Nepenthes villosa

Nepenthes villosa , or the villose pitcher-plant, is a tropical pitcher plant endemic to Mount Kinabalu and neighbouring Mount Tambuyukon in northeastern Borneo. It grows at higher elevations than any other Bornean "Nepenthes" species, occurring at elevations of over . "Nepenthes villosa" is characterised by its highly developed and intricate peristome, which distinguishes it from the closely related "N. edwardsiana" and "N. macrophylla".
The specific epithet "villosa" is Latin for "hairy" and refers to the dense indumentum of this species.
Botanical history.
"Nepenthes villosa" was formally described in 1852 by Joseph Dalton Hooker. The description was published in "Icones plantarum" and accompanied by an illustration.
The species was first collected in 1858 by Hugh Low when he made his second ascent of Mount Kinabalu together with Spenser St. John.
In an issue of "Curtis's Botanical Magazine" published in 1858, an illustration of an upper pitcher of "N. veitchii" was incorrectly identified as "N. villosa" by J. D. Hooker's father, William Jackson Hooker. That year, "N. villosa" was also covered in "Flore des Serres et des Jardins de l'Europe" by Louis van Houtte, in which the same illustration was reproduced along with the incorrect identification.
In 1859, "N. villosa" was again described and illustrated in J. D. Hooker's treatment of the genus published in "The Transactions of the Linnean Society of London". The illustration and description were reproduced in Spenser St. John's "Life in the Forests of the Far East", published in 1862.
B. H. Danser treated "N. edwardsiana" in synonymy with "N. villosa" in his seminal monograph "The Nepenthaceae of the Netherlands Indies", published in 1928. The work included a revised Latin diagnosis and botanical description of "N. villosa".
Danser listed four herbarium specimens that he identified as belonging to "N. villosa". These include two collected by George Darby Haviland from Mount Kinabalu in 1892. One of these, "Haviland 1656/1232", was collected at an elevation of . It includes male floral material and is deposited at the Herbarium of the Sarawak Museum. The second specimen, "Haviland 1813/1353", was collected from the Marai Parai plateau at an elevation of ; it likely represents "N. edwardsiana". It is also deposited at the Herbarium of the Sarawak Museum. It does not include floral material. G. D. Haviland explored the Mount Kinabalu area with his brother H. A. Haviland between March and April, 1892, and must have collected these specimens during this time.
Additionally, Danser lists two specimens collected by Joseph Clemens in 1915. The first, "Clemens 10627", was collected on November 13 from Paka Cave to Low's Peak. It includes female floral material. The second, "Clemens 10871", was collected at Marai Parai between November 22 and November 23, and does not include floral material. Both specimens are deposited at the Bogor Botanical Gardens (formerly the Herbarium of the Buitenzorg Botanic Gardens) in Java.
In "Letts Guide to Carnivorous Plants of the World", published in 1992, a specimen of the natural hybrid "N. × kinabaluensis" ("N. rajah" × "N. villosa") is labeled as "N. villosa".
In cultivation.
In 2004, professional horticulturist Robert Sacilotto published a summary of measured tolerances of six highland "Nepenthes" species, including "N. villosa", based on experiments conducted between 1996 and 2001.
Many of the "N. villosa" plants in cultivation today originate from a particularly vigorous tissue culture clone introduced by Phill Mann of Australia and later sold by the Sri Lankan-based plant nursery, Borneo Exotics.
Description.
"Nepenthes villosa" is a weak climber, rarely exceeding in height, although the stem may grow to in length and in diameter. Internodes are cylindrical and up to long.
Leaves are coriaceous and petiolate. The lamina is spathulate to oblong and may be up to long and wide. The apex of the lamina is emarginate. The petiole is canaliculate, up to long, and bears an amplexicaul sheath. One to three longitudinal veins are present on either side of the midrib. Tendrils may reach in length.
Lower and upper pitchers are very similar. They are urceolate to ovate in shape. The pitchers grow up to high and wide. A pair of fringed wings (≤15 mm wide) runs down the front of the pitcher, although it may be reduced to ribs in aerial traps. The pitcher mouth is oblique and elongated into a neck at the rear. The glands on the inner surface are overarched and occur at a density of 200 to 1300 per square cm (30 to 200 per square in). The peristome is cylindrical in cross section and up to wide. It bears well developed teeth and ribs. The lid or operculum is cordate and has a pointed apex. It has a pair of prominent lateral veins. An unbranched spur, ≤ long, is inserted at the base of the lid.
"Nepenthes villosa" has a racemose inflorescence. The peduncle may be up to long, while the rachis grows to in length. Pedicels are filiform-bracteolate and up to long. Sepals are round to elliptic and up to long. A study of 490 pollen samples taken from two herbarium specimens ("J.H.Adam 1124" and "J.H.Adam 1190", collected at an elevation of ) found the mean pollen diameter to be 37.2 μm (SE = 0.2; CV = 6.7%).
The species has a dense indumentum of long, brown hairs that covers all parts of the plant.
Ecology.
"Nepenthes villosa" is endemic to the upper slopes of Mount Kinabalu and neighbouring Mount Tambuyukon in Sabah, Borneo. It generally grows at 2300–3240 m above sea level, the highest elevation of all Bornean "Nepenthes" species; only "N. lamii" from New Guinea is found at greater elevations. On Mount Kinabalu, "N. villosa" is common along the Mesilau Trail (between Pondok Magnolia and the meeting point with the old summit trail) and almost all the way up to the Laban Rata rest house; a particularly large population has been reported at around 3047 m. On Mount Tambuyukon, an altitudinal inversion has been noted, whereby "N. villosa" is more common at much lower elevations of 1600–1900 m, being replaced by "N. rajah" towards the summit. The exposed, uppermost slopes of Mount Tambuyukon can become very hot during the day and this might explain the inability of "N. villosa" to colonise them. Plants from Mount Tambuyukon generally produce slightly more elongated pitchers.
"Nepenthes villosa" often grows in mossy forest and sub-alpine forest dominated by species of the genera "Dacrydium" and "Leptospermum", particularly "Leptospermum recurvum". It has also been recorded growing among shrubs, grass, and boulders in open areas. Here the soil may become relatively dry, although relative humidity is usually close to 100% as the slopes are often enveloped in clouds. Like many "Nepenthes" from the Mount Kinabalu area, it is endemic to ultramafic soils.
Although many plants grow along Mount Kinabalu's summit trail and are easily accessible to climbers, all known populations of the species grow within Kinabalu National Park and so their collection is illegal. In 1997, Charles Clarke suggested a revised assessment of Conservation Dependent based on this. Clarke writes that "N. villosa" "has a secure future", although he adds that climbers have had a significant impact on populations of the species growing along the summit trail, with the number of plants having declined in recent years. A 2002 study found 1180 individual "N. villosa" growing in 11 plots, each measuring 0.01 hectares, at elevations of between and on Mount Kinabalu. This number constituted 94% of the pitcher plants recorded from the plots, the rest being "N. × kinabaluensis".
Related species.
"Nepenthes villosa" is most closely related to "N. edwardsiana" and "N. macrophylla". There has been much taxonomic confusion surrounding the status of these three taxa.
Joseph Dalton Hooker, who described both "N. edwardsiana" and "N. villosa", noted the similarity between the two species as follows:
This most remarkable plant ["N. villosa"] resembles that of "edwardsiana" in so many respects, especially in the size, form and disposition of the distant lamellae of the mouth, that I am inclined to suspect that it may be produced by young plants of that species, before it arrives at a stage when the pitchers have elongated necks.
Günther Beck von Mannagetta und Lerchenau was the first to treat "N. edwardsiana" in synonymy with "N. villosa" when he published his monograph on the genus in 1895.
In his 1908 monograph, John Muirhead Macfarlane wrote the following with regards to the two species: "Examinatione microscopica probatur, illas species distinctas esse". This is probably "based on the old belief that plants, which differ anatomically, can not be forms of the same species".
B. H. Danser united the species "[w]ith some hesitation" in his 1928 monograph "The Nepenthaceae of the Netherlands Indies". He suggested that "N. villosa" is a stunted form of "N. edwardsiana" from higher elevations, which flowers at a "juvenile stage of development". Danser acknowledged that the indumentum of "N. villosa" is more dense than that of "N. edwardsiana", but noted that it "is a difference only of degree".
The two taxa differ considerably in their altitudinal distributions. "Nepenthes villosa" usually occurs at ultrahighland elevations, , whereas "N. edwardsiana" is found between . Where their altitudinal distributions overlap, they are still identifiable as distinct species.
"Nepenthes macrophylla" was originally described in 1987 as a subspecies of "N. edwardsiana" by Johannes Marabini. It was later elevated to species status by Matthew Jebb and Martin Cheek. This interpretation was supported by Charles Clarke, who noted that "N. edwardsiana" and "N. villosa" "have more in common" than "N. edwardsiana" and "N. macrophylla". Whereas "N. edwardsiana" and "N. villosa" are restricted to the Kinabalu area, "N. macrophylla" is only found near the summit of Mount Trus Madi.
Matthew Jebb and Martin Cheek suggest that "N. villosa" is related to "N. mira", a species endemic to Palawan in the Philippines. "N. villosa" also shows affinities to "N. peltata" of Mindanao.
Natural hybrids.
Two natural hybrids involving "N. villosa" have been recorded.
"N. edwardsiana" × "N. villosa".
"Nepenthes × harryana" is the natural hybrid between "N. edwardsiana" and "N. villosa". Its two parent species are very closely related and so "N. × harryana", which is intermediate in form, may be difficult to distinguish from either of them.
It was originally described as a species in 1882 by Frederick William Burbidge. John Muirhead Macfarlane was the first to realise its hybrid origin and described it as such in his monograph of 1908. Danser wrote that "N. × harryana" could be a hybrid as Macfarlane suggested, or a form of "N. villosa" together with "N. edwardsiana".
"Nepenthes × harryana" can be distinguished from "N. villosa" on the basis of its pitcher morphology. The pitchers of the hybrid are more cylindrical than those of "N. villosa", whereas the indumentum is more dense than that of "N. edwardsiana". The hip of the pitcher cup, which is found just below the peristome in "N. villosa" and in the lower quarter of "N. edwardsiana" pitchers, is located around the middle of "N. × harryana" pitchers. However, "N. villosa" plants from Mount Tambuyukon are easier to confuse with this hybrid, as they produce pitchers that may be elongated slightly above the hip.
"Nepenthes × harryana" is known from a ridge above the Upper Kolopis River and from two locations along the Kinabalu summit trail. Since "N edwardsiana" does not grow along the summit trail, it cannot be confused with this hybrid there. Burbidge wrote that "N. edwardsiana", "N. × harryana", and "N. villosa" "are quite distinct in zone of the mountain".
"N. rajah" × "N. villosa".
"Nepenthes × kinabaluensis" is the natural hybrid between "N. rajah" and "N. villosa". It was first collected near Kambarangoh on Mount Kinabalu by Lilian Gibbs in 1910 and later mentioned by John Muirhead Macfarlane as ""Nepenthes" sp." in 1914. Although Macfarlane did not formally name the plant, he noted that "[a]ll available morphological details suggest that this is a hybrid between "N. villosa" and "N. rajah"". It was finally described in 1976 by Shigeo Kurata as "N. × kinabaluensis". The name was published in "Nepenthes of Mount Kinabalu", but it is a "nomen nudum", as it had an inadequate description and lacked information on the type specimen. The name was subsequently republished by Kurata in 1984 and by J. H. Adam and C. C. Wilcock in 1998.
The pitchers of "N. × kinabaluensis" may be quite large, but do not compare to those of "N. rajah" or "N. × alisaputrana" ("N. burbidgeae" × "N. rajah"). "N. × kinabaluensis" can only be found on Mount Kinabalu (hence the name) and nearby Mount Tambuyukon, where the two parent species occur sympatrically. More specifically, plants are known from a footpath near Paka Cave and several places along an unestablished route on a south-east ridge, which lies on the west side of the Upper Kolopis River. The only accessible location from which this hybrid is known is the Kinabalu summit trail, between Layang-Layang and the helipad, where it grows at about in a clearing dominated by "Dacrydium gibbsiae" and "Leptospermum recurvum" trees. "N. × kinabaluensis" has an altitudinal distribution of to . It grows in open areas in cloud forest.
The hybrid is generally intermediate in appearance between its parent species. Raised ribs line the inner edge of the peristome and end with elongated teeth. These are more prominent than those found in "N. rajah" and smaller than those of "N. villosa". The peristome is coarse and expanded at the margin (but not scalloped like that of "N. rajah"), the lid orbiculate or reniform and almost flat. In general, pitchers are larger than those of "N. villosa" and the tendril joins the apex about below the leaf tip, a feature which is characteristic of "N. rajah". In older plants, the tendril can be almost woody. "N. × kinabaluensis" is an indumentum of villous hairs covering the pitchers and leaf margins, which is approximately intermediate between the parents. Lower pitchers have two fringed wings, whereas the upper pitchers usually lack these. The colour of the pitcher varies from yellow to scarlet. "N. × kinabaluensis" seems to produce upper pitchers more readily than either of its parents. In all respects "N. × kinabaluensis" is intermediate between the two parent species and it is easy to distinguish from all other "Nepenthes" of Borneo. However, it has been confused once before, when the hybrid was misidentified as both "N. rajah" and "N. villosa" in "Letts Guide to Carnivorous Plants of the World", published in 1992.
Notes.
—Ascidia magna turgida late pyriformia coriacea, 5" longa, 3½" lata, alis anticis mediocribus grosse dentatis, ore aperto annulo maximo! lamellis annularibus distantibus disciformibus rigidis, 1" diam., cristatis posticis in spinas rigidas ½" longas, fundum ascidii spectantibus productis, collo elongato erecto, operculo orbiculato intus densissime glanduloso dorso basi longe cornuto. ("Tab." LXIX.)
"Folia mediocria" petiolata, lamina obovato-oblonga v. lanceolata, nervis longitudinalibus utrinque 2-3, vagina caulem fere totum amplectente ; "ascidia rosularum" ignota ; "ascidia inferiora" magna, breviter ovata, costis 2 ad os alatis fimbriatis ; peristomio operculum versus in collum elongato 6-12 mm lato, costis altis 3-12 mm distantibus, dentibus 1-3 x longioribus quam latis ; operculo rotundato-cordato v. paulum reniformi, facie inferiore plano ; "ascidia superiora" magna, parte inferiore ventricosa os versus cylindrica, costis 2 prominentibus ; peristomio operculum versus in collum elevato, 12-22 mm lato, costis altis 3-12 mm distantibus, dentibus 1-3 x longioribus quam latis ; operculo rotundato-ovato v. paulum reniformi, facie inferiore plano ; "inflorescentia" racemus pedicellis inferioribus 12 mm longis omnibus 1-floris ; "indumentum" villosum.


Leptocereus quadricostatus

Leptocereus quadricostatus (also called sebucan) is a species of plant in the family Cactaceae. It is found in Puerto Rico and the British Virgin Islands. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests and subtropical or tropical dry shrubland. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Weinmannia elliptica

Weinmannia elliptica is a species of tree in the family Cunoniaceae. It is native to South America.


Deeringia

Deeringia is a genus of flowering plants in the amaranth family Amaranthaceae. Its native range is tropical Asia, western Pacific, Australia and Madagascar.
Species.
, Plants of the World Online accepted the following species:


Ipomoea bracteata

Ipomoea bracteata is a species of plant in the bindweed family Convolvulaceae. It is endemic to Mexico.


Buchenavia rabelloana

Buchenavia rabelloana is a species of plant in the Combretaceae family. It is endemic to Brazil. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Choricystis

Choricystis is a genus of green algae in the class Trebouxiophyceae.


Astilbe japonica

Astilbe japonica, called false buck's beard, is a species of flowering plant in the genus "Astilbe", native to Japan, and introduced in New York State. Its hybrid cultivars 'Deutschland', 'Montgomery', and 'Rheinland' have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Shadscale scrub

Shadscale scrub is a Mojave Desert plant community and vegetation type or biome, characterized by salt tolerant plants—halophytes.
It is located at higher elevations than the saltbush scrub plant community, but shares some of its plant species.
Flora.
The shadscale scrub vegetation type commonly includes:
Shared members with higher elevation saltbush scrub include:
Other species can include:


Douglas fir

The Douglas fir ("Pseudotsuga menziesii") is an evergreen conifer species in the pine family, Pinaceae. It is native to western North America and is also known as Douglas-fir, Douglas spruce, Oregon pine, and Columbian pine. There are three varieties: coast Douglas-fir ("P. menziesii" var. "menziesii"), Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir ("P. menziesii" var. "glauca") and Mexican Douglas fir ("P. menziesii" var. "lindleyana").
Despite its common names, it is not a true fir (genus "Abies"), spruce (genus "Picea"), or pine (genus "Pinus"). It is also not a hemlock; the genus name of "Pseudotsuga" means "false hemlock".
The massive mega-genome of Douglas fir was sequenced in 2017 by the large PineRefSeq consortium, revealing a specialized photosynthetic apparatus in the light-harvesting complex genes.
Naming.
The common name honors David Douglas, a Scottish botanist and collector who first reported the extraordinary nature and potential of the species. The common name is misleading since it is not a true fir, i.e., not a member of the genus "Abies". For this reason the name is often written as Douglas-fir (a name also used for the genus "Pseudotsuga" as a whole).
The specific epithet "menziesii" is after Archibald Menzies, a Scottish physician and rival naturalist to David Douglas. Menzies first documented the tree on Vancouver Island in 1791. Colloquially, the species is also known simply as Doug fir or Douglas pine (although the latter common name may also refer to "Pinus douglasiana"). Other names for this tree have included Oregon pine, British Columbian pine, Puget Sound pine, Douglas spruce, false hemlock, red fir, or red pine (although again red pine may refer to a different tree species—"Pinus resinosa" and red fir may refer to "Abies magnifica").
One Coast Salish name for the tree, used in the Halkomelem language, is . In the Lushootseed language, the tree is called .
Description.
Douglas-firs are medium-size to extremely large evergreen trees, tall (although only coast Douglas-firs reach such great heights) and up to in diameter.
The leaves are flat, soft, linear needles long, generally resembling those of the firs, occurring singly rather than in fascicles; they completely encircle the branches, which can be useful in recognizing the species. As the trees grow taller in denser forest, they lose their lower branches, such that the foliage may start as high as off the ground. Douglas-firs in environments with more light may have branches much closer to the ground.
The bark on young trees is thin, smooth, grey, and contains numerous resin blisters. On mature trees it is very thick and corky, growing up to thick with distinctive, deep vertical fissures caused by growth. Layers of darker brown bark are interspersed with layers of lighter colored, corky material. This thickness makes the Douglas-fir perhaps the most fire-resistant tree native to the Pacific Northwest.
The female cones are pendulous, with persistent scales, unlike those of true firs. They have distinctive long, trifid (three-pointed) bracts which protrude prominently above each scale and are said to resemble the back half of a mouse, with two feet and a tail.
Distribution.
"Pseudotsuga menziesii" var. "menziesii", the coast Douglas-fir, grows in the coastal regions from west-central British Columbia southward to central California. In Oregon and Washington, its range is continuous from the eastern edge of the Cascades west to the Pacific Coast Ranges and Pacific Ocean. In California, it is found in the Klamath and California Coast Ranges as far south as the Santa Lucia Range, with a small stand as far south as the Purisima Hills in Santa Barbara County. One of the last remaining old growth stands of conifers is in the Mattole Watershed, and is under threat of logging. In the Sierra Nevada, it ranges as far south as the Yosemite region. It occurs from near sea level along the coast to above sea level in the mountains of California.
Another variety exists further inland, "Pseudotsuga menziesii" var. "glauca", the Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir or interior Douglas-fir. Interior Douglas-fir intergrades with coast Douglas-fir in the Cascades of northern Washington and southern British Columbia, and from there ranges northward to central British Columbia and southeastward to the Mexican border, becoming increasingly disjunct as latitude decreases and altitude increases. Mexican Douglas-fir ("P. lindleyana"), which ranges as far south as Oaxaca, is often considered a variety of "P. menziesii".
Fossils (wood, pollen) of "Pseudotsuga" are recorded from the Miocene and Pliocene of Europe (Siebengebirge, Gleiwitz, Austria).
It is also naturalised throughout Europe, Argentina and Chile (called "Pino Oregón"). In New Zealand it is considered to be an invasive species, called a wilding conifer, and is subject to control measures.
Ecology.
Preferred Sites.
Douglas-fir prefers acidic or neutral soils. However, it exhibits considerable morphological plasticity, and on drier sites "P. menziesii" var. "menziesii" will generate deeper taproots. "Pseudotsuga menziesii" var. "glauca" exhibits even greater plasticity, occurring in stands of interior temperate rainforest in British Columbia, as well as at the edge of semi-arid sagebrush steppe throughout much of its range, where it generates even deeper taproots still.
The coast Douglas-fir variety is the dominant tree west of the Cascade Mountains in the Pacific Northwest. It occurrs in nearly all forest types and competes well on most parent materials, aspects, and slopes. Adapted to a more moist, mild climate than the interior subspecies, it grows larger and faster than Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir. Associated trees include western hemlock, Sitka spruce, sugar pine, western white pine, ponderosa pine, grand fir, coast redwood, western redcedar, California incense-cedar, Lawson's cypress, tanoak, bigleaf maple and several others. Pure stands are also common, particularly north of the Umpqua River in Oregon. It is most dominant in areas with a more frequent fire regime that suppresses less fire-resistant conifers.
Use by Animals.
Douglas-fir seeds are an extremely important food source for small mammals such as moles, shrews, and chipmunks, which consume an estimated 65% of each annual seed crop. The Douglas squirrel harvests and hoards great quantities of Douglas-fir cones, and also consumes mature pollen cones, the inner bark, terminal shoots, and developing young needles.
Mature or "old-growth" Douglas-fir forest is the primary habitat of the red tree vole ("Arborimus longicaudus") and the spotted owl ("Strix occidentalis"). Home range requirements for breeding pairs of spotted owls are at least 400 ha () of old growth. Red tree voles may also be found in immature forests if Douglas-fir is a significant component. The red vole nests almost exclusively in the foliage of the trees, typically above the ground, and its diet consists chiefly of Douglas-fir needles.
Douglas-fir needles are generally poor browse for ungulates, although in the winter when other food sources are lacking it can become important, and black-tailed deer browse new seedlings and saplings in spring and summer. The spring diet of the blue grouse features Douglas-fir needles prominently.
The leaves are also used by the woolly conifer aphid "Adelges cooleyi"; this 0.5 mm long sap-sucking insect is conspicuous on the undersides of the leaves by the small white "fluff spots" of protective wax that it produces. It is often present in large numbers, and can cause the foliage to turn yellowish from the damage it causes. Exceptionally, trees may be partially defoliated by it, but the damage is rarely this severe. Among Lepidoptera, apart from some that feed on "Pseudotsuga" in general (see there) the gelechiid moths "Chionodes abella" and "C. periculella" as well as the cone scale-eating tortrix moth "Cydia illutana" have been recorded specifically on "P. menziesii".
The inner bark is the primary winter food for the North American porcupine.
Poriol is a flavanone, a type of flavonoid, produced by "P. menziesii" in reaction to infection by "Poria weirii".
Value to Other Plants.
A parasitic plant which uses "P. menziesii" is the Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe ("Arceuthobium douglasii"). Epiphytes such as crustose lichens and mosses are common sights on Douglas-firs. As it is shade-intolerant, undisturbed Douglas-fir stands will eventually give way to later successional, more shade-tolerant associates such as the western redcedar and western hemlock- though this process may take a thousand years or more.
Diseases and Insects.
Fungi such as Laminated root-rot and shoestring root-rot can cause significant damage, and in plantation settings dominated by Douglas-fir monocultures may cause extreme damage to vast swathes of trees. Interplanting with resistant or nonhost species such as western redcedar and beaked hazlenut can reduce this risk. Other threats to Douglas-fir include red ring rot and the Douglas-fir beetle.
Uses.
The species is extensively used in forestry management as a plantation tree for softwood timber. Douglas-fir is one of the world's best timber-producing species and yields more timber than any other species in North America, making the forestlands of western Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia the most productive on the continent. In 2011, Douglas-fir represented 34.2% of US lumber exports, to a total of 1.053 billion board-feet.
The timber is used for timber frame construction/joinery, veneer, flooring and construction due to its strength, hardness and durability.
Douglas fir sees wide use in heavy timber structures, as its wood is strong, available in a number of specifications including kiln dried and grade stamped, and can be supplied in very long lengths to 60 feet. West coast mills are sophisticated in their processing of timbers, making lead times predictable and availability reliable. Paints adhere well to Douglas fir. Stains perform well on Douglas fir timbers with the mild caution that the natural color of this species varies and care must be taken to insure uniformity of color. Pitch pockets that may ooze resin can be present in timbers that have not been kiln dried. Because of the timber sizes available, stamped timber grading, and relatively short lead times, Douglas fir sees wide use in both public and residential projects.
The species has ornamental value in large parks and gardens.
The buds have been used to flavor eau de vie, a clear, colorless fruit brandy.
Native Hawaiians built "waʻa kaulua" (double-hulled canoes) from coast Douglas-fir logs that had drifted ashore.
Douglas-fir has been commonly used as a Christmas tree since the 1920s, and the trees are typically grown on plantations.
Douglas-fir pine leaves can be used to make pine-needle tea. They possess a tangy citrus flavor and may serve in some recipes as a wild substitute for rosemary.
Many different Native American groups used the bark, resin, and pine needles to make herbal treatments for various diseases.
As of 2012, the only wooden ships still currently in use by the United States Navy are Avenger-class minesweepers, made of Douglas-fir.


Chamaescilla

Chamaescilla is a genus of Australian herbs in the subfamily Hemerocallidoideae within the asphodel family. They have grass-like basal leaves and tuberous roots. The flowers have six petals (each with three nerves) and six stamens. The seed capsules contain black, glossy seeds.
Species.
Four species were accepted :
Formerly included:


Vachellia drepanolobium

Vachellia drepanolobium (syn. Acacia drepanolobium), commonly known as whistling thorn (family Fabaceae), is a swollen-thorn acacia native to East Africa. The whistling thorn grows up to 6 meters tall. It produces a pair of straight spines at each node, some of which have large bulbous bases. These swollen spines are naturally hollow and occupied by any one of several symbiotic ant species. The common name of the plant is derived from the observation that when wind blows over bulbous spines in which ants have made entry/exit holes, they create a whistling noise.
Whistling thorn is the dominant tree in some areas of upland East Africa, sometimes forming a nearly monoculture woodland, especially on "black cotton" soils of impeded drainage with high clay content. It is browsed upon by giraffes and other large herbivores. It is apparently fire-adapted, coppicing readily after "top kill" by fire.
Whistling thorn is used as fencing, tool handles, and other implements. The wood of the whistling thorn, although usually small in diameter, is hard and resistant to termites. The branches can also be used for kindling, and its gum is sometimes collected and used as glue. The ability to coppice after cutting make it a possibly sustainable source for fuel wood and charcoal. Conversely, whistling thorn also has been considered a weed of rangelands, and a bush encroachment species.
Symbiosis with ants.
Like other acacias, whistling thorns have leaves that contain tannins, which are thought to serve as deterrents to herbivory. Like all African acacias, they are defended by spines. In addition, Whistling thorn acacias are myrmecophytes that have formed a mutualistic relationship with some species of ants. In exchange for shelter in the bulbous spines (domatia) and nectar secretions, these ants appear to defend the tree against herbivores, such as elephants and giraffes, as well as herbivorous insects.
At one site in Kenya, three "Crematogaster" and one "Tetraponera" ant species compete for exclusive possession of individual whistling thorn trees: "Crematogaster mimosae", "C. sjostedti", "C. nigriceps", and "Tetraponera penzigi". Ants vary in their level of mutualism with whistling thorn trees. The most common ant symbiote (~ 50% of trees), "C. mimosae", has the strongest mutualistic relationship, aggressively defending trees from herbivores while relying heavily on swollen-spines for shelter and feeding from nectar produced by glands near the base of leaves. (see also "Crematogaster peringueyi")
Because the ants compete for exclusive usage of a given tree, some species employ tactics to reduce the chance of a hostile ant invasion. "Crematogaster nigriceps" ants trim the buds of trees to reduce their lateral growth, thereby reducing chances of contact with a neighboring tree occupied by a rival colony. "Tetraponera penzigi", the only species which does not utilize the nectar produced by the trees, instead destroys the nectar glands in order to make a tree less appealing to other species.
The symbiotic relationship between the trees and the ants appears to be maintained by the effects of browsing by large herbivores. At a site in Kenya, when large herbivores were experimentally excluded, trees reduced the number of nectar glands and swollen spines they provided to ants. In response, the usually dominant "C. mimosae" increased their tending of parasitic sap-sucking insects as a replacement food source. In addition, the number of "C. mimosae"-occupied trees declined while twice as many become occupied by "C. sjostedti", a much less aggressive defender of trees. Because "C. sjostedti" benefits from the holes created by boring beetle larvae, this species facilitates parasitism of trees by the beetles. As a result, the mutualistic relationship between whistling thorn trees and resident ants breaks down in the absence of large herbivores, and trees become paradoxically less healthy as a result.


Rorippa palustris

Rorippa palustris, marsh yellow cress, is a species of flowering plant in the family Brassicaceae. It is widespread and native to parts of Africa, and much of Asia, Europe and Eurasia, North America and the Caribbean. It can also be found in other parts of the world as an introduced species and a common weed, for example, in Australia and South America. It is an adaptable plant which grows in many types of damp, wet, and aquatic habitat. It may be an annual, biennial, or perennial plant, and is variable in appearance as well.
Description.
It produces an erect stem, sometimes with branches, attaining a maximum height of just over one meter. The leaves are up to 30 centimeters long and have toothed to deeply lobed edges. The inflorescence is a raceme of mustardlike flowers with spoon-shaped yellow petals each a few millimeters in length. The fruit is a dehiscent and smoothly valved silicle, up to a centimeter long, and containing anywhere from 20 to 90 minute seeds.
Etymology.
The species epithet "palustris" is Latin for "of the marsh" and indicates its common habitat.
Common names.
In botanical literature, "Rorippa palustris" has been called by numerous common names (with variations). Some of them are listed here:
Distribution.
"Rorippa palustris" is native to, or naturalized across much of the globe.


Elaeocarpus prunifolius

Elaeocarpus prunifolius is a species of flowering plant in the Elaeocarpaceae family. It is found in Bangladesh and India. It is threatened by habitat loss.


British NVC community M2

NVC community M2 ("Sphagnum cuspidatum"/"recurvum" bog pool community) is one of the mire communities in the British National Vegetation Classification system.
It is a fairly widely distributed community in northern western Britain, and is also found in Norfolk. There are two subcommunities.
Community composition.
The following constant species are found in this community:
Three rare species are associated with the community:
Distribution.
This community is found in various locations in Wales, southern and northeastern Scotland, and northern England, with an outpost in Norfolk.
Subcommunities.
There are two subcommunities:


Chorizanthe breweri

Chorizanthe breweri is a rare species of flowering plant in the buckwheat family known by the common names San Luis Obispo spineflower and Brewer's spineflower. It is endemic to California, where it is known from about twenty occurrences in the Central Coast Ranges of San Luis Obispo and far southern Monterey Counties. It grows in the chaparral and woodlands of the range, generally on serpentine soils. This small plant produces decumbent stems extending along the ground and sometimes growing upright to a maximum length of about half a meter. The herbage is mostly reddish in color and somewhat hairy. The inflorescence is a cluster of flowers, each surrounded by six hairy reddish bracts with hooked tips. The flower itself is only about 3 millimeters wide and is white to red and hairy.


Elaeocarpus calomala

"Elaeocarpus calomala" is a species of flowering plant in the family Elaeocarpaceae.
Elaeocarpus calomala is a tree commonly found in the Philippines and used to create religious images known as "santo". In the Philippines, this is locally known as anakle, bunsilak, binting-dalaga (Filipino, "maiden's leg"). It is similar to native tree species known as "batikuling" and like the "olongas", another native tree species in the Philippines.


Gigartinaceae

Gigartinaceae is a red algae family in the order Gigartinales.
Genera.
Genera in the family Gigartinaceae include:


Kiaeria (plant)

Kiaeria is a genus of haplolepideous mosses (Dicranidae) of the family Dicranaceae. The genus is named after Franz Caspar Kiaer (1835-1893), a Norwegian doctor and bryologist.
Description.
The moss is similar to small "Dicranum" species and form loose to dense cushions. The stems are erect, 1-2 inches high (occasionally higher) and are sparsely fibrous with rhizoids below. The leaves are lanceolate, erect-spreading, sometimes falcate, with full margins, to cut up against the blade tip, with emerging veining. The leaf cells are elongated at the leaf base and smooth, the top sheet portion extends to approximately square and smooth. The leaf wing cells are clearly differentiated.
The spore capsule, at the end of the 7-16 millimeter-long seta is strumose and more or less inclined. The capsule lid is beaked. The peristome teeth are divided in about the middle.
Distribution.
"Kiaeria" species are found in the northern hemisphere in the arctic and subalpine to alpine areas. They grow on silicate rocks and on the ground.
Species.
Six species have been described:


Zealandia pustulata subsp. howensis

Zealandia pustulata" subsp. "howensis, synonym Microsorum pustulatum" subsp. "howense, is a species of fern, only occurring on Lord Howe Island. The habitat is the shaded forest understorey. It grows from the ground, or on plants or from rocks. Often seen on decaying tree stumps or moss covered rocks.


Chilopogon

Chilopogon is a genus of very rare epiphytic orchids, with 2 currently accepted species (as of May 2014).
Both species are native to New Guinea and Melanesia.
The first species- C. distichum.
The second species- C. oxysepalum.


Cimicifuga

Cimicifuga (bugbane or cohosh) was a genus of between 12-18 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae, native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere.
The genus is now generally included in "Actaea".
The name "Cimicifuga" means 'bedbug repeller'.


Botryosphaeria dothidea

Botryosphaeria dothidea is a plant pathogen that causes the formation of cankers on a wide variety of tree and shrub species. It has been reported on several hundred plant hosts and on all continents except Antarctica. "B. dothidea" was redefined in 2004, and some reports of its host range from prior to that time likely include species that have since been placed in another genus. Even so, "B. dothidea" has since been identified on a number of woody plants—including grape, mango, olive, eucalyptus, maple, and oak, among others—and is still expected to have a broad geographical distribution. While it is best known as a pathogen, the species has also been identified as an endophyte, existing in association with plant tissues on which disease symptoms were not observed. It can colonize some fruits, in addition to woody tissues.
Life as a plant pathogen – "Bot rot" of apple.
White rot, or "Bot rot", of apple is one of the many plant diseases that have been attributed to "B. dothidea". Recent analysis has confirmed the presence of "B. dothidea", along with other "Botryosphaeria" species, on "Malus sp.". Cankers and other dead wood and bark tissue, as well as mummified fruit (fruit infected by the pathogen and remaining in the orchard) serve as sources of primary and secondary inoculum.
Both pycnidia and pseudothecia are observed on plant tissues, producing conidia and ascospores. Conidia are produced in greater numbers. Using spore traps for airborne spores and funnel traps for rainwater, Sutton (1981) determined that, while both conidia and ascospores of "B. dothidea" are released from infected pruning waste (dead wood) during rainfall events and conidia are predominantly water-dispersed, ascospores spread in both air and water. Conidia and ascospores germinate most readily at 28 to 32 °C (82 to 90 °F). ("B. dothidea" has been reported to grow best, in culture, at 25 to 30 °C [77 to 86 °F].) Lenticels and wounds provide locations for wood infection
The cankers of white rot appear similar to those of black rot, caused by "Diplodia seriata" (formerly "B. obtusa"). Girdling of limbs by cankers can result in yellowing ("chlorosis") of leaves on affected branches in the spring. While the precise time of fruit infection is unclear, symptoms of fruit rot appear approximately four to six weeks before harvest. The name "white rot" comes from the light brown color of the surface of affected red-skinned apples.
Classification and characteristics.
"Botryosphaeria dothidea" is the type species of the genus "Botryosphaeria". While the International Botanical Congress recently emended the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants to state that one fungal species should be called by one name, the sexual (teleomorphic) and asexual (anamorphic) stages of single fungal species have often been called by different names. "B. dothidea" was the name given to the teleomorphic form, and "Fusicoccum aesculi" has been identified the anamorph of "B. dothidea", as currently defined. Phillips et al. (2013) chose to use the genus name "Botryosphaeria", rather than "Fusicoccum", since "Botryosphaeria" is commonly used and is the type genus of the family Botryosphaeriaceae.
Fries first published a description of "B. dothidea" as "Sphaeria dothidea" in "Systema Mycologicum" in 1823. Cesati and De Notaris described the genus "Botryosphaeria" and moved the species formerly known as "S. dothidea" into the new genus.
After determining that a type specimen consistent with the original description of "Sphaeria dothidea", on ash, did not exist, Slippers et al. (2004) designated an epitype specimen to go along with a non-sporulating neotype from the collection of Fries, who published the original description of the species. Slippers et al. (2004) then revised the description of "B. dothidea". The name is believed to have previously encompassed a species complex, and references to it in older literature might represent species now otherwise identified.
Like other members of the Dothideomycetes, the sexual stage of "B. dothidea" has bitunicate asci, which are borne in cavities ("ascomata") formed through a process known as "ascolocular development". In the case of "B. dothidea", these ascomata are pseudothecia. The asci in the pseudothecia produce ascospores that can then infect plants. Like other species in the order Botryosphaeriales, "B. dothidea" ascomata have "multilayered dark brown walls" and contain septate pseudoparaphyses which are transparent or translucent (hyaline). Pseudothecia are sometimes located alone and other times clustered together.
In the asexual stage, conidia, which can also infect plants, are produced in pycnidia. The pycnidia and pseudothecia of "B. dothidea" look very similar. Microconidia have also been reported in at least one "B. dothidea" isolate. Microconidia are small, asexual spores that often act as male gametes or gametangia (spermatia) in a process of cytoplasmic fusion (plasmogamy)
According to a key provided in Phillips et al. (2013), "B. dothidea" can be distinguished from six other members of the genus by conidia that are typically longer than 20 μm, have a length to width ratio greater than 4.5, and occur on hosts other than "Vaccinium" species. These conidia are "narrowly...or irregularly fusiform," have thin walls, and are generally transparent or translucent (hyaline) and aseptate but sometimes form up to two septa and/or darken when they are older. Differentiating between species based on morphology depends on observing multiple samples, to get an idea of prevailing character states, and doing so at the appropriate developmental stage. Sequencing is considered an important companion to morphological identification


Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii

Pseudotsuga menziesii" var. "menziesii, also known as Coast Douglas-fir, Pacific Douglas-fir, Oregon pine, or Douglas spruce, is an evergreen conifer native to western North America from west-central British Columbia, Canada southward to central California, United States. In Oregon and Washington its range is continuous from the Cascades crest west to the Pacific Coast Ranges and Pacific Ocean. In California, it is found in the Klamath and California Coast Ranges as far south as the Santa Lucia Mountains with a small stand as far south as the Purisima Hills, Santa Barbara County. In the Sierra Nevada it ranges as far south as the Yosemite region. It occurs from near sea level along the coast to in the California Mountains. Further inland, coast Douglas-fir is replaced by Rocky Mountain or interior Douglas-fir ("P. menziesii" var. "glauca"). Interior Douglas-fir intergrades with coast Douglas-fir in the Cascades of northern Washington and southern British Columbia.
Description.
Coast Douglas-fir is the second-tallest conifer in the world (after coast redwood), and the third-tallest of all trees, (after Eucalyptus regnans). Currently, coast Douglas-fir trees or more in height and in diameter are common in old growth stands, and maximum heights of and diameters up to have been documented. The tallest living specimen is the Doerner Fir, (previously known as the Brummit fir), tall, at East Fork Brummit Creek in Coos County, Oregon, the stoutest is the Queets Fir, diameter, in the Queets River valley, Olympic National Park, Washington. Coast Douglas-fir commonly lives more than 500 years and occasionally more than 1,000 years.
The bark on young trees is thin, smooth, gray, and contains numerous resin blisters. On mature trees, it is thick and corky. The shoots are brown to olive-green, turning gray-brown with age, smooth, though not as smooth as fir shoots, and finely pubescent with short dark hairs. The buds are a very distinctive narrow conic shape, long, with red-brown bud scales. The leaves are spirally arranged but slightly twisted at the base to lie in flattish either side of the shoot, needle-like, long, green above with no stomata, and with two whitish stomatal bands below. Unlike the Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, coast Douglas-fir foliage has a noticeable sweet fruity-resinous scent, particularly if crushed.
The mature female seed cones are pendent, long, broad when closed, opening to broad. They are produced in spring, green at first, maturing orange-brown in the autumn 6–7 months later. The seeds are long and broad, with a wing. The male (pollen) cones are long, dispersing yellow pollen in spring.
In forest conditions, old individuals typically have a narrow, cylindric crown beginning above a branch-free trunk. Self-pruning is generally slow and trees retain their lower limbs for a long period. Young, open-grown trees typically have branches down to near ground level. It often takes 70–80 years for the trunk to be clear to a height of and 100 years to be clear to a height of .
Appreciable seed production begins at 20–30 years in open-grown coast Douglas-fir. Seed production is irregular; over a 5-7 year period, stands usually produce one heavy crop, a few light or medium crops, and one crop failure. Even during heavy seed crop years, only about 25 percent of trees in closed stands produce an appreciable number of cones. Each cone contains around 25 to 50 seeds. Seed size varies; average number of cleaned seeds varies from 70-88/g (32,000-40,000 per pound). Seeds from the northern portion of coast Douglas-fir's range tend to be larger than seed from the south.
Ecology.
The rooting habit of coast Douglas-fir is not particularly deep, with the roots tending to be shallower than those of same-aged Ponderosa pine, sugar pine, or California incense-cedar, though deeper than Sitka spruce. Some roots are commonly found in organic soil layers or near the mineral soil surface. However, Douglas-fir exhibits considerable morphological plasticity, and on drier sites coast Douglas-fir will generate deeper taproots.
Douglas-fir snags are abundant in forests older than 100–150 years and provide cavity-nesting habitat for numerous forest birds. Mature or "old-growth" Douglas-fir forest is the primary habitat of the red tree vole ("Arborimus longicaudus") and the spotted owl ("Strix occidentalis"). Home range requirements for breeding pairs of spotted owls are at least 400 ha ( of old-growth. Red tree voles may also be found in immature forests if Douglas-fir is a significant component. This animal nests almost exclusively in the foliage of Douglas-fir trees. Nests are located above the ground. The red tree vole's diet consists chiefly of common Douglas-fir needles. A parasitic plant sometimes utilizing "P. menziesii" is Arceuthobium douglasii Commonly known as Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe.
Its seedlings are not a preferred browse of black-tailed deer ("Odocoileus hemionus columbianus") and elk ("Cervus canadensis"), but can be an important food source for these animals during the winter when other preferred forages are lacking. In many areas, coast Douglas-fir needles are a staple in the spring diet of blue grouse ("Dendragapus"). In the winter, New World porcupines primarily eat the inner bark of young conifers, among which they prefer Douglas-fir.
Douglas-fir seeds are an extremely important food for small mammals. Mice, voles, shrews, and chipmunks consumed an estimated 65 percent of a Douglas-fir seed crop following dispersal in western Oregon. The Douglas squirrel ("Tamiasciurus douglasii") harvests and caches great quantities of Douglas-fir cones for later use. They also eat mature pollen cones, developing inner bark, terminal shoots, and tender young needles. The seeds are also important in the diets of several seed-eating birds. These include most importantly American sparrows (Emberizidae) – dark-eyed junco ("Junco hyemalis"), song sparrow ("Melospiza melodia"), golden-crowned sparrow ("Zonotrichia atricapilla") and white-crowned sparrow ("Z. leucophrys") – and true finches (Fringillidae) – pine siskin ("Carduelis pinus"), purple finch (""Carpodacus" purpureus"), and the Douglas-fir red crossbill ("Loxia curvirostra neogaea") which is uniquely adapted to foraging for "P. menziesii" seeds.
The coast Douglas-fir variety is the dominant tree west of the Cascade Mountains in the Pacific Northwest, occurring in nearly all forest types, competes well on most parent materials, aspects, and slopes. Adapted to a moist, mild climate, it grows larger and faster than Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir. Associated trees include western hemlock, Sitka spruce, sugar pine, western white pine, Ponderosa pine, grand fir, coast redwood, western redcedar, California incense-cedar, Lawson's cypress, tanoak, bigleaf maple and several others. Pure stands are also common, particularly north of the Umpqua River in Oregon.
Shrub associates in the central and northern part of Coast Douglas-fir's range include vine maple ("Acer circinatum"), salal ("Gaultheria shallon"), Pacific rhododendron ("Rhododendron macrophyllum"), Oregon-grape ("Mahonia aquifolium"), red huckleberry ("Vaccinium parvifolium"), and salmonberry ("Rubus spectabilis"). In the drier, southern portion of its range shrub associates include California hazel ("Corylus cornuta" var. "californica"), oceanspray ("Holodiscus discolor"), creeping snowberry ("Symphoricarpos mollis"), western poison-oak ("Toxicodendron diversilobum"), ceanothus ("Ceanothus" spp.), and manzanita ("Arctostaphylos" spp.). In wet coastal forests, nearly every surface of old-growth coast Douglas-fir is covered by epiphytic mosses and lichens.
Forest succession.
The shade-intolerance of Douglas-fir plays a large role in the forest succession of lowland old growth forest communities of the Pacific Northwest. While mature stands of lowland old-growth forest contain many western hemlock ("Tsuga heterophylla") seedlings, and some western redcedar ("Thuja plicata") seedlings, Douglas-fir dominated stands contain almost no Douglas-fir seedlings. This seeming contradiction occurs because Douglas-firs are intolerant of deep shade and rarely survive for long within the shaded understory. When a tree dies in a mature forest the canopy opens up and sunlight becomes available as a source of energy for new growth. The shade-tolerant western hemlock and western redcedar seedlings that establish beneath the canopy have a head-start on other seedlings. This competitive advantage allows western hemlock to rapidly fill the canopy gap, pre-empting other species that may invade, including Douglas-fir. Long-term forest dynamics plots show that the annual mortality of large Douglas-fir is only about 1%. Thus, over centuries, western hemlock and western redcedar will come to dominate the canopy.
Douglas-fir is a seral species in the wet forests of western British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California. In these areas it requires a large disturbance, such as fire or a large landslide, to open the forest and expose mineral soil where its seedlings prefer to establish. It has a faster growth rate than most other trees, giving the Douglas-fir a competitive advantage when it overtops slower growing species during re-establishment of the canopy. The tree ring ages of dominant Douglas-fir trees can indicate the date of the last stand-replacing fire. Because Douglas-fir is long-lived, it can remain dominant in the forest for more than 300-years following the last fire. A history of fluctuating climate resulted in synchronous fire episodes across western Washington and Oregon, thus many Douglas-fir stands date to a warm-dry periods in the late 1400s and early 1500s, while few date to a cool-wet period from 1650 to 1800.
Douglas-fir is also particularly well adapted to fires: once they reach around 100 years in age they have thick enough bark that protects the cambium layer of the tree from heat damage. Large Douglas-fir often survive low intensity forest fires. Such sites, common in western Oregon, have two or three cohorts of Douglas-fir, adding to the complexity of the old-growth forest. Fire is increasingly rare northward towards the central coast of British Columbia where Douglas-fir is a minor component of the forest.
The logging practices of the last 200 years created artificial disturbances that allowed Douglas-fir to thrive. The Douglas-fir's useful wood and its quick growth make it the crop of choice for many timber companies, which typically replant a clear-cut area with Douglas-fir seedlings. The high-light conditions that exist within a clear-cut also naturally favor the regeneration of Douglas-fir, though in wet coastal climates alders and shrubs compete with Douglas-fir seedlings. Because of clear-cut logging, almost all of the forests west of the Cascade Range not strictly set aside for protection are today dominated by Douglas-fir, while the normally dominant climax species, such as western hemlock and western redcedar are less common. On drier sites in California, where Douglas-fir behaves as a climax species in the absence of fire, Douglas-fir has become somewhat invasive following fire suppression practices of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries; it is becoming a dominant species in many oak woodlands, in which it was previously a minor component.
Uses.
Coast Douglas-fir is one of the world's best timber producers and yields more timber than any other tree in North America. The wood is used for dimensional lumber, timbers, pilings, and plywood. Creosote treated pilings and decking are used in marine structures. The wood is also made into railroad ties, mine timbers, house logs, posts and poles, flooring, pulp, and furniture. Coast Douglas-fir is used extensively in landscaping. It is planted as a specimen tree or in mass screenings. It is also a popular Christmas tree.
Largest trees.
, coast Douglas fir was the second-tallest conifer in the world (after coast redwood). Extant coast Douglas fir trees or more in height and in diameter are common in old growth stands, and maximum heights of and diameters up to have been documented. The tallest living specimen is the "Doerner Fir", previously known as the Brummit Fir, tall, at East Fork Brummit Creek in Coos County, Oregon, the stoutest is the "Queets Fir", in diameter, in the Queets River valley of Olympic National Park in Washington. The largest at is the Red Creek fir in British Columbia, Canada. Douglas firs commonly live more than 500 years and occasionally more than 1,000 years.
The tallest well-documented conifer was , the Mineral Tree (Mineral, Washington), a coast Douglas fir, measured in 1924 by Dr. Richard E. McArdle, former chief of the U.S. Forest Service. The volume of that tree was . Research suggests Douglas fir could grow to a maximum height of between , at which point water supply would fail.
Unconfirmed reports of even taller individuals may be found in historic records.
The tallest tree in the United Kingdom is a coast Douglas-fir. The tree, growing near Ardentinny in Scotland stands at .


Astrocaryum faranae

Astrocaryum faranae is a palm native to Amazon Rainforest vegetation in Brazil and Peru. This plant has a commercial value because it has oil seeds which may be used to make cosmetics.


Cassine (plant)

Cassine is a genus of trees, of the plant family Celastraceae.
Description.
"Cassine" species grow as shrubs or small trees. The flowers are bisexual. The fruits have a pit (stone).
Distribution and habitat.
"Cassine" species are distributed widely throughout the tropics, mainly in Africa.
Species.
 "The Plant List" recognises 68 accepted taxa (of species and infraspecific names):


Carmichaelia australis

Carmichaelia australis or common broom is a species of pea in the family Fabaceae. It is native to New Zealand and found in both the North and South Islands. Its conservation status (2018) is "Not Threatened" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System.
Taxonomy and naming.
The species was first described by Robert Brown in 1825. The specific epithet, "australis", means "southern". The earliest collected specimen was collected by Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander in 1769 (AK102896) and is held in Auckland Museum.
Synonymy.
"C. solandri" G.Simpson is accepted as a different species by ILDIS, but not by Plants of the World Online, nor by Allan (1961), nor Heenan (1996). (Heenan's extensive list of synonyms differs from that of Plants of the World Online.) See also: NZFlora "Carmichaelia australis".


Metaporana

Metaporana is a genus of plants in the bindweed family Convolvulaceae.
The following species are recognised in the genus "Metaporana":


Passiflora andina

Passiflora andina is a species of plant in the family Passifloraceae. It is endemic to Ecuador.


Phragmipedium besseae

Phragmipedium besseae is a species of orchid in the genus "Phragmipedium". It is a terrestrial plant native to the wet montane forests on the eastern slope of the Andes in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.
Description.
It has 13–30 cm long, 2–5 cm wide, dull green, keeled leaves. The inflorescence is 1-6 flowered, opening sequentially, up to 50 cm long, brown, pilose. It has flowers 6–9 cm wide, 1 to 2" (4 to 6.5 cm), pouch with translucent windows. "Phragmipedium besseae" produces long rhizomes.


Hexalectris spicata

Hexalectris spicata, the spiked crested coralroot, is a terrestrial, myco-heterotrophic orchid lacking chlorophyll and subsisting entirely on nutrients obtained from mycorrhizal fungi in the soil. It is native to Arizona, New Mexico, Texas and Coahuila. It is closely related to "H. arizonica" and the two are sometimes considered varieties of the same species. "Hexalectris spicata" is endemic to the southern half of the United States from Arizona east to Florida and north to Maryland and the Ohio Valley.


Arthrodesmus

In taxonomy, Arthrodesmus is a genus of green algae, specifically of the Desmidiaceae.


Festuca idahoensis

Festuca idahoensis is a species of grass known by the common names Idaho fescue and blue bunchgrass. It is native to western North America, where it is widespread and common. It can be found in many ecosystems, from shady forests to open plains grasslands.
Description.
This fescue is a densely clumping long-lived perennial bunch grass with stems from about 30 to 80 centimeters in height. The stiff, short, rolling leaves are mostly located near the base of the tuft. The inflorescence has hairy spikelets which produce large awned fruits. The root system is thick and penetrates deeply into the soil. The roots have symbiotic mycorrhizae. There are no rhizomes; the plant reproduces from seeds and from budding with tillers.
Ecology.
This is a nutritious and preferred forage grass for wild and domestic animals. Typical native grass associates in the far west coastal prairies are "Danthonia californica, Deschampsia caespitosa" and "Nassella pulchra." It is a popular larval host, supporting Lindsey's skipper, sandhill skipper, Sonora skipper, woodland skipper, and western banded skipper caterpillars.
Cultivars, such as "Siskiyou Blue," are produced in the horticulture industry for landscape design and garden use.


Roystonea

Roystonea is a genus of eleven species of monoecious palms, native to the Caribbean Islands, and the adjacent coasts of the United States (Florida), Central America and northern South America. Commonly known as the royal palms, the genus was named after Roy Stone, a U.S. Army engineer. It contains some of the most recognizable and commonly cultivated palms in tropical and subtropical regions.
Description.
"Roystonea" is a genus of large, unarmed, single-stemmed palms with pinnate leaves. The large stature and striking appearance of a "Roystonea" palm makes it a notable aspect of the landscape. The stems, which were compared to stone columns by Louis and Elizabeth Agassiz in 1868, are smooth and columnar, although the trunks of "R. altissima" and "R. maisiana" are more slender than those of typical royal palms. Stems often are swollen and bulging along portions of their length, which may reflect years where growing conditions were better or worse than average. Leaf scars are often prominent along the stem, especially in young, rapidly growing individuals. Stem color ranges from gray-white to gray-brown except in "R. violacea", which have violet-brown or mauve stems. Royal palm, "R. oleracea", reaches heights of , but most species are in the range. The largest Royal palm is located in Floresta Estadual Edmundo Navarro de Andrade in Rio Claro, São Paulo, Brazil with 42.4 m and was discovered by Vincent Ferh and Mauro Galetti
"Roystonea" leaves consist of a sheathing leaf base, a petiole, and a rachis. The leaf base forms a distinctive green sheath around the uppermost portion of the trunk. Known as the crownshaft, this sheath extends down the trunk. The petiole connects the lead base with the rachis. Zona only reported petiole lengths for three of the 10 species, ranging from . The rachis is pinnately divided and ranges from long. The leaf segments themselves range in length from in "R. altissima" up to as much as in "R. lenis". They are arranged in two or three planes along the rachis. Many authors have reported that the leaves "R. oleracea" are arranged in a single plane, but American botanist Scott Zona reported that this is not the case.
These plants have the ability to easily release their leaves in strong winds, a supposed adaption serving to prevent toppling during hurricanes. Inflorescences occur beneath the crownshaft, emerging from a narrow, horn-shaped bract. The flowers on the branched panicles are usually white, unisexual, and contain both sexes. The fruit is an oblong or globose drupe long and deep purple when ripe. Some species so closely resemble one another that scientific differentiation is by inflorescence detail; flower size, colour, etc.
Taxonomy.
"Roystonea" is placed in the subfamily Arecoideae and the tribe Roystoneae, which only contains "Roystonea". The placement of "Roystonea" within the Arecoideae is uncertain; a phylogeny based on plastid DNA failed to resolve the position of the genus within the Arecoideae. As of 2008, there appear to be no molecular phylogenetic studies of "Roystonea". One species is known only from two fossilized flowers preserved in Dominican amber which were described in 2002.
Species.
Accepted species:
Distribution.
"Roystonea" has a circum-Caribbean distribution which ranges from southern Florida in the north, to southern Mexico, Honduras and Nicaragua in the east and Venezuela and Colombia in the south. Species are found throughout the Caribbean, although only Jamaica and Hispaniola (with two native species) and Cuba (with five native species) have more than one native species. A few species are planted in Tunisia as well.
Uses.
Royal palms are widely planted for decorative purposes throughout their native region, and elsewhere in the tropics and subtropics. They are considered by many to be the most beautiful palm in the world. Royal palms are very fond of water and thrive on supplemental irrigation. They also do better in a soil with much humus.
Though mainly a decorative plant, royal palms do have some minor agricultural uses. The heart of the palm is used to make salad in some parts of the Caribbean, and its seeds can be used as substitutes for coffee beans. Royal palm seeds were widely used in Cuba to feed pigs at least up to the 1940s and 1950s. The meat of pigs raised with royal palm seeds was said to be the very best. The lard obtained from pigs fattened or raised with royal palm seeds was said to exhibit a grainy texture, and by inference, to have been the best lard to consume. The seeds generally were obtained by men who specialized in climbing the royal palms using a set of two ropes looped around the stem, with two loops around the climber's legs to support himself. Once the climber reached the seed clumps, he would tie the clumps that were mature, cut them, and let them down by a rope supported from other seed clumps.


Acuston

Acuston is a monospecific genus in the family Brassicaceae which is found in Greece, Lebanon, and Syria. Acuston perenne has one accepted infraspecific, the subspecies "obovatum" which is found only in certain parts of Lebanon and Syria.


Eriogonum gracilipes

Eriogonum gracilipes is a species of wild buckwheat known by the common name White Mountains buckwheat.
It is found in granite and sandstone gravels on the slopes of the southern Sierra Nevada and Inyo Mountains of California and the White Mountains of California and Nevada.
Description.
"Eriogonum gracilipes" is a small perennial herb that grows in flat mats up to 20 centimeters wide. Its leaves, each under two centimeters long, have a coat of dense white hairs and grow in packed clusters on the ground.
The plant blooms in stalks holding rounded clusters of bright raspberry red flowers, each only a few millimeters wide.


Phaenospermateae

Phaenospermatae is a tribe of grasses, subfamily Pooideae, containing a single genus, "Phaenosperma". The tribe previously included several other genera, which are now placed in a separate tribe, Duthieeae.


Pinus douglasiana

Pinus douglasiana is a species of conifer in the family Pinaceae.
It is found only in Mexico. A common name is Douglas pine, but that name is often applied to the more widespread species "Pseudotsuga menziesii" which is also known as Douglas fir.


Acampe

Acampe, abbreviated as Acp in horticultural trade, is a genus of monopodial, epiphytic vandaceous species of orchids, distributed from tropical Asia from India, eastwards to China and southwards to Malaysia, and the Philippines as well as from tropical Africa, Madagascar and islands of the Indian Ocean. The name "Acampe" was derived from the Greek word "akampas", meaning "rigid", referring to the small, brittle, inflexible flowers.
"Acampe" produce slow-growing, medium-sized vines that form very large vegetative masses in nature. They are noted for their thick, leathery, leaves. They produce fragrant small to medium-sized yellow flowers, barred with orange or red stripes, in a few to many-flowered racemose inflorescence. The brittle sepals and petals look alike. The ear-shaped, fringed, white labellum (lip) is (sac-shaped) or has a spur, and has red markings at its base. The fleshy column is short and has two waxy pollinia.
Due to their large size and small flowers, they are rarely cultivated.
Species.
Eight species are recognized as of May 2014:
"Acampe" forms a few intergeneric hybrids :


Erythroxylum vaccinifolium

Erythroxylum vaccinifolium is a flowering plant species in the genus "Erythroxylum".
It is used to prepare catuaba, an infusion used as an aphrodisiac in Brazilian herbal medicine. It contains a class of tropane alkaloids called catuabines.


Adenophorus periens

Adenophorus periens is a rare species of fern known by the common name pendant kihi fern. It is endemic to Hawaii, where it is known from one population in Puna on the island of Hawaii and a few occurrences on Kauai and Molokai. The fern occurs in wet mountain forests on volcanic slopes. It grows on trees. There are perhaps 2000 individual plants remaining. This is a federally listed endangered species of the United States.
This fern is easily distinguished from others in its genus, with its long, hanging fronds that may exceed 40 centimeters in length, twice as long as other "Adenophorus". The leaflets on the fronds are twisted at an angle to the rachis and the leaf edges are lined with unique hairs. Genetic analysis reveals that the fern has a high genetic diversity for such a rare species.
Threats to the species include lava and gas from the volcanoes on which it grows, as well as the death of its host trees, introduced species including weeds and feral pigs, and geothermal development.


Melobesioideae

The Melobesioideae are a subfamily of Corallinacean Coralline algae with multiporate conceptacles.


Cyclamen colchicum

Cyclamen colchicum is a perennial growing from a tuber, native to densely shaded areas among rocks or tree roots in woodland on limestone at elevation in the autonomous republic of Adjara in Georgia, about from the range of the closely related species "Cyclamen purpurascens". Unlike "C. purpurascens", leaves are very thick and leathery with finely toothed edges.


Dioscorea ovinala

Dioscorea ovinala is a species of yam in the family Dioscoreaceae. It is endemic to Madagascar and grows mostly in dry deciduous forests.
Uses.
"Dioscorea ovinala" is important to the Malagasy people as food and medicine. This species is also used as a starch source.


Harfordia (plant)

Harfordia, also called rabbit's purse, is a genus of plants in the family Polygonaceae, with a single species Harfordia macroptera.
Distribution.
The plant is endemic to the state of Baja California, in northwestern México.
A subspecies of the one species is Harfordia macroptera" subsp. "fruticosa, which is endemic to Cedros Island.


Agathis dammara

Agathis dammara, commonly known as the Amboyna pine or almaciga (almasiga), is a coniferous timber tree native to the Philippines and to Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, and the Maluku Islands in Indonesia.
Description.
"Agathis dammara" is a medium-large conifer up to 60 metres in height found in tropical rainforests, growing from sea level to very high mountainous regions where it becomes extremely stunted. It belongs to the southern hemisphere family Araucariaceae, widespread throughout the entire Mesozoic, emerging about 200 million years ago. An extinct genus, "Protodammara" (which appeared long ago, during the Mesozoic), derives its name from this tree. This tree is a source of dammar gum, also known as cat-eye resin.
Taxonomy.
When first discovered and listed as a species it was placed in the genus "Pinus" (Lambert, 1803), and then later with the firs, "Abies" (Poir 1817), and then with its own genus, "Dammara". It was first recognised as being part of "Agathis" in 1807, when it was listed as "Agathis loranthifolia", and beyond that with species names "beccarii", "celebica" and "macrostachys", although it acquired many more names before "dammara" was settled on.
Related species.
"Agathis" is a very diverse genus, although it has only 21 species. Many "Agathis" species are found in tropical rainforests, some other species grow in more temperate and cool climate forests. "Agathis atropurpurea" is found in montane forests of far northern Queensland, Australia. The species grows in regions with altitudes between 950–1450 metres above sea-level. Where rainfall could exceed 18,000 millimetres in areas with no data. In the cloud forest of this region, the soil is so deprived of nutrients, that trees cannot grow in some areas; leaving only heathland and sphagnum bogs. "Agathis robusta" grows in tropical rainforests on sandy soils near the coast, such as on Fraser Island where it grows in subtropical rainforest (although there is no soil on Fraser Island, only sand). "Agathis ovata" grows at altitudes between 150–1000 metres in New Caledonia, sometimes in forests, sometimes in open scrubland.


Lepidozamia peroffskyana

Lepidozamia peroffskyana is a palm-like cycad in the family Zamiaceae. It is endemic to eastern Australia. The species is named after Count Peroffsky (1794-1857), benefactor of the St. Petersburg Botanical Garden.
Description.
This cycad is up to seven metres tall but more usually reaches about four metres. The trunk is up to eighty centimetres in diameter and is covered by the persistent remains of leaf bases. The crown is formed from numerous leaves up to three metres long, each bearing about two hundred narrow, glossy, dark green leaflets, somewhat lax, spreading and softly coriaceous. Each has seven to thirteen parallel veins which helps to distinguish this species from other members of the genus. The cylindrical cones are some of the largest of all cycad cones, rivaled only by "Encephalartos transvenosus". The male cones can reach seventy five centimetres long and the female cones ninety centimetres, weighing up to forty five kilograms. The seeds are large and numerous and have red sarcotesta. All parts of the plant, especially the seeds, are toxic to both livestock and humans; if ingested, the seeds can cause severe gastrointestinal irritation and abdominal cramps, vomiting and nausea, diarrhoea, and potentially also liver damage and muscular paralysis.
Distribution and habitat.
This species is found in southeastern Queensland and northeastern New South Wales, occurring between Gympie, north of Brisbane and the Manning River near Forster. It grows in scattered small communities in wet sclerophyll forests or on rainforest margins, usually on steep slopes from sea level up to about 1,000 metres.


Ligule

A ligule (from "strap", variant of "lingula", from "lingua" "tongue") is a thin outgrowth at the junction of leaf and leafstalk of many grasses (Poaceae) and sedges. A ligule is also a strap-shaped extension of the corolla, such as that of a ray floret in plants in the daisy family Asteraceae.
Poaceae and Cyperaceae.
The ligule is part of the leaf that is found at the junction of the blade and sheath of the leaf. It may take several forms, but it is commonly some form of translucent membrane or a fringe of hairs. The membranous ligule can be very short 1–2 mm (Kentucky bluegrass, "Poa pratensis") to very long 10–20 mm (Johnson grass, "Sorghum halepense"), it can also be smooth on the edge or very ragged. Some grasses do not have a ligule, for example barnyardgrass ("Echinochloa crus-galli").
A ligule can also be defined as a membrane-like tissue or row of delicate hairs typically found in grasses at the junction of the leaf sheath and blade. The ligule appears to be a continuation of the leaf sheath and encircles or clasps the stem as does the leaf sheath. The three basic types of ligules are: membranous, a fringe of hairs (ciliate), and absent or lacking. Most grasses have ligules, and the shape, length, and appearance of the ligule margin provide consistent characters for separating genera and some species of grasses.
In grass-like plants such as sedges (Cyperaceae) and rushes (Juncaceae), ligules are usually absent or poorly developed.
Asteraceae.
In members of Asteraceae, a ligule is the elongated tongue of the corolla of a ray flower or ligulate flower.
Clubmosses.
The microphylls of Lycopodiophyta of the families Selaginellaceae (spikemosses or lesser clubmosses) and Isoetaceae (quillworts) have minute, scale-like flaps of tissue called ligules at the base of the upper surface of each leaf blade. This feature distinguishes them from clubmosses of the family Lycopodiaceae.


Gastrodia queenslandica

Gastrodia queenslandica, commonly known as rainforest bells, is a leafless terrestrial mycotrophic orchid in the family Orchidaceae. It has one or two small, yellowish brown, tube-shaped flowers on a thin, brittle flowering stem and grows in rainforest in tropical north Queensland, Australia.
Description.
"Gastrodia queenslandica" is a leafless terrestrial, mycotrophic herb that has a thin, fleshy, brittle, light brown flowering stem bearing one or two yellowish brown, tube-shaped flowers that are orange-coloured inside. The sepals and petals are joined, forming a tube about long with spreading tips. The tube is rough on the outside and orange-coloured and smooth inside. The labellum is about long, wide and completely enclosed in the tube. Flowering occurs from November to January.
Taxonomy and naming.
"Gastrodia queenslandica" was first formally described in 1964 by Alick William Dockrill who published the description in "The North Queensland Naturalist". In 2004, David Jones and Mark Clements changed the name to "Demorchis queenslandica" but the change has not been accepted by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families.
Distribution and habitat.
Rainforest bells grows in near coastal rainforest between the Russell River and the McIlwraith Range but is rarely seen.
Conservation.
This orchid is classed as "near threatened" under the Queensland Government Nature Conservation Act 1992.


Cylindropuntia calmalliana

Cylindropuntia calmalliana is a species of flowering plant in the family Cactaceae, native to Mexico (Baja California). It was first described in 1896 by John Merle Coulter, as "Opuntia calmalliana".


Ammannia fitzgeraldii

Ammannia fitzgeraldii is a species in the family Lythraceae that is endemic to northern Australia.
The species is found in the Kimberley region of Western Australia.


Nepenthes malayensis

Nepenthes malayensis, or the banded Malayan montane pitcher plant, is a large species of carnivorous tropical pitcher plant native and endemic to eastern mountains of Peninsular Malaysia. The peristomes on both upper and lower pitchers are profusely adorned by reddish bands, or stripes, making the species rather attractive. It grows close to mountain summits around 800-1000 m above sea level in partially shaded areas, though some individuals have been seen striving in open areas. The species was first observed in 2018 and initially thought to be conspecific with "N. sanguinea". "Nepenthes malayensis formal description was published in late 2020 in Kew Bulletin and it is one of the latest three new Malayan species described in the same year (the other two was "N. latiffiana" and "N. domei"). These discoveries have made Peninsular Malaysia home to 15 species of "Nepenthes'."
"Nepenthes malayensis" is listed in the International Plant Names Index (IPNI), and its taxonomic position gets briefly reviewed (and recognized as a distinct species) in Dionée 2021 – a French-language official publication by Association Francophone des Amateurs de Plantes Carnivores (a French carnivorous plant society).
Discovery and taxonomy.
"Nepenthes malayensis" was first sighted by two local natural photographers Dome Nikong and Mohamad Alias Shakri, which later appraised by field research crews composed of Dr. Mohd Norfaizal Ghazalli (MARDI, plant taxonomist), Amin Asyraf Tamizi (MARDI, molecular biologist), Edward Entalai Besi (UPM, plant taxonomist) and Muhamad Ikhawanuddin Mat Esa (UPM, ethnobotanist). The plant was also further appraised by Emeritus Professor Dato' Dr. Abdul Latiff Mohamad, a prominent national plant taxonomist from "Univerisiti Kebangsaan Malaysia" (UKM). The species was then formally described by Amin Asyraf Tamizi, Mohd Norfaizal Ghazalli and Dome Nikong which was published online in Kew Bulletin (vol. 75) on 20th December 2020.
The name "'malayensis"' (- of Malaya) signifies the endemism of this species to Malaya, or Peninsular Malaysia, specifically to the eastern mountain range. "Nepenthes malayensis" was assessed as a critically endangered (CR) species according to the IUCN criteria since very few individuals were observed prior to the publication of the article. This status might need a reassessment following a recent sighting of "N. malayensis" in a neighboring mountain.
The species was mistaken as an allied taxon to "N. sanguinea" on the first sight due to a slight resemblance of the upper pitchers in green individuals. Detailed characterisation of the upper stems, lower pitchers, leaf surface, vascular bundle and DNA marker have since established "N. malayensis" as a distinct species. Diagnostic characteristics that make "N. malayensis" distinct from "N. sanguinea" are cylindrical to broadly angular stem (vs. sharply angular), pubescent (hairy) leaves and tendrils (vs. glabrescent), and broad-cylindrical pithcers which are slightly constricting in the middle and below persitome (vs. narrow pitchers, funnel shaped). The banded Malayan "Nepenthes" also sports prominent stripes, or bands, on the peristomes - an attribute persistent in both upper and lower pitchers of all individuals observed so far - and this reminds one of the stripes on the Malaysian Flag. Green (colour of the pitchers) individuals were the most sighted varieties while dark-reddish varieties were less common. Nothospecies (natural hybrids) of "N. malayensis" possibily exist within the same habitat based on sightings of some plants that resembled "N. malayensis" (but with slight different pitcher morphology especially the lid) and this has not been properly documented.
Compared to "N. sanguinea", "N. malayensis" has not been observed growing on soil in its natural habitat. "Nepenthes malayensis" exclusively grows on humus accumulated on rocks (facultative lithophytic) or moss banks on tree branches making it a non-terrestrial "Nepenthes", which might be the main factor of its elusiveness from past researchers and explorers.
"Nepenthes malayensis" joins the rank of large "Nepenthes" ever recorded in the wild as mature plants can grow pitchers up to 35 cm tall with volume around 800 mL. "Nepenthes rajah", the largest species from Sabah, can grow pitchers up to 41 cm tall while "N. truncata" from southern Philippines and "N." "attenboroughii" from Palawan have been recorded to produce pitchers 40 cm and 30 cm tall, respectively.


Obtusifolium

Obtusifolium is a genus of liverworts belonging to the family Cephaloziellaceae.
The species of this genus are found in Europe and Russia.
Species:


Anomodon attenuatus

Anomodon attenuatus, commonly known as anomodon moss, is a species of moss in the family Thuidiaceae. It has a wide-ranging distribution and can be found from Canada to Central America and the Caribbean as well as in Europe and Asia (India, eastern Russia, and Turkey).


Coelogyne

Coelogyne is a genus of over 200 sympodial epiphytes from the family Orchidaceae, distributed across India, China, Indonesia and the Fiji islands, with the main centers in Borneo, Sumatra and the Himalayas. They can be found from tropical lowland forests to montane rainforests. A few species grow as terrestrials or even as lithophytes in open, humid habitats. The genera Bolborchis , Hologyne and Ptychogyne are generally included here. The genus is abbreviated Coel. in trade journals.
Name.
The name "Coelogyne" was first published as "Caelogyne" in 1921 by John Lindley. and is derived from the Ancient Greek words "κοῖλος" ("koîlos", hollow) and "γῠνή" ("gunḗ", woman), referring to the concave stigma.
A few species are commonly known as "necklace orchids", because of their long, pendant, multi-flowered inflorescence.
Description.
This genus lacks the saccate base of the labellum, a typical characteristic which is present in the other genera in the subtribe Coelogyninae. The free lip has high lateral lobes along the basal part of the labellum (hypochile) and smooth, toothed or warty keels.
The pseudobulbs of one internode vary in size. They may be closely or widely spaced through sympodial growth along the rhizome.
Inflorescences often show a small to very large number of showy, medium-sized to large flowers. They may arise either from the apex of the newly completed pseudobulb at the end of the growing season (as in "Coelogyne fimbriata"), or may precede the new growth in early spring (as in "Coelogyne cristata"). The typical colour range of this genus is white, through tawny brown to green, and occasionally peachy tones. All species have four pollinia.
They have often a sweet scent, attracting different kinds of pollinators, such as bees, wasps and beetles.
Distribution.
The cooler growing species such as "Coelogyne fimbriata", "Coelogyne ovalis", "Colegyne fuliginosa", "Coelogyne cristata", "Coelogyne flaccida", "Coelogyne nitida" originate in the Himalayan region of India and southeast Asia.
Taxonomy.
The traditional taxonomy of the genus "Coelogyne" is still disputed. "Coelogyne" has been subdivided in 23 sections or subgenera by De Vogel (1994) and Clayton. Molecular data show that "Coelogyne" is paraphyletic and should be reorganised. It should include the genera "Neogyna" and "Pholidota", and several sections should be removed, including "Cyathogyne", "Tomentosae", "Rigidiformes", "Veitchiae" and "Verrucosae". This new genus "Coelogyne" should then contain about 160 species.
The type species is "Coelogyne cristata".
Species.
The database IPNI gives 415 entries for this genus, but a large number are invalid or have become synonyms. These are not mentioned in the following traditional list.
Hybrids.
"Coelogyne" hybrids include:
Cultivation.
The wide distribution of this genus has resulted in a wide variety of temperature requirements from species to species, some requiring cool to cold conditions to grow and bloom reliably, while others need decidedly warmer temperatures to achieve the same.
The orchids in this genus require a decided rest period during winter in which they receive no feed, very little water (enough to prevent pseudobulbs shrivelling), cool to cold temperatures and high light. These conditions seem to aid flowering in spring for some growers, though others report that more constant conditions can also produce regular flowering.


Homopholis belsonii

Homopholis is a genus of Australian plants in the grass family.
The only known species is "Homopholis belsonii", native to the States of Queensland and New South Wales in Australia.
see "Panicum"


Leucopogon microphyllus

Leucopogon microphyllus is a small Australian plant in the family Ericaceae native to eastern Australia. Two varieties are recognised, distinguished principally by leaf hairiness and geographical distribution. "Leucopogon microphyllus" var. "microphyllus" (Cav.) R.Br. is widespread and relatively common in heathlands of coastal eastern New South Wales and south eastern Queensland. "Leucopogon microphyllus" var. "pilibundus" (A.Cunn. ex DC.) Benth. is found at higher altitudes on the eastern ranges of New South Wales and Victoria, and has leaves with long hairs on both the upper and lower surface. Neither variety is considered threatened.


Rytidosperma bipartitum

Rytidosperma bipartitum, the leafy wallaby grass, is a perennial species of grass found in south eastern Australia. Usually found on the heavier clay or on loamy soils in open eucalyptus woodland. The habit is somewhat variable, erect and densely tufted. The grass may grow up to tall.


Andoa (plant)

Andoa is a genus of mosses belonging to the family Hypnaceae.
The species of this genus are found in Southwestern Europe.
Species:


Degarmoara

× Degarmoara, abbreviated Dgmra. in the horticultural trade, is the nothogenus comprising intergeneric hybrids between the orchid genera "Brassia", "Miltonia" and "Odontoglossum" (Brs. x Milt. x Odm.).
In the current botanical classifications according to Genera Orchidacearum by Alec M. Pridgeon, Phillip J. Cribb, Mark W. Chase, and Finn N. Rasmussen, "Odontoglossum" is merged into "Oncidium" and x Degarmoara is considered to be the same as the nothogenus "Aliceara". The RHS Orchid register does not register Degarmoara anymore.


Cionosicys

Cionosicys is a genus of the gourd family.


Chorisodontium

Chorisodontium is a genus of mosses belonging to the family Dicranaceae.
The species of this genus are found in New Zealand and Southen America.
Species:


Merosity

Merosity (from the greek "méros," which means "having parts") refers to the number of component parts in a distinct whorl of a plant structure. It is most commonly used in the context of flowers where it refers to the number of sepals in a whorl of the calyx, the number of petals in a whorl of the corolla, the number of stamens in a whorl of the androecium, or the number of carpels in a whorl of the gynoecium. The term may also be used to refer to the number of leaves in a leaf whorl.
The adjective "n"-merous refers to a whorl of "n" parts, where "n" is any integer greater than one.
In nature, five or three parts per whorl have the highest frequency of occurrence, but four or two parts per whorl are not uncommon. Be aware that two consecutive whorls of dimerous petals are often mistaken for tetramerous petals.
If all of the whorls in a given floral arrangement have the same merosity, the flower is said to be isomerous, otherwise the flower is anisomerous. For example, "Trillium" is isomerous since all whorls are trimerous (one whorl of three sepals, zero or one whorl of three petals, two whorls of three stamens each, and one whorl of three carpels). "Trillium" also has one whorl of three leaves.


Alvaradoa amorphoides

Alvaradoa amorphoides, the Mexican alvaradoa, is a species of plant in the Picramniaceae family. It is a common native plant in Mexico but is also native to southern Florida, where is it endangered.


Kickxia spuria

Kickxia spuria is a species of flowering plant in the family Plantaginaceae known by several common names, including roundleaf cancerwort and round-leaved fluellen. It is native to Europe and Asia, but it is present on other continents as an introduced species, and sometimes a noxious weed. This is a low hairy herb with a creeping stem with many branches. It produces rounded, fuzzy leaves at wide intervals along the stem, and solitary snapdragon-like flowers. Each flower is up to 1.5 centimeters long with a narrow, pointed spur extending from the back. The lobes of the mouth are yellow, white, and deep purple, and the whole flower is fuzzy to hairy. The fruit is a spherical capsule about 4 millimeters long. This species is similar to its relative, "Kickxia elatine", but for the shape of its leaves, and the hairy flower stalk, which is bare with "Kickxia elatine".


Pseudobombax

Pseudobombax is a genus of flowering plants in the subfamily Bombacoideae of the family Malvaceae.


Amauropelta bonapartii

Amauropelta bonapartii, synonym Thelypteris bonapartii, is a species of fern in the family Thelypteridaceae. It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Cyperales


Abietinella (plant)

Abietinella (plant) is a genus of moss belonging to the family Thuidiaceae.
The genus was first described by Johann Karl August Müller.
Species:


Daphne mezereum

Daphne mezereum, commonly known as mezereum, mezereon, February daphne, spurge laurel or spurge olive, is a species of "Daphne" in the flowering plant family Thymelaeaceae, native to most of Europe and Western Asia, north to northern Scandinavia and Russia. In southern Europe it is confined to medium to higher elevations and in the subalpine vegetation zone, but descends to near sea level in northern Europe. It is generally confined to soils derived from limestone.
Description.
It is a deciduous shrub growing to 1.5 m tall. The leaves are soft, 3–8 cm long and 1–2 cm broad, arranged spirally on the stems. The flowers are produced in early spring on the bare stems before the leaves appear. They have a four-lobed pink or light purple (rarely white) perianth 10–15 mm diameter, and are strongly scented. The fruit is a bright red berry 7–12 mm diameter; it is very poisonous for humans, though fruit-eating birds like thrushes are immune and eat them, dispersing the seeds in their droppings.
Toxicity.
"Daphne mezereum" is very toxic because of the compounds mezerein and daphnin present especially in the berries and twigs. If poisoned, victims experience a choking sensation. Handling the fresh twigs can cause rashes and eczema in sensitive individuals. Despite this, it is commonly grown as an ornamental plant in gardens for its attractive flowers. The native wild version became a protected species in the UK in 1975 under the Conservation of Wild Creatures and Wild Plants Act.
Symptoms of Poisoning.
Ingestion of plant parts leads within a few hours to severe irritation and a burning sensation in the mouth, with swelling of the lips and face, increased salivation, hoarseness and difficulty in swallowing. These symptoms are soon followed by severe abdominal pain, headache, numbness, nausea and bloody diarrhoea. Children (who may be poisoned by the attractive red fruits) often show additional narcotic symptoms with muscular twitching. Work by Frohne and Pfänder has determined that it is the chewed seed, not the fruit pulp, that is responsible for the severe symptoms in poisoning by the berries.
1955 Case study involving consumption of flowers.
A seven year old boy, who was admitted to hospital (Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital Heidelberg) after consuming several flowers of "D. mezereum" (number unspecified) at first exhibited symptoms very similar to acute appendicitis, with headache and abdominal pain...a number of neurologically and psychically striking symptoms developed in the hours that followed: periods of complete disorientation and very severe motor unrest alternated with periods of complete clarity, with tetanoid fearfulness. Towards evening, signs of meningitis and finally generalised convulsions appeared. Very severe diarrhoea then heralded serious enteritis which only subsided after a week.


Quararibea dolichosiphon

Quararibea dolichosiphon is a species of flowering plant in the Bombacaceae family. It is found only in Panama.


Selaginella stellata

Selaginella stellata, also recognized by its common name, starry spikemoss or starry spike-moss, is a species of spikemoss of the family Selaginellaceae. It is a type of lycopod that grows naturally in Mexico and Central American countries like Guatemala and Belize and can also be found in the state of Hawaii.
Distribution.
Spikemoss can be found in a number of places in a variety of climates. In North America alone, individuals of the genus "Selaginella" have been discovered in tropical habitats like those in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands as well as the more arctic habitats in areas of Greenland. "Selaginella stellata" in particular is native to Central America and Mexico. In the United States it was introduced to equatorial state of Hawaii. There the individuals of this species can be found along the trails ‘Akaka Falls State Park as well as the valleys of the Hamakua coast.
Habitat and ecology.
Members of the genus "Selaginella" are terrestrial plants that grow in a different types of habitats, though, most grow in damp shady areas of tropical forests. They are herbaceous and can be perennials or annuals. Starry spikemoss plants are mossy, fern-like perennials that can be found growing over cliffs and on the side of trails. According to the USDA PLANTS Database, they are considered "nonhydrophytes" and therefore can be found in wetlands but this is not considered common.
Morphology.
Individuals of this species are recognized by swollen joints dispersed along the main stem of the plant along with long rhizophores located on the lower third of the stem. Typically the stems of this spikemoss are straw colored and ascending or erecting from bases that lie on the ground. The branches of the plant form an open, egg-shaped pattern. Leaves of this species generally ovate but have also been narrowly oblong and lanceolate in shape and range from approximately 1-3mm in length. The strobili of these types of individuals grow to about 1–2.5 cm in length.
Starry Spikemoss plants are commonly confused with a closely related species, "Selaginella galeottii". Their appearances are similar however the shape of the lateral and axillary leaves are different. Axillary and lateral leaves of "Selaginella stellata" tend to be eciliate and the axillary leaves are biauriculate and conspicuous. Axillary leaves of "Selaginella galeottii" are rarely auriculate and if they are present they are inconspicuous. Axillary and lateral leaves of "Selaginella galeottii" also differ in that they have cilia at their base or near their point of attachment.
Usage.
According to the Amazonian Ethnobotanical Dictionary, "Selaginella stellata" is part of a decoction called "Palillo" or "Sapo magui" that is used by Brazilians while bathing as a flu treatment.