Accessory navicular bone

An accessory navicular bone is an accessory bone of the foot that occasionally develops abnormally in front of the ankle towards the inside of the foot. This bone may be present in approximately 2-21% of the general population and is usually asymptomatic. When it is symptomatic, surgery may be necessary.
Accessory navicular bone may cause a continuous stretch and stress on the tibialis posterior tendon which can progress to chronic disabling pain and may cause tendon rupture or secondary flat foot deformity; when this occurs this condition is commonly known as accessory navicular syndrome.
Other conditions which closely mimic the symptoms of an accessory navicular bone include plantar fasciitis, bunions and heel spurs.
Classification.
The Geist classification divides the accessory navicular bones into three types.
Diagnosis.
To diagnose accessory navicular syndrome, the foot and ankle surgeon will ask about symptoms and examine the foot, looking for skin irritation or swelling. The doctor may press on the bony prominence to assess the area for discomfort. Foot structure, muscle strength, joint motion and the way the patient walks may also be evaluated.
X-rays are usually ordered to confirm the diagnosis. If there is ongoing pain or inflammation, an MRI or other advanced imaging tests may be used to further evaluate the condition.
Treatment.
Aside from surgery, there are a few options for handling an accessory navicular bone that has become symptomatic. This includes immobilization, icing, medicating, physical therapy, and orthotic devices. Immobilizing involves placing the foot and ankle in a cast or removable walking boot. This alleviates stressors on the foot and can decrease inflammation. Icing will help reduce swelling and inflammation. Medication involves usage of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, or steroids (taken orally or injected) to decrease inflammation. Physical therapy can be prescribed in order to strengthen the muscles and help decrease inflammation. Physical therapy can also help prevent the symptoms from returning. Orthotic devices (arch support devices that fit in a shoe) can help prevent future symptoms. Occasionally, the orthotic device will dig into the edge of the accessory navicular and cause discomfort. For this reason, the orthotic devices made for the patient should be carefully constructed.


Neutral fat

Neutral fats, a.k.a. true fats, are simple lipids that are produced by the dehydration synthesis of one or more fatty acids with an alcohol like glycerol. Many types of neutral fats are possible both because of the number and variety of fatty acids that could form part of it and because of the different bonding locations for the fatty acids. An example is a monoglyceride, which has one fatty acid combined with glycerol, a diglyceride, which has two fatty acids combined with glycerol, or a triglyceride, which has three fatty acids combined with glycerol. Neutral fats are usually found in the thigh and torso area of the body as padding and insulation to keep warm.
Triglycerides.
Triglycerides are formed from the esterification of 3 molecules of fatty acids with one molecule of trihydric alcohol, glycerol (glycerine or trihydroxy propane). In the process, 3 molecules of water are eliminated. The word "triglyceride" refers to the number of fatty acids esterified to one molecule of glycerol.
In triglycerides, the three fatty acids are rarely similar and are thus called pure fats. For example, tripalmitin, tristearin, etc.


Red-billed hornbill

The red-billed hornbills are a group of hornbills found in the savannas and woodlands of sub-Saharan Africa. They are now usually split into five species, the northern red-billed hornbill ("Tockus erythrorhynchus"), western red-billed hornbill ("T. kempi"), Tanzanian red-billed hornbill ("T. ruahae"), southern red-billed hornbill ("T. rufirostris") and Damara red-billed hornbill ("T. damarensis"), but some authorities consider the latter four all subspecies of "Tockus erythrorhynchus".
Description.
This group of conspicuous birds have mainly whitish underparts and head, grey upperparts, long tails, and a long curved red bill which lacks a casque. The sexes are similar, but the female has a smaller bill. They are generally large, at long, but the entire group is considered one of the smaller hornbills.
Behaviour.
Breeding.
During incubation, the female lays three to six white eggs in a tree hole, which is blocked off with a plaster of mud, droppings and fruit pulp. There is only one narrow aperture, just big enough for the male to transfer food to the mother and the chicks. When the chicks and the female are too big for the nest, the mother breaks out and rebuilds the wall. Then both parents feed the chicks.
Nesting.
The female red-billed hornbill protects her young against intruders by building a wall across the opening of her nest. She then seals herself in and brings up her chicks in the enclosed space.
Feeding.
They are omnivorous, taking and eating insects, fruit and seeds. They feed mainly on the ground and will form flocks outside the breeding season.


Tc3 transposon


Peripatoides suteri

Peripatoides suteri is a species of peripatus in the Peripatopsidae family. It is endemic to New Zealand. The species is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List.


Axinellidae

Axinellidae is a family of sponges in the order Axinellida.
This family includes some photo-synthetic sponges that occur throughout the world's coral reefs. They are amongst the more common sponges seen in the aquarium trade but are usually not successful species in captivity and not ones that thrive in the small household tank environment. They are common throughout the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean coral reefs. Species which derive their nutrition from sunlight must stay fairly close to the surface in order for their zooxanthellae to synthesize light into the sugars these sponges use to survive.


Craniella

Craniella is a genus of marine sponges in the family Tetillidae.
Species.
The following species are recognised in the genus "Craniella":


Vertebral artery

The vertebral arteries are major arteries of the neck. Typically, the vertebral arteries originate from the subclavian arteries. Each vessel courses superiorly along each side of the neck, merging within the skull to form the single, midline basilar artery. As the supplying component of the "vertebrobasilar vascular system", the vertebral arteries supply blood to the upper spinal cord, brainstem, cerebellum, and posterior part of brain.
Structure.
The vertebral arteries usually arise from the posterosuperior aspect of the central subclavian arteries on each side of the body, then enter deep to the transverse process at the level of the 6th cervical vertebrae (C6), or occasionally (in 7.5% of cases) at the level of C7. They then proceed superiorly, in the transverse foramen of each cervical vertebra. Once they have passed through the transverse foramen of C1 (also known as the atlas), the vertebral arteries travel across the posterior arch of C1 and through the suboccipital triangle before entering the foramen magnum.
Nunziante Ippolito, a Neapolitan physician, identified the "angle of Nunziante Ippolito" to find the vertebral artery, between the anterior scalene muscle and the longus colli muscle.
Inside the skull, the two vertebral arteries join to form the basilar artery at the base of the pons. The basilar artery is the main blood supply to the brainstem and connects to the Circle of Willis to potentially supply the rest of the brain if there is compromise to one of the carotids. At each cervical level, the vertebral artery sends branches to the surrounding musculature via the anterior spinal arteries.
The vertebral artery may be divided into four parts:
Triangle.
Triangle of the vertebral artery is a region within the root of the neck and has following boundaries:
The vertebral artery runs from base to apex (prior to entering the transverse foramen of 6th cervical vertebra).
The carotid tubercle separates the vertebral artery which passes directly behind it from the common carotid artery which lies directly in front of it. The ideal site for palpating the carotid pulse is to gently press the common carotid artery against the carotid tubercle.
Variation.
There is commonly variations in the course and size of the vertebral arteries. For example, differences in size between left and right vertebral arteries may range from a slight asymmetry to marked hypoplasia of one side, with studies estimating a prevalence of unilateral vertebral artery hypoplasia between 2% to 25%. In 3-15% of the population, a bony bridge called the arcuate foramen covers the groove for the vertebral artery on vertebra C1. Rarely, the vertebral arteries enter the subarachnoid space at C1-C2 (3%) or C2-C3 (only three cases have been reported) vertebral levels instead of the atlanto-occipital level.
Function.
As the supplying component of the "vertebrobasilar vascular system", the vertebral arteries supply blood to the upper spinal cord, brainstem, cerebellum, and posterior part of brain.
Clinical significance.
As the supplying component of the "vertebrobasilar vascular system", the vertebral arteries supply blood to the upper spinal cord, brainstem, cerebellum, and posterior part of brain. A stroke of the arteries may result in a posterior circulation stroke.


Voragonema pedunculata

Voragonema pedunculata is a small red hydrozoan with a diameter reaching 4 cm. It has 1000-2000 fine tentacles. It is found in the Pacific Ocean with known distributions in Monterey Bay, California, United States and the San Clemente Basin.


Hondelagia

Hondelagia is an extinct genus of snakefly in the Priscaenigmatidae family. The genus has been described three times under the same taxonomy, but was initially described by A. Bode in 1953. It currently contains one species, the Hondelagia reticulata which was described by Bode in 1953. Its wing is in length and in width. It was found in Hondelage in Braunschweig. The genus was later described in 1992 by F. M. Carpenter and in 2002 by M. S. Engel. The genus' sister taxa is the extinct Priscaenigma. The species has no sister taxa.


Cape Pembroke (Nunavut)

Cape Pembroke is an uninhabited headland at the northeastern tip of Coats Island in northern Hudson Bay within the Kivalliq Region of Nunavut, Canada.
Geography.
The habitat is characterized by a small, elevated outcrop of Precambrian gneiss and rocky uplands rising to an elevation of above sea level. It is in size.
Conservation.
The cape is a Canadian Important Bird Area (#NU005) and a Key Migratory Bird Habitat Site.
Fauna.
Notable bird species include thick-billed murre, black guillemots, peregrine falcon, glaucous gull, and common eider.
Walrus frequent the area.
History.
It was discovered in 1612 and named by Sir Thomas Button, a Welsh officer of the Royal Navy.


Cephalofovea tomahmontis

Cephalofovea tomahmontis is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. The type locality is New South Wales, Australia.


Falconiformes

The order Falconiformes is represented by the extant family Falconidae (falcons and caracaras) and a handful of enigmatic Paleogene species. Traditionally, the other bird of prey families Cathartidae (New World vultures and condors), Sagittariidae (secretarybird) Pandionidae (ospreys), Accipitridae (hawks) were classified in Falconiformes. A variety of comparative genome analysis published since 2008, however, found that falcons are part of a clade of birds called Australaves, which also includes seriemas, parrots and passerines. Within Australaves falcons are more closely related to the parrot-passerine clade (Psittacopasserae), which together they form the clade Eufalconimorphae. The hawks and vultures occupy a basal branch in the clade Afroaves in their own clade Accipitrimorphae, closer to owls and woodpeckers.
See below cladogram:
The fossil record of Falconiformes "sensu stricto" is poorly documented. The only stem-falcon that has mostly complete remains is "Masillaraptor parvunguis", while the other taxa "Stintonornis mitchelli" and "Parvulivenator watteli" are known from fragmentary remains. Mayr (2009) noted the similarity of "Masillaraptor" to the seriemas. One study from Wang et al. (2012) using 30 nuclear loci from 28 taxa found Falconidae and Cariamidae being sister taxa to each other. This is, however, not been supported by the latest major neoavian phylogenetic studies.


Ronzotherium

Ronzotherium is an extinct genus of perissodactyl mammal from the family Rhinocerotidae. The name derives from 'Ronzon', the Belgian locality at which it was first discovered, and the greek suffix 'therium' meaning 'beast'. At present 5 species have been identified from several localities in Europe and Asia, spanning the Late Eocene to Upper Oligocene (37 - 23 million years ago).
Description.
"Ronzotherium" was a small to mid-sized rhinocerotid. Smaller species weighed in the region of 1t, while larger species could reach 1.9t in weight. The genus was similar in weight to the extant Black Rhinoceros although with an overall more slender and gracile build, with a long humerus and femur in comparison to other rhinocerotids. The genus shows a trend for increased size, with later species being considerably larger than some of its first representatives.
"Ronzotherium" did not possess a nasal horn. Instead the nasal bones were retracted, suggesting the presence of a large prehensile upper lip like those seen in modern rhinoceros species. The lower incisors of "Ronzotherium" were long and tusk- like, with a large diastema in the lower jaw between the incisors and other teeth. The upper incisors were much smaller. The forelimbs of Ronzotherium were tetradactyl with a prominent central metapodal. The hindlimbs however were tridactyl, with three toes.
Classification.
Ronzotherium is a basal genus within the family rhinocerotidae, one of three families contained within the superfamily rhinocerotoidea, along with the Hyracodontidae and Amynodontidae. The family also contains all 5 extant rhinoceros species.
5 species have been identified within the genus:
The 3 European species are believed to have dispersed into Europe during the lower Rupelian as part of the Grande Coupure, and were seemingly widespread in the post-grande coupure fauna of Europe, with fossils discovered in Rupelian deposits from the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, and the Czech Republic. "Ronzotherium brevirostre" and "Ronzotherium" "orientale" are known exclusively from the Late Eocene of Mongolia. Further material has been found in the Linxia basin in China's gansu province.
Palaeobiology.
Isotope analysis of teeth discovered at Rickenbach in Switzerland has shown that european "Ronzotherium" species were adapted to the increasingly drier climate and open landscapes of the post-grande coupure Oligocene. The low crowned dentition suggests that "Ronzotherium" was a browser, feeding on the leaves of shrubs, bushes, and small trees. This is supported by the presence of the a prehensile upper lip which is used by modern rhinocerotids to browse on foliage.
The gracile build and long limb bones found in "Ronzotherium" suggest that it could have been capable of sustained running.
Ichnology.
Fossil rhinocerotid trackways assigned to the ichnotaxon "Rhinoceripeda voconsense" (Vialov 1966) have been discovered at two sites in the Luberon Natural Regional Park in southeast France. The trackways are preserved in the Calcaires de La Fayette, a calcareous lacustrian deposit dating to the lower Rupelian, and are exposed at Saignon and Viens. Various other trackways including artiodactyls and possibly creodonts are also present. Based on the 1974 discovery of a "Ronzotherium velaunum" mandible in lower Oligocene strata at Viens, the tracks are attributed to "Ronzotherium".
Localities.
United Kingdom.
In the United Kingdom rare isolated teeth and bone fragments, attributed to "Ronzotherium romani," have been found from the Rupelian aged Bouldnor Formation on the Isle Of Wight. Here "Ronzotherium" formed part of the post-grande coupure fauna alongside anthracotheres, entelodonts, and a variety of other Asian derived groups.
France.
Ronzotherium remains have been recovered from numerous Oligocene sites throughout France. In the Rupelian strata of the Paris Basin material attributed to "R.romani" has been collected from Etampes and Ferte-Alais. In south-western France the fossiliferous Quercy Phosphorites Formation has produced Ronzotherium material, including an intact maxilla. A large majority of France's "Ronzotherium" material comes from the Oligocene deposits of the Luberon Massif, northwest of the city of Marseille. Here fossil trackways and bone fragments of Ronzotherium dating from the early Oligocene have been discovered at the villages of Saignon and Viens. Further south at Les Milles bone fragments and a nearly intact mandible have been collected. Finds have also come from the city of Marseille itself. At Saint-Henri and Saint-Andre in the north of the city 50 fragments of bone and dentition have been recovered, including a mandible and semi-intact upper jaw
Germany.
The Espenhain mines in Saxony have produced a series of "Ronzotherium" teeth. The locality, south of Leipzig, exposes the Bohn Formation, a predominantly marine sequence of Rupelian age that has preserved a rich terrestrial fauna of post-grande coupure mammals.
Switzerland.
Switzerland preserves the oldest, and some of the youngest evidence of the genus in Europe. At Kleinblauen and Bressaucourt in northwest Switzerland the mandible of a juvenile animal, along with other finds, provides the earliest known occurrence of Ronzotherium in Europe. At the late Oligocene locality of Rickenbach 35 fragments of cranial and post-cranial material have been recovered from Chattian strata.
Asia.
The late eocene Ergilin-Dzo Formation in Mongolia has produced the remains of two species of "Ronzotherium"; "R.brevirostre" and "R.orientale." This is the earliest known occurrence of the genus, dated at 37 million years ago. Further asian finds come from the Late Oligocene of China's Linxia Basin, where an unspecified species of "Ronzotherium" lived alongside a diversity of other late tertiary rhinocerotids.


Smittinidae

The Smittinidae is a family within the bryozoan order Cheilostomatida. Colonies are encrusting on shells and rocks or upright bilaminar branches or sheets. The zooids generally have at least one adventitious avicularia on their frontal wall near the orifice. The frontal wall is usually covered with small pores and numerous larger pores along the margin. The ovicell, which broods the larvae internally, is double-layered with numerous pores in the outer layer, and sits quite prominently on the frontal wall of the next zooid.


Link domain

A Link domain or Link module, also known as Xlink domain (X for extracellular), is a protein domain that binds to hyaluronic acid. It is important in blood cell migration and apoptosis. The link domain is found in some extracellular proteins in vertebrates such as the hyalectans. It appears to be involved in extracellular matrix assembly and stability, cell adhesion, and migration.
Structure.
The structure has been shown to consist of two alpha helices and two antiparallel beta sheets arranged around a large hydrophobic core similar to that of C-type lectin. This domain contains four conserved cysteines involved in two disulphide bonds. The link domain has also been termed HABM (hyaluronic acid binding module) and PTR (proteoglycan tandem repeat).
Link domain proteins.
Proteins which contain the link domain include:


Papillary duct


Shuyu

Shuyu is an extinct genus of early jawless vertebrate from the Early or Middle Silurian period (late Telychian to early Wenlock stages). It is the basalmost known eugaleaspidiform galeaspid and it lived in what is now northwestern Zhejiang Province, Southeast China. It is known from more than 20 headshields and at least 20 of them include three-dimensionally preserved neurocrania. The specimens of "Shuyu" were collected from the lower part of Maoshan Formation, located in Changxing District. "Shuyu zhejianensis" was first assigned by Pan, 1986 to a species of "Sinogaleaspis". The genus was first named by Zhikun Gai, Philip C. J. Donoghue, Min Zhu, Philippe Janvier and Marco Stampanoni in 2011 and the type species is "Shuyu zhejianensis".


Suwannee snapping turtle

The Suwannee snapping turtle ("Macrochelys suwanniensis") is a newly described species that lives in the Suwannee River, United States. It was previously believed to be part of the species "Macrochelys temminckii".


Tight junction

Tight junctions, also known as occluding junctions or zonulae occludentes (singular, zonula occludens) are multiprotein junctional complexes whose general function is to prevent leakage of transported solutes and water and seals the paracellular pathway. Tight junctions may also serve as leaky pathways by forming selective channels for small cations, anions, or water. Tight junctions are present mostly in vertebrates (with the exception of Tunicates). The corresponding junctions that occur in invertebrates are septate junctions.
Structure.
Tight junctions are composed of a branching network of sealing strands, each strand acting independently from the others. Therefore, the efficiency of the junction in preventing ion passage increases exponentially with the number of strands.
Each strand is formed from a row of transmembrane proteins embedded in both plasma membranes, with extracellular domains joining one another directly. There are at least 40 different proteins composing the tight junctions. These proteins consist of both transmembrane and cytoplasmic proteins. The three major transmembrane proteins are occludin, claudins, and junction adhesion molecule (JAM) proteins. These associate with different peripheral membrane proteins such as ZO-1 located on the intracellular side of plasma membrane, which anchor the strands to the actin component of the cytoskeleton. Thus, tight junctions join together the cytoskeletons of adjacent cells.
Transmembrane proteins:
Functions.
They perform vital functions:
In human physiology there are two main types of epithelia using distinct types of barrier mechanism. Epidermal structures such as skin form a barrier from many layers of keratinized squamous cells. Internal epithelia on the other hand more often rely on tight junctions for their barrier function. This kind of barrier is mostly formed by only one or two layers of cells. It was long unclear whether tight cell junctions also play any role in the barrier function of the skin and similar external epithelia but recent research suggests that this is indeed the case.
Classification.
Epithelia are classed as "tight" or "leaky", depending on the ability of the tight junctions to prevent water and solute movement:


Lelapiidae

Lelapiidae is a family of calcareous sponges in the order Leucosolenida.


Posterior auricular muscle

The posterior auricular muscle consists of two or three fleshy fasciculi, which arise from the mastoid portion of the temporal bone by short aponeurotic fibers. They are inserted into the lower part of the cranial surface of the concha.
Postauricular reflex.
The postauricular reflex is a vestigial muscle response in humans that acts to pull the ear upward and backward. Research suggests neural circuits for pinna orienting have survived in a vestigial state for over 25 million years. It is often assumed the reflex is a vestigial Preyer reflex (also known as the pinna reflex).


Lumbricus festivus

Lumbricus festivus also known as the Quebec worm, is a type of earthworm, a species of annelid.


Halicreatidae

Halicreatidae is a family of hydrozoans. The family comprises 6 genera and 9 species.


Richard Burge


Victorella pavida

Victorella pavida or trembling sea mat is a species of bryozoans found in shallow waters of low or fluctuating salinity, such as lagoons and estuaries. In summer (the growing season) it can have the appearance of velvet. The zooids may be from 0.3 mm to 1 mm in length. They live in colonies underwater attaching to stones. They feed using tiny hairs attached to their crown of tentacles to catch tiny particles flowing through the water, also known as "filter feeding".
Distribution.
It is common in the Mediterranean Sea, and has also been reported in the North Sea (on the European Mainland), the Baltic, the Black Sea, India, Japan, Brazil, and the eastern United States. Swanpool, a coastal saline lagoon (Brackish Lake), in Falmouth, has been recorded to have significant populations of "Victorella pavida". Data from 2012, recorded by the Environment Agency, suggests that this species is also present within the River Thames Estuary; albeit in low numbers.
Within England, "V. pavida" is listed as a Natural Environment Research Council species of 'Principal Importance' (Section 41) and is protected under Schedule 5 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (as amended).
Further reading.
Wm. S. Kent "Memoirs: On a New Polyzoon, "Victorella Pavida," from the Victoria Docks, Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, s2-10: 34-39". The paper in which Saville-Kent first described the species.


Kingena

Kingena is an extinct genus of primarily Cretaceous-aged brachiopods whose fossils are found in marine strata of Antarctica, Europe, North America, and New Zealand. Early Paleocene-aged fossils from Denmark represent the youngest species.


Homidia socia

Homidia socia is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae.


Louis Joubin

Louis Marie Adolphe Olivier Édouard Joubin (27 February 1861 in Épinal – 24 April 1935 in Paris) was a professor at the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle in Paris. He published works on nemerteans, chaetognatha, cephalopods, and other molluscs.
He served as an assistant to Henri de Lacaze-Duthiers, subsequently becoming director of the laboratories at Banyuls-sur-Mer (1882) and Roscoff (1884). Later on, he became an instructor at the University of Rennes, and in 1903 succeeded Edmond Perrier as "chaire des mollusques, des vers et des zoophytes" at the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle (from 1917 onward his title was "chaire des mollusques"). In 1906 he was chosen by Albert I, Prince of Monaco to be in charge of instruction at the Institut océanographique.
In 1905 he was named president of the Société zoologique de France. In 1920 he became a member of the Académie des Sciences.
Joubin's squid ("Joubiniteuthis portieri") is named for him, as is "Scolymastra joubini", a hexactinellid sponge whose lifespan is purportedly 10,000 years.


Apalachicola snapping turtle

The Apalachicola snapping turtle ("Macrochelys apalachicolae") is a proposed species that lives in the Apalachicola River, United States. It has traditionally been included as part of the widespread species "M. temminckii", but an analysis in 2014 recommended treating it as distinct. A study published the following year considered this change unwarranted and recommended that "M. apalachicolae" should be considered a junior synonym of "M. temminckii", and this is followed by the Reptile Database, IUCN's Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, and the Committee On Standard English And Scientific Names (Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles).


Alitta

Alitta is a genus of marine annelids in Nereididae family (commonly known as sandworms or ragworms). There are three recognised species within the genus, "Alitta grandis" (Stimpson, 1853), "Alitta succinea" (Frey & Leuckart, 1847) and "Alitta virens" (M. Sars, 1835). "Alitta brandti" Malmgren, 1865 was originally considered part of the genus, but is now accepted as "Neanthes brandti" (Malmgren, 1865).


Trinomen

In zoological nomenclature, a trinomen (plural: trinomina), name, or ternary name, refers to the name of a subspecies. For example: ""Gorilla gorilla gorilla" (Savage, 1847) for the western lowland gorilla (genus "Gorilla", species western gorilla). Also, "Bison bison bison" (Linnaeus, 1758) for the plains bison (genus "Bison", species American bison).
A trinomen is a name with three parts: generic name, specific name and subspecific name. The first two parts alone form the binomen or species name. All three names are typeset in italics, and only the first letter of the generic name is capitalised. No indicator of rank is included: in zoology, subspecies is the only rank below that of species. For example: "Buteo jamaicensis borealis" is one of the subspecies of the red-tailed hawk ("Buteo jamaicensis")."
In a taxonomic publication, a name is incomplete without an author citation and publication details. This indicates who published the name, in what publication, and the date of the publication.
For example: ""Phalacrocorax carbo novaehollandiae" (Stephens, 1826)" denotes a subspecies of the great cormorant ("Phalacrocorax carbo") introduced by James Francis Stephens in 1826 under the subspecies name "novaehollandiae" ("of New Holland").
If the generic and specific name have already been mentioned in the same paragraph, they are often abbreviated to initial letters. For example one might write: "The great cormorant "Phalacrocorax carbo" has a distinct subspecies in Australasia, the black shag "P. c. novaehollandiae"".
While binomial nomenclature came into being and immediately gained widespread acceptance in the mid-18th century, it was not until the early 20th century that the current unified standard of nomenclature was agreed upon. This became the standard mainly because of tireless promotion by Elliott Coues – even though trinomina in the modern usage were pioneered in 1828 by Carl Friedrich Bruch and around 1850 was widely used especially by Hermann Schlegel and John Cassin. As late as the 1930s, the use of trinomina was not fully established in all fields of zoology. Thus, when referring especially European works of the preceding era, the nomenclature used is usually not in accord with contemporary standards.


Methionine synthase

Methionine synthase also known as MS, MeSe, MetH is responsible for the regeneration of methionine from homocysteine. In humans it is encoded by the "MTR" gene (5-methyltetrahydrofolate-homocysteine methyltransferase). Methionine synthase forms part of the S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) biosynthesis and regeneration cycle. In animals this enzyme requires Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) as a cofactor, whereas the form found in plants is cobalamin-independent. Microorganisms express both cobalamin-dependent and cobalamin-independent forms.
Mechanism.
Methionine synthase catalyzes the final step in the regeneration of methionine (Met) from homocysteine (Hcy). The overall reaction transforms 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (N5-MeTHF) into tetrahydrofolate (THF) while transferring a methyl group to Homocysteine to form Methionine. Methionine synthase is the only mammalian enzyme that metabolizes N5-MeTHF to regenerate the active cofactor THF. In cobalamin-dependent forms of the enzyme, the reaction proceeds by two steps in a ping-pong reaction. The enzyme is initially primed into a reactive state by the transfer of a methyl group from N5-MeTHF to Co(I) in enzyme-bound cobalamin (Cob), forming methyl-cobalamin (Me-Cob) that now contains Me-Co(III) and activating the enzyme. Then, a Hcy that has coordinated to an enzyme-bound zinc to form a reactive thiolate reacts with the Me-Cob. The activated methyl group is transferred from Me-Cob to the Hcy thiolate, which regenerates Co(I) in cob, and Met is released from the enzyme. The cob-independent mechanism follows the same general pathway but with a direct reaction between the zinc thiolate and N5-MeTHF.
The mechanism of the enzyme depends on the constant regeneration of Co(I) in cob, but this is not always guaranteed. Instead, every 1–2000 catalytic turnovers, the Co(I) may be oxidized into Co(II), which would permanently shut down catalytic activity. A separate protein, Methionine Synthase Reductase, catalyzes the regeneration of Co(I) and the restoration of enzymatic activity. Because the oxidation of cob-Co(I) inevitably shuts down cob-dependent methionine synthase activity, defects or deficiencies in methionine synthase reductase have been implicated in some of the disease associations for methionine synthase deficiency discussed below. The two enzymes form a scavenger network seen on the lower left.
Structure.
Crystal structures for both cob-independent and cob-dependent MetH have been solved, with little similarity in the overall structure despite the identical net reaction being performed by each and similarities within binding sites such as Hcy binding site. Cob-dependent MetH is divided into 4 separate domains: Activation, Cobalamin-binding (Cob domain), Homocysteine binding (Hcy domain), and N 5-methylTHF binding (MeTHF domain). The activation domain is the site of interaction with Methionine Synthase Reductase and binds SAM that is used as part of the re-activation cycle of the enzyme. The Cob domain contains Cob sandwiched between several large alpha helices and bound to the enzyme so that the cobalt atom of the group is exposed for contact with other domains. The Hcy domain contains the critical zinc-binding site, made up of cysteine or histidine residues coordinated to a zinc ion that can bind Hcy, with an example from a non-Cob dependent MetH shown on the right. The N5-MeTHF binding domain contains a conserved barrel in which N5-MeTHF can hydrogen bond with asparagine, arginine, and aspartic acid residues. The entire structure undergoes a dramatic swinging motion during catalysis as the Cob domain moves back and forth from the Hcy domain to the Fol domain, transferring the active methyl group from the Fol to Hcy domain.
Function.
Methionine synthase's main purpose is to regenerate Met in the S-Adenosyl Methionine cycle, which in a single turnover consumes Met and ATP and generates Hcy. This cycle is critical because S-adenosyl methionine is used extensively in biology as a source of an active methyl group, and so methionine synthase serves an essential function by allowing the SAM cycle to perpetuate without a constant influx of Met. In this way, methionine synthase also serves to maintain low levels of Hcy and, because methionine synthase is one of the few enzymes that used N5-MeTHF as a substrate, to indirectly maintain THF levels.
In plants and microorganisms, methionine synthase serves a dual purpose of both perpetuating the SAM cycle and catalyzing the final synthetic step in the de novo synthesis of Met. While the reaction is exactly the same for both processes, the overall function is distinct from methionine synthase in humans because Met is an essential amino acid that is not synthesized de novo in the body.
Clinical significance.
Mutations in the MTR gene have been identified as the underlying cause of methylcobalamin deficiency complementation group G, or methylcobalamin deficiency cblG-type. Deficiency or deregulation of the enzyme due to deficient methionine synthase reductase can directly result in elevated levels of homocysteine (hyperhomocysteinemia), which is associated with blindness, neurological symptoms, and birth defects. Most cases of methionine synthase deficiency are symptomatic within 2 years of birth with many patients rapidly developing severe encephalopathy. One consequence of reduced methionine synthase activity that is measurable by routine clinical blood tests is megaloblastic anemia.
Genetics.
Several polymorphisms in the MTR gene have been identified.


Planipapillus cyclus

Planipapillus cyclus is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. It is found in Victoria, Australia.


Archeterokrohnia

Archeterokrohnia is a genus of chaetognaths in the family Heterokrohniidae.The total body length excluding tail fin 28.5; the tail section is 55.2% of the tail fin; head blunt when hooded, triangular after preservation, head with 3.5 mm. Furthermore, the eyes are absent, the trunk section is orange throughout in life, and the organism exists around 3200 m below sea level.


Limb (anatomy)

A limb (from the Old English "lim"), or extremity, is a jointed, or prehensile, appendage of the human or other animal body. In the human body, the arms and the legs are commonly called the upper limbs and lower limbs respectively, to include part of the shoulder and hip girdles. Arms and legs are connected to torso or trunk.
Many animals use limbs for locomotion, such as walking, running or climbing and swimming. Some animals can use their forelimbs (which are homologous to arms in humans) to carry and manipulate objects, while some can use them to achieve flight. Some animals can also use hind limbs for manipulation.
Human legs and feet are specialized for two-legged locomotion – most other mammals walk and run on all four limbs. Human arms are weaker, but very mobile, allowing them to reach at a wide range of distances and angles, and end in specialized hands capable of grasping and fine manipulation of objects. Though human dexterity is relatively unique, grasping behavior is widespread among tetrapods.
Terminology.
The overall patterns of the forelimbs and hindlimbs are so similar ancestrally, and branch out in similar ways; that they are given shared names. Limbs are attached to the pectoral girdle or pelvic girdle. The one bony element of the upper limb is the "stylopodium", the two bones of the lower limb are the "zeugopodium". The distal portion of the limbs, that is, the hands or feet, are known as "autopodia". Hands are technically known as the "manus", and feet as the "pes", which are both composed of carpals and digits. As metapodials, the metacarpals and metatarsals are analogous to each other.
Development.
Limb development is controlled by Hox genes. All jawed vertebrates surveyed so far organize their developing limb buds in a similar way. Growth occurs from proximal to distal part of the limb. On the distal end, the differentiation of skeletal elements occurs in an apical ectodermal ridge (AER) which expands in rays. A Zone of Polarizing Activity (ZPA) at the rear part of the AER coordinates the differentiation of digits.


Greater wing of sphenoid bone

The greater wing of the sphenoid bone, or alisphenoid, is a bony process of the sphenoid bone; there is one on each side, extending from the side of the body of the sphenoid and curving upward, laterally, and backward.
Structure.
The greater wings of the sphenoid are two strong processes of bone, which arise from the sides of the body, and are curved upward, laterally, and backward; the posterior part of each projects as a triangular process that fits into the angle between the squamous and the petrous part of the temporal bone and presents at its apex a downward-directed process, the spine of sphenoid bone.
Cerebral surface.
The superior or cerebral surface of each greater wing [Fig. 1] forms part of the middle cranial fossa; it is deeply concave, and presents depressions for the convolutions of the temporal lobe of the brain. It has a number of foramina (holes) in it:
Lateral surface.
The lateral surface [Fig. 2] is convex, and divided by a transverse ridge, the infratemporal crest, into two portions.
It is pierced by the foramen ovale and foramen spinosum, and at its posterior part is the sphenoidal spine, which is frequently grooved on its medial surface for the chorda tympani nerve.
To the sphenoidal spine are attached the sphenomandibular ligament and the tensor veli palatini muscle.
Medial to the anterior extremity of the infratemporal crest is a triangular process that serves to increase the attachment of the lateral pterygoid muscle; extending downward and medialward from this process on to the front part of the lateral pterygoid plate is a ridge that forms the anterior limit of the infratemporal surface, and, in the articulated skull, the posterior boundary of the pterygomaxillary fissure.
Orbital surface.
The orbital surface of the great wing [Fig. 2], smooth, and quadrilateral in shape, is directed forward and medially and forms the posterior part of the lateral wall of the orbit.
Margin.
Commencing from behind [Fig. 2], that portion of the circumference of the great wing that extends from the body to the spine is irregular.
In front of the spine the circumference presents a concave, serrated edge, bevelled at the expense of the inner table below, and of the outer table above, for articulation with the squamous part of the temporal bone.
At the tip of the great wing is a triangular portion, bevelled at the expense of the internal surface, for articulation with the sphenoidal angle of the parietal bone; this region is named the pterion.
Medial to this is a triangular, serrated surface, for articulation with the frontal bone; this surface is continuous medially with the sharp edge that forms the lower boundary of the superior orbital fissure, and laterally with the serrated margin for articulation with the zygomatic bone.
Development.
The greater wing of the sphenoid bone starts as a separate bone, and is still separate at birth in humans.
Clinical significance.
It causes the superior lateral nasal occipital nerve to malfunction.
In other animals.
In many mammals, e.g. the dog, the greater wing of the sphenoid bone stays through life a separate bone called the alisphenoid.


Sensitive skin

Sensitive skin is a skin condition in which skin is prone to itching and irritation experienced as a subjective sensation when using cosmetics and toiletries. When questioned, over 50% of women in the UK and US, and 38% of men, report that they have sensitive skin.


Sporangiole

A sporangiole is a specialised spherical spore produced by some species of fungi, which is not enclosed in sporangium.


Pharyngeal veins

The pharyngeal veins begin in the pharyngeal plexus on the outer surface of the pharynx, and, after receiving some posterior meningeal veins and the vein of the pterygoid canal, end in the internal jugular.
They occasionally open into the facial, lingual, or superior thyroid vein.


John Hilton (surgeon)

John Hilton FRCS, FRS, FZS (22 September 1805 – 14 September 1878) was a British surgeon.
Born in Sible Hedingham in Essex in 1805, Hilton was educated at King Edward VI Grammar School, Chelmsford and in Boulogne (where he became fluent in French). He entered Guy's Hospital in 1824 when aged nineteen. He was appointed demonstrator of anatomy in 1828, assistant-surgeon in 1845 and surgeon in 1849. In 1859 he was appointed professor of human anatomy and surgery at the Royal College of Surgeons. As Arris and Gale professor from 1859 to 1862 he delivered a course of lectures on "Rest and Pain," which have become classics. He was also surgeon-extraordinary to Queen Victoria.
In 1844 he was Hunterian Orator at the Hunterian Society and in 1853 elected their president for two years. In 1867 he was elected president of the Royal College of Surgeons, of which he had been made a member in 1827 and a fellow in 1843. He also delivered their Hunterian oration in 1867. From 1871 to 1873 he was President of the Pathological Society of London.
Hilton was the greatest anatomist of his time, and was nicknamed "Anatomical John." It was he who, with Joseph Towne the artist, enriched Guy's Hospital with its unique collection of wax models. In his grasp of the structure and functions of the brain and spinal cord he was far in advance of his contemporaries.
As a surgeon he was more cautious than brilliant. The very exactness of his anatomical knowledge made him a careful operator. His caution is remembered by the way he opened deeply seated abscesses with a probe and dressing forceps, which is still called Hilton's method. However he could be bold when necessary; he was the first to reduce a case of obturator hernia by abdominal section, and one of the first to practise lumbar colostomy. He died at Clapham on 14 September 1878 and was buried at West Norwood Cemetery.


Florence Augusta Merriam Bailey

Florence Augusta Merriam Bailey (August 8, 1863 – September 22, 1948) was an American ornithologist and nature writer who has been referred to as the "First Lady of ornithology". She organized early Audubon Society chapters and was an activist for bird protection.
She wrote extensively on birds for both a general and a scholarly audience.
Her first published book "Birds Through an Opera-Glass" (1890) is considered the first bird field guide in the modern tradition. She followed it with other popular accounts. She carried out extensive field work throughout the American West, often in collaboration with her husband Vernon Bailey, who specialized in mammalogy. Her field work was documented in several books, chief among them the important field guide "Handbook of Birds of the Western United States" (1902) and "her most important contribution to the ornithological literature", "The Birds of New Mexico" (1928), for which she was awarded the Brewster Medal.
Life and work.
Early life and family.
Florence Augusta Merriam was born on August 8, 1863 in Locust Grove in Lewis County near Leyden, New York. Her parents were Clinton Levi Merriam and Caroline Hart Merriam. Florence's three older siblings were her brother Clinton Hart Merriam (known as C. Hart to distinguish him from his father), sister Ella Gertrude (who died before Florence was born), and brother Charles Collins.
Florence grew up at her family's estate, "Homewood", on a wooded hilltop above her grandparents' home at Locust Grove.
Florence's father was interested in scientific matters and was in correspondence with John Muir after he had met him at Yosemite in the summer of 1871. Florence and her brother C. Hart (almost eight years her senior) were encouraged to study natural history and astronomy by their mother, father, and aunt ; both of them became interested in ornithology at an early age. When she was 9 years old, Florence accompanied her father and older brother to Florida on a two-month collecting trip.
In her adolescence, Florence Merriam's health was somewhat fragile. She studied at Mrs. Piatt's private school in Utica, New York as a preparation for college. Beginning in 1882, she attended Smith College as a special student, free to choose her own courses rather than following a set program. As a result she received a certificate rather than a degree when she graduated with the class of 1886.
She also attended six months of lectures at Stanford University in the winter of 1893–1894. In 1921, Smith College recognized her candidacy for a degree and awarded her a bachelor's of arts.
On a spring vacation from college, her family first made the acquaintance of Ernest Thompson Seton.
In 1884, Seton was invited to join the American Ornithologists' Union by C. Hart Merriam, who also invited Seton to visit him in upstate New York.
Seton encouraged Florence in her preference for studying birds in life. In 1885, Florence Merriam too joined the American Ornithologists' Union, after being nominated by her brother C. Hart Merriam. She was the OAU's first woman associate member.
The Merriam family, including Florence, often spent the more severe winters away from Homewood, in the milder climate of New York City.
In the winter, Florence worked with Grace Hoadley Dodge's Working Girls Society in New York City. During the summer of 1891 she taught working girls about birds in a program associated with Jane Addams's settlement work at Hull House.
Both Florence and her mother Caroline may have had tuberculosis. They made a number of trips that are consistent with medical knowledge of their time. Tuberculosis was the leading cause of death in the United States in the 1800s. Before the development of vaccines and antibiotics, tubercular patients had few options. Doctors often recommended a change of climate to drier, higher, sunnier locales. Although the mechanism of the disease was not understood, fresh air did help to prevent TB's transmission, and high altitude slowed the spreading of the bacteria within the lungs. Caroline Hart Merriam died of tuberculosis on March 28, 1893. It is likely that Florence also suffered from tuberculosis, although her illness was never formally diagnosed as such.
Activism to protect birds.
At the time that Merriam became interested in birds, most bird study was based on collections and skins; however, she was more interested in studying living birds and their behavior in the field. Also at this time, it was fashionable among women to wear bird feathers on their hats. Repulsed by this custom, in 1885, Merriam wrote the first of several newspaper articles arguing against the practice. In 1886, in collaboration with the like-minded George Bird Grinnell and classmate Fannie Hardy, she organized the Smith College Audubon Society (SCAS), a local chapter of Grinnell's nascent National Audubon Society. The SCAS invited naturalist John Burroughs to visit, and in 1886 he participated in the first of a series of nature walks with the group.
Once she moved to Washington, Merriam helped organize the Audubon Society of the District of Columbia in 1897, and she began teaching bird classes for that organization the following year. Meanwhile, she became active with the Committee on Bird Protection of the American Ornithologists' Union. In part due to her influence, the practice of ornithology moved away from the study of dead birds to that of living ones.
She was dedicated to showing and telling people about the value of living birds, and continued to work for their protection. As a result of her efforts and others', the Lacey Act of 1900 prohibited interstate trade in wildlife that had been illegally taken, transported or sold. This was a first step in stopping the slaughter and decreasing the number of victims, especially among seabirds such as pelicans and grebes. Eventually, more legislation, changing styles, and continued education stopped the killing of birds for hat decoration and clothing.
Field and regional ornithology.
Florence Merriam's introduction of a birdwatching field guide, focused on living birds observed in the field, is considered the first in the tradition of modern, illustrated bird guides. She published "Birds Through an Opera-Glass" (1890) at the age of 26, adapting a series of notes that she had previously published in George Bird Grinnell's "The Audubon Magazine". Florence's first book described 70 common species and focused on the areas where Florence had grown up and studied, her "home ground". Directed at women and young people, the work has been described as "charming, unpretentious, and useful."
In 1889, before the book appeared in print, Florence made the first of many voyages farther field through the western United States. She and her family visited her uncle, Major Gustavus French Merriam, at his homestead in San Diego County, California, called "Twin Oaks". One purpose of the trip was the restoration of Florence's health, a recurrent concern in her early travels.
After her mother's death in 1893, Florence returned to the West, this time visiting Utah and Arizona in the company of Olive Thorne Miller. She described these experiences in "My Summer in a Mormon Village" (1894). Unlike her other bird-oriented writing, this book was a travel narrative.
Her second trip to Twin Oaks, where she studied birds, mounted on horseback, resulted in the publication of "A-Birding on a Bronco" (1896). (This was the first book to be illustrated by Louis Agassiz Fuertes.) On her return from the west, Florence made her home with her brother C. Hart in Washington, D.C., where she worked to organize local chapters of the Women's National Science Club.
In "Birds of Village and Field" (1898), Merriam expanded the scope of her popular bird guide to more than 150 species. Once again, the book was intended for the beginner. Illustrations for the book were drawn by Ernest Thompson Seton, Louis Agassiz Fuertes, and John L. Ridgway.
On December 18, 1899, Florence Augusta Merriam married Vernon Orlando Bailey, Chief Field Naturalist for the United States Bureau of Biological Survey and a long-time colleague of C. Hart's. They eventually built a home at 1834 Kalorama Road, N.W., in the Adams Morgan neighborhood of Washington. Among the visitors to the Baileys' home were the naturalist-turned-inventor Clarence Birdseye and the botanist Alice Eastwood. The wildlife artist Charles R. Knight provided the centerpiece of the home's library, a painted portrait of a tiger in repose. The Baileys befriended the young naturalist couple Olaus Murie and Margaret "Mardy" Murie, and they became regular guests at the Washington residence. The couple were together responsible for encouraging many youngsters take up studies in natural history.
The naturalist couple traveled extensively, generally spending the spring and summer camping somewhere in the west and returning to Washington, D.C. in the fall. Their first trek together, from Corpus Christi, Texas to Brownsville, Texas, took place in April 1900. They covered 260 miles in 17 days, driven in a carriage by a "camp man" who also set up tents and cooked meals. Along with the many specimens that they collected and photographed on this trip, they discovered a new species of epiphytic plant.
With the publication of "Handbook of Birds of the Western United States" (1902), Florence moved from writing for the general enthusiast to a scholarly audience.
Her new book was a major work of ornithology and a complement to Frank Chapman's "Handbook of birds of eastern North America" (1895). Florence Merriam Bailey's achievement drew on the best available published work, study of specimens with the assistance of Robert Ridgway of the Smithsonian Institution, 600 illustrations from numerous sources, and her own field work. The book would remain a standard reference for the study of regional ornithology for at least 50 years. Without sacrificing technical precision, the handbook included vivid descriptions of behaviors like nesting, feeding, and vocalization, information that has been de-emphasized in the literature that followed.
Beginning in 1903, the Baileys carried out substantial research in the field in what was then New Mexico Territory. For the next three summers, they crisscrossed the region.
During the next three decades, Florence and Vernon covered much of the American West. They explored southern California in 1907,
North Dakota in 1909, 1912, and 1916,
coastal Oregon in 1914, and
Glacier National Park in 1917.
Florence published 17 papers over 5 years about prairie birds in the journal "The Condor", and another series about Oregon's forest, mountain and sea-birds. She also wrote for "The Auk", "Bird-lore" and its successor "Audubon Magazine".
The results of the Bailey's field work in Glacier Park was published jointly as "Wild Animals of Glacier National Park" (1918).
After the death of Wells Cooke in 1916, Florence was asked by Edward William Nelson if she would take Cooke's notes and complete a work on New Mexico's bird life. She substsntially updated and expanded Cooke's data, creating a "monumental work". The extent of her contribution was recognized by her being credited with sole authorship of the completed work; Cook's initial contribution is recognized in the introduction. With 24 color plates and numerous drawings and photographs, "The Birds of New Mexico" is considered her magnum opus. Completed in 1919, it took another 9 years to raise the money to have it printed. "The Birds of New Mexico" was finally published by the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish in 1928. Florence's accomplishment was recognized with her appointment as the first woman fellow of the American Ornithologists' Union in 1929, and with the Brewster Medal in 1931.
Florence had visited the Arizona Territory in the 1890s; as a couple or alone, Florence returned for field work in what was now the State of Arizona several times during the 1920s. Her last published work was "Among the Birds in the Grand Canyon Country", published by the National Park Service in 1939, ten years before her death.
Despite the energetic activity that she and her husband pursued, traveling cross country and hiking and packing everywhere, Florence Merriam Bailey's approach to the study of nature was one of gentle, quiet contemplation. She wrote, "Cultivate a philosophic spirit, be content to sit and listen to the voices of the marsh; let the fascinating, mysterious, bewildering voices encompass you and—hold your peace."
Later life and death.
Florence Merriam Bailey died of myocardial degeneration in Washington, D.C., on September 22, 1948. She is buried at the old Merriam home in Locust Grove, New York.
In a memorial essay, Paul Oehser favorably compared Florence Merriam Bailey's early books to the writing of Muir and Burroughs, and he described her as "one of the most literary ornithologists of her time, combining an intense love of birds and remarkable powers of observation with a fine talent for writing and a high reverence for science."
Some of Florence Merriam Bailey's papers, including diaries, photographs and field books, are held by the Smithsonian Institution Archives.
Affiliations and recognition.
Bailey became the first woman associate member of the American Ornithologists' Union in 1885 (nominated by her brother C. Hart), its first woman fellow in 1929, and the first woman recipient of its Brewster Medal in 1931, awarded for "Birds of New Mexico". In 1933, she received an honorary LL.D. degree from the University of New Mexico.
She was a founding member of the Audubon Society of the District of Columbia and frequently led its classes in basic ornithology. In 1908, Joseph Grinnell named a California subspecies of mountain chickadee "Parus gambeli baileyae" in her honor. Recent mtDNA cytochrome "b" sequence data and morphology suggest that the mountain chickadee is more accurately placed in the genus "Poecile" rather than "Parus".
In 1992, a mountain in the southern Oregon Cascade Range was named Mount Bailey, in honor of Florence and Vernon Bailey, by the Oregon Geographic Names Board.
Sample illustrations.
Sample illustrations from some of Florence Merriam Bailey's books.