Zygomatic plate

In rodent anatomy, the zygomatic plate is a bony plate derived from the flattened front part of the zygomatic arch (cheekbone). At the back, it connects to the front (maxillary) root of the zygomatic arch, and at the top it is connected to the rest of the skull via the "antorbital bridge". It is part of the maxillary bone, or upper jaw, which also contains the upper cheekteeth. Primitively, rodents have a nearly horizontal zygomatic plate. In association with specializations in zygomasseteric system, several distinct morphologies have developed across the order.
The term is also used for an analogous structure in some South American typotheres, including "Pseudotypotherium" and "Medistylus".
Function.
The zygomatic plate serves to resist muscular tension resulting from the contraction of the incisors by the anterior deep masseter muscle; thus, rodents which pulverize hard food with the incisors tend to have broader zygomatic plates than those that rather use their molars for this purpose.
Hystricomorpha.
The members of this large and diverse suborder have a narrow, low zygomatic plate.
Sciuromorpha.
The suborder Sciuromorpha includes three families. Squirrels (family Sciuridae) tend to have broad zygomatic plate that extend above the infraorbital foramen. The mountain beaver ("Aplodontia rufa"), the only surviving member of its family, retains the primitive narrow and low plate. The dormice (Gliridae) have broad, high zygomatic plates, except for "Graphiurus", which has a lower plate.
Castorimorpha.
Members of the suborder Castorimorpha, which includes the beavers, pocket gophers, and pocket mice, tend to have broad zygomatic plate that extend above the infraorbital foramen.
Anomaluromorpha.
Anomaluromorpha is a small suborder, containing only two families. Anomaluridae have a low and narrow zygomatic plate. Members of the subfamily Idiurinae are atypical in having the zygomatic plate extended forward nearly to the incisors. The condition in the springhaas ("Pedetes") is similar.
Myomorpha.
Myomorpha is the largest suborder of rodents. In the most numerous subgroup, the Muroidea (including all living families except Dipodidae), the zygomatic plate is generally broad and tilted upwards. Muroids may have the plate extending in front of the front (maxillary) root of the actual zygomatic arch, creating a "zygomatic notch". In some, the plate extends at the front into a spinous process, the "zygomatic spine".
Dipodidae.
Members of the family Dipodidae, which have hystricomorphous zygomasseteric morphology, have nearly horizontal, narrow zygomatic plates.
Platacanthomyidae.
Members of the small family Platacanthomyidae have a relatively narrow zygomatic plate.
Spalacidae.
The fossorially specialized family Spalacidae shows peculiarities in the condition of the zygomatic plate. In "Tachyoryctes" and the Rhizomyinae, it is tilted upward and fused to the sides of the snout (rostrum). In the Spalacinae and Myospalacinae, on the other hand, the plate is tilted downward into an almost horizontal position.
Calomyscidae.
The mouse-like hamster ("Calomyscus"), the only member of its family, has a straight front margin on the zygomatic plate.
Nesomyidae.
The family Nesomyidae is restricted to Africa.
"Dendromus" has a narrow zygomatic plate, as do "Steatomys" and "Prionomys".
"Brachyuromys" has an arvicoline-like high zygomatic plate. In "Eliurus", the front border of the plate is straight. "Nesomys" has a low zygomatic plate. In "Hypogeomys", it is broad, but rather low.
Muridae.
Muridae is the order's largest family, and contains several subfamilies.
"Deomys", a member of the Deomyinae, has an unusually low zygomatic plate, as does "Lophuromys", a member of the same subfamily.
Most members of the subfamily Murinae, the Old World rats and mice, have a fairly broad zygomatic plate with a well-developed zygomatic notch. A zygomatic spine is developed in some Australian genera, including "Notomys" and some "Pseudomys". Except for "Xeromys", "Hydromys" and related genera ("hydromyines") have a narrow plate, lacking the notch, as does "Hyomys", "Macruromys", "Crunomys", and "Rhynchomys". The Philippine "Batomys", "Carpomys", and "Crateromys" have well-developed zygomatic plates, reminiscent of those in Arvicolinae. "Phloeomys" has a broad zygomatic plate.
Cricetidae.
The family Cricetidae is the order's second largest, containing several subfamilies and hundreds of species.
The subfamily Arvicolinae, the voles and lemmings, has the zygomatic plate tilted upwards very strongly.
In the subfamily Tylomyinae, "Nyctomys" has a narrow zygomatic plate.
Among members of the Neotominae, "Baiomys", "Reithrodontomys", "Onychomys", and "Peromyscus" has a narrow zygomatic plate.
Members of the subfamily Sigmodontinae, which includes a number of tribes, usually have the antorbital bridge below the upper surface of the skull. Most have a zygomatic notch. The extent of the zygomatic plate at the back is also variable within Sigmodontinae, with some having the plate extending back to the level of the first upper molar and others having shorter plates.
Members of the semiaquatic tribe Ichthyomyini are unique among the Sigmodontinae in lacking the zygomatic notch. In ichthyomyines, the development of the zygomatic plate is correlated with the development of the teeth: those species with large molars and small incisors, including species of "Anotomys" and "Rheomys", have slender plates that do not extend back to the first molars, whereas those with larger incisors and smaller molars, including some "Ichthyomys" and "Neusticomys", have broader zygomatic plates that do reach the level of the first molars.
The genus "Sigmodon", which is classified in its own tribe, has a broad zygomatic plate and a zygomatic spine. Relative width of the zygomatic plate can distinguish some species of "Sigmodon".
Most members of the tribe Phyllotini have the antorbital bridge located higher than is usual in Sigmodontinae ("Calomys" and "Andalgalomys" show the normal sigmodontine condition). A similar condition characterizes "Euneomys", "Neotomys", "Reithrodon", which are no longer considered phyllotines, but to an even larger extent than in most actual phyllotines; in "Euneomys", the antorbital bridge is inserted on the upper surface of the skull. Most phyllotines have zygomatic spines, but the structure is more well-developed in "Reithrodon". The zygomatic plate not extending backwards to the first molars is a diagnostic character of phyllotines.
Most thomasomyines lack a well-developed zygomatic notch. The genus "Rhipidomys" has a narrow zygomatic plate, no zygomatic spine and only a narrow notch. "Thomasomys" shares a narrow zygomatic plate.
In the Akodontini, "Oxymycterus" and "Lenoxus" have a low zygomatic plate, similar to that of "Lophuromys". "Scapteromys" shares a low plate. In "Akodon", the plate is narrow, as in many others akodontine; this is extremely so in "Blarinomys".
The tribe Abrotrichini is characterized by a narrow zygomatic plate, without an extension at the upper border.
In the tribe Oryzomyini, the configuration of the zygomatic plate is variable. Most have a well-developed zygomatic notch. In the three related genera "Holochilus", "Pseudoryzomys", and "Lundomys", this extension has further developed into a zygomatic spine. In contrast, "Microryzomys", "Oreoryzomys", "Oecomys", "Scolomys", and "Sigmodontomys aphrastus" lack a well-defined notch and do not have the plate extending appreciably in front of the root of the zygomatic arch. The zygomatic plate extending back to the level of the upper first molar is a putative synapomorphy of Clade C within Oryzomyini.
The sigmodontine "Juliomys pictipes" has an almost vertical zygomatic plate.


Medial striate artery

Medial striate artery is a branch of anterior cerebral artery, rostral to the anterior communicating arteries. Clinicians may refer to this artery as Heubner's artery or the Recurrent Artery of Heubner. This artery supplies mainly the head of the caudate nucleus, as well as the lenticular nucleus (Putamen and Globus pallidus), and the anterior limb of the internal capsule.
The corpus striatum, which consists of the caudate and lenticular nuclei, gives this artery its name.


Aplysina fistularis

Aplysina fistularis, commonly known as the yellow sponge or yellow tube sponge, is a species of sea sponge in the order Verongiida. "Aplysina fistularis" is a golden or orange-brown color with a conulose surface. The animal is abundant in the Caribbean, where it is commonly found in reefs of open water areas. This sponge was first described by the Prussian zoologist Peter Simon Pallas in 1766.
Description.
"Aplysina fistularis" consists of tube-like structures that arise from a base. Each tube is rarely over in clear water but can reach in turbid-zone reefs. The sponge has wide oscula and thin walls with ridged surfaces. Unlike the related species "Aplysina insularis", "A. fistularis" does not develop rope-like projections around its tubes, although it may show some tendrils branching off of them.
In popular culture.
In "The SpongeBob Musical", the popular animated character SpongeBob SquarePants is revealed to be an "Aplysina fistularis".


Kestrel

The name kestrel (from , derivative from , i.e. ratchet) is given to several members of the falcon genus, "Falco". Kestrels are most easily distinguished by their typical hunting behaviour which is to hover at a height of around over open country and swoop down on prey, usually small mammals, lizards or large insects. Other falcons are more adapted to active hunting in flight. Kestrels are notable for usually having mostly brown in their plumage.
Description.
Most species termed kestrels appear to form a distinct clade among the falcons, as suggested by comparison of mtDNA cytochrome "b" sequence data and morphology. This seems to have diverged from other "Falco" around the Miocene–Pliocene boundary (Messinian to Zanclean, or about 7–3.5 mya). The most basal "true" kestrels are three species from Africa and its surroundings which lack a malar stripe, and in one case have—like other falcons but unlike other true kestrels—large areas of grey in their wings.
Approximately during the Gelasian age (Late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene, around 2.5–2 mya), the main lineage of true kestrels emerged; this contains the species characterized by a malar stripe. This too seems to have evolved in Africa and subsequently spread across the Old World until they reached Australia some time during the Middle Pleistocene, less than one million years ago. This group contains several taxa found on Indian Ocean islands. A group of three predominantly grey species from Africa and Madagascar are usually considered kestrels due to their general shape and habits, but are probably distinct from the true kestrels as outlined above.
The American kestrel is the only New World species termed "kestrel". The molecular data of Groombridge as well as morphological peculiarities (like grey wings in males and a black ear-spot) and biogeography, strongly support the view that this species, among the "Falco" falcons, is not a kestrel at all in the phylogenetic sense but perhaps closer to the hobbies. Other recent DNA analysis takes a similar view that the American kestrel is not a true kestrel, but rather than being linked to the hobbies is more likely genetically more closely related to the larger American falcons such as the aplomado falcon, the peregrine falcon, and prairie falcon. Though the species has not been renamed as a result of these genetic analyses, it is thus likely a descendant of archaic larger falcon ancestors evolved through a process of convergent evolution to fit a similar small prey niche in the ecosystem as the true kestrels.
Groups.
Malar-striped clade or common kestrel group
Basal lineage(s) of true kestrels
African grey kestrels (a more distant group)
American kestrel


Xiaoheiqingella

Xiaoheiqingella is a taxon of priapulid known from the Chengjiang biota; synonymous with "Yunnanpriapulus", and thought to belong to the priapulid crown group.


Andrew Leith Adams

Andrew Leith Adams FRSE, FRS (21 March 1827 – 29 July 1882) was a Scottish physician, naturalist and geologist. He was the father of the writer Francis Adams.
Life and career.
Adams was the son of Francis Adams (1796–1861), a surgeon and Espeth Shaw. He studied medicine and joined as an army physician in 1848, serving in the 22nd Infantry Regiment in India. Between 1849–1854 he was posted in Dagshai, Rawalpindi and Peshawar. He also served in Kashmir, Egypt, Malta (1861–1868), Gibraltar and Canada. He married Bertha Jane Grundy on 26 October 1859, who later became famous as a novelist.
He spent his spare time studying the natural history of these countries. He was among the first to study the interior of Ladakh and wrote about it in "The Birds of Cashmere and Ladakh". The orange bullfinch ("Pyrrhula aurantiaca") was discovered by him as also the first breeding site of brown-headed gulls ("Larus brunnicephalus") in the lakes of the Tibetan plateau.
After his retirement from the army in 1873, Adams was professor of natural history at Trinity College, Dublin and Queen's College, Cork. He was elected a fellow of the Geographical Society in 1870 a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1872, and Fellow of the Royal Society in 1873.
He died of a pulmonary haemorrhage on 29 July 1883 at Rushbrook Villa (Cork).
He published "Wanderings of a Naturalist in India, the Western Himalayas and Cashmere" (1867), "Notes of a Naturalist in the Nile Valley and Malta" (1871) and "Field and Forest Rambles" (1873).
He is commemorated in the black-winged snowfinch "Montifringilla adamsi" and in the genus of the Pleistocene giant dormouse of Malta and Sicily "Leithia melitensis" and "Leithia cartei". In 1868 Leith Adams described the very large form of giant dormouse from the Maqhlaq cave as "Myoxus melitensis" and the smaller form as "Myoxus cartei". Later, Richard Lydekker assigned the two species to a new genus, named "Leithia" in honour of Leith Adams in 1895.


Night heron

The night herons are medium-sized herons, 58–65 cm, in the genera "Nycticorax", "Nyctanassa," and "Gorsachius". The genus name "Nycticorax" derives from the Greek for “night raven” and refers to the largely nocturnal feeding habits of this group of birds, and the croaking crow-like call of the best known species, the black-crowned night heron.
In Europe, night heron is often used to refer to the black-crowned night heron, since it is the only member of the genus in that continent.
Adults are short-necked, short-legged, and stout herons with a primarily brown or grey plumage, and, in most, a black crown. Young birds are brown, flecked with white. At least some of the extinct Mascarenes taxa appear to have retained this juvenile plumage in adult birds.
Night herons nest alone or in colonies, on platforms of sticks in a group of trees, or on the ground in protected locations such as islands or reedbeds. 3-8 eggs are laid.
Night herons stand still at the water's edge, and wait to ambush prey, mainly at night. They primarily eat small fish, crustaceans, frogs, aquatic insects, and small mammals. During the day, they rest in trees or bushes.
There are seven extant species. The genus "Nycticorax" has suffered more than any other Pelecaniformes genus from extinction, mainly because of their capability to colonize small, predator-free oceanic islands, and a tendency to evolve towards flightlessness.
Night Herons breed mainly in southern and southeastern Europe and migrate across the Sahara to winter in central and west Africa.


Gordius aquaticus

Gordius aquaticus is a species of "Gordius".
The species was described in 1758 by Carolus Linnaeus.
It has cosmopolitan distribution.


Siphonodendron

Siphonodendron is an extinct genus of colonial rugose corals common during the Carboniferous period. In fossil form it now appears as a white or brown mass of short spaghetti-like threads, usually flattened during distortion of the embedding limestone. It is in the sub-class Hexacorallia of corals with sixfold symmetry.


BirdNote

BirdNote is a nonprofit radio program dedicated to the conservation of birds and their habitats. "BirdNote" shows are two-minute vignettes that incorporate the sounds of birds with stories that illustrate their way of life. Shows can be heard on radio, online, and via podcast.
The "BirdNote" broadcast originated in the Pacific Northwest under the umbrella of the Seattle Audubon Society, a chapter of the National Audubon Society and now operates as a 501(c)(3) nonprofit, Tune In to Nature. The show airs seven days a week on KNKX, an affiliate of National Public Radio, and also on KTOO-FM, KJJF, KWMR, WNPR/Connecticut Public Radio, WRVO, KPBX, KCAW, KYRS, KPFZ, KHSU, KRTS, KUNM, and nearly 150 other public radio stations across the country, as well as in Canada, and the Philippines. The podcast reaches many more countries. Stories range from natural history to conservation to the language and music of birds.
"BirdNote's" goal is "to help people connect to the natural world and, for a couple minutes, have respite from the daily grind." Story subjects have included Rachel Carson, Roger Tory Peterson, Aldo Leopold, Frank Chapman, Barry Lopez, Terry Tempest Williams, Ivan Doig, Tony Angell, whooping crane migration, the extinction of the dodo, birds in myth, music, and pop culture, and the natural history of hundreds of species of birds.
Contributors.
Most bird sounds for "BirdNote" are provided by the Macaulay Library of the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology. Writers include Dennis Paulson, Curator Emeritus of The Slater Museum of Natural History at the University of Puget Sound, Robert Sundstrom, birding-by-ear expert with the Seattle Audubon Society, and other writers and naturalists. All shows are reviewed for scientific accuracy by a panel of advisors. Narrators include Mary McCann, Michael Stein, and Frank Corrado, a professional actor well known to Seattle theater-goers. John Kessler, of NPR’s Mountain Stage fame, is the producer. All shows have a companion photo, many of which were taken by photographer-naturalist, Paul Bannick. "BirdNote's" theme music was composed and played by John Kessler and Nancy Rumbel of Tingstad and Rumbel.


Oocerina

Oocerina is an extinct genus of nautiloid cephalopods that lived during the Late Silurian of Europe, Russia, and North America.
"Oocerina", included in the oncoerid family Oncoceratidae and arbitrarily within the Slender Oncoceratidae, is characterized by a moderately slender, elongate shell with an exogastric curvature, such that the lower side with the siphuncle is convex in profile and the opposite, upper, side is concave in profile. Shells are laterally compressed, curvature is gentle to almost straight. Chambers are short, septa close spaced, sutures typically straight. The siphuncle is nummuloidal, containing actinosiphonate deposits within.
"Oonoceras" is similar except for having a generally stronger curvatue and a simpler, non-actinosiphonate siphuncle.


Pharyngeal slit

Pharyngeal slits are filter-feeding organs found among deuterostomes. Pharyngeal slits are repeated openings that appear along the pharynx caudal to the mouth. With this position, they allow for the movement of water in the mouth and out the pharyngeal slits. It is postulated that this is how pharyngeal slits first assisted in filter-feeding, and later, with the addition of gills along their walls, aided in respiration of aquatic chordates. These repeated segments are controlled by similar developmental mechanisms. Some hemichordate species can have as many as 200 gill slits. Pharyngeal clefts resembling gill slits are transiently present during the embryonic stages of tetrapod development. The presence of pharyngeal arches and clefts in the neck of the developing human embryo famously led Ernst Haeckel to postulate that "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny"; this hypothesis, while false, contains elements of truth, as explored by Stephen Jay Gould in "Ontogeny and Phylogeny". However, it is now accepted that it is the vertebrate pharyngeal pouches and not the neck slits that are homologous to the pharyngeal slits of invertebrate chordates. Pharyngeal arches, pouches, and clefts are, at some stage of life, found in all chordates. One theory of their origin is the fusion of nephridia which opened both on the outside and the gut, creating openings between the gut and the environment.
Pharyngeal arches in Vertebrates.
In vertebrates, the pharyngeal arches are derived from all three germ layers. Neural crest cells enter these arches where they contribute to craniofacial features such as bone and cartilage. However, the existence of pharyngeal structures before neural crest cells evolved is indicated by the existence of neural crest-independent mechanisms of pharyngeal arch development. The first, most anterior pharyngeal arch gives rise to the oral jaw. The second arch becomes the hyoid and jaw support. In fish, the other posterior arches contribute to the brachial skeleton, which support the gills; in tetrapods the anterior arches develop into components of the ear, tonsils, and thymus. The genetic and developmental basis of pharyngeal arch development is well characterized. It has been shown that Hox genes and other developmental genes such as "dlx" are important for patterning the anterior/posterior and dorsal/ventral axes of the branchial arches. Some fish species have jaws in their throat, known as pharyngeal jaws, which develop using the same genetic pathways involved in oral jaw formation.
Evolution of pharyngeal slits.
The presence of pharyngeal slits in hemichordates led to debates of whether this structure was homologous to the slits found in chordates or a result of convergent evolution. With the placement of hemichordates and echinoderms as a sister group to chordates, a new hypothesis has emerged-suggesting that pharyngeal gill slits were present in the deuterostome ancestor . Intriguingly, extant echinoderms lack pharyngeal structures, but fossil records reveal that ancestral forms of echinoderms had gill-like structures.
Comparative developmental and genetic studies of these pharyngeal structures between hemichordates and urochordates have brought about important insights regarding the evolution of the deuterostome body plan. Comparative molecular biology has revealed that the "Pax1/9" genes (which encode for transcription factors) are expressed in similar patterns between hemichordates and urochordates; In vertebrates, "Pax 1" and "Pax 9" are expressed in the pharyngeal pouches and are important for thymus development. applying excess retinoic acid (excess retinoic acid in vertebrates results in pharyngeal abnormalities) leads to the absence of gill slits in developing Amphioxus, suggesting that retinoic acid may act through the same mechanism in vertebrates and amphioxus. These studies indicate that the pharyngeal slits found in hemichordates and chordates are indeed homologous in a molecular sense.


Mississippi Flyway

The Mississippi Flyway is a bird migration route that generally follows the Mississippi, Missouri, and Lower Ohio Rivers in the United States across the western Great Lakes to the Mackenzie River and Hudson Bay in Canada. The main endpoints of the flyway include central Canada and the region surrounding the Gulf of Mexico. The migration route tends to narrow considerably in the lower Mississippi River valley in the states of Missouri, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana, which accounts for the high number of bird species found in those areas. Some birds use this flyway to migrate from the Arctic Ocean to Patagonia.
Typically birds use this route because no mountains or ridges of hills block the path over its entire extent. Good sources of water, food, and cover exist over its entire length. About 40% of all North American migrating waterfowl and shorebirds use this route.
The other primary migration routes for North American birds include the Atlantic, Central and Pacific Flyways. The Central Flyway merges with the Mississippi Flyway between Missouri and the Gulf of Mexico. In the northern portions of the Upper Mississippi River, the birds congregate in the Driftless Area.
Major wildlife refuges along the flyway include Trempealeau National Wildlife Refuge and Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and Fish Refuge.


Lepidocyrtus floridensis

Lepidocyrtus floridensis is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae.


Auliepterix

Auliepterix is an extinct genus of small primitive metallic moths within the family Micropterigidae. The genus is represented by two species, Auliepterix mirabilis in the Karabastau Svita of the Upper Jurassic of Kazakhstan (near Aulye) and Auliepterix minima in Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous rocks near Khotont Somon in the Mongolian People's Republic.


Apalharpactes

Apalharpactes is a genus of birds in the family Trogonidae. They are restricted to humid highland forest on the Indonesian islands of Java and Sumatra. Unlike all other Asian trogons, their plumage is mainly green above and yellow below. Compared to most trogons, the sexual dimorphism is relatively small. The two species in the genus resemble each other, but "A. reinwardtii" is larger than "A. mackloti", and the male "A. mackloti" has a chestnut rump-patch, which "A. reinwardtii" lacks. They feed on arthropods, small lizards and fruit.
Taxonomy.
The members of "Apalharpactes" are sometimes placed in the genus "Harpactes" instead. However a 2010 study found that the two genera are actually distantly related and thus valid.
The two species of "Apalharpactes" were formerly treated as conspecific under the name red-billed trogon or blue-tailed trogon ("Apalharpactes reinwardtii", with "mackloti" as a subspecies), but are better treated as separate species.


Follicle (anatomy)

A follicle is a small spherical or vase-like group of cells enclosing a cavity in which some other structure grows or other material is contained. Thyroid follicles make up the thyroid gland. Follicles are best known as the sockets from which hairs grow in humans and other mammals, but the bristles of annelid worms also grow from such sockets.


Isotogastrura

Isotogastrura is a genus of springtails in the family Isotogastruridae, the only genus of the family. There are at least 10 described species in "Isotogastrura".
Species.
These species belong to the genus "Isotogastrura":


Sagittidae

Sagittidae is a family of sagittoideans in the order Aphragmophora.


Insect physiology

Insect physiology includes the physiology and biochemistry of insect organ systems.
Although diverse, insects are quite similar in overall design, internally and externally. The insect is made up of three main body regions (tagmata), the head, thorax and abdomen.
The head comprises six fused segments with compound eyes, ocelli, antennae and mouthparts, which differ according to the insect's particular diet, e.g. grinding, sucking, lapping and chewing. The thorax is made up of three segments: the pro, meso and meta thorax, each supporting a pair of legs which may also differ, depending on function, e.g. jumping, digging, swimming and running. Usually the middle and the last segment of the thorax have paired wings. The abdomen generally comprises eleven segments and contains the digestive and reproductive organs.
A general overview of the internal structure and physiology of the insect is presented, including digestive, circulatory, respiratory, muscular, endocrine and nervous systems, as well as sensory organs, temperature control, flight and molting.
Digestive system.
An insect uses its digestive system to extract nutrients and other substances from the food it consumes. Most of this food is ingested in the form of macromolecules and other complex substances (such as proteins, polysaccharides, fats, and nucleic acids) which must be broken down by catabolic reactions into smaller molecules (i.e. amino acids, simple sugars, etc.) before being used by cells of the body for energy, growth, or reproduction. This break-down process is known as digestion.
The insect's digestive system is a closed system, with one long enclosed coiled tube called the alimentary canal which runs lengthwise through the body. The alimentary canal only allows food to enter the mouth, and then gets processed as it travels toward the anus. The alimentary canal has specific sections for grinding and food storage, enzyme production, and nutrient absorption. Sphincters control the food and fluid movement between three regions. The three regions include the foregut (stomatodeum)(27,) the midgut (mesenteron)(13), and the hindgut (proctodeum)(16).
In addition to the alimentary canal, insects also have paired salivary glands and salivary reservoirs. These structures usually reside in the thorax (adjacent to the fore-gut). The salivary glands (30) produce saliva; the salivary ducts lead from the glands to the reservoirs and then forward through the head to an opening called the salivarium behind the hypopharynx; which movements of the mouthparts help mix saliva with food in the buccal cavity. Saliva mixes with food, which travels through salivary tubes into the mouth, beginning the process of breaking it down.
The stomatedeum and proctodeum are invaginations of the epidermis and are lined with cuticle (intima). The mesenteron is not lined with cuticle but with rapidly dividing and therefore constantly replaced, epithelial cells. The cuticle sheds with every moult along with the exoskeleton. Food is moved down the gut by muscular contractions called peristalsis.
Circulatory system.
The main function of insect blood, hemolymph, is that of transport and it bathes the insect's body organs. Making up usually less than 25% of an insect's body weight, it transports hormones, nutrients and wastes and has a role in osmoregulation, temperature control, immunity, storage (water, carbohydrates and fats) and skeletal function. It also plays an essential part in the moulting process. An additional role of the hemolymph in some orders, can be that of predatory defence. It can contain unpalatable and malodourous chemicals that will act as a deterrent to predators.
Hemolymph contains molecules, ions and cells. Regulating chemical exchanges between tissues, hemolymph is encased in the insect body cavity or haemocoel. It is transported around the body by combined heart (posterior) and aorta (anterior) pulsations which are located dorsally just under the surface of the body. It differs from vertebrate blood in that it doesn't contain any red blood cells and therefore is without high oxygen carrying capacity, and is more similar to lymph found in vertebrates.
Body fluids enter through one way valved ostia which are openings situated along the length of the combined aorta and heart organ. Pumping of the hemolymph occurs by waves of peristaltic contraction, originating at the body's posterior end, pumping forwards into the dorsal vessel, out via the aorta and then into the head where it flows out into the haemocoel. The hemolymph is circulated to the appendages unidirectionally with the aid of muscular pumps or accessory pulsatile organs which are usually found at the base of the antennae or wings and sometimes in the legs. Pumping rate accelerates due to periods of increased activity. Movement of hemolymph is particularly important for thermoregulation in orders such as Odonata, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera and Diptera.
Respiratory system.
Insect respiration is accomplished without lungs using a system of internal tubes and sacs through which gases either diffuse or are actively pumped, delivering oxygen directly to tissues that need oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide via their cells. Since oxygen is delivered directly, the circulatory system is not used to carry oxygen, and is therefore greatly reduced; it has no closed vessels (i.e., no veins or arteries), consisting of little more than a single, perforated dorsal tube which pulses peristaltically, and in doing so helps circulate the hemolymph inside the body cavity.
Air is taken in through spiracles, openings which are positioned laterally in the pleural wall, usually a pair on the anterior margin of the meso and meta thorax, and pairs on each of the eight or less abdominal segments, Numbers of spiracles vary from 1 to 10 pairs. The oxygen passes through the tracheae to the tracheoles, and enters the body by the process of diffusion. Carbon dioxide leaves the body by the same process.
The major tracheae are thickened spirally like a flexible vacuum hose to prevent them from collapsing and often swell into air sacs. Larger insects can augment the flow of air through their tracheal system, with body movement and rhythmic flattening of the tracheal air sacs. Spiracles are closed and opened by means of valves and can remain partly or completely closed for extended periods in some insects, which minimises water loss.
There are many different patterns of gas exchange demonstrated by different groups of insects. Gas exchange patterns in insects can range from continuous, diffusive ventilation, to discontinuous gas exchange.
Terrestrial and a large proportion of aquatic insects perform gaseous exchange as previously mentioned under an open system. Other smaller numbers of aquatic insects have a closed tracheal system, for example, Odonata, Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, which have tracheal gills and no functional spiracles. Endoparasitic larvae are without spiracles and also operate under a closed system. Here the tracheae separate peripherally, covering the general body surface which results in a cutaneous form of gaseous exchange. This peripheral tracheal division may also lie within the tracheal gills where gaseous exchange may also take place.
Muscular system.
Many insects are able to lift twenty times their own body weight like Rhinoceros beetle and may jump distances that are many times greater than their own length. This is because their energy output is high in relation to their body mass.
The muscular system of insects ranges from a few hundred muscles to a few thousand. Unlike vertebrates that have both smooth and striated muscles, insects have only striated muscles. Muscle cells are amassed into muscle fibers and then into the functional unit, the muscle. Muscles are attached to the body wall, with attachment fibers running through the cuticle and to the epicuticle, where they can move different parts of the body including appendages such as wings.
The muscle fiber has many cells with a plasma membrane and outer sheath or sarcolemma. The sarcolemma is invaginated and can make contact with the tracheole carrying oxygen to the muscle fiber. Arranged in sheets or cylindrically, contractile myofibrils run the length of the muscle fiber. Myofibrils comprising a fine actin filament enclosed between a thick pair of myosin filaments slide past each other instigated by nerve impulses.
Muscles can be divided into four categories:
Flight has allowed the insect to disperse, escape from enemies and environmental harm, and colonise new habitats. One of the insect's key adaptations is flight, the mechanics of which differ from those of other flying animals because their wings are not modified appendages. Fully developed and functional wings occur only in adult insects. To fly, gravity and drag (air resistance to movement) have to be overcome. Most insects fly by beating their wings and to power their flight they have either direct flight muscles attached to the wings, or an indirect system where there is no muscle-to-wing connection and instead they are attached to a highly flexible box-like thorax.
Direct flight muscles generate the upward stroke by the contraction of the muscles attached to the base of the wing inside the pivotal point. Outside the pivotal point the downward stroke is generated through contraction of muscles that extend from the sternum to the wing. Indirect flight muscles are attached to the tergum and sternum. Contraction makes the tergum and base of the wing pull down. In turn this movement lever the outer or main part of the wing in strokes upward. Contraction of the second set of muscles, which run from the back to the front of the thorax, powers the downbeat. This deforms the box and lifts the tergum.
Endocrine system.
Hormones are the chemical substances that are transported in the insect's body fluids (haemolymph) that carry messages away from their point of synthesis to sites where physiological processes are influenced. These hormones are produced by glandular, neuroglandular and neuronal centres. Insects have several organs that produce hormones, controlling reproduction, metamorphosis and moulting. It has been suggested that a brain hormone is responsible for caste determination in termites and diapause interruption in some insects.
Four endocrine centers have been identified:
Nervous system.
Insects have a complex nervous system which incorporates a variety of internal physiological information as well as external sensory information. As in the case of vertebrates, the basic component is the neuron or nerve cell. This is made up of a dendrite with two projections that receive stimuli and an axon, which transmits information to another neuron or organ, like a muscle. As with vertebrates, chemicals (neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine) are released at synapses.
Central nervous system.
An insect's sensory, motor and physiological processes are controlled by the central nervous system along with the endocrine system. Being the principal division of the nervous system, it consists of a brain, a ventral nerve cord and a subesophageal ganglion which is connected to the brain by two nerves, extending around each side of the oesophagus.
The brain has three lobes:
The ventral nerve cord extends from the suboesophageal ganglion posteriorly. A layer of connective tissue called the neurolemma covers the brain, ganglia, major peripheral nerves and ventral nerve cords.
The head capsule (made up of six fused segments) has six pairs of ganglia. The first three pairs are fused into the brain, while the three following pairs are fused into the subesophageal ganglion. The thoracic segments have one ganglion on each side, which are connected into a pair, one pair per segment. This arrangement is also seen in the abdomen but only in the first eight segments. Many species of insects have reduced numbers of ganglia due to fusion or reduction. Some cockroaches have just six ganglia in the abdomen, whereas the wasp "Vespa crabro" has only two in the thorax and three in the abdomen. And some, like the house fly "Musca domestica", have all the body ganglia fused into a single large thoracic ganglion. The ganglia of the central nervous system act as the coordinating centres with their own specific autonomy where each may coordinate impulses in specified regions of the insect's body.
Peripheral nervous system.
This consists of motor neuron axons that branch out to the muscles from the ganglia of the central nervous system, parts of the sympathetic nervous system and the sensory neurons of the cuticular sense organs that receive chemical, thermal, mechanical or visual stimuli from the insects environment. The sympathetic nervous system includes nerves and the ganglia that innervate the gut both posteriorly and anteriorly, some endocrine organs, the spiracles of the tracheal system and the reproductive organs.
Sensory organs.
Chemical senses include the use of chemoreceptors, related to taste and smell, affecting mating, habitat selection, feeding and parasite-host relationships. Taste is usually located on the mouthparts of the insect but in some insects, such as bees, wasps and ants, taste organs can also be found on the antennae. Taste organs can also be found on the tarsi of moths, butterflies and flies. Olfactory sensilla enable insects to smell and are usually found in the antennae. Chemoreceptor sensitivity related to smell in some substances, is very high and some insects can detect particular odours that are at low concentrations miles from their original source.
Mechanical senses provide the insect with information that may direct orientation, general movement, flight from enemies, reproduction and feeding and are elicited from the sense organs that are sensitive to mechanical stimuli such as pressure, touch and vibration. Hairs (setae) on the cuticle are responsible for this as they are sensitive to vibration touch and sound.
Hearing structures or tympanal organs are located on different body parts such as, wings, abdomen, legs and antennae. These can respond to various frequencies ranging from 100 Hz to 240 kHz depending on insect species.
Many of the joints of the insect have tactile setae that register movement. Hair beds and groups of small hair like sensilla, determine proprioreception or information about the position of a limb, and are found on the cuticle at the joints of segments and legs. Pressure on the body wall or strain gauges are detected by the campiniform sensilla and internal stretch receptors sense muscle distension and digestive system stretching.
The compound eye and the ocelli supply insect vision. The compound eye consists of individual light receptive units called ommatidia. Some ants may have only one or two, however dragonflies may have over 10,000. The more ommatidia the greater the visual acuity. These units have a clear lens system and light sensitive retina cells. By day, the image flying insects receive is made up of a mosaic of specks of differing light intensity from all the different ommatidia. At night or dusk, visual acuity is sacrificed for light sensitivity. The ocelli are unable to form focused images but are sensitive mainly, to differences in light intensity. Colour vision occurs in all orders of insects. Generally insects see better at the blue end of the spectrum than at the red end. In some orders sensitivity ranges can include ultraviolet.
A number of insects have temperature and humidity sensors and insects being small, cool more quickly than larger animals. Insects are generally considered cold-blooded or ectothermic, their body temperature rising and falling with the environment. However, flying insects raise their body temperature through the action of flight, above environmental temperatures.
The body temperature of butterflies and grasshoppers in flight may be 5 °C or 10 °C above environmental temperature, however moths and bumblebees, insulated by scales and hair, during flight, may raise flight muscle temperature 20–30 °C above the environment temperature. Most flying insects have to maintain their flight muscles above a certain temperature to gain power enough to fly. Shivering, or vibrating the wing muscles allow larger insects to actively increase the temperature of their flight muscles, enabling flight.
Until very recently, no one had ever documented the presence of nociceptors (the cells that detect and transmit sensations of pain) in insects, though recent findings of nociception in larval fruit flies challenges this and raises the possibility that some insects may be capable of feeling pain.
Reproductive system.
Most insects have a high reproductive rate. With a short generation time, they evolve faster and can adjust to environmental changes more rapidly than other slower breeding animals. Although there are many forms of reproductive organs in insects, there remains a basic design and function for each reproductive part. These individual parts may vary in shape (gonads), position (accessory gland attachment), and number (testicular and ovarian glands), with different insect groups.
Female.
The female insect's main reproductive function is to produce eggs, including the egg's protective coating, and to store the male spermatozoa until egg fertilisation is ready. The female reproductive organs include paired ovaries which empty their eggs (oocytes) via the calyces into lateral oviducts, joining to form the common oviduct. The opening (gonopore) of the common oviduct is concealed in a cavity called the genital chamber and this serves as a copulatory pouch (bursa copulatrix) when mating. The external opening to this is the vulva. Often in insects the vulva is narrow and the genital chamber becomes pouch or tube like and is called the vagina. Related to the vagina is a saclike structure, the spermatheca, where spermatozoa are stored ready for egg fertilisation. A secretory gland nourishes the contained spermatozoa in the vagina.
Egg development is mostly completed by the insect's adult stage and is controlled by hormones that control the initial stages of oogenesis and yolk deposition. Most insects are oviparous, where the young hatch after the eggs have been laid.
Insect sexual reproduction starts with sperm entry that stimulates oogenesis, meiosis occurs and the egg moves down the genital tract. Accessory glands of the female secrete an adhesive substance to attach eggs to an object and they also supply material that provides the eggs with a protective coating. Oviposition takes place via the female ovipositor.
Male.
The male's main reproductive function is to produce and store spermatozoa and provide transport to the reproductive tract of the female. Sperm development is usually completed by the time the insect reaches adulthood. The male has two testes, which contain follicles in which the spermatozoa are produced. These open separately into the sperm duct or vas deferens and this stores the sperm. The vas deferentia then unite posteriorally to form a central ejaculatory duct, this opens to the outside on an aedeagus or a penis. Accessory glands secrete fluids that comprise the spermatophore. This becomes a package that surrounds and carries the spermatozoa, forming a sperm-containing capsule.
Sexual and asexual reproduction.
Most insects reproduce via sexual reproduction, i.e. the egg is produced by the female, fertilised by the male and oviposited by the female. Eggs are usually deposited in a precise microhabitat on or near the required food. However, some adult females can reproduce without male input. This is known as parthenogenesis and in the most common type of parthenogenesis the offspring are essentially identical to the mother. This is most often seen in aphids and scale insects.
Life cycle.
An insect's life-cycle can be divided into three types:
Moulting.
As an insect grows it needs to replace the rigid exoskeleton regularly. Moulting may occur up to three or four times or, in some insects, fifty times or more during its life. A complex process controlled by hormones, it includes the cuticle of the body wall, the cuticular lining of the tracheae, foregut, hindgut and endoskeletal structures.
The stages of molting:


Bradypnea

Bradypnea is abnormally slow breathing. The respiratory rate at which bradypnea is diagnosed depends on the age of the person.
Treatment.
If urgent treatment is needed, supplemental oxygen is given to the individual. Treatments can range from surgery to correct dangerous intracranial pressure, to stays in rehabilitation facilities for addiction problems.
Etymology and pronunciation.
The word "bradypnea" uses combining forms of "brady-" + "-pnea", from (Greek from "bradys", slow + "pnoia", breath.
See pronunciation information at "dyspnea".


Maxillary prominence

Continuous with the dorsal end of the first pharyngeal arch, and growing forward from its cephalic border, is a triangular process, the maxillary prominence (or maxillary process), the ventral extremity of which is separated from the mandibular arch by a ">"-shaped notch.
The maxillary prominence forms the lateral wall and floor of the orbit, and in it are ossified the zygomatic bone and the greater part of the maxilla; it meets with the medial nasal prominence, from which, however, it is separated for a time by a groove, the naso-optic furrow, that extends from the furrow encircling the eyeball to the nasal pit.
The maxillary prominences ultimately fuse with the medial nasal prominence and the globular processes, and form the lateral parts of the upper lip and the posterior boundaries of the nares.
It is innervated by the maxillary nerve.


Jerboa

Jerboas (from "") are hopping desert rodents found throughout Arabia, Northern Africa and Asia. Jerboas form the bulk of the membership of the family Dipodidae. They tend to live in hot deserts.
When chased, jerboas can run at up to . Some species are preyed on by little owls ("Athene noctua") in central Asia. Most species of jerboa have excellent hearing that they use to avoid becoming the prey of nocturnal predators. The typical lifespan of a jerboa is around six years.
Anatomy and body features.
Jerboas look somewhat like miniature kangaroos, and have some external similarities. Both have long hind legs, very short forelegs, and long tails. Jerboas move around in a similar manner to kangaroos, which is by hopping. Like other bipedal animals, their foramen magnum — the hole at the base of the skull — is forward-shifted, which enhances two-legged locomotion. The tail of a jerboa can be longer than its head and body and it is common to see a white cluster of hair at the end of the tail. Jerboas use their tail to balance when hopping, and as a prop when sitting upright. Jerboa fur is fine, and usually the colour of sand. This colour usually matches the jerboa habitat (an example of cryptic colouration). Some species of the jerboa family have long ears like a rabbit, whilst others have ears that are short like those of a mouse or rat.
Behavior.
The bipedal locomotion of jerboas involves hopping, skipping and running gaits. It is associated with rapid and frequent, difficult-to-predict changes in speed and direction, facilitating predator evasion relative to quadrupedal locomotion. This may explain why evolution of bipedal locomotion is favored in desert dwelling rodents that forage in open habitats.
Jerboas are crepuscular, meaning that they are most active at twilight. During the heat of the day they shelter in burrows. At night they leave the burrows due to the cooler temperature of their environment. They dig the entrances to their burrow near plant life, especially along field borders. During the rainy season they make tunnels in mounds or hills to reduce the risk of flooding. In the summer, jerboas occupying holes plug the entrance to keep out hot air and, some researchers speculate, predators. In most cases burrows are constructed with an emergency exit that ends just below the surface or opens at the surface but is not strongly obstructed. This allows the jerboa to quickly escape predators.
Related jerboas often create four types of burrows. A temporary, summer day burrow is used for cover while hunting during the daylight. They have a second, temporary burrow used for hunting at night. They also have two permanent burrows: one for summer and one for winter. The permanent summer burrow is actively used throughout the summer and the young are raised there. Jerboas hibernate during the winter and use the permanent winter burrow for this. Temporary burrows are shorter in length than permanent burrows.
Jerboas are solitary creatures. Once they reach adulthood, they usually have their own burrow and search for food on their own. However, occasional "loose colonies" may form, whereby some species of jerboa dig communal burrows that offer extra warmth when it is cold outside.
Diet.
Most jerboas rely on plant material as the main component of their diet, but they cannot eat hard seeds. Some species opportunistically eat beetles and other insects they come across. Unlike gerbils, jerboas are not known to store their food.
Communication and perception.
Many species within the family Dipodidae engage in dust bathing. Dust bathing is often a way to use chemical communication. Their keen hearing suggests they may use sounds or vibrations to communicate.
Reproduction.
Mating systems of closely related species in the family Dipodidae suggest that they may be polygynous. For some closely related jerboa species mating usually happens a short time after awaking from winter hibernation. A female breeds twice in the summer, and raises from two to six young. Gestation time is between 25 and 35 days. Little is known about parental investment in long-eared jerboas. Like most mammals, females nurse and care for their young at least until they are weaned.


Eodelphis

Eodelphis, from eo- plus []"delphis", thus meaning "very early opossum", is a genus of stagodont metatherians from the Late Cretaceous of North America, with distinctive crushing dentition. Named species include "E. browni" and the more advanced "E. cutleri". Both come from the Late Campanian (Judithian "Land Mammal Age") of Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta. Specimens are also known from the Judith River Formation of Montana. "E. cutleri" is related to the Maastrichtian genus "Didelphodon" as indicated by its enlarged premolars and more robust jaw. "Eodelphis" was probably an aquatic predator like its relative "Didelphodon", and may have weighed about 0.6 kg (1.3 lb), making it one of the largest mammals of its time.


Charles George Fane

Admiral Sir Charles George Fane (13 November 1837 – 23 February 1909) was a British Royal Navy officer who was Admiral superintendent at HM Dockyard Portsmouth.
Biography.
Fane was born in 1837, the son of Colonel Fane, of Fulbeck, Hall, Lincolnshire. He entered the Royal Navy in 1851, and served as a midshipman in the Black Sea during the Crimean War.
He was promoted to Lieutenant in 1859, and served as 1st Lieutenant on the frigate HMS "Galatea" while it was commanded by the then Duke of Edinburgh. Promotion to Commander followed on 16 October 1868, and to Captain on 9 August 1875. From 1882 to 1884 he was senior officer on the Newfoundland Fishery Station, and in 1886 he was appointed in command of the battleship HMS "Hector", which was part of the Channel Fleet. In 1888 he was appointed Captain-Superintendent of Sheerness Dockyard and an Aide-de-camp to Queen Victoria, serving as such until 5 August 1890, when he was promoted to flag rank as Rear admiral. He was Admiral-Superintendent of HM Dockyard Portsmouth from February 1892 to February 1896, and was promoted to Vice admiral on 9 November 1896. Throughout his career he served as Chairman of several Admiralty committees.
He was appointed a Knight Commander (military) of the Order of the Bath (KCB) in the November 1901 Birthday Honours list, and invested by King Edward VII on 17 December 1901.
Fane was promoted to Admiral 24 January 1902, and retired from the navy later that month. In retirement he lived at his seat in Aberdeenshire, of which county he was a Justice of the peace.
He was elected a Fellow of the Zoological Society of London (FZS) in February 1869.
Fane died in Aberdeen on 23 February 1909, after an operation.
Family.
Fane married in 1875, Mary-Ann Kenny, youngest daughter of Sir Edward Kenny, Canadian Senator from Nova Scotia.


Weird Travels

Weird Travels is an American documentary paranormal television series that originally aired from 2001 to 2006 on the Travel Channel. Produced by Authentic Entertainment, the program features various paranormal subjects around the world, especially monsters and purportedly haunted locations around the world. The series is narrated by Don Wildman, who also hosts and narrates History's documentary television series "Cities of the Underworld" and Travel Channel's "Off Limits".
Synopsis.
"Weird Travels" purpose is to investigate and uncover some of the biggest mysteries in the world. The series features anything from paranormal-related to things out of the ordinary by traveling the globe to discover the truth on these subjects. Each episode consists of a certain theme: such as creepy creatures like the Loch Ness Monster and Bigfoot, exploring mysterious civilizations like the Maya and the Nazca, and searching for clues in the age old legend of the Holy Grail to the present phenomena of crop circles and UFOs.


Geodia breviana

Geodia breviana is a species of sponge in the family Geodiidae. It is found in the waters of the Pacific Ocean off the coast of California. It was first described by Robert J. Lendlmayer von Lendenfeld in 1910.


Bithorax complex

The Bithorax complex (BX-C) is one of two "Drosophila melanogaster " homeotic gene complexes, located on the right arm of chromosome 3. It is responsible for the differentiation of the posterior two-thirds (posterior thorax and each abdominal segment) of the fly by the regulation of three genes within the complex: "Ultrabithorax (Ubx)"", abdominal A (abd-A)," and "Abdominal B (Abd-B)".
A complete deletion of this complex results in the posterior segments of the "Drosophila" embryo becoming copies of the second thoracic segment.
History.
The first homeotic mutation to be isolated was the "bithorax (bx)" mutant in 1915 by Calvin Bridges, which was later worked on and better characterized as a gene cluster by Edward B. Lewis. Lewis found that BX-C contained genes that code for proteins controlling the levels of thoracic and abdominal development, and postulated that at least four of these genes were regulated by cis-regulatory elements, as well as a separate locus (Polycomb) that acted as a repressor. However, subsequent research has found that the complex only contains three genes that are differentially expressed in each parasegment. Lewis’ work on BX-C earned him the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1995.
Gene information.
The gene complex is located on the right arm of chromosome 3 alongside the other homeotic gene complex, the Antennapedia (Antp) complex. It is over 300 kb long and contains nine distinct cis-regulatory domains. The three transcription units, "Ubx, abd-A," and "Abd-B", are spread out evenly on the complex. A mutant embryo with a triple knock-out of "Ubx, abd-A," and "Abd-B" has a phenotype that is identical to that of an embryo with a complete BX-C deletion, suggesting that the three transcription units are the only functional protein-coding units in the complex. This was confirmed when the entire complex was eventually sequenced in 1995. Only about 1.4% of the BX-C sequence codes for proteins.
Deletion of the entire complex results in death of the embryo late in development. It also shows changes in the segmentation of the embryonic cuticle, with all abdominal segments and the third thoracic segment resembling the second thoracic segment. Individual mutations within the complex also result in segmental changes, though not as dramatic as the entire deletion of the complex.
Patterning.
BX-C controls the differential patterning of the posterior thoracic segment (T3) and all 8 of the abdominal segments (A1-A8) of "Drosophila". During embryonic development, regulation of BX-C expression occurs on the level of units called parasegments. The parasegments are slightly misaligned with the anatomical segments, each comprising the posterior part of one segment and the anterior part of the adjacent segment.
The parasegment-specific expression patterns of the BX-C genes are controlled by large and complex cis-regulatory regions.  9 functionally distinct cis-regulatory sub-domains have been identified: abx/bx, bxd/pbx, iab-2, iab-3, iab-4, iab-5, iab-6, iab-7, and iab-8,9. They are arranged along the chromosome in the same order as the parasegments that they act in.  Loss-of-function mutations of one sub-domain will result in a target parasegment becoming a copy of the parasegment that is immediately anterior to it.


Ancient Tumbler

The Ancient Tumbler is a breed of fancy pigeon. Ancient Tumblers, along with other varieties of domesticated pigeons, are all descendants from the rock pigeon ("Columba livia").


Nemanthus

Nemanthus is a genus of sea anemones. It is the only genus in the monotypic family Nemanthidae.
Species.
The following species are recognized:


Temporal fascia

The temporal fascia covers the temporalis muscle.
It is a strong, fibrous investment, covered, laterally, by the auricularis anterior and superior, by the galea aponeurotica, and by part of the orbicularis oculi.
The superficial temporal vessels and the auriculotemporal nerve cross it from below upward.
Superiorly, it is a single layer, attached to the entire extent of the superior temporal line; but inferiorly, where it is fixed to the zygomatic arch, it consists of two layers, one of which is inserted into the lateral, and the other into the medial border of the arch.
A small quantity of fat, the orbital branch of the superficial temporal artery, and a filament from the zygomatic branch of the maxillary nerve, are contained between these two layers.
It affords attachment by its deep surface to the superficial fibers of the temporalis.
The parotid fascia proceeds to the temporal fascia.


Crossota alba

Crossota alba is a species of hydrozoan in the family Rhopalonematidae. this species does not have sessile stage as other hydromedusae. Crossota is spread all over the ocean and lives their life in water as plankton. Crossota alba are commonly distributed in the west coast waters of India.


Dictyodendrillidae

Dictyodendrillidae is a family of sponges in the order Dendroceratida.


Callyspongia truncata

Callyspongia truncata is a species of demosponge in the family Callyspongiidae.
Callystatin A is a polyketide natural product from the leptomycin family of antibiotics. It was first isolated in 1997 from the marine sponge "Callyspongia truncata" which was collected from the Goto Islands in the Nagasaki Prefecture of Japan by the Kobayashi group.


Chonelasma oreia

Chonelasma oreia is a species of sea sponge first found at the bottom of shelf, canyon and seamounts of the west coast of Washington, British Columbia and the Gulf of Alaska.


Sycanthidae

Sycanthidae is a family of calcareous sponges in the order Leucosolenida.


Mesonerilla prospera

Mesonerilla prospera is a species of invertebrate in the Nerillidae family endemic to Bermuda.
In 2000, "M. prospera" was put on the IUCN Red List under the critically endangered category. The IUCN states that "there are problems with the Order name and the correct placement of the family."


Auguste Puton

Auguste Puton (born "Jean Baptiste Auguste Puton" 16 August 1834– died 8 April 1913) was a French zoologist, specialising in Heteroptera of the palearctic and in particular France. He published over 150 papers and a few catalogs. He described many new species, most of them are now owned by the National Museum of Natural History (France).


Gray-headed lemur

The gray-headed lemur ("Eulemur cinereiceps"), or gray-headed brown lemur, is a medium-sized primate, a cathemeral species of lemur in the family Lemuridae. Until a taxonomic revision in 2008, it was known as the white-collared brown lemur or white-collared lemur ("Eulemur albocollaris"). It lives in south-eastern Madagascar. In 2005, satellite imagery estimates showed approximately of total remaining habitat within its geographic range. It is highly threatened by hunting and habitat loss, and was considered to be among the 25 most endangered primates in 2006–2008. It is currently listed as Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) due to a highly restricted range, and has been named one of "The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates."
The gray-headed lemur is only found in southeastern Madagascar, from the Manampatrana River south to the Mananara River.
Change in taxonomy.
Recent genetic and morphological evidence has suggested that the former name, "E. albocollaris", was actually a junior synonym of "E. cinereiceps". Consequently, the common name gray-headed lemur and the scientific name "Eulemur cinereiceps" were resurrected to replace white-collared brown lemur and "E. albocollaris" respectively.
Previously, this species was listed as a subspecies of the common brown lemur until elevated to species status in 2001. However, genetic and field studies still support subspecies status under the biological species concept.


Lissoclinum fragile

Lissoclinum fragile is a species. This species was named by Willard G. Van Name in 1902.
This species is a colonial ascidian. This means that they are marine organisms that are able to engage in a variety of pharmacological activities. This includes antimicrobial, hemolytic, and cytotoxic properties and activities.


Graham Pizzey

Graham Martin Pizzey AM (4 July 1930 – 12 November 2001) was a noted Australian author, photographer and ornithologist. He was born and grew up in Melbourne and was educated at Geelong Grammar School. After leaving school he worked in his family's leather business, while studying part-time and publishing articles and photographs on natural history. In 1960 he resigned from the family business to become a full-time freelance writer and photographer.
Pizzey joined the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union (RAOU) in 1948 and served on its Council 1969-1975 and its Records Appraisal Committee 1976–1979. He may be best known as the author of one of the most popular field guides for Australian birds. In 1986 he was awarded the Australian Natural History Medallion. In 2000 he was awarded an honorary doctorate in applied science from RMIT University for contributions to natural history. He was a Member of the Order of Australia. In 2005 he was posthumously awarded the John Hobbs Medal.
Pizzey wrote numerous articles on natural history for newspapers and magazines. Some of his books are:


Crustaceomorpha

Crustaceomorpha is a proposed clade of arthropods that includes crustaceans and numerous extinct groups. Synapomorphies for the clade are that the larval antenna is a feeding or locomotory organ, and there are six endopodal podomeres in post-antennal limbs.
Extinct groups included in Crustaceomorpha vary considerably. It includes Agnostida (usually treated under Trilobita), Waptiida, Isoxyida, Phosphatocopida, and Bradoriida, among others. These primitive crustaceomorphs are grouped under Pseudocrustacea.
The validity of Crustaceomorpha is controversial. It has more support among paleontologists who consider it a sister group to Arachnomorpha, which includes trilobites and chelicerates (see cladogram below). Both are grouped under Schizoramia, a clade of arthropods with biramous appendages. In contrast, neontologists tend to support the Mandibulata clade, which groups members of Crustacea together with Hexapoda and Myriapoda.


Albert William Herre

Albert William Christian Theodore Herre (September 16, 1868 – January 16, 1962) was an American ichthyologist and lichenologist.
Herre was born in 1868 in Toledo, Ohio.
He was an alumnus of Stanford University, where he received a bachelor of science degree in botany in 1903. Herre also received a master's degree and a Ph.D. from Stanford, both in ichthyology.
He died in Santa Cruz, California in 1962.
Work in the Philippines.
Albert W. Herre was perhaps best known for his taxonomic work in the Philippines, where he was the Chief of Fisheries of the Bureau of Science in Manila from 1919 to 1928. While in the Bureau of Science of the Insular Government of the Philippine Islands (which were administered by the United States at the time), Herre was responsible for discovering and describing many new species of fish.
Legacy.
Herre is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of gecko, "Lepidodactylus herrei", which is endemic to the Philippines.


Maria Isabel Hylton Scott

María Isabel Sofia Hylton Scott y Pacheco (16 August 1889, Córdoba, Argentina – 1 September 1990, La Plata, Argentina) was an Argentine zoologist, malacologist and teacher. She is known as the first woman in Argentina who obtained a doctorate in Zoology. She described at least 1 family, 47 species and 4 subspecies of Mollusca.
Life.
María Isabel Hylton Scott was born on August 16, 1889 in Córdoba, Argentina. Hylton Scott attended the Normal School (Escuela Normal), receiving a teacher degree in 1908. She continued her study at the National University of La Plata, where she obtained the title of professor in Pedagogy and Related Sciences in 1911. She studied under the guidance of Dr. Miguel Fernández and his wife, Dr. Katy Marcinowsky-Fernández who influenced her first scientific works.
At the beginning of the World War I, she worked as an assistant in the Zoology laboratory at the Museo de La Plata in 1914.
Later in 1916, Hylton Scott became the first women in Argentina to obtain a doctorate in Zoology. Her doctoral thesis was dedicated to the embryology of the viviparous freshwater fish, "Fitzroyia lineata" (now under "Jenynsia", Characiformes: "Jenynsüdae").
She worked as a head of the Laboratory until 1924 and as a substitute professor from 1933 to 1946, returning to this position in 1955. Her university activity was interrupted due to the unstable political situation in Argentina.
She participated in some investigational trips, such as to Puerto Madryn in 1916 and to Santa Cruz in 1936 with her husband Max Birabén.
In 1954, Hylton Scott and her husband founded the scientific magazine "Neotropica - Notas Zoologicas Americanas", which they kept editing until 1976. Until now "Neotropica" is indexed in Malacological Review.
She retired at the age of 76 in 1965 and accompanied her husband to Buenos Aires, where he was designated Director of the Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales. She continued her scientific studies in the field of zoology, publishing five new works from 1977 to 1984.
In 1977, at the age of 88, she received an honorable medal on the 100th anniversary of the Museo de La Plata. The same year she was named an Honorary Member of the Asociación Argentina de Ciencias Naturales.
At the age of 100, Hylton Scott donated her personal collection of mollusks to the Museo de La Plata.
Maria Isabel Hylton Scott died on 1 September 1990 in La Plata. She was posthumously designated Honorary President of the 1st Latin American Congress on Malacology in Caracas in 1991.
List of described specimens.
Mollusca Genera


Protochelydra

Protochelydra zangerli is an extinct species of chelydid in the extinct genus Protochelydra of Chelydridae.


Caspase 2

Caspase 2 also known as CASP2 is an enzyme that, in humans, is encoded by the "CASP2" gene. "CASP2" orthologs have been identified in nearly all mammals for which complete genome data are available. Unique orthologs are also present in birds, lizards, lissamphibians, and teleosts.
Function.
Sequential activation of caspases plays a central role in the execution-phase of cell apoptosis. Caspases exist as inactive proenzymes that undergo proteolytic processing at conserved aspartic residues to produce two subunits, large and small, that dimerize to form the active enzyme. The proteolytic cleavage of this protein is induced by a variety of apoptotic stimuli.
Caspase 2 proteolytically cleaves other proteins. It belongs to a family of cysteine proteases called caspases that cleave proteins only at an amino acid following an aspartic acid residue. Within this family, caspase 2 is part of the Ich-1 subfamily. It is one of the most conserved caspases in different species of animal. Caspase 2 has a similar amino acid sequence to initiator caspases, including caspase 1, caspase 4, caspase 5, and caspase 9. It is produced as a zymogen, which contains a long pro-domain that is similar to that of caspase 9 and contains a protein interaction domain known as a CARD domain. Pro-caspase-2 contains two subunits, p19 and p12.
It has been shown to associate with several proteins involved in apoptosis using its CARD domain, including RIP-associated Ich-1/Ced-3-homologue protein with a death domain (RAIDD), apoptosis repressor with caspase recruitment domain (ARC), and death effector filament-forming Ced-4-like apoptosis protein (DEFCAP). Together with RAIDD and p53-induced protein with a death domain ([PIDD])(LRDD), caspase 2 has been shown to form the so-called PIDDosome, which may serve as an activation platform for the protease, although it may also be activated in the absence of PIDD. Overall, caspase 2 appears to be a very versatile caspase with multiple functions beyond cell death induction.
Interactions.
Caspase 2 has been shown to interact with:


Hypoventilation

Hypoventilation (also known as respiratory depression) occurs when ventilation is inadequate ("hypo" meaning "below") to perform needed respiratory gas exchange. By definition it causes an increased concentration of carbon dioxide (hypercapnia) and respiratory acidosis. Hypoventilation is not synonymous with respiratory arrest, in which breathing ceases entirely and death occurs within minutes due to hypoxia and leads rapidly into complete anoxia, although both are medical emergencies. Hypoventilation can be considered a precursor to hypoxia and its lethality is attributed to hypoxia with carbon dioxide toxicity.
Causes.
Hypoventilation may be caused by:
Medications.
As a side effect of medicines or recreational drugs, hypoventilation may become potentially life-threatening. Many different central nervous system (CNS) depressant drugs such as ethanol, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, GHB, sedatives, and opioids produce respiratory depression when taken in large or excessive doses, or mixed with other depressants. Strong opiates (such as fentanyl, heroin, and morphine), barbiturates, and certain benzodiazepines (short acting ones and alprazolam) are known for depressing respiration. In an overdose, an individual may cease breathing entirely (go into respiratory arrest) which is rapidly fatal without treatment. Opioids, in overdose or combined with other depressants, are notorious for such fatalities.
Treatment.
Respiratory stimulants such as nikethamide were traditionally used to counteract respiratory depression from CNS depressant overdose, but offered limited effectiveness. A new respiratory stimulant drug called BIMU8 is being investigated which seems to be significantly more effective and may be useful for counteracting the respiratory depression produced by opiates and similar drugs without offsetting their therapeutic effects.
If the respiratory depression occurs from opioid overdose, usually an opioid antagonist, most likely naloxone, will be administered. This will rapidly reverse the respiratory depression unless complicated by other depressants. However an opioid antagonist may also precipitate an opioid withdrawal syndrome in chronic users. Mechanical ventilation may still be necessary during initial resuscitation.
Associated conditions.
Disorders like congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS) and ROHHAD (rapid-onset obesity, hypothalamic dysfunction, hypoventilation, with autonomic dysregulation) are recognized as conditions that are associated with hypoventilation. CCHS may be a significant factor in some cases of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), often termed "cot death" or "crib death".
The opposite condition is hyperventilation (too much ventilation), resulting in low carbon dioxide levels (hypocapnia), rather than hypercapnia.


Dorsal lingual veins

The dorsal lingual veins are veins which drain the tongue.


Palmicellaria elegans

Palmicellaria elegans is a species of marine bryozoans in the family Celleporidae.


Inanidrilus scalprum

Inanidrilus scalprum is a species of annelid worm. It is known from subtidal coral sands in Belize, in the Caribbean Sea. Preserved specimens measure in length.


Euplectella

Euplectella is a genus of glass sponges which includes the well-known Venus' Flower Basket.


Manukura (kiwi)

Manukura (1 May 2011 – 27 December 2020), a North Island brown kiwi, was the first pure white kiwi born in captivity. After Manukura's hatching two additional white birds were also born in captivity.
Manukura was born in the Pukaha / Mount Bruce National Wildlife Centre. The bird was born in May 2011 with a rare genetic condition that made it all white, instead of brown.
She was named by Rangitāne leader, Mike Kawana; her name is the Māori word for "chiefly status."
Manukura was believed to be a male for the first year of life, but then caretakers discovered she was a female bird. In 2014, Manukura was caught on film engaging in a noisy mating ritual which involved her "beating" her male partner.
She died in December 2020 after having surgery to remove her ovaries and an unfertilised egg that she struggled to pass naturally.
Legacy.
Author Joy Cowley wrote a children's book, illustrated by Bruce Potter, about Manukura in 2012. Toy manufacturers and New Zealand museums created plush replicas of the rare bird over the years.


Silver biddy

Silver biddies (singular: silver biddy), also spelled silver-biddies, is the name used to refer to bony fishes belonging to the family Gerreidae in the order Perciformes. They are also known as jerki (Sin) or mudro (Bal). Silver biddies are known as "blanches" in French and "mojarras" in Spanish.
Fishes in the family Gerreidae that include "silver biddy" in their common names include:


Aaptos pernucleata

Aaptos pernucleata is a species of sea sponge belonging to the family Suberitidae. The species was described in 1870.


Heteroherpiidae

Heteroherpia is a genus of solenogaster, and the only genus in the Heteroherpiidae family.


Dragmacidon australe

Dragmacidon australe is a species of sponge in the family, Axinellidae.
It was first described in 1970 by Patricia Bergquist as "Pseudaxinella australis" It was appears to have been transferred to the genus, "Dragmacidon", in 2002, by Belinda Alvarez and John Hooper (but the transfer may have occurred in 2000).


Suminia

Suminia is an extinct genus of basal anomodont that lived during the Tatarian age of the late Permian, spanning approximately from 268-252 Ma. "Suminia" is recognized as a representation of the youngest of the known anomodonts that are not dicynodonts. Its fossil localities are primarily derived from the Kotel’nich locality of the Kirov region in Russia. However, there have been some isolated specimen found in a few different localities, all from eastern European regions of Russia.
"Suminia", along with "Otsheria" and "Ulemica" make up the monophyletic group of Russian basal anomodonts named Venyukovioidea. These Venyukovioid anomodonts are understood to have been derived from an ancestor that dispersed from Gondwana into Euramerica. "Suminia getmanovi" is the only defined species within the genus and it is known for specializations in teeth for effective, functional oral processing of plant material as well as being one of the first species with a proposed arboreal lifestyle.
Discovery.
New material of "Suminia" was recently excavated from the Upper Permian Kotel’nich locality in which a single large block with articulated skeletons of at least 15 specimen of "Suminia getmanovi" was found. This new material of "Suminia getmanovi" consisted of mainly subadult to adult specimen that were well preserved (no signs of weathering or predation), suggesting rapid burial perhaps due to a catastrophic event.
Description.
"Suminia" are diagnosed as a small Venyukoviid with various autapomorphies such as large orbit (almost 1/3 of the skull length), large teeth in relation to the skull size, reduced number of 23 presacral vertebrae, a more long than wide cervical vertebrae (suggests elongated neck), elongated limbs, manus and pes equal to ~40% of length of their respective limb, and enlarged distal carpal 1 and tarsal 1.
Cranial anatomy.
"Suminia getmanovi" are recognized for their well-preserved skulls and teeth. "Suminia" skull length is fairly small, measuring in at 58mm long characterized with a short snout with its squamosal regions expanded. While the orbit composes of around 27% of the total skull length, the external naris is also large, measured to compose of about 13% of the total skull length. Cranial features that are only shared with "Ulemica" that distinguish "Suminia" and "Ulemica" from other anomodonts is the preparietal absence, a reduced interparietal suture located anterior to the pineal foramen, and narrow palatine. "Suminia" cranial anatomy can also be defined by their raised pineal foramen (in comparison with other taxa with flush pineal foramen to skull) and premaxilla contact with palatine which are all features shared by its infraorder, Venyukovioidea. Perhaps one of the most striking cranial anatomy feature of Suminia is its similarity in masticatory architecture with dicynodonts, indicating that the sliding jaw articulation may have originated before dicynodonts. "Suminia" dentition have significant implications on its feeding ecology which is discussed below.
Post cranial anatomy.
Study into "Suminia" post cranial anatomy reveal many autapomorphies for the single specimen. Significant post cranial autapomorphies of "Suminia" are the reduced number of presacral and dorsal vertebrae (exclusively amphicoelous) with lack of fusion in the sacral region between vertebrae (suggests high flexibility), wide pre- and postzygapophyses, longer proportions of cervical pleurocentra, distinct proportionally longer limbs, a manus that forms ~ 40% of the length of the forelimb with particularly long, curved terminal phalanges, a pes that makes up ~38% of the hindlimb, and enlarged carpal 1 and tarsal 1 (suggests divergent first digit). These different morphological features indicate a significantly deviated post cranial anatomy from other anomodonts, suggesting that "Suminia" adopted an arboreal lifestyle (see below).
Feeding Ecology.
In combination with a masticatory architecture similar to "Dicynodonts" (defined by sliding jaw articulation) "Suminia"’s canineless, large leaf shaped teeth follow occluding dentition that is completely marginal which differs from other species with leaf-shaped teeth present. This provides indications not only for herbivory, but into the mechanisms of oral processing. One interesting feature of the occlusal pattern in "Suminia" dentition is the angle of the occluding surfaces. With an angle of 75 degrees from jaw plane, it is suggested that "Suminia"’s more posterior shreds food material rather than crush it. The anterior teeth are observed to be significantly larger and devoid of this occlusial pattern. Therefore, the more anterior teeth are suggested to be responsible for cutting off pieces of plant for the posterior teeth to shred. "Suminia" are therefore understood to have been obligatory herbivores as the dentition and mandibular function permits shredding of plant material via posterior translation.
Teeth replacement was discovered to be infrequent which was shown in certain specimen of "Suminia getmanovi" that were seen to have teeth worn down almost to the neck. However, these wear facets on the upper and lower posterior teeth are in themselves, consistent with herbivory in that the locations of the wear (labial and lingual aspects of upper and lower posterior teeth respectively), are distinct evidence that the wear isn't a consequence of tooth-to-food but rather tooth-to-tooth occlusion. The evidence for "Suminia"’s extensive oral processing suggest that "Suminia" dentition is highly specialized for high fiber herbivory. This provides an alternative explanation that the ability to process tough, high fiber plant material may have been a more basal feature of anomodonts than previously thought.
Habitat/Lifestyle.
Adaptations to arboreal lifestyle are understood to evolve through convergent evolution. However, many arboreal vertebrates share similar physical mechanisms (grasping, clinging, hooking)
"Suminia" is referred to as the earliest known arboreal tetrapod due to the suggested grasping abilities inferred from the notably enlarged and phalangiform carpal 1 and tarsal 1 which indicate that they possess a divergent first digit, capable of grasping. The first digit is measured to have an angle of ~30-40 degrees to the remaining digits of the manus and pes which grants ability of the first digit to flex ventrally, independent of the rest of the digits (can be compared to an opposable thumb) This is further supported by the elongated limbs and claw shaped, laterally compressed terminal phalanges which would aid in clinging ability. In addition, the tail anatomy with expansion of the anterior region and suggests ability of balance as well as prehensile, grasping abilities, providing more evidence for arboreal lifestyle.
Via a morphometric analysis as well as comparison to other arboreal vertebrates, "Suminia getmanovi" provides anatomical evidence that it lived among the trees, stamping a significant mark in evolutionary history for arboreal lifestyle.
Classification.
"Suminia" belong to the monophyly/infraorder Venyukovioidea, a sub clade of basal anomodonts.


Thamnopora boloniensis

Thamnopora boloniensis is an extinct species of tabulate coral. Its name was "Favosites boloniensis".


Fox

Foxes are small to medium-sized, omnivorous mammals belonging to several genera of the family Canidae. They have a flattened skull, upright triangular ears, a pointed, slightly upturned snout, and a long bushy tail (or "brush").
Twelve species belong to the monophyletic "true foxes" group of genus "Vulpes". Approximately another 25 current or extinct species are always or sometimes called foxes; these foxes are either part of the paraphyletic group of the South American foxes, or of the outlying group, which consists of the bat-eared fox, gray fox, and island fox.
Foxes live on every continent except Antarctica. The most common and widespread species of fox is the red fox ("Vulpes vulpes") with about 47 recognized subspecies. The global distribution of foxes, together with their widespread reputation for cunning, has contributed to their prominence in popular culture and folklore in many societies around the world. The hunting of foxes with packs of hounds, long an established pursuit in Europe, especially in the British Isles, was exported by European settlers to various parts of the New World.
Etymology.
The word "fox" comes from Old English, which derived from Proto-Germanic *"fuhsaz". This in turn derives from Proto-Indo-European *"puḱ-", meaning ’thick-haired; tail’. Male foxes are known as dogs, tods or reynards, females as vixens, and young as cubs, pups, or kits, though the latter name is not to be confused with a distinct species called kit foxes. Vixen is one of very few words in modern English that retains the Middle English southern dialect "v" pronunciation instead of "f" (i.e. northern English "fox" versus southern English "vox"). A group of foxes is referred to as a skulk, leash, or earth.
Phylogenetic relationships.
Within the Canidae, the results of DNA analysis shows several phylogenetic divisions:
Biology.
General morphology.
Foxes are generally smaller than some other members of the family Canidae such as wolves and jackals, while they may be larger than some within the family, such as Raccoon dogs. In the largest species, the red fox, males weigh on average between , while the smallest species, the fennec fox, weighs just .
Fox features typically include a triangular face, pointed ears, an elongated rostrum, and a bushy tail. They are digitigrade (meaning they walk on their toes). Unlike most members of the family Canidae, foxes have partially retractable claws. Fox vibrissae, or whiskers, are black. The whiskers on the muzzle, known as mystacial vibrissae, average long, while the whiskers everywhere else on the head average to be shorter in length. Whiskers (carpal vibrissae) are also on the forelimbs and average long, pointing downward and backward. Other physical characteristics vary according to habitat and adaptive significance.
Pelage.
Fox species differ in fur color, length, and density. Coat colors range from pearly white to black-and-white to black flecked with white or grey on the underside. Fennec foxes (and other species of fox adapted to life in the desert, such as kit foxes), for example, have large ears and short fur to aid in keeping the body cool. Arctic foxes, on the other hand, have tiny ears and short limbs as well as thick, insulating fur, which aid in keeping the body warm. Red foxes, by contrast, have a typical auburn pelt, the tail normally ending with a white marking.
A fox's coat color and texture may vary due to the change in seasons; fox pelts are richer and denser in the colder months and lighter in the warmer months. To get rid of the dense winter coat, foxes moult once a year around April; the process begins from the feet, up the legs, and then along the back. Coat color may also change as the individual ages.
Dentition.
A fox's dentition, like all other canids, is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 3/2 = 42. (Bat-eared foxes have six extra molars, totalling in 48 teeth.) Foxes have pronounced carnassial pairs, which is characteristic of a carnivore. These pairs consist of the upper premolar and the lower first molar, and work together to shear tough material like flesh. Foxes' canines are pronounced, also characteristic of a carnivore, and are excellent in gripping prey.
Behaviour.
In the wild, the typical lifespan of a fox is one to three years, although individuals may live up to ten years. Unlike many canids, foxes are not always pack animals. Typically, they live in small family groups, but some (such as Arctic foxes) are known to be solitary.
Foxes are omnivores. Their diet is made up primarily of invertebrates such as insects and small vertebrates such as reptiles and birds. They may also eat eggs and vegetation. Many species are generalist predators, but some (such as the crab-eating fox) have more specialized diets. Most species of fox consume around of food every day. Foxes cache excess food, burying it for later consumption, usually under leaves, snow, or soil. While hunting, foxes tend to use a particular pouncing technique, such that they crouch down to camouflage themselves in the terrain and then use their hind legs to leap up with great force and land on top of their chosen prey. Using their pronounced canine teeth, they can then grip the prey's neck and shake it until it is dead or can be readily disemboweled.
The gray fox is one of only two canine species known to regularly climb trees; the other is the raccoon dog.
Sexual characteristics.
The male fox's scrotum is held up close to the body with the testes inside even after they descend. Like other canines, the male fox has a baculum, or penile bone. The testes of red foxes are smaller than those of Arctic foxes. Sperm formation in red foxes begins in August–September, with the testicles attaining their greatest weight in December–February.
Vixens are in heat for one to six days, making their reproductive cycle twelve months long. As with other canines, the ova are shed during estrus without the need for the stimulation of copulating. Once the egg is fertilized, the vixen enters a period of gestation that can last from 52 to 53 days. Foxes tend to have an average litter size of four to five with an 80 percent success rate in becoming pregnant. Litter sizes can vary greatly according to species and environmentthe Arctic fox, for example, can have up to eleven kits.
The vixen usually has six or eight mammae. Each teat has 8 to 20 lactiferous ducts, which connect the mammary gland to the nipple, allowing for milk to be carried to the nipple.
Vocalization.
The fox's vocal repertoire is vast, and includes:
In the case of domesticated foxes, the whining seems to remain in adult individuals as a sign of excitement and submission in the presence of their owners.
Classification.
Canids commonly known as foxes include the following genera and species:
Conservation.
Several fox species are endangered in their native environments. Pressures placed on foxes include habitat loss and being hunted for pelts, other trade, or control. Due in part to their opportunistic hunting style and industriousness, foxes are commonly resented as nuisance animals. Contrastingly, foxes, while often considered pests themselves, have been successfully employed to control pests on fruit farms while leaving the fruit intact.
Island fox ("Urocyon littoralis").
The island fox, though considered a near-threatened species throughout the world, is becoming increasingly endangered in its endemic environment of the California Channel Islands. A population on an island is smaller than those on the mainland because of limited resources like space, food and shelter. Island populations are therefore highly susceptible to external threats ranging from introduced predatory species and humans to extreme weather.
On the California Channel Islands, it was found that the population of the island fox was so low due to an outbreak of canine distemper virus from 1999 to 2000 as well as predation by non-native golden eagles. Since 1993, the eagles have caused the population to decline by as much as 95%. Because of the low number of foxes, the population went through an Allee effect (an effect in which, at low enough densities, an individual's fitness decreases). Conservationists had to take healthy breeding pairs out of the wild population to breed them in captivity until they had enough foxes to release back into the wild. Nonnative grazers were also removed so that native plants would be able to grow back to their natural height, thereby providing adequate cover and protection for the foxes against golden eagles.
Darwin's fox ("Pseudalopex fulvipes").
Darwin's fox is considered critically endangered because of their small known population of 250 mature individuals as well as their restricted distribution. On the Chilean mainland, the population is limited to Nahuelbuta National Park and the surrounding Valdivian rainforest. Similarly on Chiloé Island, their population is limited to the forests that extend from the southernmost to the northwesternmost part of the island. Though the Nahuelbuta National Park is protected, 90% of the species live on Chiloé Island.
A major issue the species faces is their dwindling, limited habitat due to the cutting and burning of the unprotected forests. Because of deforestation, the Darwin's fox habitat is shrinking, allowing for their competitor's (chilla fox) preferred habitat of open space, to increase; the Darwin's fox, subsequently, is being outcompeted. Another problem they face is their inability to fight off diseases transmitted by the increasing number of pet dogs. To conserve these animals, researchers suggest the need for the forests that link the Nahuelbuta National Park to the coast of Chile and in turn Chiloé Island and its forests, to be protected. They also suggest that other forests around Chile be examined to determine whether Darwin's foxes have previously existed there or can live there in the future, should the need to reintroduce the species to those areas arise. And finally, the researchers advise for the creation of a captive breeding program, in Chile, because of the limited number of mature individuals in the wild.
Relationships with humans.
Foxes are often considered pests or nuisance creatures for their opportunistic attacks on poultry and other small livestock. Fox attacks on humans are not common.
Many foxes adapt well to human environments, with several species classified as "resident urban carnivores" for their ability to sustain populations entirely within urban boundaries. Foxes in urban areas can live longer and can have smaller litter sizes than foxes in non-urban areas. Urban foxes are ubiquitous in Europe, where they show altered behaviors compared to non-urban foxes, including increased population density, smaller territory, and pack foraging. Foxes have been introduced in numerous locations, with varying effects on indigenous flora and fauna.
In some countries, foxes are major predators of rabbits and hens. Population oscillations of these two species were the first nonlinear oscillation studied and led to the derivation of the Lotka–Volterra equation.
Fox hunting.
Fox hunting originated in the United Kingdom in the 16th century. Hunting with dogs is now banned in the United Kingdom, though hunting without dogs is still permitted. Red foxes were introduced into Australia in the early 19th century for sport, and have since become widespread through much of the country. They have caused population decline among many native species and prey on livestock, especially new lambs. Fox hunting is practiced as recreation in several other countries including Canada, France, Ireland, Italy, Russia, United States and Australia.
Domestication.
There are many records of domesticated red foxes and others, but rarely of sustained domestication. A recent and notable exception is the Russian silver fox, which resulted in visible and behavioral changes, and is a case study of an animal population modeling according to human domestication needs. The current group of domesticated silver foxes are the result of nearly fifty years of experiments in the Soviet Union and Russia to domesticate the silver morph of the red fox. This selective breeding resulted in physical and behavioral traits appearing that are frequently seen in domestic cats, dogs, and other animals, such as pigmentation changes, floppy ears, and curly tails. Notably, the new foxes became more tame, allowing themselves to be petted, whimpering to get attention and sniffing and licking their caretakers.
Attacks on humans.
In the United Kingdom, a number of cases of non-fatal attacks on humans have been reported. They often involved children, or if there were gaps in homes through which foxes could pass.
Urban foxes.
Foxes are among the comparatively few mammals which have been able to adapt themselves to a certain degree to living in urban (mostly suburban) human environments. Their omnivorous diet allows them to survive on discarded food waste, and their skittish and often nocturnal nature means that they are often able to avoid detection, despite their larger size.
Urban foxes have been identified as threats to cats and small dogs, and for this reason there is often pressure to exclude them from these environments.
The San Joaquin kit fox is a highly endangered species that has, ironically, become adapted to urban living in the San Joaquin Valley and Salinas Valley of southern California. Its diet includes mice, ground squirrels, rabbits, hares, bird eggs, and insects, and it has claimed habitats in open areas, golf courses, drainage basins, and school grounds.
In culture.
The fox appears in many cultures, usually in folklore. However, there are slight variations in their depictions. In Western and Persian folklore, foxes are symbols of cunning and trickery—a reputation derived especially from their reputed ability to evade hunters. This is usually represented as a character possessing these traits. These traits are used on a wide variety of characters, either making them a nuisance to the story, a misunderstood hero, or a devious villain.
In Asian folklore, foxes are depicted as familiar spirits possessing magic powers. Similar to in Western folklore, foxes are portrayed as mischievous, usually tricking other people, with the ability to disguise as an attractive female human. However, there are other depictions of foxes as mystical, sacred creatures that can either bring wonder or ruin. Nine-tailed foxes appear in Chinese folklore, literature, and mythology, in which, depending on the tale, they can be a good or a bad omen. The motif was eventually introduced from Chinese to Japanese and Korean cultures.
The constellation Vulpecula represents a fox.