Southern right whale dolphin

The southern right whale dolphin ("Lissodelphis peronii") is a small and slender species of mammal, found in cool waters of the Southern Hemisphere. It is one of two species of right whale dolphin (genus "Lissodelphis"). This genus is characterized by the lack of a dorsal fin. The other species, the northern right whale dolphin ("Lissodelphis borealis"), is found in deep oceans of the Northern Hemisphere and has a different pigmentation pattern than the southern right whale dolphin.
Taxonomy.
The species was first published by Bernard Germain de Lacépède in 1804. The southern right whale dolphins together with the northern right whale dolphins are the only members of the genus "Lissodelphis", which name is derived from the Greek, with "lisso" meaning smooth, and "delphis" meaning dolphin. Recent classifications have placed "Lissodelphis" within the Delphinidae, the oceanic dolphin family of cetaceans. The specific epithet "peronii" commemorates François Péron, a French naturalist who saw the species near Tasmania during an expedition in 1802. Although some doubts remain on the validity of these two species, most authors currently retain them as separate species.
Both species in the genus are referred to by the name "right whale dolphin", a name derived from the right whales ("Eubalaena") which also lack a dorsal fin. Other common names for the southern right whale dolphin include: whitebellied right whale dolphin, southern right whale porpoise, mealy-mouthed porpoise, "tunina (=tonina) sin aleta" (Spanish), "delfin (=delphin) liso austral" (Spanish), "minami semi-iruka" (Japanese), "dauphin de Peron" (French), "yuzhnyi kitovidnyi delfin" (Russian), "Südlicher Glattdelfin" (German), and "zuidelijke gladde dolfijn" (Dutch).
Description.
Southern right whale dolphins can be easily distinguished from other cetacean species within their range as they are the only dolphins without dorsal fins in the Southern Hemisphere. They have streamlined and graceful bodies, a single blowhole and a short and defined beak, possessing between 39 and 50 teeth per row.
A sharp dividing line separates the black dorsal part from the white ventral part of the body, running from the tail stock forward, dipping down to the flipper insertion and sweeping back up, below the eyes, to cross the melon between the blowhole and snout crease. Younger individuals can be grey/brownish dorsally but develop adult coloration within the first year. The flippers of the southern right whale dolphins are small, recurved, predominantly white and located about one-quarter of the way back from the snout tip. Their flukes are small, have a white underside and dark grey upper side, with a notch in the middle and concave trailing edges.
Variability in the size of these black and white areas exists. More extensive anomalous pigmentation has been observed, with records of pure all-white individuals, as well as melanistic (all-black) individuals. In 1998, a potential hybrid of a southern right whale dolphin and a dusky dolphin ("Lagenorhynchus obscurus") was observed and subsequently described in 2002. This animal showed intermediate morphological features between the two species.
Newborn calves measure around in length and weigh around , while adults range between and weight between on average. The maximum weight for southern right whale dolphins is 116 kg, with maximum lengths reaching in males and in females but few specimens have been examined and it is expected they grow larger. On average, males tend to grow slightly larger than females. Little is known of this species’ reproductive biology. Research suggests that males reach sexual maturity at lengths between and females between .
Population status.
There are no current global abundance and mortality estimates of the species although it is considered a fairly common and abundant species along its range, particularly in Chile. The very low sighting rate is most likely caused by a lack of sampling effort and due to the difficulties of sighting the animals in their offshore habitat.
Distribution.
Southern right whale dolphins have a circumpolar distribution across the Southern Hemisphere, generally occurring in cool temperate to Sub-Antarctic waters between 30°S and 65°S. The precise boundary of their range has not been estimated or closely studied but the southern limit of the species appears to be bounded by the Antarctic Convergence while the northern limit seems bounded by the Tropical Convergence although rare sightings beyond these limits have been recorded. Most sightings of the southern right whale dolphins occur in offshore and deep waters, with temperatures ranging between 1 and 20 °C. In regions where deep waters approach the coast and in upwelling areas, they have occasionally been observed near shore.
South America.
The species is known to be abundant along the western coasts of South America, ranging from Cape Horn (55°58’S) to Arica (18°28’S), with the northernmost record at 12°30’S near Pucusana (Peru). Although the southern right whale dolphin is considered abundant, only few confirmed records of the species in the Eastern South Pacific exist.
Preliminary boat surveys and stranding and fishery records suggest that southern right whale dolphins may be one of the most common species of cetacean in northern Chile. The range extends until offshore north of 40°S and off the southern coast of Chile and it has been suggested that at least a part of this Chilean population migrates northbound in the austral winter and spring, when the coastal component of the cold Humboldt Current and cool coastal upwelling are strongest. An extension of the range to the North, associated to cold-water currents and food availability, has also been observed in Brazil, where a stranded individual was found in 1995 in an area where the warm Brazil Current meets the cold Malvinas Current.
In 2018, two groups were sighted in the western area of the Magellan Strait in Chile. It was unclear through which route and why they entered the Magellan Strait but these were the first sightings of live southern right whales dolphins in this shallow area. A few reports of solitary stranded specimens in exterior channels south of 40°S and the Beagle Channel have also shown their occurrence inside shallow channel systems. It has been hypothesized they may enter these channels accidentally or because of poor health. In the past, a high number of stranded southern right whale dolphins were reported on beaches of north-central chile, most of which were discarded animals by-caught In fishing nets. An increase in strandings is possibly due to the developing swordfish gillnet fishery off northern Chile.
The waters of the Patagonian continental shelf of Argentina harbor a high diversity of cetaceans, including southern right whale dolphins. They are known to occur in cold waters off Santa Cruz Province, the Falkland Islands, as well as off Tierra del Fuego. Sightings in coastal areas are rare but exist in Mar de Plata and in Golfo Nuevo, where three southern right whale dolphins were observed once during the summer of 1992.
Africa.
In Southern Africa, the range is associated with cold currents up the western and southern coasts, ranging northwards as far as about 23°S due to the cold counter clockwise Benguela Current. The species has been found to occur year-round in a localized area on the southwestern coast of Namibia, in Lüderitz, linked to the strong Lüderitz upwelling cell area and high productivity waters. These animals may occasionally extend their range into South African waters although more sampling effort is needed to support this. Just one confirmed sighting of the species exists from the South African coast, just south of the Orange River. Southern right whale dolphins have also been observed in waters around Marion Island.
Australia.
The species has been observed in Australian waters since 1802, although only few actual records exist since then. They are found off southern continental Australia including sightings south and southwestward of Tasmania, in the Great Australian Bight and off south-western Australia. One pair was sighted on the 20th of October 1910 at 42°51S, 153°56E, approximately 460 km to the east of Australia, in the Tasman Sea. No localised areas where the species occurs year-round are known from the coast of Australia, although more survey effort could result in the identification of these areas, similar to the one off the west coast of Namibia.
Few stranded individuals have been documented in Australian waters. In December 2019, a dolphin washed up on a beach at Port Fairy, Victoria, with the deceased animal being assessed by state authorities, researchers and local Australian aboriginal elders. Another dolphin washed up in January 2020 and was photographed, but the dead animal washed back off the beach. The dual strandings were described as ‘very unusual’ by authorities.
New Zealand.
One of the earliest records of this species in New Zealand waters was during the Terra Nova Expedition, when a pair was sighted approximately 145 km west-south-west of Nugget Point Lighthouse, South Island at 47°04'S, 171°33'E. Southern right whale dolphins have been observed at sea to the southeast of New Zealand and are largely found between the Subtropical Convergence and the subantarctic waters to the south of it, between surface temperatures of 9°-17 °C.
The first recorded photographs of the species globally, were from a stranding of three individuals in New Zealand in 1952, which were apparently rescued. Since then there have been a number of strandings around the country, including seven events between 1970 and 1981 and a mass stranding of 75 individuals occurred at the Chatham In 1988. More recently a stranding of a single animal occurred at Mahia beach, North Island in April 2020 which was euthanised by the Department of Conservation. The northernmost record of a stranding in New Zealand was of a ~200 cm long male at Whananaki (35° 31’S, 174° 28’), Northland, in November 1979.
Southern right whale dolphins are occasionally observed off the coast of Kaikoura, on the eastern coast of South Island, typically in groups of 50-200, although larger groups of >500 are also encountered. In 1967, research showed that the species could also be found off-shore from the Chatham, Bounty and Antipodes Islands (approximately 43-57°S, 168-158°E) between January and March.
Behavior.
Social.
Southern right whale dolphins are generally gregarious and have been documented in aggregations of more than 1000 individuals although small groups of one to 10 have also been reported. Mean group size estimates differ and range between 52 and 368 off northern Chile, however, they typically live in groups of 100-200 individuals. Pods of just a few animals have also been observed, often associated with other cetacean species. Mixed groups with Dusky dolphins ("Lagenorhynchus obscurus") appear common in the southern Atlantic and have occasionally been reported in New-Zealand, off Southwest Africa and along the coast of southern Chile. They have been observed to intermix freely with pilot whales ("Globicephala spp.") and in Chile, associations with common dolphins ("Delphinus delphis") have been reported. Along their range they have also occasionally been sighted with hourglass dolphins ("Lagenorhynchus Cruciger"), common bottlenose dolphins ("Tursiops truncatus") and fin whales ("Balaenoptera physalus").
Four basic herd configuration types have been reported and conform to the types described for the northern right whale dolphin: (1) Densely packed schools, without identifiable subgroups; (2) herds of scattered subgroups of various sizes; (3) V-shaped herds; and (4) herds in ‘’chorus line’’ formation. Their movement is very graceful and they often move by leaping out of the water continuously. When they swim slowly, they expose only a small area of the head and back while surfacing to breath. When traveling at higher speeds they have been observed to either (1) swim just below the surface, surfacing briefly to breath and then submerge or (2) swim rapidly at the surface, performing low-angle leaps covering much surface distance. Breaching, belly-flopping, side-slapping, and lob-tailing (slapping the flukes on the water surface) have been witnessed. Some groups will avoid boats, whereas others approach and possibly bow-ride. Few direct speed measurements at sea exist but swimming speed has been reported to be .
Foraging.
Southern right whale dolphins prey on an undetermined range of fish, but it has been suggested they prey primarily on mesopelagic fish and squid, and may dive to depths in excess of in search of food. However, little is known of their particular habits, and it is unknown whether they generally search for their food at these greater depths or near the surface. Based on stomach contents, epipelagic coastal food habits, mesopelagic or a combination of both were suggested for southern right whale dolphins. Geographical variability in prey species has been observed by comparing stomach contents of animals from central Chile and New Zealand.
The species itself is presumably occasionally predated upon by larger sharks and killer whales ("Orcinus orca") however, other predators might exist. In 1983, an intact dolphin measuring was found in the stomach of a Patagonian toothfish ("Dissostichus eleginoides") taken off central Chile, and in 1990, a foetus was discovered inside a sleeper shark ("Somniosus" cf. "pacificus").
Threats.
Overall, clear evidence of the impact of potential threats on the species are sparse. Southern right whale dolphins were taken by whaling operations of the 19th century, primarily for their meat. In the past they have been infrequently caught off the coasts of Peru and Chile, where their meat and blubber were used as food and crab bait. High levels of bycaught animals have been recorded in the swordfish ("Xiphias gladius") driftnet fishery in northern Chile, which started in the early 1980s, and to a lesser extent, the species has also been incidentally caught in driftnets along the coast of Peru.
Large numbers of southern right whale dolphins are sometimes taken by gillnetting and longline fishing in oceans off the southern coast of Australia. Off the west coast of southern Africa, no evidence exists of bycatch in gillnet fisheries, but there may be competition for forage resources with pelagic trawl fisheries due to the pelagic distribution of the species and their squid based diet. The direct and indirect impacts of global climate change on the southern right whale dolphin are largely unknown, but could have a cascading effect on the movement and feeding ecology. Seismic activity, for oil and gas, might also be a minor threat. No reported attempts to capture live southern right whale dolphins exist.
Conservation status.
As of 2018, the Global IUCN Red List classifies the southern right whale dolphin as Least Concern (LC), due to their apparent wide distribution in pelagic waters of the sub-Antarctic and the lack of evidence of severe threats to the populations. However, the species remains extremely data-poor throughout its range so the assessment should be considered provisional until more knowledge is obtained.
The 2016 Regional Red List of Mammals of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland also classified the species as Least Concern while in Australia and Chile, based on the limited current knowledge on the species, southern right whale dolphins are classified as Data Deficient by the Action Plan for Australian Mammals and the Chilean Species National List respectively. Under the New Zealand Threat Classification System this species is listed locally as Data Deficient.
Southern right whale dolphins are listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the species is subject to International Whaling Commission (IWC) regulations. In South-Africa, the species is protected by the Marine Living Resources Act (No. 18 of 1998). They are included in the Memorandum of Understanding Concerning the Conservation of the Manatee and Small Cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia (Western African Aquatic Mammals MoU) and the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region (Pacific Cetaceans MoU). Within the Australian Whale Sanctuary, all cetaceans, including the southern right whale dolphins are protected under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBC Act). The Sanctuary includes all Commonwealth waters from the three nautical mile state waters limit out to the boundary of the Australian Exclusive Economic Zone (out to 200 nautical miles and further in some places). The species is also protected within the Indian Ocean Sanctuary and Southern Ocean Sanctuary.
Although the species is included in legislation, no specific conservation measures have been identified for this species as throughout its range, there is still a clear deficiency of data to build these measures upon.


Giant antshrike

The giant antshrike ("Batara cinerea") is a species of bird in the family Thamnophilidae, belonging to the monotypic genus Batara. It is found in the southern Yungas, western Paraguay and the southern Atlantic Forest. This species is the largest species of antbird, measuring 34 cm long and weighing around 150 g.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest, subtropical or tropical moist montane forest, and heavily degraded former forest.
The giant antshrike was described by the French ornithologist Louis Vieillot in 1819 and given the binomial name "Thamnphilus cinerea" (misspelled as Tamnphilus). The current genus "Batara" was introduced by the French naturalist René Lesson in 1831.


Trochoidea cumiae

Trochoidea cumiae is a species of air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Hygromiidae, the hairy snails and their allies. This species is endemic to Italy.


Oonops hasselti

Oonops hasselti is a spider species found in Scandinavia.


Nebria femoralis

Nebria femoralis is a species of ground beetle in the Nebriinae subfamily that is endemic to northwestern part of Russia.


Microlophus tigris

Microlophus tigris, the tiger Pacific iguana, is a species of lava lizard endemic to Peru.


Bishari dwarf gecko

The Bishari dwarf gecko ("Tropiocolotes bisharicus") is a species of gecko of the genus "Tropiocolotes". It is found in Egypt. The specific epithet "bisharicus" refers to the Bisharin tribe, which lives in the same region as this species.


Jamaican tody

The Jamaican tody ("Todus todus") is a member of the genus, "Todus", which is composed of five species restricted to Greater Antilles. All five species are very similar morphologically. Local names for the Jamaican tody include rasta bird, robin and robin redbreast. The Jamaican tody is a small, chunky bird that averages about 9 cm (or 4.25”) in size. The average weight of the Jamaican tody is around 6.4 grams. They have a bright green head, red throat and a long, broad and flat red bill. They look very similar to the Puerto Rican tody ("Todus mexicanus") but have a whitish breast that is blended with green, becoming even slightly yellow on the abdomen and under tail-coverts. The Jamaican tody also has blue-gray subauricular feathers. Their legs and feet are reddish brown. The Jamaican tody is endemic to Jamaica. They are found all around the island and can be seen near the semi-arid coast or in the humid mountains. Their eggs are laid in unlined chambers near the end of their burrows, which are holes created in the soil on top of the hard, limestone habitats. They lay between 1 and 4 white eggs during their breeding season which lasts from December to July. They nearly entirely feed on insects and the larvae of insects but will occasionally eat fruit as well. According to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, the Jamaican tody is classified as least concern.
Taxonomy.
It was thought that the genus "Todus" was established in 1760, after the split from the kingfisher from the genus "Alcedo". However, the exact historical relationship between the genus "Todus" and other close relatives was not confirmed until around 2004 when a paper was published on the molecular phylogenic relationships for the tody species. Mitochondrial DNA and nuclear gene sequences were used to discover the heterogeneity among genes in these species. Genus "Todus" is monophyletic and a relatively old group based on divergence approximations. todies are closer to the "Baryphthengus" and "Hylomanes" genera, from the family Momotidae, than the "Ceryle" and "Chloroceryle" genera, from the family Alcedinidae. The family Todidae likely derived from a motmot-like ancestor during the Oligocene period. The "Palaeotodus emryi" is the only tody that is known to be from the late Pleistocene, and it is a close relative of the tody motmot ("Hylomanes momotula"), the primitive genus of the Momotidae and possibly the closest living relative to the todies. It is believed that the Todidae were once widespread across North America but when there was a decrease in tropical conditions there, it is thought that this led to the confinement of the motmot-tody group to the Neotropics.
The Jamaican tody ("Todus todus") is a member of the genus, "Todus", which is composed of five species restricted to Greater Antilles. All five species are very similar morphologically. Local names for the Jamaican tody include rasta bird, robin and robin redbreast. The Cuban tody ("Todus multicolor") are confined to the island of Cuba and can be found throughout the island, but tend to be more concentrated in shoreline habitats. The narrow-billed tody ("Todus angustirostris") and the broad-billed tody ("Todus subulatus") are both endemic to Hisponiola, composed of the Dominican Republic and Haiti. The narrow-billed tody is mainly found in very humid montane forest while the broad-billed tody generally inhabits very dry forest and subdesert areas. However, both of these species can be found in either habitat and are most equally distributed in dry, lower montane forests. The Puerto Rican tody ("Todus mexicanus") is only found on the island of Puerto Rico. Similar to other tody species, they can be found in a variety of habitats ranging from the moist, Luquillo Rainforest to the more dry, limestone forest.
Description.
The Jamaican tody is a small, chunky bird that averages about 9 cm (or 4.25”) in size. The wing size for all tody species ranges between 42.8mm and 50.3mm. The Jamaican tody's wing size is right in the middle of these sizes, about 46mm, compared to the Cuban and Puerto Rican todies which tend to have smaller wings and the broad-billed tody which has the largest. The wing size of the Jamaican tody correlates with their average flight distance which is about 1.5m, and their maximum flight distance which is 26m. The average weight of the Jamaican tody is around 6.4 grams. They have a bright green head, red throat and a long, broad and flat red bill. They look very similar to the Puerto Rican tody ("Todus mexicanus") but have a whitish breast that is blended with green, becoming even slightly yellow on the abdomen and under tail-coverts. The Jamaican tody also has blue-gray subauricular feathers. Their legs and feet are reddish brown. Todies are generally a sexually monomorphic genus. However, some tody species have different eye colors between males and females, but in the Jamaican tody, this iris color is unpredictable. Jamacain todies are very quiet birds during nonbreeding months but can be heard more frequently during the spring and summer. The vocalizations of the Jamaican tody are predominately a loud beep sound and a throat-rattle. (see external link below) The loud beep is a nasal sounding note that is similar in length to the loud beep of the Puerto Rican tody. The throat-rattling is a rapid, harsh-sounding noise that is made with an open bill of about 3mm and is produced often in territorial defense.
Distribution and habitat.
The Jamaican tody ("Todus todus") is endemic to Jamaica. They are found all around the island and can be seen near the semi-arid coast or in the humid mountains. They generally travel in pairs and can be found most commonly in forested areas, occurring in second-growth, untouched habitats. These are the mesic limestone forests, arid limestone forests, montane forest, shaded coffee plantations and even in the mangroves. The Jamaican tody is most visible during the spring and summer months, and are much more silent and easy to find during the fall and winter.
Ecology and behavior.
Maintenance behavior.
Todies can be found generally performing two bathing techniques, bathing in flight after a dive and bathing is wet plant leaves or in light rain. They also perform bill-wiping where they will clean both sides of their beak, from base to tip, especially after eating or preening and fluffing their feathers. To fluff their head feathers, they will share their head back and forth in a fast, jerky movement. Todies also preen their feathers with their flat bills and this mainly occurs in their breast and wing areas on their body.
Breeding.
The Jamaican tody is a relatively quiet bird during the non-breeding season. However during the breeding season, they perform increased wing-rattling for both courtship and to show other todies that this is their territory. Courtship feeding has also been observed in the Jamaican tody where a dead insect is exchanged between two partners. In one observation of Jamaican tody copulation, the male chased the female a short distance and once she landed, he swooped down on her and held her crown while performing 29 cloacal contacts in the span of 35 seconds. Soon after, tThroat-rattles were heard and the two todies flew away in separate directions.
Jamaican todies can sometimes be found digging, in which they mainly use their rhamphotheca to create a nesting site. Their eggs are laid in unlined chambers near the end of their burrows, which are holes created in the soil on top of the hard, limestone habitats. The eggs are round, shiny and white, except when they are freshly laid and have a pinkish tint to them. They lay between 1 and 4 white eggs during their breeding season which lasts from December to July. The average size of a Jamaican tody egg is about 16.1 mm long and 13.3 mm wide. One egg is laid each night until the clutch is finished, and then eggs are incubated between 21 and 22 days before hatching asynchronously. Once the young emerge from the shell, the eggs are left in the chamber. While the burrows are generally occupied by todies, other species can sometimes be found inhabiting their homes such as spiders, field mice and lizards.
Food and feeding.
The Jamaican tody uses a sit-and-watch foraging strategy to capture its prey, which is similar to other todies in the genus "Todus" that can be found on nearby islands in the West Indies. They nearly entirely feed on insects and the larvae of insects but will occasionally eat fruit as well. The majority of their foraging is done below nine-tenths of the maximum canopy height of the forest, and is done in both dry and wet forests. From a perch, Jamaican todies scan the undersides and occasionally, uppersides of leaves for insects in which they will swoop down or up, respectively to catch insects. The smaller insects are swallowed in air while the larger ones are smashed against twigs before consuming. This insect consumption occurs almost continuously throughout the day, where they will eat around 1 to 2 insects per minute if available. The method of drinking for the Jamaican tody has not been observed but it is assumed that they get most of their water from leaf droplets and food they consume.
Threats to survival.
Forest fragmentation may have an impact on the Jamaican tody. When the todies were translocated between 0.6km and 4km in a study, only 62% returned to their territories. Increasing the number of tree coverage seemed to increase normal bird movement and therefore supports the need to increase protection of forested areas as well as increase restoration of tree coverage in deforested areas. Aside from humans, other todies and loud noises, such as cars, may seem threatening to the Jamaican tody and cause them to display territorial behavior. These displays include wing-flicking, flank displays where the flank feathers expand over the edge of lower wings, and a horizontal glare, where the Jamaican tody will stare down an opponent as a form of intimidation. Territorial vocalizations can also be heard and include throat-rattles and loud beeps. The major predatory threat to the Jamaican tody is the Indian mongoose. They do this by destroying tody burrows that house young that are still in their nestling stage.
Relationship to humans.
A large number of avian habitats in Jamaica are being altered by humans for both settlement as well as farming purposes. Coffee production is a large export for Jamaica and with coffee farms comes a great amount of biodiversity, some more welcomed than others. The pest control services provided by birds was examined in Jamaica's Blue Mountains. The most common pest found was the coffee berry borer, since there entire life is spent inside of coffee berries. The Jamaican tody was found to be one of the top five birds on coffee farms in the Blue Mountains that help to keep the number of pests under control, leading to more saleable fruit, increased coffee yields and increased income for farmers.
Status.
According to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, the Jamaican tody is classified as least concern. The justification for this classification is that although they live in a small range, they still meet the size criterion and do not have greater than 30% decrease in population size over 10 years.


Turbonilla cabrilloi

Turbonilla cabrilloi is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Pyramidellidae, the pyrams and their allies.
Description.
The pale yellow horn-colored shell has a broadly elongate conic shape. Its length measures 5.5 mm. The 2½ whorls of the protoconch are well rounded. They form a decidedly depressed helicoid spire having its axis at right angles to that of the succeeding whorls, in the first of which, the tilted edge is about one-fourth immersed. The 9¼ whorls of the teleoconch are strongly roundly shouldered at the summit, and flattened in the middle. They are crossed by strong sublamellar, slightly protractively slanting axial ribs, of which 16 occur upon the first and second and 18 upon the remaining turns, excepting the last, which has 20. The intercostal spaces are about one and one-half times as wide as the ribs. They are crossed by 11 incised spiral lines, of which the first three are mere striations, while the fourth and the peripheral are wider than the rest, which are about half their width. The suture rather strongly constricted. The periphery of the body whorl is well rounded. The base of the shell is short and narrowly umbilicated. It is marked by the feeble continuations of the axial ribs, which become evanescent before reaching the middle of the base and seven equal incised spiral lines, of which the first three occupy about as much space as that separating the third from the fourth; the rest become successively closer spaced anteriorly. The space between the first basal line and the peripheral pit is a very broad smooth band. The aperture is very broadly oval. The posterior angle is acute. The outer lip is thin, showing the external sculpture within. The inner lip is thin, slightly curved and somewhat revolute. It is provided with a weak oblique fold at its insertion. The parietal wall is covered with a thick callus.
Distribution.
The type specimen of this marine species was found off Magdalena Bay, Baja California.


Eutropis clivicola

Eutropis clivicola, known as Inger's mabuya or mountain skink, is a species of skink found in India (Kerala). It was first formally described in 1984 as "Mabuya clivicola".


Lamulate shrew

The lamulate shrew ("Chodsigoa lamula") is a species of mammal in the family Soricidae. It is endemic to China.


Tailless fruit bat

The tailless fruit bat ("Megaerops ecaudatus") is a species of fruit bat in the family Pteropodidae.
Distribution.
Individuals have been found in the lowland primary forest at Poring in Sabah and Taleban in Thailand, Bario highland and secondary forest of Balui, both in Sarawak. "M. ecaudatus" ranges in the primary forest and open habitat from Thailand, Vietnam, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra; Kinabalu, Danum, Tawau, and Tenom in Sabah; Temburong and Tasik Merimbun in Brunei; Bario in Sarawak; to Kapuas and Kutai in Kalimantan.
Biology and ecology.
Two males and two females have been captured in various habitats. An adult female was collected in April, 1995, and adult male in April, 1996. A subadult female was taken from the Balui secondary forest in June, 1994, while an immature was collected from the primary forest in Taleban on 28 March 1997. In Cameron Highlands, Peninsula Malaysia, females were pregnant in February and extending to March and June. Females with suckling juveniles were also observed in November. A specimen MTA96004 was collected in the canopy net approximately 30 m above ground level. The specimen BD013 was collected at 1,100 m elevation in Bario upland. According to Lekagul and McNeely (1977), "M. ecaudatus" has been recorded both in the lowlands and on mountains up to 3,000 m in Thailand.


Polistes exclamans

Polistes exclamans, the Guinea paper wasp, is a social wasp and is part of the family Vespidae of the order Hymenoptera. It is found throughout the United States, Mexico, the Bahamas, Jamaica and parts of Canada. Due to solitary nest founding by queens, "P. exclamans" has extended its range in the past few decades and now covers the eastern half of the United States, as well as part of the north. This expansion is typically attributed to changing global climate and temperatures. "P. exclamans" has three specific castes, including males, workers, and queens, but the dominance hierarchy is further distinguished by age. The older the wasp is, the higher it is in ranking within the colony. In most "P. exclamans" nests, there is one queen who lays all the eggs in the colony. The physiological similarities between the worker and queen castes have led to experiments attempting to distinguish the characteristics of these two castes and how they are determined, though males have easily identifiable physiological characteristics. Since "P. exclamans" live in relatively small, open combed nests, they are often subject to predators and parasites, such as "Chalcoela iphitalis", "Elasmus polistis", and birds. "P. exclamans" have defense and recognition strategies that help protect against these predators and parasites.
Taxonomy and phylogeny.
"Polistes exclamans" is part of subfamily Polistinae within the hymenopteran family Vespidae. Polistinae (paper wasps) is the second largest of six vespid subfamilies, containing around 950 species, and is composed entirely of social wasps. It is made up of four tribes; "P. exclamans" is part of Polistini. Genus "Polistes" is currently split into four subgenera that are distributed across the world; "P. exclamans" is a part of the New World subgenus "Aphanilopterus" and is most closely related to "P. annularis", "P. buysonni", "P. canadensis", "P. lanio", "P. cavapyta", "P. simillimus", "P. crinitus", "P. versicolor", and "P. instabilis".
Description and identification.
There are two forms of "Polistes exclamans" in the United States: typical and variable. The typical form is found in south-eastern United States and inhabits the following states: North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Kansas, Colorado, and Arizona. Although this form's color can vary, it almost always has some yellow coloring. Both the propodeum and the mesonotum are marked with yellow. The propodeum normally has four yellow stripes, whereas the mesonotum has yellow lines. It also may have yellow markings on its head. The wings, however, are not yellow in color or yellow tinged like some other wasps but are infuscate and purple in color. The typical form often can be confused with "Polistes fuscatus", "Polistes crinitus", or "Polistes minor". The variable form is red-brown in coloring. The middle of the flagellum, the base of the abdominal segments, and the outer side of the mid and hind tibiae are infuscate or black colored, as are the wings. Instead of yellow markings, the variable form has pale ivory-white markings that are dispersed throughout the body. "P. exclamans" have antennae banded with red, black and yellow, while most paper wasps only have one antennae color. In females, the fore wing length can range from and in males the fore wings can range from . The extent of ferruginous markings is variable"."
Although no distinguishing structural features have been found to separate the workers and queens, the male is easily identified by its bulging eyes, subquadrate clypeus, and slender antennae. "P. exclamans" males are also more variable in external morphology compared to females. This is possible given the male's hemizygosity (females are homozygous).
Distribution and habitat.
"Polistes exclamans" is distributed throughout the United States in the following areas and states: New Jersey down to Florida, Florida to Texas, west to Nebraska, Colorado, Arizona, and California. It has also been found in Mexico and the Bahamas. It has also been observed in Ontario, Canada, as well.
As a vespid wasp, "P. exclamans" nests are typically made up of paper with a single layer of cells with open combs. Although nest size varies, the upper limit is around 500 cells. Although many vespid wasp nests have an outer envelope of paper, "P. exclamans" nests do not. As indicated by Strassmann and Orgren, “Nests are approximately circular, and have a single off-center pedicel usually located towards the top of the nest. Cells near the pedicle are the oldest.” "P. exclamans" are particularly able to colonize new sites as foundresses often disperse into new territories. "P. exclamans" have often been found to have nests located near man-made structures and tend to more readily build nests in and near these man-made structures. Out of six wasp species, "P. exclamans" was the only one that occupied artificial nesting sites. It prefers well-lit, open sites.
"Polistes" nests can be built from wood fiber which are collected from posts and plant stems. The fiber is formed into a paper like comb with hexagonal cells. The nests are orientated downward and are held up by one filament. "P. exclamans" have also been observed occupying artificial nests put out by researchers and consisting of bundles of straws.
Colony cycle.
The colony cycle of "Polistes exclamans" is longer than that of northern wasp species, shorter than that of tropical wasp species and as such is in “some respects intermediate between” the two. Their cycle occurs between March and September. The first brood of workers emerges between May and July. It takes about nine to fourteen days for eggs to develop, though eggs in smaller nests and that are laid later in the season take much longer to develop: about thirteen to eighteen days for larva to develop, about thirteen days for pupa to develop, and about a total of six to eight weeks for an egg to develop into an adult. Reproductive wasps emerge later in August or September.
The queen.
Queen characteristics.
"P. exclamans" lives in a hierarchical society with one queen that lays the eggs. However, all of the females have the same morphology and they all have the physiological capability of taking over the egg laying if necessary (queen death, queen migration). Since the queen has the same morphology as the rest of the workers in the colony, this raises the question as to how the queen role is assigned and what makes her special. Studies have found that queens and males have higher levels of glucose, fructose and trehalose than workers, leading to higher cryoprotectant levels. "P. exclamans" use these sugars as cryoprotectant, which work by increasing the solute concentration in cells. This results in a greater survivability in colder weather. It was found that queens have a 76% survival rate in weather compared to 17% survival of the workers over a 15-day test period. The queens also have a 0.5mm layer of fat surrounding their bodies. This allows them to live longer into the winter and possibly extend their mating season. The queens seem to be the only ones capable of diapause.
Queen development and determination.
While there aren't many external morphological differences between queens and workers there are some internal traits that can be signals of a wasp's social status. It has also been found that caste determination is irreversibly determined by temperature during the immature stages of development. In one experiment, some wasps emerging in June were kept in long day chambers, or chambers set at 26 °C with 16 hours of light and 8 hours of darkness. These individuals had larger and more active ovaries as compared to those who were incubated in short day chambers, which are set at 22 °C with 14 hours of light and 10 hours of darkness. It is thought that this phenomenon may occur because of a juvenile hormone secretion that determines the castes and a suppression of the workers’ ovaries by environmental or hormonal factors.
Gerontocracy.
Given that "Polistes exclamans" nests are often destroyed or suffer through the death of the queen (most often through natural circumstances), it is necessary and adaptive for there to be a specific system for the replacement of the queen. The current system in place can best “be described as gerontocracy.” Furthermore, it is also closely related to the dominance system within the colony as well. In the dominance hierarchy, older individuals are higher in rank, whereas younger individuals serve in the lower ranks. These older female workers are generally more aggressive and forage more frequently. In reflection of this dominance ranking and the behavior of the female workers, it is seen that when a queen is no longer present in the colony, the next eldest worker becomes the new queen. This may be due to the genetics of the next eldest queen, as the replacement queen affects the overall relatedness of the females in the brood, thereby allowing the future brood to be more related to the adult workers rearing them.
The queen's role.
"P. exclamans" tend to have smaller nests than other wasps, with typically fewer than one hundred individuals in a given nest. Because of the size of the nest, the queen tends to be the most active individual in the nest. This is because the queen has to monitor and directly control the activities of the nest. In addition to her reproductive role, the queen must also act as the pacemaker of the nest and synchronize the worker activity. These last two points have recently been disputed and the workers may be self organized. It has also been observed that the queen will act aggressively towards individuals that are the least active.
Development and reproduction.
Sex determination system.
"P. exclamans" are haplodiploid insects, as are other "Polistes" species including "Polistes metricus", "Polistes dominula", and "Polistes annularis". This means they have haploid males that produce identical haploid sperm, and diploid females that produce haploid eggs through meiosis. This has consequences for genetic relatedness within colonies, since sisters receive identical sperm if they share a father, and the normal half identical contribution from the mother. This results in sex-biased conflicts between the queen and the workers with respect to the sex ratio, with workers preferring a more female biased sex ratio, and queens preferring equal investment in queens and males.
Sexual investment.
In "Polistes exclamans", equal sex ratio is obtained when only 46.3% of investment is devoted to females as female wasps are 1.16 times larger than male wasps. In a study done by Strassmann, it was found that sexual investment is female biased, especially during years of high predation and when nests are generally less successful. It has been seen that in "Polistes exclamans", females are produced before males. This female investment bias may result from the ability of females to become either a worker or a reproductive (this is more adaptive for the nest as it gives the nest increased flexibility compared to that of males and may be important for overall nest success) or because females provide the colony with greater nest defense. Furthermore, even when the original queen is no longer present, the sexual investment is still biased towards females, which is not expected given the genetic implications of a new queen.
Early males.
Workers first emerge between May and July. During this first emergence, reproductive males also emerge with this first brood and are called the early males. These males provide a great adaptation because they allow for the presence of reproductive males. Nests with a greater number of early males produce a greater number of workers, cells, pupae, and emergences. Although it is uncertain as to why, queen deaths are common in "Polistes exclamans", most frequently in May. The majority of original queens are dead by July, “well before eggs that became autumn reproductive were laid,” as reproductives emerged from late August through September. Thus, queens must remain alive post June in order to birth future reproductives, and if they are not able to do so, the eldest former worker then becomes the new queen. The reproductive early males produced may be adaptive for the deaths of the queens so that the colony will not die and will be able to continue.
Sexual attraction.
As with many other insects, "P. exclamans" use sexual pheromones to attract members of the opposite sex. Researchers have attempted to determine the exact role that sexual pheromones play in sexual attraction in paper wasps. They set up a wind tunnel where males and females were exposed to a sexual pheromone wick that was isolated from males and females. These pheromones were taken by hexane extracts from wholes bodies and thoraces of unmated females. The male extracts were taken from the ectal mandibular and seventh sternal glands. It was found that the opposite sex was attracted upwind of the scent and the results were intensified when a fan was turned on. The range of the scent was found to be around 2 metres.
In nature, it was observed that males would venture away from the nest in order to attract females. The males would press their gastral sterna against a perch and rub their mandibular against it. This is used to attract females, and females were observed to visit these branches and sample the scents. It was also found that on some occasions, males were attracted to other male scents.
Behavior and ecology.
Presence of brood and caste differentiation.
"Polistes exclamans" have comparably smaller nests and colonies compared to certain other eusocial wasps species. Thus, it is common for the nest to be destroyed, for the queen to die prior to the end of the season, or for the nest to fail through other means, such as predation, parasitisation, or worker mortality, leading workers to help rear broods that are less related to them than are their sister wasps. Due to this, it would be advantageous for there to be wasps that remain casteless till adulthood, allowing female wasps’ reproductive capabilities to be plastic. It has thus been predicted that "Polistes exclamans" worker wasps would act as workers if a brood were present and would begin to develop gyne characteristics if a brood was not present, exhibiting the aforementioned adaptive plasticity. Experimentally, this has been found to be true. Solis and Strassmann conducted a study in which an experimental group had the eggs and larvae removed. In the experimental group, the wasps began to behave like future queens and even developed the characteristic layer of fat common to queens. In the control group, the wasps continued to behave as workers. This is indicative that the presence of the brood affects caste differentiation and that "Polistes exclamans" female workers exhibits adaptive reproductive plasticity.
Relatedness recognition.
Nest mate recognition is widespread in many eusocial insects. However, when there are no physical differences in either diet or nesting materials, many can no longer discriminate nest mate from other conspecifics. Recently, however, it has been indicated that many insects have the ability to discriminate relatives even having lived in identical environments with their non-relative counterpart. Studies have indicated that in "Polistes fuscatus," former nestmates would nest in areas located close together near their natal nests the following spring. Social halictid bees also are able to recognize their relatives. In "Polistes exclamans", it has been indicated that discrimination of relatives from non-relatives, even having lived in identical environments, is possible. This was found by Allen, Schulze Kellman, and Gamboa through an experiment in which hibernating wasps from different nests were put in a box together after being raised in identical environments. As the number of unrelated groups of wasps increased, the more clumps were formed in the box. This indicates that the wasps were capable of differentiating relative from nonrelative, an adaptive ability in the defense of their nest.
Hibernation.
Many "Polistes" species aggregate over winter. "Polistes exclamans" clump in rather large aggregations while hibernating. “These aggregations are frequently found in protected places called hibernacula that can be as varied as crevices and cracks of rocks or trunks, beneath the bark of trees, between walls of buildings, or any other natural or artificial structures that provides protection during hibernation.” Although "Polistes exclamans" have been found in organ-pipe muddauber nests, a mud nest that can provide a certain level of protection, it is not thought to actually house hibernating Polistes exclamans over the winter.
Worker mortality.
A typical "P. exclamans" worker will live somewhere between 14 and 16 days. The oldest wasp to be observed in a natural colony was 102 days old. Queens typically live 6 times longer than the workers. There has been some variation observed with the life expectancy of "P. exclamans". This has typically been attributed to the colony of origin. It also must be noted that while there is variation between colonies, there typically is less variation between the original nest and the satellite nest. Variation inside a single colony may also occur because of the presence of different castes. Foragers, those who frequently travel outside the nest, lead a riskier life and tend to have lower life expectancy than those who stay in the nest. Though, it was observed that colonies with high foraging rates also had higher reproductive rates to compensate for the lower life expectancy. Another aspect that was observed in one nest was that an increase in female population led to lower longevity. This was because the females were more focused on competing to become the next queen than foraging and fulfilling their roles.
Worker death is an important factor in colony failure, and is the cause of 13–76% of colony failures. This may be in part due to the small colony size. Because the colonies are small, worker longevity is crucial for the survival of the nest.
Range extension.
Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, "Polistes exclamans" was extending its range, spreading into the midwestern United States. Between 1958 and 1967 the following states had new state records of "Polistes exclamans": Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, New Jersey, New Mexico, Tennessee, and Virginia. The behavioral basis behind range expansion could be based upon the exceptional capability "Polistes exclamans" has in the colonization of new sites and the solitary nest founding behavior "Polistes exclamans" exhibits. This capability could be assisted by the “associated tendencies of "P. exclamans" foundresses to disperse and to move into newly available nesting sites.” Meanwhile, species with social foundresses reproduce near the place of origin and, therefore, do not extend their range as far.
Satellite nests.
Satellite nests are common among "P. exclamans." A queen will fly somewhere between 0.15 and 11m away from the original nest to settle in a new location. About 16–39% of nests create satellites from May to July.
Similar to the wasp species "Parischnogaster alternata", which constructs multitude of nests in clusters in order to create protection through dilution effect, the satellites are used as an insurance against attacks by predators and parasitoids. Of 12 nests that were knocked down by birds that had satellites, 66.7% of the colony survived by moving to the satellite, compared to the reproductive success of nests with no satellite that were attacked (5.7%). When "Chalcoela iphitalis" invades, the prevalence of satellites didn't increase the survivability, however it did have an effect when "Elasmus polistis" were introduced. It gave the "P. exclamans" a place to escape to.
Workers who are older typically start satellite nests and have more developed ovaries. Younger and lesser-developed workers join the satellite after its establishment. The distribution of workers between the main nest and satellite is very important because they are needed for the establishment of the satellite and for the continued running of the main nest. Although, after several months the main nest can become abandoned. If not enough workers follow the initial worker to the new nest, then it will most likely fail as a satellite.
Interaction with other species.
Parasitoids.
"Polistes exclamans" live in social nests that are open combed. This leaves nests very susceptible to attacks by predators and by parasitoids. Attack by parasitoids will occur in the nest brood, as the invader will attempt to insert its own offspring into the host's nest. The two most common parasitoids are "Chalcoela iphitalis" and "Elasmus polistis".
"C. iphitalis" and "E. polistis".
"P. exclamans" take several countermeasures against invasions. If the wasps detect an intruder they will violently bite and sting the location where the "C. iphitalis" moth has passed by. This will cause vibrations inside of the nest and the wasps inside will become alarmed and will move around jerkily. This phenomenon is known as the parasite dance. This will continue for up to 10 hours after the moth has been detected. If the moth is found it will be eaten immediately. However, this is not likely to happen. The moth lays its eggs in the nest, and when they hatch, they will take over the nest. As a result, many wasp pupae are aborted. This is commonly seen in the late summer when the moth is most abundant.
The second common parasitoid, "Elasmus polistis", also has disastrous effects on the "P. exclamans" nest. Up to 80 "E. polistis" will hatch out of a single cell. The males emerge first, and then will exit the nest and wait until the females emerge. Once the female moths emerge, the males will mate and reproduce, quickly destroying the "P. exclamans" population. In some cases the invading "E. polistis" will hide larvae in the nest so that the "P. exclamans" cannot find them. This is important to the survival of "P. exclamans". The hosts will attempt to remove as many parasitoids as possible to prevent them from spreading to nearby nests. This defense mechanism has not been proven to be effective, as more often than not the "E. polistis" larvae go undetected by the hosts. In one experiment conducted, it was found that over 60% of all nests lost brood to the parasitoids "E. polistis or C. iphitali"s in 1981. It was also observed that larger satellites have a greater risk of being parasitized. This is due to the fact that the large nests are typically older. This relationship between age and parasitism can be seen with the fact that older queens’ nests tend to be parasitized more than younger queens’ nests.
Predation.
"P. exclamans" has several different predators. Their most dangerous predators are birds, which will fly by and knock the nest to the ground. This phenomenon was discovered by the disappearance of nests, and wasp nests being found on the ground near the bird's nest. It has also been found that birds eat the larvae from the "P. exclamans" nest. This attack kills the whole nest but it isn't very effective against the adults from the colony. When attacked, the adults fly away either to another colony or a satellite colony.
Attack by the ant "Crematogaster laeviuscula" is different from attacks by birds. Rather than knocking down the nest, the ants swarm all over the nest and remove the brood from it. The ants destroy the entire brood but they are unable to kill the adults.
Other predators attack the adults while they are foraging or traveling to satellite nests. It is difficult to determine the number of adults that are killed away from the nest because they are difficult to track. However, it has been observed that the queen's flight to the satellite nest isn't dangerous and does not reduce its survivability.
The idea of group living has been discussed by many evolutionists for its costs and benefits. Alexander predicted that the cost to large groups is that they are more likely to suffer from parasitism, but at the same time, they benefit by defense against predation. This theory is not supported in the case of "P. exclamans" because the parasitism does not always increase with nest size and the predation rate was independent of size.
Colony defense.
Facial patterns.
Some animals may assess rivals through specific characteristics that are relevant to their fighting abilities; however, some animals, instead, use conventional characteristics to determine the competitive ability of their rivals. Conventional characteristics are signals that are indicative of the rival's abilities but are not a reflection of the animal's physiological or physical agonistic abilities. "Polistes exclamans" uses facial patterns as a conventional characteristic to determine the agonistic abilities of competitive rivals. Larger wasps have a greater amount of brown pigmented clypei. Wasps use these pigmented clypei to determine the viability of challenging a rival. The more pigmented the clypei or the larger the "Polistes exclamans", the more likely the "Polistes exclamans" will be willing to challenge a rival. The less pigmented the clypei or the smaller the "Polistes exclamans", the less willing it would be to challenge a rival. This assists in the minimization of the “costs of conflict during dominance competition among nest-founding queens.”
Alarm response.
"Polistes exclamans" exhibit an alarm response, typical of many higher level eusocial Hymenoptera. Although it has been previously indicated that nest mates may alarm the rest of the nest through jerky movement and buzzing of wings, "Polistes exclamans" is capable of alarming the rest of the nest and attracting attacking wasps through chemical means by releasing a non-species-specific venomous alarm pheromone. Although a chemical signal to warn against attack would be evolutionarily adaptive, the "Polistes exclamans" only releases a response post the initial attack from and on the predator, as the venom is only released during the sting. This venom is capable of warning and coordinating a response from the nest and attracting nearby heterospecific or conspecific females from nearby colonies to attack the predator. This helps deter the predator from further attacking and is especially adaptive for the defense of the nest. Although certain other insects have been able to adapt the release of the pheromone to other means of communicating alarm, "Polistes exclamans" has yet to do so, indicating that it is still in its “primitive state in evolution of the complex systems of communication of alarm seen in higher social insects.” In one experiment, pheromones were extracted from female glands and sacs and were spread onto venom paper. It was then found that females were attracted upwind of the venom paper and some even attempted to sting it. This also had a heterospecific response where others also reacted to it. While it was found that one wasp couldn't release enough pheromones to elicit a response, if many individuals were alarmed they would elicit a response from the rest of the nest. However, this scent is not strong enough to reach other nests, and so neighboring nests must be alarmed by physical movements and wing flapping.
Queen response.
After being invaded, a queen may be forced to leave her nest. If a satellite has not been established, the queen may usurp another queen in a different nest. Thus not having to invest any valuable resources, the queen can then use these resources on reproducing a new brood.


Bothrocophias myersi

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Geographic range.
The snake is presenta in Pacific región of the department of Cauca and Valle del Cauca Departments of Colombia. It occurs between 75 and 200 meters of altitude.
Etymology.
The specific name, "myersi", is in honor of the herpetologist Charles William Myers.


Apteromicra

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Prionoderita

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Centruroides chiapanensis

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Gonyosoma prasinum

Gonyosoma prasinum (green trinket snake, green bush rat snake or green ratsnake) is a species of colubrid snake found in Asia.
Description.
Rostral a little broader than deep, just visible from above; suture between the internasals a little shorter than that between the prefrontals; frontal as long as its distance from the end of the snout, shorter than the parietals; loreal square or longer than deep; one or two preoculars; temporals 1+2 or 2+2; upper labials 9, fourth, fifth, and sixth entering the eye; 5 lower labials in contact with the anterior chin-shields, which are as long as the posterior or a little longer. Scales in 19 rows, the 9 to 11 middle rows feebly keeled m the adult, smooth in the young. Ventrals with a lateral keel, 198 to 206; anal entire or divided; subcaudals 100–107. Uniform bright green above; upper lip and lower surface yellowish or greenish white. Total length 3 feet: tail 9 inches.
Distribution.
Its habitat ranges include Bangladesh, India (Darjeeling, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Burma (also known as Myanmar), northern Thailand, west Malaysia, Laos, Vietnam, China (Yunnan, Guizhou, Hainan) and Philippines.


Hemicycla plicaria

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Nebria haida

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Hellinsia obandoi

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The wingspan is . The forewings are grey‑brown and the markings are dark brown. The hindwings and fringes are brown‑grey. Adults are on wing in August.


Omoadiphas cannula

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It is found in the mountain range Sierra de Agalta of Olancho Department, Honduras.


Caltoris cormasa

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Skiotocharax meizon

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Drilliola rupta

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Distribution.
This fossil species was endemic to New Zealand.


Orthotylus josifovi

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Paracolpenteron hubbsii

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According to Mendoza-Franco, Caspeta-Mandujano and Ramírez-Martínez, it differs from other dactylogyrid species without a haptoral anchor/bar complex infecting the urinary systems, gills and nasal cavities by the general morphology of hooks, a dextral vaginal opening, and details of the male copulatory organ.
The species was found on fish collected in the Rio Lacantún basin in the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve, Chiapas, Mexico.


Inuka

Inuka (Inuit for "Silent Stalker") was a male polar bear and one of the mascots of the Singapore Zoo. Born and housed in a climate-controlled enclosure, he was the world's only "tropical polar bear".
Biography.
Inuka was born in the Singapore Zoo in 1990, the result of an extensive breeding programme run by the zoo and was the first and only polar bear to be born in the tropics. There have been four polar bears at Singapore Zoo altogether—Nanook, Sheba and their offspring Inuka, as well as another female, Anana.
Nanook and Sheba arrived at the Singapore Zoo in 1978, from Winnipeg Zoo in Canada and Cologne Zoo in Germany respectively. Nanook was 11 months old and was captured in the wild, while Sheba was 14 months old and born in captivity. To ease them in, they arrived in the early hours of the morning when the temperature was coolest. Like most zoo animals, one of each sex was brought in for mating and conservation purposes. Anana, a female polar bear caught in the wild, arrived from Canada in 1979. She died in 1999.
On 26 December 1990, Sheba gave birth to a 350-gram male cub. The cub was named Inuka, chosen from amongst 390 names suggested in a nationwide naming contest. More than 10,000 entries were received, including names like Arctos and Shardik.
In 1993, "The Straits Times" named Inuka as one of "28 people and things to call our own", alongside national swimmer Joscelin Yeo, the Vanda Miss Joaquim and the Singapore Sling.
Inuka's father, Nanook, died on 29 December 1995 at the age of 18. He had been suffering from chronic heart disease and lung disease. The Singapore-born polar bear was raised by his mother Sheba. Sheba died on 15 November 2012 at the age of 35. She had been under treatment since September 2012 for loss of strength in her hind limbs, but her condition worsened and was put down after a close evaluation showed that her prognosis was poor.
In 2000, more than 300 guests had free cake at Inuka's 10th birthday bash, where limited Inuka notebooks were also given away. In 2001, Inuka was named by the Singapore Zoo as a possible replacement for the ageing orangutan Ah Meng as the zoo's mascot, among other candidates like elephant Sang Raja and orangutan Hong Bao. However, nothing materialised.
Inuka has been adopted by the SPH Foundation, which is the charity arm of Singapore Press Holdings (SPH), since birth. SPH co-organises events together with Wildlife Reserves Singapore (WRS), such as his birthday parties. The foundation contributes about S$95,000 annually to the Wildlife Conservation Fund, which covers the adoption of Inuka and other zoo sponsorships.
Habitat.
In 2006, it was revealed that the Singapore Zoo had contacted Polar Bear International Studbook keepers based in Rostock Zoo in Germany to have Inuka included in the list of bears available for transfer as part of an "animal exchange programme", such that Inuka would be moved to a zoo in Europe when his mother passes on.
The zoo decided to focus on polar bears in 2006 as it could be their final year in Singapore. The SPH Foundation will sponsor Inuka's upkeep until he is transferred. Inuka's 16th birthday party in 2006 saw the attendance of more than fifty guests, and included an ice carving as well as a birthday cake made of ice filled with apples and fish, topped with sixteen carrot sticks representing candles.
In May 2007, the Singapore Zoo announced that Inuka will stay at the zoo even after Sheba dies, contrary to the earlier decision to send him to a temperate-country zoo when that happens. The decision was made on the recommendation of the zoo's Animal Welfare and Ethics Committee. However, there were no plans to import any more polar bears. Meanwhile, the zoo stated it was looking into improving the facilities, including providing better water quality and a soft area for them to walk on.
In Aug 2010, WRS announced that the polar bears in the Singapore Zoo would be the highlight of a Frozen Tundra exhibit in the $180 million River Safari theme park, which was due to open in 2012 on 12ha of land between the zoo and the Night Safari. This is contrary to the earlier claims by the zoo to focus more on Tropical rainforest animals, suitable for the weather conditions in Singapore. ACRES congratulated the zoo for building a bigger and climate-controlled enclosure for the bears, but criticised the zoo for contradicting its own message with regard to fighting global warming.
In 2013, it was announced that the previously announced Frozen Tundra would be moved to the Singapore Zoo, instead of being inside the River Safari. Some new species such as wolverines and raccoon dogs have also been added to the exhibit.
Health concerns.
In 2004, Inuka and his mother had algae growing on their hair shafts and visitors thought that the zoo actually painted them green. The zoo said that the algae was harmless and singled out the hot, humid climate as the cause. To remove the algae, the zoo first sprayed the two bears with hydrogen peroxide.
That same year in 2004, controversies started over the polar bear enclosure at the zoo and Inuka and Sheba's behaviour. The enclosure was a mere size of 391 m² compared to its huge Arctic habitat which can spread an area of over 80,000 km².
The Animal Concerns Research and Education Society (ACRES) discussed with the zoo a proposal to move Inuka to a temperate country zoo. According to a study by the society in 2005, Sheba and Inuka were showing signs of behavioural and physical distress such as signs of heat stress, high levels of inactivity, high levels of abnormal stereotypical behaviour, and performing unusual behaviours such as waving and ringing a bell at feeding shows. ACRES claimed that the pool's temperature was at 17°C, much higher than the water conditions in the Arctic. ACRES asked the zoo again to improve his enclosure.
The Singapore Zoo said the bears were kept in good conditions citing that Inuka was born in the tropics. It will not import anymore Arctic animals as it is planning to become a rainforest themed zoo. The zoo also spent S$200,000 upgrading the polar bears' facilities, installing another air-conditioner in the den and adding misting fans and netted shades over the enclosure to keep it at 22°C.
In 2018, WRS announced that Inuka has been less active than usual. He underwent a health examination on 3 April 2018 and the results revealed that his health was declining. In recent months, his keepers reported that Inuka’s activity levels have dipped noticeably and he now prefers resting over the daily keeper interactions he used to enjoy. Daily interaction sessions at his exhibit have been suspended.
A second health examination was conducted on 25 April 2018 to give further clarity on how he was faring. The results showed Inuka was not improving despite extensive treatment. Singapore Zoo decided not to revive him from anaesthesia and he was subsequently put down on 25 April 2018 at around 9:30am.
Preservation of Inuka’s body remains.
According to The Straits Times,
Inuka’s skeletal remains will be preserved and used in schools for educational purposes.


List of Lepidoptera of Bulgaria

The Lepidoptera of Bulgaria consist of both the butterflies and moths recorded from Bulgaria.


Mexican native trout

Mexican native trout (in Spanish "Truchas Mexicanas")—Mexican rainbow trout, sometimes Baja rainbow trout ("Oncorhynchus mykiss nelsoni") and Mexican golden trout ("Oncorhynchus chrysogaster") occur in the Pacific Ocean tributaries of the Baja California peninsula and in the Sierra Madre Occidental of northwestern Mexico as far south as Victoria de Durango in the state of Durango. Many forms of the Mexican rainbow trout ("Oncorhynchus mykiss nelsoni" and "O. m." ssp.), subspecies of the rainbow trout, have been described. The Mexican golden trout ("Oncorhynchus chrysogaster") is a recognized species.
Taxonomy.
Most of the Mexican native trout are considered subspecies of the rainbow trout ("O. mykiss") and generally lumped as "O. m. nelsoni" or "O. m." ssp. The exception is the Mexican golden trout ("O. chrysogaster" ) which achieved species status in 1964. The first records of trout in northwestern Mexico were published by paleontologist E. D. Cope in 1886 where he describes two specimens from Chihuahua as having the appearance of "Salmo purpuratus" a name sometimes incorrectly used for cutthroat trout ("Oncorhynchus clarki"). In 1898 and 1905, naturalist E. W. Nelson with the U.S. Biological Survey led explorations into the Mexican mainland (1898) and Baja California peninsula (1905) to document flora and fauna. In 1908, preserved specimens of trout that Nelson brought back from the Rio Santo Domingo (Santo Domingo creek) in the Sierra de San Pedro Mártir mountains of Baja California were described by ichthyologist B.W. Evermann as a new species "Salmo nelsoni", the Baja rainbow trout.
In 1936, Paul Needham, a fisheries biologist with the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries began a series of explorations (1936, 1937 and 1938) into the Rio Santo Domingo drainage in Baja California seeking to bring back live specimens of the Baja rainbow trout as hatchery stock and further study. Although live specimens reached U.S. hatcheries, none ever survived to spawn. In 1952, 1955 and 1956 Needham again explored the Sierra Madre Occidental tributaries of the Gulf of California. Needham's explorations led to the publication of "Rainbow Trout of Mexico and California" (1959) with coauthor Richard Gard. It contains the first full color drawing of the Mexican golden trout. In 1964, Needham and Gard's proposed binomial name "Salmo chrysogaster" was accepted as the scientific name for a new species of trout, the Mexican golden trout. The specific name "chrysogaster" is derived from the Greek for "golden belly".
In 1989, morphological and genetic studies indicated trout of the Pacific Basin were genetically closer to Pacific salmon ("Oncorhynchus" species) than to the "Salmo"s–brown trout ("S. trutta") or Atlantic salmon ("S. salar") of the Atlantic Basin. Thus, in 1989, taxonomic authorities moved the rainbow, cutthroat and other Pacific Basin trout, including the Mexican native trout, into the genus "Oncorhynchus".
In 1997, a group of approximately 40 ichthyologists, biologists and naturalists from several U.S. and Mexican institutions formed a collaborative group, Truchas Mexicanas, to study the diversity of Mexican native trout. Between 1997 and 2005, members of the group explored the rivers and streams of the Sierra Madre Occidental collecting specimens for study and documenting the diverse populations of Mexican native trout. In 2002, fisheries biologist Robert J. Behnke published "Trout and Salmon of North America", documenting a lifetime study of North American trout and salmon. In "Trout and Salmon of North America", Behnke described two species of trout—the Mexican golden trout ("O. chrysogaster") and the Mexican rainbow trout ("O. m. nelsoni" and "O. m." ssp). He described a number of local forms of the Mexican rainbow trout primarily based on the river systems they occurred in.
In 2015, a report delving into the genetics of Mexican golden trout and Mexican rainbow trout from various rivers was published. The authors, in discussing their findings, state:
The phylogeny of Mexican native trout is an unsettled science. Some studies suggest that the trout are descendants of the coastal rainbow trout ("O. m. irideus") based on the idea that in wetter times, rainbow trout (steelhead) could have easily gained access to Baja California and the Sierra Madre Occidental tributaries from the Pacific ocean. Others have suggested a connection to the inland Columbia River redband trout ("O. m. gairdneri"). Others have pointed to evidence in some populations that Mexican native trout may have descended from cutthroat trout ("O. clarki").
Range.
The endemic range of Mexican native trout extends from near the U.S.–Mexican border in western Chihuahua and eastern Sonora south through the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains of Durango. The southernmost recorded occurrence is in the headwaters of the Río Acaponeta in Durango. The first scientific collections of trout from Mexico were by Prof. Nathaniel Thomas Lupton in the early 1880s. During Edward W. Nelson's 1898 expedition, he observed trout in the Rio del Presidio basin near the town of El Salto, but did not collect any specimens. In 1946, Ralph G. Miller an American researching Mexican ichthyofauna near El Salto collected the earliest surviving specimens of the Rio del Presidio trout, which now reside in the Smithsonian Institution.As of 2002, according to ichthyologist Robert J. Behnke, the Rio del Presidio trout were the southernmost natural distribution of any member of the family Salmonidae.This range was extended by collections from the Ríos Baluarte and Acaponeta in 2004.
The many forms of Mexican native trout are typically described by the river systems they occur in.
Conservation.
The Mexican golden trout ("O. chrysogaster") is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. None of the rainbow trout subspecies, including Nelson's trout ("O. m. nelsoni") are formally listed by any conservation organization. The World Wildlife Fund considers the Rio Conchos trout critically endangered. Truchas Mexicanas reported in 2006 that all the populations of Mexican trout face threats from habitat loss due to logging, mining and aquaculture impacts. The greatest threat to the continued existence of genetically pure Mexican native trout appears to be the widespread rainbow trout aquaculture in the river basins where they reside. Escaped hatchery trout or trout stocked in rivers to support angling can hybridize with native stocks, which can eventually lead to genomic extinction.


Colostethus dysprosium

Colostethus dysprosium is a species of frog in the family Dendrobatidae. It is endemic to Antioquia, Colombia. Its natural habitats are rivers, freshwater marshes and intermittent freshwater marshes.


Cerastes gasperettii

Cerastes gasperettii, commonly known as the Arabian horned viper, is a venomous viper species found especially in the Arabian Peninsula and north to Israel, Iraq, and Iran. It is very similar in appearance to "C. cerastes", but the geographic ranges of these two species do not overlap. No subspecies of "C. gasperettii" are recognized.
Etymology.
The specific name, "gasperettii", is in honor of John Gasperetti, an American surveyor, engineer, and herpetologist, who collected the holotype specimen.
Description.
The average total length (including tail) of "C. gasperettii" is , with a maximum total length of . Females are usually larger than males. The diet of C. gasperettii is thought to primarily consist of rodents, with insects, particularly beetles, and lizards making up a less significant component of their diets.
Geographic range.
In the Arabian Peninsula "C. gasperettii" has been found in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. It is found in the Arava valley, located on the border between southern Israel and Jordan, eastwards through Jordan and Iraq to Khuzestan Province in southwestern Iran.
The type locality given is "Beda Azan [23°41'N., 53°28'E.], Abu Dhabi [Abū Zaby]" [United Arab Emirates].


Bothriomyrmex jannonei

Bothriomyrmex jannonei is a species of ant in the genus "Bothriomyrmex". Described by Menozzi in 1936, the species is endemic to Greece.


Abrothrix longipilis

Abrothrix longipilis, also known as the long-haired grass mouse or long-haired akodont, is a species of rodent in the family Cricetidae. It is found in central and southern Argentina and Chile. The southern Chilean "Abrothrix sanborni" may not be distinct from this species.
Description.
The long-haired grass mouse is a large, robust grass mouse, with a head-and-body length of about . It varies in colour across its wide range, but in most populations the dorsal hair is reddish-brown with long guard hairs, the flanks are more greyish and the underparts are grey. The tail is bicoloured, dark above and pale below.
Distribution and habitat.
The species is found in central and southern Chile, and in Argentina as far southward as the Rio Negro and Chubut provinces of Patagonia. Its chief habitat is the "Nothofagus" forests of the region but it is also found in rocky areas, marshy areas, tussock grass and steppe with shrubs.
Ecology.
The long-haired grass mouse is active both in the day and the night. It is an efficient excavator and digs burrows, but it is also a good tree climber. In Argentina it feeds on berries, seeds, insects, slugs, worms, fungi and fern spores. The diet differs in different parts of Chile, either consisting of insects and plant material, or insects and fungi, just insects or just fungi. Breeding takes place in the spring and summer. The litter size averages just below four and at least some individuals overwinter twice. Home ranges in the Patagonian "Nothofagus" forest vary between 0.4 and 4.8 individuals per hectare in spring, and 2.8 to 10.8 individuals per hectare in autumn. This grass mouse is preyed on by the barn owl, the lesser horned owl, the rufous-legged owl, the white-tailed kite and the South American gray fox. It is also an important reservoir species for the Andes virus, which is a major causative agent of the disease Hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome.
Status.
"A. longipilis" has a wide range and is presumed to have a large total population. The population trend may be downward but it is an abundant species and the decline is not at a rate to cause concern, so the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its conservation status as being of "least concern".


Asaphocrita aurae

Asaphocrita aurae is a moth in the family Blastobasidae that is endemic to Costa Rica.


Thesprotia brevis

Thesprotia brevis is a species of praying mantis found in Paraguay.


Spanish algyroides

The Spanish algyroides (), also commonly known as the Spanish keeled lizard or Valverde's lizard, is a species of lizard in the family Lacertidae.
Etymology.
The specific name, "marchi", is in honor of Spanish businessman Juan March Ordinas.
Geographic range.
"A. marchi" is endemic to southeastern Spain.
Habitat.
The natural habitats of the Spanish algyroides are temperate forests, rivers, and rocky areas, at altitudes of .
Reproduction.
"A. marchi" is oviparous.
Conservation status.
"A. marchi" is threatened by habitat loss.


Golden-throated barbet

The golden-throated barbet ("Psilopogon franklinii") is an Asian barbet native to Southeast Asia, where it inhabits foremost forests between altitude. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List because of its wide distribution and stable population.
Taxonomy.
"Bucco franklinii" was the scientific name proposed by Edward Blyth in 1842 who described a vivid green barbet with a golden throat collected in Darjeeling.
It was placed in the genus "Megalaima" proposed by George Robert Gray in 1842 who suggested to use this name instead of "Bucco". In the 19th and 20th centuries, the following golden-throated barbet zoological specimens were described:
Molecular phylogenetic research of barbets revealed that the birds in the genus "Megalaima" form a clade, which also includes the fire-tufted barbet, the only species placed in the genus "Psilopogon" at the time. Barbets formerly placed in this genus were therefore reclassified under the genus "Psilopogon".
Two golden-throated barbet subspecies are recognised as of 2014:
Description.
The golden-throated barbet is vivid green above with paler yellowish-green plumage below, deep blue wings and verditer underneath the tail. Its bill is dusky black, and it is black around the eyes. Its forehead is crimson and its throat orange. Its legs are greenish.
It is long and weighs .
Distribution and habitat.
The golden-throated barbet is resident in Nepal, India, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Laos, Vietnam and mainland China. Its presence in Bangladesh is uncertain. It inhabits tropical and subtropical moist forests at elevations of .
Behaviour and ecology.
The male's territorial call is a very loud "pukwowk".


Papilio aristor

Papilio aristor, the scarce Haitian swallowtail, is a species of butterfly in the family Papilionidae. It is endemic to Hispaniola (the Dominican Republic and Haiti).
Description.
Forewing with two rows of yellow spots; the discal row curved, not extending to the hindmargin, the outer row complete; hindwing with a row of yellow spots. Underside of the forewing with a yellow spot in the cell.


Mountain hare

The mountain hare ("Lepus timidus"), also known as blue hare, tundra hare, variable hare, white hare, snow hare, alpine hare, and Irish hare, is a Palearctic hare that is largely adapted to polar and mountainous habitats.
Distribution.
This species is distributed from Fennoscandia to eastern Siberia; in addition there are isolated mountain populations in the Alps, Scotland, the Baltics, northeastern Poland and Hokkaidō. In Ireland, the Irish hare ("Lepus timidus hibernicus") does not grow a white winter coat, is smaller in size, and lives on lowland pastures, coastal grasslands and salt marshes, not just in the mountains. The mountain hare has also been introduced to Iceland, Shetland, Orkney, the Isle of Man, the Peak District, Svalbard, Kerguelen Islands, Crozet Islands, and the Faroe Islands. In the Alps, the mountain hare lives at elevations from 700 to 3800 m, depending on biographic region and season.
Description.
The mountain hare is a large species, though it is slightly smaller than the European hare. It grows to a length of , with a tail of , and a mass of , females being slightly heavier than males. They can live for up to 12 years. In summer, for all populations of mountain hares, the coat is various shades of brown. In preparation for winter most populations moult into a white (or largely white) pelage. The tail remains completely white all year round, distinguishing the mountain hare from the European hare ("Lepus europaeus"), which has a black upper side to the tail. The subspecies "Lepus timidus hibernicus" (the Irish mountain hare) stays brown all year and individuals rarely develop a white coat. The Irish hare may also have a "golden" variation, particularly those found on Rathlin Island.
In the Faroe Islands, mountain hares turn grey in the winter instead of white. The winter-grey colour may be caused by downregulation of the agouti hair cycle isoform in the autumn moult.
Behaviour.
Studies have shown that the diet of the mountain hare varies from region to region. It seems to be somewhat dependent on the particular habitat that the population under study lives in. For example, in northern Scandinavia where snow may blanket the ground for many months, the hares may graze on twigs and bark. In areas where snowfall is rare, such as Ireland, grass may form the bulk of the diet. Given a choice, mountain hares in Scotland and Ireland seem to prefer feeding on grasses. One study looking at mountain hares on a coastal grassland environment in Ireland found that grasses constituted over 90% of the diet. This was higher than the percentage of grass in the diet of the European rabbit ("Oryctolagus cuniculus") that inhabited the same environment. The mountain hare is regionally the favourite prey of the golden eagle and may additionally be preyed on by Eurasian eagle-owls and red foxes. Stoats may prey on young hares.
In northern parts of Finland, Norway and Sweden, the mountain hare and the European hare compete for habitat. The European hare, being larger, is usually able to drive away the mountain hare but is less adapted for living in snowy regions: its feet are smaller and its winter fur is a mixture of white and brown. While this winter fur is actually a very good camouflage in the coastal regions of Finland where the snow covers the shrubs but for a short time, the mountain hare is better adapted for the snowier conditions of the inland areas. The two may occasionally cross.
The Arctic hare ("Lepus arcticus") was once considered a subspecies of the mountain hare, but it is now regarded as a separate species. Similarly, some scientists believe that the Irish hare should be regarded as a separate species. Fifteen subspecies are currently recognised.
Human impact.
In the European Alps the mountain hare lives at elevations from 700 to 3800 m, depending on biographic region and season. The development of alpine winter tourism has increased rapidly since the last few decades of the 20th century, resulting in expansion of ski resorts, growing visitor numbers, and a huge increase in all forms of snow sport activities. A 2013 study looking at stress events and the response of mountain hares to disturbance concluded that those hares living in areas of high winter recreational activities showed changes in physiology and behaviour that demanded additional energy input at a time when access to food resources is restricted by snow. It recommended ensuring that forests inhabited by mountain hares were kept free of tourist development, and that new skiing areas should be avoided in mountain hare habitat, and that existing sites should not be expanded.
In August 2016, the Scottish animal welfare charity OneKind launched a campaign on behalf of the mountain hare, as a way of raising awareness of mountain hare culls taking place across the country and in garnering public support for the issue. Mountain hares are routinely shot in the Scottish Highlands both as part of paid hunting "tours" and by gamekeepers managing red grouse populations (who believe that mountain hares can be vectors of diseases which affect the birds). Much of this activity is secretive but investigations have revealed that tens of thousands of hares are being culled every year. The campaign, which urges people to proclaim that "We Care For The Mountain Hare", will culminate with the charity urging the Scottish government to legislate against commercial hunting and culling of the iconic Scottish species. The campaign has revealed widespread public support for a ban on hare hunting in Scotland. On May 17, 2020, MSPs voted to ban the unlicensed culling of mountain hares and grant them protected species status within Scotland after a petition started by Green MSP Alison Johnstone gathered over 22,000 signatures.
In 2021 the People's Trust for Endangered Species (PTES) funded a survey of mountain hare populations in the UK's Peak District after concerns about the viability of the isolated population, believed to be as low as 2,500. The trust believes climate change is a threat to long term survival of the Peak District population which was introduced to the area in the 1870s.


Nannophryne cophotis

Nannophryne cophotis, or the Paramo toad, is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae that is endemic to northern Peru.
Its natural habitats are puna grassland, high-altitude plateaus, and dry scrubland; it also occurs agricultural land (e.g., potato and maize fields). It breeds in temporary small ponds and permanent shallow streams at altitudes of 2000-4100 meters asl. Individuals have not been recorded since 2005, after what was believed to be a severe decline in its population. It was last known from: Granja Porcón & El Empalme (1999-2000); La Libertad (2003); Ancash (2004); and Cajamarca (2005). If a population exists it is believed to have 0-49 individuals remaining threatened from loss of habitat, pollution, conversion of land for farming, small and large-scale mining concessions, and the modification of waterways.


Nanorana ventripunctata

Nanorana ventripunctata (common names: Yunnan slow frog, spot-bellied plateau frog) is a species of frog in the family Dicroglossidae. It is endemic to northwestern Yunnan, China. It inhabits lakes, pools and ponds in alpine areas, occurring near streams and rivers in open, high-elevation habitats. It breeds in still-water pools and ponds.
"Nanorana ventripunctata" are medium-sized frogs: males grow to a snout–vent length of about and females to . Tadpoles are up to about in length.


White-throated treerunner

The white-throated treerunner ("Pygarrhichas albogularis") is a species of bird in the family Furnariidae. It is monotypic within the genus Pygarrhichas. It is found in South America, in Patagonia and southern regions of Tierra del Fuego.
Its natural habitat is temperate forests.
Description.
The white-throated treerunner is 15 to 16 cm long on average, with a weight between 20 and 27 grams. It has an appearance reminiscent of the nuthatch, with its overall look and plumage, unlike other species in the Furnariidae. Wing chord is from 76 to 86 mm, tail is 52 to 65 mm, and torso from 20 to 23.7 mm. The iris is dark brown. It has a long beak, at around 16 to 23.8 mm with a slight upward curve. Its upper mandible is dark gray and lower mandible a whitish-pale gray. The feet are dark gray, blackish or brown.
The species is easily recognized by its white throat, contrasting with its upper parts. Its face is blackish-brown and slightly darker than its head crown, which is a dull brown. The back is a paler chestnut-brown,pulling against the red rump and tail. The wing coverts are dark brown, with red or chestnut brown on the feather edges and tail end. The primaries are darker, the remiges black-brown with light edges and inner primaries marked with a short, light red wing bar. The tail is rounded, with rigid rectrices with shortened barbs ending in small spines up to 9 mm long.
A large white zone covers the treerunner's cheek and throat, descending to the middle of the chest. The rest of the lower parts, to the undertail coverts, are made up of white feathers largely bordered with dark brown, giving an irregularly spotted appearance. Both sexes of adults look similar. The chick is distinguished by an ochre-striped crown and back, and often with blackish borders on the throat feathers.
Vocals.
The white-throated treerunner gives off a short and piercing cry, evoking a rapid succession of water droplets. Its contact call is described as a loud, fast, metallic "kik-ik", "tsi-ik" or "tsik", which is repeated rapidly. The treerunner can also emit a sonorous "peet peet", and during flight, a dry "tic".


Filistata maguirei

Filistata maguirei is a species of the araneomorph spider family Filistatidae.
Distribution.
This species is endemic to Hormozgan Province, Iran.
Description.
The male holotype measured 5.5 mm and the female paratype measured 9.5 mm.
Etymology.
This species was named after actor Tobey Maguire, who played Spider-Man in Sam Raimi's trilogy.


Bartail flathead

The bartail flathead ("Platycephalus indicus"), also called bar-tailed flathead, bartail blenny, gobi, Indian flathead, or Indo-Pacific flathead, is the type species for the fish genus "Platycephalus". It is found in the Indian Ocean and western Pacific Ocean. The species has been recorded in the Mediterranean, having invaded as a Lessepsian migrant through the Suez Canal. However, although a number of specimens were caught in trawls in the late 1970s then none were caught until 2011, when one was taken off Lebanon. Following the revision of genus "Platycephalus" in Australia, Australian specimens previously assigned to this species are now considered a separate species, "Platycephalus australis".
"Platycephalus indicus" grow to a maximum length of TL, although they are commonly smaller, to TL. They live on sandy and muddy bottoms of coastal waters, including estuaries, and juveniles have even been taken in freshwater. It is a commercial fish species.


Paraneaetha

Paraneaetha is a monotypic genus of Egyptian jumping spiders containing the single species, Paraneaetha diversa. It was first described by J. Denis in 1947, and is only found in Egypt. The name is a combination of the Ancient Greek "para" (), meaning "alongside", and the salticid genus "Neaetha".


Acrossocheilus multistriatus

Acrossocheilus multistriatus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus "Acrossocheilus". It is endemic to China, where it inhabits the Huaping National Nature Reserve in Guangxi. It has a maximum length of about .