Isabella Gordon

Dr Isabella Gordon DSc OBE FZS FLS (18 May 1901 – 11 May 1988) was a Scottish marine biologist who specialised in carcinology and was an expert in crabs and sea spiders. She worked at the Natural History Museum and received an OBE in 1961.
Early life and education.
Gordon was born in Keith, Scotland on 18 May 1901, the eldest child of Margaret ("née" Lamb) and James Gordon. She attended Keith Grammar School before going to the University of Aberdeen in 1918. As she had limited funds to support her education she took positions as a student demonstrator in zoology. She graduated from the University with BSc in zoology. She also completed training in primary and science teaching at Aberdeen Teachers' Training College. In 1923 she was awarded the Kilgour Research Scholarship and studied alcyonaria. She then took up postgraduate research scholarship at Imperial College which led to her PhD in the embryology of end echinoderms. She continued her research into echinoderms in the United States at both the Hopkins Marine Station of Stanford University and Yale University. In 1928 she received a DSc from the University of Aberdeen.
Employment and professional associations.
While at Yale University William Thomas Calman, Keeper of Zoology at the Natural History Museum, London, offered her a post at the museum. She returned to the UK and in November 1928 took up the position of Assistant Keeper (2nd class) with responsibility for the Crustacea section. Gordon was the first woman to be appointed as a full-time permanent member of museum staff. In 1937 the Crustacea section was split into two parts; J.P. Harding took over entomostraca while Gordon managed malacostraca as Principal Scientific Officer. During her time at the museum she published many articles and books and identified specimens of crabs sent to her from all over the world.
She was a fellow and council member (1950-1953) of the Linnean Society and a member of its curatorial board until her 1981. She was also a fellow of the Zoological Society. In 1960 she became one of the original members of the Editorial Board of the peer-reviewed journal Crustaceana.
Visit to Japan and meeting with Hirohito.
In April 1961 on the occasion of Emperor Hirohito's 60th birthday, Gordon was invited to spend several weeks in Japan under the sponsorship of the Japanese newspaper Yomiuri Shimbun. On 5 April she was invited to the laboratories of the Imperial Household where she had an informal audience with the Emperor, a keen marine biologist himself. The visit gave Gordon great pleasure and she retained contact with her Japanese colleagues for the rest of her life.
Humour and limericks.
Gordon had a great sense of humour and was a fan of limericks. In 1958 she published a review of Siewing's 'Anatomie und Histologie von Thermosbaena mirabilis' under the title 'A thermophilous shrimp from Tunisia'. The title inspired Dr A.J. Bateman to send her the following limerick:
To which she replied
Later life.
She retired from the Natural History Museum in 1966 and retained a room in the Crustacea section, which she shared with Dr Sidnie Manton, and continued to work in the museum until about 1971. In 1983 she suffered a stroke which left her partially paralysed. In 1987 she moved from London to live with the family of her nephew Dr John Gordon in Carlisle. Her health deteriorated after a cataract operation in March 1988 and she died on 11 May 1988.
In her obituary the Dutch carcinologist, Lipke Holthuis referred to her as The Grand Old Lady of Carcinology.


Clathrina luteoculcitella

Clathrina luteoculcitella is a species of calcareous sponge from Australia. The species name means "yellow pillow" and refers to the appearance of the cormus.
Description.
Holotype massive yet delicate. The cormus has folds and is formed of thin, irregular and tightly anastomosed tubes. However, in the interior, tubes are loosely anastomosed. Oscula are simple apertures surrounded by a thin membrane. There are no water-collecting tubes. The skeleton comprises equiangular and equiradiate triactines and diactines. The actines of the triactines are conical, slightly undulated and sharp. Diactines are straight and one of the tips is thicker than the other one. They are found perpendicular to the surface of all tubes (not just the external tubes) and the largest tip penetrates the cormus. The mesohyl is full of bacteria.


Elephantiformes

Elephantiformes is a suborder within the order Proboscidea that contains the elephants as well as their extinct relatives.


Kainops

Kainops is a genus of trilobites from the family Phacopidae, order Phacopida. It can be distinguished from "Paciphacops" by the greater number of facets to the eye (6–8 per row, compared to 3–4 in "Paciphacops"). The form of the furrow between the palpebral area and the palpebral lobe also distinguishes "Kainops" from the genera "Paciphacops" and "Viaphacops".
Species included in the genus are:


Bouretidae

Bouretidae is an extinct family of grasshoppers in the order Orthoptera. There is one genus, "Bouretia", in Bouretidae, with fossils found in Brazil.


Megastygarctides

Megastygarctides is a genus of tardigrades, the only one in the subfamily Megastygarctidinae in the family Stygarctidae. The genus was first described and named by McKirdy, Schmidt & McGinty-Bayly in 1976. It was placed in the new subfamily Megastygarctidinae in 1998 by Bello and de Zio Grimaldi.
Species.
The genus includes the following species:


Horizontal plate of palatine bone

The horizontal plate of palatine bone is a quadrilateral part of the palatine bone, and has two surfaces and four borders.
Surfaces.
The superior surface, concave from side to side, forms the back part of the floor of the nasal cavity.
The inferior surface, slightly concave and rough, forms, with the corresponding surface of the opposite bone, the posterior fourth of the hard palate. Near its posterior margin may be seen a more or less marked transverse ridge for the attachment of part of the aponeurosis of the tensor veli palatini.
Borders.
The anterior border is serrated. It articulates with the palatine process of maxilla.
The posterior border is concave, free, and serves for the attachment of the soft palate. Its medial end is sharp and pointed, and, when united with that of the opposite bone, forms a projecting process, the posterior nasal spine for the attachment of the musculus uvulae.
The lateral border is united with the lower margin of the perpendicular plate, and is grooved by the lower end of the greater palatine canal.
The medial border, the thickest, is serrated for articulation with its fellow of the opposite side; its superior edge is raised into a ridge, which, united with the ridge of the opposite bone, forms the nasal crest for articulation with the posterior part of the lower edge of the vomer.


Arturia africana

Arturia africana is a species of calcareous sponge from South Africa.
Description.
Cormus formed of thin, irregular and loosely anastomosed tubes. No water-collecting tubes have been observed. Cells with granules have also not been observed. The skeleton has no special organisation, comprising equiangular and equiradiate triactines and tetractines. Actines are conical, slightly undulated at the distal part, and with a sharp tip. The apical actine of the tetractines is shorter, smooth, conical, straight and sharp, and is always projected into the tubes.


Orstenotubulus

Orstenotubulus is a genus of lobopodian known from Orsten deposits of the latest 'middle' Cambrian (Miaolingian). It is believed by some to be an ancestor of the Tardigrades.


Neoblast

Neoblasts (ˈniːəʊˌblæst) are non-differentiated cells found in flatworms called planarians. Neoblasts make up about 30 percent of all cells in planaria. Neoblasts give planarians an extraordinary ability to regenerate lost body parts. A planarian split lengthwise or crosswise will regenerate into two separate individuals.
Characteristics.
A neoblast is a non-differentiated cell found in planarians and are responsible for regeneration. Neoblasts have little cytoplasm and a huge nucleus which is a characteristic of pluripotent cells. They are the only dividing and growing cells in planaria. This mitotic characteristic is how they are detected by adding Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) and staining with anti-BrdU. They have a size between 5 µm to 8 µm in diameter. Neoblasts represent about 30 percent of all cells in planaria. They are not present in the anterior, posterior or pharynx.
Neoblast form blastema capable of growth and regeneration into organs or body parts. Blastemas, in general, are typically found in the early stages of an organism's development such as in embryos, and in the regeneration of tissues, organs and bone.
Blastema formation.
In flatworms, the formation of a blastema needs adult stem cells that are called neoblasts for regeneration to occur.
Right after amputation, a wound response is initiated. All cells in the wound area produce the same transcriptional response regardless of where the wound happened. After this initial wound response, the transcriptional profile changes depending on the location.
A regeneration blastema forms from clonogenic neoblasts (cNeoblast), which work as stem cells to replace older adult cells.
Clonogenic neoblasts also move to a wound site and regenerate the tissue by producing dividing progenitor cells, and finally, all the specific cells.
Transplantation of just one clonogenic neoblast, a worm with no neoblast, restored all the organism's cells. One single neoblast can regenerate an entire irradiated animal that has been rendered incapable of regeneration following transplantation into an irradiated, neoblast-free worm, and this shows that at least some neoblasts are pluripotent.
Some amount of endoderm is needed for blastema formation.
Neoblast specialization.
The gene smed-wi-1 is expressed by all neoblasts.
There are two distinct populations of neoblasts, called zeta and sigma. Zeta and sigma neoblasts look the same, but they have different gene regulatory networks. Also, zeta neoblasts are postmitotic, while sigma neoblasts are mitotic and specifically responsible for injury repair. Sigma neoblasts produce brain, intestine, muscle, excretory, pharynx, and eye cell types. They also lead to cells that become zeta neoblasts. Zeta neoblasts then develop the other epidermal cell types.
Molecular characteristics.
Components of chromatoid bodies.
Neoblasts have chromatoid bodies, which are electronically dense structures composed of ribonucleoprotein complexes that are possibly responsible for maintaining neoblasts. Two protein components have been found within the chromatoid bodies DjCBC-1 and SpolTud-1, which are homologous to proteins involved in the proliferation of germline cells in other organisms.
Piwi and the interaction of small RNAs in neoblasts.
The Argonaut Piwi sub-family of proteins and the small RNAs that interact with them are essential for germline cell development, cell turnover, epigenetic regulation, and repression of transposable elements.  Planarians lacking or are deficient in the expression of piwi show defects in the maintenance and differentiation of cells of the germline. A class of small non-coding RNAs are strongly expressed in neoblasts which serve as specific regulators for gene expression . These accompanied by the action of piwi would be the key regulators in the maintenance of the neoblasts.
Involved Signaling Pathways.
Several different signaling pathways are involved with limb regeneration through the formation of the blastema. After using RNA interference, Smad-beta-catenin-1 was found to set up the anterior-posterior axis. Inhibitions to this result in reversed polarity across the blastema.
Transplantation of a single neoblast to a fatally injured animal has been shown to rescue the animal
An analysis of the genome of "S. mediterranea" indicated the presence of a previously unknown family of long terminal repeats and the lack of several essential genes, including genes responsible for the synthesis of fatty acids and the MAD1 and MAD2 genes, which were thought to be essential components of the spindle assembly checkpoint.
History.
Regeneration research using planarians began in the late 1800s and was popularized by T.H. Morgan at the beginning of the 20th century. Alejandro Sanchez-Alvarado and Philip Newmark transformed planarians into a model genetic organism in the beginning of the 20th century to study the molecular mechanisms underlying regeneration. Morgan found that a piece corresponding to 1/279th of a planarian or a fragment with as few as 10,000 cells could regenerate into a new worm within one to two weeks. Morgan also found that if both the head and the tail were cut off a flatworm the middle segment would regenerate a head from the former anterior end and a tail from the former posterior end.
"Schmidtea mediterranea" has emerged as the species of choice for research due to its diploid chromosomes and the existence of both asexual and sexual strains. Recent genetic screens utilizing double-stranded RNA technology have uncovered 240 genes that affect regeneration in "S. mediterranea". Many of these genes have orthologs in the human genome.
It used to be thought that old cells dedifferentiated and produced a regeneration blastema of undifferentiated cells to form the new structure using paracrine factors. This was disproved in 2012.
Application.
The study of neoblasts helps uncover the mechanisms and functioning of stem cells and tissue degeneration. Planarians can regenerate any body part from small pieces in a few days and have many adult stem cells. They are easy to culture and grown to large populations. Their proteins are similar to human proteins. RNA interference is done by feeding, injecting, or soaking them in double-stranded RNA. The genome of Schmidtea mediterranea has been sequenced. In humans, no known pluripotent stem cells remain after birth.
A collaborative research community on planarian research, EuroPlanNet, was launched in May 2010.


Roshan Chirag

Roshan Chirag is a homing pigeon breed from northern India . The name comes from "roshan", meaning "enlightened", and "chirag", meaning "candle". This breed was developed in India and is found extensively in the north of that country. There are two sub-breeds of these birds, the "sun" and the "moon" type: "aaftabi roshan chirag" and "mehtabi roshan chirag", respectively.
The breed has a black neck, black or brown bars, a shiny body, and red eyes with red circle round around them.


Coelomocyte

A coelomocyte () is a phagocytic leukocyte that appears in the bodies of animals that have a coelom. In most, it attacks and digests invading organisms such as bacteria and viruses through encapsulation and phagocytosis, though in some animals (e.g., the nematode worm "Caenorhabditis elegans") it does not seem capable of the phagocytosis. A coelomocyte may either be fixed to the body wall or may be free-floating within the coelom.
The word comes from the Ancient Greek "koílōma", "cavity" or "hollow", and "kýtos", "receptacle" or "container".


Axinellida

Axinellida is an order of demosponges in the subclass Heteroscleromorpha. The order contains the families Axinellidae, Heteroxyidae, Raspailiidae, and Stelligeridae.


Bemaraha woolly lemur

The Bemaraha woolly lemur ("Avahi cleesei"), also known as Cleese's woolly lemur, is a species of woolly lemur native to western Madagascar, named after John Cleese. The first scientist to discover the species named it after Cleese, star of Monty Python, mainly because of Cleese's fondness for lemurs, as shown in "Operation Lemur With John Cleese" and "Fierce Creatures", and his efforts at protecting and preserving them. The species was first recorded in 1990 by a team of scientists from Zurich University led by Urs Thalmann, but wasn't formally described as a species until November 11, 2005.
The diurnal animal weighs about , has brown skin with white regions on the rear and inside of the thighs and has a short damp nose, large plate eyes, and ears which hardly stand out from the skin. It typically has a strictly vegetarian diet of leaves and buds, living together in small families. The local population calls the species dadintsifaky, which means "Grandfather of the sifaka", because it is similarly sized to sifakas, but more ponderous, heavyset and has ample greyish-brown fur.
The habitat is limited to the Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve in western Madagascar, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The animal is probably threatened with becoming extinct in the long run, since the size of the population is unknown so far and its habitat shrinks continuously.
Description.
It is found in Western Madagascar, near the village of Ambalarano. Its face is slightly more pale than its upper head, and the area above the nose extends to the forehead to contrast with the triangular pattern created by the forehead fur. The fur that borders the face is a black tone and forms a dark pattern in the shape of a line or stripe that resembles the letter "V". Its eyes are a maroon color with black eyelids, and the snout is black and hairless, while the corners of the mouth have a white tone. The fur on the head and body is a brown-gray color and has a slightly curled/freckled appearance. Its tail is beige or brownish-gray in color, and slightly red on the dorsal side of the base. The surface color of the lower limbs of the species is white, while the chest, belly, and inner area of the upper limbs is a light gray color with relatively thin fur.


TIGER domain

The TIGER domain is a minor membraneless organelle in which messenger RNA (mRNA) encodes certain types of proteins to find the appropriate environment for growth. It is closely associated with the endoplasmic reticulum during protein synthesis. The TIGER domain was first documented by cell biologists Christine Mayr and Weirui Ma at the Gerstner Sloan Kettering Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences in 2018.
The letters TIG stand for TIS granules and letters ER stands for the endoplasmic reticulum. TIS granules form a network of interconnected proteins that bind RNA and the endoplasmic reticulum is where protein synthesis occurs. This combination of the TIS proteins and the endoplasmic reticulum creates a distinct place in which mRNA and proteins collect, interact, and grow. The striped pattern of the TIS granules that are interweaving with the endoplasmic reticulum also resemble the orange and black stripes of a tiger. The TIGER domain has been found in all types of cells scientists have looked at so far.
References.
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Sphenoid bone

The sphenoid bone is an unpaired bone of the neurocranium. It is situated in the middle of the skull towards the front, in front of the basilar part of the occipital bone. The sphenoid bone is one of the seven bones that articulate to form the orbit. Its shape somewhat resembles that of a butterfly or bat with its wings extended.
Structure.
It is divided into the following parts:
Two sphenoidal conchae are situated at the anterior and inferior part of the body.
Intrinsic ligaments of the sphenoid.
The more important of these are:
These ligaments occasionally ossify.
Articulations.
The sphenoid articulates with the frontal, parietal, ethmoid, temporal, zygomatic, palatine, vomer, and occipital bones and helps to connect the neurocranium to the facial skeleton.
Body of sphenoid.
Superior or cerebral surface.
Articulates with ethmoid bone anteriorly and basilar part of occipital bone posteriorly.
It shows:
Anterior surface.
Sphenoidal crest articulates with the perpendicular plate of ethmoid leading to formation of a part of the septum of nose.
Posterior surface.
Basilar part of occipital bone
Lateral surface.
Carotid sulcus lodging cavernous sinus and internal carotid artery
Sphenoidal sinuses.
These are asymmetrical air sinuses in the body of the sphenoid, closed by Sphenoidal conchae
Greater wings.
Superior or cerebral surface.
This forms the floor of the middle cranial fossa. It presents (starting from the front):
Lateral surface.
This is divided into (by infratemporal crest):
Foramen pierce it:
Orbital surface.
This forms the posterior wall of the orbit
Lesser wings.
These are two triangular wings projecting laterally from anterosuperior part of the body. Each consists of:
Development.
Until the seventh or eighth month of fetal development, the body of the sphenoid consists of two parts: one in front of the tuberculum sellæ, the presphenoid, with which the small wings are continuous; the other, consisting of the sella turcica and dorsum sellae, the postsphenoid, with which are associated the great wings, and pterygoid processes.
The greater part of the bone is ossified in cartilage. There are fourteen centers in all, six for the presphenoid and eight for the postsphenoid.
Presphenoid.
By about the ninth week of fetal development an ossific center appears for each of the small wings (orbito-sphenoids) just lateral to the optic foramen; this is followed by the appearance of two nuclei in the presphenoid part of the body.
The sphenoidal conchae are each developed from a center that makes its appearance about the fifth month; at birth they consist of small triangular laminae, and it is not until the third year that they become hollowed out and coneshaped; about the fourth year they fuse with the labyrinths of the ethmoid bone, and between the ninth and twelfth years they unite with the sphenoid bone.
Postsphenoid.
The first ossific nuclei are those for the great wings (alisphenoids). One makes its appearance in each wing between the foramen rotundum and foramen ovale about the eighth week. The orbital plate and that part of the sphenoid, which is found in the temporal fossa, as well as the lateral pterygoid plate, are ossified in membrane (Fawcett).
Soon after, the centers for the postsphenoid part of the body appear, one on either side of the sella turcica, and become blended together about the middle of fetal life.
Each medial pterygoid plate (except its hamulus) is ossified in membrane, and its center probably appears about the ninth or tenth week; the hamulus becomes chondrified during the third month, and almost at once ossifies (Fawcett).
The medial joins the lateral pterygoid plate about the sixth month.
About the fourth month, a center appears for each lingula and speedily joins the rest of the bone.
The presphenoid is united to the postsphenoid about the eighth month, and at birth the sphenoid is in three pieces [Fig. 4]: a central, consisting of the body and small wings, and two lateral, each comprising a great wing and pterygoid process.
In the first year after birth the great wings and body unite, and the small wings extend inward above the anterior part of the body, and, meeting with each other in the middle line, form an elevated smooth surface, termed the jugum sphenoidale.
By the twenty-fifth year the sphenoid and occipital are completely fused.
Between the pre- and postsphenoid there are occasionally seen the remains of a canal, the canalis cranio-pharyngeus, through which, in early fetal life, the hypophyseal diverticulum of the buccal ectoderm is transmitted.
The sphenoidal sinuses are present as minute cavities at the time of birth (Onodi), but do not attain their full size until after puberty.
Function.
This bone assists with the formation of the base and the sides of the skull, and the floors and walls of the orbits. It is the site of attachment for most of the muscles of mastication. Many foramina and fissures are located in the sphenoid that carry nerves and blood vessels of the head and neck, such as the superior orbital fissure (with ophthalmic nerve), foramen rotundum (with maxillary nerve) and foramen ovale (with mandibular nerve).
Other animals.
The sphenoid bone of humans is homologous with a number of bones that are often separate in other animals, and have a somewhat complex arrangement.
In the early lobe-finned fishes and tetrapods, the pterygoid bones were flat, wing-like bones forming the major part of the roof of the mouth. Above the pterygoids were the epipterygoid bones, which formed part of a flexible joint between the braincase and the palatal region, as well as extending a vertical bar of bone towards the roof of the skull. Between the pterygoids lay an elongated, narrow parasphenoid bone, which also spread over some of the lower surface of the braincase, and connected, at its forward end, with a sphenethmoid bone helping to protect the olfactory nerves. Finally, the basisphenoid bone formed part of the floor of the braincase and lay immediately above the parasphenoid.
Aside from the loss of the flexible joint at the rear of the palate, this primitive pattern is broadly retained in reptiles, albeit with some individual modifications. In birds, the epipterygoids are absent and the pterygoids considerably reduced. Living amphibians have a relatively simplified skull in this region; a broad parasphenoid forms the floor of the braincase, the pterygoids are relatively small, and all other related bones except the sphenethmoid are absent.
In mammals, these various bones are often (though not always) fused into a single structure; the sphenoid. The basisphenoid forms the posterior part of the base, while the pterygoid processes represent the pterygoid bones. The epipterygoids have extended into the wall of the cranium; they are referred to as alisphenoids when separate in mammals, and form the greater wings of the sphenoid when fused into a larger structure. The sphenethmoid bone forms as three bones: the lesser wings and the anterior part of the base. These two parts of the sphenethmoid may be distinguished as orbitosphenoids and presphenoid, respectively, although there is often some degree of fusion. Only the parasphenoid appears to be entirely absent in mammals.
In the dog the sphenoid is represented by 8 bones: basisphenoid, alisphenoids, presphenoid, orbitosphenoids, pterygoids. These bones remain separate and are the:


Respiratory exchange ratio

The respiratory exchange ratio (RER) is the ratio between the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) produced in metabolism and oxygen (O2) used.
The ratio is determined by comparing exhaled gases to room air. Measuring this ratio can be used for estimating the respiratory quotient (RQ), an indicator of which fuel (e.g. carbohydrate or fat) is being metabolized to supply the body with energy. Using RER to estimate RQ is only accurate during rest and mild to moderate aerobic exercise without the accumulation of lactate. The loss of accuracy during more intense anaerobic exercise is among others due to factors including the bicarbonate buffer system. The body tries to compensate for the accumulation of lactate and minimize the acidification of the blood by expelling more CO2 through the respiratory system.
An RER near 0.7 indicates that fat is the predominant fuel source, a value of 1.0 is indicative of carbohydrate being the predominant fuel source, and a value between 0.7 and 1.0 suggests a mix of both fat and carbohydrate. In general a mixed diet corresponds with an RER of approximately 0.8. The RER can also exceed 1.0 during intense exercise. A value above 1.0 cannot be attributed to the substrate metabolism, but rather to the aforementioned factors regarding bicarbonate buffering.
Calculation of RER is commonly done in conjunction with exercise tests such as the VO2 max test. This can be used as an indicator that the participants are nearing exhaustion and the limits of their cardio-respiratory system. An RER greater than or equal to 1.0 is often used as a secondary endpoint criterion of a VO2 max test.
Oxidation of a carbohydrate molecule:
Oxidation of a fatty acid molecule, namely palmitic acid:


Flustrellidra hispida

Flustrellidra hispida (Fabricius, 1780) is a species of colonial bryozoan in the order Ctenostomatida.
Encrusting colonies are loosely attached to substrata, forming thick, lobed, brown to yellowish patches with a “furry” appearance due to dense spines. Colonies comprise sterile and protandrous hermaphrodite zooids incubating non-feeding pseudocyphonautes larva in the modified tentacle sheath.
"Flustrellidra hispida" is an amphiboreal species, widely distributed in the northern Atlantic. They live in a temperate climate and prefer a water temperature not exceeding 15 ° C and normal salinity.


Poirieria

Poirieria is a genus of large predatory sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the family Muricidae, the rock snails.
Species.
Species within the genus "Poirieria" include:


The Histochemical Society

The Histochemical Society (HCS) is an academic society that was founded on March 24, 1950 at a meeting organized by Ralph D. Lillie of the National Institutes of Health. The idea for the Society arose during the 1949 Biological Stain Commission meeting at which a symposia encompassing anatomy, cytology, pathology and biochemistry was proposed by Lillie, Charles Leblond and Edward Dempsey. Lillie became the first editor of HCS's journal, "Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry".
The Society is an interdisciplinary body of cell biologists, pathologists, anatomists, biochemists, and neuroscientists. HCS's mission is the development and use of visual techniques that provide biochemical and molecular information about the structure and function of cells, tissues and organs and for the dissemination of this knowledge through education and outreach. The Society fulfills its mission through publishing its Journal, the "Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry", and through the management of annual meetings and short courses.
The Histochemical Society's offices are in Bethesda, Maryland. The Society is a member society of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB) and the International Federation of Societies for Histochemistry and Cytochemistry.
Publications.
The Histochemical Society owns the "Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry"; the Journal is published for the Society by SAGE Publications.
Meetings.
The Histochemical Society hosts an annual meeting consisting of scientific plenary talks and symposia, student poster sessions, and an awards presentation and business meeting.
Since becoming a FASEB society in 2011, the HCS annual meetings have been held at Experimental Biology as a guest of another FASEB society. The annual Experimental Biology meeting is among the largest biomedical/research meetings globally. This venue provides our members with many exciting sessions that span a broad spectrum of biomedical research fields.
Awards.
Awards presented at the HCS annual meeting:
The HCS also provide assistance to further trainee/student research projects. Specifically, the Capstone Grants for undergraduate students and the Cornerstone Grants for graduate medical trainees and graduate students.
Courses.
The HCS founded the Immunohistochemistry and Microscopy Course (IHCM) is course in 2008 and HCS members continue to act as the academic faculty. The IHCM course gives participants extensive hands-on experience with immunohistochemical techniques and a broad range of microscopy imaging modalities. The course emphasizes in-depth theory, didactic lectures, small group discussions, troubleshooting, and informal interactions among faculty and participants. The IHCM course prepares participants to independently carry out immunohistochemistry and imaging in their own laboratories and to critically evaluate and troubleshoot problems that arise when using these techniques.
Advocacy.
HCS supports public advocacy of the issues that are important to and affect the biomedical research community through membership in FASEB.


Peripatopsis hamerae

Peripatopsis hamerae is a species of velvet worm in the family Peripatopsidae.


Oidium (spore)

An oidium (plural: oidia) is an asexually produced fungal spore that (in contrast to conidia) is presumed not to constitute the main reproductive preoccupation of the fungus at that time.
The hypha breaks up into component cells/ small pieces and develop into spores. Oidia cannot survive in unfavourable conditions.


Brown hairy dwarf porcupine

The brown hairy dwarf porcupine ("Coendou vestitus") is a species of rodent in the family Erethizontidae. Found in the Andes in Colombia and Venezuela, its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is not easy to study as it is only known from a few specimens and wasn't recorded from 1925 until the 2000s. The porcupine is nocturnal and arboreal, feeding on leaves, shoots, and fruits. Habitat loss severely threatens it and it may even be extinct. Formerly listed as vulnerable, it is now designated data deficient. It is not known from any protected areas or conservation measures.
This species was formerly sometimes assigned to "Sphiggurus", a genus no longer recognized since genetic studies showed it to be polyphyletic. Its closest relative is the frosted hairy dwarf porcupine ("Coendou pruinosus").


Aporrectodea caliginosa

Aporrectodea calignosa (also known as Allolobophora similis or the grey worm) is an earthworm commonly found in Great Britain. It is recognizable by the three distinct shades of colour at its front end, and it is in length when not moving. Its saddle pads usually form a two humped ridge across three segments along the length of the saddle, however this is not clearly visible. The worm mostly lies in non-permanent horizontal burrows in topsoil, and is rarely found in leaf litter. Like most worms, its diet consists only of soil.
References.
Bart S, Amosse J, Lowe CN, Mougin C, Pery ARR, Pelosi C. Aporrectodea caliginosa, a relevant earthworm species for a posteriori pesticide risk assessment: current knowledge and recommendations for culture and experimental design. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-2579-9
https://www.opalexplorenature.org/grey-worm


Rhabdinopora

Rhabdinopora is a genus of graptolites belonging to the family Anisograptidae. It is the earliest planktic graptolite and is presumably the ancestor of all later planktic graptoloids. Some species identified as the first planktid graptolite are:


Table of epithelia of human organs

This table lists the epithelia of different organs of the human body


Laevipilina hyalina

Laevipilina hyalina is a species of monoplacophoran, a superficially limpet-like marine mollusk. It is found off the coast of southern California.
Anatomy.
"L. hyalina" is the only "Laevipilina" species with 6 pairs of gills, while all other "Laevipilina" species have 5 pairs.


Eunoe spinulosa

Eunoe spinulosa is a scale worm described from the North Atlantic Ocean off Nova Scotia.
Description.
Number of segments 49; elytra 15 pairs. No distinct pigmentation pattern remaining, chaetae brass-colored. Prostomium anterior margin comprising a pair of acute anterior projections. Lateral antennae inserted ventrally (beneath prostomium and median antenna). Elytra marginal fringe of papillae present. Notochaetae distinctly thicker than neurochaetae. Bidentate neurochaetae absent.


Nancy Simmons

Nancy B. Simmons is an American zoologist, mammalogist, professor, and author. Specializing in bats, Simmons has conducted extensive research on the morphology and evolutionary history of numerous bat species. She is also the curator-in-charge of the Department of Mammalogy at the American Museum of Natural History and a professor at the Richard Gilder Graduate School.
Education.
Simmons graduated cum laude from Pomona College in 1981. She then earned her Ph.D. from the University of California, Berkeley in 1989.
Teaching.
Simmons began working as a teaching assistant for the University of California, Berkeley in 1986. She went on to become an instructor of paleontology in 1987 and a zoology lecturer in 1988.
American Museum of Natural History.
In addition to research, Simmons works closely with the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH). Ever since she began as a Kalbfleisch/Hoffman Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the AMNH in 1989, Simmons has conducted research for the museum as a faculty member. She is currently the Curator-in-Charge, Department of Mammalogy, Division of Vertebrate Zoology. Simmons is also a professor at the Richard Gilder Graduate School, a Ph.D. program in comparative biology offered by the American Museum of Natural History.
Research.
Simmons' research is primarily focused on the phylogeny of bats. Using both morphological data and DNA sequence data, Simmons has conducted numerous studies that shed light on the relationships not only between different bat species, but between the Chiroptera clade and other clades. Using living and fossilized specimen, she studies bat behavior, diet, mechanisms of flight, and echolocation, applying her knowledge of phylogeny to explain certain phenomena. Her extensive field work in Central America, South America, and Southeast Asia has led her to discover several species of bats, such as Sanborn's big-eared bat. In 2021, she was part of a team of scientists who discovered a new West African bat, "Myotis nimbaensis".
Her findings contribute to constructing large-scale phylogenetic trees. Simmons and her team have submitted numerous evolutionary data surrounding bats and other animal clades to Morphobank, an archive of evolutionary research. Furthermore, Simmons' team has also worked on the project Assembling the Tree of Life, where numerous organizations worked to piece together mammalian phylogeny through morphology.
MorphoBank.
Simmons' evolutionary data has contributed to MorphoBank's database of morphological features, submitting hundreds of morphological characteristics of Chiroptera species in order to conduct genetic testing to create an accurate phylogenetic tree. Simmons has also accessed MorphoBank as the curator for the American Museum of Natural History to engage in outreach work. In 2013, Simmons worked as part of the Morpholution program to help high school students engage in state-of-the-art digital analysis tools provided by MorphoBank to examine evolutionary relationships.
Publications.
Simmons has been cited on 141 publications regarding bat phylogeny including:
Awards and recognition.
In 1986, Simmons was named by the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology as an honorable mention for the Romer Prize, and then was awarded the Romer Prize in 1988. In 1989, Simmons was awarded with the Outstanding Graduate Student Instructor Award by the University of California. In 2008, Simmons was awarded the Gerrit S. Miller Award from the North American Society for Bat Research.


Geodia distincta

Geodia distincta is a species of sponge in the family Geodiidae. It is found in the waters of the Java Sea. The species was first described by Nils Gustaf Lindgren in 1897.


Vosila

Vosila is an extinct genus of flies in the family Vosilidae. There is one described species in "Vosila", "V. sinensis". found in the Callovian aged Daohugou Bed, Inner Mongolia, China


Cerebellar veins

Cerebellar veins are veins which drain the cerebellum.
They consist of the superior cerebellar veins and the inferior cerebellar veins.
The superior cerebellar veins pass partly forward and medialward, across the superior vermis, to end in the straight sinus and the internal cerebral veins, partly lateralward to the transverse and superior petrosal sinuses.
The inferior cerebellar veins are of large size and end in the transverse, superior petrosal, and occipital sinuses.


Gouania (fish)

Gouania is a genus of clingfishes endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. The members of this genus are the only vertebrates to inhabit European intertidal gravel beaches and they have developed many adaptations to survive in this extremely harsh environment.
Formerly, the genus was considered to be a monotypic genus containing the blunt-snouted clingfish, however a 2020 study described three new species and resurrected a synonym of "G. willdenowi" ("G. pigra"). The genus is named for the French botanist Antoine Gouan (1733-1821).
Species.
There are currently 5 described species in "Gouania":


Frontal process of maxilla

The frontal process of maxilla is a strong plate, which projects upward, medialward, and backward from the maxilla, forming part of the lateral boundary of the nose.
Its "lateral surface" is smooth, continuous with the anterior surface of the body, and gives attachment to the quadratus labii superioris, the orbicularis oculi, and the medial palpebral ligament.
Its "medial surface" forms part of the lateral wall of the nasal cavity; at its upper part is a rough, uneven area, which articulates with the ethmoid, closing in the anterior ethmoidal cells; below this is an oblique ridge, the ethmoidal crest, the posterior end of which articulates with the middle nasal concha, while the anterior part is termed the agger nasi; the crest forms the upper limit of the atrium of the middle meatus.
The "upper border" articulates with the frontal bone and the "anterior" with the nasal; the "posterior border" is thick, and hollowed into a groove, which is continuous below with the lacrimal groove on the nasal surface of the body: by the articulation of the medial margin of the groove with the anterior border of the lacrimal a corresponding groove on the lacrimal is brought into continuity, and together they form the lacrimal fossa for the lodgement of the lacrimal sac.
The lateral margin of the groove is named the anterior lacrimal crest, and is continuous below with the orbital margin; at its junction with the orbital surface is a small tubercle, the lacrimal tubercle, which serves as a guide to the position of the lacrimal sac.


Kate Buchanan

Katherine Louise "Kate" Buchanan is an avian behavioural ecologist currently working in Deakin University's School of Life and Environment Sciences. Her research focuses on investigating how sexual selection has shaped the evolution of complex songs in birds and ultimately how this is reflected in the evolution of the brain itself.
Education and appointments.
Kate Buchanan gained a Bachelor of Science in Zoology from the University of Glasgow in 1989 and a Doctor of Philosophy from Royal Holloway, University of London in 1997, working with Professor Clive Catchpole. After studying for two postdoctoral degrees at the University of Stirling, she was awarded a Personal Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 at Cardiff University. She was a lecturer at Cardiff University from 2003 to early 2008.
In early 2008, Buchanan took a position at Deakin University, Australia, at the Geelong campus, where she works within the Centre for Integrative Ecology. She was awarded an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship in 2014. Buchanan is currently editor-in-chief of BirdLife Australia's scientific ornithology journal Emu.
Scientific work.
She is most well known for her work on early development in songbirds and the effects of early developmental stress on the song system and genetic and environmental control of sexual signals. However, she has interests in the interactions between early development and control of the stress related behaviour and physiology and whether immunocompetence can mediate the costs of sexual traits. Her work has demonstrated the effects of the exposure of wild birds to endocrine disrupters in terms of both behaviour and physiology.


Ainudrilus

Ainudrilus is a genus of clitellate oligochaete worm.
Species.
The World Register of Marine Species recognizes the following species in "Ainudrilus":


Phataginus

African tree pangolin ("Phataginus") is a genus of African pangolins from subfamily small African pangolins (Phatagininae), within family Manidae. Its members are the more arboreal of the African pangolins.
Etymology.
Constantine Rafinesque (1821) formed the Neo-Latin generic name "Phataginus" from the French term "phatagin", adopted by Count Buffon (1763) after the reported local name "phatagin" or "phatagen" used in the East Indies.
Phylogeny.
Phylogenetic position of genus "Phataginus" within family Manidae.


Sessility (botany)

In botany, sessility (meaning "sitting", used in the sense of "resting on the surface") is a characteristic of plant parts that have no stalk. Flowers or leaves are borne directly from the stem or peduncle, and thus lack a petiole or pedicel. The leaves of most monocotyledons lack petioles.
The term sessility is also used in mycology to describe a fungal fruit body that is attached to or seated directly on the surface of the substrate, lacking a supporting stipe or pedicel.
Other examples of sessile flowers include Achyranthus, Saffron, etc.
Plant parts can also be described as subsessile, which is not completely sessile.


Fetal protein

Fetal proteins are high levels of proteins present during the fetal stage of development. Often related proteins assume similar roles after birth or in the embryo, in which case the fetal varieties are called fetal isoforms. Sometimes, the genes coding fetal isoforms occur adjacent to their adult homologues in the genome, and in those cases a locus control region often coordinates the transition from fetal to adult forms. In other cases fetal isoforms can be produced by alternate splicing using fetal exons to produce proteins that differ in only a portion of their amino acid sequence. In some situations the continuing expression of fetal forms can reveal the presence of a disease condition or serve as a treatment for diseases such as sickle cell anemia. Some well known examples include:


Conchiolin

Conchiolins (sometimes referred to as conchins) are complex proteins which are secreted by a mollusc's outer epithelium (the mantle).
These proteins are part of a matrix of organic macromolecules, mainly proteins and polysaccharides, that assembled together form the microenvironment where crystals nucleate and grow. This organic matrix also holds and binds to the crystals of aragonite which give such shells their stiffness.
The ions necessary to form calcium carbonate are also secreted by the mantle, but it is the tailored environment created by the organic matrix which causes aragonite (rather than calcite) crystals to nucleate, in much the same way that collagen nucleates hydroxyapatite crystals.
Conchiolin serves as a relatively flexible, crack-deflecting matrix for the mineral aggregate particles; its strength and the strong bonding of perlucin can in some cases (such as in the formation of nacre) give the finished material an impressive level of toughness.
As well as providing a matrix into which the hard calcium carbonate part of the shell is precipitated, many species of mollusks (such as the land snail shown above) also have an outer shell layer called the periostracum which is composed of the protein conchiolin. Some land snails (especially the taxa that have become adapted to living on acidic soils) have very thin, transparent, tan-colored shells, even as adults, and those shells are composed entirely of conchiolin.


Danger space

The danger space or alar space, is a region of the neck. The common name originates from the risk that an infection in this space can spread directly to the thorax, and, due to being a space continuous on the left and right, can furthermore allow infection to spread easily to either side.
Structure.
It is bounded at the top by the skull base, at the front by the alar fascia and behind by the prevertebral fascia. It comes to an end at the level of the diaphragm.
The retropharyngeal space is found anterior to the danger space, between the alar fascia and buccopharyngeal fascia. There exists a midline raphe in this space so some infections of this space appear unilateral.
Clinical significance.
On CT or MRI it is only visible when distended by fluid or pus, below the level of T1-T6, as the retropharyngeal space ends at this level, allowing distinction between the two entities. Superior spread of infection can affect the contents of the carotid sheath, including the internal jugular vein and cranial nerves IX, X, XI, and XII, while inferior spread of infection through the danger space can cause mediastinitis.
History.
It was first characterized in 1938.


Siegmund Mayer

Siegmund Mayer (December 27, 1842 – September, 1910) was a German physiologist and histologist.
Mayer was born in Bechtheim in Rhenish Hesse. He studied at the Universities of Heidelberg, Giessen and Tübingen, where in 1865 he obtained his doctorate. He subsequently worked with Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz (1821–1894) in Heidelberg, Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig (1816–1895) and Julius Friedrich Cohnheim (1839–1884) in Leipzig, and with Ernst Wilhelm von Brücke (1819–1892) in Vienna.
In 1869 he was habilitated for physiology at Vienna, and during the next year became Karl Ewald Konstantin Hering's assistant in Prague. In 1872 he became an associate professor and in 1887 a full professor. From 1880 he was director at the newly founded institute of histology.
Mayer made several important contributions particularly concerning the physiology of the heart and vessels, respiration and intestines. He was one of the first to describe chromaffin cells in the sympathetic nerve, and with Ewald Hering and Ludwig Traube, his name is associated with "Traube–Hering–Mayer waves", a phenomenon that deals with rhythmic variations in arterial blood pressure.
In addition to his scholarly papers published in scientific journals, he made contributions to Salomon Stricker's "Handbuch der Lehre von den Geweben des Menschen und der Thiere" (1872) and to Ludimar Hermann's "Handbuch der Physiologie" (1879). He was also author of "Histologisches Taschenbuch" (1887).
Mayer died September 1910 in Prague.


Tropicbird

Tropicbirds are a family, Phaethontidae, of tropical pelagic seabirds. They are the sole living representatives of the order Phaethontiformes. For many years they were considered part of the Pelecaniformes, but genetics indicates they are most closely related to the Eurypygiformes. There are three species in one genus, Phaethon. The scientific names are derived from Ancient Greek "phaethon", "sun". They have predominantly white plumage with elongated tail feathers and small feeble legs and feet.
Taxonomy, systematics and evolution.
Tropicbirds were traditionally grouped in the order Pelecaniformes, which contained the pelicans, cormorants and shags, darters, gannets and boobies and frigatebirds; in the Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy, the Pelecaniformes were united with other groups into a large "Ciconiiformes". More recently this grouping has been found to be massively paraphyletic (missing closer relatives of its distantly related groups) and split again.
Microscopic analysis of eggshell structure by Konstantin Mikhailov in 1995 found that the eggshells of tropicbirds lacked the covering of thick microglobular material of other Pelecaniformes. Jarvis, "et al".'s 2014 paper "Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds" aligns the tropicbirds most closely with the sunbittern and the kagu of the Eurypygiformes, with these two clades forming the sister group of the "core water birds", the Aequornithes, and the Metaves hypothesis abandoned.
Order Phaethontiformes
The red-billed tropicbird is basal within the genus. The split between the red-billed tropicbird and the other two tropicbirds is hypothesized to have taken place about six million years ago, with the split between the red-tailed and white-tailed tropicbird taking place about four million years ago.
"Phaethusavis" and "Heliadornis" are prehistoric genera of tropicbirds described from fossils.
Description.
Tropicbirds range in size from 76 cm to 102 cm in length and 94 cm to 112 cm in wingspan. Their plumage is predominantly white, with elongated central tail feathers. The three species have different combinations of black markings on the face, back, and wings. Their bills are large, powerful and slightly decurved. Their heads are large and their necks are short and thick. They have totipalmate feet (that is, all four toes are connected by a web). The legs of a tropicbird are located far back on their body, making walking impossible, so that they can only move on land by pushing themselves forward with their feet.
The tropicbirds' call is typically a loud, piercing, shrill, but grating whistle, or crackle. These are often given in a rapid series when they are in a display flight at the colony. In old literature they were referred to as boatswain (bo'sun'/bosun) birds due their loud whistling calls.
Behaviour and ecology.
Tropicbirds frequently catch their prey by hovering and then plunge-diving, typically only into the surface-layer of the waters. They eat mostly fish, especially flying fish, and occasionally squid. Tropicbirds tend to avoid multi-species feeding flocks, unlike the frigatebirds, which have similar diets.
Tropicbirds are usually solitary or in pairs away from breeding colonies. There they engage in spectacular courtship displays. For several minutes, groups of 2–20 birds simultaneously and repeatedly fly around one another in large, vertical circles, while swinging the tail streamers from side to side. If the female likes the presentation, she will mate with the male in his prospective nest-site. Occasionally, disputes will occur between males trying to protect their mates and nesting areas.
Tropicbirds generally nest in holes or crevices on the bare ground. The female lays one white egg, spotted brown, and incubates for 40–46 days. The incubation is performed by both parents, but mostly the female, while the male brings food to feed the female. The chick hatches with grey down. It will stay alone in the nest while both parents search for food, and they will feed the chick twice every three days until fledging, about 12–13 weeks after hatching. The young are not able to fly initially; they will float on the ocean for several days to lose weight before flight.
Tropicbird chicks have slower growth than nearshore birds, and they tend to accumulate fat deposits while young. That, along with one-egg clutches, appears to be an adaptation to a pelagic lifestyle where food is often gathered in large amounts, but may be hard to find.


Robert E. Ogren

Robert Edward Ogren (February 9, 1922 – July 13, 2005) was an American zoologist.
Life.
Ogren was born in 1922 in Jamestown, New York, son of David Paul and Mary Gladys (born Ahlstrom) Ogren. While in secondary school, he developed a strong interest in natural history and started to study microscopic biology at home.
He earned a bachelor's degree in Zoology in 1947 from Wheaton College and a master's degree from Northwestern University in 1948. He married his wife, Jean Blose Jackson, in 28 August 1948, and their first son, Paul Robert Ogren, was born in 24 June 1949.
In 1953 he received a Ph.D. degree in Zoology and Physiology from the University of Illinois. His doctoral thesis was entitled "Concepts of Early Tapeworm Development Derived From Comparative Embryology of Oncospheres".
He began his academic career in 1953 as an assistant professor of biology at Ursinus College, remaining until 1957. During this time he had his second son, Philip Edward Ogren, born in 1955.
From 1957 to 1963, he worked also as an assistant professor of biology at Dickinson College, acting as chairman of the biology department from 1959 to 1960. In 1963 he moved to Wilkes College (currently Wilkes University) as an associate professor of biology, becoming full professor in 1981 and an emeritus professor in 1986. During his tenure, he developed basic research in the development of tapeworm hexacanth embryos. From 1980 on he also started to work on the biology of land planarians.
In 1987 he began a series of publications in association with Dr. Masaharu Kawakatsu entitled the "Land Planarian Indices Series" where they reviewed the taxonomy of all land planarian species known at the time.
He died in his sleep on 13 July 2005 while on vacation at the Chautauqua Institution, New York.


List of Sanctuary episodes

"Sanctuary" is a Canadian science fiction-fantasy television series created by Damian Kindler. It premiered on Syfy on October 3, 2008. Kindler originally created "Sanctuary" as an eight-part web series, but later it was adapted for television. The series is set in the fictional city of Old City and follows centuries-old scientist Helen Magnus and her team: daughter Ashley; protégé Will Zimmerman; computer tech and Lycan Henry Foss and an aptly named "Bigfoot"; and con artist Kate Freelander. The Sanctuary team assumes the mission of tracking "Abnormals" (specially gifted humans and creatures), and bringing them to the Sanctuary for the dual purpose of protecting the public as well as the Abnormals themselves.


Clathrina jorunnae

Clathrina jorunnae is a species of calcareous sponge from Norway. It is only known from Trondheimsfjord, its type locality, where it was dredged from depths of . The specimen was attached to a bryozoan of the genus "Reteporella". The species is named after Jorunn Berg, Hans Tore Rapp's grandmother, who introduced Rapp to marine animals.
Description.
Cormus is composed of very thin and highly irregularly and loosely anastomosing tubes. No oscula are visible on the surface. Water-collecting tubes are absent. Colour is light beige when alive and white in alcohol. The surface of the tubes minutely hispid due to single actines of the triactines irregularly protruding through the outer surface. The texture is fragile but compressible. Cormus measures 8 mm in diameter. Skeleton is composed of one group of equiangular and equiradiate triactines. The actines are straight, conical, and sharply pointed.


Blue Mountains panther

In Australian folklore, the Blue Mountains panther or Lithgow panther is a big cat said to exist by residents of the Blue Mountains area, west of Sydney, New South Wales, for over a century.
Theories suggest the animal may be a descendant of big cats released by World War II US soldiers, which had been used as military mascots. Alternatively, accounts of big cats released by travelling circuses, or which had escaped circuses, exist; as well as rumours that big cats were available for black market purchase in New South Wales in the 20th century.
Sightings.
Over 500 sightings in 20 years have been reported of the panther. In 2018, Grant Denyer and his wife, television producer Cheryl Rogers, reported to have sighted the cat on their property. Encounters continue to be reported upon in national newspapers as of 2020, when video footage was allegedly recorded in the grounds of Sydney Adventist Hospital, Wahroonga Photographs have also been recorded in Gippsland and Hawkesbury. In 2002, a Kenthurst teenager Luke Walker was attacked by what he stated to be a large feline; he suffered deep lacerations. Sightings have been made by a NSW Police Force detective, an officer of the Department of Agriculture, and Rural Fire Service personnel, as well as pilots.
Investigations.
The NSW Department of Primary Industries (NPWS) has commissioned four reports into the phenomenon, in 1999, 2003, 2009 and 2013. In 1999, the head of the Department of Agricultura, Kevin Sheridan, wrote to the director-general of NPWS to request a report due to the large number of attacks. The first of these reports, by Doctor Johannes Bauer of NSW Agriculture concluded that it was likely true. As a result of the report, NSW Agriculture was ordered to send a tracker to identify the creature, but only sent an agricultural officer and a German shepherd.
In 2001, freedom of information requests revealed the NSW State government maintained an open file on big cat sightings at the time. Between 2001 and 2003, based on the study of scat and hair examples, the district veterinarian of the Moss Vale Rural Lands Protection Board concluded a big cat likely lived in the area. A 2003 report was opened by request of the Mayor of Hawkesbury Council and the Moss Vale Rural Lands Protection Board. The 2003 report concluded no conclusive evidence exists, but that it was more likely than not that such a cat existed.
In 2005, Bill Atkinson, the technical manager of NSW Agriculture, told the Sydney Morning Herald he was instructed not to speak on the subject. A representative of the City of Hawkesbury stated at the same time they had "genuine concern" about big cats in their area. In 2008, another report was commissioned which concluded the existence of a big cat population was "more likely than not", but it was subsequently edited before public release to change this conclusion, raising allegations of a cover up. In 2011, a pet alpaca was mauled to death in Bilpin; autopsy revealed 7cm puncture wounds to the skull. A report by the Hawkesbury area ranger concluded it may have been killed by a large cat.
A 2013 report was written by John Parkes, an invasive species expert, who concluded that there is no evidence of a big cat in the Blue Mountains. The author of the report lately privately told the ABC they do believe it is possible a small population exists. Ray Williams, member of parliament for Hawkesbury, condemned the report as dismissive and dangerous.
The Grose Vale Group is one of several organisations that record accounts of the Lithgow panther.


Otto Kraus

Otto Kraus (17 May 1930 – 24 October 2017) was a German arachnologist and myriapodologist. He was director of the Zoological Institute and Zoological Museum at the University of Hamburg from 1969 to 1995, where he also served as professor. He was a commissioner (1963–1995) and president (1989–1995) of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). He published nearly 200 scientific papers and described nearly 500 species of myriapods and over 80 species of spiders. His works include contributions to the encyclopedia "Grzimeks Tierleben" and the German translation of Ernst Mayr's "Principles of Systematic Zoology".
Kraus was born in Frankfurt in 1930. While attending the University of Frankfurt he volunteered with the Senckenberg Museum, where he wrote his doctoral thesis on spiders and myriapods from El Salvador, supervised by Robert Mertens. He completed his Ph.D. in 1955 and was hired by the museum the same year, later becoming head of the arachnology section and from 1963 to 1969 was head of the invertebrate zoology section.
Kraus is commemorated in the scientific names of more than a dozen species of spiders, millipedes, and centipedes named in his honor.


Face and neck development of the human embryo

The face and neck development of the human embryo refers to the development of the structures from the third to eighth week that give rise to the future head and neck. They consist of three layers, the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm, which form the mesenchyme (derived form the lateral plate mesoderm and paraxial mesoderm), neural crest and neural placodes (from the ectoderm). The paraxial mesoderm forms structures named somites and somitomeres that contribute to the development of the floor of the brain and voluntary muscles of the craniofacial region. The lateral plate mesoderm consists of the laryngeal cartilages (arytenoid and cricoid). The three tissue layers give rise to the pharyngeal apparatus, formed by six pairs of pharyngeal arches, a set of pharyngeal pouches and pharyngeal grooves, which are the most typical feature in development of the head and neck. The formation of each region of the face and neck is due to the migration of the neural crest cells which come from the ectoderm. These cells determine the future structure to develop in each pharyngeal arch. Eventually, they also form the neurectoderm, which forms the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain, cartilage, bone, dentin, tendon, dermis, pia mater and arachnoid mater, sensory neurons, and glandular stroma.
Pharyngeal arches.
Pharyngeal arches are formed during the fourth week. Each arch consists of a mesenchymal tissue covered on the outside by ectoderm and on the inside by epithelium of endodermal origin. In human embryology, there are six arches which are separated by pharyngeal grooves externally and pharyngeal pouches internally. These arches contribute to the physical appearance of the embryo because they are the main components that build the face and neck. In addition, the muscular components of each arch have their own cranial nerve, and wherever the muscle cells migrate, they carry their nerve component with them. Plus, each arch has its own arterial component. When neural cells migrate to the arches and surround them, they begin to increase in size. The six pharyngeal arches give rise to much of the skeletal and muscular tissue in the head and neck region. When the embryo is 42 days old, the mesenchymal arches can be recognized with its corresponding cranial nerve.
The first pharyngeal arch forms maxillary and mandibular processes. It is innervated by the trigeminal nerve and molds muscles related to mastication such as temporal, masseter, medial, lateral, pterygoid bones, tensor palati, and tensor tympani. This arch originates maxillar and mandibular prominences, part of the temporal bone and Meckel's cartilage (malleus and incus) as skeletal structures. The second pharyngeal arch is innervated by the facial cranial nerve. Muscles that arise from the arch are those involved with facial expression and the posterior digastric muscle. Skeletal structures that originate here are the cervical sinus, Reichert cartilage (stape) the styloid process of the temporal bone, the lesser cornu and the hyoid bone. The third pharyngeal arch is innervated by glossopharyngeal nerve. It molds the stylopharyngeus muscle and forms the skeletal structures of the greater horn and lower portion of body hyoid bone. The fourth and sixth arches are innervated by the vagus cranial nerve. Both arches will fuse to form the laryngeal cartilages. The fifth cartilage does not appear to have any contribution to adult anatomy and disappears.
Pharyngeal pouches.
Pharyngeal pouches develop into future parts in face and head. The pouches penetrate the surrounding mesenchyme but do not establish communication with the pharyngeal grooves. They appear simultaneously with the development of the arches. The first pharyngeal pouch is characterized by narrowing at its final segment. However, it does not disappear and eventually forms the eustachian tube. Second pharyngeal pouch develops differently from the first one mainly because most of it disappears, leaving the tonsillar fossa(Rohen). At the end of the fifth month, the palatine tonsil as a protective structure is completed. This structure covers the tonsillar fossa. The third pharyngeal pouch will give rise to the inferior parathyroid gland and thymus. The fourth and fifth pouches develop as a unique structure that molds the superior parathyroid and parafolicular cells of thyroid gland.
Pharyngeal grooves.
Initially, pharyngeal grooves consist of four bars of mesenchymal tissue that separate pharyngeal nerves. Most of these structures obliterate, only the ear canal remains.
Development of the tongue.
In the fourth week of the pregnancy the structures that develop the tongue appear. These structures develop from the first pharyngeal arch are two lingual lateral prominences and one in the middle that does not develop and disappears. A second prominence, the hypobranchial eminence, comes from the second, third and fourth pharyngeal arches. A third prominence that comes from the fourth arch develops the epiglottis. The laryngeal orifice is behind the third prominence, which is surrounded by the arytenoid prominences. Later, the lateral and middle prominences join forming the first of the three parts of the tongue. The surcus terminalis linguae is a V shaped line that separates the body of the tongue from the posterior part. The corresponding nerve for the three prominences of the anterior tongue is the trigeminal nerve. The posterior tongue is innervated by the glosopharyngeal nerve. The muscles of the tongue are innervated by the hypoglossal nerve.
Development of the thyroid.
The thyroid appears as an epithelial proliferation in the pharynx floor between the copula linguae and the tuberculum impar. This point later will be the foramen cecum. Later, the thyroid descends in front of the pharyngeal gut when it already has a belobed diverticulum shape. The thyroglossal duct keeps the thyroid joined to the tongue until it disappears. The thyroid keeps descending in front of the hyoid bone until finally it affixes to the front of the trachea in the seventh week. The thyroid starts working in the third month when the first follicles are visible and start producing colloid. The parafollicular cells come from the ultimobranchial body and produce calcitonin.
Development of the face.
The facial prominences are five swellings that appear in the fourth week and come from the first and second pharyngeal arch. They are basically made of mesenchyme that comes from the neural crest.
The frontonasal prominence is a single structure that is ventral to the forebrain. It is derived from neural crest cells, which have an ectodermal origin. These neural crest cells migrate from the ectoderm as the forebrain closes, invading the space that will form the frontonasal prominence.
The maxillary and mandibular prominences are derived from the first arch. The maxillary prominence is initially located superior/lateral to the stomodeum while the mandibular prominence is located inferior to it and will fuse early on.
Nasal placodes originate on the frontonasal prominence from the ectoderm. They thicken and sink in to form Nasal Pits, which deepen to form the Nasal Sacs. At the same time, mesodermal cells proliferate around the placodes, and the sides of these swellings form the medial and lateral nasal prominences. The lateral nasal prominence is separated from the maxillary prominence by the nasolacrimal groove.
As the maxillary prominences continue growing they merge laterally with the mandibular prominences to form the cheeks. Their growth compresses the medial nasal prominences and causes them to fuse around the 10th week of development. This establishes the bridge of the nose and the intermaxillary segment, which is the region of the medial nasal prominence located inferior to the bridge of the nose and superior to the mandibular prominence. The intermaxillary segment yields the portion of the upper lip containing the philtrum, the upper jaw with 4 incisors, and the primary palate. The medial prominence fuses with the maxillary prominence, giving rise to a smooth upper lip while fusing the primary and secondary palate. Meanwhile, the lateral nasal prominence gives rise to the alae of the nose and fuses with the maxillary prominence, forming the Nasolacrimal duct. This duct is formed when the ectoderm thickens into a cord and sinks into the underlying mesenchyme.
Development of the nasal cavity.
The formation of the lateral and medial nasal prominences makes the nasal placodes lie in the floor of the depression, called nasal pits. The nasal pits deepen and develop the nasal sacs in the sixth week. These new structures grow dorsocaudally in front of the forming brain. In the beginning, the nasal sacs are separated from the oral cavity by the oronasal membrane. This membrane disappears in the seventh week leaving a connection between the nasal cavities and the oral cavity, called the primitive choanae. Later, when the development of the secondary palate occurs, the choanae changes its position and locates at the junction of the nasal cavity and the pharynx. The nasal septum grows as a downgrowth from the merged nasal prominences and fuses with the palatine process between the ninth and eleventh week. Finally, the superior, middle and inferior conchae develop the lateral wall of each nasal cavity.


Maelstrom gene

The gene Maelstrom, Mael, creates a protein, which was first located in "Drosophila melanogaster" in the "nuage" perinuclear structure and has functionality analogous to the "spindle", "spn", gene class. Its mamallian homolog is MAEL.
In "Drosophila".
Maelstrom helps establish anterior-posterior and dorsal-ventral symmetry by coordinating to the Microtubule-Organizing Center (MTOC) and assists Vasa establish a concentration gradient of Bicaudal D (BicD) in the developing "Drosophila" oocyte. Similar to other "spindle"-class genes, maelstrom defects can lead to the failed production of a karyosome. "Mael" has also been shown to repress "microRNA-7" ("miR-7"), which in turn regulates the Bag-of-marbles (BAM) protein and secures correct germline differentiation.
Short RNAs are well-known to silence TEs (transposable elements) through the RNAi (RNA interference) pathway, and Piwi-associated RNAs (piRNAs) play a crucial role in transposon silencing in the germline. The Maelstrom protein forms a complex with piRISC to silence transposons and therefore stabilize the germline cell genome.
In mammals.
A knockout model for MAEL, the mammalian homolog of "Drosophila"’s "Maelstrom", was created by homologous recombination in mice to create "Mael" null mice. In the knockout mice, meiotic chromosome synapsis is defective. In addition, spermatogenesis fails due to sperm DNA damage caused by the derepression of transposable elements.
MAEL has also recently been associated with human cancer. An experiment showed MAEL expression throughout a majority of cancer cell types, including lung cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, and colon cancer and in turn suggests MAEL as a constituent of the cancer/testis gene class.


Epiperipatus hilkae

Epiperipatus hilkae is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatidae family. The type locality is in Costa Rica.


Suprascapular vein

The suprascapular vein is a vein running above the scapula. It empties into the external jugular vein.


Apical ectodermal ridge

The apical ectodermal ridge (AER) is a structure that forms from the ectodermal cells at the distal end of each limb bud and acts as a major signaling center to ensure proper development of a limb. After the limb bud induces AER formation, the AER and limb mesenchyme—including the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA)—continue to communicate with each other to direct further limb development.
The position of the limb bud, and hence the AER, is specified by the expression boundaries of Hox genes in the embryonic trunk. At these positions, the induction of cell outgrowth is thought to be mediated by a positive feedback loop of fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) between the intermediate mesoderm, the lateral plate mesoderm and the surface ectoderm. FGF8 in the intermediate mesoderm signals to the lateral mesoderm, restricting the expression of FGF10 through intermediate Wnt signals. Then, FGF10 in the lateral plate mesoderm signals to the surface ectoderm to create the AER, which expresses FGF8.
The AER is known to express FGF2, FGF4, FGF8, and FGF9, while the limb bud mesenchyme expresses FGF2 and FGF10. Embryo manipulation experiments have shown that some of these FGFs alone are sufficient for mimicking the AER.
Structure.
Morphologically, the AER emerges as a thickening of the ectoderm at the distal rim of the limb bud. This distinct structure runs along the anterior-posterior axis of the limb bud and subsequently separates the dorsal side of the limb from its ventral side.
In the wing bud in chick embryos, the AER becomes anatomically distinguishable at the late stage of development 18HH (corresponding to 3 day-old embryos), when the distal ectodermal cells of the bud acquire a columnar shape distinguishing them from the cuboidal ectoderm. At stage 20HH (corresponding to 3.5 day-old embryos), the AER appears as a strip of pseudostratified epithelium which is maintained until 23-24HH (corresponding to 4-4.5 day-old embryos). Afterwards, the AER progressively decreases in height and eventually regresses.
In mouse embryos, the ventral ectoderm of the emerging forelimb at E9.5 (embryonic day 9.5) already appears thicker in comparison to the dorsal ectoderm and it corresponds to the early AER. By E10, this thickening is more noticeable since the epithelium now consists of two layers and becomes confined to the ventral-distal margin of the bud although it is not detectable in living specimens using light microscope or by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Between E10.5-11, a linear and compact AER with a polystratified epithelial structure (3-4 layers) has formed and positioned itself at the distal dorso-ventral boundary of the bud. After reaching its maximum height, the AER in mouse limb buds flattens and eventually become indistinguishable from the dorsal and ventral ectoderm. The structure of the human AER is similar to the mouse AER.
In addition to wings in chicks and forelimbs in mice, pectoral fins in zebrafish serve as a model to study vertebrate limb formation. Despite fin and limb developmental processes share many similarities, they exhibit significant differences, one of which is the AER maintenance. While in birds and mammals the limb AER persists until the end of digit-patterning stage and eventually regresses, the fin AER transforms into an extended structure, named the apical ectodermal fold (AEF). After the AER-AEF transition at 36 hours post fertilization, the AEF is located distal to the circumferential blood vessels of the fin bud. The AEF potentially functions as an inhibitor to fin outgrowth since removing the AEF results in the formation of a new AER and subsequently a new AEF. In addition, repeated AF removal leads to excessive elongation of the fin mesenchyme, potentially because of prolonged exposure of AER signals to the fin mesenchyme. Recently, the AER, which has long been thought to consist of only ectodermal cells, in fact composes of both mesodermal and ectodermal cells in zebrafish.
Associated molecules.
Associated molecules include:
Development.
FGF10 secretions from the mesenchyme cells of the limb field interact with the ectodermal cells above, and induce the formation of the AER on the distal end of the developing limb. The presence of a dorsal-ventral ectodermal boundary is crucial for AER formation – the AER can only form at that divide.
Function.
The AER acts to:
Relationship between Hox gene expression and limb patterning.
The Hox genes, which initially establish the anterior-posterior axis of the entire embryo, continue to participate in the dynamic regulation of limb development even after the AER and ZPA have been established. Complex communication ensues as AER-secreted FGFs and ZPA-secreted Shh initiate and regulate Hox gene expression in the developing limb bud. Though many of the finer details remain to be resolved, a number of significant connections between Hox gene expression and the impact on limb development have been discovered.
The pattern of Hox gene expression can be divided up into three phases throughout limb bud development, which corresponds to three key boundaries in proximal-distal limb development. The transition from the first phase to the second phase is marked by the introduction of Shh from the ZPA. The transition into the third phase is then marked by changes in how the limb bud mesenchyme responds to Shh signaling. This means that although Shh signaling is required, its effects change over time as the mesoderm is primed to respond to it differently. These three phases of regulation reveal a mechanism by which natural selection can independently modify each of the three limb segments – the stylopod, the zeugopod, and the autopod.
The Hox genes are “physically linked in four chromosomal clusters (Hoxa, Hoxb, Hoxc, Hoxd), and their physical position on the chromosome seems to correlate with the time and place of expression. For example, the most 3’ HOXC genes (HOXC4, HOXC5) are expressed only in the anterior limbs (wings) in chickens, while the more 5’ genes (HOXC9, HOXC10, HOXC11) are expressed only in the posterior limbs (legs). The intermediate genes (HOXC6, HOXC8) are expressed in both the upper and lower limbs. Within the limb bud, expression also varies as a function of the position along the anterior-posterior axis. Such is the case with HOXB9, which is most highly expressed next to the AER, and decreases when moving anteriorly to posteriorly, resulting in the least HOXB9 expression next to the posterior ZPA. HOXB9 expression is inversely proportional to the level of Shh expression, which makes sense, as the ZPA secretes Shh.
HOXA and HOXD genes for the most part follow nested expression domains, in which they are activated uniformly along the anterior-posterior axis of the limb itself, but not the anterior-posterior axis of the entire body. Whereas HOXC and HOXB genes tend to be restricted to specific limbs, HOXA and HOXD are usually expressed in all limbs. HOXD9 and HOXD10 are expressed in the developing limb throughout the entire anterior-posterior axis, followed by HOXD11, HOXD12, HOXD13, which are each expressed in more posterior regions, with HOXD13 being restricted to only the most posterior regions of the limb bud. As a result, HOXD expression clusters around the posterior ZPA (where HOXD9, 10, 11, 12, and 13 are all expressed), while less expression occurs around the AER, where only HOXD9 and HOXD10 are expressed.
Transplantation experiments.
Results overview.
These experiments reveal that the limb mesenchyme contains the necessary information concerning limb identity, but the AER is needed to stimulate the mesenchyme to live up to its destiny (of becoming an arm, leg, etc.)
The precise microenvironmental cues present at the D-V boundary are crucial for AER formation. When the limb bud is dorsalized - in "limbless" mutants, for example - and no dorsal-ventral boundary exists, the AER is unable to form and limb development halts.
Removal/addition of AER.
The removal of the AER results in truncated limbs where only the stylopod is present. The transplantation of an additional AER results in the duplication of limb structures, usually as a mirror image next to the already developing limb. The mirror image reflection is a result of the transplanted AER obeying signals from the existing ZPA.
FGF-soaked beads can mimic the AER.
Implantation of a plastic bead soaked in FGF-4 or FGF-2 will induce formation of a limb bud in an embryo, but proliferation will cease prematurely unless additional beads are added to maintain appropriate levels of the FGF. Implantation of sufficient beads can induce formation of a 'normal' additional limb at an arbitrary location in the embryo.
Ectopic limb formation.
Transplantation of the AER to flank mesoderm between the normal limb buds results in ectopic limbs. If the AER is transplanted closer to the forelimb bud, the ectopic limb develops like a forelimb. If the AER is transplanted closer to the hindlimb bud, the ectopic limb develops like a hindlimb. If the AER is transplanted near the middle, the ectopic limb has both forelimb and hindlimb features.
AER does not specify limb identity.
Transplantation of an AER that would give rise to an arm (or wing, as these experiments are commonly performed on chicken embryos) to a limb field developing into a leg does not produce an arm and leg at the same location, but rather two legs. In contrast, transplantation of cells from the progress zone of a developing arm to replace the progress zone of a developing leg will produce a limb with leg structures proximally (femur, knee) and arm structures distally (hand, fingers). Thus it is the mesodermal cells of the progress zone, not the ectodermal cells of the AER, that control the identity of the limb.
AER timing does not specify underlying mesoderm fate.
AER timing does not regulate the fate specification of the underlying mesoderm, as shown by one set of experiments. When the AER from a late limb bud is transplanted to an earlier limb bud, the limb forms normally. The converse – transplantation of an early limb bud to a late limb bud – also results in normal limb development. However, the underlying mesoderm in the progress zone "is" fate specified. If progress zone mesoderm is transplanted along with the AER, then additional finger/toes are formed (for an early → late transplantation) or the finger/toes are formed too early (for a late → early transplantation).


Bronchopulmonary segment

A bronchopulmonary segment is a portion of lung supplied by a specific segmental bronchus and its vessels. These arteries branch from the pulmonary and bronchial arteries, and run together through the center of the segment. Veins and lymphatic vessels drain along the edges of the segment. The segments are separated from each other by layers of connective tissue that forms them into discrete anatomical and functional units. This separation means that a bronchopulmonary segment can be surgically removed without affecting the function of the others.
There are ten bronchopulmonary segments in the right lung: three in the superior lobe, two in the middle lobe, and five in the inferior lobe. Some of the segments may fuse in the left lung to form usually eight to nine segments (four to five in the upper lobe and four to five in the lower lobe. The delineation of the bronchopulmonary segments was made by Chevalier Jackson and John Franklin Huber at Temple University Hospital.


Krohnitta


Anterior ethmoidal artery

The anterior ethmoidal artery, is a branch of the ophthalmic artery in the orbit. It exits the orbit through the anterior ethmoidal foramen. The posterior ethmoidal artery is posterior to it.
Structure.
The anterior ethmoidal artery branches from the ophthalmic artery distal to the posterior ethmoidal artery. It travels with the anterior ethmoidal nerve to exit the medial wall of the orbit at the anterior ethmoidal foramen. It then travels through the anterior ethmoidal canal and gives branches which supply the frontal sinus and anterior and middle ethmoid air cells. Following which, it enters the anterior cranial fossa where it bifurcates into a meningeal branch and nasal branch.
The nasal branch travels through cribriform plate to enter the nasal cavity and runs in a groove on the deep surface of the nasal bone. Here it bifurcates into a medial and lateral branch. The lateral branch supplies blood to the lateral wall of the nasal cavity and the medial branch to the nasal septum. A terminal branch of the lateral branch, called the external nasal branch passes between the nasal bone and the nasal cartilage to supply the skin of the nose.


Mathias-Marie Duval

Mathias-Marie Duval (7 February 1844 – 28 February 1907) was a French professor of anatomy and histology born in Grasse. He was the son of botanist Joseph Duval-Jouve (1810–1883).
Biography.
He studied medicine in Paris, and later served as prosector in Strassburg. In 1873 he became agrégé, subsequently becoming director of the anthropological laboratory at the École des Hautes Etudes and an anatomy professor at the École Supérieur des Beaux-Arts. In 1885 he replaced Charles-Philippe Robin (1821–1895) as professor of histology at the medical faculty in Paris. In 1892 he became a member of the Académie de Médecine. He was also a member of the International Society for the History of Medicine.
Duval is remembered for research involving placental development in mice and rats, and was the first to identify trophoblast invasion in rodents. With Austrian-American gynecologist Walter Schiller (1887–1960), Schiller Duval bodies are named, which are structures found in endodermal sinus tumors.


Monopeltis perplexus

Monopeltis perplexus is a species of amphisbaenian in the family Amphisbaenidae. The species is endemic to Angola.
Habitat.
The preferred natural habitat of "M. perplexus" is unknown.
Description.
Small and slender for its genus, "M. perplexus" may attain a snout-to-vent length (SVL) of . The tail is relatively long, greater than 10% SVL.
Reproduction.
The mode of reproduction of "M. perplexus" is unknown.


Tracheitis

Tracheitis is an inflammation of the trachea.
Although the trachea is usually considered part of the lower respiratory tract, in ICD-10 tracheitis is classified under "acute upper respiratory infections".
Causes.
Bacterial tracheitis is a bacterial infection of the trachea and is capable of producing airway obstruction.
One of the most common causes is "Staphylococcus aureus" and often follows a recent viral upper respiratory infection. Bacterial tracheitis is a rare complication of influenza infection. It is the most serious in young children, possibly because of the relatively small size of the trachea that gets easily blocked by swelling. The most frequent sign is the rapid development of stridor. It is occasionally confused with croup.
If it is inflamed, a condition known as tracheitis can occur. In this condition there can be inflammation of the linings of the trachea. A condition called tracheo-bronchitis can be caused, when the mucous membrane of the trachea and bronchi swell. A collapsed trachea is formed as a result of defect in the cartilage, that makes the cartilage unable to support the trachea and results in dry hacking cough. In this condition there can be inflammation of the linings of the trachea. If the connective nerve tissues in the trachea degenerate it causes tracheomalacia. Infections to the trachea can cause tracheomegaly.
Diagnosis.
The diagnosis of tracheitis requires the direct vision of exudates or pseudomembranes on the trachea. X-ray findings may include subglottic narrowing. The priority is to secure the patient's airway, and to rule out croup and epiglottitis which may be fatal. Suspicion for tracheitis should be high in cases of onset of airway obstruction that do not respond to racemic epinephrine.
Treatment.
In more severe cases, it is treated by administering intravenous antibiotics and may require admission to an intensive care unit (ICU) for intubation and supportive ventilation if the airway swelling is severe. During an intensive care admission, various methods of invasive and non-invasive monitoring may be required, which may include ECG monitoring, oxygen saturation, capnography and arterial blood pressure monitoring.


Franz Alfred Schilder

Franz Xaver Alfred Johann Schilder (born 13 April 1896 in Královské Vinohrady, now a district of Prague, died 11 August 1970 in Halle ) was an Austrian-born German biologist, taxonomist, malacologist and honorary professor of animal geography.
Life.
Franz Alfred Schilder was born on 13 April 1896 in Prague suburbs. In 1908, Schilder moved to Vienna. Having graduated from school in 1914, he studied medicine, but the next year his studies were interrupted by war. After the war, he continued studies in ethnography, geography and paleontology. In 1921, he became a Doctor of Philosophy.
In 1922, Schilder emigrated to Germany. In Berlin he started attending the Entomological Museum. Around this time Schilder married Maria Heitrich, a German chemist. In 1925, Schilder already was a recognized scientist at Naumburg/Saale in the state institute for research on "Phylloxera", remaining there until 1947. In 1945, Schilder became a professor of zoology at the University of Halle-sur-Saale where he taught zoogeography and statistics.
At first, he combined teaching at Halle with his primary work at Naumburg, however in 1947 he relocated to Halle and started teaching also genetics and anthropology. Between 1954 and 1963 Schilder also lectured one day a week in Leipzig. Schilder retired in 1962, but even after that he was invited to lecture frequently until 1966.
Schilder was a member of both English societies, of the German Zoological Society, the German Malacozoological Society, and an honorary member of the Hawaiian Malacological Society and the Keppel Bay Shell Club.
Franz Albert Schilder died on 11 August 1970 in Halle.
Research.
Since the time when Schilder read an ethnological work "Muschelgeldstudien" by O. Schneider, he became interested in studying the "Cypraeacea" and wrote his dissertation about it. "Cypraeidae" was Schilder’s main research interest throughout his life. Along with his wife, Maria Schilder they were a prolific team of mollusc systematists.
Schilder’s complete bibliography comprises over 400 titles, including malacological, entomological, biometrical, etc. as well as text books. Among others he published "Lehrbuch der Allegomeinen Zoogeographie", a text which focuses on the recognition of biogeographic areas at all geographic scales. A summary and conclusion of his work "“A Catalogue of living and fossil Cowries”" was written jointly with his wife, Maria Schilder and published after his death in 1971.
Schilder established 45 new genera and 483 new species and subspecies. In his honor were named: the genus "Schilderia" Tomlin 1930; the recent species "Lyncina schilderorum" Iredale 1939, the fossil species "Zoila schilderi" Dey (1932) 1941, and the race "Cypraea tigris schilderiana" Cate 1961.


Pygochelidon

Pygochelidon is a genus of birds in the swallow family.


Cambrothyra

Cambrothyra (not to be confused with "Cambrorhytium") is a Lower Cambrian coeloscleritophoran from China. The fossils are hollow cones with porous walls that had an originally fibrous aragonitic mineralogy. These conical sclerites were generally not connected to other sclerites; only occasionally are they paired or twinned.
The genus comprises the sole species "C. ampulliformis".


Poromyoidea

Poromyoidea is a superfamily of molluscs. It used to contain only the family Poromyidae, but now it also contains Cetoconchidae , as "Cetoconcha" was removed from Poromyidae and given its own family, according to the World Register of Marine Species.
Families and genera.
Members of Poromyoidea are: