End of Nights

"End of Nights" is the two-part season two premiere of the science fiction television series "Sanctuary". The first part originally aired on Syfy and Space in the United States and Canada respectively on October 9, 2009, while the second part aired on October 16, 2009, both occasions following "Stargate Universe". It subsequently aired on ITV4 in the United Kingdom on October 6 and 13 2009. Both parts were written by Damian Kindler, and directed by Martin Wood.
The episode follows from the season one finale, "Revelations", where the Cabal launch a weapon named Lazarus to turn Abnormals against Humans. The Sanctuary are able to find a cure by using a vial of rare, pure Vampire blood. However, Ashley, who was kidnapped by the Cabal and escaped, turned against her team and took the vial before working on a cure. The episodes follow the Sanctuary's search to find her, only to discover that the Cabal turned her into a super-Abnormal. The opening two-parter was met with generally mixed to positive reviews, and was viewed by around 1.8 million Americans.
Plot.
Part 1.
Six weeks since the events of "Revelations, Part 2", Helen Magnus (Amanda Tapping) and John Druitt (Christopher Heyerdahl) travel to Egypt in the search for Ashley (Emilie Ullerup), but learn that the daughter they knew is dead. However, in Montreal, Ashley teleports into an Interpol office, steals a server containing classified files, and teleports away. Meanwhile, Tesla (Jonathon Young) is able to create a cure to the Lazarus virus, though Bigfoot (Heyerdahl) refuses to take it due to the fact it was developed by Humans. Even Henry Foss (Ryan Robbins) fails to persuade him. The team find out about the break-in in Montreal, and discover that the files Ashley stole concern "Operation Montana", a British government operation to experiment on six orphans 25 years previously, to turn them into "perfect" humans, until Magnus shuts it down after she deems it a rebound of the Nazi eugenics programme. However, four of them have already been kidnapped by the Cabal. Meanwhile, The Cabal subject Ashley to tests by using the Vampire blood from Bhalasaam, where they attempt to convert her to a "Super-Abnormal".
Henry and Druitt recover the fifth Montana subject in Essex, while Magnus and Will Zimmerman (Robin Dunne) search for the sixth in Vancouver. They arrive to find that he has been taken by a group led by Kate Freelander (Agam Darshi), a con-artist with Cabal connections. She is captured by Magnus, but quickly escapes before they could learn anything from her. However, the Cabal finds out Kate was captured by the Sanctuary, and orders a hit on her. She is wounded during a firefight, but manages to flee and seek refuge in the Sanctuary. In exchange, she tells Magnus that she once visited a Cabal base in Alberta, Canada. Will, Druitt, Tesla and Magnus arrive at the warehouse to find Ashley is alive, but is now fully transformed into a seemingly indestructible Vampire hybrid, and that her original personality is destroyed. The team are able to escape before she can kill them. Magnus deduces that the Cabal are going to do the same transformation to the five kidnapped Montana subjects. In fact, the Cabal have already completed this, and declare war on the Sanctuary Network.
Part 2.
Magnus is able to make contact with Dana Whitcomb (Lynda Boyd), a high-ranking member of the Cabal. She is willing to hand over Ashley in exchange that Magnus hand over the Sanctuary Network. Refusing to give into the demand, Magnus enlists Tesla and Henry to develop a weapon capable of neutralising the hybrids' power, but wants it to be non-lethal, which Tesla finds nearly impossible unless it is completely lethal. During the time they finish a prototype, the Sanctuary bases in Tokyo, New Delhi and Moscow are destroyed by Ashley and her army. Magnus and the team realise the London Sanctuary is the next target, and they travel there to test the new prototype. However, despite the base's defenses, the hybrids break in and dispatch all the resistance they encounter, including killing Will's new love interest, Clara Griffin (Christine Chatelain) whom the hybrids were able to see when invisible. The prototype weapon is also unsuccessful, only stunning the hybrids momentarily before they overcome the effects. The team manages to drive off the hybrids with a fire elemental which forces them to retreat, but the London Sanctuary is badly damaged. With no other choice, the team and what personnel are left of the London Sanctuary evacuate to the main base in Old City.
Magnus resorts to upgrading the weapon to its intended lethal setting, which would kill Ashley in the process. Realising they may face another unwinnable battle, Kate Freelander is released. Though she tries to stay and fight, she is sent away as Magnus doesn't trust her. She would later stay and fight anyway. Magnus later visits Bigfoot, and leaves him a syringe of the Lazarus cure if he chooses to take it and save his friends. Henry maintains all the defence systems in the Sanctuary. However, the Cabal launch a virus to neutralise the EM shield, allowing the hybrids to break into the base with ease. Now with a fully functioning weapon, Magnus is able to kill three of the hybrids before she confronts Ashley, and attempts to talk her into coming back. After Bigfoot takes the cure and saves his friends, he protects Henry and Will while they restore the EM shield, which destroys the fourth hybrid when he attempts to teleport. Magnus faces off against Ashley and the final hybrid. The final hybrid attacks Magnus, but is stopped by Ashley, whose original personality (apparently buried, not destroyed) manages to regain control of her body temporarily. Ashley teleports with the final hybrid, killing it, but also herself in the process.
Production.
After the end of the first season, Damian Kindler wanted to tie up loose ends from the cliffhanger, and to settle the series into a "new groove." He considered two beginnings. One would start with the action, and the second would be the Cabal explaining their plans. Thinking the latter was too uninteresting, the former was chosen. Kindler also wanted to pick up the story line six weeks after "Revelations", since that was considered a good time to start. So the opening joined right in the middle of the hunt for Ashley. In the script, Emilie Ullerup had only one line of dialogue, though pivotal to the plot.
During the original casting call, Babz Chula's character was meant to be male, bald and German. However, Chula's audition impressed the producers enough to have her instead. Andrew Lockington was introduced as the new composer for the second season. Before filming began, the crew scouted locations in areas such as Montreal to get their understanding of the area before the episode was set there.
Like the series, "End of Nights" was filmed mostly in green screen. One scene required five actors to be in it, which was not an easy task since there was limited room on the set. In other scenes involving green screen, one side of the background was in fact real, which gave the viewer the impression of not knowing which side was visual effects, and which was not. The scene involving the tele-conversation between Will Zimmerman and Clara Griffin was filmed live. Christine Chatelain was filmed in front of a green screen twenty feet away from Robin Dunne. The scenes set in Cairo were in fact filmed in a back alley behind a Vancouver studio, which had been used several times before in the series. Visual effects were added in replacement of the green screen, for background to make the Cairo street look longer than the alley was. Another instance of inside filming for outdoor settings, were the scenes involving Ashley's conversion process. The filming location was a large, tall room. Director Martin Wood previously used the area for filming "". The scenes between Christopher Heyerdahl as Bigfoot and Ryan Robbins as Henry Foss were completed on one take, because Wood was impressed by the acting and the camera angles. Furthermore, Heyerdahl was to wear contact lenses to change his eye colour for Bigfoot, however, at the time of filming, Heyerdahl sustained an eye injury.
Overall, "End of Nights" produced around 1,200 visual effects shots, which exceeded half of the 2,100 visual effects done in the entire first season alone. The premiere of the second season also had a slightly different opening title sequence. Though nearly the same as the first season, the producers changed the pictures of Magnus meeting Albert Einstein, to those between her and Amelia Earhart.
Reception.
After the original broadcast, the first part was viewed by 1.85 million, among them are 946,000 in the Adult 18–49 demographic, and 1.15 million in the Adults 25–54 demographic. The viewing figures were up 18% from the first season average in the 18–49, and 7% from the 25–54 demographic. The ratings for the second part, however, dropped slightly to 1.77 million, though this still made "Sanctuary" the sixth most viewed series on Syfy the week it aired. In the United Kingdom, Part 1 was viewed by 334,000, ranking it the fourth highest viewing for the week, while Part 2 reached a slightly higher rating of 367,000, ranking it the third highest viewing for the second week.
Mark Wilson of "About.com" praised the episode for being a "harbinger of the new [and a more] confident Sanctuary" since the first season, as well as Martin Wood's directing of the story and Darshi's performance, but felt certain elements that didn't work well as they should, such as feeling more confined than the past episodes, and that the abnormals of the Sanctuary are barely featured. Paul Simpson of "Total Sci-Fi" rated the first part 7 out of 10, describing it as "hokum, but enjoyable hokum." Simpson also stated the scripting felt a bit sharper, though still high on melodramatic dialogue, and described the introduction of Kate Freelander allows a degree of fun. "URBMN" was mixed towards Christopher Heyerdahl's performance; stating he was uneven as Bigfoot, but excellent as Druitt, and also found Agam Darshi "surprisingly tolerable" as Freelander. Overall, the reviewer considered that while the episodes, and the series in general, bears similarities with "Primeval" and "Torchwood", it was more the former than the latter.
Rob Vaux of "Mania.com" was overall mixed about the two episodes. He stated the first part doesn't leave much room for the newcomers to the series, but still holds a fair amount of interest, and was decently executed, and the low points remain "forgivable." Vaux praised Darshi's performance, but believed the other performers detracted her "appealine presence." Vaux believed the action sequences failed to catch hold, but improves with its character developments, stating the best moments involve Ashley's indoctrination, and Babz Chula's "creepy performance." For the second part, Vaux stated that enough of the questions have been resolved to provide adequate drama, and leaves a few plot threads to ensure the viewers tune in the next week, and it won't make the viewer regret tuning in. Vaux reacted more positively on the second part's action sequences, and Druitt's onscreen presence.


Toadfish

Toadfish is the common name for a variety of species from several different families of fish, usually because of their toad-like appearance. "Dogfish" is a name for certain species along the gulf coast.
Dolphin-Toadfish relationship.
Toadfish make up a notable portion of the dolphin's diet, approximately 13%. Scientific experiments have shown that the mating call of the toadfish alerts dolphin predators to the fish's location. Similarly, the sounds caused by the dolphin when hunting its prey alert toadfish to the location of the predators and cause the fish to silence their mating call. Male toadfish will reduce their mating calls by up to 50% when they hear the low sound of a dolphin's "pop".
Batrachoididae.
The entire family "Batrachoididae" are called toadfishes. They are benthic ambush predators, known for their ability to produce sound with their swim bladders.
Tetraodontidae.
The name "toadfish" is applied to some species of the family Tetraodontidae, including:
Psychrolutidae.
The name "toadfish" is also applied to some species of the family Psychrolutidae:


Maritigrella fuscopunctata

Maritigrella fuscopunctata is a species of marine polyclad flatworm in the family Euryleptidae from Indo-Pacific


Chrysaora fulgida

Chrysaora fulgida, the Benguela compass jelly, is a species of jellyfish in the family Pelagiidae. Found in the southeastern Atlantic Ocean along the western coast of South Africa (an area affected by the Benguela Current), its taxonomy has historically caused considerable confusion. Like other sea nettles, its sting is painful, but not generally dangerous unless there is an allergic reaction to the venom.
Taxonomy.
"C. fulgida" was first described in 1830 by A.A.M. Reynaud. In 1902, "C. africana" was described by E. Vanhöffen. In 1939 it was suggested that "C. africana" simply represented old individuals of "C. fulgida", a view repeated as recently as 2010. "C. fulgida" itself has frequently been confused with the closely related and quite similar "C. hysoscella". Recent studies have been able to separate not only "C. hysoscella" (now known to be restricted to the northeast Atlantic Ocean), but also the three southeast Atlantic "Chrysaora" species—"C. africana", "C. fulgida" and an undescribed species tentatively referred to as "C. agulhensis"—based on differences in their morphology and genetics. The last and still-undescribed species, also known by the common name Cape compass jelly, is widespread along the southern African coast from Namibia to Durban in South Africa. Although a detailed description has been published where a scientific name was proposed, it did not comply with article 8 of the ICZN Code.


Micrina

Micrina is an extinct genus of tommotiids with affinities to brachiopods.
Micrina can be considered a stem group brachiopod based on its larval shell
Its microstructure is very brachiopod like and its adult morphology is similarly bivalved, even though it was once thought to be halkieriid-like.
Micrina is quite similar to Mickwitzia in terms of shell microstructure. The two genera are evidently closely related.


Juliana Emma Linter

Juliana Emma Linter was a British conchologist and collector, donated the Linter collection to the Royal Albert Memorial Museum & Art Gallery.
Early life.
Juliana Emma Linter was born in Teignmouth on 19 July 1844 to parents William Brine Linter, a musician, and Caroline Mary Nicholls. Juliana was the fourth of six children and the only daughter of William and Caroline.
As a young girl, Juliana lived at 6 Saxe Street in Teignmouth but left at an early age for London to study. Juliana was a regular reader at the British Museum for many years. The age at which Juliana left her parents is unknown, but census records from 1871, when Juliana was 26 years old, show she was not living with her parents in Teignmouth. As an adult, Juliana first appears on the census in 1881, at 36 years old and residing in Grosvenor Road, Twickenham, London, where she is registered as a "biological student", though not formally enrolled in any college or university.
Shell collection.
Juliana Linter started collecting shell specimens in the 1880's. The core of Juliana's initial collection came from William Theobald and also the collection of Colonel Skinner.
Juliana Linter was elected a member of the Malacological Society of London in 1895, though reported to have rarely attended meetings.
Later life and death.
Juliana Linter never married, and following two years of ill health, Juliana died on 30 August 1909.


Acanthella dendyi

Acanthella dendyi is a marine sessile filter-feeder sponge in the family Dictyonellidae, first described by Patricia Bergquist in 1970 as "Phakellia dendyi"
Distribution.
In Australian waters it is found from Victorian coastal water, all the way up the east coast to Queensland and then all the way across the northern coasts to the north-west coast of Western Australia, at depths from 8 - 180 m.


Sclerotium

A sclerotium (), plural sclerotia (), is a compact mass of hardened fungal mycelium containing food reserves. One role of sclerotia is to survive environmental extremes. In some higher fungi such as ergot, sclerotia become detached and remain dormant until favorable growth conditions return. Sclerotia initially were mistaken for individual organisms and described as separate species until Louis René Tulasne proved in 1853 that sclerotia are only a stage in the life cycle of some fungi. Further investigation showed that this stage appears in many fungi belonging to many diverse groups. Sclerotia are important in the understanding of the life cycle and reproduction of fungi, as a food source, as medicine (for example, ergotamine), and in agricultural blight management.
Examples of fungi that form sclerotia are ergot ("Claviceps purpurea"), "Polyporus tuberaster", "Psilocybe mexicana", "Sclerotium delphinii" and many species in Sclerotiniaceae. Although not fungal, the plasmodium of slime molds can form sclerotia in adverse environmental conditions.
Description.
Sclerotia are often composed of a thick, dense shell with thick and dark cells and a core of thin colorless cells. Sclerotia are rich in hyphae emergency supplies, especially oil. They contain a very small amount of water (5–10%) and can survive in a dry environment for several years without losing the ability to grow. In most cases, the sclerotium consists exclusively of fungal hyphae, whereas some may consist partly of fungal hyphae plexus and partly in between tissues of the substrate (ergot, Sclerotinia). In favorable conditions, sclerotia germinate to form fruiting bodies (Basidiomycetes) or mycelium with conidia (in imperfect fungi). Sclerotia sizes can range from a fraction of a millimeter to a few tens of centimeters as, for example "Laccocephalum mylittae", which has sclerotia with diameters up to 30 cm and weighing up to 20 kg.
Sclerotia resemble cleistothecia in both their morphology and the genetic control of their development. This suggests the two structures may be homologous, sclerotia being vestigial cleistothecia that lost the capacity to produce ascospores.
History.
In the Middle Ages "Claviceps purpurea" sclerotia contaminated rye grain used in bread and led to ergot poisoning by way of which thousands of people were killed and mutilated. "Claviceps purpurea" sclerotia contain alkaloids that, when consumed, can cause ergotism which is a disease that causes paranoia and hallucinations, twitches, spasms, loss of peripheral sensation, edema and loss of affected tissues.
Louis Rene Tulasne discovered the relationship between infected rye plants and ergotism in the 19th century. With this discovery, more efforts were developed to reduce sclerotia from growing on rye and ergotism became rare. However, in 1879–1881 an outbreak developed in Germany, in 1926–1927 Russia was infected, and in 1977–1978 Ethiopia was infected.
"Pleurotus tuber-regium", which forms edible sclerotia up to 30 cm wide, has a history of economic importance in Africa as food and as a medicinal mushroom.
As part of fungal life cycles.
For example, "Claviceps purpurea" sclerotia form and begin regrowth in the spring, infecting grass and rye plants by way of releasing their ascospores from perithecia. "Claviceps purpurea" can infect a wide variety of plants by infecting the ovaries. The fungal spores germinate at the anthesis and grow down the pollen tube without branching any hyphae outward. When the fungus reaches the bottom of the ovary, it leaves the pollen tube path and enters the vascular tissues where it branches its hypha. Approximately seven days into the infection, the mycelium produces conidia. The conidia are then secreted out of the plant in a sugary liquid that insects, attracted by the sugars, transfer to other plants. After two weeks of being infected by the fungus, the plant no longer generates the sugary liquid, and the fungus produces sclerotia. The sclerotium is an overwinter structure, which contains ergot alkaloids.
"Claviceps purpurea"s life cycle is an interesting model for plant pathologists and cell biologists because:
Formation.
In fungi, there are three stages in the development of sclerotia:
As food.
"Wolfiporia extensa".
This sclerotium of "Wolfiporia extensa" (called "Tuckahoe", or Indian bread) was used by Native Americans as a source of food in times of scarcity. It is a wood-decay fungus but has a terrestrial growth habit. It is notable in the development of a large, long-lasting underground sclerotium, which resembles a small coconut.
"Pleurotus tuber-regium".
"Pleurotus tuber-regium", which forms edible sclerotia up to 30 cm wide, has a history of economic importance as food in Africa.
Sclerotia as medicine and hallucinogenic drug.
Over billions of years of Earth's history, organisms have acquired the ability to produce secondary metabolites, that is chemical compounds that afford protection from pathogens and ultraviolet light damage from the sun. Fungi are no exception, and due to their exposure to a wide variety of environments, they have developed the ability to produce a large number of such chemical compounds that are very valuable in medicine.
"Claviceps purpurea".
In early times, ergot alkaloids have been used for medicinal purposes. For example, ergot was used as a form of abortion in Europe, but it led to hyper-contraction. In the 19th century, it was used to aid in the prevention of bleeding after childbirth and treatment for migraines and Parkinson's disease.
Acid hydrolysis is used to convert alkaloids, produced by the fungus "Claviceps purpurea", into D-lysergic acid which is the starting material for many pharmaceutical and illegal drugs. In 1938 Albert Hofmann synthesized one of the strongest known hallucinogens, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), from ergot alkaloid. Despite side effects of the drug such as paranoia, loss of judgment and flashbacks, psychotherapists and psychiatrists used it to treat patients with neuroses, sexual dysfunctions and anxiety. The secret service may have also used it for interrogation purposes. In 1966 the United States government made LSD illegal. Recently, clinics have shown an interest in ergoline to treat patients with autism.
"Ophiocordyceps sinensis".
"Ophiocordyceps sinensis" (syn. "Cordyceps sinensis") is a fungus which infects a caterpillar and uses nutrients out of it to create mycelia and replaces its body with a sclerotium. The fungus then sprouts out of the head of the caterpillar. In Chinese the fungus is known as "Dōng chóng xià cǎo" ().
"Inonotus obliquus".
"Inonotus obliquus" (chaga mushroom) is a sclerotium growing mostly on birch trees in northern climates. It has been used as a tonic and a remedy for thousands of years in Canada, Russia, Japan, etc. The tree sclerotium develops over the years as the mycelium sucks the energy of the living tree.
"Psilocybe galindoi".
Certain grassland "Psilocybe" species have sclerotia to protect them from fire and from other disturbances. The sclerotia forming species contain, as many "Psilocybe" species do, the organic compounds psilocin and psilocybin, which are actively being researched to treat cluster headaches, depression, and to help the mental health of people with fatal cancer.
"Psilocybe mexicana" and "Psilocybe tampanensis".
Sclerotia from "Psilocybe mexicana" and "Psilocybe tampanensis" also contain the active metabolites psilocin and psilocybin. These sclerotia can be bought at smartshops under different trade names such as "Philosopher's Stone" or "truffles" and have the same hallucinogenic effect as magic mushrooms.
"Wolfiporia extensa".
"Wolfiporia extensa" is used as a medicinal mushroom in Chinese medicine.
Common names for it include "hoelen", poria, "tuckahoe", China root, "fu ling" (茯苓), "fu shen" (or "fushen") and "matsuhodo".
Some species with sclerotia as agricultural pests.
Many methods have been created to reduce the growth of agriculturally pathogenic sclerotia like changes in crop rotation, deeper ploughing and sifting out sclerotia. Fungicides, breeding disease resistance rye and cross breeding natural rye with hybrid rye have reduced "C. purpurea" infections.
"Sclerotium cepavorum" causes white rot in "Allium" species, particularly onions, leeks, and garlic. Worldwide, white rot is probably the most serious threat to "Allium" crop production of any disease.
Other fungi that produce sclerotia are prominent pathogens for canola crops. These and related fungi are generally controlled through the use of fungicides and crop rotation.


Coralliodrilus rugosus

Coralliodrilus rugosus is a species of clitellate oligochaete worm, first found in Belize, on the Caribbean side of Central America. It is found in a range of sediments near the limits of saline groundwater, but never below tidal zones.


Orchesella dallaii

Orchesella dallaii is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae.


Thomas J. Near

Thomas J. Near is an American evolutionary ichthyologist who is currently a Professor and Chair of the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at Yale University as well as the Bingham Oceanographic Curator of Ichthyology at the Peabody Museum of Natural History. Since 2015, Near has been Head of Saybrook College, one of Yale University's residential colleges. (The title was originally "Master" but this was replaced with "Head" in 2016.)


Schneiderian membrane

In anatomy, the Schneiderian membrane is the membranous lining of the maxillary sinus cavity.
Microscopically there is a bilaminar membrane with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells on the internal (or cavernous) side and periosteum on the osseous side. The size of the sinuses varies in different skulls, and even on the two sides of the same skull. This membrane is present in the nasal chamber which helps to smell (olfactory receptor)


Lutodrilus multivesiculatus

Lutodrilus multivesiculatus is a species of invertebrate in the Lutodrilidae family.
Distribution.
It is endemic to the United States.


Epiperipatus acacioi

Epiperipatus acacioi is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatidae family. The type locality is in Minas Gerais, Brazil.


Amelia Laskey

Amelia Rudolph Laskey (December 12, 1885 - December 19, 1973) was an American amateur naturalist and ornithologist noted for her contributions to biology despite her lack of formal education. Many publications refer to her as "Mrs F.C. Laskey."
Early life and education.
Laskey was born Amelia Rudolph to German immigrant parents, Susan and Frank Rudolph, in Bloomington, Indiana. She attended school in Chicago through high school. She then became a stenographer at the Oliver Typewriter Company before her marriage. She also taught girls at the Sunday school of the Ogden Park Methodist Church. She married Fredrick C. Laskey in 1911 and moved to Nashville where Fredrick was a manager at the Swift and Company.
Amateur research.
Laskey's research career began when she moved to Nashville, Tennessee in 1921. She began to participate in a gardening club, having an expansive garden at her home that she called Blossomdell, and a literary society. She began her studies in ornithology when she joined the Tennessee Ornithological Society in 1928. Her research began with the migratory behavior of chimney swifts, cowbirds, and mockingbirds, and discovered that chimney swifts wintered in Peru. Laskey also studied bluebird nesting behavior and was the first to note a Gambel's sparrow in Tennessee. She was particularly noted for her study of mockingbird behavior; Laskey noted the species' song development, mating behavior and number of mates, egg clutch sizes, and territory defense. She also discovered that brown-headed cowbirds were monogamous. She kept a mockingbird named "Honey child" at home for 15 years and she made careful studies of behaviour including song acquisition. Other birds she took care of included a crippled red-tailed hawk which lived with her for ten years and an albino great horned owl that she kept for 22 years. She began bird banding in 1931 and became a very careful and prolific bander. She also contributed to Lowery and Newman's study of nocturnal bird migration through the observation of flocks crossing the disc of the moon. She was also a pioneer researcher of migratory bird casualties at television towers. She was made a Fellow of the American Ornithologists' Union in 1966 although she was a member from 1933. She also collaborated with other ornithologists including Margaret Morse Nice and Josselyn Van Tyne.
Her publications spanned 40 years, from 1933 to 1973, the year of her death, and included over 150 papers in ornithological journals. Laskey was also known for her rehabilitation of wounded birds.


Falkland steamer duck

The Falkland steamer duck ("Tachyeres brachypterus") is a steamer duck native to the Falkland Islands in the southern Atlantic Ocean. It is one of only two bird species endemic to the Falkland Islands, the other being Cobb's wren.
Description.
The Falkland steamer duck's wings are very short (hence the scientific name: "brachy" = "short", and "pteron" = "wing"), and it is incapable of flight. The plumage of the Falkland steamer duck is mostly dark grey, but with a white stripe behind the eye. It is very difficult to distinguish from the flying steamer duck in the field since they occupy the same habitat and, although the flying steamer duck can fly, it rarely does.
Historical description.
Charles Darwin devoted two paragraphs to this bird (or the similar flying steamer duck) in The Voyage of the Beagle, having observed them at the Falkland Islands in 1833:


Beast Hunter

Beast Hunter is a television series that began airing on March 9, 2011 on National Geographic Channel. It is hosted and narrated by wildlife scientist Pat Spain. In each episode, he travels to a different part of the world to investigate an individual cryptid's alleged existence. This typically involves interviews with local witnesses, setting up camera traps, and in some cases, searching for similar animals in the local fossil record. When the series is aired in the UK, it is renamed "Beast Man".


Balaenula

Balaenula is an extinct genus of cetacean.
Taxonomy.
Cladistic analyses of fossils and extant balaenids place "Balaenula" as the sister taxon of right whales in a clade separate from the bowhead whale.
Fossil records.
This genus is known in the fossil records from the Neogene to the Quaternary (age range: from 11.608 to 1.806 million years ago). Fossils are found in the marine strata of Italy, United Kingdom, United States, the Netherlands, France and Japan.
The most complete specimen known from the U.S. (as well as the only one on display in North America) was found at Lake Waccamaw, North Carolina in 2008. The whale's skull was excavated from the limestone outcropping by the state's Underwater Archaeology Branch, prepared, and permanently displayed at the Lake Waccamaw Depot Museum starting 2012.
Species.
There are two currently recognized species of "Balaenula":
"B. astensis" was quite similar to the living right whale ("Eubalaena glacialis") but much smaller, reaching a length of about . This species lived around four million years ago. Fossils have been found near Asti (Northern Italy), in a Zanclean/Piacenzian marine sandstone.
The only known specimen of "B. balaenopsis" was discovered in Belgium in the late 1800s.
An unnamed species from Japan (represented by a partial skeleton) is also known.


Infraorbital artery

The infraorbital artery is an artery in the head that branches off the maxillary artery, emerging through the infraorbital foramen, just under the orbit of the eye.
Course.
The infraorbital artery appears, from its direction, to be the continuation of the trunk of the maxillary artery, but often arises in conjunction with the posterior superior alveolar artery.
It runs along the infraorbital groove and canal with the infraorbital nerve, and emerges on the face through the infraorbital foramen, beneath the infraorbital head of the levator labii superioris muscle.
Branches.
While in the canal, it gives off
On the face, some branches pass upward to the medial angle of the orbit and the lacrimal sac, anastomosing with the angular artery, a branch of the facial artery; others run toward the nose, anastomosing with the dorsal nasal branch of the ophthalmic artery; and others descend between the levator labii superioris and the levator anguli oris, and anastomose with the facial artery, transverse facial artery, and buccal artery.
The four remaining branches arise from that portion of the maxillary artery which is contained in the pterygopalatine fossa.


External occipital protuberance

Near the middle of the squamous part of occipital bone is the external occipital protuberance, the highest point of which is referred to as the inion. The inion is the most prominent projection of the protuberance which is located at the posterioinferior (rear lower) part of the human skull. The nuchal ligament and trapezius muscle attach to it.
The inion (ἰνίον, iníon, Greek for the occipital bone) is used as a landmark in the 10-20 system in electroencephalography (EEG) recording. Extending laterally from it on either side is the superior nuchal line, and above it is the faintly marked highest nuchal line.
A study of 16th-century Anatolian remains showed that the external occipital protuberance statistically tends to be less pronounced in female remains.


Inferior hypophysial artery

The inferior hypophysial artery is an artery supplying the neurohypophysis of the pituitary gland. It is a branch of the cavernous carotid artery (internal carotid artery).


Neopilina rebainsi

Neopilina rebainsi is a species of monoplacophoran, a superficially limpet-like marine mollusc. The holotype was collected southeast of the Falkland Islands in the Southern Atlantic Ocean.


Middle pharyngeal constrictor muscle

The middle pharyngeal constrictor is a fan-shaped muscle located in the neck. It is one of three pharyngeal constrictors. Similarly to the superior and inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscles, the middle pharyngeal constrictor is innervated by a branch of the vagus nerve through the pharyngeal plexus. The middle pharyngeal constrictor is smaller than the inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle.
Structure.
The middle pharyngeal constrictor arises from the whole length of the upper border of the greater cornu of the hyoid bone, from the lesser cornu, and from the stylohyoid ligament.
The fibers diverge from their origin: the lower ones descend beneath the constrictor inferior, the middle fibers pass transversely, and the upper fibers ascend and overlap the constrictor superior.
It is inserted into the posterior median fibrous raphe, blending in the middle line with the muscle of the opposite side.
Function.
As soon as the bolus of food is received in the pharynx, the elevator muscles relax, the pharynx descends, and the constrictors contract upon the bolus, and convey it downward into the esophagus. They also have respiratory mechanical effects.


Frontal vein

The frontal vein (supratrochlear vein) begins on the forehead in a venous plexus which communicates with the frontal branches of the superficial temporal vein. The veins converge to form a single trunk, which runs downward near the middle line of the forehead parallel with the vein of the opposite side. The two veins are joined, at the root of the nose, by a transverse branch, called the nasal arch, which receives some small veins from the dorsum of the nose. At the root of the nose the veins diverge, and, each at the medial angle of the orbit, joins the supraorbital vein, to form the angular vein. Occasionally the frontal veins join to form a single trunk, which bifurcates at the root of the nose into the two angular veins.


Rhizostomatidae

Rhizostomatidae is a family of cnidarians in the class Scyphozoa.
Genera and species.
According to the World Register of Marine Species, 11 extant species are in four extant genera within this family:


Superior hypophysial artery

The superior hypophyseal artery is an artery supplying the pars tuberalis, the infundibulum of the pituitary gland, and the median eminence. It is a branch of the cerebral part of the internal carotid artery.


Oxypora

Oxypora is a genus of large polyp stony corals. Members of this genus are colonial corals and are generally foliaceous, usually with very thin leaves. They are native to the Indo-Pacific and are sometimes found in reef aquariums.
Genera.
The World Register of Marine Species lists the following species:


Nematocyst (dinoflagellate)

A nematocyst is a subcellular structure or organelle containing extrusive filaments found in two families of athecate dinoflagellates (a group of unicellular eukaryotes), the Warnowiaceae and Polykrikaceae. It is distinct from the similar subcellular structures found in the cnidocyte cells of cnidarians, a group of multicellular organisms including jellyfish and corals; such structures are also often called nematocysts (alternatively, "cnidocysts" or "cnidae"), and cnidocytes are sometimes referred to as nematocytes. It is unclear whether the relationship between dinoflagellate and cnidarian nematocysts is a case of convergent evolution or common descent, although molecular evidence has been interpreted as supporting an endosymbiotic origin for cnidarian nematocysts.
In polykrikoids the nematocyst is found associated with another extrusive organelle called the taeniocyst, a complex that has been described as synapomorphic for the genus "Polykrikos".
The full range of functional roles of the nematocyst is not well understood, but it has been observed to be involved in prey capture and feeding.


Hyperpnea

Hyperpnea (forced respiration) is increased volume of air during breathing. It can occur with or without an increase in respiration rate. It is characterized by deep breathing. It may be physiologic—as when required to meet metabolic demand of body tissues (for example, during or after exercise, or when the body lacks oxygen at high altitude or as a result of anemia)—or it may be pathologic, as when sepsis is severe.
Hyperpnea is distinguished from tachypnea, which is a respiratory rate greater than normal, resulting in rapid and shallow breaths. Hyperpnea is also distinguished from hyperventilation, which is over-ventilation (an increase in minute ventilation), which involves an increase in volume and respiration rate, resulting in rapid and deep breaths.
Etymology and pronunciation.
The word "hyperpnea" uses combining forms of "hyper-" + "-pnea", yielding "excessive breathing". See pronunciation information at "dyspnea".


Strophomenoidea

Strophomenoidea is an extinct superfamily of prehistoric brachiopods in the order Strophomenida.
Families.
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Marc Sinden

Marcus Andrew Sinden (born 9 May 1954) is an English actor and film & theatre director and producer.
Sinden has worked in film and theatre (mainly in London's West End) as both actor and producer and directed the documentary series "Great West End Theatres", detailing the history of the 40 major playhouses in London. He was artistic director of the Mermaid Theatre and inaugurated the British Theatre Season in Monaco, which was awarded a Royal Warrant by Prince Albert of Monaco. His first West End production was nominated for a Laurence Olivier Award for Best Entertainment and another won the Stage Award for Best Ensemble work at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe. He is also the director and co-author of the touring anthology "Seven Deadly Sins Four Deadly Sinners" and was nominated for a Sony Award for his voice-overs for the Apple Computers TV advertisements.
In 1968 he and his older brother, actor Jeremy Sinden, were part of the "Na-Na" chorus on "Hey Jude" by the Beatles.
His father was the actor Donald Sinden.
As producer.
Theatre.
In 1993 Sinden became the artistic director at Bernard Miles' Mermaid Theatre in Blackfriars, London where he created the Bernard Miles Studio, but left after a year. He then formed his own theatrical production company, presenting in 1996 the première of N.J. Crisp's "That Good Night" on a national tour starring Donald Sinden, Patrick Ryecart and Nigel Davenport and directing his first commercial tour, Edward Hall. During this period he also produced a series of audio tapes (re-released as CDs in 2010) including "The Ballad of Reading Gaol" read by Donald Sinden and "The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde", with readings by Judi Dench, Jeremy Irons, Derek Jacobi, Joanna Lumley, Geoffrey Palmer and Elaine Stritch.
In 1997 Sinden was appointed associate producer for Bill Kenwright Ltd. As associate producer his West End credits are "Lady Windermere's Fan" (Haymarket); "An Ideal Husband" (Haymarket and Gielgud) and "Pygmalion" (Albery), which he cast and co-directed. Marc was responsible for some of the output of the Theatre Royal, Windsor. He also cast and produced such shows and subsequent tours as "Catch Me If You Can"; "Canaries Sometimes Sing"; "My Fat Friend"; "Dangerous To Know"; "Huckleberry Finn"; "Aladdin"; "Pygmalion" (tour); "Lady Windermere's Fan" (a co-production tour with the Royal Exchange, Manchester); "Noël and Gertie"; "Passion" (in concert at the Golders Green Hippodrome for CD recording); "Fallen Angels"; "The Woman in Black"; "Move Over Mrs Markham" and "Time's Up". He liaised between Bill Kenwright and the Peter Hall Company, for which he cast and was associate producer on the tour of the première of "Just The Three of Us" by Simon Gray and helped organise the Australian co-production tour of "An Ideal Husband".
In 1998 he resumed his independent career as Marc Sinden Productions and produced and co-directed "Shakespeare's Villains" (Haymarket) with Steven Berkoff, which was nominated for a Society of London Theatre Laurence Olivier Award for Best Entertainment. In 2000 the production won the LA Weekly Theater Award for Solo Performance. He also produced the 25th anniversary revival of "East", directed by the plays author Steven Berkoff, winning the Stage Award for Best Ensemble work at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, (Pleasance Courtyard, Edinburgh; Le Théâtre Silvia Monfort, Paris & Vaudeville). Sinden is also the producer of Berkoff's "An Actors Lament", Berkoff's first verse-play since "Decadence" in 1981.
Other productions include "The Glee Club" (Duchess) following its transfer from the Bush Theatre; "Seven Deadly Sins Four Deadly Sinners", which he directed and also co-wrote with "Carry On..." writer Norman Hudis, which is still touring internationally; "Asking For Trouble" with Sheridan Morley; "Sex Wars" with Louise Jameson and "Straker Sings Brel" directed by Mel Smith.
He inaugurated the British Theatre Season, Monaco, bringing English-language theatrical shows to the Théâtre Princesse Grace in Monte Carlo. On 17 October 2007, Prince Albert II of Monaco awarded the British Theatre Season his High Patronage.
Sinden represents the UK on the Artistic Advisory Board of the Colorado Festival of World Theatre, is a Founder member of the Piccadilly Dance Orchestra's Honorary Advisory Development Board and broadcast a regular live monthly slot 'UK Theatre News' on 'The Magazine' programme for BBC Radio Guernsey.
Film and documentaries.
Sinden is co-producing the new thriller "Cold Sun", currently in pre-production at Elstree Film Studios, filming in 2021 with release due at the end of that year.<br>
He is a producer, with his former wife Jo Gilbert, and director of the 40-part documentary series "Great West End Theatres" and was the producer of the DVD release "An Evening with... Sir Donald Sinden", filmed at Pinewood Studios and Steven Berkoff's "East", filmed in front of a live audience at the Vaudeville Theatre, London in 1999.
He is co-producer of the film version of N.J. Crisp's "That Good Night" filmed in Portugal starring John Hurt and Charles Dance and released in 2017.
In August 1998 Sinden was producing a documentary at Vimy Ridge in Arras, northern France about the First World War underground mines (as mentioned in the Sebastian Faulks novel "Birdsong") when Lt-Col Mike Watkins, the Head of Explosive Ordnance Disposal and the British Army's leading bomb disposal expert who was in charge of the decommissioning of the huge bombs (including one of 6,500 lb) in the 20-mile subterranean complex, was killed in an accident underground. Sinden said that Lt-Col Watkins was "A hero who had saved countless lives through his bomb disposal work. His work was often secretive and undercover and it would have put him in danger to publicise his action while he was alive, but now he is dead it does not matter. I admired him more than anyone I have ever met."
As director.
Theatre.
Sinden co-directed "Shakespeare's Villains" (Haymarket) with Steven Berkoff, which was nominated for a Society of London Theatre Laurence Olivier Award for Best Entertainment and "Seven Deadly Sins Four Deadly Sinners", which he directed and also co-wrote with "Carry On..." writer Norman Hudis, which is still touring.
Film and documentaries.
Charles Spencer, the drama critic for the "Daily Telegraph", reported that Sinden is "currently directing the 40-part documentary series "Great West End Theatres", in which Donald Sinden tells the history and stories associated with each of the main London theatres."
In their review of the first 10 episodes of the series, the "British Theatre Guide" said "This film is as close as one can get to standing on the stage taking an ovation. This series is beautifully filmed and gets the balance exactly right between classy camera work, history, reminiscence and gossip." The "Daily Telegraph" review stated that the "lovely documentary series is made by the director Marc Sinden. Its star, and – it transpires – the best documentary frontman of all time, is his actor-father: Sir Donald Sinden. Sir Donald has been let loose, offering anecdotes and memories apparently as they occur to him and the effect is enchanting beyond belief. It is also, at times, incredibly funny. It seems to me rather important that the series should be completed: this is popular history at its best."
The first 10 episodes were broadcast from 3 August 2013 in the UK by the BSkyB digital satellite channel Sky Arts 2.
He is a Professional member of the Directors Guild of Great Britain and Directors UK and a Director member of Francis Ford Coppola's Zoetrope Virtual Studio, where he has a private office.
As actor.
Theatre.
Sinden's acting work in the theatre includes over 40 regional tours or West End productions to his credit, including ‘Charles Surface’ in "The School for Scandal" (Duke of York's) with his father Donald Sinden and directed by John Barton. This was chosen as the British Council's 50th anniversary tour, playing in 21 cities in 10 countries. He also starred in "Her Royal Highness?" (Palace)<ref name="Glasgow Herald/Her Royal Highness?"></ref> and "Two into One" (Shaftesbury), both written and directed by Ray Cooney; 'Squire Sullen' in "The Beaux' Stratagem" (Lyttelton, Royal National Theatre) opposite Brenda Blethyn and Stephen Dillane; "Over My Dead Body" (Savoy) with June Whitfield; "Underground" with Raymond Burr (Prince of Wales and Royal Alexandra, Toronto); "Ross" with Simon Ward (Old Vic and Royal Alexandra, Toronto); Ray Davies' first musical "Chorus Girls" (Theatre Royal, Stratford East) written by Barrie Keeffe and the première of Alan Bennett's "Enjoy" (Vaudeville) with Joan Plowright, directed by Ronald Eyre.
A season at the Chichester Festival Theatre included 'Stephen Undershaft' in George Bernard Shaw's "Major Barbara" with Donald Sinden, directed by Christopher Morahan and as assistant director, Sam Mendes; at the Gaiety Theatre, Dublin, 'Broadbent' in Shaw's rarely seen "John Bull's Other Island" with Cyril Cusack, directed by Joe Dowling; 'Cassius' in a national tour of "Julius Caesar" for the New Shakespeare Company<ref name="Glasgow Herald/Julius Caesar"></ref> and a 12-month national tour of Noël Coward's "Private Lives" with Gemma Craven.
Film.
In 1962, aged 8, Sinden was originally offered the lead title role in the film "Sammy Going South" by its director, Alexander Mackendrick, but his father turned the offer down on his son's behalf, saying that "only a handful of child actors ever make it as adult actors and if Marc wants to be an actor, he should wait until he is old enough to make the decision himself." He appeared as 'Surveyor White' in the film version of Spike Milligan's novel "Puckoon" with Richard Attenborough, filmed at the Paint Hall Studios in Belfast; 'Senior Allied Officer White' in the comedy "The Brylcreem Boys" with Gabriel Byrne, Billy Campbell and Jean Butler filmed in the Isle of Man; 'Fr. Dennis' in "Property of the State", the first film made at the Shackleton Studios in County Londonderry; 'Captain Dawson' in "Clash of Loyalties" with Oliver Reed, filmed in Iraq by cinematographer Jack Hildyard; the French film "Mangeuses d'Hommes" filmed in Sierra Leone; "Decadence" with Steven Berkoff and Joan Collins filmed in Luxembourg; the Italian film "Piccolo Grande Amore" with Susannah York and David Warner filmed in Austria; 'Lord Dolman' in Michael Winner's "The Wicked Lady" with Faye Dunaway, Alan Bates and John Gielgud with cinematography by Jack Cardiff; "White Nights" with Mikhail Baryshnikov, Helen Mirren and Isabella Rossellini (which was the Royal Film Performance of 1986); 'Captain Perez' in "Carry On Columbus" directed by Gerald Thomas, filmed by Alan Hume and produced by Sinden's godfather Peter Rogers and was 'Mr. Honeythunder' in Charles Dickens' "The Mystery of Edwin Drood" with Robert Powell.
Television.
He is probably best known for playing Inspector Stokesay in "Magnum, P.I." with Tom Selleck and as Martyn Price in the BAFTA and Emmy award-winning "The Politician's Wife" with Trevor Eve and Juliet Stevenson. He has appeared in "Judge John Deed"; the series "Island" set on Jersey and has also had roles in the BBC TV drama series' "Century Falls" and "Country Boy"; "Against All Odds – The Promise" with Roy Marsden; "Never the Twain"; "Bergerac"; Peter Tinniswood's "Home Front" with Brenda Bruce; "Barry Morse presents Strange But True"; "Rumpole of the Bailey" with Leo McKern; "Emmerdale"; "If You Go Down in the Woods Today" with Eric Sykes; Desmond Elliott in the original series of "Crossroads"; Joss Melford, opposite Lindsay Duncan in the episode "Deadlier Than the Male", in "Dick Turpin" with Richard O'Sullivan; "All at No 20" with Maureen Lipman; "Shoestring" with Trevor Eve and "Wolf to the Slaughter" (the first of the Ruth Rendell/Inspector Wexford TV adaptations).
He was also nominated in 1981 for a Sony Award for his voice-overs for the Apple Computers TV advertisements.
"Hey Jude" film recording.
On 4 September 1968, Sinden and his brother Jeremy were part of the "Na-Na" chorus on "Hey Jude", recording and filming the song with the Beatles at Twickenham Film Studios.
Personal life.
Sinden is divorced from the film producer Jo Gilbert and has two children from that marriage: Hal Sinden (born 1980) who sings with his band Talanas and Bridie Sinden (born 1990) who is a film production coordinator. He is the son of actor Donald Sinden and his wife, actress Diana Mahony and the brother of actor Jeremy Sinden.
After leaving Stanbridge Earls school in 1971 aged 17, Sinden studied on the acting course at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School from 1971–73 alongside fellow student Pete Postlethwaite. Following this, he became a jeweller at H. Knowles Brown in Hampstead, London for five years. Marrying in 1977, he returned to acting in 1978, starting as an acting/ASM in weekly-repertory.
Investigative journalist James Montague, writing in the July 2014 issue of "Esquire" magazine, claimed that Sinden spied for the British Government's Secret Intelligence Service (MI6) during the filming of "Clash of Loyalties" in Iraq, after being made "an offer he couldn't refuse, appealing to his duty and his pride in Queen and Country." In the article Sinden admitted that it was true.
He is an atheist and secularist, a Fellow of the Zoological Society, a Liveryman of the Worshipful Company of Innholders and was awarded the Freedom of the City of London by the Lord Mayor Sir Kenneth Cork. He is an active supporter of Europeanism and the European Union.
In "Debrett's People of Today" he lists his recreations as "exploring Provence, clay pigeon shooting and cigars" and is a member of the Noël Coward Society, the Clay Pigeon Shooting Association, Guards Polo Club and The Club at The Ivy.
Sinden was nominated for the Cigar Smoker of the Year Award at the inaugural gala award ceremony in 2013, sponsored by "The Spectator" magazine and again in 2015.


Principle of Coordination

In zoology, the Principle of Coordination is one of the guiding principles of the "International Code of Zoological Nomenclature".
It states that the act of publishing a new zoological name thereby automatically and simultaneously establishes all the corresponding names in the relevant other ranks, with the same type.
In the species-group, publishing the species name (the binomen) "Giraffa camelopardalis" Linnaeus, 1758 also establishes the subspecies name (the trinomen) "Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis" Linnaeus, 1758. The same applies to the name of a subspecies; this establishes the corresponding species name.
In the genus-group, similarly, publishing the name of a genus also establishes the corresponding name of a subgenus (or vice versa): "Giraffa" Linnaeus, 1758 and "Giraffa" Linnaeus, 1758 ;(Here, "Giraffa" is the subgenus of genus "Giraffa"). In the family-group, publication of the name of a family, subfamily, superfamily (or any other such rank) also establishes the names in all the other ranks in the family group.
Author citations for such names are the same as for the name actually published. It is immaterial if there is an actual taxon to which the automatically established name applies; if ever such a taxon is recognised, there is a name available for it.


Achramorphidae

Achramorphidae is a family of calcareous sponges in the order Leucosolenida.


Neopilina bruuni

Neopilina bruuni is a species of monoplacophoran, a superficially limpet-like marine mollusc. It is found in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, off the coast of South America.


Amblotherium

Amblotherium is an extinct genus of Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous mammal. The type species Amblotherium pusillum is from the Lulworth Formation of southern England, while the referred species Amblotherium gracile is from stratigraphic zones 2, 3 and 5 of the Morrison Formation of the US.


Myllokunmingia

Myllokunmingia is a genus of basal chordate from the Lower Cambrian Maotianshan shales of China, thought to be a vertebrate, although this is not conclusively proven. It is 28 mm long and 6 mm high.
It is among the oldest possible craniates, found in the lower Cambrian Chengjiang (). It appears to have a skull and skeletal structures made of cartilage. There is no sign of biomineralization of the skeletal elements.
The holotype was found in the Yuanshan member of the Qiongzhusi Formation in the Eoredlichia Zone near Haikou at Ercaicun, Kunming City, Yunnan, China. The animal has a distinct head and trunk with a forward sail-like (1.5 mm) dorsal fin and a ventral finfold (probably paired) further back. The head has five or six gill pouches with hemibranchs. In the trunk there are 25 segments (myomeres) with rearward-facing chevrons. There is a notochord, a pharynx and a digestive tract that may run all the way to the rear tip of the animal. The mouth cannot be clearly identified. There may be a pericardial cavity. There are no fin radials.
There is only one specimen, which has the tip of the tail buried in sediment. Only one species is known – "Myllokunmingia fengjiaoa" (Shu, Zhang & Han).
Related creatures are "Haikouichthys" and "Zhongjianichthys".


Haustellotyphis

Haustellotyphis is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Muricidae, the murex snails or rock snails. It was described by Félix Pierre Jousseaume in 1880.
Species.
Species within the genus "Haustellotyphis" include:


Biarticular muscle

Biarticular muscles are muscles that cross two joints rather than just one, such as the hamstrings which cross both the hip and the knee. The function of these muscles is complex and often depends upon both their anatomy and the activity of other muscles at the joints in question. Their role in movement is currently poorly understood.
Anatomy.
Biarticular muscles cross two joints in series, usually in a limb, but the details of the origin (proximal attachment) and insertion (distal attachment) can play a large role in determining muscle function. For instance, the human gastrocnemius technically spans both the knee and ankle joints. However, the origin point of the muscle is so close to the axis of rotation of the knee joint that the muscle's effective lever arm would be very small, especially compared to its large lever arm at the ankle. As a result, even though it spans two joints, the strong bias in lever arms allows it to function primarily as an ankle plantar flexor. Other muscles, such as the hamstrings, do not display such biases, so their function is not immediately evident from anatomy alone. Another important concept of biarticular muscles (consider the rectus femoris muscle for this example) is the change in muscle length when motion at the proximal and distal ends of the muscle is happening. For example, in the propulsive phase of a jump, the thigh is extended at the coxal joint, and the shank (lower leg) is extended at the tibiofemoral joint. These joint positions cause the rectus femoris muscle to remain unchanged in net length, because the proximal (Eccentric action) and distal (concentric action) attachments are contradicting one another.
Function.
Biarticular muscles can fulfill a range of functions during movement. By contracting isometrically (without changing length), they put the joint into a four-bar linkage, allowing the contraction of muscles at one joint to move the other by a fixed amount. Unlike four-bar linkages in which all elements are bone and angle relationships are fixed by the relative bone lengths, the biarticular muscle can hold the joint at many different lengths, creating a range of four-bar properties as needed.
Biarticular muscles can also transfer mechanical power between distal and proximal joints, though the direction and magnitude of this transfer varies with anatomy, muscle activity level, and joint angles. This is a crucial consideration when analyzing an organism's movement using inverse dynamics.


Aaptos robustus

Aaptos robustus is a species of sea sponge belonging to the family Suberitidae. The species was described in 2008.


Redband trout

Redband trout are a group of three recognized subspecies of rainbow trout ("Oncorhynchus mykiss"). They occur in three distinct regions in Pacific basin tributaries and endorheic basins in the western United States. The three subspecies are the Columbia River redband trout ("O. m. gairdneri"), the McCloud River redband trout ("O. m. stonei") and the Great Basin redband trout ("O. m. newberrii").
The Columbia River redband trout is found in the Columbia River and its tributaries in Montana, Oregon, Washington and Idaho. Anadromous populations of "O. m. gairdneri" are known as redband steelhead. The McCloud River redband trout is found in small tributaries of the McCloud River and Pit River which are tributaries of California's Sacramento River. The Great Basin redband trout is found in seven distinct basins in southeastern Oregon, and parts of California and Nevada on the periphery of the Great Basin. Redband trout have often been confused with cutthroat trout ("Oncorynchus clarki"). Redband trout are prized game fish.
Throughout their distribution, the redband trout have been facing declines due to altered or destroyed habitats, introduction of exotic and hatchery-raised fish species and seasonal drought. However, as of 2000, the population of Great Basin redband trout was not a candidate for listing as threatened or endangered by the standards established by the United States Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service.
Physical characteristics.
The redband trout are generally similar in appearance to the coastal rainbow trout ("O. m. irideus") but have larger, more rounded spots, parr marks that tend to remain into adulthood, are more orange-red around the lateral line and have very distinct white tips on the anal, dorsal and pectoral fins. They will exceed at maturity, which they reach within three years. The redband trout subspecies find their ideal habitat in clean, cool, relatively small and low gradient streams, but are capable of enduring higher water temperatures (75–80 °F; 24–27 °C) than other trout that may co-habit the same streams. As with other trout, they feed on insects, crustaceans and forage fish, depending on their size.


Beast Legends

Beast Legends is a science fiction mini-series produced by a Toronto and Leeds based independent film company called Yap Films, Inc. It was first shown on the Canadian History Channel in the summer of 2010 and was later aired on the US SyFy Channel, starting on September 9, 2010 and ending on October 14, 2010. The show followed a team of creative researchers and artists who explored the globe following stories of legendary and mythological beasts. As they investigate the history behind these tales, they study the ecology and biology of similar real-life creatures that may have inspired the stories, and conclude by bringing the beasts to life with computer generated effects and animation.
Reception.
The premiere episode on the Syfy channel generated mixed reviews. Common Sense Media says ""Beast Legends" is an entertaining blend of science and fantasy. By grounding their research in history, zoology, and natural science, the team provides a very believable launching pad for the evolution of a legend. Not only does it make their own fictional CGI creation seem possible, it also shines a light on the ancient cultures that spawned the original myths."
DreadCentral.com says; "If the cancellation of "MonsterQuest" has left you jonesing for a new monster-hunting show, then Syfy's "Beast Legends" ... might fill the void and give you the cryptozoologists finding nothing or inconclusive evidence fix that you're still craving."


Carl Chun

Carl Chun (1 October 1852 – 11 April 1914) was a German marine biologist.
Chun was born in Höchst, today a part of Frankfurt, and studied zoology at the University of Leipzig, where from 1878 to 1883 he was privat-docent of zoology and an assistant to Rudolf Leuckart. After professorial posts in Königsberg (1883–1891) and Breslau (1891–1898), he returned to Leipzig as a professor of zoology.
He initiated and led the German deep sea expedition (1898/99 "Valdivia" Expedition), which set out on July 31, 1898 from Hamburg to explore the deep sea in the subantarctic seas. They visited Bouvetøya, the Kerguelen Islands, and other islands, before returning to Hamburg, where they arrived on May 1, 1899.
Chun was a specialist on cephalopods and plankton. He discovered and named the vampire squid ("Vampyroteuthis infernalis", which means "vampire squid from hell"). Chun was also interested in making science accessible to larger audiences. He published in a popular style a narrative of the "Valdivia" expedition, which found a wide resonance ("Aus der Tiefen des Weltmeeres", 1900).
He died on April 11, 1914 in Leipzig, Germany, aged 61.
Further reading.
Ilse Jahn, ed., "Geschichte der Biologie: Theorien, Methoden, Institutionen, Kurzbiographien". 3. ed., Berlin: Spektrum, 2000, , pp. 798, 867, 881, 900, 996.


Geodia acanthylastra

Geodia acanthylastra is a sponge species from the family Geodiidae. The species is found in the waters of the Pacific Ocean off the coast of California and was first described by Robert Lendenfeld in 1910.


Geodia areolata

Geodia areolata is a species of sponge in the family Geodiidae. It is found in the waters of the Gulf of Mannar, between the southeastern tip of India and the west coast of Sri Lanka. The species was first described by Henry John Carter in 1880.


Arctapodema

Arctapodema is a genus of deep-sea hydrozoans in the family Rhopalonematidae.


Temporal bone

The temporal bones are situated at the sides and base of the skull, and lateral to the temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex.
The temporal bones are overlaid by the sides of the head known as the temples, and house the structures of the ears. The lower seven cranial nerves and the major vessels to and from the brain traverse the temporal bone.
Structure.
The temporal bone consists of four parts— the squamous, mastoid, petrous and tympanic parts. The squamous part is the largest and most superiorly positioned relative to the rest of the bone. The zygomatic process is a long, arched process projecting from the lower region of the squamous part and it articulates with the zygomatic bone. Posteroinferior to the squamous is the mastoid part. Fused with the squamous and mastoid parts and between the sphenoid and occipital bones lies the petrous part, which is shaped like a pyramid. The tympanic part is relatively small and lies inferior to the squamous part, anterior to the mastoid part, and superior to the styloid process. The styloid, from the Greek "stylos", is a phallic shaped pillar directed inferiorly and anteromedially between the parotid gland and internal jugular vein. An elongated or deviated styloid process can result from calcification of the stylohyoid ligament in a condition known as "Eagle syndrome".
Development.
The temporal bone is ossified from eight centers, exclusive of those for the internal ear and the tympanic ossicles: one for the squama including the zygomatic process, one for the tympanic part, four for the petrous and mastoid parts, and two for the styloid process. Just before the end of prenatal development [Fig. 6] the temporal bone consists of three principal parts:
Postnatal development.
Apart from size increase, the chief changes from birth through puberty in the temporal bone are as follows:
Trauma.
Temporal bone fractures were historically divided into three main categories, "longitudinal", in which the vertical axis of the fracture paralleled the petrous ridge, "horizontal", in which the axis of the fracture was perpendicular to the petrous ridge, and "oblique", a mixed type with both longitudinal and horizontal components. Horizontal fractures were thought to be associated with injuries to the facial nerve, and longitudinal with injuries to the middle ear ossicles.
More recently, delineation based on disruption of the otic capsule has been found as more reliable in predicting complications such as facial nerve injury, sensorineural hearing loss, intracerebral hemorrhage, and cerebrospinal fluid otorrhea.
Other animals.
In many animals some of these parts stay separate through life:
In evolutionary terms, the temporal bone is derived from the fusion of many bones that are often separate in non-human mammals:
Etymology.
Its exact etymology is unknown. It is thought to be from the Old French "temporal" meaning "earthly," which is directly from the Latin "tempus" meaning "time, proper time or season." Temporal bones are situated on the sides of the skull, where grey hairs usually appear early on. Or it may relate to the pulsations of the underlying superficial temporal artery, marking the time we have left here. There is also a probable connection with the Greek verb "temnion", to wound in battle. The skull is thin in this area and presents a vulnerable area for a blow from a battle axe. Another possible etymology is described at Temple (anatomy).
Pathology.
Glomus jugulare tumor:


Dendya clathrata

Dendya clathrata is a species of calcareous sponge in the family Dendyidae.


Turtle shell

The turtle shell is a highly complicated shield for the ventral and dorsal parts of turtles, tortoises and terrapins (all classified as "turtles" by zoologists), completely enclosing all the vital organs of the turtle and in some cases even the head. It is constructed of modified bony elements such as the ribs, parts of the pelvis and other bones found in most reptiles. The bone of the shell consists of both skeletal and dermal bone, showing that the complete enclosure of the shell probably evolved by including dermal armor into the rib cage.
The shell of the turtle is an important study, not just because of the obvious protection it provides for the animal, but also as an identification tool, in particular with fossils as the shell is one of the likely parts of a turtle to survive fossilization. Hence understanding the structure of the shell in living species provides comparable material with fossils.
The shell of the hawksbill turtle, among other species, has been used as a material for a wide range of small decorative and practical items since antiquity, but is normally referred to as tortoiseshell.
Shell nomenclature.
The turtle shell is made up of numerous bony elements, generally named after similar bones in other vertebrates, and a series of keratinous scutes which are also uniquely named. Some of those bones that make the top of the shell, carapace, evolved from the scapula rami of the clavicles along with the dorsal and superficial migration of the cleithra. The ventral surface is called the "plastron". These are joined by an area called the bridge. The actual suture between the bridge and the plastron is called the anterior bridge strut. In Pleurodires the posterior pelvis is also part of the carapace, fully fused with it. This is not the case in Cryptodires which have a floating pelvis. The anterior bridge strut and posterior bridge strut are part of the plastron, on the carapace are the sutures into which they insert, known as the Bridge carapace suture.
In the shell there is a turtle’s epidermis layer. This layer is important to the strength of the shell surrounding it. In an international study, the layer can be as thick as two to four cells. Even with such a small thickness, the epidermis allows the deformation the shell can experience and provides the shell more support. The epidermis layer is apparent in both sections of the shell, carapace, and plastron, and is thicker in critical areas. A thicker epidermis allows a higher stress force to be experienced without permanent deformation or critical failure of the shell.
The shape of the shell is from its evolutionary process. Causing many microstructures to appear to aid survival and motion. Shell shape allows the animal to escape predatory situations. Microstructures can include the scutes mentioned prior or the ribs found internally of the shell.  Many ribs can be found within the shell and throughout the shell. The rib structures provide extra structural support but allows the shells to deform elastically depending on the situation the turtle is in (i.e., predatory escape). Nonstructural mechanisms have also been in the turtle shell that aids the turtle during locomotion. A mucus film like is covering parts of the shell, allowing like friction and drag.
The bones of the shell are named for standard vertebrate elements. As such the carapace is made up of 8 pleurals on each side, these are a combination of the ribs and fused dermal bone. Outside of this at the anterior of the shell is the single nuchal bone, a series of 12 paired periphals then extend along each side. At the posterior of the shell is the pygal bone and in front of this nested behind the eighth pleurals is the suprapygal.
Between each of the pleurals are a series of neural bones, which although always present are not always visible, in many species of Pleurodire they are submerged below the pleurals. Beneath the neural bone is the Neural arch which forms the upper half of the encasement for the spinal chord. Below this the rest of the vertebral column. Some species of turtles have some extra bones called mesoplastra, which are located between the carapace and plastron in the bridge area. They are present in most Pelomedusid turtles.
The skeletal elements of the plastron are also largely in pairs. Anteriorly there are two epiplastra, with the hyoplastra behind them. These enclose the singuar entoplastron. These make up the front half of the plastron and the hyoplastron contains the anterior bridge strut. The posterior half is made up of two hypoplastra (containing the posterior bridge strut) and the rear is a pair of xiphiplastra.
Overlying the boney elements are a series of scutes, which are made of keratin and are a lot like horn or nail tissue. In the center of the carapace are 5 vertebral scutes and out from these are 4 pairs of costal scutes. Around the edge of the shell are 12 pairs of marginal scutes. All these scutes are aligned so that for the most part the sutures between the bones are in the middle of the scutes above. At the anterior of the shell there may be a cervical scute (sometimes incorrectly called a nuchal scute) however the presence or absence of this scute is highly variable, even within species.
On the plastron there are two gular scutes at the front, followed by a pair of pectorals, then abdominals, femorals and lastly anals. A particular variation is the Pleurodiran turtles have an intergular scute between the gulars at the front, giving them a total of 13 plastral scutes. Compared to the 12 in all Cryptodiran turtles.
Carapace.
The carapace is the dorsal (back), convex part of the shell structure of a turtle, consisting of the animal's ossified ribs fused with the dermal bone. The spine and expanded ribs are fused through ossification to dermal plates beneath the skin to form a hard shell. Exterior to the skin the shell is covered by scutes, which are horny plates made of keratin that protect the shell from scrapes and bruises. A "keel", a ridge that runs from front to the back of the animal is present in some species, these may be single, paired or even three rows of them. In most turtles the shell is relatively uniform in structure, species variation in general shape and color being the main differences. However the soft shell turtles, pig-nose turtles and the leatherback sea turtle have lost the scutes and reduced the ossification of the shell. This leaves the shell covered only by skin. These are all highly aquatic forms.
The evolution of the turtle's shell is unique because of how the carapace represents transformed vertebrae and ribs. While other tetrapods have their scapula, or shoulder blades, found outside of the ribcage, the scapula for turtles is found inside the ribcage. The shells of other tetrapods, such as armadillos, are not linked directly to the vertebral column or rib cage allowing the ribs to move freely with the surrounding intercostal muscle. However, analysis of the transitional fossil, "Eunotosaurus africanus" shows that early ancestors of turtles lost that intercostal muscle usually found between the ribs.
Recent breakthroughs in stem-turtle fossil records contribute to the study of the evolution of the turtle's shell. The first piece of fossil record discovered, essential for building the evolution and development model, was Germany and Thailand's 214-million-year-old Late Triassic reptile "Proganochelys", which marked as the first point of full shell development and carapace ossification in Testudines.
The following phenomenal discovery of China's 220-million-year-old stem turtle, predating the "Proganonchelys" by 6 million years, the "Odontochelys semitestacea" fossil in China shed light on the intermediate stages of turtle carapace evolution by exhibiting a partially formed dorsal carapace. One major discovery was that "O. semitestacea" provided documentation that the plastron evolved before the carapace structure. Close examination of the partially formed carapace revealed similarity to the fully formed carapace in crown turtles such as the lack of intercostal muscles and limited rib mobility. Furthermore, it is made up of modified forms of laterally expanded and broadened ribs without ossification, similar in structure to the modern turtle embryo.
The addition of South Africa's 260-million-year-old Permian stem reptile "Eunotosaurus africanus", the hypothesized earliest stem turtle predating the "O. semitestacea" by 40 million years, revealed the early stages of carapace evolution. Histological data characterized "E. africanus" and "Proganochelys" ribs as homologous structures, both broadened and T-shaped in cross-section.
Lyson hypothesizes that this morphology in "Eunotosaurus africanus" suggests that turtles may have fossorial origin. The wide torso gave rise to the turtle shell but during the Permian period, the broadened ribs may have provided great stability in burrowing. The skeletal structure of "E. africanus" in comparison to the extant fossorial gopher tortoise share similar features adapted to withstand the impact and force needed in digging. For example, "E. africanus" exhibits shoulders and forelimb adapted to burrowing, showing increased muscle indicated in structures such as their tubercle on the posterior coracoid and their large and wide terminal phalanges. Furthermore, fossoriality may have helped "E. africanus" survive the global mass extinction which wiped out over ninety percent of species at the end of the Permian period. This feature is also found in a stem of crown turtles, introducing the possibility that fossorial behavior was not subject to "E. africanus" , but rather played an essential role in the early evolution of shelled turtles.
The most recent finding of a Middle Triassic stem-turtle offers both a morphological and temporal intermediate to the "Eunotosaurus africanus" and "Odontochelys semitestacea", contributing to the construction of carapace evolution timeline. The 240 million-year-old "Pappochelys" fossil found in Germany shows similarly broadened and T-shaped ribs that vary in shape with respect to position along the spine.
The carapacial ridge has been found to play an essential role in the development of the turtle shell. Embryological analyses show that the carapacial ridge initiates the formation of the turtle shell. It causes axial arrest which causes the ribs to be dorsalized, the shoulder girdle to be rearranged and encapsulated in the rib cage, and the carapace to develop. "Odontochelys semitestacea" presents evidence of axial arrest that is observed in embryos but lacks fan-shaped ribs and a carapace. This suggests that the primitive carapacial ridge functioned differently and must have gained the function of mediating the ribs and carapace development later. The "Pax1" and "Sonic hedgehog gene" ("Shh") serve as key regulators during the development of the vertebral column. "Shh" expression in the neural tube is essential for the maintenance of "Pax1" expression in the ventral sclerotome and thus plays a key role in carapacial rib development. Genetic observations of "Pax1" and "Shh" further provide an understanding in key gene expression that could potentially be responsible for changing turtle morphology.
Plastron.
The plastron (plural: plastrons or plastra) is the nearly flat part of the shell structure of a turtle, what one would call the belly or ventral surface of the shell. It also includes within its structure the anterior and posterior bridge struts and the bridge of the shell. The plastron is made up of nine bones and the two epiplastra at the anterior border of the plastron are homologous to the clavicles of other tetrapods. The rest of the plastral bones are homologous to the gastralia of other tetrapods. The plastron has been described as an exoskeleton, like osteoderms of other reptilians; but unlike osteoderms, the plastron also possesses osteoblasts, the osteoid, and the periosteum.
The evolution of the plastron has remained more mysterious, though Georges Cuvier, a French naturalist and zoologist in the 19th century, wrote that the plastron developed primarily from the sternum of the turtle. This fits well with the knowledge obtained through embryological studies, showing that changes in the pathways of rib development often result in malformation or loss of the plastron. This phenomenon occurs in turtle development, but instead of experiencing complete loss of the sternum the turtle body plan repurposes the bone into the form of the plastron, although other analyses find that the endochondral sternum is absent and replaced by the exoskeletal plastron. The ventral ribs are effectively not present, replaced by the plastron, unless the gastralia from which the plastron evolved were once floating ventral ribs. During turtle evolution, there was probably a division of labor between the ribs, which specialized to stabilize the trunk, and the abdominal muscles, which specialized for respiration, and these changes took place 50 million years before the shell was fully ossified.
The discovery of an ancestral turtle fossil, "Pappochelys rosinae," provides additional clues as to how the plastron formed. "Pappochelys" serves as an intermediate form between two early stem-turtles, "E. africanus" and "Odontochelys," the latter of which possesses a fully formed plastron. In place of a modern plastron, "Pappochelys" has paired gastralia, like those found in "E. africanus". "Pappochelys" is different from its ancestor because the gastralia show signs of having once been fused, as indicated by the fossil specimens which show forked ends. This evidence shows a gradual change from paired gastralia, to paired and fused gastralia, and finally to the modern plastron across these three specimens.
In certain families there is a hinge between the pectoral and abdominal scutes allowing the turtle to almost completely enclose itself. In certain species the sex of a testudine can be told by whether the plastron is concave, male or convex, female. This is because of the mating position; the male's concave plastron allows it to more easily mount the female during copulation.
The plastral scutes join along a central seam down the middle of the plastron. The relative lengths of the seam segments can be used to help identify a species of turtle. There are six laterally symmetric pairs of scutes on the plastron: gular, humeral, pectoral, abdominal, femoral, and anal (going from the head to the tail down the seam); the abdominal and gular scute seams are approximately the same length, and the femoral and pectoral seams are approximately the same length.
The "gular scute" or "gular projection" on a turtle is the most anterior part of the plastron, the underside of the shell. Some tortoises have paired gular scutes, while others have a single undivided gular scute. The gular scutes may be referred to as a gular projection if they stick out like a trowel.
Plastral formula.
The plastral formula is used to compare the sizes of the individual plastral scutes (measured along the midseam). The following plastral scutes are often distinguished (with their abbreviation):
Comparison of the plastral formulas provides distinction between the two species. For example, for the eastern box turtle, the plastral formula is: an > abd > gul > pect > hum >< fem
Turtle plastrons were used by the ancient Chinese in a type of divination called plastromancy. See also Oracle bones.
Origin.
Studies of two ancestral turtles, the polka dot turtle ancestor and the Late Triassic turtle "Proganochelys" have postulated the ancestral form of the carapace. It was hypothesized that the carapace was originated from scattered osteoderms that cover an incompletely developed outer shell. The scattered osteoderms would first fuse with each other and then fuse with the underlying endoskeletal vertebrae and ribs in evolution. This osteoderm pattern embedded in the skin is also shown in many other reptiles. A gradual transformation of the turtle shell from ancestral forms to modern ones was proposed by Michael S. Y. Lee: The transformation series of the carapace first start with some unarmored parareptile, then armored pareiasaur, and finally develop into modern turtles with fully developed carapace and relocated rib cage. This transformationalist perspective of the turtle shell origin is consistent with the Darwinian view, which agrees on the theory that descendant structures are derived from gradual, stepwise modification of ancestral ones.
The discovery of the ancestral turtle fossil "Eunotosaurus africanus" (260-million-year-old) provided more evidence for the diapsid origin of the turtles. The "Eunotosaurus africanus" was described as "a diapsid reptile in the process of becoming secondarily anapsid", thus filling a crucial gap in the evolutionary transformation of turtle from diapsid ancestor reptiles to anapsid modern turtles. The phylogenetic relationship of the ancestral turtles is summarized as the follows: "the "Eunotosaurus" is placed at the bottom of the stem section of the turtle tree, followed by "Pappochelys" and "Odontochelys" along the turtle stem and on to more crown-ward turtles".
Scutes.
The turtle's shell is covered in scutes that are made of keratin. The individual scutes as shown above have specific names and are generally consistent across the various species of turtles. Terrestrial tortoises do not shed their scutes. New scutes grow by the addition of keratin layers to the base of each scute. Aquatic chelonii shed individual scutes. The scute effectively forms the "skin" over the underlying bony structures; there is a very thin layer of subcutaneous tissue between the scute and the skeleton. The scutes can be brightly colored in some species, but the basal color is a grey to dark brown color dorsally; the plastral scutes are often white to yellow in base color. Moustakas-Verho and Cherepanov's embryological study reveals that the patterning of the plastral scutes appear independent from the patterning of carapacial scutes, suggesting that the carapace and plastron evolved separately.
The appearance of scutes correlates to the transition from aquatic to terrestrial mode of life in tetrapods during the Carboniferous period (340 Ma). In the evolution from amphibians to terrestrial amniotes, transition in a wide variety of skin structures occurred. Ancestors of turtles likely diverged from amphibians to develop a horny cover in their early terrestrial ancestral forms.
Diseases.
Septicemic cutaneous ulcerative disease (SCUD) / shell rot.
In septicemic cutaneous ulcerative disease (SCUD) or "shell rot", originally described by Kaplan (1957), ulcers of the shell may be superficial or deep. Ulcers may be seen on both the shell and legs. The disease is known to be caused by a variety of bacteria or fungi entering through some sort of abrasion, combined with poor animal husbandry. The disease is identified by its progression and what starts as ulcerative lesions of the plastron leads to a septicemic infection causing the degradation of the liver and other organs. Without treatment, this will lead to death. The condition is often associated with the bacteria, "Citrobacter freundii".
Turtles with ulcerative shell lesions should be examined and treated by a veterinarian, as the ulcers may become infected and penetrate through the shell. The shell will need to be cleaned daily, and dead tissue removed. Topical and/or injectable antibiotics are required in the case of bacterial infections. Deep ulcers may need to be repaired through surgery and the application of acrylic or fiberglass material.
In remote areas where no specialised vets are available some success has been achieved in treating shell rot by carefully removing dead tissue, disinfecting the areas with hydrogen peroxide and then treating the affected areas with propolis dissolved in alcohol where the shell is affected or applying propolis salve where soft tissue is affected.
Pyramiding.
Pyramiding is a shell deformity sometimes found in captive tortoises, in which the shell grows unevenly resulting in a pyramid shape underlying each scute. This deformity can vary in severity from barely noticeable to life-threatening. Indian star tortoises and some other species are more prone to this condition than others.
Several factors may exacerbate pyramiding, however the condition is strongly linked to the availability of moisture to facilitate the proper distribution of keratin growth which makes up the shells of tortoises. If a tortoise is dehydrated or unable to access conditions which are sufficiently moist, the keratinous layers which would otherwise form at the edges of scutes grow beneath the existing hardened shell causing a stacking effect which pushes shell growth upwards rather than outwards and exerts pressure on the skeleton beneath the shell. If severe, this leads to spinal and physical malformation.
Other factors which may also contribute to pyramiding include the consumption of excessive animal or vegetable protein; inadequate calcium, UVB and/or vitamin D3; poor nutrition.
Pyramiding may also be a visible sign of metabolic bone disease (MBD) in tortoises. Once pyramiding has occurred, it cannot be reversed, though if the underlying problems are corrected, any subsequent shell growth will form smoothly.
Broken shells.
Turtles' shells may become broken due to natural causes, accidents, or intention. When the split is not too wide the shell may be brought together by screwing bolts into the shell then connecting the bolts with a wire; otherwise, a special device may be required.
Turtleshell masks.
Torres Strait Islander people are the only culture in the world to make turtleshell masks, known as "krar" (turtleshell) in the Western Islands and "le-op" (human face) in the Eastern Islands.


Cinctipora elegans

Cinctipora elegans is a bryozoan species in the genus "Cinctipora" found in shallow sea-bed around New Zealand. Fossils of the species are also known.


Perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone

The perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone (vertical plate) is a thin, flattened lamina, polygonal in form, which descends from the under surface of the cribriform plate, and assists in forming the septum of the nose; it is generally deflected a little to one or other side. The anterior border articulates with the spine of the frontal bone and the crest of the nasal bones.
The posterior border articulates by its upper half with the sphenoidal crest, by its lower with the vomer.
The inferior border is thicker than the posterior, and serves for the attachment of the septal nasal cartilage of the nose.
The surfaces of the plate are smooth, except above, where numerous grooves and canals are seen; these lead from the medial foramina on the cribriform plate and lodge filaments of the olfactory nerves.


Oroperipatus intermedius

Oroperipatus intermedius is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatidae family. The type locality is in Bolivia.


Stenisis

Stenisis is a genus of deep-sea bamboo coral in the family Isididae. It is monotypic with a single species, Stenisis humilis.


Posterior auricular vein

The posterior auricular vein begins upon the side of the head, in a plexus which communicates with the tributaries of the occipital vein and superficial temporal veins.
It descends behind the auricula, and joins the posterior division of the posterior facial vein to form the external jugular vein.
It receive the stylomastoid vein, and some tributaries from the cranial surface of the auricula.


Paraperipatus

Paraperipatus is a genus of velvet worms in the family Peripatopsidae. They are found in New Guinea and Maluku, Indonesia.
Species.
The genus contains the following species:
"Paraperipatus amboinensis" , "Paraperipatus leopoldi" , "Paraperipatus schultzei" , and "Paraperipatus stresemanni" are considered "nomina dubia" by Oliveira et al., 2012.


Chrysaora plocamia

The South American sea nettle (Chrysaora plocamia) is a species of jellyfish from the family Pelagiidae. It is found from the Pacific coast of Peru, south along Chile's coast to Tierra del Fuego, and north along the Atlantic coast of Argentina, with a few records from Uruguay. Despite its common name, it is not the only sea nettle in South America; "C. lactea" ranges along the Atlantic coast of the continent, but generally further north than "C. plocamia". Historically, "C. plocamia" was often confused with "C. hysoscella", a species now known to be restricted to the northeast Atlantic. "C. plocamia" is a large jellyfish, up to in bell diameter, although most mature individuals only are .
Reproduction.
The South American sea nettle is highly evolved, specifically within their sexual reproductive strategies. They have to undergo bodily changes in order to experience both sexual and asexual reproduction then go through a process called strobilation.


Heater cell

Heater cells are specialized modified muscle cells located at the base of the brain in billfish, including swordfish. They act to maintain temperatures in the brain and eyes above ambient temperature. Producing heat and maintaining temperature requires high levels of metabolic activity, as such, the heater cells have the highest mitochondrial densities of any animal cell, ranging from 55% to 70% of the total cell volume.


Erythropodium caribaeorum

Erythropodium caribaeorum, commonly known as the encrusting gorgonian or encrusting polyps, is a species of soft coral in the family Anthothelidae. It inhabits coral reefs and rocky bottoms in the Caribbean, Bahamas, and Florida, growing at depths of 0.5 to 25 metres.
"E. caribaeorum" is of interest from a drug discovery perspective because it produces eleutherobin, a diterpene glycoside with potential anticancer activity.


Atrypa reticularis

Atrypa reticularis is an extinct species of brachiopods. The fossils are present from the base of Rhuddanian up to the top of Lower Frasnian.


Orchesella pannonica

Orchesella pannonica is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae.


Aphelochaeta antelonga

Aphelochaeta antelonga is a species of bitentaculate cirratulidan first found in the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, at a shallow subtidal depth of about in the Gulf of Nicoya. It is characterised by possessing a long biannulate peristomium and fibrillated capillary setae.


Bokhara Trumpeter

The Bokhara Trumpeter is a breed of fancy pigeon developed over many years of selective breeding. Bokhara Trumpeters, along with other varieties of domesticated pigeons, are all descendants from the rock pigeon ("Columba livia").
The breed is known for its long muffed (feathered) feet and double crest.
One of the most popular breeds of Trumpeter in the U.S., the Bokhara Trumpeter is most noticeably characterized by its lengthy full muffs (feathers on the feet) and double crest which completely obscures the bird's eyes and gives it a look reminiscent of the Old English Sheepdog. The trumpeting breeds of pigeon are so named because of their unique vocalizations which sound vaguely like low laughter.
Wendell Levi describes this trumpeting vocalization in his book "The Pigeon".


Subchondral bone


Lampris immaculatus

Lampris immaculatus, commonly known as the southern opah or southern moonfish, is a species of fish native to the Southern Ocean. The species is found commonly in New Zealand waters. They are caught commercially using long-line fishery in New Zealand. The most common prey species for the southern opah are juvenile onychoteuthid squid "Moroteuthis ingens", which were found in 93% of 69 fish. It was discovered that 14% of the opahs contained plastic pollutants in their digestive tract, which indicates signs of high plastic pollution in the Southwest Atlantic.


Paziella

Paziella is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Muricidae, the murex snails or rock snails.
Description.
The biconic, medium-sized shell has its varices dissected into spines. The aperture is ovoid and smooth inside. The anal sinus is almost closed. The columella is smooth.
This Caribbean genus is closely related to "Poirieria" from the Indo-Pacific region.
Species.
Species within the genus "Paziella" include:


Stint

A stint is one of several very small waders in the paraphyletic "Calidris" assemblage – often separated in "Erolia" – which in North America are known as peeps. They are scolopacid waders much similar in ecomorphology to their distant relatives, the charadriid plovers.
Some of these birds are difficult to identify because of the similarity between species, and various breeding, non-breeding, juvenile, and moulting plumages. In addition, some plovers are also similarly patterned, especially in winter. With a few exceptions, stints usually have a fairly stereotypical color pattern, being brownish above and lighter – usually white – on much of the underside. They often have a lighter supercilium above brownish cheeks.
Systematics and taxonomy.
The genus "Calidris" is not monophyletic in its traditional delimitations and should be restricted to the stout red knot and its allies. The genus "Erolia" was often used for the stints ever since it was proposed by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1816. However, the type species of "Erolia" is the curlew sandpiper, which is not traditionally included among the stints.
No firm consensus has been reached on the curlew sandpiper's phylogenetic status (i.e., what its closest relatives are) and hence "Erolia" cannot be exactly delimited at present. This notwithstanding, the stints together with a few slightly more distinct calidrids would indeed warrant separation as a distinct genus. The sanderling, sometimes placed in "Crocethia", is among these and it may be that this genus name would apply.
The species usually considered stints/peeps are: