Dalmatian pelican

The Dalmatian pelican ("Pelecanus crispus") is the largest member of the pelican family, and perhaps the world's largest freshwater bird, although rivaled in weight and length by the largest swans. They are elegant soaring birds, with wingspans that rival that of the great albatrosses, and their flocks fly in graceful synchrony. With a range spanning across much of Central Eurasia, from the Mediterranean in the West to the Taiwan Strait in the East, and from the Persian Gulf in the South to Siberia in the North, it is a short-to-medium-distance migrant between breeding and overwintering areas. No subspecies are known to exist over its wide range, but based on size differences, a Pleistocene paleosubspecies, "P. c. palaeocrispus," has been described from fossils recovered at Binagady, Azerbaijan.
As with other pelicans, the males are larger than the females, and likewise their diet is mainly fish. Their curly nape feathers, grey legs and silvery-white plumage are distinguishing features, and the wings appear solid grey in flight. The adults acquire a drabber plumage in winter, however, when they may be mistaken for great white pelicans. Their harsh vocalizations become more pronounced during the mating season. They breed across the Palearctic from southeastern Europe to Russia, India and China in swamps and shallow lakes. They usually return to traditional breeding sites, where they are less social than other pelican species. Their nests are crude heaps of vegetation, which are placed on islands or on dense mats of vegetation.
The species' numbers underwent a dramatic decline during the 20th century, partly due to land use, disturbance and poaching activities. The core population survives in Russia, but in its Mongolian range it is critically endangered. Removal of power lines to prevent collisions or electrocution, and the construction of nesting platforms or rafts have reversed declines locally.
Description.
This huge bird is by a slight margin the largest of the pelican species and one of the largest living flying bird species. It measures in length, in weight and in wingspan. Its median weight is around , which makes it perhaps the world's heaviest flying bird species, although the largest individuals among male bustards and swans may be heavier than the largest individual Dalmatian pelican. More recently, six male Dalmatians were found to average and four females , around the same average weight as the great white pelican ("Pelecanus onocrotalus") and slightly lighter than mean body masses from other huge birds such as the trumpeter swan ("Cygnus buccinator") or Andean condor ("Vultur gryphus"). A mean estimated body mass for the Dalmatian pelican of was also published, around the same mass as the aforementioned largest swan and condor. It is either the heaviest or one of the heaviest birds native to Europe, its closest rival in mass being mute swans ("Cygnus olor"), which weighs on average around , followed closely by the cinereous vulture ("Aegypius monachus") (whose average weight is not known) and the whooper swans ("Cygnus cygnus"), averaging at just shy of , and the great white pelican. These same five species are probably rank as the largest flying birds in Asia as well, alongside the Himalayan vulture ("Gyps himalayensis"). It also appears to have one of the largest wingspans of any living bird, rivaling those of the great albatrosses ("Diomedea" ssp., in particular the two largest species, the wandering albatross and southern royal albatross) and the great white pelican. These four species are the only modern birds with verified wingspans that range over .
The somewhat similar-looking great white pelican broadly overlaps in size but has greater size sexual dimorphism: female great whites can be noticeably smaller than female Dalmatians but male individuals of the two species are essentially the same size and weight. However, the Dalmatian differs from this other very large species in that it has curly nape feathers, grey legs and silvery-white (rather than pure white) plumage. In winter, adult Dalmatian pelicans go from silvery-grey to a dingier brownish-grey cream colour. Immature birds are grey and lack the pink facial patch of immature white pelicans. The loose feathers around the forehead of the Dalmatian pelican can form a W-like-shape on the face right above the bill. In the breeding season it has an orange-red lower mandible and pouch against a yellow upper mandible. In winter, the whole bill is a somewhat dull yellow. The bill, at long, is the second largest of any bird, after the Australian pelican ("Pelecanus conspicillatus"). The bare skin around the eye can vary from yellow to purplish in colour. Among standard measurements, compared to the great white pelican, the Dalmatian's tarsus is slightly shorter, at , but its tail and wing chord length are notably larger, at long and , respectively. When the Dalmatian pelican is in flight, unlike other pelicans, its wings are solid grayish-white with black tips. It is an elegant soaring bird. When a whole flock of Dalmatian pelicans is in flight, all its members move in graceful synchrony, their necks held back like a heron's.
The Dalmatian pelican is often silent, as most pelicans tend to be, although it can be fairly vocal during the mating season, when it may engage in a wide range of guttural, deep vocalisations, including barks, hisses and grunts.
Distribution and habitat.
The Dalmatian pelican is found in lakes, rivers, deltas and estuaries. Compared to the great white pelican, the Dalmatian is not as tied to lowland areas and will nest in suitable wetlands with many elevations. It is less opportunistic in breeding habitat selection than the great white, usually returning to a traditional breeding site year after year unless it becomes completely unsuitable. During the winter, Dalmatian pelicans usually stay on ice-free lakes in Europe or "jheels" (seasonal lakes) in India. They also visit, typically during winter, inshore areas along sheltered coasts for feeding.
Movements.
This pelican usually migrates short distances with varying migration patterns during the year. It is dispersive in Europe, based on feeding opportunities, with most western birds staying through the winter in the Mediterranean region. In the Danube Delta, Dalmatian pelicans arrive in March and leave by the end of August. It is more actively migratory in Asia, where most of the birds that breed in Russia fly down for the winter to the central Middle East, largely around Iran through to the Indian Subcontinent, from Sri Lanka, Nepal to central India. The pelicans that breed in Mongolia winter along the east coast of China, including the Hong Kong area.
In general, the species prefers relatively warm temperatures. During periods where the climate was warmer, the Dalmatian pelican was far more widespread in Europe (today its European range is restricted to the southeastern part of the continent). Notably, a large number of subfossil bones dating from 7400–5000 Before Present (BP), coinciding with the Holocene climatic optimum, have been found in Denmark, and bones dating from 1900–600 BP have been found in central Europe, Netherlands and Britain. This preference for warmer temperatures is also supported by movements recorded in recent history, as there are indications of a slow range expansion in response to modern climate changes.
Behavior.
Feeding.
This pelican feeds almost entirely on fish. Preferred prey species can include common carp ("Cyprinus carpio"), European perch ("Perca fluviatilis"), common rudd ("Scardinius erythropthalmus"), eels, catfish (especially silurids during winter), mullet and northern pike ("Esox lucius"), the latter having measured up to when taken. In the largest remnant colony, located in Greece, the preferred prey is reportedly the native "Alburnus belvica". The Dalmatian pelican requires around of fish per day and can take locally abundant smaller fish such as gobies, but usually ignore them in lieu of slightly larger fish. It usually forages alone or in groups of only two or three. It normally swims along, placidly and slowly, until it quickly dunks its head underwater and scoops the fish out, along with great masses of water. The water is dumped out of the sides of the pouch and the fish is swallowed. Occasionally it may feed cooperatively with other pelicans by corralling fish into shallow waters and may even cooperate similarly while fishing alongside great cormorants in Greece. Occasionally, the pelican may not immediately eat the fish contained in its gular pouch, so it can save the prey for later consumption. Other small wetlands-dwellers may supplement the diet, including crustaceans, worms, beetles and small water birds, usually nestlings and eggs.
Breeding.
Among a highly social family in general, Dalmatian pelicans may have the least social inclinations. This species naturally nests in relatively small groups compared to most other pelican species and sometimes may even nest alone. However, small colonies are usually formed, which regularly include upwards of 250 pairs (especially historically). Occasionally, Dalmatian pelicans may mix in with colonies of great white pelicans. Nesting sites selected are usually either islands in large bodies of water (typically lagoons or river deltas) or dense mats of aquatic vegetation, such as extensive reedbeds of "Phragmites" and "Typha". Due to their large size, these pelicans often trample the vegetation in the area surrounding their nests into the muddy substrate and thus nesting sites may become unsuitably muddy after around three years of usage.
The nest is a moderately-sized pile of grass, reeds, sticks and feathers, usually measuring about deep and across. Nests are usually located on or near the ground, often being placed on dense floating vegetation. Nests tend to be flimsy until cemented together by droppings. Breeding commences in March or April, about a month before the great white pelican breeds. The Dalmatian pelican lays a clutch of one to six eggs, with two eggs being the norm. Eggs weigh between . Incubation, which is split between both parents, lasts for 30 to 34 days. The chicks are born naked but soon sprout white down feathers. When the young are 6 to 7 weeks of age, the pelicans frequently gather in "pods". The offspring fledge at around 85 days and become independent at 100 to 105 days old. Nesting success relies on local environmental conditions, with anywhere from 58% to 100% of hatchlings successfully surviving to adulthood. Predation on Dalmatian pelicans is relatively poorly known despite the species' threatened status. The nesting sites often insure limited nest predation, though carnivorous mammals which eat eggs and nestlings can access nests when water levels are low enough for them to cross, as has been recorded with wild boars ("Sus scrofa") destroying nests in Bulgaria. Golden jackals ("Canis aureus") are also known to access and destroy nests when water levels are too low and the same is possibly true of other canids such as foxes, gray wolves ("Canis lupus") and dogs ("C. l. familiaris"), not to mention other predatory animals such as potentially Eurasian lynxes ("Lynx lynx"). Some eagles may attack too pelicans at colonies, although this is not verified. Large gulls are known to be virulent predators of Dalmatian pelican eggs in Russia, Albania and Turkey. Sexual maturity is thought to be obtained at three or four years of age.
Status.
This species of pelican has declined greatly throughout its range, more so than the white pelican. It is possible that up to 10,000–20,000 pelicans exist at the species level. During the 20th century, the species' numbers underwent a dramatic decline for reasons that are not entirely understood. The most likely reason was habitat loss due to human activities such as the drainage of wetlands and land development. Colonies are regularly disturbed by human activity, and, like all pelicans, the parents may temporarily leave their nest if threatened, which then exposes the chicks to the risk of predation. Occasionally, Dalmatian pelicans may be shot by fishermen who believe the birds are dangerously depleting the fish population and hence threatening their livelihood. While such killings are generally on a small scale, the worry that these pelicans over-exploit the fishing stock persists in many locales. Another probable reason for the decline in the species' population is poaching. In Mongolia, the local people clandestinely kill these pelicans to use or sell their bills as pouches. On a typical day in a commercial Mongolian marketplace, as many as fifty pelican bills may be on offer for sale, and they are considered such a rare prize that ten horses and thirty sheep are considered a fair price to trade for a single pelican. Due to exploitation at all stages of the life cycle, the species is critically endangered in its Mongolian range, with a total population of fewer than 130 individual birds. Dalmatian pelicans also regularly fly into power-lines and are killed by electrocution. In Greece, pelicans are often so disturbed by power boats, usually ones bearing tourists—that they become unable to feed and die of malnourishment. In 1994 in Europe there were over a thousand breeding pairs, most of them in Greece, but also in Ukraine, Macedonia, Romania, Bulgaria (Srebarna Nature Reserve) and Albania (Karavasta Lagoon). They have been considered extinct in Croatia since the 1950s, although a single Dalmatian pelican was observed there in 2011. The largest single remaining colony is at Small Prespa Lake (shared between Albania and Greece), with around 1,400 pairs, with approximately 450 pairs left in the Danube Delta. The country with the largest breeding population today, including about 70% of pairs or possibly over 3,000 pairs, is Russia. Worldwide, there are an estimated 3,000–5,000 breeding pairs. One report of approximately 8,000 Dalmatian pelicans in India turned out to be a congregation of misidentified great white pelicans.
The Dalmatian pelican is one of the species to which the "Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds" (AEWA) applies. Conservation efforts have been undertaken on behalf of the species, especially in Europe. Although they normally nest on the ground, Dalmatian pelicans have nested on platforms put out in Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria and Romania in order to encourage them to breed. Rafts over water have also been set up for the species to use in Greece and Bulgaria. Power-lines have also been marked or dismantled in areas adjacent to colonies in these countries. Additionally, water-level management and educational programs may be aiding them at a local level. Although efforts have been undertaken in Asia, there is a much higher rate of poaching, shooting and habitat destruction there, which may make conservation efforts more difficult. In 2012, when unusually frigid winter conditions caused the Caspian Sea to freeze over, it resulted in the death from starvation of at least twenty of the Dalmatian pelicans that overwinter there. Despite local authorities' initial attempts to discourage it, many people there turned out with fish and hand-fed the birds, apparently enabling the huge pelicans to survive the winter.


Badister iranicus

Badister iranicus is a species of ground beetle in the genus Badister. It was discovered by Jedlicka in 1961 in Iran.


Dendropsophus minutus

Dendropsophus minutus (lesser treefrog) is a species of frog in the family Hylidae.
It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, and Venezuela. In Spanish it is known as ranita amarilla común.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests, subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, dry savanna, moist savanna, subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland, intermittent freshwater marshes, pastureland, rural gardens, urban areas, heavily degraded former forest, ponds, and canals and ditches.


Flora and fauna of Cornwall

Cornwall is the county that forms the tip of the southwestern peninsula of England; this area has a mild and warm climate regulated by the Gulf Stream. The mild climate allows rich plant cover, such as palm trees in the far south and west of the county and in the Isles of Scilly, due to sub-tropical conditions in the summer.
On Cornwall's moors and high ground areas the high elevation makes tree cover impossible because of the wind, so these areas are populated by shrubs and bushes such as gorse and heather. Ferns, mosses, liverworts, lichens and fungi can all be found in the county. In the wettest areas of Bodmin Moor, sphagnum or bog moss can be found.
Cornwall is home to many rare flower species, especially at the southern end of the Lizard, due to its unique soil and geology. On the Lizard Peninsula, Cornish heath – the floral emblem of Cornwall – mesembryanthemums, butcher's broom, early meadow grass and a wide range of clovers including the Lizard clover, brookweed and yellow wallpepper can be found. The north coast of Cornwall features maritime grassland, heathland and stunted woodland.
In medieval times there were on royal estates and on those of the Bishop of Exeter a number of deer parks in which fallow deer were contained for hunting. The only episcopal manors with deer parks were Lanner, Pawton and Penryn. At Helston in Trigg (Lanteglos) and at Liskeard were probably the oldest deer parks; they were two of the seven which passed from the Earldom to the Duchy of Cornwall in 1337. Among the seven were two at Liskeard (old and new) and a new park at Helston in Trigg and small parks at Launceston and Trematon; the park at Restormel was probably established by Earl Richard. The then existing ducal parks were disparked by King Henry VIII about the year 1540 so that they became pasture for cattle. There were also a number of privately owned deer parks, both large and small, e.g. Carn Brea, Polrode, Boconnoc and Mount Edgcumbe.
Coastal waters.
The county's coastal waters are home to large populations of seals. Porpoises, whales and sharks are not uncommonly seen.
Porbeagles inhabit the coastal waters but the etymology of the word is obscure. A common suggestion is that it combines "porpoise" and "beagle", referencing this shark's shape and tenacious hunting habits. Another is that it is derived from the Cornish "porth", meaning "harbour", and "bugel", meaning "shepherd". The "Oxford English Dictionary" states that the word was either borrowed from Cornish or formed from a Cornish first element with the English "beagle"; however, none of the proposed Cornish root words are fully satisfactory. "Squalus cornubicus" (Gmelin, 1789); "Squalus cornubiensis" (Pennant, 1812) and "Lamna cornubica" are other Latin names for the porbeagle.
Swanpool is the only location in the British Isles in which the bryozoan "Victorella pavida" is found.
Cliffs, estuaries and riversides.
The sea cliffs host many marine bird species with the red-billed chough recently returning to the county after a long absence. This rare bird appears on the Cornish coat of arms and is the county animal of Cornwall. The nominate subspecies and smallest form, is endemic to the British Isles, where it was restricted to Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the far west of Wales and Scotland, until it recently recolonised Cornwall after an absence of many years.
The tidal estuaries along the coasts contain large numbers of wading birds, while marshland bird species frequently settle in the bogs and mires inland. Bodmin Moor is a breeding ground for species such as lapwing, snipe and curlew. On and around the rivers, sand martins and kingfishers are often seen, while after a decline in the 1960s and 1970s, Eurasian otters have been returning in large numbers. The Camel Valley is one of the habitats for otters. Bude Canal offers an ideal habitat for water voles, although the population is declining because of habitat degradation and pollution, like in other parts of the country.
The Mousehole Wild Bird Hospital and Sanctuary is a wildlife hospital based near Mousehole. The hospital was founded in 1928 by Dorothy and Phyllis Yglesias and became famous following the Torrey Canyon disaster.
The Cornish Seal Sanctuary, in Gweek, was founded in 1958 and is a sanctuary for injured seal pups.
The Tamar Valley.
Tamar Valley AONB.
The Tamar Valley Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty covers around around the lower Tamar (below Launceston) and its tributaries the Tavy and the Lynher. It was first proposed in 1963, but was not designated until 1995.
The Tamar Otter and Wildlife Centre, North Petherwin ( now permanenly closed).
The Tamar Otter and Wildlife Centre has European and Asian short-clawed otters and a medium-sized duck pond, a nature trail including snowy and barn owls and other birds along it. It has a fish pond, a restaurant area and a gift shop. The nature trail is full of wildlife such as fallow and muntjac deer, peacocks and the not quite so English wallabies. As well as this the nature trail has a waterfall falling down from the top of an old quarry and every few years different segments of the woodlands are coppiced. Some of the wood from this scheme is piled up in random areas of the woodlands as it makes a perfect home for badgers, hedgehogs and many creepy crawlies.
The Lizard Peninsula.
Several nature sites exist on the Lizard Peninsula; Predannack nature reserve, Mullion Island, Goonhilly Downs and the National Seal sanctuary at Gweek. It is also home to one of England's rarest breeding birds – the red-billed chough. This species of crow, distinctive due to its red beak and legs, as well as the haunting "chee-aw" call, began breeding on Lizard in 2002. This followed a concerted effort by the Cornish Chough Project in conjunction with DEFRA and the RSPB.
The Lizard contains some of the most specialised flora of any area in Britain, including many Red Data Book plant species. Of particular note is the Cornish heath, "Erica vagans", that occurs in abundance here, but which is found nowhere else in Britain. It is also one of the few places where the rare formicine ant, (the narrow-headed ant), can be found.
The Lizard district has a local organisation, the Lizard Field Club, whose members have studied the natural history of the area since 1953.
South coast.
At Polruan the gorse covered south facing cliffs between Polruan and Polperro provide habitats for the goldfinch, yellowhammer and stonechat in particular. Reptile species include the slowworm and the adder. The latter is particularly numerous.
Marine life includes the basking shark which have been known to enter the harbour. In 1972 a particularly large example was seen at the end of Polruan Quay; it was longer than the width of the quay. Other fish that may be found in local waters including the estuary include: bass, wrasse (4 varieties), seahorse, pipe fish, pollock, coalfish, flounder, plaice, conger eel, European eel, dragonet, red gurnard, grey gurnard, blenny (shanney), bullhead, burbot, butterfish, sand-eel, salmon, sea trout, garfish, mackerel, angler fish (incorrectly named in restaurants "monk fish"), dab, whitebait, scad (horse mackerel), shad, herring, turbot, pouting, poor cod and rockling.
Isles of Scilly.
Because of the Gulf Stream, the climate of Scilly is particularly mild so sub-tropical plants can grow there, including true palm trees. Scilly is the first landing for many migrant birds, including extreme rarities from North America and Siberia. Scilly is situated far into the Atlantic Ocean, so many North American vagrant birds will make first European landfall in the archipelago.
Scilly is responsible for many firsts for Britain, and is particularly good at producing vagrant American passerines. If an extremely rare bird turns up, the island will see a significant increase in numbers of birders.
Flora.
Botanists divide Cornwall and Scilly into two vice-counties: West (1) and East (2): the boundary runs irregularly from Truro to Wadebridge.
The standard flora is by F. Hamilton Davey "Flora of Cornwall" (1909). Davey was assisted by A. O. Hume and he thanks Hume, his companion on excursions in Cornwall and Devon, and for help in the compilation of that Flora, publication of which was financed by him. Davey gives an account of all the reports of Cornish plants from 1576 until his own time and divides the county into eight districts. The Isles of Scilly are covered by the Flora but not very thoroughly: there is a good Flora of Scilly by J. E. Lousley. Edgar Thurston and Chambré C. Vigurs published a supplement to the flora in 1922 and in 1981 L. J. Margetts and R. W. David published "A Review of the Cornish Flora. 1980" Pool: Institute of Cornish Studies . A supplement to this for 1980–1991 by Margetts and K. L. Spurgin appeared in 1991.
Another useful source of botanical information is "The Flowers of the Field", by C. A. Johns (1853): it treats the country as a whole (with a supplement on grasses), but Johns was a Cornishman and very knowledgeable about its flora and fauna. The Rev Charles Alexander Johns, F.L.S. (1811–1974) is also responsible for calling the attention of botanists to the very specialised flora of the Lizard in "A Week at the Lizard", 1848, written when he was a teacher at Helston Grammar School.
"Within easy reach of Tintagel at least 385 varieties of flowers, 30 kinds of grasses, and 16 of ferns can be found ... a 'happy hunting ground' for botanists" and a list of thirty-nine of the rarest is given. (Contribution by E.M.S. to W. J. C. Armstrong's "Rambler's Guide", 1935.)
Cornish symbology.
The Cornish national flower is variously said to be either broom, furze (gorse), rhododendron, or Cornish heath. The Cornish national tree is the sessile oak, known in Cornwall as the Cornish oak.
Thrift ("Armeria maritima") was chosen by the plant conservation charity Plantlife as the "county flower" of the Isles of Scilly in 2002.
Botanic gardens.
There are botanic gardens at the Eden Project, the Lost Gardens of Heligan, and at Trebah and Tresco Abbey Gardens on the Isles of Scilly.
Araucaria araucana derives its popular name of "monkey puzzle tree" from what happened when a young specimen of it at Pencarrow was shown to a group of friends of the owner; one of them made the remark "It would puzzle a monkey to climb that"; as the species had no existing popular name, first 'monkey puzzler', then 'monkey puzzle' stuck.
Gardening.
It is probable that no area of the world has the conditions for growing such a great variety of plants. Gardeners in Devon and Cornwall supported plant collectors such as Forest, Wilson and Kingdon Ward by taking infinite trouble in caring for seedlings and extended their gardens into woods to provide the right conditions. Plants seen in Cornish gardens have encouraged upcountry gardeners to grow such plants as Magnolia campbellii. Some plants (e.g. Rhododendron macabeanum) can grow larger in Cornwall than they can in their native habitats. Before the period of tourism Cornish gardens were designed for spring effect; however the tourists who come in summer want to see magnificence at that time of year so the gardeners have adapted accordingly, though a good effect is still made in spring. Wind shelter is an important precondition for the site of a good garden, particularly near the coast. Monterey pine, sycamore and ash are good for providing such shelter. The majority of soils are acid and full of accumulated leaf mould. Water draining from the granite moorlands also raises the acidity. Most of the great gardens are near the coast where the climate is milder and with higher rainfall than further inland. Rhododendrons flourish particularly well, both species and the hybrids which gardeners have created such as 'Cornish Cross' and 'Penjerrick'. Plants from South America have also flourished well; these include the Crinodendrons and Embothrium coccineum.
The rectory and vicarage gardens of Cornwall are very varied. Some are large enough to allow for tree planting and both formal and informal garden of this kind exist. Some have been cared for by noted horticulturists such as Arthur Townshend Boscawen of Ludgvan and others by amateur gardeners such as Bernard Walke of St Hilary where a former vicar had planted an avenue of beech trees. Joseph Hunkin, Bishop of Truro, was a keen gardener; he was commemorated by a garden in the cathedral close and a shrub donated to every parish. His articles on gardening topics were collected and published as "From a Cornish Bishop's Garden" in 2001.
Trees.
The Darley Oak is an oak tree which grows near Darleyford on the edge of Bodmin Moor. This ancient tree is thought to be at least 1,000 years old, and a considerable amount of legends take it as their core.
Elms.
Cornish Elm.
The Cornish Elm was once common in Cornwall but can now only be found outside Cornwall. The origin of the Cornish Elm in the UK remains a matter of contention; commonly assumed to have been introduced from Brittany by man, it is also considered possible that it may have survived the ice ages on lands to the south of Cornwall long since lost to the sea. Certainly, its current distribution owes much to man's activities. The tree was traditionally considered the best choice for providing shelter along the Cornish coast; moreover its timber was much prized for its strength, and commonly used in wheel and wagon construction.
Davey Elm.
The Davey Elm ("Ulmus × hollandica" 'Daveyi') is an English cultivar of unknown specific origin, generally restricted to the valleys of Cornwall. Its apparent south-west England provenance, along with its foliage and habit, suggest that it may be a hybrid of wych elm and Cornish Elm.
Fruit trees.
Cornish Aromatic is an apple cultivar with a crisp, nut-like aromatic flavour that was first recorded in Cornwall in 1813.
The Cornish Gilliflower cultivar of apple is so named as it was found in Truro, Cornwall, around 1800, the word 'gilliflower' being a corruption of a French word "giroflier" meaning clove, believed to be a reference to its odour. The cultivar was brought to the attention of commercial growers in 1813.
Dufflin is an old variety of cider apple from Cornwall. It was included in orchard trials by Long Ashton Research Station in 1957.
This is an apple variety which originated in Coad's Green.
The King Byerd is a Cornish cultivar of apple. It is a heavy cropping, large fruit, suitable for culinary or desert use. Harvested from late October.
The Kea Plum is a damson-like variety deriving its name from the parish of Kea.
Cultural significance.
Other Cornish varieties of plants.
The Cornish heath ("Erica vagans") is found only on the Lizard and has been recognised as the floral emblem of Cornwall although it has been reported to be found in Fermanagh, according to W. Keble Martin. In recent years daffodils have been popular on the annual Saint Piran's day march on Perran Sands, although the plants are donated by a local daffodil grower and the daffodil is already considered to be the national flower of Wales.
As part of a 2002 marketing campaign, the plant conservation charity Plantlife chose Thrift ("Armeria maritima") as the "county flower" of the Isles of Scilly.
The Cornish eyebright ("Euphrasia vigursii") is found on heathland in Cornwall and south Devon.
The Cornish moneywort ("Sibthorpia europaea") is found locally in south-west England, Wales and the south of Ireland; in the rest of southern England it is rare.
Cornish path-moss ("Ditrichum cornubicum"), discovered in 1963 at Lanner.
The distribution of least adder's tongue in Britain is restricted to one small area of coastal heath on St Agnes, Isles of Scilly. It grows in short turf on Wingletang Downs where some colonies are suffering from an increase of competitive grasses, gorse ("Ulex europaeus") and bramble ("Rubus fruticosus").
Cornish palm is a local common name for the monocot tree "Cordyline australis" endemic to New Zealand.


Scaly laughingthrush

The scaly laughingthrush ("Trochalopteron subunicolor") is a bird species in the family Leiothrichidae.
It is found in Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Vietnam. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests.


Nebria kirgisica

Nebria kirgisica is a species of ground beetle in the Nebriinae subfamily that is endemic to Kyrgyzstan.


Abisara neophron

Abisara neophron, the tailed Judy, is a small but striking butterfly found in India that belongs to the Punches and Judies family (Riodinidae).
Description.
Termen of hindwing has a long tail at apex of vein 4, the portion above it prominently emarginate. Upperside is brown varying in tint, but generally paler in the female than in the male. Forewing with a comparatively broad oblique white band from middle of costa to near apex of vein 1 above the tornal angle, narrowed posteriorly; beyond this an ill-defined narrow, somewhat more erect, pale dusky-white band from costa to dorsal margin, curving slightly round the tornal termination of the inner broader band; an inner and an outer slender abbreviated subterminal line extending in the female from vein 1 to vein 4, shorter in the male. Hindwing has a postdiscal sinuous, ill-defined, broad transverse band, paler than the ground colour, bordered on the inner and outer sides by very obscure lunular dull whitish lines, followed by two slender pure white subterminal broken lines that in interspaces 4 and 5 are bordered inwardly by large jet-black spots; these spots divided by a conspicuous Ferruginous line along vein 5; the cilia and apex of tail, and in some specimens the apex of wing and the costal margin, narrowly snow-white. Underside similar, with similar markings, but the ground colour much paler, especially on the basal halves of the wings, the markings more clearly defined and broader; on the hindwing the white lines bordering the post-discal broad band have a purplish tinge, and in interspace 1 there are two inner obscure subterminal triangular black spots. Antennae brown, ringed with white; head, thorax and abdomen pale brown; beneath, the palpi, thorax and abdomen more or less whitish.


Agrias hewitsonius

Agrias hewitsonius is a butterfly of the family Nymphalidae. It is found in South America. It was described by Henry Walter Bates in 1860.


Coleophora amphorella

Coleophora amphorella is a moth of the family Coleophoridae that is endemic to Iran.


Wildcat

The wildcat is a species complex comprising two small wild cat species, the European wildcat ("Felis silvestris") and the African wildcat ("F. lybica"). The European wildcat inhabits forests in Europe and the Caucasus, while the African wildcat inhabits semi-arid landscapes and steppes in Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, Central Asia, into western India and western China.
The wildcat species differ in fur pattern, tail, and size: the European wildcat has long fur and a bushy tail with a rounded tip; the smaller African wildcat is more faintly striped, has short sandy-gray fur and a tapering tail; the Asiatic wildcat ("F. lybica ornata") is spotted.
The wildcat and the other members of the cat family had a common ancestor about 10–15 million years ago. The European wildcat evolved during the Cromerian Stage about 866,000 to 478,000 years ago; its direct ancestor was "Felis lunensis". The "silvestris" and "lybica" lineages probably diverged about 173,000 years ago.
The wildcat has been categorized as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List since 2002, since it is widely distributed, and the global population is considered stable and exceeding 20,000 mature individuals. However, in some range countries both wildcat species are considered threatened by introgressive hybridisation with the domestic cat ("F. catus") and transmission of diseases. Localized threats include being hit by vehicles, and persecution.
The association of African wildcats and humans appears to have developed along with the establishment of settlements during the Neolithic Revolution, when rodents in grain stores of early farmers attracted wildcats. This association ultimately led to it being tamed and domesticated: the domestic cat is the direct descendant of the African wildcat. It was one of the revered cats in ancient Egypt. The European wildcat has been the subject of mythology and literature.
Taxonomy.
"Felis (catus) silvestris" was the scientific name used in 1777 by Johann von Schreber when he described the European wildcat based on descriptions and names proposed by earlier naturalists such as Mathurin Jacques Brisson, Ulisse Aldrovandi and Conrad Gessner.
"Felis lybica" was the name proposed in 1780 by Georg Forster, who described an African wildcat from Gafsa on the Barbary Coast.
In subsequent decades, several naturalists and explorers described 40 wildcat specimens collected in European, African and Asian range countries. In the 1940s, the taxonomist Reginald Innes Pocock reviewed the collection of wildcat skins and skulls in the Natural History Museum, London, and designated seven "F. silvestris" subspecies from Europe to Asia Minor, and 25 "F. lybica" subspecies from Africa, and West to Central Asia. Pocock differentiated the:
In 2005, 22 subspecies were recognized by the authors of "Mammal Species of the World", who allocated subspecies largely in line with Pocock's assessment.
In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force revised the taxonomy of the Felidae, and recognized the following as valid taxa:
Evolution.
The wildcat is a member of the Felidae, a family that had a common ancestor about 10–15 million years ago. "Felis" species diverged from the Felidae around 6–7 million years ago. The European wildcat diverged from "Felis" about 1.09 to 1.4 million years ago.
The European wildcat's direct ancestor was "Felis lunensis", which lived in Europe in the late Pliocene and Villafranchian periods. Fossil remains indicate that the transition from "lunensis" to "silvestris" was completed by the Holstein interglacial about 340,000 to 325,000 years ago.
Craniological differences between the European and African wildcats indicate that the wildcat probably migrated during the Late Pleistocene from Europe into the Middle East, giving rise to the steppe wildcat phenotype.
Phylogenetic research revealed that the "lybica" lineage probably diverged from the "silvestris" lineage about 173,000 years ago.
Characteristics.
The wildcat has pointed ears, which are moderate in length and broad at the base.
Its whiskers are white, number 7 to 16 on each side and reach in length on the muzzle. Whiskers are also present on the inner surface of the paw and measure .
Its eyes are large, with vertical pupils and yellowish-green irises. The eyelashes range from in length, and can number six to eight per side.
The European wildcat has a greater skull volume than the domestic cat, a ratio known as Schauenberg's index. Further, its skull is more spherical in shape than that of the jungle cat ("F. chaus") and leopard cat ("Prionailurus bengalensis"). Its dentition is relatively smaller and weaker than the jungle cat's.
Both wildcat species are larger than the domestic cat. The European wildcat has relatively longer legs and a more robust build compared to the domestic cat. The tail is long, and usually slightly exceeds one-half of the animal's body length. The species size varies according to Bergmann's rule, with the largest specimens occurring in cool, northern areas of Europe and Asia such as Mongolia, Manchuria and Siberia. Males measure in head to body length, in tail length, and normally weigh . Females are slightly smaller, measuring in body length and in tail length, and weighing .
Both sexes have two thoracic and two abdominal teats. Both sexes have pre-anal glands, consisting of moderately sized sweat and sebaceous glands around the anal opening. Large-sized sebaceous and scent glands extend along the full length of the tail on the dorsal side. Male wildcats have pre-anal pockets on the tail, activated upon reaching sexual maturity, play a significant role in reproduction and territorial marking.
Distribution and habitat.
The European wildcat inhabits temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in Europe, Turkey and the Caucasus. In the Iberian peninsula, it occurs from sea level to in the Pyrenees. Between the late 17th and mid 20th centuries, its European range became fragmented due to large-scale hunting and regional extirpation. It is possibly extinct in the Czech Republic, and considered regionally extinct in Austria, though vagrants from Italy are spreading into Austria. It has never inhabited Fennoscandia or Estonia. Sicily is the only island in the Mediterranean Sea with a native wildcat population.
The African wildcat lives in a wide range of habitats except rainforest, but throughout the savannahs of Africa from Mauritania on the Atlantic coast eastwards to the Horn of Africa up to altitudes of . Small populations live in the Sahara and Nubian Deserts, Karoo region, Kalahari and Namib Deserts. It occurs around the Arabian Peninsula's periphery to the Caspian Sea, encompassing Mesopotamia, Israel and Palestine region. In Central Asia, it ranges into Xinjiang and southern Mongolia, and in South Asia into the Thar Desert and arid regions in India.
Behaviour and ecology.
Both wildcat species are largely nocturnal and solitary, except during the breeding period and when females have young. The size of home ranges of females and males varies according to terrain, the availability of food, habitat quality and the age structure of the population. Male and female home ranges overlap, though core areas within territories are avoided by other cats. Females tend to be more sedentary than males, as they require an exclusive hunting area when raising kittens. Wildcats usually spend the day in a hollow tree, a rock crevice or in dense thickets.
It is also reported to shelter in abandoned burrows of other species such as of red fox ("Vulpes vulpes") and in European badger ("Meles meles") setts in Europe, and of fennec ("V. zerda") in Africa.
When threatened, it retreats into a burrow, rather than climb trees. When taking residence in a tree hollow, it selects one low to the ground. Dens in rocks or burrows are lined with dry grasses and bird feathers. Dens in tree hollows usually contain enough sawdust to make lining unnecessary. If the den becomes infested with fleas, the wildcat shifts to another den. During winter, when snowfall prevents the European wildcat from travelling long distances, it remains within its den until travel conditions improve.
Territorial marking consists of spraying urine on trees, vegetation and rocks, depositing faeces in conspicuous places, and leaving scent marks through glands in its paws. It also leaves visual marks by scratching trees.
Hunting and prey.
Sight and hearing are the wildcat's primary senses when hunting.
It lies in wait for prey, then catches it by executing a few leaps, which can span three metres. When hunting near water courses, it waits on trees overhanging the water. It kills small prey by grabbing it in its claws, and piercing the neck or occiput with its fangs. When attacking large prey, it leaps upon the animal's back, and attempts to bite the neck or carotid. It does not persist in attacking if prey manages to escape.
The European wildcat primarily preys on small mammals such as rabbit ("Oryctolagus cuniculus") and rodents.
It also preys on dormice, hares, nutria ("Myocastor coypus") and birds, especially ducks and other waterfowl, galliformes, pigeons and passerines. It can consume large bone fragments. Although it kills insectivores such as moles and shrews, it rarely eats them. When living close to human settlements, it preys on poultry. In the wild, it consumes up to of food daily.
The African wildcat preys foremost on murids, to a lesser extent also on birds, small reptiles and invertebrates.
Reproduction and development.
The wildcat has two estrus periods, one in December–February and another in May–July. Estrus lasts 5–9 days, with a gestation period lasting 60–68 days. Ovulation is induced through copulation. Spermatogenesis occurs throughout the year. During the mating season, males fight viciously, and may congregate around a single female. There are records of male and female wildcats becoming temporarily monogamous. Kittens are usually born between April and May, and up to August. Litter size ranges from 1–7 kittens.
Kittens are born with closed eyes and are covered in a fuzzy coat. They weigh at birth, and kittens under usually do not survive. They are born with pink paw pads, which blacken at the age of three months, and blue eyes, which turn amber after five months. Their eyes open after 9–12 days, and their incisors erupt after 14–30 days. The kittens' milk teeth are replaced by their permanent dentition at the age of 160–240 days. The kittens start hunting with their mother at the age of 60 days, and start moving independently after 140–150 days. Lactation lasts 3–4 months, though the kittens eat meat as early as 1.5 months of age. Sexual maturity is attained at the age of 300 days. Similarly to the domestic cat, the physical development of African wildcat kittens over the first two weeks of their lives is much faster than that of European wildcats. The kittens are largely fully grown by 10 months, though skeletal growth continues for over 18–19 months. The family dissolves after roughly five months, and the kittens disperse to establish their own territories. Their maximum life span is 21 years, though they usually live up to 13–14 years.
Generation length of the wildcat is about eight years.
Predators and competitors.
Because of its habit of living in areas with rocks and tall trees for refuge, dense thickets and abandoned burrows, wildcats have few natural predators. In Central Europe, many kittens are killed by European pine marten ("Martes martes"), and there is at least one account of an adult wildcat being killed and eaten. Competitors include the golden jackal ("C. aureus"), red fox, marten, and other predators. In the steppe regions of Europe and Asia, village dogs constitute serious enemies of wildcats, along with the much larger Eurasian lynx, one of the rare habitual predators of healthy adult wildcats. In Tajikistan, the grey wolf ("Canis lupus") is the most serious competitor, having been observed to destroy cat burrows. Birds of prey, including Eurasian eagle-owl ("Bubo bubo") and saker falcon ("Falco cherrug"), have been recorded to kill wildcat kittens.
Seton Gordon recorded an instance where a wildcat fought a golden eagle ("Aquila chrysaetos"), resulting in the deaths of both combatants.
In Africa, wildcats are occasionally killed and eaten by African rock python ("Python sebae").
Threats.
Wildcat populations are foremost threatened by hybridization with the domestic cat. Mortality due to traffic accidents is a threat especially in Europe. The wildcat population in Scotland has declined since the turn of the 20th century due to habitat loss and persecution by landowners.
In the former Soviet Union, wildcats were caught accidentally in traps set for European pine marten. In modern times, they are caught in unbaited traps on pathways or at abandoned trails of red fox, European badger, European hare or pheasant. One method of catching wildcats consists of using a modified muskrat trap with a spring placed in a concealed pit. A scent trail of pheasant viscera leads the cat to the pit. Wildcat skins were of little commercial value and sometimes converted into imitation sealskin; the fur usually fetched between 50 and 60 kopecks.
Wildcat skins were almost solely used for making cheap scarfs, muffs and coats for ladies.
Conservation.
Wildcat species are protected in most range countries and listed in CITES Appendix II. The European wildcat is also listed in Appendix II of the Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats and in the European Union's Habitats and Species Directive.
Conservation Action Plans have been developed in Germany and Scotland.
In culture.
Domestication.
An African wildcat skeleton excavated in a 9,500-year-old Neolithic grave in Cyprus is the earliest known indication for a close relationship between a human and a possibly tamed cat. As no cat species is native to Cyprus, this discovery indicates that Neolithic farmers may have brought cats to Cyprus from the Near East. Results of genetics and morphological research corroborated that the African wildcat is the ancestor of the domestic cat. The first individuals were probably domesticated in the Fertile Crescent around the time of the introduction of agriculture. Murals and statuettes depicting cats as well mummified cats indicate that it was commonly kept by ancient Egyptians since at least the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt.
In mythology.
Fables of the Cat Sìth, a fairy creature described as resembling a large white-chested black cat, are thought to have been inspired by the Kellas cat, itself thought to be a free-ranging crossbreed between a European wildcat and a domestic cat. In 1693, William Salmon mentioned how body parts of the wildcat were used for medicinal purposes; its flesh for treating gout, its fat for dissolving tumours and easing pain, its blood for curing "falling sickness", and its excrement for treating baldness.
In heraldry.
The Picts venerated wildcats, having probably named Caithness (Land of the Cats) after them. According to the foundation myth of the Catti tribe, their ancestors were attacked by wildcats upon landing in Scotland. Their ferocity impressed the Catti so much, that the wildcat became their symbol. The progenitors of Clan Sutherland use the wildcat as symbol on their family crest. The clan's chief bears the title "Morair Chat" (Great Man of the Cats).
The wildcat is considered an icon of Scottish wilderness, and has been used in clan heraldry since the 13th century. The Clan Chattan Association (also known as the Clan of Cats) comprises 12 clans, the majority of which display the wildcat on their badges.
In literature.
Shakespeare referenced the wildcat three times:


Mirror turtle ant

Mirror turtle ants ("Cephalotes specularis") are a species of ant that mimic other, unrelated ants ("Crematogaster ampla") in order to steal their food.
Discovery.
Assistant professor of biology Scott Powell at George Washington University discovered them while studying turtle ants in Brazil. Powell has said that the mirror turtle ant represents a glimpse of the early stages of social parasitism, before the parasite has "lost much of its free-living biology".


Balkan pond turtle

The Balkan terrapin or western Caspian terrapin ("Mauremys rivulata") is a species of terrapin in the family Geoemydidae. It is found in the Balkan Peninsula (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Greece), a number of Mediterranean islands including Crete, Lesvos and Cyprus, and in the Middle East (Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey).
References.
Bibliography


Calamaria bicolor

Calamaria bicolor is a species of snake of the family Colubridae. Its vernacular names are two-colored dwarf snake and bicoloured reed snake.
Geographic range.
The snake appears to be endemic to Borneo where it is widespread, being found in Kalimantan (Indonesia), Sabah, and Sarawak (Malaysia). Its presence in Java is uncertain.


Arachnura melanura

Arachnura melanura, also known as black tail spider and drag tail spider is a species of spider in the family Araneidae. It ranges from India to Japan to Sulawesi. It camouflages itself by mimicking fallen flowers, dead leaves and twigs.


List of birds of Jamaica

This is a list of the bird species recorded in Jamaica. The avifauna of Jamaica included a total of 326 species as of May 2020, according to "Bird Checklists of the World". Of them, 28 are endemic, 20 have been introduced by humans, and 156 are rare or accidental. Another species (great-tailed grackle) is concentrated in one area and might also have been introduced. Five species have been extirpated and one is extinct. Sixteen species are globally threatened.
This list is presented in the taxonomic sequence of the "Check-list of North and Middle American Birds", 7th edition through the 61st Supplement, published by the American Ornithological Society (AOS). Common and scientific names are also those of the "Check-list", except that the common names of families are from the Clements taxonomy because the AOS list does not include them.
The following tags have been used to highlight several categories of occurrence.
Conservation status is highlighted as follows; the status applies to the species' worldwide population, not that in Jamaica except for endemics:
Ducks, geese, and waterfowl.
Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae
Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These birds are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to an oily coating.
Guineafowl.
Order: GalliformesFamily: Numididae
Guineafowl are a group of African, seed-eating, ground-nesting birds that resemble partridges, but with featherless heads and spangled grey plumage.
New World quail.
Order: GalliformesFamily: Odontophoridae
The New World quails are small, plump terrestrial birds only distantly related to the quails of the Old World, but named for their similar appearance and habits.
Flamingos.
Order: PhoenicopteriformesFamily: Phoenicopteridae
Flamingos are gregarious wading birds, usually tall, found in both the Western and Eastern Hemispheres. Flamingos filter-feed on shellfish and algae. Their oddly shaped beaks are specially adapted to separate mud and silt from the food they consume and, uniquely, are used upside-down.
Grebes.
Order: PodicipediformesFamily: Podicipedidae
Grebes are small to medium-large freshwater diving birds. They have lobed toes and are excellent swimmers and divers. However, they have their feet placed far back on the body, making them quite ungainly on land.
Pigeons and doves.
Order: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae
Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere.
Cuckoos.
Order: CuculiformesFamily: Cuculidae
The family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners, and anis. These birds are of variable size with slender bodies, long tails, and strong legs.
Nightjars and allies.
Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Caprimulgidae
Nightjars are medium-sized nocturnal birds that usually nest on the ground. They have long wings, short legs, and very short bills. Most have small feet, of little use for walking, and long pointed wings. Their soft plumage is camouflaged to resemble bark or leaves.
Potoos.
Order: NyctibiiformesFamily: Nyctibiidae
The potoos (sometimes called poor-me-ones) are large near passerine birds related to the nightjars and frogmouths. They are nocturnal insectivores which lack the bristles around the mouth found in the true nightjars.
Swifts.
Order: ApodiformesFamily: Apodidae
Swifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. Many swifts have long swept-back wings which resemble a crescent or boomerang.
Hummingbirds.
Order: ApodiformesFamily: Trochilidae
Hummingbirds are small birds capable of hovering in mid-air due to the rapid flapping of their wings. They are the only birds that can fly backwards.
Rails, gallinules, and coots.
Order: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae
Rallidae is a large family of small to medium-sized birds which includes the rails, crakes, coots, and gallinules. Typically they inhabit dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps, or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings and to be weak fliers.
Limpkin.
Order: GruiformesFamily: Aramidae
The limpkin resembles a large rail. It has drab-brown plumage and a greyer head and neck.
Stilts and avocets.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Recurvirostridae
Recurvirostridae is a family of large wading birds which includes the avocets and stilts. The avocets have long legs and long up-curved bills. The stilts have extremely long legs and long, thin, straight bills.
Oystercatchers.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Haematopodidae
The oystercatchers are large and noisy plover-like birds, with strong bills used for smashing or prising open molluscs.
Plovers and lapwings.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae
The family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels, and lapwings. They are small to medium-sized birds with compact bodies, short thick necks, and long, usually pointed, wings. They are found in open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water.
Jacanas.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Jacanidae
The jacanas are a group of waders found throughout the tropics. They are identifiable by their huge feet and claws which enable them to walk on floating vegetation in the shallow lakes that are their preferred habitat.
Sandpipers and allies.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae
Scolopacidae is a large diverse family of small to medium-sized shorebirds including the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers, and phalaropes. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil. Variation in length of legs and bills enables multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food.
Skuas and jaegers.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Stercorariidae
The family Stercorariidae are, in general, medium to large birds, typically with grey or brown plumage, often with white markings on the wings. They nest on the ground in temperate and arctic regions and are long-distance migrants.
Gulls, terns, and skimmers.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae
Laridae is a family of medium to large seabirds and includes gulls, kittiwakes, terns and skimmers. They are typically grey or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have longish bills and webbed feet. Terns are a group of generally medium to large seabirds typically with grey or white plumage, often with black markings on the head. Most terns hunt fish by diving but some pick insects off the surface of fresh water. Terns are generally long-lived birds, with several species known to live in excess of 30 years. Skimmers are a small family of tropical tern-like birds. They have an elongated lower mandible which they use to feed by flying low over the water surface and skimming the water for small fish.
Tropicbirds.
Order: PhaethontiformesFamily: Phaethontidae
Tropicbirds are slender white birds of tropical oceans with exceptionally long central tail feathers. Their heads and long wings have black markings.
Southern storm-petrels.
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Oceanitidae
The storm-petrels are the smallest seabirds, relatives of the petrels, feeding on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. The flight is fluttering and sometimes bat-like. Until 2018, this family's species were included with the other storm-petrels in family Hydrobatidae.
Northern storm-petrels.
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Hydrobatidae
Though the members of this family are similar in many respects to the southern storm-petrels, including their general appearance and habits, there are enough genetic differences to warrant their placement in a separate family.
Shearwaters and petrels.
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Procellariidae
The procellariids are the main group of medium-sized "true petrels", characterised by united nostrils with medium septum and a long outer functional primary.
Storks.
Order: CiconiiformesFamily: Ciconiidae
Storks are large, long-legged, long-necked, wading birds with long, stout bills. Storks are mute, but bill-clattering is an important mode of communication at the nest. Their nests can be large and may be reused for many years. Many species are migratory.
Frigatebirds.
Order: SuliformesFamily: Fregatidae
Frigatebirds are large seabirds usually found over tropical oceans. They are large, black-and-white, or completely black, with long wings and deeply forked tails. The males have coloured inflatable throat pouches. They do not swim or walk and cannot take off from a flat surface. Having the largest wingspan-to-body-weight ratio of any bird, they are essentially aerial, able to stay aloft for more than a week.
Boobies and gannets.
Order: SuliformesFamily: Sulidae
The sulids comprise the gannets and boobies. Both groups are medium to large coastal seabirds that plunge-dive for fish.
Anhingas.
Order: SuliformesFamily: Anhingidae
Anhingas are often called "snake-birds" because of their long thin neck, which gives a snake-like appearance when they swim with their bodies submerged. The males have black and dark-brown plumage, an erectile crest on the nape, and a larger bill than the female. The females have much paler plumage especially on the neck and underparts. The darters have completely webbed feet and their legs are short and set far back on the body. Their plumage is somewhat permeable, like that of cormorants, and they spread their wings to dry after diving.
Cormorants and shags.
Order: SuliformesFamily: Phalacrocoracidae
Phalacrocoracidae is a family of medium to large coastal, fish-eating seabirds that includes cormorants and shags. Plumage colouration varies, with the majority having mainly dark plumage, some species being black-and-white, and a few being colourful.
Pelicans.
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Pelecanidae
Pelicans are large water birds with a distinctive pouch under their beak. As with other members of the order Pelecaniformes, they have webbed feet with four toes.
Herons, egrets, and bitterns.
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae
The family Ardeidae contains the bitterns, herons, and egrets. Herons and egrets are medium to large wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more wary. Members of Ardeidae fly with their necks retracted, unlike other long-necked birds such as storks, ibises, and spoonbills.
Ibises and spoonbills.
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Threskiornithidae
Threskiornithidae is a family of large terrestrial and wading birds which includes the ibises and spoonbills. They have long, broad wings with 11 primary and about 20 secondary feathers. They are strong fliers and despite their size and weight, very capable soarers.
New World vultures.
Order: CathartiformesFamily: Cathartidae
The New World vultures are not closely related to Old World vultures, but superficially resemble them because of convergent evolution. Like the Old World vultures, they are scavengers. However, unlike Old World vultures, which find carcasses by sight, New World vultures have a good sense of smell with which they locate carrion.
Osprey.
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Pandionidae
The family Pandionidae contains only one species, the osprey. The osprey is a medium-large raptor which is a specialist fish-eater with a worldwide distribution.
Hawks, eagles, and kites.
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Accipitridae
Accipitridae is a family of birds of prey which includes hawks, eagles, kites, harriers, and Old World vultures. These birds have powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons, and keen eyesight.
Barn-owls.
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Tytonidae
Barn owls are medium to large owls with large heads and characteristic heart-shaped faces. They have long strong legs with powerful talons.
Owls.
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Strigidae
The typical owls are small to large solitary nocturnal birds of prey. They have large forward-facing eyes and ears, a hawk-like beak, and a conspicuous circle of feathers around each eye called a facial disk.
Todies.
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Todidae
Todies are a group of small near passerine forest species endemic to the Caribbean. These birds have colourful plumage and resemble small kingfishers, but have flattened bills with serrated edges. They eat small prey such as insects and lizards.
Kingfishers.
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Alcedinidae
Kingfishers are medium-sized birds with large heads, long, pointed bills, short legs, and stubby tails.
Woodpeckers.
Order: PiciformesFamily: Picidae
Woodpeckers are small to medium-sized birds with chisel-like beaks, short legs, stiff tails, and long tongues used for capturing insects. Some species have feet with two toes pointing forward and two backward, while several species have only three toes. Many woodpeckers have the habit of tapping noisily on tree trunks with their beaks.
Falcons and caracaras.
Order: FalconiformesFamily: Falconidae
Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey. They differ from hawks, eagles, and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their talons.
New World and African parrots.
Order: PsittaciformesFamily: Psittacidae
Parrots are small to large birds with a characteristic curved beak. Their upper mandibles have slight mobility in the joint with the skull and they have a generally erect stance. All parrots are zygodactyl, having the four toes on each foot placed two at the front and two to the back.
Tityras and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Tityridae
Tityridae is family of suboscine passerine birds found in forest and woodland in the Neotropics. The approximately 30 species in this family were formerly lumped with the families Pipridae and Cotingidae. They are small to medium-sized birds.
Tyrant flycatchers.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Tyrannidae
Tyrant flycatchers are passerine birds which occur throughout North and South America. They superficially resemble the Old World flycatchers, but are more robust and have stronger bills. They do not have the sophisticated vocal capabilities of the songbirds. Most, but not all, have plain colouring. As the name implies, most are insectivorous.
Vireos, shrike-babblers, and erpornis.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Vireonidae
The vireos are a group of small to medium-sized passerine birds. They are typically greenish in colour and resemble New World warblers apart from their heavier bills.
Crows, jays, and magpies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Corvidae
The family Corvidae includes crows, ravens, jays, choughs, magpies, treepies, nutcrackers, and ground jays. Corvids are above average in size among the Passeriformes, and some of the larger species show high levels of intelligence.
Larks.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Alaudidae
Larks are small terrestrial birds with often extravagant songs and display flights. Most larks are fairly dull in appearance.
Swallows.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae
The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings, and a short bill with a wide gape. The feet are adapted to perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partially joined at the base.
Kinglets.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Regulidae
The kinglets, also called crests, are a small group of birds often included in the Old World warblers, but frequently given family status because they also resemble the titmice.
Thrushes and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Turdidae
The thrushes are a group of passerine birds that occur mainly in the Old World. They are plump, soft plumaged, small to medium-sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs.
Mockingbirds and thrashers.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Mimidae
The mimids are a family of passerine birds that includes thrashers, mockingbirds, tremblers, and the New World catbirds. These birds are notable for their vocalizations, especially their ability to mimic a wide variety of birds and other sounds heard outdoors. Their colouring tends towards dull-greys and browns.
Starlings.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sturnidae
Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds. Their flight is strong and direct and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country. They eat insects and fruit. Plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen.
Waxwings.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Bombycillidae
The waxwings are a group of birds with soft silky plumage and unique red tips to some of the wing feathers. In the Bohemian and cedar waxwings, these tips look like sealing wax and give the group its name. These are arboreal birds of northern forests. They live on insects in summer and berries in winter.
Weavers and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Ploceidae
The weavers are small passerine birds related to the finches. They are seed-eating birds with rounded conical bills. The males of many species are brightly coloured, usually in red or yellow and black, and some species show variation in colour only in the breeding season.
Waxbills and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Estrildidae
The estrildid finches are small passerine birds of the Old World tropics and Australasia. They are gregarious and often colonial seed eaters with short thick but pointed bills. They are all similar in structure and habits, but have wide variation in plumage colours and patterns.
Old World sparrows.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae
Sparrows are small passerine birds. In general, sparrows tend to be small, plump, brown or grey birds with short tails and short powerful beaks. Sparrows are seed eaters, but they also consume small insects.
Wagtails and pipits.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Motacillidae
Motacillidae is a family of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They include the wagtails, longclaws, and pipits. They are slender ground-feeding insectivores of open country.
Finches, euphonias, and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Fringillidae
Finches are seed-eating passerine birds that are small to moderately large and have a strong beak, usually conical and in some species very large. All have twelve tail feathers and nine primaries. These birds have a bouncing flight with alternating bouts of flapping and gliding on closed wings, and most sing well.
New World sparrows.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passerellidae
Until 2017, these species were considered part of the family Emberizidae. Most of the species are known as sparrows, but these birds are not closely related to the Old World sparrows which are in the family Passeridae. Many of these have distinctive head patterns.
Spindalises.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Spindalidae
The members of this small family are native to the Greater Antilles. They were formerly classified as tanagers but were placed in their own family in 2017.
Yellow-breasted chat.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Icteriidae
This species was historically placed in the New World warblers but nonetheless most authorities were unsure if it belonged there. It was moved to its own family in 2017.
Troupials and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Icteridae
The icterids are a group of small to medium-sized, often colourful, passerine birds restricted to the New World and include the grackles, New World blackbirds, and New World orioles. Most species have black as the predominant plumage colour, often enlivened by yellow, orange, or red.
New World warblers.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Parulidae
The New World warblers are a group of small, often colourful, passerine birds restricted to the New World. Most are arboreal, but some are terrestrial. Most members of this family are insectivores.
Cardinals and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cardinalidae
The cardinals are a family of robust, seed-eating birds with strong bills. They are typically associated with open woodland. The sexes usually have distinct plumages.
Tanagers and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Thraupidae
The tanagers are a large group of small to medium-sized passerine birds restricted to the New World, mainly in the tropics. Many species are brightly coloured. As a family they are omnivorous, but individual species specialize in eating fruits, seeds, insects, or other types of food. Most have short, rounded wings.


Scopula froitzheimi

Scopula froitzheimi is a moth of the family Geometridae. It is endemic to Afghanistan.


Picazuro pigeon

The picazuro pigeon ("Patagioenas picazuro") is a pigeon native to South America.
It is a large pigeon with a wingspan of up to 22 inches and can weigh as much as 1 pound.
Description.
"Patagioenas picazuro" is a brown bird with white dashes on the back of its neck and darker brown wing patterns. It is similar in appearance to the spotted dove.
Distribution.
The picazuro pigeon is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. It has an estimated global extent of occurrence of 5,800,000 km2 and although an accurate population count has not taken place, it is believed that the species is common and the population is thought to be increasing. Picazuro pigeons survive in a variety of habitats; from woodland and forest to agricultural land.
Diet.
This species feeds mainly on the ground and like most other pigeons eats seeds and grain.
Reproduction.
Picazuro pigeons nest in every month of the year. A fragile nest is built from sticks and one egg is laid. Both parents incubate the egg. Once the egg has hatched, the chick is fed on crop milk and then regurgitated seeds.


Pelophryne rhopophilia

Pelophryne rhopophilia, also known as lowland dwarf toad, is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is endemic to Borneo and found in north-eastern and south-western Sarawak (Malaysia) and (likely) in adjacent West Kalimantan (Indonesia).
Description.
Males measure in snout–vent length; females are larger. They have a slender body. The dorsal colour is dark brown with an X-shaped lighter area. There line between the darker dorsal parts and the white or cream-coloured belly is quite sharp. The belly has also black spots. The skin has warts bearing a small keratinized spine; the larger warts may be red. The fingers are truncate and have fleshy webbing.
Habitat and conservation.
Males have been recorded in submontane and montane mossy forests at an elevation of about above sea level. Males call from low shrubs. The eggs are probably deposited in very small rain pools.
The known populations occur in well-protected areas, Gunung Mulu National Park and Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary, where the species is not threatened. However, it is likely to occur more widely and be threatened by habitat loss caused by agriculture and logging.


Rock snail

The rock snail, scientific name Codringtonia codringtonii, is a species of air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Helicidae, the typical snails.
Geographic distribution.
"C. codringtonii" is endemic to Greece, where it occurs in the south-western part of the Peloponnese.


Chirixalus cherrapunjiae

Chirixalus cherrapunjiae, with the common names Cherrapunji bubble-nest frog or Cherrapunji bush frog, is a species of frog in the family Rhacophoridae. It is endemic to north-eastern India.
Taxonomy and systematics.
This species was originally placed in genus "Philautus" and later moved to "Chirixalus" because it was described as having free-living tadpoles. For a time, "Chirixalus" was recognized as synonymous with "Chiromantis" but is now recognized as a separate genus.
Distribution and habitat.
It is endemic to Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh states of north-eastern India. There is little information on habitat and ecological requirements of this species.


Nebria fongondi

Nebria fongondi is a species of ground beetle in the Nebriinae subfamily that is endemic to Pakistan.


Pancalia baldizzonella

Pancalia baldizzonella is a moth in the family Cosmopterigidae. It is found in Italy.
The wingspan is about 15 mm. Adults have been recorded in July.
Taxonomy.
"Pancalia baldizzonella" might be just a form of "Pancalia schwarzella".


Mauisaurus

Mauisaurus ("Māui lizard") is a genus of plesiosaur that lived during the Late Cretaceous period around 77 million years ago in what is now New Zealand. It was the largest plesiosaur, and perhaps the largest marine reptile in New Zealand waters at the time. Numerous specimens have been attributed to this genus in the past, but a 2017 paper restricts "Mauisaurus" to the lectotype and declares it dubious.
Description.
At 68 cervical vertebrae, "Mauisaurus" is notable for having one of the longest necks (in terms of vertebra number) of any plesiosaur. "Mauisaurus" was fairly large, reaching over in length. Like other plesiosaurs, it had a long slender body, with numerous vertebrae, allowing flexible movement. On its underside, "Mauisaurus" had two sets of large flippers. These aided in swimming at high speeds, but may have also allowed the plesiosaur to venture onto shorelines for short amounts of time. "Mauisaurus" was a carnivore, with sharp jagged teeth that would have been used to grip fish or squid.
History of discovery.
"Mauisaurus" remains have all been found in New Zealand's South Island, near Canterbury. One "Mauisaurus" fossil was even found battling a mosasaur from the New Zealand region. "Mauisaurus gardneri" was described in 1877 based on cervical vertebrae and a humerus from the Gault Clay of Folkestone, but was later declared a "nomen vanum" in an overview of Cretaceous plesiosaurs published by Samuel Welles in 1962.
"Mauisaurus" gets its name from the New Zealand Māori mythological demigod, Māui. Māui is said to have pulled New Zealand up from the seabed using a fish hook, thus creating the country. Thus, "Mauisaurus" means "Māui lizard". "Mauisaurus" gets its scientific last name from its original finder, Julius von Haast, who found the first "Mauisaurus" fossil in 1870 around Gore Bay, New Zealand. The specimen was then first described in 1874.
Cultural references.
"Mauisaurus" is one of the few New Zealand prehistoric creatures, and so, has had much publicity in the country. On 1 October 1993, a set of stamps was released to the general public. Although it depicted many other dinosaurs and prehistoric life, "Mauisaurus" was featured hunting fish on the $1.20 stamp.


Dayao (beetle)

Dayao is a genus of rove beetles.


Conus armoricus

Conus armoricus is an extinct species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Conidae, the cone snails, cone shells or cones.
Distribution.
This species is from Miocene-aged marine environments of New Zealand.


Piletocera denticostalis

Piletocera denticostalis is a moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by George Hampson in 1907. It is found on Ghizo Island in the Solomon Islands.


Dugesia aenigma

Dugesia aenigma is a species of dugesiid triclad that inhabits freshwater bodies of Cephalonia, Greece.
Preserved specimens are up to in length and in width.
Phylogeny.
The most inclusive molecular analysis of "Dugesia" carried out shows that "D. aenigma" is closely related with other Greek species, mainly with those inhabiting the Ionian Sea.


Microlophus theresiae

Microlophus theresiae, commonly called Theresia's Pacific iguana, is a species of lizard in the family Tropiduridae.
Etymology.
The specific name, "theresiae", is in honor of Princess Theresa of Bavaria, who collected the type specimens.
Geographic range.
"M. theresiae" is endemic to Peru.
Habitat.
The preferred natural habitats of "M. theresiae" are desert and shrubland, at altitudes from sea level to .
Diet.
"M. theresiae" preys upon aquatic Hemiptera.
Reproduction.
"M. theresiae" is oviparous.


Chortopodisma

Chortopodisma is a monotypic genus of insect in the family Acrididae. Its only recognized species is Chortopodisma cobellii.
Description.
"Chortopodisma cobellii" is similar to Pseudoprumna baldensis. Wings do not exist. The hearing organ is reduced to small remains. The body is light green colored. This species has in contrast to other wingless mountain locusts a strong shortened dark band on the flanks of the body.
Distribution and mode of life.
This species is endemic to the Italian Alps. It is only known from a small area around the Monte Pasubio in altitudes of . Adult specimens can be found from August to October.
References.


List of amphibians of Guatemala

This is a list of amphibians found in Guatemala. There are 158 amphibian species recorded in Guatemala, which are grouped in three orders: caecilians (Gymnophiona), salamanders (Caudata) and frogs and toads (Anura). The IUCN considers that 33 of these species are critically endangered, 27 endangered, 11 near threatened and 21 vulnerable.
This list is largely derived from the database listing of AmphibiaWeb and Campbell's checklist.
Caecilians (Gymnophiona).
Caeciliidae.
Caeciliidae, or common caecilians, is a family of caecilians that are native to South and Central America, equatorial Africa and India. Like other caecilians, they superficially resemble worms or snakes. Although they are the most diverse of the caecilian families, the caeciliids do have a number of features in common that distinguish them from other caecilians. In particular, their skulls have relatively few bones, with those that are present being fused to form a solid ram to aid in burrowing through the soil. The mouth is recessed beneath the snout, and there is no tail. There are more than 100 caeciliids worldwide, 2 of which occur in Guatemala.
Order: Gymnophiona.
Family: Caeciliidae
Salamanders (Caudata).
Plethodontidae.
Order: Caudata.
Family: Plethodontidae
The Plethodontidae, or lungless salamanders, are a family of salamanders. Most species are native to the Western Hemisphere, from British Columbia to Brazil, although a few species are found in Sardinia, Europe south of the Alps, and South Korea.
A number of features distinguish the Plethodontids from other salamanders. Most significantly, they lack lungs, conducting respiration through their skin, and the tissues lining their mouths. Another distinctive feature is the presence of a vertical slit between the nostril and upper lip, known as the "naso-labial groove". The groove is lined with glands, and enhances the salamander's chemoreception. Due to their modest size and low metabolism, they are able to feed on prey such as collembola, which are usually too small for other terrestrial vertebrates. This gives them access to a whole ecological niche with minimal competition from other groups. They are by far the largest group of salamanders. There are about 380 species worldwide, of which 41 occur in Guatemala.
Frogs and toads (Anura).
Rhinophrynidae.
Order: Anura.
Family: Rhinophrynidae
Rhinophrynida is a monotypical family which contains one single species ("Rhinophrynus dorsalis"), distributed from southern Texas through Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador to Nicaragua and Costa Rica. "Rhinophrynus dorsalis", commonly known as the Mexican burrowing toad, grows to in length, and usually has red spots on its bloated body with a red stripe along the center of its back. It has short legs, and a small, pointed head. Its feet have horny, shovel-like appendages which, along with the short, powerful legs, aid it in digging. Its eyes are relatively small, and the tympanum is not visible.
Craugastoridae.
Order: Anura.
Family: Craugastoridae
Leptodactylidae.
Order: Anura.
Family: Leptodactylidae
Leptodactylidae is a large and diverse family of frogs that are widely distributed throughout Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and South America. The family includes terrestrial, burrowing, aquatic, and arboreal members, inhabiting a wide range of different habitats. There are roughly 50 genera, with approximately 1100 leptodactylid species, 4 of which occur in Guatemala.
Eleutherodactylidae.
Order: Anura.
Family: Eleutherodactylidae
Eleutherodactylidae is a large family of frogs that are distributed in the neotropics, from the south of Texas, through Central America to the north of South America. 3 species occur in Guatemala.
Bufonidae.
Order: Anura.
Family: Bufonidae
True toads (Bufonidae) are a family in the order of Anura (frogs and toads). They are the only family of anurans all members of which are known as "toads". True toads are widespread and occur natively on every continent except Australia and Antarctica, inhabiting a variety of environments, from arid areas to rainforest. Most lay eggs in paired strings that hatch into tadpoles. True toads are toothless and generally warty in appearance. They have a pair of parotoid glands on the back of their heads. These glands contain an alkaloid poison which the toads excrete when stressed. Some toads, like the cane toad "Bufo marinus", are more toxic than others. The bufonids now comprise more than 35 genera, "Bufo" being the most widespread and well known. 12 species occur in Guatemala.
Hylidae.
Order: Anura.
Family: Hylidae
Hylidae is a wide-ranging family of frogs commonly referred to as "tree frogs and their allies". However, the hylids include a diversity of frog species, many of which do not live in trees, but are terrestrial or semi-aquatic.
Most hylids show adaptations suitable for an arboreal lifestyle, including forward-facing eyes providing binocular vision, and adhesive pads on the fingers and toes. In the non-arboreal species, these features may be greatly reduced, or absent. The "Cyclorana" species are burrowing frogs, that spend much of their lives underground. Hylids mostly feed on insects and other invertebrates, but some larger species can feed on small vertebrates. Hylids lay their eggs in a range of different locations, depending on species. Many use ponds, or puddles that collect in the holes of their trees, while others use bromeliads or other water-holding plants. Other species lay their eggs on the leaves of vegetation overhanging water, allowing the tadpoles to drop into the pond when they hatch. A few species use fast-flowing streams, attaching the eggs firmly to the substrate. The tadpoles of these species have suckers enabling them to hold onto rocks after they hatch. Another unusual adaptation is found in some South American hylids, which brood the eggs on the back of the female. Hylids are distributed in the Americas, Eurasia, extreme north of Africa, Australia, New Guinea and Japan. 38 species occur in Guatemala.
Centrolenidae.
Order: Anura.
Family: Centrolenidae
Glass frogs (Centrolenidae) are a family of generally small frogs, ranging from in length, distributed from southern Mexico, through Central America and South America. While the general background coloration of most glass frogs is primarily lime green, the abdominal skin of some members of this family is transparent. The internal viscera, including the heart, liver, and gastrointestinal tract are visible through this translucent skin, hence the common name. There is one species in Guatemala.
Microhylidae.
Order: Anura.
Family: Microhylidae
Microhylidae is a geographically widespread family of frogs. Microhylids are mostly small frogs. Many species are below in length, although some species are as large as . They can be arboreal or terrestrial, and some will even habit close to water. The ground dwellers are often found under leaf litter within forests, occasionally venturing out at night to hunt. There are two main shapes for the microhylids, one with wide bodies and narrow mouths, and the other with normal frog proportions. Those with narrow mouths generally eat termites and ants, and the others have diets typical of most frogs. The species of the genus "Breviceps" are burrowing frogs found in the arid regions of Africa. Some of their species will even lay their eggs under ground.
Frogs from Microhylidae occur throughout the tropical and warm temperate regions of the Americas, Africa, eastern India, Sri Lanka, south-east Asia, through New Guinea and Australia. There are nine subfamilies, 68 genera, and 495 species worldwide, 5 of which occur in Guatemala.
Ranidae.
Order: Anura.
Family: Ranidae
The true frogs, family Ranidae, have the widest distribution of any frog family. They are abundant throughout most of the world, occurring on all continents except Antarctica. Typically, true frogs are smooth, moist-skinned frogs, with large, powerful legs and extensively webbed feet. True frogs vary greatly in size, ranging from small—such as the wood frog ("Rana sylvatica")—to the largest frog in the world, the Goliath frog ("Conraua goliath").
Many of the true frogs are aquatic or live close to water. Most species lay their eggs in the water and go through a tadpole stage. However, as with most families of frogs, there is large variation of habitat within the family. Those of the genus "Tomopterna" are burrowing frogs native to Africa and exhibit most of the characteristics common to burrowing frogs around the world. There are also arboreal species of true frogs, and the family includes some of the very few amphibians that can live in brackish water. There are 6 species in Guatemala.


Accuminulia longiphallus

Accuminulia longiphallus is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It was first described by John W. Brown in 1999 and is found in Chile.
The length of the forewings is 6.5-7.8 mm for males and about 6.1 mm for females. The forewings are grey, with irregular tan, black and cream overscaling and irrorations (speckles). The basal area of the hindwings is covered by modified cream-white sex scaling. The distal part is pale grey brown.
Etymology.
The species name refers to the comparatively long aedeagus of the species.


Thomisus callidus

Thomisus callidus, the yellow crab spider, is a species of spider of the genus "Thomisus". It is found in Sri Lanka, Singapore, Sumatra, Nias Island, and Java. They often hide in flowers and are able to change colors just to blend in to capture preys.


Lepidobatrachus laevis

Lepidobatrachus laevis, widely known as Budgett's frog, is a species of frog in the family Ceratophryidae, discovered by John Samuel Budgett. It is often kept as a pet. It has acquired a number of popular nicknames, including hippo frog, Freddy Krueger frog, and escuerzo de agua.
Description.
This frog has become popular in pet stores due to its comical flat appearance and intelligent behavior. Females reach a size of while males sometimes only grow half as large. They have a large head that makes up to 1/3 of the body, with notably an extremely large mouth. Their mouth contains a top row of teeth and two "fangs" on the lower jaw. They have extremely short and stubby limbs and the forelimbs are unwebbed. "L. laevis" is dark olive green with darker blotches outlined in orange. The males have a dark blue throat.
Diet and behavior.
The wide-mouth frog is well adapted to its environment, notably the harsh winter. During this time it will remain inactive underground in a cocoon of shed dead skin which protects it from losing water until they emerge. This species is generally very aggressive and will puff up when threatened to appear larger. If this behavior does not deter the intruder they will make a shrill screech, bite, and corner the target. They are nocturnal and hunt at night, submerged up to their nostrils waiting for prey to pass by. They then lunge and swallow the prey whole. They feed on other frogs, insects, and snails. They have a reputation for being cannibalistic.
Reproduction.
"L. laevis" can produce up to 1400 eggs in a single mating. A pair will reproduce and deposit a mass of fertilized eggs in temporary pools of water. The embryo develops at a rapid rate over two weeks, in order to metamorphize into mobile adolescent form before the breeding pool dries up. The tadpoles are carnivores and cannibalistic at the time of hatching and have nearly adult jaws. They sexually mature in about a year.
Distribution and conservation.
It is commonly observed in Paraguay and Bolivia, and less frequently in Argentina. Its natural habitats are the dry and wet Chaco. Breeding may take place in shallow temporary pools and artificial ponds. It is in some areas threatened by habitat loss but there is a large total population size. The species is listed as Least Concern in view of its relatively wide distribution, presumed large population, and because it is unlikely to be declining rapidly enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category.
Captivity.
These frogs are often kept by keepers with mild experience with frogs or advanced owners. A ten to twenty gallon tank is generally recommended, without aquarium gravel because it causes digestive issues. River stones are a better alternative. Rocks should be sloped to allow the frog to exit the water. They do not require special heating in houses with a comfortable temperature of about . This species of frog needs to be kept alone or with members of the same species and of equal size, as they will consume anything smaller than themselves.


Waharoa (whale)

Waharoa is a genus of eomysticetid baleen whale from the Late Oligocene (Chattian) of New Zealand. It was identified with the discovery of "Waharoa ruwhenua" by Boessenecker and Fordyce (2015), which added a new genus and species to a monophyletic family Eomysticetidae.
Description.
Boessenecker and Fordyce (2015) characterize the species as follows: ""Waharoa ruwhenua" shares "Tohoraata" and "Tokarahia" dorsoventrally shallow and wide occipital condyles, a triangular anterior process and well-developed incisural flange of the periotic; with "Tohoraata" and "Tokarahia" a concave anterodorsal margin of the anterior process of the periotic and a smooth and transversely convex posterior bullar facet; with "Tohoraata" a distinct lateral tubercle on the anterior process; and with "Eomysticetus" and "Micromysticetus" a short posterior process".
"Waharoa ruwhenua" had a rostrum that was less flexible than those of modern edentulous mysticetes, yet much more flexible than the rostra of toothed mysticetes. This intermediate flexibility suggests that "W. ruwhenua" harbored the most primitive form of a kinetic rostrum in the Mysticeti.
Paleobiology.
"Waharoa ruwhenua" had sulci and palatal foramina localized to the posterior half of the palate and lacked these features anteriorly, suggesting that baleen was only present in the posterior palatal regions. The posterior localization of baleen along with a delicate temporomandibular joint with a probable synovial capsule, an anteroposteriorly expanding palate, a non-laterally deflected coronoid process, and a shortage of characteristics indicative of lunge feeding indicate that "W. ruwhenua" could have utilized skim filter-feeding like modern Balaenidae to feed for zooplankton.
The hypothesis that "W. rewhenua" was a skim feeder suggests that skim filter-feeding may have been the earliest form of feeding in the edentulous Chaeomysticeti clade.
Based on the enlarged temporal fossae and enlarged mandibular canal, "Waharoa" was probably incapable of lunge-feeding, although it remains unclear whether it could skim-feed or filter prey in the benthic zone. "Waharoa" shared its habitat with the odontocetes "Awamokoa", "Austrosqualodon", "Otekaikea", and "Waipatia", and the mysticetes "Horopeta", "Matapanui", "Mauicetus", "Tohoraata", "Tokarahia", and "Whakakai".


Phrynopus oblivius

Phrynopus oblivius is a species of frogs in the family Craugastoridae. It is endemic to central Peru and only known from near its type locality near Maraynioc, in the Tarma Province, Junín Region, at about asl. It is known from a collection in 2005; there has been no later surveys for the species.
Description.
Adult males measure and adult females in snout–vent length. The snout is short and rounded. The tympanum is absent. The finger and toe tips are rounded; toes have lateral fringes. Skin on dorsum is smooth and has few, small tubercles and forms discoidal folds. The dorsum is dark brown and has small, white spots The venter is reddish brown and has small, white spots. The iris is gold and has golden reticulations. Males have neither vocal sacs nor nuptial pads.
Habitat and conservation.
The known specimens were found in remnants of a cloud forest, all beneath rocks next to a small creek. The species shares its habitat with "Gastrotheca griswoldi". It is possible that habitat loss is occurring in the general area of type locality.


Bachia cacerensis

Bachia cacerensis is a species of lizard in the family Gymnophthalmidae. It is endemic to Brazil.


Asaphocrita lucis

Asaphocrita lucis is a moth in the family Blastobasidae that is endemic to Costa Rica.


Carabus lusitanicus brevis

Carabus lusitanicus brevis is a subspecies of beetle in the family Carabidae that is endemic to Spain. Males are yellowish-green coloured, while females are blackish-blue.


Purple cochoa

The purple cochoa ("Cochoa purpurea") is a brightly coloured bird found in the temperate forests of Asia. It is a quiet and elusive bird species that has been considered to be related to the thrushes of family Turdidae or the related Muscicapidae (Old World flycatchers). They are found in dark forested areas and is found in the canopy, where it often sits motionless.
Description.
This bird appears dark in the shade of the forest and the colours become clear only when it is lit by the sun. The crown is silvery blue and a black mask runs over the eye. A grey carpal patch is present at the base of the black wing feathers and a wing patch is prominent. The tail is silvery blue with a black terminal band. The male has dull purplish grey secondaries and coverts and the body is greyish while the female has rufous replacing the purple.
The genus name is from the Nepali word for the bird and was used by Brian Houghton Hodgson. The family position of the cochoas has been unclear with some sources suggesting that they belong to the Muscicapidae while others have suggested them to be in the family Turdidae. The latter suggestion has found more support in recent molecular studies.
Distribution and habitat.
It is found in Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam. In India, it is found along the Himalayas with the western limit about 100 km west of Musoorie.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests.
Behaviour and ecology.
The species is not very active and is found mainly in the canopy. The breeding season is May to July, when it builds a cup shaped nest in a fork. The nest is covered with moss, lichens and a white thread-like fungus which is said to be distinctive. Three pale sea-green eggs with some blotchy markings are laid and both sexes take turns in incubation. The birds are shy at the nest and slip away even when disturbances are afar. The song consists of is a low whistle while other calls include a "sit" and soft "trrr"s. Charles Inglis reported that the birds have an iora-like whistling call in the mornings and evenings. These cochoas feed on berries, insects and molluscs. While picking fruits from trees they were observed behaving like flycatchers doing short sallies.


Atelopus chocoensis

Atelopus chocoensis, the Chocó stubfoot toad, is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae endemic to Colombia. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.