Southern cassowary

The southern cassowary ("Casuarius casuarius"), also known as double-wattled cassowary, Australian cassowary or two-wattled cassowary, is a large flightless black bird. It is one of the three living species of cassowary, alongside the dwarf cassowary and the northern cassowary. It is a ratite and therefore related to the emu, ostriches, rheas and kiwis.
Taxonomy.
Presently, most authorities consider the southern cassowary monotypic, but several subspecies have been described. It has proven very difficult to confirm the validity of these due to individual variations, age-related variations, the relatively few available specimens (and the bright skin of the head and neck – the basis upon which several subspecies have been described – fades in specimens), and that locals are known to have traded live cassowaries for hundreds, if not thousands of years, some of which are likely to have escaped/been deliberately introduced to regions away from their origin.
Cassowaries are closely related to the kiwis, both families diverging from a common ancestor approximately 40 million years ago.
The binomial name "Casuarius casuarius" is derived from its Malay name "kesuari". The southern cassowary was first described by Carl Linnaeus, in his 18th-century work "Systema Naturae", as "Struthio casuarius", from a specimen from Seram, in 1758. It is now the type species of the genus "Casuarius".
The southern cassowary has been described under a large number of scientific names, all of which are now considered taxonomic synonyms for the species.
Description.
The southern cassowary has stiff, bristly black plumage, a blue face and long neck, red on the cape and two red wattles measuring around in length hanging down around its throat. A horn-like brown casque, measuring high, sits atop the head. The bill can range from . The three-toed feet are thick and powerful, equipped with a lethal dagger-like claw up to on the inner toe. The plumage is sexually monomorphic, but the female is dominant and larger with a longer casque, larger bill and brighter-coloured bare parts. The juveniles have brown longitudinal striped plumage. It is perhaps the largest member of the cassowary family and is tied as the second heaviest bird on earth, at a maximum size estimated at and tall. Normally, this species ranges from in length. The height is normally ; females average , while males average . The northern cassowary is about the same size on average and is perhaps very mildly less sexually dimorphic than the southern. Most adult birds will weigh between . It is technically the largest Asian bird (since the extinction of the Arabian ostrich) and the largest Australian bird (though the emu may be slightly taller).
Range and habitat.
The southern cassowary is distributed in Indonesia, New Guinea and northeastern Australia. It mainly inhabits tropical rainforests but may make use of nearby savannah forests or mangroves stands. The species prefers elevations below in Australia, and on New Guinea.
Behavior.
It forages on the forest floor for fallen fruit and is capable of safely digesting some fruits toxic to other animals. It also eats fungi, and some insects and small vertebrates. Inspection of the feces reveals that commonly ingested fruits are Davidsonia pruriens, Acemena divaricata and members of the laurel family (Lauraceae).
The southern cassowary is a solitary bird, which pairs only in breeding season, in late winter or spring. The male builds a nest on the ground, a mattress of herbaceous plant material thick and up to wide. This is thick enough to let moisture drain away from the eggs. The male also incubates the eggs and raises the chicks alone. A clutch of three or four eggs are laid measuring . They have a granulated surface and are initially bright pea-green in colour although they fade with age. Cassowaries make a thunderous call during mating season and hissing and rumblings otherwise. Chicks will make frequent high-pitched contact whistles and chirps to call the male.
Cassowaries have a reputation for being dangerous to people and animals, and are often regarded as aggressive. The birds can jump quite high and kick powerfully with their blade-like claws. However, deadly encounters with cassowaries are rare. Only two human deaths have been reported since 1900. A 2003 historical study of 221 cassowary attacks showed that 150 had been against humans: 75% of these had been from cassowaries that had been fed by people, 71% of the time the bird had chased or charged the victim, 15% of the time they kicked. Of the attacks, 73% involved the birds expecting or snatching food, 5% involved defending their natural food sources, 15% involved defending themselves from attack, and 7% involved defending their chicks or eggs. Only one human death was reported among those 150 attacks.
The first documented human death caused by a cassowary was on April 6, 1926. In Australia, 16-year-old Phillip McClean and his brother, age 13, came across a cassowary on their property and decided to try and kill it by striking it with clubs. The bird kicked the younger boy, who fell and ran away as his older brother struck the bird. The older McClean then tripped and fell to the ground. While he was on the ground, the cassowary kicked him in the neck, opening a 1.25 cm (0.5 in) wound that may have severed his jugular vein. The boy died of his injuries shortly thereafter.
Another human death due to a cassowary was recorded in Florida on April 12, 2019. The bird's owner, a 75-year-old man who had raised the animal, was apparently clawed to death after he fell to the ground.
Being fed by people tempts cassowaries into closer associations with human-inhabited areas, increasing the already high risk of vehicle strikes - a major cause of cassowary mortality - and increasing the likelihood of encounters with humans. Many "aggressive" birds are simply responding to having been fed by humans in the past. Unfortunately the poor reputation of this species leads to confusion and misinformation among the public, which hampers conservation efforts of this shy bird.
Conservation.
Although subject to ongoing habitat loss, limited range, and overhunting in some areas, the southern cassowary as of 2017 evaluated as Least concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The Australian population is listed as Endangered under Federal and Queensland State legislation. Some threats are habitat loss (logging), feral animals eating their eggs, hunting, and roadkill. Road building, feral animals and hunting are the worst of these threats. It has an occurrence range of , and between 10,000 and 20,000 birds were estimated in a 2002 study, with between 1,500 and 2,500 in Australia. Southern cassowaries have been bred in many zoos around the world, like at White Oak Conservation in Yulee, Florida, United States.


Posterior cerebral artery

The posterior cerebral artery (PCA) is one of a pair of arteries that supply oxygenated blood to the occipital lobe, part of the back of the human brain. The two arteries originate from the distal end of the basilar artery, where it bifurcates into the left and right posterior cerebral arteries. These anastomose with the middle cerebral arteries and internal carotid arteries via the posterior communicating arteries.
Structure.
The branches of the posterior cerebral artery are divided into two sets, ganglionic and cortical:
Central branches.
Also known as the perforating branches:
(Posterior) choroidal branches.
Not to be confused with the Anterior choroidal artery
The posterior choroidal branches of the posterior cerebral artery are sometimes referred to as a single posterior choroidal artery.
Cortical branches.
The cortical branches are:
Development.
The development of the PCA in fetal brain comes relatively late and arises from the fusion of several embryonic vessels near the caudal end of the PCommA supplying the mesencephalon and diencephalon of the fetus. The PCA begins as such, as a continuation of the PCommA in the fetus with only 10–30% of fetuses having a prominent basilar origin.
The fetal carotid origin of the PCA usually regresses as the vertebral and basilar arteries develop with the PCommA reducing is size. In most adults, the PCA sources from the anterior portion of the basilar artery. Only about 19% of adults retain PCommA dominance of the PCA with 72% having dominant basilar origin, and the rest having either equal prominence between PCommA and basilar artery, or a single exclusive source.
Clinical significance.
Stroke.
Signs and symptoms:"Structures involved"
See: Posterior cerebral artery syndrome


Bathyspadella

Bathyspadella is a genus of chaetognaths in the family Spadellidae. The genus shares morphological similarities to Eukrohniidae and Spadellidae, although it is molecularly similar to Heterokrohniidae. The unusual position of "Bathyspadella" would indicate a need to revise the existing order of Phragmophora; however, that would be very difficult, as a number of genera and species exist only in small or difficult to access populations, by which it would be difficult to fully examine all related species. A review of the Chaetognatha, published after the discovery of "B. oxydentata", found that the standard division of Phragmophora and Aphragmophora to be improper molecularly, noting the close morphological convergence of the Krohnittidae (Aphragmophora) and "Xenokrohnia" (Phragmophora: Heterokrohniidae).


Calamophylliopsis elegans

Calamophylliopsis elegans is an extinct species of hexacorals. It is found only at Sainpug, Gegyai, Tibet Autonomous Region (Cretaceous of China).


Eoperipatus horsti

Eoperipatus horsti is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatidae family. The type locality is in West Malaysia.


Disintegrin

Disintegrins are a family of small proteins (45–84 amino acids in length) from viper venoms that function as potent inhibitors of both platelet aggregation and integrin-dependent cell adhesion.
Operation.
Disintegrins work by countering the blood clotting steps, inhibiting the clumping of platelets. They interact with the beta-1 and -3 families of integrins receptors. Integrins are cell receptors involved in cell–cell and cell–extracellular matrix interactions, serving as the final common pathway leading to aggregation via formation of platelet–platelet bridges, which are essential in thrombosis and haemostasis. Disintegrins contain an RGD (Arg-Gly-Asp) or KGD (Lys-Gly-Asp) sequence motif that binds specifically to integrin IIb-IIIa receptors on the platelet surface, thereby blocking the binding of fibrinogen to the receptor–glycoprotein complex of activated platelets. Disintegrins act as receptor antagonists, inhibiting aggregation induced by ADP, thrombin, platelet-activating factor and collagen. The role of disintegrin in preventing blood coagulation renders it of medical interest, particularly with regard to its use as an anti-coagulant.
Types of disintegrin.
Disintegrins from different snake species have been characterised: albolabrin, applagin, barbourin, batroxostatin, bitistatin, obtustatin, schistatin, echistatin, elegantin, eristicophin, flavoridin, halysin, kistrin, mojastin ("Crotalus scutulatus"), rubistatin ("Crotalus ruber"), tergeminin, salmosin, tzabcanin ("Crotalus simus tzabcan") and triflavin.
Disintegrins are split into 5 classes: small, medium, large, dimeric, and snake venom metalloproteinases.
Small Disintegrins: 49-51 amino acids, 4 disulfide bonds

Medium Disintegrins: 70 amino acids, 6 disulfide bonds

Large Disintegrins: 84 amino acids, 7 disulfide bonds

Dimeric Disintegrins: 67 amino acids, 4 intra-chain disulfide bonds

Snake Venom Metalloproteinases: 100 amino acids, 8 disulfide bond
Evolution of disintegrin family.
Disintegrins evolved via gene duplication of an ancestral protein family, the ADAM family. Small, medium, large, and dimeric disintegrin family are found only in the family Viperidae, suggesting duplication and diversification about 12-20 million years ago. Snake venom metalloproteinases are found through the entire superfamily Colubroidea, suggesting that they evolved before Colubroidea diversified roughly 60 million years ago.
Other sources of disintegrin proteins.
Disintegrin-like proteins are found in various species ranging from slime mold to humans. Some other proteins known to contain a disintegrin domain are:


Matthew William Kemble Connolly

Matthew William Kemble Connolly (13 February 1872 – 24 February 1947) was a British army officer and malacologist.
Biography.
Connolly was born at Bath, the son of Vice-Admiral Matthew Connolly, R.N., and his wife Harriet Kemble. He was educated at Haileybury College and trained at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. He was commissioned into the King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry as a second lieutenant on 7 November 1891. He was promoted captain on 26 July 1899. He was appointed adjutant of the 2nd Volunteer Battalion, Royal Warwickshire Regiment on 23 April 1900, and held that position until 23 April 1905, and returned to regimental duties on 6 May. From this point much of his service was in South Africa, He was promoted major on 9 July 1910.
While in South Africa, Connolly took an interest in minerals and then started observing snails in the field. He took up malacology and conchology seriously and became an authority on the land and freshwater molluscs of South Africa. On 11 December 1912, he went onto the half-pay list as a result of ill-health arising from rheumatic fever. He retired from the army on 2 May 1914. During World War I he was employed at the army record office. He became a friend of Edgar Albert Smith, who was keeper of molluscs at the British Museum and who recognised his worth. In 1918, Connolly became an honorary scientific worker in the natural history department at South Kensington (now the Natural History Museum) and continued to work there until December 1946 in spite of increasing lameness.
Connolly published some fifty papers on molluscs between 1910 and 1945. He was a member of the Malacological Society from 1908 to 1938 and was president of the Conchological Society in 1930. Connolly was also a connoisseur of wine and an expert on potted meats and wrote a highly regarded pamphlet on the subject.
Connolly married Muriel Maud Vernon, daughter of Colonel Edward Vernon, J.P., D.L., of Clontarf Castle, Co. Dublin (1838–1913), whom he met while serving in Ireland. They lived at The Lock House, Deepcut, Surrey on the Basingstoke Canal, although Connolly was based mostly in South Kensington. Their only child was the writer and critic Cyril Connolly. Tom Pain, a younger researcher and friend of Connolly, recalled being introduced to Cyril Connolly by his father with the words "this is my son – he is a fool!"
Bibliography and described species.
Many specimens including types from collection by Matthew William Kemble Connolly are in Collection of molluscs of Manchester Museum and also in the Natural History Museum, London and the National Museum of Wales, Cardiff.
Taxa newly described by Matthew William Kemble Connolly are listed below these works:
References.
This article incorporates CC-BY-3.0 text from the reference.


Superior labial artery

The superior labial artery (superior labial branch of facial artery) is larger and more egregious than the inferior labial artery.
It follows a similar course along the edge of the upper lip, lying between the mucous membrane and the orbicularis oris, and anastomoses with the artery of the opposite side.
It supplies the upper lip, and gives off in its course two or three vessels which ascend to the nose; a septal branch ramifies on the nasal septum as far as the point of the nose, and an alar branch supplies the ala of the nose.


Geryonia

Geryonia is a monotypic genus of hydrozoans in the family Geryoniidae. It is represented by the species Geryonia proboscidalis which occurs in the Mediterranean and subtropical seas. In the Mediterranean the species is more numerous and the polyps are larger than in other parts of the world. The diameter of a polyp can be up to 80 mm, while in Florida and the Bahamas it is rare to find specimens of more than 50 mm in diameter.
Description.
The adult polyp has six long, hollow primary tentacles interspersed with six short, stiffer tentacles that break easily. The transparent bubble of the polyp is almost a hemisphere, with a diameter of 35 to 80 mm. The dense, gelatinous pedunculus ("stalk") is cone-to-trumpet-shaped and about the same length as the diameter of the bell. Muscles form six bands along the pedunculus and allow them to move back and forth or to pull together.


Helenodora

Helenodora is an extinct onychophoran genus known from the Carboniferous Carbondale Formation of Illinois. The only known species described is "H. inopinata".


Axoneme

An axoneme, also called an axial filament is the microtubule-based cytoskeletal structure that forms the core of a cilium or flagellum. Cilia and flagella are found on many cells, organisms, and microorganisms, to provide motility.
The axoneme serves as the "skeleton" of these organelles, both giving support to the structure and, in some cases, the ability to bend. Though distinctions of function and length may be made between cilia and flagella, the internal structure of the axoneme is common to both.
Structure.
Inside a cilium and a flagellum is a microtubule-based cytoskeleton called the axoneme. The axoneme of a primary cilium typically has a ring of nine outer microtubule doublets (called a 9+0 axoneme), and the axoneme of a motile cilium has two central microtubules in addition to the nine outer doublets (called a 9+2 axoneme). The axonemal cytoskeleton acts as a scaffolding for various protein complexes and provides binding sites for molecular motor proteins such as kinesin-2, that help carry proteins up and down the microtubules.
Primary cilia.
The axoneme structure in non-motile primary cilia shows some variation from the canonical “9x2 + 2” anatomy. No dynein arms are found on the outer doublet microtubules, and there is no pair of central microtubule singlets. This organization of axoneme is referred as “9x2 + 0”. In addition, “9x2 + 1” axonemes, with only a single central microtubule, have been found to exist.
Primary cilia appear to serve sensory functions.
Motile cilia.
The building-block of the axoneme is the microtubule; each axoneme is composed of several microtubules aligned in parallel. To be specific, the microtubules are arranged in a characteristic pattern known as the “9x2 + 2," as shown in the image at right. Nine sets of "doublet" microtubules (a specialized structure consisting of two linked microtubules) form a ring around a "central pair" of single microtubules.
Besides the microtubules, the axoneme contains many proteins and protein complexes necessary for its function. The dynein arms, for example, are motor complexes that produce the force needed for bending. Each dynein arm is anchored to a doublet microtubule; by "walking" along an adjacent microtubule, the dynein motors can cause the microtubules to slide against each other. When this is carried out in a synchronized fashion, with the microtubules on one side of the axoneme being pulled 'down' and those on the other side pulled 'up,' the axoneme as a whole can bend back and forth. This process is responsible for ciliary/flagellar beating, as in the well-known example of the human sperm.
The radial spoke is another protein complex of the axoneme. Thought to be important in regulating the motion of the axoneme, this "T"-shape complex projects from each set of outer doublets toward the central microtubules. The inter-doublet connections between adjacent microtubule pairs are termed nexin linkages.
History of discovery.
The first investigation of sperm flagellar morphology was begun in 1888, by German cytologist Ballowitz, who observed using light microscopy and mordant stains that a rooster sperm flagellum could be splayed into as many as 11, longitudinal fibrils. About 60 years later, Grigg and Hodge in 1949 and a year later Manton and Clarke observed these 11 fibers in splayed flagella by electron microscopy (EM) ; these investigators proposed that two thinner fibers were surrounded by nine thicker outer fibers. In 1952, using advancements in fixation, embedding, and ultramicrotomy, Fawcett and Porter proved by EM thin sections that the core of epithelial cilia within the ciliary membrane consisted of nine doublet microtubules surrounding two central, singlet microtubules (i.e., the “central pair microtubule apparatus”), and hence the term, the “9 + 2” axonema. Because of the high degree of evolutionary conservation between cilia and flagella from most species, our understanding of sperm flagella has been aided by studies of both organelles and from species ranging from protists to mammals. Cilia are typically short (5–10 μm) and beat in an oar-like fashion with an effective stroke followed by a recovery stroke. Flagella beat with a snake-like motion and are typically longer (generally 50–150 μm, but ranging from 12 μm to several mm in some species), with flagellar length in the protist "Chlamydomonas" being regulated by several genes encoding kinases. It was recognized first by Manton and Clarke that the 9 + 2 axoneme was possibly ubiquitous among species, and indeed, the nine doublet microtubules are evolutionary conserved structures that evolved in early eukaryotes nearly a billion years ago; however, there is wide variation among species with regard to the detailed structure of sperm flagella and their accessory structures. Axonemal doublet microtubules assemble from the ends of nine centriolar/basal body triplet microtubules, whose ninefold symmetry and clockwise pinwheel pattern (looking from inside the cell to the flagellar tip) is organized by the conserved protein of the SAS6 gene, and which is introduced into some eggs to establish the first mitotic spindle. The nine doublet microtubules are then connected around the axoneme by nexin links. Currently, the molecular structure of the axoneme is known to an extraordinary resolution of <4 nm through the use of cryo-electron tomography, as initially pioneered by Nicastro. Sperm flagellar (and ciliary) motility has been effectively analyzed in simple systems (e.g., protist flagella and sea urchin sperm), whose flagella contain several hundred polypeptides by proteomic analysis.
Clinical significance.
Mutations or defects in primary cilia have been found to play a role in human diseases. These ciliopathies include polycystic kidney disease (PKD), retinitis pigmentosa, Bardet–Biedl syndrome, and other developmental defects.


Monopeltis capensis

Monopeltis capensis, also known commonly as the Cape spade-snouted worm lizard, the Cape wedge-snouted worm lizard, the Cape worm lizard, and the South African shield-snouted amphisbaenian, is a species of amphisbaenian in the family Amphisbaenidae. The species is native to southern Africa.
Geographic range.
"M. capensis" is found in Botswana, South Africa, and Zimbabwe.
Habitat.
The preferred natural habitats of "M. capensis" are grassland, shrubland, and savanna.
Description.
"M. capensis" is uniformly pinkish white, both dorsally and ventrally. Adults usually have a snout-to-vent length (SVL) of . The maximum recorded SVL is .
Diet.
"M. capensis" burrows in red soils to preys upon beetle larvae, termites, and other small invertebrates.
Reproduction.
"M. capensis" is viviparous. A brood of 1–3 is born in summer. Each neonate has a total length (including tail) of .


Temporal scales

In reptiles, the temporal scales are located on the side of the head between the parietal scales and the supralabial scales, and behind the postocular scales.
There are two types of temporal scales:


Condyloid process

The condyloid process or condylar process is the process on the human mandible and some other species' mandibles that ends in a condyle, the mandibular condyle. It is thicker than the coronoid process of the mandible and consists of two portions: the condyle and the constricted portion which supports it, the neck.
Condyle.
The condyle presents an articular surface for articulation with the articular disk of the temporomandibular joint; it is convex from before backward and from side to side, and extends farther on the posterior than on the anterior surface.
Its long axis is directed medialward and slightly backward, and if prolonged to the middle line will meet that of the opposite condyle near the anterior margin of the foramen magnum.
At the lateral extremity of the condyle is a small tubercle for the attachment of the temporomandibular ligament.
The articular surface of the condyle is covered by fibrous tissue, and interfaces with an articular disk (or meniscus) of avascular, non-innervated fibrous tissue (collagen, fibroblasts). When the mouth is closed the meniscus is bordered medially and superiorly by the glenoid fossa of the petrous portion of the temporal bone. When the mouth is opened maximally, the meniscus is distracted anteriorly and inferiorly along the slope of the inferior portion of the temporal bone towards the tubercle, or articular eminence, in order to remain interposed between the condyle and the temporal bone in all jaw positions.
Neck.
The neck is flattened from before backward, and strengthened by ridges which descend from the forepart and sides of the condyle.
Its posterior surface is convex; its anterior surface has a depression for the attachment of the Pterygoideus externus (lateral pterygoid muscle).


Occipital scales

In reptiles, occipital scales are enlarged plates that lie directly behind the parietal scales.
An interoccipital is a scale located between the occipital scales.


Chrysogorgiidae

Chrysogorgiidae is a family of soft corals in the suborder Calcaxonia.


Eucastor

Eucastor is an extinct genus of beaver-grouped rodents.


Echiniscidae

The Echiniscidae are a family of tardigrades, a phylum of water-dwelling, eight-legged, segmented micro-animals. It is one of the four families in the Echiniscoidea order. The family was named by Gustav Thulin in 1928.
The family of Echiniscidae consists of the following genera:


Craniscus

Craniscus is a genus of small brachiopods (lamp shells). The shell is approximately round to square with one side rounded. The ventral valve is approximately flat and attached to the underground by the entire surface. The outside of the dorsal valve is more or less conical, the inside is divided by three ridges that join in the center.


Bare-faced ibis

The bare-faced ibis ("Phimosus infuscatus"), also known as the whispering ibis, is a species of bird in the family Threskiornithidae, in the monotypic genus Phimosus.
Distribution.
It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela.
Description.
The bare-faced ibis is either dark brown or a blackish color. It is called the bare-faced ibis because it does not have any feathers on its face. It has a long decurved bill with a pinkish to reddish brown colour. The skin on its face is usually a reddish color, and it also has long orange colored beak with pink legs. The total length of the ibis ranges between 45 and 50 cm.
Food.
The bare-faced ibis forages in most soil and along the edges of standing water. Its diet consists of insects, worms, clams, and other small invertebrates.
Habitat.
The bare-faced ibis occurs in open areas such as wet meadows, savannas, marshes, and rice fields. The ibis is usually near sea level but was recorded in Venezuela and Colombia. When an ibis is about to lay its eggs it builds a nest out of sticks and twigs to put them in and it will lay between 2 and 5 eggs and will then sit on them for protection purposes for up to three weeks.
Behavior.
Bare-faced ibises are usually seen in large flocks of their own species or with other species of ibis, sometimes even found with domestic animals. They live in close range neighboring amongst other flocks of ibis, typically known for the closest living habitats that range from being 100 meters away from the nearest neighbor. They are not very territorial towards other ibis birds, and rarely found alone, but most of the time the aggression is shown from food robbery from another ibis or animal. Regarding sexual behavior, the Bare-Faced ibis is less aggressive amongst other species of ibis. The males have a larger bill than the females relative to their body sizes, and sexual selection is not as intense as it is in other species. They share nests with other species as well.
Reproduction.
They usually breed in small colonies amongst their own species and the breeding usually ranges from August to December. Their nest are found in trees or shrubs, and they build platforms. They lay anywhere from 1-8 eggs, the eggs are lightly colored between green and blue and the incubation is 21–23 days and both the male and female perform it.


Reid Bay

Reid Bay is an Arctic waterway in the Qikiqtaaluk Region, Nunavut, Canada. It is located in Davis Strait off Baffin Island's Cumberland Sound.
Geography.
The habitat is characterized by open sea, inlets, coastal marine features, coastal cliffs, rocky marine shores, scree, and boulders. Its coastal elevation rises up to above sea level.
Fauna.
The uninhabited bay area is a Canadian Important Bird Area (#NU072), and International Biological Program site (Region 9, Site 7–9). Notable bird species include: black-legged kittiwake, colonial water birds/seabirds, glaucous gull, Iceland gull, northern fulmar, and thick-billed murre.
The former Reid Bay Key Migratory Bird Terrestrial Habitat site has been renamed Akpait (NU Site 28) (), coinciding with its location at Akapit Fiord.


Geodia apiarium

Geodia apiarium is a species of sea sponge in the family Geodiidae. It is found in the Gulf of Mexico off the coast of Florida.


Peter Chalmers Mitchell

Sir Peter Chalmers Mitchell (23 November 1864 – 2 July 1945) was a Scottish zoologist who was Secretary of the Zoological Society of London from 1903 to 1935. During this time, he directed the policy of the Zoological Gardens of London and created the world's first open zoological park, ZSL Whipsnade Zoo.
Early life.
Peter Chalmers Mitchell was the son of the Rev. Alexander Mitchell, a Presbyterian minister in Dunfermline, Scotland, and Marion Chalmers. Mitchell gained an MA at the University of Aberdeen, and moved to Christ Church, Oxford, where he read for natural science, specialising in zoology. After success in the honours examination of 1888, he was appointed University Demonstrator in Zoology.
In 1896, he was the anonymous author of an article in the "Saturday Review" entitled "A Biological View of English Foreign Policy" which proposed the inevitability of a final battle between Britain and Germany, in which one would have to be destroyed. (Having acknowledged his authorship during World War I, he still declared himself "unrepentant" about it in a letter to The Times in May 1939, describing the article as "prophetic"). In April 1916, now an army Captain, he was made responsible for setting up a specialist department MI7(B)4 to oversee the production of military propaganda to be dropped from the air over enemy lines.
Zoo.
Despite a tenure of 32 years, Mitchell was not the longest-serving Secretary of the Zoological Society. His predecessor, Philip Lutley Sclater, had been in office over forty years, from 1860 to 1902. Mitchell was succeeded by Julian Huxley.
Mitchell's brainchild, Whipsnade Park, was opened in 1931 on the Dunstable Downs, in the heart of Bedfordshire. Whipsnade is an open air zoo in the countryside, where animals occupy large enclosures rather than cages. The park is involved in a variety of conservation activities.
In 1933 he was one of eleven people, involved in the appeal that led to the foundation of the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO), an organisation for the study of birds in the British Isles.
Lectures.
In 1911, Mitchell delivered the Royal Institution Christmas Lecture on "The Childhood of Animals".
In February 1915, Mitchell gave three lectures on the subject of evolution and foreign policy at the Royal Institution that expanded upon his 1896 article. These were combined and published in the form of a book entitled "Evolution and the War" in May 1915.
Málaga.
On retiring from the zoo, Mitchell moved to Málaga, staying there during the first six months or so of the Spanish Civil War, until the city was taken on behalf of the rebels by Italian troops. An account of his last days in Málaga – including his arrest along with Arthur Koestler – is included in Koestler's book "Spanish Testament" and in his own memoir, "", published in 1938.
Politics.
Mitchell stood as an independent candidate at the 1938 Combined Scottish Universities by-election, but took last position, with 13.5% of the votes cast.
Death.
Mitchell died on 2 July 1945, aged 80, after being injured in an accident on 29 June outside the London Zoo. After stepping off a bus, he was struck by a taxicab. A jury ruled the death accidental.
Legacy.
A species of South American worm lizard, "Amphisbaena mitchelli", is named in his honour. He also proved, in a now classic treatise, namely, “On the Intestinal Tract of Mammals,” that the caecum of Mammals is directly homologous with the paired caeca of Birds; that is to say, a pair being the original state.
Publications.
As Translator.
In addition, like Henry Scherren FZS, Chalmers Mitchell made a number of contributions to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica under the initials "P.C.M.". Chalmers Mitchell was critical of Scherren's history of the ZSL, but was in turn criticised by John Bastin for his work on the same subject.


Ceriantheomorphe

Ceriantheomorphe is a genus of tube-dwelling anemones in the family Cerianthidae.
Species.
The World Register of Marine Species includes the following species in the genus :


Typhloplanidae

Typhloplanidae is a family of flatworms in the order Rhabdocoela.
It is one of the most species-rich families of Rhabdocoela, comprising around 300 species. They inhabit freshwater, estuarine, marine and terrestrial habitats. They can be benthic or pelagic. Typhloplanidae are predatory. They can reach high densities in their habitats. Most representatives are 1 to 5 mm in length, but a few species, like "Mesostoma ehrenbergii", can reach up to 1.5 cm.
Subfamilies and genera (incomplete):


Mongeperipatus solorzanoi

Solórzano's velvet worm ("Mongeperipatus solorzanoi") is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatidae family.
Taxonomy.
The holotype was discovered by herpetologist Alejandro Solórzano in Guayacán de Siquirres, Costa Rica, in 1996. Morera-Brenes and Monge-Nájera subsequently described it in 2010. The specific name "solorzanoi" is in honour of its discoverer.
In 2020, following the description of another similar species, this species was combined into a new genus, "Mongeperipatus".
Description.
The body is light brown or wine red with pale yellow oncopods. Newborns are red. Males have 34 pairs of oncopods; females 39–41. This species is the largest velvet worm known, growing up to 22 cm (approximately 8.7 in) long.


Invertebrate paleontology

Invertebrate paleontology (also spelled invertebrate palaeontology) is sometimes described as invertebrate paleozoology or invertebrate paleobiology.
Whether it is considered to be a subfield of paleontology, paleozoology, or paleobiology, this discipline is the scientific study of prehistoric invertebrates by analyzing invertebrate fossils in the geologic record.
By "invertebrates" are meant the "non-vertebrate" creatures of the kingdom Animalia (or Metazoa) in the biotic domain of Eukaryota. By phyletic definition, these many-celled, "sub-vertebrate" animals lack a vertebral column, spinal column, vertebrae, backbone, or long, full-length notochord—in contrast to the vertebrates in the one phylum of Chordata.
Relatedly, invertebrates have never had a cartilaginous or boney internal skeleton, with its skeletal supports, gill slits, ribs and jaws. Finally, throughout geologic time, invertebrates have remained non-craniate creatures; that is, they never developed a cranium, nerve-chord brain, skull, or hard protective braincase (unlike many vertebrates).
Invertebrate terminology in science.
In the many decades since Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, a pioneering biologist and evolutionist, first conceptualized and coined the category "Invertebrata" (between 1793 and 1801) and the term "Biology" (in 1802), zoology has come to recognize that the "non-vertebrate" category is not a scientifically valid, monophyletic taxon. Evolutionary biology and developmental biology (a.k.a. "evo-devo") now consider the term "Invertebrata" to be both polyphyletic and paraphyletic. Nevertheless, most earth science departments continue to employ this term; and paleontologists find it both useful and practical in evaluating fossil invertebrates and—consequently—invertebrate evolution.
However, there is one contemporary caveat: Paleobiologists and microbiologists in the 21st century no longer classify one-celled "animal-like" microbes "either" as invertebrates "or" as animals.
For example, the commonly fossilized foraminifera ("forams") and radiolarians—zooplankton both formerly grouped under either an animal phylum or animal sub-kingdom called Protozoa ("first animals")—are now placed in the kingdom or super-kingdom Protista or Protoctista (and thus called "protists" or "protoctists").
Thus modern invertebrate paleontologists deal largely with fossils of this more strictly defined Animal Kingdom (excepting Phylum Chordata), Phylum Chordata being the exclusive focus of vertebrate paleontology. Protist fossils are then the main focus of micropaleontology, while plant fossils are the chief focus paleobotany. Together these four represent the traditional taxonomic divisions of paleontologic study.
Invertebrate fossilization.
When it comes to the fossil record, "soft-"bodied and "minuscule" invertebrates—such as hydras, jellies, flatworms, hairworms, nematodes, ribbon worms, rotifers and roundworms—are infrequently fossilized. As a result, paleontologists and other fossil hunters must often rely on trace fossils, microfossils, or chemofossil residue when scouting for these prehistoric creatures.
"Hard-"bodied and "large" invertebrates are much more commonly preserved; typically as sizeable macrofossils. These invertebrates are more frequently preserved because their hard parts fossilise more readily—for example, shell, armor, plates, tests, exoskeleton, jaws or teeth. In invertebrates, these parts are composed of silica (silicon dioxide), calcite or aragonite (both forms of calcium carbonate), chitin (a protein often infused with tricalcium phosphate), or keratin (an even-more complex protein), rather than the vertebrate bone (hydroxyapatite) or cartilage of fishes and land-dwelling tetrapods.
The chitinous jaws of annelids (such as the marine scolecodonts) are sometimes preserved as fossils; while many arthropods and inarticulate brachiopods have easily fossilized hard parts of calcite, chitin, or keratin. The most common and often-found macrofossils are the very hard calcareous shells of articulate brachiopods (that is, the everyday "lampshells") and of mollusks (such as the omnipresent clams, snails, mussels and oysters). On the other hand, shell-less slugs and non-tubiferous worms (for instance, earthworms) lack hard parts and therefore such organisms are poorly represented in the fossil record.
Further reading.
Although these books are "not" footnoted in this article, the following are well-illustrated, well-organized—and often well-worn—guides to invertebrate (and sometimes other) fossils:
External links.
[[Category:Invertebrate paleozoology| ]]


Clamp connection

A clamp connection is a hook-like structure formed by growing hyphal cells of certain fungi. It is created to ensure each cell, or segment of hypha separated by septa (cross walls), receives a set of differing nuclei, which are obtained through mating of hyphae of differing sexual types. It is used to create genetic variation within the hypha much like the mechanisms found in crozier during sexual reproduction.
Formation.
Clamp connections are formed by the terminal hypha during elongation. Before the clamp connection is formed this terminal segment contains two nuclei. Once the terminal segment is long enough it begins to form the clamp connection. At the same time, each nucleus undergoes mitotic division to produce two daughter nuclei. As the clamp continues to develop it uptakes one of the daughter (green circle) nuclei and separates it from its sister nucleus. While this is occurring the remaining nuclei (orange circles) begin to migrate from one another to opposite ends of the cell. Once all these steps have occurred a septum forms, separating each set of nuclei.
Use in classification.
Clamp connections are structures unique to the phylum Basidiomycota. Many fungi from this phylum produce spores in basidiocarps (fruiting bodies, or mushrooms), above ground. Though clamp connections are exclusive to this phylum, not all species of Basidiomycota possess these structures. As such, the presence or absences of clamp connections has been a tool in categorizing genera and species.
Fossil record.
A fungal mycelium containing abundant clamp connections was found that dated to the Pennsylvanian era (298.9–323.2 Mya). This fossil, classified in the form genus "Palaeancistrus", has hyphae that compare with extant saprophytic basidiomycetes. The oldest known clamp connections exist in hyphae present in the fossil fern "Botryopteris antiqua", which predate "Palaeancistrus" by about 25 Ma.


Microstomidae

The Microstomidae are a family of small basal free-living flatworms (Macrostomida, Rhabditophora, Platyhelminthes), and members of the marine, brackish, freshwater meiobenthos and plankton. There are currently about 40 named species in this family.


Chaetonotus

Chaetonotus is a genus of gastrotrichs in the family Chaetonotidae


Synovial membrane

The synovial membrane (also known as the synovial stratum, synovium or stratum synoviale) is a specialized connective tissue that lines the inner surface of capsules of synovial joints and tendon sheath. It makes direct contact with the fibrous membrane on the outside surface and with the synovial fluid lubricant on the inside surface. In contact with the synovial fluid at the tissue surface are many rounded macrophage-like synovial cells (type A) and also type B cells, which are also known as fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS). Type A cells maintain the synovial fluid by removing wear-and-tear debris. As for the FLS, they produce hyaluronan, as well as other extracellular components in the synovial fluid.
Structure.
The synovial membrane is variable but often has two layers
Where the underlying subintima is loose, the intima sits on a pliable membrane, giving rise to the term "synovial membrane".
This membrane, together with the cells of the intima, provides something like an inner tube, sealing the synovial fluid from the surrounding tissue (effectively stopping the joints from being squeezed dry when subject to impact, such as running).
Just beneath the intima, most synovium has a dense net of fenestrated small blood vessels that provide nutrients not only for synovium but also for the avascular cartilage.
In any one position, much of the cartilage is close enough to get nutrition directly from the synovium.
Some areas of cartilage have to obtain nutrients indirectly and may do so either from diffusion through cartilage or possibly by 'stirring' of synovial fluid.
The surface of synovium may be flat or may be covered with finger-like projections or villi, which, it is presumed, help to allow the soft tissue to change shape as the joint surfaces move one on another.
The synovial fluid can be thought of as a specialised fluid form of synovial extracellular matrix rather than a secretion in the usual sense. The fluid is transudative in nature which facilitates continuous exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide and metabolites between blood and synovial fluid. This is especially important since it is the major source of metabolic support for articular cartilage. Under normal conditions synovial fluid contain <100/mL of leucocytes in which majority are monocytes.
Synovial cells.
The intimal cells are of two types, fibroblast-like synoviocytes or type B cells and macrophage-like synovial cells. Surface cells have no basement membrane or junctional complexes denoting an epithelium despite superficial resemblance.
Mechanics.
Although a biological joint can resemble a man-made joint in being a hinge or a ball and socket, the engineering problems that nature must solve are very different because the joint works within an almost completely solid structure, with no wheels or nuts and bolts.
In general, the bearing surfaces of manmade joints interlock, as in a hinge. This is rare for biological joints (although the badger's jaw interlocks).
More often the surfaces are held together by cord-like ligaments. Virtually all the space between muscles, ligaments, bones, and cartilage is filled with pliable solid tissue. The fluid-filled gap is at most only a twentieth of a millimetre thick. This means that synovium has certain rather unexpected jobs to do. These may include:
Pathology.
Synovium can become irritated and thickened (synovitis) in conditions such as osteoarthritis, Ross River virus or rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) play a key role in the pathogenesis of RA, and the aggressive phenotype of FLS in RA and the effect these cells have on the microenvironment in the joint can be summarized into hallmarks that distinguish them from healthy FLS. These hallmark features of FLS in RA are divided into 7 cell-intrinsic hallmarks (such as reduced apoptosis and impaired contact inhibition) and 4 cell-extrinsic hallmarks (such as their ability to recruit and stimulate immune cells).
In general, inflamed synovium is accompanied by extra macrophage recruitment (as well as the existing type A cells), fibroblast proliferation and an influx of inflammatory cells including lymphocytes, monocytes and plasma cells. When this happens, the synovium can interfere with the normal functioning of the joint. Excessive thickened synovium, filled with cells and fibrotic collagenous tissue, can physically restrict joint movement. The synovial fibroblasts may make smaller hyaluronan so it is a less effective lubricant of the cartilage surfaces. Under stimulation from invading inflammatory cells, the synovial cells may also produce enzymes (proteinases) that can digest the cartilage extracellular matrix. Fragments of extracellular matrix can then further irritate the synovium.
Etymology and pronunciation.
The word "synovium" is related to the word "synovia" in its sense meaning "synovial fluid". The latter was coined by Paracelsus. More information is given at "Synovial fluid § Etymology and pronunciation".


Diploic veins

The diploic veins are large, thin-walled valveless veins that channel in the diploë between the inner and outer layers of the cortical bone in the skull. They are lined by a single layer of endothelium supported by elastic tissue. They develop fully by the age of two years. The diploic veins drain this area into the dural venous sinuses. The four major trunks of the diploic veins found on each side of the head are frontal, anterior temporal, posterior temporal, and occipital diploic veins.
Types of diploic veins.
The "frontal", which opens into the supraorbital vein and the superior sagittal sinus.
The "anterior temporal", which is confined chiefly to the frontal bone, and opens into the sphenoparietal sinus and into one of the deep temporal veins, through an aperture in the great wing of the sphenoid.
The "posterior temporal", which is situated in the parietal bone, and ends in the transverse sinus, through an aperture at the mastoid angle of the parietal bone or through the mastoid foramen.
The "occipital", the largest of the four, which is confined to the occipital bone, and opens either externally into the occipital vein, or internally into the transverse sinus or into the confluence of the sinuses (torcular Herophili).


Absenticosta

Absenticosta is an extinct genus of brachiopod found in Viséan strata in Mongolia and Argentina. It was a stationary epifaunal suspension feeder.


Planipapillus berti

Planipapillus berti is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. It is found in Victoria, Australia.


Metaperipatus

Metaperipatus is a genus of velvet worms in the family Peripatopsidae that contains the species Metaperipatus inae. The type locality is in central Chile.
A second species assigned to this genus, "Metaperipatus blainvillei" , is considered a "nomen dubium" by Oliveira et al., 2012.


Orchesella erpeldingae

Orchesella erpeldingae is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae.


Flustrina

Flustrina is a suborder under the order Cheilostomatida of gymnolaematan Bryozoa (sea mats).
The structure of the individual zooids is generally simple, a box-like chamber of calcium carbonate, the polypides reaching out through an uncalcified flexible frontal wall, often surrounded by numerous spines. Like in other gymnolaematans, their lophophore is protruded by muscles that pull on the frontal wall of the zooid.
In some treatments, the Flustrina are restricted to the superfamilies Calloporoidea and Flustroidea and ranked as infraorder alongside the Cellulariomorpha which contain the other three superfamilies. What here is considered the Fulstrina is then called the infraorder Neocheilostomina, and in a more radical variant also includes the Ascophora as another infraorder.
The obsolete sub-order Anasca previously included the members of this sub-order before being deprecated.
The families Fusicellariidae, Skyloniidae, Bicorniferidae, as well as the genera "Hoeverella" and "Taeniocellaria" are currently "incertae sedis" within the Flustrina.
Systematics.
The superfamilies and families (and notable genera) are listed in the presumed phylogenetic sequence:


Ctenostomatida

The Ctenostomatida are an order of bryozoans in the class Gymnolaemata. The great majority of ctenostome species are marine, although "Paludicella" inhabits freshwater. They are distinguished from their close relatives, the cheilostomes, by their lack of a calcified exoskeleton. Instead, the exoskeleton is chitinous, gelatinous, or composed only of a soft membrane, and always lacks an operculum. Colonies of ctenostomes are often composed of elongated, branch-like stolons, although more compact forms also exist.


Charles Gould (geologist)

Charles Gould (4 June 1834 – 15 April 1893) was the first Geological Surveyor of Tasmania 1859–69.
Career.
He was born in England He conducted three expeditions into Western Tasmania in the 1860s.
He named many of the mountains on the West Coast Range.
He also worked as a consultant geologist and land surveyor in Tasmania, the Bass Strait Islands and in New South Wales.
He left Australia in late 1873 and died 20 years later, in Montevideo, Uruguay.
His father was the ornithologist John Gould and his mother was the natural history illustrator Elizabeth Gould (née Coxen).
Charles Gould was a member of the Royal Society of Tasmania and an amateur naturalist as well as geologist. He published observations of the distribution, diet and habits of the Tasmanian giant freshwater crayfish in 1870. The species was named "Astacopsis gouldi" in honour of him by Australian freshwater crayfish ecologist Ellen Clark in 1936.
Cryptozoology.
Gould was the author of the book "Mythical Monsters" (1886) considered an early work on cryptozoology. Prior to this, Gould published in the Papers and Proceedings of Royal Society of Tasmania on the possibility Australian mythical creature the "bunyip" was a freshwater seal.


Kumbadjena occidentalis

Kumbadjena occidentalis is a species of velvet worm in the family Peripatopsidae described by Joseph James Fletcher in 1895. The type locality is in Western Australia.


Fibroblast growth factor and mesoderm formation

This article is about the role of Fibroblast Growth Factor Signaling in Mesoderm Formation.
Mesoderm formation is a complex developmental process involving an intricate network of signaling pathways that coordinate their activities to ensure that a selective group of cells will eventually give rise to mesodermal tissues in the adult organism. Fibroblast growth factor contributes to this process not only by promoting mesoderm formation, but also by inhibiting endodermal development.
Introduction.
During early vertebrate development, the stage is set for the specification of the three germ layers : endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm, which will give rise to the adult organism. The mesoderm will eventually differentiate into numerous tissues including muscles and blood. This process requires the precise integration of a variety of signaling pathways such as the transforming growth factor type β (TGFβ), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), and Wnt, to achieve the induction, specification, formation and differentiation of the mesoderm layer within a given time and space.
Network of signaling pathways.
Members of the TGF-β superfamily, Activin and Nodal, are essential for mesodermal induction, while FGF and Wnt are in charge of its maintenance and BMP is responsible for its patterning (2, 4). It is important to note that these pathways, in turn, depend on each other. For example, in Xenopus, disruption of FGF signaling results in the inhibition of the Nodal-dependent induction and formation of trunk and tail mesoderm (5,6), demonstrating that TGF-β dependent mesodermal induction is itself dependent on FGF signaling (7).
FGF signaling.
During the blastula and gastrula stages, vegetal cells (the presumptive endoderm), release signals to marginal zone cells resulting in the induction and patterning of the mesoderm (1, 8). One of these signals, FGF, achieves this through the regulation of T box transcription factors, a strategy which is shared among "Xenopus", mouse and zebrafish (9). Upon FGF binding to its receptor, FGFR, the receptor pair dimerizes and is transphosphorylated, enabling it to recruit proteins that activate Ras and Raf. This is followed by the subsequent phosphorylation of MEK and MAPK. MAPK can then enter into the nucleus and activate target transcription factors (2).
Regulation of T box transcription factors.
In particular, three T box transcription factors, Brachyury (frogs) or No tail (fish) (10), VegT (frog) or Spadetail (fish), and Tbx6 (fish and frogs) (11) are important FGF targets that play a key role in mesoderm formation (12,13). In "Xenopus", zebrafish and mouse, Brachyury (bra), is required for posterior formation (9). FGF is necessary for the initial localization of Xbra to the dorsal side of the embryo in the marginal zone as well as for establishing and maintaining proper expression of the transcript. Disruption of FGF signaling with an FGFR inhibitor, SU5402, results in loss of Xbra expression in embryos (14,15). FGF could activate Xbra expression through Ets2, a FGF target transcription factor that binds to an FGF-responsive element of the upstream sequence (16).
Feedback loop.
Activation of FGF by two ligands that function together, FGF4 and FGF8 (17) in "Xenopus" and FGF8 and FGF24 in zebrafish (18), is necessary for mesoderm formation. Both FGF signaling and Xbra expression are maintained through a feedback loop in which upon FGF activation, Xbra expression is turned on and Xbra then directly activates eFGF, a FGF family member (19). By keeping the FGF signal active, this feedback loop contributes to the function of Fgf4 in paraxial mesoderm specification (14). Inhibition of FGFR results in a significant reduction of both Xbra and Fgf4 expression. Although it is unlikely that Fgf8 is part of the feedback loop, it contributes to mesoderm formation by activating Fgf4 (14).
Other components and functions.
Furthermore, inhibition of other components of the FGF pathway, including Ras, Raf and the transcription factor Ets2, disrupts mesodermal formation, while their over-expression induces mesodermal markers (9).
In addition to promoting mesodermal formation, FGF can also prevent endodermal development. In zebrafish, FGF activity can down-regulate Casanova, a Nodal transcription factor and thereby prevent its endodermal development function (20).
Regulation of VegT.
Another key player in mesoderm formation is VegT, a maternally and zygotically expressed transcription inducer localized in the vegetal hemisphere. In "Xenopus", VegT activates transcription of Nodal-related genes (Xnr) genes, Activin and other mesodermal transcripts, which are responsible for initiating mesodermal formation (14,21). Using dominant negative Activin receptors in "Xenopus" animal caps, it has been shown that FGF signaling is crucial for mesoderm formation through the activation of this and other TGFβ family members (7,22), and this process is mediated by the VegT-dependent transcription activation.
The mesodermal induction properties of VegT are dose-dependent, such that in Xenopus animal cap explants, high doses induces dorsal mesoderm, while lower doses result in ventral mesoderm (23). Most importantly, VegT plays a significant role in Xbra expression, and this is dependent on FGF signaling. In "Xenopus", disruption of FGF signaling, inhibits the transcription-inducing activity of VegT and Xbra expression, even at the doses where VegT is known to robustly induce Xbra expression. This demonstrates that VegT induction of Xbra and its subsequent function in mesoderm formation is dependent on FGF signaling (14).
References.
1. Nentwich O, Dingwell KS, Nordheim A, Smith JC. 2009. Downstream of FGF during mesoderm formation in Xenopus: the roles of Elk-1 and Egr-1. Dev Bio 336:313-26.
2. Kimelman D. 2006. Mesoderm induction: from caps to chips. Nature Rev Genet 7:360-72.
3. Heasman J. 1997. Patterning the Xenopus blastula. Development 124:4179-91.
4. Heasman J. 2006. Patterning the early Xenopus embryo. Development 133:1205–1217.
5. Amaya E, Musci TJ, Kirschner MW. 1991. Expression of a dominant negative mutant of the FGF receptor disrupts mesoderm formation in Xenopus embryos. Cell 66(2):257-70.
6. Mitchell TS, Sheets MD 2001 The FGFR pathway is required for the trunk-inducing functions of Spemann’s organizer. Dev Biol 237:295–305
7. Cornell RA, Kimelman D. 1994. Activin-mediated mesoderm induction requires FGF. Development 120:453–462.
8. Kimelman D, Griffin KJ. Vertebrate mesendoderm induction and patterning. 2000. Curr Opin Genet Dev 10:350-6.
9. Böttcher RT, Niehrs C. 2005. Fibroblast growth factor signaling during early vertebrate development. Endocr Rev 26(1):63-77.
10. Halpern ME, Ho RK, Walker C, Kimmel CB 1993 Induction of muscle pioneers and floor plate is distinguished by the zebrafish no tail mutation. Cell 75:99–111
11. Hug B, Walter V, Grunwald DJ 1997 tbx6, a Brachyury-related gene expressed by ventral mesendodermal precursors in the zebrafish embryo. Dev Biol 183:61–73
12. Goering LM et al. 2003. An interacting network og T-box genes directs gene expression and fate in the zebrafish mesoderm. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. 100:9410-15.
13. Kimmel CB, Kane DA, Walker C, Warga RM, Rothman MB 1989 A mutation that changes cell movement and cell fate in the zebrafish embryo. Nature 337:358–362
14. Fletcher RB, Harland RM. 2008. The role of FGF signaling in the establishment and maintenance of mesodermal gene expression in Xenopus. Dev Dyn 237 (5):1243-54.
15. Amaya E, Stein PA, Musci TJ, Kirschner MW. 1993. FGF signalling in the early specification of mesoderm in Xenopus. Development 118:477–487.
16. Vonica A, Gumbiner BM. 2002. Brachyury expression in the early Xenoups laevis embryo. Dev Bio 250:112-27.
17. Fletcher RB, Baker JC, Harland RM. 2006. FGF8 splice forms mediate early mesoderm and posterior neural tissue formation in Xenopus. Development 133:1703–1714.
18. Draper BW, Stock DW, Kimmel CB. 2003. Zebrafish fgf24 functions with fgf to promote posterior mesodermal development. Development 130:4639-54.
19. Isaacs HV, Pownall ME, Slack JMW. 1994. eFGF regulates Xbra expression during Xenopus gastrulation. EMBO J 13:4469–4481.
20. Mizoguchi T, Izawa T, Kuroiwa A, KikuchiY. 2006. Fgf signaling negatively regulates Nodal-dependent endoderm induction in zebrafish. Dev Biol 300:612–622.
21. Clements D, Friday RV, Woodland HR. 1999. Mode of action of VegT in mesoderm and endoderm formation. Development 126:4903-11.
22. Hemmati-Brivanlou A, Melton DA. 1992. A truncated activin receptor inhibits mesoderm induction and formation of axial structures in Xenopus embryos. Nature 359:609 –614.
23. Horb ME, Thomsen GH. 1997. A vegetally localized T-box transcription factor in Xenopus eggs specifies mesoderm and endoderm and is essential for embryonic mesoderm formation. Development 124:1689–1698.


Eusebio Oehl

Eusebio Oehl (December 5, 1827 – April 10, 1903) was an Italian histologist and physiologist who was a native of Lodi.
He studied medicine at the University of Pavia, and following graduation (1850), he continued his education in Vienna under Joseph Hyrtl (1810-1894) and Ernst Wilhelm von Brücke (1819-1892). Afterwards, he returned to Pavia, where he taught classes in histology at the Collegio Ghislieri and at the university. In 1864 he attained the chair of physiology at the institute of physiology in Pavia.
At Pavia, he introduced microscopic studies in the fields of anatomy and histology, being credited with developing systematic studies of cell structure via the microscope. He conducted pioneer physiological studies on salivation, and described "Oehl's muscles", defined as strands of muscle fibers in the "chordae tendineae" of the left atrioventricular valve. Among his better known students were Camillo Golgi (1843-1926), Camillo Bozzolo (1845-1920), Giulio Bizzozero (1846-1901) and Enrico Sertoli (1842-1910).


Tropomodulin

Tropomodulin (TMOD) is a protein which binds and caps the minus end of actin (the "pointed" end), regulating the length of actin filaments in muscle and non-muscle cells. The protein functions by physically blocking the spontaneous dissociation of ADP-bound actin monomers from the minus end of the actin fibre. This, along with plus end capping proteins, such as capZ stabilise the structure of the actin filament. End capping is particularly important when long-lived actin filaments are necessary, for example: in myofibrils. Inhibition of tropomodulin capping activity leads to dramatic increase in thin filament length from its pointed end.


Beaniidae

Beaniidae is a small bryozoan family in the cheilostomatan suborder Flustrina and superfamily Buguloidea. Their zooids have a weak box-like shell of calcium carbonate as most Flustrina, and in this family typically arranged disjunctly, connected by small tubes, and often boat-shaped. One species, "Amphibiobeania epiphylla", is the only known amphibious bryozoan known as of 2008/09.
Genera.
Three genera are unequivocally assigned to this family:


John Coulson Tregarthen

John Coulson Tregarthen (9 September 1854 – 17 February 1933) was a British field naturalist and author, described as "the best loved Cornishman of his time".
Tregarthen was born in Penzance, Cornwall, the son of James Tregarthen of St Mary's, Scilly, and Morrab Road, Penzance, and Susan Bevan, the daughter of John Coulson of Penzance. He was educated at Penzance Grammar School and Wren's, and graduated with Mathematical Honours from London University in 1878. The following year he was appointed Mathematical Master at Trinity College School, a grammar school in Stratford-on-Avon. Coulson bought the school within a few years and was its headmaster for six years, from 1885–1900. While resident in the town he was good friends with the writers Marie Corelli and Madame Sarah Grand, and in his late forties he sold the school to Marie Corelli and retired to Cornwall. Here the energetic Tregarthen was able to pursue his naturalist interests fully, and began to write about the wildlife he saw around him. Corelli was soon to become his mentor, recommending him to her publisher, John Murray, and Tregarthen subsequently was to dedicate many of his books to her.
Tregarthen was President of the Midland Cornish Association in 1901, President of the Royal Institution of Cornwall (1927–29), a Fellow of the Zoological Society, a county councillor and JP, and was made a bard of Gorseth Kernow in 1928, taking the bardic name "Mylgarer", ('Lover of Wild Animals').
In 1881 Tregarthen married Rose, the youngest daughter of W. Huntley Bailey of Maida Vale; they had one son. Tregarthen spent his final years at his house, "Rosemorran", which is in Edgecumbe Gardens, Newquay, Cornwall. He was buried at St Columb Minor, Cornwall.


Panniculus

Panniculus, often incorrectly referred to as pannus, is a medical term describing a dense layer of fatty tissue, consisting of excess subcutaneous fat within the lower abdominal region. Panniculi can form after rapid weight loss, as seen with strict exercise plans—in this case, the abdominal fat is successfully reduced, but excess skin is left behind which hangs loosely over the area. It can be a result of obesity and can be mistaken for a tumor or hernia. Abdominal panniculus can be removed during abdominal panniculectomy, a type of abdominoplasty. A panniculus can also be the result of loose tissues after pregnancy or massive weight loss.


Fibulacamptus gracilior

Fibulacamptus gracilior is a species of harpacticoid copepod in the family Canthocamptidae. It is found in Australia.
The IUCN conservation status of "Fibulacamptus gracilior" is "VU", vulnerable. The species faces a high risk of endangerment in the medium term. The IUCN status was reviewed in 1996.


Callogorgia elegans

Callogorgia elegans is a species of soft corals in the family Primnoidae. It is found in the north-western Pacific Ocean.


Neoophora

Neoophora is a group of rhabditophoran flatworms with ectolecithal eggs, i.e., yolk is not present in the egg as in most animals, but rather is secreted by accessory glands called vitellaria or yolk glands. These glands have the same embryonic origin as the ovaries, but usually constitute a separate organ in adult animals.
The monophyly of Neoophora is disputed, since some recent molecular studies indicated that the most basal order, Lecithoepitheliata, is more closely related to Polycladida, a non-neoophoran order, than to other neoophorans. This would imply that the ectolecithal condition would have evolved twice. The clade formed by all other neoophorans, excluding Lecithoepitheliata, is usually called Euneoophora.


Kallirhynchia

Kallirhynchia is an extinct genus of brachiopods found in Jurassic strata in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, India and Uzbekistan. It was a stationary epifaunal suspension feeder.


Planipapillus vittatus

Planipapillus vittatus is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. It is found in Victoria, Australia.


Albertina Carlsson

Albertina Carlsson (12 June 1848 – 1930), was a Swedish zoologist. She is referred to as the first Swedish woman to have performed scientific studies in zoology.
Carlsson was born to taylor A.P. Carlsson and A.M. Jönsson. She was given private tuition and educated herself at the "Högre lärarinneseminariet" in Stockholm 1865–68. She was employed as a teacher at the "Paulis elementarläroverk för flickor" ('Pauli Elementary For Girls') in 1870–81 and at "Södermalms högre läroanstalt för flickor" ('Södermalm Educational Institute for Girls') in 1881–1907.
From 1880 onward, Carlsson studied zoology at the Zootomycal institute at the Stockholm University. She produced circa 30 larger and smaller scientific work mainly about the area of comparative anatomy, which was published in Swedish, German and British scientific papers. She particularly focused on the systematic position and relation between different species of mammals. In 1884, she shared the award "Flormanska priset" of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for her German language work "Beiträge zur Kentniss der Anatomie der Schwimmvögel" (1884). She was made honorary doctor at Stockholm University in 1927.


Corniculate cartilages

The corniculate cartilages (cartilages of Santorini) are two small conical nodules consisting of elastic cartilage, which articulate with the summits of the arytenoid cartilages and serve to prolong them posteriorly and medially.
They are situated in the posterior parts of the aryepiglottic folds of mucous membrane, and are sometimes fused with the arytenoid cartilages.
Eponym.
It is named by Giovanni Domenico Santorini. The word "Corniculate" has a Latin root "cornu". Cornu means horn like projections. The projections of Corniculate cartilage look like "horns" hence the name.


Vita Malacologica

Vita Malacologica is a peer-reviewed scientific journal on the subject of malacology, the study of the Mollusca. It is a print journal published in English by the Netherlands Malacological Society. The journal consists of one themed issue per year.
Name.
The name "Vita Malacologica" is Latin, meaning "malacological life".


Prosyntexis

Prosyntexis is an extinct genus of stem sawflies in the family Sepulcidae. There are at least four described species in "Prosyntexis".
The species "Prosyntexis okhotensis" and "Prosyntexis gobiensis" were formerly included in the genus "Trematothorax".
Species.
These four species belong to the genus "Prosyntexis":


Petrosquamous suture

The petrosquamous suture is a cranial suture between the petrous portion and the squama of the temporal bone. It forms the Koerner's septum. The petrous portion forms the medial component of the osseous margin, while the squama forms the lateral component. The anterolateral portion (squama) arises from the mesenchyme at 8 weeks of embryogenesis while the petromastoid portion develops later from a cartilaginous center at 6 months of fetal development.
In certain people, it can contain an emissary vein, referred to as the "petrosquamosal sinus". Being aware of this anatomic variant with preoperative CT scanning can be important to prevent bleeding in certain types of otolaryngological surgeries. Some authors have theorized that a persistent venous sinus reflects an arrest in embryologic development.


Conidiomata

Conidiomata are blister-like fruiting structures produced by a specific type of fungus called a coelomycete. They are formed as a means of dispersing asexual spores call conidia, which they accomplish by creating the blister-like formations which then rupture to release the contained spores.
Structure.
Conidiomata mainly consist of a mass of densely packed hypha which develops below the surface of the host cuticle, and the fungus may or may not use some of the host’s own tissue to construct the structure. Development of these structures can either occur just below the cuticle or below the epidermal layer of the tissue. Formation on the differing levels is dependent upon the type of conidiomata being formed. Five types of conidiomata have been found and are classified as acervuli, pycnidia, sporodochia, synnemata and corenima.
Types.
Acervuli.
Acervuli is one of the two major groups of conidiomata (the other being pycnidia). Conidiomata of this type form just below the cuticle of host tissue and produce massive blisters which protrude fairly far into the outside environment. Acervuli also have a large opening at the top from which the conidia are released. "Colletotrichum" and "Pestaloptiopsis" are examples of genera which produce these structures.
Pycnidia.
Pycnidia, the other major group of conidiomata, forms beneath the epithelial layer of host tissue. The structure resembles that of ascospores, and a pear-shaped structure produced entirely below the surface. This formations leaves the cuticle with only a minor bulge on the outside surface rather that a massive blister which was seen with Acervuli. Genera which produce this type of structure include Phomopsis, "Botryodiplodia", and "Phoma"
Sporodochia and synnemata.
Sporodochia are small, compact, slightly raised circles which form on host. "Deuteromycota" and "Hyphomycetes" produce these types of structures.
Synnemata are large, fused conidiophores which form a strand resembling a stalk of wheat, with spores lining the outside of the structure. Genera which produce synnemata include "Doratomyces".


Marmoset

The marmosets (), also known as zaris or "sagoin", are 22 New World monkey species of the genera "Callithrix", "Cebuella", "Callibella", and "Mico". All four genera are part of the biological family Callitrichidae. The term "marmoset" is also used in reference to Goeldi's marmoset, "Callimico goeldii", which is closely related.
Most marmosets are about long. Relative to other monkeys, they show some apparently primitive features; they have claws rather than nails, and tactile hairs on their wrists. They lack wisdom teeth, and their brain layout seems to be relatively primitive. Their body temperature is unusually variable, changing by up to 4°C (7°F) in a day. Marmosets are native to South America and have been found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, and Peru. They have also been occasionally spotted in Central America and southern Mexico. They are sometimes kept as pets, though they have specific dietary and habitat needs that require consideration.
According to recent research, marmosets exhibit germline chimerism, which is not known to occur in nature in any primates other than callitrichids. 95% of marmoset fraternal twins trade blood through chorionic fusions, making them hematopoietic chimeras.
Etymology.
"Callithrix" comes from Ancient Greek and means "beautiful fur".
Behavior.
Marmosets are highly active, living in the upper canopy of forest trees, and feeding on insects, fruit, leaves, tack, sap, and gum. They have long lower incisors, which allow them to chew holes in tree trunks and branches to harvest the gum inside; some species are specialised feeders on gum.
Marmosets live in family groups of three to 15, consisting of one or two breeding females, an unrelated male, their offspring, and occasionally extended family members and unrelated individuals. Their mating systems are highly variable and can include monogamy, polygyny, and polyandry. In most species, fraternal twins are usually born, but triplets are not unknown. Like other callitrichines, marmosets are characterized by a high degree of cooperative care of the young and some food sharing and tolerated theft. Adult males, females other than the mother, and older offspring participate in carrying infants. Father marmosets are an exceptionally attentive example of fathers within the animal kingdom, going as far as assisting their mates in giving birth, cleaning up afterbirth, and even biting the umbilical cords attaching their newborn offspring to their mothers. Most groups scent mark and defend the edges of their ranges, but if they are truly territorial is unclear, as group home ranges greatly overlap.
The favorite food of marmosets is carbohydrate-rich tree sap, which they reach by gnawing holes in trunks. Their territories are centered on the trees that they regularly exploit in this way. The smaller marmosets venture into the very top of forest canopies to hunt insects that are abundant there.


New Guinea flightless rail

The New Guinea flightless rail ("Megacrex inepta"), also known as the Papuan flightless rail, is a species of bird in the family Rallidae, in the monotypic genus "Megacrex". Sometimes however, it was included in "Amaurornis" or "Habroptila", but this is incorrect.
Distribution and habitat.
It is found in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical mangrove forests, and subtropical or tropical swamps. It is threatened by habitat loss.
Systematics and evolution.
"M. inepta" is indeed closely related to "Amaurornis", but not as close as to warrant inclusion therein. Rather, it is part of a group including the core group of the polyphyletic "Amaurornis", as well as the monotypic genera "Aenigmatolimnas" (striped crake), "Gallicrex" (Watercock) and "Himantornis" (Nkulengu rail). Most of these rails occur in tropical Asia. The Nkulengu rail from the tropical rainforests of Africa is particularly interesting with regard to the New Guinea flightless rail, as its habitat is quite similar but it is so much unlike other rails to have been separated as a distinct subfamily in earlier times. Instead, these two species seem to be ancient divergences that independently expanded westwards and southeastwards from the group's ancestral range, and diverged strongly in some aspects, while otherwise adapting in similar ways.


Cauchois pigeon

The Cauchois pigeon is a breed of fancy pigeon. Cauchois pigeons, along with other varieties of domesticated pigeons, are all descendants from the rock pigeon ("Columba livia").


Trevor Kincaid

Trevor Kincaid (December 21, 1872 – July 1, 1970) was a Canadian-American scientist and professor at the University of Washington who achieved national acclaim for his scientific achievements while an undergraduate student. Kincaid's interests ranged from insect life to marine biology to mollusks, though he once described himself as an "omniologist" (one who studies everything). He is best known for introducing the gypsy moth parasite to the United States, for helping establish the Washington state oyster industry, and as the driving force behind the creation of the Friday Harbor Laboratories. Kincaid is responsible for the identification and naming of hundreds of species; at least 47 plant and animal species were, in turn, named after him. In 1938 he was designated "Alumnus Summa Laude Dignatus" of the University of Washington, that school's highest honor for its alumni.
Early life and education.
Family and childhood.
Trevor Kincaid was born in Peterborough, Ontario, in 1872. He was the son of Robert Kincaid, a first generation Canadian whose own father had immigrated from Ireland in the early 19th century. Robert Kincaid received his medical degree from Queen's University and undertook his internship at Bellevue Hospital in New York City. In 1861, Kincaid found himself caught up in the war hysteria that followed the capitulation of Fort Sumter and volunteered to join the United States Army, serving during the American Civil War first as a field surgeon and, later, as a member of the medical staff at Armory Square Hospital in Washington, DC. After the war he returned to Peterborough and took up private medical practice, eventually marrying Mary Bell, who gave birth to Trevor.
In his youth, Kincaid was inquisitive about nature and enjoyed playing lacrosse with friends. A series of bad investments by Robert Kincaid, however, led to the family's bankruptcy, and the Kincaids left Peterborough for Olympia, Washington, in 1889. A paucity of family funds led Kincaid to work a variety of odd jobs for several years following high school, but a chance encounter with University of Washington (UW) biology professor Orson "Bugs" Johnson and the Young Naturalists Society led him to resolve to spend his meager savings to relocate to Seattle and enroll at the university.
University and national acclaim.
As a student, Kincaid showed exceptional aptitude for the natural sciences and achieved national attention for his scientific achievements. In 1897, while still an undergraduate, he accompanied David Starr Jordan to the Pribilof Islands as part of a study of seals undertaken by the American Fur Seal Commission. Back in Washington, Kincaid's interests focused more on insect life, and a report that year in the "Boston Evening Transcript" noted that he had discovered 41 new species of bees, including 22 of the genus Osmia. Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell, at the time one of America's leading entomologists, directed a portion of the sizable Kincaid bee collection to the Smithsonian Institution.
Kincaid missed commencement exercises at the University of Washington due to his appointment as the entomologist attached to the Harriman Alaska Expedition. During that trip, completed before his 27th birthday, he collected about 8,000 specimens of insect, resulting in the discovery and naming of more than 240 new species, including "Mesenchytraeus harrimani", which he named after the expedition's patron, E. H. Harriman.
Following his graduation from the University of Washington, Kincaid went on to earn a master's degree.
Career.
Teaching and research career.
In 1901 Kincaid was hired as a lecturer in biology at the University of Washington. The following year he was promoted to assistant professor and made chairman of the university's newly created zoology department, a position he would continue to hold until his retirement 35 years later.
In his new position, Kincaid began scouting the Puget Sound region for a suitable site at which the university could establish a marine research field station. After evaluating Port Townsend and Rocky Bay, he chose Friday Harbor as the location for what is now known as Friday Harbor Laboratories, concluding that the "great wealth of life in that area" made up for its extremely remote location. After running a laboratory at temporary sites near Friday Harbor for several years, Kincaid personally petitioned for the transfer to the university of the 484-acre Point Caution site (an area of San Juan Island that had been set aside as a military reserve to be used in the event of war with the United Kingdom). In 1921 the U.S. government finally ceded Point Caution to the university.
Kincaid was dispatched to Japan in 1908 by the United States Department of Agriculture to identify and collect a natural parasite for the gypsy moth, which, at the time, was creating havoc in Massachusetts. His continued research on that parasite, the Chalcid wasp, took him to Russia the following year. The parasite that he discovered was bred by the US Department of Agriculture as a gypsy moth repellent for many years thereafter. His later work on oyster breeding earned him the nickname the "father of the Northwest oyster industry". During his years at the UW, he was also credited with helping to establish the university's College of Fisheries.
Later studies.
Kincaid was compelled to retire in 1937 due to the University of Washington's mandatory retirement age. He continued research as a professor emeritus into his 80s, purchasing a hand printing press that he used to self-publish a series of reports based on previous research he had made of snails. These papers were published under the name "Calliostoma Press". Proofread by his wife Louise, they were known for being virtually free of typographic errors.
Personal life.
Kincaid married Louise Pennell on August 23, 1917. Pennell had received her master's degree in zoology from the University of Washington the preceding June.
Death and legacy.
Kincaid died in 1970. Kincaid Hall at the University of Washington, constructed in 1971, is named after him.
At least 47 plant and animal species have also been named after Kincaid.
In 1938 Kincaid became the first person to be recognized by the University of Washington as "Alumnus Summa Laude Dignatus" ("Alumnus Worthy of Highest Praise"), the university's highest honor for its past graduates.


Austral storm petrel

Austral storm petrels, or southern storm petrels, are seabirds in the family Oceanitidae, part of the order Procellariiformes. These smallest of seabirds feed on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. Their flight is fluttering and sometimes bat-like.
Austral storm petrels have a cosmopolitan distribution, being found in all oceans, although only Wilson's storm petrels are found in the Northern Hemisphere. They are almost all strictly pelagic, coming to land only when breeding. In the case of most petrel species, little is known of their behaviour and distribution at sea, where they can be hard to find and harder to identify. They are colonial nesters, displaying strong philopatry to their natal colonies and nesting sites. Most species nest in crevices or burrows, and all but one species attend the breeding colonies nocturnally. Pairs form long-term monogamous bonds and share incubation and chick-feeding duties. Like many species of seabirds, nesting is highly protracted with incubation taking up to 50 days and fledging another 70 days after that.
Several species of austral storm petrel are threatened by human activities. One species, the New Zealand storm petrel, was presumed extinct until rediscovered in 2003. The principal threats to storm petrels are introduced species, particularly mammals, in their breeding colonies; many storm petrels habitually nest on isolated mammal-free islands and are unable to cope with predators such as rats and feral cats.
Taxonomy.
Two subfamilies of storm petrel were traditionally recognized. The Oceanitinae, or austral storm-petrels, were mostly found in southern waters (though Wilson's storm petrel regularly migrates into the Northern Hemisphere); the seven species are in five genera. The Hydrobatinae, or northern storm petrels, were the two genera "Hydrobates" and "Oceanodroma". They were largely restricted to the Northern Hemisphere, although a few could visit or breed a short distance beyond the Equator.
Cytochrome "b" DNA sequence analysis suggests that the family was paraphyletic and more accurately treated as distinct families. The same study found that the austral storm petrels are basal within the Procellariiformes. The first split was the subfamily Oceanitidae, with the Hydrobatidae splitting from the rest of the order at a later date. Few fossil species have been found, with the earliest being from the Upper Miocene.
Morphology and flight.
Austral storm petrels are the smallest of all the seabirds, ranging in size from 15–26 cm in length. Two body shapes occur in the family; the austral storm petrels have short wings, square tails, elongated skulls, and long legs. The legs of all storm petrels are proportionally longer than those of other Procellariiformes, but they are very weak and unable to support the bird's weight for more than a few steps.
The plumage of the Oceanitidae is dark with white underparts (with the exception of Wilson's storm petrel) Onley and Scofield (2007) state that much published information is incorrect, and that photographs in the major seabird books and websites are frequently incorrectly ascribed as to species. They also consider that several national bird lists include species which have been incorrectly identified or have been accepted on inadequate evidence.
Storm petrels use a variety of techniques to aid flight. Most species occasionally feed by surface pattering, holding and moving their feet on the water's surface while holding steady above the water. They remain stationary by hovering with rapid fluttering or using the wind to anchor themselves in place. This method of feeding flight is most commonly used by austral storm petrels. The white-faced storm petrel possesses a unique variation on pattering, holding its wings motionless and at an angle into the wind, it pushes itself off the water's surface in a succession of bounding jumps. Storm petrels also use dynamic soaring and slope soaring to travel over the ocean surface, although this method is used less by this family compared to the northern storm petrels. Slope soaring is more straightforward and favoured by the Oceanitidae, the storm petrel turns to the wind, gaining height, from where it can then glide back down to the sea.
Diet.
The diet of many storm petrels species is poorly known owing to difficulties in researching; overall the family is thought to concentrate on crustaceans. Small fish, oil droplets and molluscs are also taken by many species. Some species are known to be rather more specialised; the grey-backed storm petrel is known to concentrate on the larvae of goose barnacles.
Almost all species forage in the pelagic zone, except for Elliot's storm petrels, which are coastal feeders in the Galapagos Islands. Although storm petrels are capable of swimming well and often form rafts on the water's surface, they do not feed on the water. Instead, feeding usually takes place on the wing, with birds hovering above or "walking" on the surface (see morphology) and snatching small morsels. Rarely, prey is obtained by making shallow dives under the surface.
Like many types of seabirds, storm petrels associate with other species of seabird and marine mammal species to help obtain food. They may benefit from the actions of diving predators such as seals and penguins, which push prey up towards the surface while hunting, allowing the surface-feeding storm petrels to reach them.
Distribution and movements.
The austral storm petrels typically breed found in the Southern Hemisphere, in contrast to the northern storm-petrel in the Northern Hemisphere.
Several species of storm petrels undertake migrations after the breeding season. The most widely travelled migrant is Wilson's storm petrel, which after breeding in Antarctica and the subantarctic islands, regularly crosses the equator to the waters of the north Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Some species, such as the grey-backed storm petrel, are thought to be essentially sedentary and do not undertake any migrations away from their breeding islands.
Breeding.
Storm petrels nest colonially, for the most part on islands, although a few species breed on the mainland, particularly Antarctica. Nesting sites are attended at night to avoid predators. Storm petrels display high levels of philopatry, returning to their natal colonies to breed. In one instance, a band-rumped storm petrel was caught as an adult 2 m from its natal burrow. Storm petrels nest either in burrows dug into soil or sand, or in small crevices in rocks and scree. Competition for nesting sites is intense in colonies where storm petrels compete with other burrowing petrels, with shearwaters having been recorded killing storm petrels to occupy their burrows. Colonies can be extremely large and dense; 840,000 pairs of white-faced storm petrel nest on South East Island in the Chatham Islands in densities between 1.18 and 0.47 burrows/m2.
Storm petrels are monogamous and form long-term pair bonds that last a number of years. As with the other Procellariiformes, a single egg is laid by a pair in a breeding season; if the egg fails, then usually no attempt is made to lay again (although it happens rarely). Both sexes incubate in shifts of up to six days. The egg hatches after 40 or 50 days; the young is brooded continuously for another 7 days or so before being left alone in the nest during the day and fed by regurgitation at night. Meals fed to the chick weigh around 10–20% of the parent's body weight, and consist of both prey items and stomach oil. Stomach oil is an energy-rich (its calorific value is around 9.6 kcal/g) oil created by partly digested prey in a part of the fore gut known as the proventriculus. By partly converting prey items into stomach oil, storm petrels can maximise the amount of energy chicks receive during feed, an advantage for small seabirds that can only make a single visit to the chick during a 24-hour period (at night). The average age at which chicks fledge depends on the species, taking between 50 and 70 days. The time taken to hatch and raise the young is long for the bird's size, but is typical of seabirds, which in general are K-selected, living much longer, delaying breeding for longer, and investing more effort into fewer young. The young leave their burrow at about 62 days. They are independent almost at once and quickly disperse into the ocean. They return to their original colony after 2 or 3 years, but do not breed until at least 4 years old. Storm petrels have been recorded living as long as 30 years.
Threats and conservation.
Several species of austral storm petrels are threatened by human activities. The New Zealand storm petrel is listed as critically endangered, and was also considered extinct for many years, but was sighted again in 2003, though the population is likely to be very small. Storm petrels face the same threats as other seabirds; in particular, they are threatened by introduced species.


Micropilina arntzi

Micropilina arntzi is a species of monoplacophoran, a superficially limpet-like marine mollusk. It is found off the coast of Antarctica. It has three pairs of gills.
Anatomy.
"Micropilina arntzi" has three pairs of gills, three pairs of nephridia ("kidneys"), six irregularly coiled intestinal loops, two pairs of oesophageal pouches, and no heart.


Austroperipatus eridelos

Austroperipatus eridelos is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family.


Krohnittella


Planipapillus impacris

Planipapillus impacris is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. It is found in New South Wales, Australia.


Oxygenation index

The oxygenation index is a calculation used in intensive care medicine to measure the fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) and its usage within the body.
A lower oxygenation index is better - this can be inferred by the equation itself. As the oxygenation of a person improves, they will be able to achieve a higher PaO2 at a lower FiO2. This would be reflected on the formula as a decrease in the numerator or an increase in the denominator - thus lowering the OI. Typically an OI threshold is set for when a neonate should be placed on ECMO, for example >40.


Douvilleiceratidae

Douvilleiceratidae is a family of ammonites. These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived in the Cretaceous from 125.45 to 94.3 Ma.
Its fossils have been found in Angola, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, France, Germany, India, Iran, Italy, Japan, Madagascar, Mexico, Morocco, Peru, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, Russia, the United Kingdom, United States and Venezuela.


Extensor retinaculum of the hand

The extensor retinaculum (dorsal carpal ligament, or posterior annular ligament) is an anatomical term for the thickened part of the antebrachial fascia that holds the tendons of the extensor muscles in place. It is located on the back of the forearm, just to the hand. It is continuous with the palmar carpal ligament, which is located on the anterior side of the forearm.
Structure.
The extensor retinaculum is a strong, fibrous band, extending obliquely downward and medialward across the back of the wrist. It consists of part of the deep fascia of the back of the forearm, strengthened by the addition of some transverse fibers.
The extensor retinaculum is attached laterally to the lateral margin of the radius. However, it is not attached to the ulna, as the distance between these two bones varies with supination and pronation of the forearm. Instead the medial attachment is to the pisiform bone, the fifth metacarpal bone, and the pisometacarpal ligament. The retinaculum is also attached in its passage across the wrist, to the ridges on the dorsal surface of the radius.
Histology.
Structurally, the retinaculum consists of three layers. The deepest layer, the gliding layer, consists of hyaluronic acid-secreting cells. The thick middle layer consists of interspersed elastin fibers, collagen bundles, and fibroblasts. The most superficial layer is made up of loose connective tissue which contains vascular channels. Combined these three layers create a smooth gliding surface as well as mechanically strong tissue which prevents tendon bowstringing. The extensor retinaculum of the foot has similar structure.
Clinical significance.
Studies conducted on the retinaculum have exhibited it to have several possible surgical treatments uses. A graft of the extensor retinaculum was shown to be useful in treating boxer's knuckle when direct repair of the damaged capsule is not possible. Because of their similarities in histological structure, studies also show the extensor retinaculum to be a reasonable biological replacement for reconstruction of a deficient annular pulley.


Zygomatic process of maxilla


Anomoclausia

Anomoclausia is a genus of cyclopoid copepods in the family Anomoclausiidae, the sole genus of the family. There is one described species in "Anomoclausia", "A. indrehusae".


Orchesella hexfasciata

Orchesella hexfasciata is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae.


Coelolepidae

Coelolepidae is an extinct family of thelodont vertebrate agnathans that lived during the Silurian.


Grace Hickling

Grace Hickling (10 August 1908 – 30 December 1986) was a British ornithologist known for studying wildlife on the Farne Islands, in the North Sea off Northumberland.
Early life and education.
Hickling was born in 1908, as Grace Watt. She attended Harrogate Ladies' College and Armstrong College in Newcastle upon Tyne, before attending Newnham College, Cambridge from 1928 to 1931.
Career.
Hickling began working as a teacher, but was called for war service during World War II. She was originally offered the intelligence officer salary of £400 until it was discovered that she was a woman and her pay was cut to £300. While working as an intelligence officer, Hickling met Russell Goddard, the curator of the Hancock Museum, who first interested her in the Farne Islands. For the next thirty-eight years she worked as the honorary secretary of the Natural History Society of Northumbria. When Goddard died in 1948, Hickling began transcribing his notes on Farne Island birds, adding in her own notes. She produced twenty-two volumes which have been photocopied for future study. She also spent every spring leading bird tagging in the Farne Islands, where she tagged 187,600 birds.
Achievements and awards.
Hickling published two books, "The Farne Islands: Their History and Wildlife" and "Grey Seals and the Farne Islands" in 1951 and 1962. She served as the naturalists' representative for the Lindisfarne National Nature Reserve at its beginning in 1964, and was on the local committee of the National Trust for the Farne Islands from 1949. In 1974 she was recognized for her work by being made a Member of the Order of the British Empire. Following her death in 1986, her ashes were scattered in St. Cuthbert's Cove, Inner Farne.