydney building market and continued until 1990 with an estimate of over 70 million tonnes of sand being removed. The sand has been valued for many decades by the Sydney building industry, mainly because of its high crushed shell content and lack of organic matter. The site has now been reduced to a few remnant dunes and deep water-filled pits which are now being filled with demolition waste from Sydney's building sites. Removal of the sand has significantly weakened the peninsula's capacity to resist storms. Ocean waves pounding against the reduced Kurnell dune system have threatened to break through into Botany Bay, especially during the storms of May and June 1974 and August, 1998.
Caltex oil refinery.
In 1951 Caltex Oil Company first approached Sutherland Shire Council to build a new oil refinery at Kurnell. It required a site of and initially the Council rejected the proposal. The issues sparked a series of protests from environmental groups and those concerned that the refinery would despoil the Captain Cook Landing Place Reserve. Shortly after, however, the Council withdrew its objection, and what became known as the Australian Oil Refinery Company, a subsidiary of Caltex, opened in 1954. At the same time, the Sutherland Shire Council built Captain Cook Drive to service the refinery. The refinery ceased operation in October 2014.
The Australian Oil Refinery Company remains the largest single industry on the Peninsula. The Holt Group (owned by the descendants of Thomas Holt) continues to be a major landholder, but large sections of the Peninsula have been progressively sold off to other private interests and, since the 1950s, the area has been heavily industrialised. The removal of sand from the dunes began in the 1930s, but following the post-war building boom, it has been estimated that in excess of 70 million tonnes of sand have been removed. The Australian Oil Refinery, once obscured by towering dunes, is now visible from Cronulla, and a fraction of the original dunes remain.
Further development.
Industrialisation of the Kurnell Peninsula continues to be an ongoing problem amongst community groups and environmentalists. Plans for further development at the site has been cause for continual public protest between developers, locals and environmental groups. A proposal to build a chemical plant by the German pharmaceutical company, Bayer in 1986 resulted in public protests, environmental objections and a Commission of Inquiry, chaired by John Woodward. The plan never went ahead on the grounds of both environmental and economic issues.
In 2004 a major housing development at the Kurnell site just north of Wanda Beach was cleared by the Land and Environment Court after developer Australand appealed Council's rejection of the plan. The court has allowed building on one-third of the 62-hectare site, "subject to conditions such as safeguarding the environment.
Sutherland Shire Council's objections included issues such as the impact on the threatened green and golden bell frog and concerns about two key ecosystem impacts on the sandhills and the freshwater wetland area. The court's commissioners rejected Sutherland Shire's case, ruling in favour of the Australand development. The court also accepted that the Wanda sand hills had to be revegetated to stop the sand from filling up ponds and swallowing up the vegetation in the area. The council spent $650,000 on the case and wanted the area set aside for tourism, environmental conservation and heritage.
In 2010, after two and a half years of negotiations, approval was granted for the rezoning of of land owned by Australand and Breen Holdings for a major residential housing subdivision of around 420 single dwellings and recreation / sporting areas to include ten community-owned playing fields, a skate park and other facilities worth up to $25 million plus an additional of public open space on top of the existing already committed as open space. Treated water is to be diverted from the nearby sewerage treatment plant to be used for toilet flushing and garden irrigation for all homes in the subdivision and to irrigate the ten new playing fields on the site.
Conservation history.
The Kurnell Peninsular has been the subject of a number of Commission of Inquiries through the 1970s and 1980s. The most recent Commission of Inquiry in 1986 by Commissioner Woodward led to the re-zoning of the Australand site to permit non-residential uses, including tourist facilities, serviced apartments, commercial, recreational and light industrial uses. The area had been subject to sand extraction since the 1950s and the only portion of the land not subject to sand removal was the H2 dune, which is the high dune to the north-east of the site. Its protection as a surviving remnant of the former Cronulla dunes was recommended along with an Interim Conservation Order under the Heritage Act. In 1990 Australand bought Lot 113, DP 777967 from Breen Holdings and the Hooker Corporation. Sand removal ceased in 1990 and the area has been vacant since and remains largely denuded.
One effect of recent sand extraction on the site has been the creation of a number of artificial ponds or waste dumps which have filled with water. In a number of these, the endangered Green and Golden Bell Frog has established itself and these ponds are now important breeding grounds. In 1996 the Cronulla Dunes and Wetlands Protection Alliance nominated the dune for protection under the Heritage Act.
The Aboriginal community holds a strong interest in the remaining undisturbed sand dune. The action of the shifting sand has the potential to capture objects, and all traces of Aboriginal objects are necessarily destroyed by sand removal. Therefore, the H2 dune has high potential to reveal archaeological evidence of former Aboriginal occupation such as middens, flaked sharpening stones, carvings and ceremonial sites.
The Cronulla Sand Dune and adjacent Lucas Reserve and Wanda Beach demonstrate a high level of intactness in terms the modified dunal landscape as it was created following late nineteenth-century grazing activities. They form an intact remnant of historical landscape that no longer exists. The long term conservation of the dunal system and in particular the unvegetated mobile sand dune may require stabilisation and revegetation works.
Heritage listing.
As at 29 January 2003, the Cronulla Sand Dune, Lucas Reserve and Wanda Beach as a landscape were of historical and contemporary cultural significance to the Aboriginal community. The dune landscape possesses historic, scientific, cultural and natural significance as a site of early European contact with Aborigines, a place of environmental transformation as a result of European agricultural practices, habitat for the endangered Green and Golden Bell Frog within a modified environment, and a location for significant Australian films. The dune and Wanda Beach possess social significance as a place of recreation and tourism since the late nineteenth century and community activism to protect the dune from sand mining in the later part of the twentieth century. As the last major exposed dune in a landscape degraded by 70 years of sand mining it has land mark and aesthetic qualities that are held in high esteem by the community.
Cronulla Sand Dune and Wanda Beach Coastal Landscape was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 26 September 2003 having satisfied the following criteria.
The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.
The site has historic and cultural significance for the Aboriginal community. The Kurnell Peninsular is well known as the place where Captain James Cook first landed on Australian soil in April 1770. It is also the site of first contact between the English and Aboriginal people in NSW. In 1788 it was briefly the site of Captain Arthur Phillip's first settlement until the First Fleet relocated to Port Jackson. As such, the whole peninsular has acquired a special historical and iconic status in the history of European settlement in Australia and the history of contact between the English and Aboriginal communities. The landscape today bears little resemblance to that experienced by local Aboriginal people and first observed by Cook in 1770. What was a predominantly vegetated and lightly wooded landscape has been heavily modified as a result of European agricultural practices. In the late nineteenth century the dunes became popular with tourists from Sydney. This period is associated with the opening of the railway. Between the 1920s and the 1950s Cronulla became a popular holiday destination famed for its beaches and sand dunes. The use of the dunes for recreation has continued to the present day. The Cronulla sand dunes have been used as a location for major Australian Films. The sheer expanse of the dunes was effectively used to convey remote desert regions in films such as the epic 1941 Charles Chauvel film "Forty Thousand Horsemen" which starred Chips Rafferty. The film detailed the battles of the Australian Light Horse regiment in Palestine during World War 1. A number of local residents worked as extras in the film. The "Rats of Tobruk", "Thunder in the Desert", "Phar Lap" and "Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome" also utilised the dunes as a location. Sand removal began in the 1930s, but accelerated from the 1950s onwards to supply sand for the Sydney building market. Sand removal has essentially evacuated the once prominent dunal system from the landscape. The Cronulla Sand Dune above Wanda Beach survives as the last major exposed dune (undisturbed by sand removal) along the coastal strip and, together with the adjacent Lucas Reserve and Wanda Beach, serves to demonstrate the historical, environmental and cultural transformations of the area over the last two hundred years.
The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.
The site has historic and cultural significance for the Aboriginal community. The Kurnell Peninsular has a strong association with John Connell Laycock (1818 - 1897). Laycock grew up on the Kurnell Peninsular, his free settler grandfather and guardian having acquired almost the entire Peninsular by 1838. The family was actively involved in timber getting, transporting ironbark, turpentine, blackbutt, mahogany and red cedar to Sydney by ship. Laycock, with his brother, eventually inherited these lands and secured further property in the Sutherland district, eventually amassing . Laycock was a Member of the Legislative Assembly for Central Cumberland (1859-1864) and Clarence (1864 - 1866). Laycock also held the title of Quarantine Keeper at Bradley's Head (1878 - 1884). The destruction by fire of his Prince of Wales Theatre and adjoining properties forced Laycock to sell his heavily mortgaged properties to his friend and fellow member of the Legislative Assembly, Thomas Holt.
The Kurnell Peninsular has strong associations with the Holt family, and in particular Thomas Holt (1811-1888) who acquired the Peninsular in 1861 from John Connell Laycock and began the program of clear felling and grazing that so dramatically altered the landscape. A successful wool buyer and property speculator, Holt acquired over 1.21m hectares of land in NSW and Queensland between 1851 and 1880, making him one of the wealthiest men in the colony. During the 1860s Holt consolidated his landholdings on the Peninsular (which included Captain Cook's landing place). His accumulated holdings represented of what is the present day Sutherland Shire. Holt built several fine homes in Sydney including "The Warren" in Marrickville and "Sutherland House" in Sylvania (built 1871, destroyed 1918). Holt was a Member of the first NSW Legislative Assembly in 1856 and its first Treasurer June - August 1856). Holt was the Member for Newtown (July 1861 - November 1864) and a Member of the Legislative Council (1868 - 1883). Holt is notable for employing Aboriginals on his Sutherland Estate and for establishing the oyster industry at Kurnell and introducing Buffalo grass to Australia to control sand dune degradation. The Holt family continues to own land on the Kurnell Peninsula via a number of incorporated companies (the Holt Group).
The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.
The site has historic and cultural significance for the Aboriginal community. The Cronulla Sand Dune is aesthetically distinctive and is a landmark at both the Local and State levels. From the 1870s the sand dunes at Kurnell were one of the most visible features of the landscape of Botany Bay, recurring in almost all of the panoramas from important view points. They were visible from many parts of Sydney and at one stage the Blue Mountains. The exposed dunal system became a landmark of note for nineteenth-century day-trippers from Sydney who would take the ferry service from La Perouse to Kurnell Bay to see Cook's landing place, the dunes and Cronulla beaches. The dunes, some of which rose to 44 metres in height, and Cronulla Beach were a popular tourist attraction between the 1920s and 1950s when Cronulla was a resort town. The height and sheer expanse of the dramatic dunal system provided a desert location for film production between the 1940s and 1980s. The landmark qualities of the Cronulla Sand Dune, which rises 33 metres at its apex, have been enhanced by the fact that it is the last significant undisturbed dune in what was a massive dune system. The Cronulla Sand Dune together with the adjacent Lucas Reserve and Wanda Beach survives as an important coastal landscape, synonymous with Cronulla.
The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.
The site has historic and cultural significance for the Aboriginal community. The Cronulla Sand Dune is of cultural heritage and spiritual significance to the La Perouse Aboriginal community, some of whom are direct descendants of the Aboriginal leaders who met Captain Cook in 1770. The undisturbed dune is of significant interest to the Aboriginal community as many of the other hills and dunes inhabited by their ancestors have been removed or disturbed since sand removal commenced in the 1930s. The community asserts that the area is known as a burial site. As the last major undisturbed sand dune in this area, the Cronulla Sand Dune has been the focus of long-term local and environmental activism. The Sutherland Shire community has been actively seeking the recognition and protection of the Cronulla Sand Dune for almost a decade and it has become a significant reference point for the contemporary Sutherland community. The proposed local heritage listing of the sand dune by Sutherland Council received 642 supporting signatures in 1999. The Cronulla Sand Dune has strong social significance as a place of recreation for residents and tourists alike since the late nineteenth century. The sand dunes, some of which rose up to , were the focus for many local residents and tourists who engaged in sand sledding, hand gliding and horse riding amongst the dunes.
The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.
The site has historic and cultural significance for the Aboriginal community. The Cronulla Sand Dune has the potential to yield further information on the Aboriginal habitation of this area. The drifting nature of the dune ensures that it entombs burials and environmental material as it moves. The Cronulla Sand Dune has been acknowledged as having some potential to contain archaeological material such as shell middens, artefacts or burial sites. The water bodies adjacent to the Cronulla Sand Dune are an important breeding ground for the endangered Green and Golden Bell Frog and hence have the potential to yield further scientific information on the Green and Golden Bell Frog. The Cronulla Sand Dune provides evidence of the impacts of agriculture and logging on the dunal landscape, an area of ongoing research in Australia.
The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.
The site has historic and cultural significance for the Aboriginal community. The Cronulla Sand Dune is an excellent example of the remnant Cronulla dune system as it existed prior to the commencement of sand removal in the 1930s. The denuded dune demonstrates the effects of timber getting and grazing activities in the nineteenth century and their contribution to the creation of a modified landscape.
In its relationship to adjacent Lucas Reserve and Wanda Beach and the surrounding environment degraded by sand removal, the Cronulla Sand Dune serves to demonstrate the scale of environmental transformation that has taken place over the last two hundred years including the creation of habitat for the endangered Green and Golden Bell Frog.
The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales.
The site has historic and cultural significance for the Aboriginal community. Sand dune systems close to Sydney are rare. Whilst the coastal sand dune communities of Kurnell have been substantially degraded as a consequence of 70 years of sand removal, the surviving unvegetated Cronulla Sand Dune is intact and remains an excellent example of the former dune landscape. The Cronulla Sand Dune in the context of its setting, intactness, aesthetic qualities and social significance is held in high community esteem. The water bodies formed by sand removal surrounding the Cronulla Sand Dune have been identified by NPWS as a significant habitat for the endangered Green and Golden Bell Frog.
Geology and geomorphology.
The geology and geomorphology of the area is characterised by an island of outcropping bedrock on the eastern headland and joined to other bedrock outcrops on its western end by a sand spit which forms the main part of the headland. The Peninsula still has quite a view overlapping transgressive barrier dunes and it is believed that they have shifted north from Bate Bay. Older stable parabolic dunes occur on a series of north to south oriented ridges and while most of the vegetation has been cleared, some dry sclerophyll woodland remains.
Fitness training.
Amateur and professional athletes on a daily basis push themselves to exhaustion in unforgiving soft-sand conditioning sessions at the Cronulla sandhills. This is to either keep fit, stay in shape or prepare for amateur and, or professional sporting events, like rugby league, rugby union, cricket, soccer and boxing. At inclines of 45 degrees or more, these sandhills rise upwards and all but collapse downwards in hour-long sprint sessions. According to the conditioning coach of the Australian Cricket team Jock Campbell, these sandhills, along with gym programs is the best way to train athletes for endurance work. Working in the sandhills is hard aerobic interval training, and good specific leg training without the shock on knees and ankles.
At one stage professional cricketers Glenn McGrath, Michael Clarke, Ricky Ponting, Brett Lee and Brad Haddin trained at the sand dunes daily in preparation for international test cricket. Anthony Mundine held a one-hour workout in the sandhills to prepare for his bout with WBA super-middleweight champion Mikkel Kessler. Amateur and professional Rugby league teams, especially those of the NRL also use the sandhills.


Kulturhavn Kronborg

Kulturhavn Kronborg is an area in the harbour of Helsingør dedicated to culture and events, designed to attract residents and visitors. It is a joint initiative by Kronborg Castle, the Danish Maritime Museum, Kulturværftet (The Culture Yard) and Helsingør harbour, and was opened in May 2013.
Kulturhavn Kronborg is the culmination of an ambitious project by the city of Helsingør to leave the industrial era behind and enter a new chapter for the town. This was achieved first, with the establishment of the Kulturværftet in 2010, in the buildings of the former (Elsinore Shipyard), and subsequently, with the opening of the Danish Maritime Museum in the summer of 2013, in the neighbouring dry dock.
The main attraction to Kulturhavn Kronborg is the Kronborg Castle, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In the centre harbour basin the Town of Helsingør has commissioned a statue by the artist duo, Elmgreen and Dragset, with the title, "han," installed in 2012.


Kelburn Castle

Kelburn Castle is a large house near Fairlie, North Ayrshire, Scotland. It is the seat of the Earl of Glasgow. Originally built in the thirteenth century (the original keep forms the core of the house) it was remodelled in the sixteenth century. In 1700 the first Earl made further extensions to the house in a manner not unlike a French "château" which is virtually how it appears today. In 1977 the house and grounds opened to the public as a country park. It is one of the oldest castles in Scotland and has been continuously inhabited by the same family for longer than any other. The castle is protected as a category A listed building, while the grounds are included in the Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland.
When it was found in 2007 that the castle's concrete facing would soon need replacing, Lord Glasgow invited four Brazilian graffiti artists to decorate the walls. This was still in place in 2011, when the Earl sought permission from Historic Scotland to keep the graffiti permanently.
History.
The Boyle family have been in possession of the lands of Kelburn since the 12th century.
The castle is thought to have been built in the 13th century and, although no one knows the exact date of the first stone laid, the castle was there during the Battle of Largs, which was fought between the Scots and the Norwegians in 1263.
The first structure was a wood tower. This wooden tower was replaced in the 1200s with a stone Norman Keep, sections of which are still in use today.
In the late 16th century a tower house was built. This replaced an earlier structure, and may incorporate parts of the earlier masonry its eastern part. In the 17th century, orchards and gardens are recorded at Kelburn. David Boyle (1666–1733), a member of the Parliament of Scotland, was created Earl of Glasgow in 1703. He began the new north-west wing of the house, which was completed "circa" 1722. The 1st Earl doubled the size of the building by adding a William-and-Mary style mansion house onto the Castle at a slight angle, built to the Earl’s instructions by the well-known mason, Thomson Caldwell.
George Boyle, 6th Earl of Glasgow (1825–1890), added the north-east wing in 1880.
The 7th Earl of Glasgow, who was made Governor of New Zealand in 1892, provides the links between the Kelburn Estate and Kelburn in New Zealand. Many of his souvenirs still reside at the castle, and in the Estate’s Museum.
Following the opening of the grounds to the public, the estate buildings and stables were converted in 1980, to provide a tea room, shop and visitor information.
Graffiti project.
In 2007 experts told the owners of Kelburn Castle that its concrete facing would eventually need to be replaced to avoid further damage to the stonework. At the suggestion of his children, Lord Glasgow invited four Brazilian graffiti artists (Nunca, Nina and Os Gêmeos twins) to paint the walls. Historic Scotland agreed to the project, on the basis that the graffiti would be removed when the castle was re-harled. The project was featured on the BBC television programme "The Culture Show". Also in 2007, Kelburn featured in another BBC programme, "Crisis at the Castle" which documented the financial problems of running the castle.
In September 2010 it was reported that Historic Scotland were putting pressure on Lord Glasgow to remove the graffiti, although this was later denied by both parties. In August 2011 it was reported that the Earl had formally written to Historic Scotland asking permission to keep the graffiti as a permanent feature.
Fire damage.
The castle suffered minor fire damage on 16 February 2009, as a result of an electrical fault. The fire service was called to a blaze at around 1:45 am where flames had engulfed a top-floor room and spread to the roof. Around 25 firefighters battled the blaze for more than five hours before it was extinguished at around 7:20 am.
Kelburn Country Centre.
The 10th Earl of Glasgow, Patrick Boyle, and his family still reside at the castle. It was his decision to open the estate to the public in 1977, transforming the grounds and outhouses into play areas, a café, gift shop, etc, and also allowing access to the castle for tours.
The grounds are open daily 10am - 6pm from Easter to October, with shorter hours through the winter.
There are three outdoor play areas including the Secret Forest, which is a fairy tale trail through the woodland. There's also the Wild Wild West Saloon and the Adventure Course.
Events.
Kelburn is popular for its imaginative events calendar. Numerous family friendly events run throughout the year, offering outdoor, interactive, and creative fun. The team also host a scarily fun Halloween event, recommended for over 16s. The full event calendar can be found on their website.
The Estate becomes home to the 6000 capacity music festival, The Kelburn Garden Party each year in July. "The Kelburn Garden Party is a music and arts festival that explodes across numerous stages, nooks and spaces throughout the magical glen and stunning gardens that surround Kelburn Castle on Scotland's West Coast. We pack as much music, performance, art and entertainment as we can into this unique environment, with surreal and magical results. It's a cultural safari for the mind, body and soul."
The estate is available for weddings, with 5 licensed spots for exchanging vows plus 2 reception venues. The Functions Team also organise corporate events and parties.
Glamping and Camping.
There are 8 yurts available for hire at Kelburn (8 from June 2020). Sat on the hillside campsite, the accommodation offers incredible views over the Firth of the Clyde and its islands. A glass fronted facilities block offers toilet, shower and kitchen facilities, plus seating.
There are also bell tents available, and the ability to bring your own tent or camper van. The website provides more details.
The Kel Burn.
The Kel burn has helped form the glen over thousands of years. In the space of just over half a mile, it rises on the moors over 800 feet above the castle and drops dramatically, by way of many waterfalls and gorges, to the sea. The glen is a wealth of wild flowers and ferns, shrubs and trees. Walks up the glen reveal views across Largs, the Firth of Clyde and over to Arran.


MK Ranjitsinh Jhala

Dr. MK Ranjitsinh Jhala (born 19 February 1939) is an author and authority on wildlife and nature conservation from India.
He is a scion of the Jhala dynasty from the former princely state of Wankaner and younger brother of Digvijaysinhji Jhala. He was born at Ranjit Vilas Palace at Wankaner on 19 February 1939 and is the second son of erstwhile titular Maharaja of Wankaner, Captain H.H. Maharana Raj Shri Pratapsinhji Sahib, by his wife, H.H. Sisodiji Maharani Sri Rama Kanwar Sahiba. He is grandson of HH Sir Amarsinhji Banesinhji, the last ruler of Wankaner State.
He served also as Chairman of the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI); Dir-Gen CAPART; Dir. and Regional Co-ordinator WWF Tiger Conservation Programme (TCP). Regional Adviser in Nature Conservation (Asia & Pacific) for UNEP. Trustee The Corbett Foundation, member National Forest Commission, Indian Institute of Forest Management Society, International Tropical Timber Organization, Madhya Pradesh State Wildlife Board until 2006
He joined Indian Administrative Services in 1961 and served in various important posts like Secretary for Forests & Tourism in Madha Pradesh 1970-1973, Director Wildlife Preservation 1973-1975. He is author of several books on Indian wildlife and conservation like - "The Indian Blackbuck" (1989), "Indian Wildlife" (1995), "Beyond the Tiger: Portraits of Asian Wildlife" (1997) and others
His most noted works are drafting of Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 of India and demarcating many forest as wildlife sanctuaries. Further, reintroduction of the cheetah in India as a policy was implemented upon advisory papers submitted by MK Ranjitsinh Jhala and Divyabhanusinh Chavda. They presented their papers after through research on how to go about bringing cheetahs back to India.
He was awarded lifetime achievement award in 2014 for his works in conservation of wildlife.


Ishaqbini Hirola Conservancy

The Ishaqbini Hirola Conservancy is a community-based conservation area located in Garissa County, Kenya. The conservancy covers approximately 72 km2. It is located along the eastern bank of the Tana River, and borders the former Tana River Primate Reserve (1976−2007).
Despite its small size, the conservancy is a core refuge and breeding ground for the endemic and critically endangered Hirola antelope. Together with the Arawale National Reserve, the conservancy forms a key part of the Hirola's habitat.
History.
The Hirola population, endemic to north-eastern Kenya, has been at the centre of the formation of the conservancy. In 1963, fears for the species’ survival prompted the defunct National Park Organization and the Game Department to attempt a precautionary translocation of about 50 Hirola to the Tsavo East National Park. Although well-intentioned, the translocation was strongly opposed by local communities.
The escalating conflict in Somalia in the 1990s and continuous decrease in population numbers of the Hirola, led to a second translocation by the Kenyan Wildlife Service in 1996. A fresh opposition to the plan resulted in the formation of a number of community-based conservation groups, one of them successfully filing a case in the Kenyan High Court against any future translocation. Nevertheless, the translocations had resulted in an isolated and viable "ex situ" population of perhaps 120 Hirola antelopes in Tsavo East National Park.
In 2005, with the aim to conserve the Hirola as part of their natural and cultural heritage, four local communities (Kotile, Korisa, Hara and Abaratilo), supported by the Northern Rangelands Trust, developed and put forward a proposal to the government of Kenya to establish the Ishaqbini Hirola Conservancy.
Birds.
The number of bird species in the conservancy is estimated at 350. 60% of the total number of bird families recorded in Kenya are present in the conservancy. 13 species are listed on East Africa's regional Red Data List, including the hooded vulture and Clarke's weaver. Other, more common species inhabiting the conservancy are the saddle-billed stork, eastern violet-backed sunbird, the white-throated bee-eater and the crested francolin.
The conservancy is unique in that it has significant numbers of species of the East Africa Coast and the Somali-Masai biomes, species that qualify an area as an important bird area.


Al-Salt

Al-Salt ( "As-Salt" ) is an ancient agricultural town and administrative centre in west-central Jordan. It is on the old main highway leading from Amman to Jerusalem. Situated in the Balqa highland, about 790–1,100 metres above sea level, the town is built in the crook of three hills, close to the Jordan Valley. One of the three hills, Jabal al-Qal'a, is the site of a 13th-century ruined fortress. It is the capital of Balqa Governorate.
The Greater Salt Municipality has about 97,000 inhabitants (2006)
History.
It is not known when the city was first inhabited, but it is believed that it was built by the Macedonian army during the reign of Alexander the Great. The town was known as Saltus in Byzantine times and was the seat of a bishopric. At this time, the town was considered to be the principal settlement on the East Bank of the Jordan River. The settlement was destroyed by the Mongols and then rebuilt during the reign of the Mamluk sultan Baibars (1260–1277).
Salt was once the most important settlement in the area between the Jordan Valley and the eastern desert. Because of its history as an important trading link between the eastern desert and the west, it was a significant place for the region's many rulers.
The Romans, Byzantines and Mameluks all contributed to the growth of the town, but it was at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, when the Ottomans established a regional administrative capital in Salt and encouraged settlement from other parts of their empire, that Salt enjoyed its most prosperous period.
Ottoman period.
In 1596, during the Ottoman Empire, Salt was noted in the census as being located in the "nahiya" of Salt in the "liwa" of Ajlun, with a Muslim population of 40 households and 5 bachelors; and a Christian population of 25 households. The villagers paid a fixed tax-rate of 25% on various agricultural products; including wheat, barley, olive trees/vineyards, goats and beehives, in addition to occasional revenues and a market toll; a total of 12,000 akçe.
By the end of the 18th century, Salt was the sole permanent settlement in the Balqa region, a situation which persisted well into the 19th century. The rest of the Balqa was dominated by the local Bedouin tribes. It was the most developed town and commercial center of Transjordan from the 18th century until the early years of the Emirate of Transjordan. The town's drinking water was supplied by two abundant springs, which also irrigated the town gardens along the Wadi Shu'ayb stream. It was situated along the slopes of a conical hill, at the top of which stood a fort, and along the ridges of two deep abutting valleys, which provided a natural defense against encroachments by neighboring Bedouin tribes. Salt's inhabitants negotiated terms with the tribes, who guaranteed the townspeople access to their wheat fields in the Balqa's eastern plains in return for giving the tribesmen access to the town's extensive markets. Sharecropping agreements were formed with the tribes whereby Salt townspeople would encamp in Amman and Wadi Wala in the spring until harvest and paid an annual tribute to the dominant tribe of the Balqa. Until around the 1810s, the paramount tribe was the Adwan, known as "lords of the Balqa". Afterward, the Banu Sakhr overtook the Adwan and collected the tribute from Salt.
The town's defenses and isolation in a land practically controlled by Bedouin tribes also enabled its inhabitants to ignore the impositions of the Ottoman authorities without consequence. Western travelers in the early 19th century reported that the leader of the town effectively wielded the same authority as any of the provincial governors of Ottoman Syria appointed by the sultan.
In the early 19th century, the townspeople mostly belonged to the clans of Fakhoury, Akrad, Awamila and Qatishat. Each clan was headed by its own sheikh, one or two of whom would act as the "shaykh al-balad" (town leader), who was based in the fort and was in charge of protecting Salt from Bedouin attack. The population consisted of about four hundred Muslim and eighty Christian families. According to the observations of Buckingham in the 1820s, roughly 100 Christians in Salt were immigrants from Nazareth who moved to the town to avoid the exactions of Jazzar Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Acre. Muslim–Christian relations were amicable and the two communities shared the same lifestyles, dress and the Arabic language. Salt was organized into quarters, each controlled by one of three main clans, and contained a number of mosques, a church and about twenty shops during this period. Salt served the surrounding countryside as far as Karak, which lacked a market until the late 19th century, and goods in its market originated as far as Tyre and Egypt. It exported raisins, sumac leaves for the tanneries of Jerusalem, "qili" (a type of ash, a key ingredient of Nabulsi soap) to Nablus, and ostrich feathers supplied by the Bedouin to Damascus. Nablus was Salt's primary partner, and Salt served as the Transjordanian center of the Nablus-based Tuqan clan. Although most of the inhabitants were farmers, there were also craftsmen and smaller numbers of shopkeepers, the latter of whom were commissioned by merchants in Nablus, Nazareth and Damascus.
In 1834 the townspeople and local Bedouin fought together to drive out the forces of the practically autonomous province of Egypt led by Ibrahim Pasha, the first recorded clash of the Peasants' revolt in Palestine. Ottoman rule in the Levant was restored in 1840, but Salt remained only nominally part of the Empire. In 1866–1867, the governor of Damascus Mehmed Rashid Pasha (1866–1871) extended the imperial Tanzimat centralization and modernization reforms in Transjordan. He led a large force of Bedouin tribesmen from the Rwala, Wuld Ali and Banu Hasan, Hauran plainsmen, Druze mountaineers and regular infantry, cavalry and artillery troops toward Salt, stopping three hours north of the village. From there, he offered to pardon Salt's inhabitants for allying with the Adwan and Banu Sakhr against the authorities. The town organized a delegation of Muslim and Christian grandees who negotiated the unopposed entry of the Ottomans into Salt on 17 August. Rashid Pasha repaired the damaged fort where he garrisoned 400 troops. He appointed the Damascene Kurd Faris Agha Kadru as Salt's first district governor and established an elected administrative council composed of Salt's elite families. Rashid Pasha confiscated huge qualities of grain and livestock from the town as compensation for tax arrears.
Salt's heyday was in the late 19th century when traders arrived from Nablus to expand their trading network eastwards beyond the Jordan River. As a result of the influx of newcomers this period saw the rapid expansion of Salt from a simple village into a town with many architecturally elegant buildings, many built in the "Nablusi" style from the attractive honey-coloured local stone. A large number of buildings from this era survive .
British Mandate, Emirate, and independence.
After World War I, the town was the site which Herbert Samuel, British High Commissioner of Palestine, chose to make his announcement that the British favoured a Hejazi Hashemite ruled entity on the East Bank of the Mandatory Palestine (current Jordan). This wish became reality in 1921 when Abdullah I became Emir of Transjordan. Salt seemed to be the city that would be chosen as the capital of the new emirate since most of the industry and commerce flowed through Salt. During this period Salt had no high schools. Even so, Abdullah picked the city as the capital of his emerging emirate but later changed his mind and moved his compound and entourage to Amman when he and the notables of Salt had a disagreement. Amman at that time was a small city of only 20,000 people which experienced rapid growth.
The Jordanian census of 1961 found 16,176 inhabitants in Al-Salt, of whom 2,157 were Christian.
Municipal districts.
The Greater Salt Municipality is divided into nine districts:
Agriculture.
Salt is famed in Jordan for its fertile soil and the quality of its fruit and vegetable harvests, particularly olives, tomatoes, grapes & peaches. Indeed, it is speculated that the town's name provided the root for sultana, a certain type of raisin.
It is thought that the name Salt was derived from the city Saltos of the Roman Empire.
Wadi Shu'aib (Valley of Jethro) is one of the largest agricultural sites in Salt city, a valley with large agricultural areas. It is named after one of the prophets in Islam (as well as Christianity and Judaism), Shoaib (Jethro), who was the father-in-law of Moses and one of the descendants of Ibrahim (Abraham). Most privately owned farms are located in this valley; the primary crops are grapes, olives and fruit-bearing trees.
Education.
Salt contains many schools, including the public first secondary school of Jordan dating back to 1918, as well as many private schools that date back to the 1800s, such as the Latin School and the Catholic School. It is also the home of the Holy Land Institute for the Deaf, a non-profit educational center for people with hearing impairment. The city has two universities surrounding it: Al-Balqa` Applied University established in 1997 and Al-Ahliyya Amman University (Amman National University) located on the highway connecting Amman to Salt.
Tourism.
Ottoman mansions.
At the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, when the Ottomans established a regional administrative base in Salt and encouraged settlement from other parts of the empire, the town's status increased, many merchants arrived and, with their newly acquired wealth, built the fine houses that can still be admired in Salt today.
These splendid yellow sandstone buildings incorporate a variety of styles. Typically, they have domed roofs, interior courtyards and characteristic tall, arched windows. Perhaps the most beautiful is the Abu Jaber mansion, built between 1892 and 1906, which has frescoed ceilings, painted by Italian artists, and is reputed to be the finest example of a 19th-century merchant house in the region.
Roman tombs and Ayyubid citadel.
Tightly built on a cluster of three hills, Salt has several other places of interest, including Roman tombs on the outskirts of town and the citadel and site of the town's early 13th century Ayyubid fortress, which was built by Al-Mu'azzam Isa, the nephew of Saladin soon after AD 1198.
Museums.
Salt's Archaeological & Folklore Museum displays artifacts dating back to the Chalcolithic period to the Islamic era as well as other items relating to the history of the area. In the folklore museum there is presentation of Bedouin and traditional costumes and everyday folkloric items. A small museum and a handicraft school are presenting the traditional skills of ceramics, weaving, silk-screen printing and dyeing.
Muslim shrines.
In the town of as-Salt and its environs are several Muslim shrines at the traditional tombs of the prophets Shu'ayb, Ayyoub, Yusha and Jadur, the Arabic names of the biblical characters Jethro, Job, Joshua and Gad. These sites of Muslim pilgrimage are known as An-Nabi Shu'ayb, An-Nabi Ayyub, An-Nabi Yusha' bin Noon, and 'Ayn al-Jadur ("Spring of Jadur"), respectively, in English also as Prophet ... Shrine.


Yulu Natural Reserve

Yulu Natural Reserve is a nature reserve in Nicaragua. It is one of the 78 reserves that are under official protection in the country.


Mae Wa National Park

Mae Wa National Park () is a national park in Thailand's Lampang and Tak provinces. This mountainous park features scenic mountain viewpoints, waterfalls and caves.
Geography.
Mae Wa National Park is located about north of Tak in the Thoen and Mae Phrik districts of Lampang Province and the Sam Ngao and Ban Tak districts of Tak Province. The park's area is . The northern section of the park consists of high mountains while the central and southern sections consist of a high mountain plain.
Attractions.
The park namesake Mae Wa waterfall is a 12-level waterfall originating from Doi Prae Luang mountain and whose waters eventually join the Wang River.
The park features numerous cave systems including Tham Phra Chedi, notable for hosting a pagoda-shaped stalagmite, and Tham Nampha Pha Ngam, a large cave also featuring stalagmites and stalactites.
Flora and fauna.
The park features numerous forest types, including deciduous, deciduous dipterocarp, evergreen and coniferous forest. Tree species include Burmese ebony, "Lagerstroemia calyculata", "Dalbergia oliveri", "Afzelia xylocarpa", "Takian", "Anisoptera costata", "Shorea obtusa", "Shorea siamensis", "Dipterocarpus obtusifolius", Sumtran pine and Khasi pine.
Animal species include tiger, gaur, Asiatic black bear, sambar deer, barking deer, wild boar, Siamese hare and palm civet.
Bird life includes Asian barred owlet and coucal.


Doc Antle

Mahamayavi Bhagavan Antle (born Kevin Antle, March 25, 1960), better known as Doc Antle, is an American animal trainer and private zoo operator. Antle has faced criticism from conservation organizations and animal rights groups for his treatment of animals, and in 2020 was indicted on 15 charges related to wildlife trafficking and animal cruelty.
He is the founder and director of The Institute for Greatly Endangered and Rare Species (T.I.G.E.R.S.) in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina and Myrtle Beach Safari, a tour that runs through the facility. He is a self-described conservationist and is the executive director of a Rare Species Fund, although the extent to which this funds conservation projects has been disputed.
Career.
In 2001, Antle was on stage with Britney Spears during her performance of the "I'm a Slave 4 U" single at the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards, which featured a caged tiger and a large albino python draped over Spears' shoulders. Antle has other ties to the film industry, having worked as an animal handler on films such as "Dr. Dolittle" and '. He has appeared on late-night talk shows and also provided animals for movies including "The War", "Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book", ', "Mighty Joe Young", and .
Antle was also involved in the production of three documentaries: Nat Geo Wild’s "Super Cat", Nature’s "Jaguar: Year of the Cat", and PBS’s "Big Cats".
In 2008, Suryia and Roscoe, an orangutan and an orphaned blue tick hound appeared on the "Oprah Winfrey Show" in Chicago.
Antle was one of the private breeders featured in the 2020 Netflix television documentary "."
Animal cruelty and wildlife trafficking allegations.
Antle was fined by the USDA for abandoning deer and peacocks at his zoo in Buckingham, Virginia in 1989. In total, Antle has more than 35 USDA violations for mistreating animals.
In late December 2019, South Carolina Law Enforcement Division, South Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Horry County Police Department raided Doc Antle's Myrtle Beach Safari. Antle said the agencies came to collect DNA samples from three young lions that descended from Wilson's Wild Animal Park in Virginia which was closed down due to animal welfare issues.
During the Netflix documentary "Tiger King: Murder, Mayhem and Madness," Joe Exotic accused Antle of killing tigers in gas chambers to make space for further breeding.
In 2020, TMZ's founder Harvey Levin broke the news that Antle was being investigated by the United States Department of Agriculture and the United States Department of Justice for the illegal sale of big cats including tigers.
On October 9, 2020, after a months-long investigation by Virginia Attorney General Mark Herring’s Animal Law Unit, Antle was indicted on multiple felony and misdemeanor charges. The charges include one felony count of wildlife trafficking, one felony count of conspiracy to wildlife traffic, four misdemeanor counts of conspiracy to violate the Endangered Species Act, and nine misdemeanor counts of animal cruelty. Antle; his daughters; and Kevin A. Wilson, owner of Wilson’s Wild Animal Park in Frederick County, Virginia; were charged by the grand jury of Frederick County.


De Biesbosch National Park

De Biesbosch National Park is one of the largest national parks of the Netherlands and one of the last extensive areas of freshwater tidal wetlands in Northwestern Europe. The Biesbosch ('forest of sedges' or 'rushwoods') consists of a large network of rivers and smaller and larger creeks with islands. The vegetation is mostly willow forests, although wet grasslands and fields of reed are common as well. The Biesbosch is an important wetland area for waterfowl and has a rich flora and fauna. It is especially important for migrating geese.
Structure.
National Park.
The Biesbosch National Park consists of the following major parts:
The most northern part of the Biesbosch. This is the part of the Biesbosch with the most significant tidal influence (one of the distinctive characteristics of the Biesbosch). The Sliedrechtse Biesbosch is named after the town of Sliedrecht, which was drowned during the creation of the Biesbosch and was later rebuilt on the other side of the river Beneden Merwede (one of the borders of the Biesbosch). The eastern part of the Sliedrechtse Biesbosch is one of the few areas in the Netherlands that has an intact system of river dunes.
The westernmost part of the Biesbosch and the largest remnant of the (once much larger) South Hollandic part of the Biesbosch. The Hollandse Biesbosch is the part of the National Park best known for its birds.
The eastern and largest part of the Biesbosch, which is separated from the rest of the Biesbosch by the Nieuwe Merwede river (which serves as the borderline between the provinces of South Holland and North Brabant). The Brabantse Biesbosch can be divided in three parts, from which only the so-called Zuidwaard belongs to the National Park. The Zuidwaard of the Brabantse Biesbosch has fewer fields of reeds and sedges compared to the rest of the National Park and consists mostly of willow forests.
Other.
The National Park occupies only half of the original Biesbosch area. The other half has been reclaimed and consists mostly of farmland. It can be divided in several parts as well:
The part of the Biesbosch that borders the city of Dordrecht. It is located between the Sliedrechtse Biesbosch and the Hollandse Biesbosch. Although the Dordtse Biesbosch has largely an agricultural destination, it also contains several recreational areas which serves as the "playground" for the people of Dordrecht.
The most central part of the Biesbosch and the subject of much recent controversy. The Noordwaard has only been reclaimed during the 20th century and hosts some of most fertile farmlands in the entire Netherlands. However, as a result of the high water levels in the Dutch rivers during the 1990s, the government has decided to undo the reclamation and reconnect the Noordwaard to the Merwede rivers (essentially the Rhine). In this way it can serve as a buffer and be of much importance in the prevention of dike breaks and subsequent flooding in densely populated areas in the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta. The first phase of the "de-poldering" has been completed by 2008 and the resulting wetlands have been added to the National Park. The second phase will be completed somewhere between 2015 and 2020.
The easternmost and oldest part of the Biesbosch does not resemble the rest of the Biesbosch and consists mainly of farmland and expanded neighbourhoods of towns along the Biesbosch border (such as Werkendam, Nieuwendijk and Hank), along with a few creek remnants. Much of the Oostwaard has been reclaimed during the 17th and 18th centuries.
Creation.
The Biesbosch was created when 300 square kilometres of polder lands were submerged in the St. Elizabeth flood in the year 1421. Before this, the area was called Grote Hollandse Waard, containing cultivated land and a number of villages. The more than a century old dikes collapsed because of lack of maintenance, due to the difficult economic situation in the area, and the difficulties between the political entities within (especially the Hook and Cod (civil) wars).
One of the key factors in the flooding of the Grote Waard was the creation of a new dike in the southwest of the polder. The ground beneath this dike was unstable, which was a known (but underestimated) fact in this period of time. However, combined with political rivalry and financial issues, this resulted in the creation of an unstable dike, located at one of the key corners of the Grote Waard. It was the only place where high tides coming directly from the sea could penetrate the land deeply and could reach a primary "keystone" dike of the Grote Waard (most of the primary dikes were used as protection against rivers instead).
Very high river levels combined with a severe storm surge coming in from the sea caused the collapse of the southwest dike and several riverdikes, resulting in the flooding of most of the Grote Hollandse Waard. After the flood, three areas remained: the Island of Dordrecht to the west, the Land van Altena (with the city of Woudrichem) to the east, and the brackish swamps of the Biesbosch in between. Many villages (by tradition 72) were swallowed by the flood and were lost, causing (again by tradition) either 2,000 or 10,000 casualties. Some towns had more luck and submerged, only to rise above the water later on.
Many Rhine-Meuse delta branches that were closed off from the main rivers and served as drainage bodies of the Grote Waard, also disappeared. These include the Dubbel (the name of which survives in Dubbeldam), Eem, Werken (after which Werkendam is named), Graaf, Alm (which lent its name to Almkerk; the eastern part survived) and most of the main drainage stream: the Oude Maas (a small part survives in the form of the Oude Maasje, not to be confused with another branch called Oude Maas near Rotterdam).
Most of the flooded area changed into a network of estuaries. The most important of those were the Hollands Diep ("Holland Deep") and the (shallow) Heidezee ("Heath Sea"). Both were connected to the Haringvliet which existed before the disaster as a pure seawater inlet of the North Sea. After the disaster it became brackish and an important estuary of the rivers Rhine and Meuse. A persistent misunderstanding is that the Biesbosch arose by this storm flood in one night. It is true that this flood broke dikes of the then Grote Hollandse Waard or Zuid Hollandse Waard, but it needed dozens of years before the whole area was under water and had changed to the Biesbosch with its creeks and reeds.
History.
At first, the Heidezee was a shallow but extended body of water, with high tides but also a predominance of fresh water. The deposits of the rivers caused the land to become only submerged at high tides. From that moment on the area was called the Bergse Veld ("Fields of Geertruidenberg") and, later on (during the 18th century), the Biesbosch (although a small patch of swamp had been known as Biesbosch even before the flood). A network of interconnecting creeks, mudflats and forested areas arose, which served as a sort of inland delta of the large rivers feeding it. A significant result of this was that the former estuary arms of the Rhine and Meuse, further north-west, were devoid of much of the inflow of fresh water. This caused the rivers to fill with deposits, so the important shipping route between Rotterdam and the inland areas was no longer usable.
During the last centuries, conditions changed significantly. Most of the Biesbosch was reclaimed and turned into polders. The Rhine-Meuse connection with Rotterdam was restored by preventing the build-up of deposits by artificial means. Most of the Biesbosch creeks were closed off at their upstream end to lower the risk of flooding. The confluence of the Meuse and Rhine rivers was closed off as well and the Meuse received a new, artificial mouth: the Bergse Maas. By separating rivers Meuse and Rhine before they reach the Biesbosch, their flow can be controlled better. A second ship canal was created to better distribute the flow of the river Rhine as well: the Nieuwe Merwede, which divides the Biesbosch into two parts: the "lesser" Biesbosch, now the southeastern part of the Island of Dordrecht, and the "greater" Biesbosch. As a result of these hydrological changes, the Biesbosch lost its function as a river delta and now only receives water directly from the rivers in times of high discharges.
During World War II, the area was used by Dutch residents to hide out from the German occupation forces in the Netherlands. A resistance group was formed that, late in the war, captured Germans fleeing to the north from what was then the Allied-held south of the Netherlands. In the winter of 1944, the area was crossed by refugees from the occupied north, while, at the same time, it was being used to smuggle medicines to the north. The people that coordinated these activities are known as the Biesbosch crossers and are commonly regarded as national heroes. Many Dutch books and a few movies are based on this resistance group.
Before 1970 a connection with the sea existed, and the tidal differences were, on average, two meters. Despite the diminished inflow of the Meuse and Waal rivers, fresh water continued to dominate. The tidal differences almost disappeared after 1970 when the Delta Works closed the Haringvliet and with it the Biesbosch's direct connection with the sea. Only in the northern part of the Biesbosch (the so-called Sliedrechtse Biesbosch) some of the tidal difference remained (20–80 cm on average). The diminishing of the tidal difference caused a dramatic transformation of the Biesbosch, which mostly changed into a willow forest with small remnants of the once mighty delta streams. The creation of the Haringvlietdam also blocked the main route for migrating fish. The influence of both rivers and sea had now mostly gone.
Future.
The Dutch government has decided to undo most of the reclamation and give it back to nature and to reconnect the main rivers with the Biesbosch creeks. This decision has been made as a result of extremely high river discharges in 1993 and 1995. This means that a large part of the Biesbosch will return to its original state: an interconnected network of rivers and creeks, serving as an inland river delta. The area can then be used as a natural buffer to prevent major floods and to lower the risk of very high river levels. For example, the Noordwaard polder in the Biesbosch was reconnected with the Merwede river, to allow flooding during peak discharges of the Rhine and Meuse rivers and to reintroduce sediments which resulted in land aggradation rate of 5.1 mm. The latter is called a sedimentation enhancing strategy. Such strategies will also restore some of the natural situation and will result in an expansion of the habitat of many animals.
Especially the beaver population could profit from these hydrological changes (and, as of 2014, they indeed expanded their range significantly). It would also hopefully create the right conditions for the return of the osprey and the white-tailed eagle as breeding birds. Because of recent nature development of new wetlands the great egret and the little egret have already become familiar elements in the Biesbosch today. There is also an increase in the population of bitterns and kingfishers. Moreover, as of 2014 a couple of white-tailed eagles has been breeding in the Biesbosch for several years in a row. Ospreys have been using the Biesbosch as a feeding ground for several years now, with as a result the first Dutch-born Ospreys in the spring of 2016.
There are also plans to restore the estuary function of the Haringvliet and Hollands Diep, restoring the natural shift from fresh to salty water and allow the return of the tides in the Biesbosch. A first step will be opening some of the sluices of the Haringvlietdam. This will result in a minimal return of tidal effects without having a dramatic impact on the landscape, because a full opening of the dam will make most of the surrounding farming areas unusable, as a result of the influx of salty water. One should note the fact that in times of severe floods coming from the North Sea, the dam will still be able to close and serve in a similar way as the Oosterscheldekering.
The partial opening of the Haringvlietdam will create an opportunity for migrating fish to enter the Rhine and Meuse rivers, restoring the natural situation. This will hopefully result in the return of the salmon, trout, shad, smelt and many other species of fish. It will also create opportunities for the almost extinct southern Dutch population of seals (now mostly restricted to parts of the Oosterschelde). Seals used to be a common sight in the Biesbosch despite the fact that the area is dominated by freshwater. Their presence ended in 1970, although a few individuals somehow managed to reach the Biesbosch afterwards. The partial opening of the Haringvlietdam will restore some of the natural situation.
In the future possibly moose will be re-introduced in the area.
Threats.
The area still faces many threats. One of them is the pollution of water and soil. Many streambeds contain severely polluted sediments, a remainder from the sixties and seventies, when the rivers Rhine and Meuse were much more polluted than they are today. Because there is little net flow in the Biesbosch (because the connection with both rivers and the sea has been blocked, although this will change in the future) the build-up of polluted sediments in the Biesbosch has been severe. Completely restoring the Biesbosch ecosystem cannot happen without an extensive cleanup of all the creeks, which will be an enormous and costly task.
Another threat to the Biesbosch ecosystem is the extensive water recreation in the area. The Biesbosch has, however, both strong natural and recreational values, so banning all recreational activities in the area is not an option. Finding the right balance in this issue will be a challenge. Other threats include the construction of yacht-basins, urban expansion and plans for exploitation of natural gas reserves.