Walter Scott (investment manager)

Walter Grant Scott, is a Scottish investment manager, founder of the global equity management business Walter Scott and Partners, nuclear physicist and rowing enthusiast.
Early life.
Walter Scott was born in Glasgow in May 1947. He attended Eastwood High School and then went to Edinburgh University where he gained a first-class honours degree in Natural Philosophy (Physics) in 1969 and went on to obtain a Ph.D in at Trinity Hall, Cambridge in 1972, researching theoretical particle physics at the Cavendish Laboratory. During this time he developed a life-long interest in the college's boat club and in rowing generally.
Investment management.
Ivory and Syme.
As a nuclear physicist Scott decided that, although he was a capable researcher, he was in competition with potential Nobel Prize winners and he was in a profession that was not very well paid. He decided would change career to be in the financial services industry. In 1972 Scott started to work for Ivory and Sime in Edinburgh and he eventually led their pension fund business. From there, after becoming a target for attempted head-hunting, he decided he could do better running his own business.
Walter Scott and Partners.
In 1983 he left Ivory and Syme to found Walter Scott and Partners with two other partners. It was a global equity management firm which became a private limited company. Rather than trying to produce growth forecasts, the focus was on understanding why some companies grow. The portfolio never contained more than fifty companies, held taking a long-term view. This approach was particularly appealing to a number of American clients and he found it helpful to emphasize the firm's Scottishness – wearing a kilt could be impressive. With about sixty staff, the partnership was decidedly up-market.
For the 2003–2004 tax year the business made pre-tax profits of £8 million on a turnover of £18 million and Scott personally was estimated to be worth £62 million with an income of £100,000 a week. In 2006 the firm held 3.3 per cent (89 million shares) in Morrisons.
In May 2006 Scott sold the business to Mellon (later to become BNY Mellon) for between £250 million and £500 million and resigned as director next year. Scott had been one of three shareholders and had owned 70 per cent of the shares. At the time the business was managing £14.3 billion of assets.
Scott Investment Partners.
With two other partners in 2013, after a period of "retiral", Scott established Scott Investment Partners LLP, also a global equity management firm, based in Henley-on-Thames.
Personal life.
Scott is married to Rosemary and they have three children. As well as rowing, he states his interests to be aviation (he has a pilot's licence), classic cars, gardening, and "rock ‘n’ roll". He is a member of the Leander Club, New York Athletic Club, and Monaco Yacht Club. He is an honorary fellow of Trinity Hall and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Scott is often described in the press as secretive or reclusive and avoids being photographed, but he is well known in the financial world and is "rather flamboyant" and ostentatious in his lifestyle.
In 2011 he publicly debated anthropogenic climate change with Brian Hoskins, – while agreeing that the climate is changing he expressed doubts about the rate and period of time for the change and whether human activity has been involved.
In 2010 he donated £1 million to the National Museums Scotland as a contribution to its refurbishment plans and there is a gallery named after him. At the time his own wealth was estimated to be about £150 million.
As well as living on the Côte d'Azur, Scott has a home at Henley-on-Thames where he is a supporter of the Henley Royal Regatta. He has rowed for Upper Thames Rowing Club veterans. He purchased from Cambridge University Boat Club "Amaryllis", the 50-foot umpire's launch built by Hobbs and Sons in 1928, and had it restored to again be in use at Henley for umpires and supporters. "Amaryllis" was later used as the model for four new launches.
Charlotte Square.
Scott is credited with restoring several properties in Charlotte Square in Edinburgh. In 1996 Scott's firm purchased 9, Charlotte Square in Edinburgh, one of the grandest squares in the city's New Town and the location of the official residence of Scotland's First Minister. By 2002 his had purchased nine more properties in the square, using 1, Charlotte Square for the firm's headquarters. It had cost £35 million to purchase and renovate the ten town houses. He did not view the purchases as being a commercial venture: "I believe Charlotte Square is the finest Georgian square in Europe, it was the best financial-legal address in Europe ... that is why I will be delighted to take my firm into it and return to the city’s centre of gravity. I’d love to think we could re-establish the Square as the financial hub."


Marc A. Kastner

Marc A. Kastner (born November 20, 1945) is an American physicist and Donner Professor of Science and the former Dean of the School of Science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Currently he is President of the Science Philanthropy Alliance.
Early years.
Kastner was born in Toronto, Ontario, on November 20, 1945. He completed his B.S. in Chemistry in 1967, M.S. in 1969 and Ph.D. in Physics in 1972 from the University of Chicago.
Academic career.
Kastner was a Harvard Research Fellow from 1972 to 1973. He joined the faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1973. He became Donner Professor of Science at MIT in 1989. He was appointed Department Head in February 1998. He served as the Dean of the School of Science at MIT from 2007 to 2013.
Research.
Kastner was a researcher on amorphous semiconductors. His early research focused on the relationship between chemical bonding and the electronic structure of defects in glasses.
In 1990, his group at MIT discovered the single electron transistor. It is a device in which electrostatic fields confine electrons to a small region of space inside a semiconductor. Single electron transistors turn on and off again every time one electron is added. In an interview, he said that the discovery that a transistor could turn on and off again every time an electron was added to it was one of the most astounding and exciting experiences of his life.
His recent research focused on the electronic properties of nanometer-size semiconductor structures and on the physics of high temperature (Tc ) superconductivity.


LHC Accelerator Research Program

The U.S. LHC Accelerator Research Program (LARP) coordinates research and development in the United States related to the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. Among other things, the program has contributed important instrumentation for initial LHC operation and is leading the way for the development of superconducting magnets based on Niobium-tin, which are proposed for
future LHC upgrades.
LARP was first proposed in 2003 as a collaboration between the Brookhaven National Laboratory, the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. The SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory joined the program shortly thereafter.
LARP is funded through the US Department of Energy. The total funding in Fiscal Year 2010 was $12.39M, distributed among the four labs involved.


Homer L. Dodge

Homer Levi Dodge was the Chair of the Department of Physics, Dean of the Graduate school, and founder of the Oklahoma Research Institute, at the University of Oklahoma in Norman, Oklahoma.
In 1919 Dodge became chairman of the Physics Department at the University of Oklahoma, and in 1926 he became dean of the graduate school.
He was president of the Board of Trustees for the School of Religion from 1927 to 1944.
At the December 1930 meeting of the American Physical Society, Dodge helped to organize the American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT).
He was elected the first President of the AAPT.
In 1941, he organized the Oklahoma Research Institute and became its first director.
From 1942 to 1944, he took a leave of absence from the University of Oklahoma to serve as director of the Office of Scientific Personnel of the National Research Council.
One story of Homer Dodge, the Physics professor, was that he stopped by the Omaha when he was heading to the west for vacation in 1956 to invest with young Warren Buffett. Warren Buffett was young, but he looked even younger. So, many investors didn't want to give serious money to Warren. However, Homer trusted the analytical mind of Warren Buffett and wanted to put in $120,000 in Buffett Associates. Only problem was Buffett Associates was for " family members or close friends only". Homer and Warren Buffett set up a separate partnership. Homer Dodge was worth tens of Millions when he died in 1983, thanks to his early trust in Warren Buffett.
Sources.
President of Norwich University, 1945-1950.


CLs method (particle physics)

In particle physics, CLs represents a statistical method for setting "upper limits" (also called "exclusion limits") on model parameters, a particular form of interval estimation used for parameters that can take only non-negative values. Although CLs are said to refer to Confidence Levels, "The method's name is ... misleading, as the CLs exclusion region is not a confidence interval." It was first introduced by physicists working at the LEP experiment at CERN and has since been used by many high energy physics experiments. It is a frequentist method in the sense that the properties of the limit are defined by means of error probabilities, however it differs from standard confidence intervals in that the stated confidence level of the interval is not equal to its coverage probability. The reason for this deviation is that standard upper limits based on a most powerful test necessarily produce empty intervals with some fixed probability when the parameter value is zero, and this property is considered undesirable by most physicists and statisticians.
Upper limits derived with the CLs method always contain the zero value of the parameter and hence the coverage probability at this point is always 100%. The definition of CLs does not follow from any precise theoretical framework of statistical inference and is therefore described sometimes as "ad hoc". It has however close resemblance to concepts of "statistical evidence"
proposed by the statistician Allan Birnbaum.
Definition.
Let "X" be a random sample from a probability distribution with a real non-negative parameter formula_1. A "CLs" upper limit for the parameter "θ", with confidence level formula_2, is a statistic (i.e., observable random variable) formula_3 which has the property:
The inequality is used in the definition to account for cases where the distribution of "X" is discrete and an equality can not be achieved precisely. If the distribution of "X" is continuous then this should be replaced by an equality. Note that the definition implies that the coverage probability formula_4 is always larger than formula_2.
An equivalent definition can be made by considering a hypothesis test of the null hypothesis formula_6 against the alternative formula_7. Then the numerator in (), when evaluated at formula_8, correspond to the type-I error probability (formula_9) of the test (i.e., formula_8 is rejected when formula_11) and the denominator to the power (formula_12). The criterion for rejecting formula_13 thus requires that the ratio formula_14 will be smaller than formula_15. This can be interpreted intuitively as saying that formula_8 is excluded because it is formula_15 less likely to observe such an extreme outcome as "X" when formula_8 is true than it is when the alternative formula_19 is true.
The calculation of the upper limit is usually done by constructing a test statistic formula_20 and finding the value of formula_21 for which
where formula_23 is the observed outcome of the experiment.
Usage in high energy physics.
Upper limits based on the CLs method were used in numerous publications of experimental results obtained at particle accelerator experiments such as LEP, the Tevatron and the LHC, most notable in the searches for new particles.
Origin.
The original motivation for CLs was based on a conditional probability calculation suggested by physicist G. Zech for an event counting experiment. Suppose an experiment consists of measuring formula_24 events coming from signal and background processes, both described by Poisson distributions with respective rates formula_25 and formula_26, namely formula_27. formula_26 is assumed to be known and formula_25 is the parameter to be estimated by the experiment. The standard procedure for setting an upper limit on formula_25 given an experimental outcome formula_31 consists of excluding values of formula_25 for which formula_33, which guarantees at least formula_34 coverage. Consider, for example, a case where formula_35 and formula_36 events are observed, then one finds that formula_37 is excluded at 95% confidence level. But this implies that formula_38 is excluded, namely all possible values of formula_25. Such a result is difficult to interpret because the experiment cannot essentially distinguish very small values of formula_25 from the background-only hypothesis, and thus declaring that such small values are excluded (in favor of the background-only hypothesis) seems inappropriate. To overcome this difficulty Zech suggested conditioning the probability that formula_41 on the observation that formula_42, where formula_43 is the (unmeasurable) number of background events. The reasoning behind this is that when formula_43 is small the procedure is more likely to produce an error (i.e., an interval that does not cover the true value) than when formula_43 is large, and the distribution of formula_43 itself is independent of formula_25. That is, not the over-all error probability should be reported but the conditional probability given the knowledge one has on the number of background events in the sample. This conditional probability is
which correspond to the above definition of CLs. The first equality just uses the definition of Conditional probability, and the second equality comes from the fact that if formula_49 and the number of background events is by definition independent of the signal strength.
Generalization of the conditional argument.
Zech's conditional argument can be formally extended to the general case. Suppose that formula_50 is a test statistic from which the confidence interval is derived, and let
where formula_52 is the outcome observed by the experiment. Then formula_53 can be regarded as an unmeasurable (since formula_21 is unknown) random variable, whose distribution is uniform between 0 and 1 independent of formula_21. If the test is unbiased then the outcome formula_52 implies
from which, similarly to conditioning on formula_43 in the previous case, one obtains
Relation to foundational principles.
The arguments given above can be viewed as following the spirit of the conditionality principle of statistical inference, although they express a more generalized notion of conditionality which do not require the existence of an ancillary statistic. The conditionality principle however, already in its original more restricted version, formally implies the likelihood principle, a result famously shown by Birnbaum. CLs does not obey the likelihood principle, and thus such considerations may only be used to suggest plausibility, but not theoretical completeness from the foundational point of view. (The same however can be said on any frequentist method if the conditionality principle is regarded as necessary).
Birnbaum himself suggested in his 1962 paper that the CLs ratio formula_14 should be used as a measure of the strength of "statistical evidence" provided by significance tests, rather than formula_9 alone. This followed from a simple application of the likelihood principle: if the outcome of an experiment is to be only reported in a form of a "accept"/"reject" decision, then the overall procedure is equivalent to an experiment that has only two possible outcomes, with probabilities formula_9,formula_63 and formula_34,formula_65 under formula_66. The likelihood ratio associated with the outcome "reject formula_67" is therefore formula_14 and hence should determine the evidential interpretation of this result. (Since, for a test of two simple hypotheses, the likelihood ratio is a compact representation of the likelihood function). On the other hand, if the likelihood principle is to be followed consistently, then the likelihood ratio of the original outcome should be used and not formula_14, making the basis of such an interpretation questionable. Birnbaum later described this as having "at most heuristic, but not substantial, value for evidential interpretation".
A more direct approach leading to a similar conclusion can be found in Birnbaum's formulation of the "Confidence principle", which, unlike the more common version, refers to error probabilities of both kinds. This is stated as follows:
"A concept of statistical evidence is not plausible unless it finds 'strong evidence for formula_70 as against formula_67' with small probability (formula_9) when formula_67 is true, and with much larger probability (1 -formula_74) when formula_70 is true. "
Such definition of confidence can naturally seem to be satisfied by the definition of CLs. It remains true that
both this and the more common (as associated with the Neyman-Pearson theory) versions of the confidence principle are incompatible with the likelihood principle, and therefore no frequentist method can be regarded as a truly complete solution to the problems raised by considering conditional properties of confidence intervals.
Calculation in the large sample limit.
If certain regularity conditions are met, then a general likelihood function will become a Gaussian function in the large sample limit. In such case the CLs upper limit at confidence level formula_2 (derived from the uniformly most powerful test) is given by
where formula_78 is the standard normal cumulative distribution, formula_79 is the maximum likelihood estimator of formula_21 and formula_81 is its standard deviation; the latter might be estimated from the inverse of the Fisher information matrix or by using the "Asimov" data set. This result happens to be equivalent to a Bayesian credible interval if a uniform prior for formula_21 is used.


Stephen Kevan

Stephen Douglas Kevan (born 1954) is an American condensed matter physicist who researches "surface and thin film physics; electronic structure and collective excitations at surfaces; nanoscale spatial and temporal fluctuations in magnetic and other complex materials". He is the current director of the Advanced Light Source (ALS) at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in Berkeley, California. He is also a faculty member on leave from the University of Oregon and served as division deputy for science at the ALS prior to his directorship.
Education.
Kevan graduated "Summa cum Laude" from Wesleyan University in 1976 with a B.A. in chemistry. In 1980 he earned a Ph.D. in physical chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley, working with David Shirley, with a dissertation entitled "Normal Emission Photoelectron Diffraction: a New Technique for Determining Surface Structure".
Career.
Kevan worked at Bell Laboratories as a member of technical staff from 1980-1986. In 1986 he joined the faculty at the University of Oregon (UO) as an associate professor of physics; since 1991 he has held a full professorship. From 2007 to 2012, he was Physics Department Head and was also Director of the University of Oregon Materials Science Institute. On leave from UO, Kevan currently serves as Deputy Division Director for Science at the Advanced Light Source at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. He has also served as Associate Editor and North American Regional Editor of the New Journal of Physics.
Kevan's 30-year research career has focused on assuring the health and vitality of synchrotron light sources in the United States and abroad. He has contributed to condensed matter physics and physical chemistry through understanding how microscopic interactions and fluctuations produce novel material properties, particularly in the context of surface and thin film physics and exotic magnetism. His early Fermiology studies using photoemission verified experimentally the Fermi surface nesting mechanism for the spin density wave ground state of chromium and also contributed to understanding electronic instabilities in charge density wave materials and surface reconstructions. He also characterized the role of non-adiabatic damping of adsorbate vibrations and the spin-splitting of surface bands by the Rashba (spin-orbit) effect.
More recently he has probed the microscopic-macroscopic connection, developing tools to study microscopic magnetic fluctuations using coherent soft x-ray beams. His current emphasis is to probe, on the scale of a few domains, intermittent dynamics and memory effects in field- and thermally driven magnetization reversal. Understanding the impact of newly discovered hidden symmetries on these cascades is important to understanding microscopic intermittency in a much broader context.


Cromemco Bytesaver

The Bytesaver, introduced by Cromemco in 1976, was the first programmable memory board for the MITS Altair and S-100 bus microcomputer systems. The Bytesaver had sockets for 8 UV-erasable EPROMs providing up to 8 Kbytes of storage. The EPROMs could be programmed by the Bytesaver, or read as computer memory. In the history of microcomputer systems, the Bytesaver was the first viable alternative to the use of punched paper tape for storing programs, and has been called “a great advance in microcomputer technology”.
Background.
The Altair 8800, which began the personal computer revolution, was introduced in January 1975 with no hardware or software support for floppy disk or hard disk storage. When Paul Allen travelled to the MITS factory in Albuquerque, New Mexico to demonstrate what would become Microsoft BASIC, he brought with him a punched paper tape of the code that he and Bill Gates had developed. According to Allen, the 7168 byte program took 7 minutes to load from a Teletype Model 33 paper tape reader.
To reduce the time required to load software, and to support a more convenient storage medium than paper tape, Cromemco developed the first programmable solid-state storage system for the Altair microcomputer. Cromemco called it the "Bytesaver" and introduced it in the February 1976 issue of "Byte" magazine. With the Bytesaver the time to load Microsoft 8K Basic was reduced from 7 minutes to less than one second.
Technology.
The Bytesaver used solid-state UV erasable EPROMS that provided up to 8K bytes of program or data storage. The original Bytesaver could support either the type 2704 or 2708 EPROM. The Bytesaver came with one 2704 EPROM containing a program called “Bytemover” to facilitate EPROM programming. The EPROMS to be programmed were selected from the front panel switches of the Altair computer.
A switch on the Bytesaver card was used to turn on or off the EPROM programming voltage. With this switch off there was no chance for accidental programming of the memory. Once programmed the information was retained in the EPROMS, but the memory chips could be erased by removing them from the Bytesaver and placing them under an ultraviolet light.
Cromemco also offered a 3K Control Basic interpreter, developed by Li-Chen Wang. This very compact Basic was supplied on three 2708 EPROMS that could plug into the Bytesaver.
Product family.
The original Bytesaver, introduced in 1976, was called the 8K Bytesaver since it could store up to 8K bytes of information using eight 2708 EPROMS. One limitation of early S-100 bus microcomputer systems was the 64 Kbyte address space. Cromemco introduced the concept of bank-switching to the S-100 bus which allowed memory to be place in one of 8 banks of 64 Kbytes, thus expanding the effective address space to 512 Kbytes. The Bytesaver II succeeded the 8K Bytesaver in 1978, and supported memory bank switching.
For applications that required a ROM memory card, but did not require the ability to program the EPROMS, Cromemco also introduced a 16K ROM card. This card was named the 16KPR and was introduced in 1977.
When the 2716 EPROM was introduced, with twice the storage capacity of the 2708, Cromemco designed the 32K Bytesaver to support that chip. Unlike earlier Bytesavers that had 8 EPROM sockets, the 32K Bytesaver had 16 sockets to provide up to 32K bytes of programmable memory.


Stuart Freedman

Stuart Jay Freedman (January 13, 1944 – November 10, 2012) was a physicist, known for his graduate work on a Bell test experiment with John Clauser as well as his contributions to nuclear and particle physics, particularly weak interaction physics. He was a graduate student at UC Berkeley under Eugene Commins, where he worked with fellow graduate student Steven Chu. He was also recipient of 2007 Tom W. Bonner Prize in Nuclear Physics.
In memory of his contributions, the American Physical Society established an award in his name, the Stuart Jay Freedman Award in Experimental Nuclear Physics.


Donald Huffman

Donald R. Huffman (born 1935) is a Professor Emeritus of Physics at the University of Arizona. With Wolfgang Krätschmer, he developed a technique in 1990 for the simple production of large quantities of C60, or Buckminsterfullerene. Previously, in 1982~1983, he and Krätschmer had found, in a UV spectrum, the first signal of C60 ever observed.
Huffman was featured prominently in the PBS Nova documentary, originally aired in 1995, "Race to Catch a Buckyball".


IPHT Jena

The Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology (IPHT — German: Institut für Photonische Technologien) is a non-university research facility in Jena, Thuringia, Germany. Focused on applications for various physical systems, the Institute's mandate is to find solutions to challenges in high technology systems. IPHT carries out research in the following areas: magnetics, quantum electronics, optics, microsystems, biophotonics and laser technology. The Institute works with both universities and companies.
The IPHT coordinates several EU-Projects funded by the European Commission:


Frederik Belinfante

Frederik Jozef Belinfante (6 January 1913 – 5 June 1991) was a Dutch physicist and a professor at Purdue University. He was a proponent of the hidden variable interpretation of quantum mechanics. Belinfante was born in the Hague and was a student of H. A. Kramers at Leiden University. His Ph.D. thesis, published in 1939, is called 'Theory of Heavy Quanta'. Belinfante emigrated to Vancouver in 1946 and became an associate professor at the University of British Columbia. Two years later, in 1948, he moved to the United States and became a professor at Purdue. There, he studied quantum theory and cosmology.
While writing his Ph.D. thesis, Belinfante co-authored a paper with Wolfgang Pauli called 'On the statistical behaviour of known and unknown elementary particles' Along with Léon Rosenfeld, Belinfante derived the Belinfante–Rosenfeld stress–energy tensor.
Belinfante's works include "Measurement and Time Reversal in Objective Quantum Theory" (1975) and "Survey of Hidden Variable Theories" (1973)"," both part of the "Monographs in Natural Philosophy" series.


Nuclear orientation

Nuclear orientation, in nuclear physics, is the directional ordering of an assembly of nuclear spins with respect to some axis in space. It is one of the nuclear spectroscopy methods.
A nuclear level with spin in a magnetic field will divide into magnetic sub-levels with an energy spacing.
The populations of these levels are determined by the Boltzmann distribution at a steady temperature and will essentially be equal. The exponential in the Boltzmann distribution should not be equal to 1 to obtain unequal populations. To achieve this, cooling to a temperature of around 10 millikelvin is needed.
Typically, this is achieved by implanting the nuclei of interest into ferromagnetic hosts.
In the mid-1940s, Yevgeny Zavoisky developed electron paramagnetic resonance, eventually leading to the concept of nuclear orientation.
In the early 1950s, Neville Robinson, Jim Daniels, and Michael Grace produced an example of nuclear orientation for the first time at the Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford.
There is now a Nuclear Orientation Group at Oxford.


Feng Wang (physicist)

Feng Wang is an American physicist, currently at University of California, Berkeley and an Elected Fellow of the American Physical Society.
Education.
Wang received a B.A. from Fudan University, Shanghai, in 1999 and a Ph.D. from Columbia University in 2004.


Beverly Berger

Beverly K. Berger is an American physicist known for her work on gravitational physics, especially gravitational waves, gravitons, and gravitational singularities. Alongside Berger's more serious physics research, she is also known for noticing that vibrational patterns caused by local ravens were interfering with observations at the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory.
Education and career.
Berger completed her Ph.D. at the University of Maryland, College Park in 1972. Her dissertation, "A Cosmological Model Illustrating Particle Creation through Graviton Production", was supervised by Charles W. Misner.
Long a professor of physics at Oakland University, she also worked for over ten years as a program officer for general relativity and gravitation at the National Science Foundation before retiring in 2012. She is a visiting scholar in the LIGO collaboration at Stanford University.
Service.
Within the American Physical Society (APS), Berger was instrumental in founding the Topical Group on Gravitation, later to become the Division of Gravitational Physics. She was its first chair, in 1996, and served as chair again in 2014–2015. She also chaired the APS Committee on the Status of Women in Physics in 2000.
Berger has been secretary of the International Society on General Relativity and Gravitation since 2010, and has represented the US at the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics.
Books.
With Abhay Ashtekar, James A. Isenberg, and Malcolm MacCallum, Berger is co-editor of the book "General Relativity and Gravitation: A Centennial Perspective" (Cambridge University Press, 2015).
The American Astronomical Society and IOP Publishing have announced the book "Vignettes from General Relativity" by Berger as expected to be published in 2021.
Recognition.
In 1983, the National Science Foundation awarded Berger a Visiting
Professorship for Women in Science and Engineering. In 1998, she was named a Fellow of the American Physical Society, after a nomination by the APS Division of Gravitational Physics, "for her pioneering contributions to global issues in classical general relativity, particularly the analysis of the nature of cosmological singularities, and for founding the Topical Group on Gravitation of the APS". On the occasion of her retirement in 2012, she was honored by a special session of the April 2012 APS meeting.


Alexios Polychronakos

Alexios Polychronakos (born 1959, in Greece) is a theoretical physicist. He studied electrical engineering at the National Technical University of Athens (diploma in 1982) and did graduate work in theoretical physics at the California Institute of Technology (Ph.D. 1987 ) under the supervision of John Preskill.
Polychronakos is a professor of physics at the City College of New York. He is considered an authority on quantum field theory, quantum statistics, anyons,
integrable systems, and quantum fluids, having authored over 110 refereed papers.
He is a Fellow of the American Physical Society (2012), cited for "For important contributions to the field of statistical mechanics and integrable systems, including the Polychronakos model and the exchange operator formalism, fractional statistics, matrix model description of quantum Hall systems as well as other areas such as noncommutative geometry".


All gas-phase iodine laser

All gas-phase iodine laser (AGIL) is a chemical laser using gaseous iodine as a lasing medium. Like the chemical oxygen iodine laser (COIL), it operates at the 1.315 µm wavelength (near-infrared).
AGIL was developed in order to eliminate the problems with aqueous chemistry of the COILs. AGIL uses a reaction of chlorine atoms with gaseous hydrazoic acid, resulting in excited molecules of chloronitrene (), which then pass their energy to the iodine atoms much like the singlet oxygen does in COIL. The iodine atoms then emit the laser radiation itself.
AGIL has numerous advantages over COIL. The chemicals are all in gaseous phase, therefore easier to work with than liquids, especially in microgravity conditions. The chemicals are also lighter, which is a significant advantage in aerospace applications.


Arie Bodek

Arie Bodek (born 1947) is an American experimental particle physicist and the George E. Pake Professor of Physics at the University of Rochester.
Bodek was awarded the 2004 American Physical Society W.K.H. Panofsky Prize in Experimental Particle Physics for his "broad, sustained, and insightful contributions to elucidating the structure of the nucleon, using a wide variety of probes, tools, and methods at many laboratories."
He received his B.S. in physics in 1968 from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and his Ph.D. in physics in 1972 also from MIT. For his Ph.D., he worked under Henry Kendall and Jerome Friedman on the MIT-SLAC deep inelastic electron scattering experiments that provided evidence for the quark structure of matter. His doctoral thesis provided some of the evidence of the quark's existence that was the basis for the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics. The 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Friedman, Kendall, and Taylor for these experiments.
He was a postdoctoral associate at MIT from 1972 to 1974 and a Robert E. Millikan Fellow at Caltech from 1974 to 1977. Bodek joined the University of Rochester as an assistant professor of physics in 1977. He was promoted to associate professor in 1980 and to professor in 1987. Bodek was appointed as an Alfred P. Sloan Fellow (1979–81); NSF-JSPS Fellow, KEK, Japan (1986); and Fellow of the American Physical Society in 1985. He served as a project director at the Department of Energy from 1990 to 1991. Bodek served as the associate chair from 1995 to 1998 and then as the chair of the Department of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Rochester from 1998 to 2007. He is on the editorial board of the "European Physical Journal" C. In 2005, he was named George E. Pake Professor of physics at the University of Rochester.
Bodek's current research is in the physics of W's, Z's, Dileptons and on the Higgs Boson project at the CDF at Fermilab and the CMS at the Large Hadron Collider. He also researches neutrino physics and neutrino oscillations at CCFR/NuTeV/ MINERVA at Fermilab, deep inelastic scattering and nucleon structure at JUPITER at Jefferson Lab, and quark distributions in nuclei. In the area of instrumentation, Bodek's research is in the area of scintillating tile and optical-fiber hadron calorimeters. He served as the co-spokesperson of the Jefferson Lab JUPITER program on experiment E04-001. In CDF, his group has the CDF plug upgrade hadron calorimeter. For CMS, his group has constructed the HCAL hadron calorimeter. Both calorimeters were constructed using tile-fiber technology.
Publications.
Bodek is an author of more than 700 publications. He is listed by the Institute for Scientific Information as an ISI highly cited researcher
whose publications are most often cited in academic journals over the past decade.
The following are a few selected publications:
Family.
Arie Bodek is the father of quant and HFT whistleblower Haim Bodek.


Eric Van Stryland

Eric Van Stryland was president of the Optical Society of America in 2005.
Eric Van Stryland received the Physics PhD degree in 1976, from the University of Arizona, Optical Sciences Center, Tucson, Arizona, where he worked on optical coherent transients and photon counting statistics. He worked in the areas of femtosecond pulse production, multiphoton absorption in solids, and laser induced damage at the Center for Laser Studies at the University of Southern California. He joined the Physics Department at the University of North Texas in 1978 helping to form the Center for Applied Quantum Electronics.
In 1987 he joined the newly formed CREOL (Center for Research and Education in Optics and Lasers) at the University of Central Florida, where he was professor of physics and electrical and computer engineering. The National Science Foundation has funded him for the past 29 years, and he has been performing research for the Department of Defense for a similar period. His current research interests are in the characterization of the nonlinear optical properties of materials and their temporal response as well as the applications of these nonlinear materials properties for sensor protection, switching, beam control etc. He helped develop the Z-scan technique with Mansoor Sheik-Bahae with whom he also established the methodology for applying Kramers-Kronig relations to ultrafast nonlinearities. This also led to the understanding of cascaded second-order nonlinearities.
He is a fellow of the Optical Society of America, a former member of their board of directors and co-chair of the Science and Engineering Council, a fellow of the SPIE, senior member of the Laser Institute of America and a former board member, a fellow of IEEE LEOS and a member of the APS, and MRS. He also served as a topical editor for Optics Letters. He has graduated 25 Ph.D.s and published well in excess of 100 papers. In 2003 he was awarded the highest honor UCF bestows, the Pegasus Award.
He was director of the School of Optics/CREOL from July 1999 to May 2004. With the elevation of the School to the first College of Optics and Photonics, he became the dean of the college and served in that capacity until 2009. In addition Governor Jeb Bush established the Florida Photonics Center of Excellence (FPCE) in 2003 and he is the director of that center along with CREOL, both centers within the college.


Olga Evdokimov

Olga Evdokimov is a Russian born professor of physics at the University of Illinois, Chicago (UIC). She is a High Energy Nuclear Physicist, who currently collaborates on two international experiments; the Solenoidal Tracker At RHIC (STAR) experiment at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC), Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York and the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) experiment at the LHC (Large Hadron Collider), CERN, Geneva, Switzerland.
Education.
Evdokimov obtained both her MS in theoretical physics in 1996 and her Ph.D. in Physical & Mathematical Sciences in 1999 from the Ivanovo State University, Ivanovo, Russia. She performed her Ph.D. research at Laboratory for High Energy Physics at Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna, Russia. Her thesis was titled "Alignment and Fast Algorithms of Data Treatment for 4π-geometry Detectors."
Career.
Evdokimov worked first as a post-doctoral researcher at Purdue University. In 2005 she joined UIC as an Adjunct Assistant Professor, in 2006 she became an Assistant Professor. She was promoted to Associate Professor in 2010 before becoming Full Professor in 2015. In 2013 she received a Teaching Recognition Award from UIC's Council for Excellence in Teaching and Learning (CETL).
Evdokimov has served on a number of key management positions of the STAR collaboration. She was STAR's Spectra Physics Working Group Convener for 4 years. From 2008 - 2011 she served as one of the Deputy Spokespeople. In August 2016 she was elected as the Chair of the Institutional Council of the STAR collaboration, she was reelected in 2018 for a second two year term. In CMS she has been on the Heavy-Ion Publication Committee.
Evdokimov is an active member of the physics community. She has served as an elected member of the RHIC/AGS Users' Executive Committee (2013-2016), on the Executive Committee for the NERSC (National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center) Users Group, and in 2018 she was appointed to the U.S. DOE/NSF Nuclear Science Advisory Committee (NSAC). NSAC provides advice on the nations program for basic nuclear science research. DoE and NSF share the responsibility for selecting NSAC's members.
In 2017 she co-chaired the international conference on ultra-relativistic heavy-ion collisions (Quark Matter 2017) conference which took place from February 5–11 in Chicago and was co-editor of Volume 967 of Nuclear Physics A which reported on the results presented at this conference.
Research interests.
Evdokimov's research focuses on understanding the properties and evolution of QCD matter under the extreme temperatures and energy densities achieved in ultra-relativistic heavy ion collisions. The form of matter created in such collisions is termed the quark gluon plasma (QGP). She is an experimental nuclear physicist and a member of two large international collaborations: the STAR experiment at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) and the CMS experiment at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).
Evdokimov is co-author of over 1000 journal publications and has an h-index of 157. Her specific research has contributed to the understanding of bulk identified particle production in the QGP, and their subsequent collective motion, the baryon enhancement puzzle, and studies of jet production and jet-medium interactions, and techniques for probing jet quenching via multi-particle correlations.
She is a co-convener of one of the four physics working groups leading the effort to organize the physics studies and detector design concepts in preparation for the realization of the Electron Ion Collider (EIC).


Intraoperative radiation therapy

Intraoperative radiation therapy (IORT), is radiation therapy that is administered during surgery directly in the operating room (hence "intraoperative").
Usually therapeutic levels of radiation are delivered to the tumor bed while the area is exposed during surgery. IORT is typically a component in the multidisciplinary treatment of locally advanced and recurrent cancer, in combination with external beam radiation, surgery, and chemotherapy. As a growing trend in recent years, IORT can also be used in earlier stage cancers such as prostate and breast cancer.
Medical uses.
IORT was found to be useful and feasible in the multidisciplinary management of many solid tumors but further studies are needed to determine the benefit more precisely. Single-institution experiences have suggested a role of IORT e.g. in brain tumors and cerebral metastases, locally advanced and recurrent rectal cancer, skin cancer, retroperitoneal sarcoma, pancreatic cancer, and selected gynaecologic and genitourinary malignancies. For local recurrences, irradiation with IORT is, besides brachytherapy, the only radiotherapeutic option if repeated EBRT is no longer possible. Generally, the normal tissue tolerance does not allow a second full-dose course of EBRT, even after years.
Breast cancer.
On 25 July 2014 the UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) gave provisional recommendation for the use of TARGIT IORT with Intrabeam in the UK National Health Service. The 2015 update of guidelines of the Association of Gynecological Oncology (AGO), an autonomous community of the German Society of Gynecology and Obstetrics (DGGG) and the German Cancer Society includes TARGIT IORT during lumpectomy as a recommended option for women with a T1, Grade 1 or 2, ER positive breast cancer.
Rationale.
The rationale for IORT is to deliver a high dose of radiation precisely to the targeted area with minimal exposure of surrounding tissues which are displaced or shielded during the IORT. Conventional radiation techniques such as external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) following surgical removal of the tumor have several drawbacks: The tumor bed where the highest dose should be applied is frequently missed due to the complex localization of the wound cavity even when modern radiotherapy planning is used. Additionally, the usual delay between the surgical removal of the tumor and EBRT may allow a repopulation of the tumor cells. These potentially harmful effects can be avoided by delivering the radiation more precisely to the targeted tissues leading to immediate sterilization of residual tumor cells. Another aspect is that wound fluid has a stimulating effect on tumor cells. IORT was found to inhibit the stimulating effects of wound fluid.
Methods.
Several methods are used to deliver IORT. IORT can be delivered using electron beams (electron IORT), orthovoltage (250-300 kV) x-rays (X-ray IORT), high-dose-rate brachytherapy (HDR-IORT), or low-energy (50 kV) x-rays (low-energy IORT).
Electron IORT.
While IORT was first used in clinical practice in 1905, the modern era of IORT began with the introduction of electron IORT in the mid-1960s by transporting patients from the OR after the tumor was removed to the radiation department to receive their electron IORT. Electron IORT has the advantages of being able to carefully control the depth of radiation penetration while providing a very uniform dose to the tumor bed. Applied with energies in the range of 3 MeV to 12 MeV, electron IORT can treat to depths of up to 4 cm over areas as large as 300 cm² (i.e. a 10 cm diameter circle) and takes only 1–3 minutes to deliver the prescribed radiation dose. A few hospitals built shielded operation rooms in which a conventional linear accelerator was installed to deliver the IORT radiation. This eliminated the complex logistics involved with patient transportation, but was so costly that only a few hospitals were able to use this approach. The breakthrough came in 1997, with the introduction of a miniaturized, self-shielded, mobile linear accelerator (Mobetron, IntraOp Corporation, US) and a mobile but unshielded linear accelerator (Novac, Liac–SIT, Italy). More than 75,000 patients have been treated with electron IORT, almost half of them since the introduction of mobile electron IORT technology.
X-ray IORT.
Early practitioners of IORT treated primarily abdominal malignancies using superficial x-rays (75-125 kV) and later orthovoltage x-rays (up to 300 kV in energy) prior to the advent of technology that enabled high-energy electrons. For the first 75 years, X-ray IORT was used mostly for palliation, but there were a few anecdotal reports of long-term survivors. In the early 1980s, when the use of electron IORT was increasing and showed promising results for certain indications, a handful of hospitals installed othovoltage units in lightly shielded ORs to see if this lower cost approach could achieve comparable results to that of electron IORT. This approach was less costly than building a shielded OR for an electron IORT unit and eliminated the logistics involved with patient transportation. However, it had a number of problems that limited its appeal. X-ray IORT has a poor uniformity of dose as a function of depth of penetration, the radiation does not stop at a pre-defined depth but continues to deposit radiation to underlying structures, and can do damage to boney structures if too high a dose is delivered. Despite its long use (since the 1930s), fewer than 1000 patients have been treated with this approach, and it is no longer offered at most centers.
HDR-IORT.
This technique was developed in the late-1980s in an attempt to combine the dosimetric advantages of high-dose rate brachytherapy with the challenges of treating some complex anatomic surfaces with IORT. It has the advantage of being lower cost than dedicated electron IORT systems, since many radiation centers already have an HDR system that can be transported to the OR when HDR-IORT is needed. HDR-IORT can also treat very large and convoluted surfaces. However, it does require a shielded OR or a shielded room in the OR complex to deliver the HDR-IORT. The depth of penetration is very limited, typically either ½ cm to 1 cm depth, sometimes requiring extensive surgery due to the limited penetration of the radiation. Treatments tend to be 40 minutes or longer, resulting in greater OR time, more anesthesia and greater blood loss when compared to electron IORT. There are about 10 to 20 active centers using HDR-IORT for locally advanced and recurrent disease, and approximately 2000 patients have received this treatment, mostly for colorectal cancer, head and neck cancer, and gynecologic cancer.
Low-energy IORT (50 kV).
Intrabeam, (Carl Zeiss AG, Germany) received FDA and CE approval in 1999 and is a miniature mobile X-ray source which emits low-energy X-ray radiation (max. 50 kV) in isotropic distribution. Due to the higher ionization density caused by soft X-ray radiation in the tissue, the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of low-energy X-rays on tumor cells is higher when compared to high-energy X-rays or gamma rays which are delivered by linear accelerators. The radiation which is produced by low-energy mobile radiation systems has a limited range. For this reason, conventional walls are regarded sufficient to stop the radiation scatter produced in the operating room and no extra measures for radiation protection are necessary. This makes IORT accessible for more hospitals. Targeted intra-operative radiotherapy is a low-energy IORT technique. Evaluation of the long-term outcomes in patients who were treated with TARGIT-IORT for breast cancer confirmed that it is as effective as whole breast external beam radiotherapy in controlling cancer, and also reduces deaths from other causes as shown in a large international randomised clinical trial published in the "British Medical Journal".


ARGUS distribution

 I_1(\tfrac{\chi^2}{4})}{ \Psi(\chi) }</math>

 where "I"1 is the Modified Bessel function of the first kind of order 1, and formula_1 is given in the text.
 | median =
 | mode = formula_2
 | variance = formula_3
 | skewness =
 | kurtosis =
 | entropy =
 | mgf =
 | char =
In physics, the ARGUS distribution, named after the particle physics experiment ARGUS, is the probability distribution of the reconstructed invariant mass of a decayed particle candidate in continuum background.
Definition.
The probability density function (pdf) of the ARGUS distribution is:
for formula_5. Here formula_6 and formula_7 are parameters of the distribution and
where formula_9 and formula_10 are the cumulative distribution and probability density functions of the standard normal distribution, respectively.
Cumulative distribution function.
The cumulative distribution function (cdf) of the ARGUS distribution is
Parameter estimation.
Parameter "c" is assumed to be known (the kinematic limit of the invariant mass distribution), whereas "χ" can be estimated from the sample "X"1, …, "X""n" using the maximum likelihood approach. The estimator is a function of sample second moment, and is given as a solution to the non-linear equation
The solution exists and is unique, provided that the right-hand side is greater than 0.4; the resulting estimator formula_13 is consistent and asymptotically normal.
Generalized ARGUS distribution.
Sometimes a more general form is used to describe a more peaking-like distribution:
where Γ(·) is the gamma function, and Γ(·,·) is the upper incomplete gamma function.
Here parameters "c", χ, "p" represent the cutoff, curvature, and power respectively.
The mode is:
The mean is:
where M(·,·,·) is the Kummer's confluent hypergeometric function.
The variance is:
"p" = 0.5 gives a regular ARGUS, listed above.


Initial and final state radiation

In particle physics, initial and final state radiation refers to certain kinds of radiative emissions that are not due to particle annihilation. It is important in experimental and theoretical studies of interactions at particle colliders.
Explanation of initial and final states.
Particle accelerators and colliders produce collisions (interactions) of particles (like the electron or the proton). In the terminology of the quantum state, the colliding particles form the "Initial State". In the collision, particles can be annihilated or/and exchanged, producing possibly different sets of particles, the "Final States". The Initial and Final States of the interaction relate through the so-called scattering matrix (S-matrix).
The probability amplitude for a transition of a quantum system from the initial state having state vector formula_1 to the final state vector formula_2 is given by the scattering matrix element
where formula_4 is the S-matrix.
Electron-positron annihilation example.
The electron-positron annihilation interaction:
formula_5
has a contribution from the second order Feynman diagram shown adjacent:
In the initial state (at the bottom; early time) there is one electron (e−) and one positron (e+) and in the final state (at the top; late time) there are two photons (γ).
Other states are possible. For example, at LEP, , or are processes where the "initial state" is an electron and a positron colliding to produce an electron and a positron or two muons of opposite charge: the "final states".
Phenomenology.
In the case of initial-state radiation, one of the incoming particles emit radiation (such as a photon, wlog) before the interaction with the others, so reduces the beam energy prior to the momentum transfer; while for final-state radiation, the scattered particles emit radiation, and since the momentum transfer has already occurred, the resulting beam energy decreases.
In analogy with bremsstrahlung, if the radiation is electromagnetic it is sometimes called "beam-strahlung", and similarly can have "gluon-strahlung" (as shown in the Feynman figure with the gluon) as well in the case of QCD.
Computational issues.
In these simple cases, no automatic calculation software packages are needed and the cross-section analytical expression can be easily derived at least for the lowest approximation: the Born approximation also called the leading order or the tree level (as Feynman diagrams have only trunk and branches, no loops). Interactions at higher energies open a large spectrum of possible final states and consequently increase the number of processes to compute, however.
The calculation of probability amplitudes in theoretical particle physics requires the use of rather large and complicated integrals over a large number of variables. These integrals do, however, have a regular structure, and may be represented graphically as Feynman diagrams. A Feynman diagram is a contribution of a particular class of particle paths, which join and split as described by the diagram. More precisely, and technically, a Feynman diagram is a graphical representation of a perturbative contribution to the transition amplitude or correlation function of a quantum mechanical or statistical field theory. Within the canonical formulation of quantum field theory, a Feynman diagram represents a term in the Wick's expansion of the perturbative S-matrix. Alternatively, the path integral formulation of quantum field theory represents the transition amplitude as a weighted sum of all possible histories of the system from the initial to the final state, in terms of either particles or fields. The transition amplitude is then given as the matrix element of the S-matrix between the initial and the final states of the quantum system.


Charles de Haldat du Lys

Charles Nicolas Alexandre Haldat du Lys (24 December 1770 – 26 November 1852) was a French physicist who performed experimental work in hydrostatics.
He was a critic of the reliability of Benjamin Thompson's researches on the generation of heat, "An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction".


Lorenz Hengler

Lorenz Hengler (3 February 1806 – 1858) was a Catholic priest who is often credited as the inventor of the horizontal pendulum.
Life.
Hengler was born in Reichenhofen, Württemberg. At the age of fourteen he entered the Latin School of Leutkirch and attended successively those of Ehingen and Tübingen. In 1828 he studied mathematics and astronomy at Munich. It was at this place, and while a pupil of Franz von Gruithuisen, that he invented the horizontal pendulum, which has been used in many seismographs. In 1832 he published this invention in Gruithuisen's "Analecta", together with some experiments he had made. In 1835 he was ordained in Rottenburg and was pastor of Tigerfeld at the time of his death in Tigerfeld. He left an elaborate telescope unfinished. Others have attributed the invention of the horizontal pendulum to Johann Karl Friedrich Zöllner (1869), and some to Perrot (1862). A full description of the pendulum and its history may be found in Zollner's "Abhandlungen", vol. IV, and also in Johann Poggendorff's "Annals".


Rudolph Franz

Rudolph Franz (December 16, 1826 in Berlin – December 31, 1902 in Berlin) was a German physicist.
Life.
Franz studied math and natural sciences at the University of Bonn and got his doctorate in 1850. He started working as a teacher in Berlin the same year.
His research led to his habilitation in 1857 at the Humboldt University of Berlin. Until 1865 he was teaching physical sciences (especially thermodynamics).
He became known for his collaboration with Gustav Heinrich Wiedemann, with whom he discovered the Wiedemann-Franz law in 1853, which relates the thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity with each other.


Dmitri Skobeltsyn

Dmitri Vladimirovich Skobeltsyn () (November 24, 1892 in Saint Petersburg – November 16, 1990) was a Soviet physicist, academician of the Soviet Academy of Sciences (1946), Hero of Socialist Labor (1969).
Dmitri Skobeltsyn was awarded the Stalin Prize (1950), six Orders of Lenin, two other orders, and numerous medals.
Starting in 1923, Skobeltsyn pioneered the use of the cloud chamber to study the Compton effect.
As a result of this work, Skobeltsyn paved the way for Carl David Anderson's discovery of the positron by two important contributions: by adding a magnetic field to his cloud chamber (in 1925)
, and by discovering charged particle cosmic rays, for which he is credited in Anderson's Nobel lecture.


Tito Arecchi

Tito Arecchi (11 December 1933 – 15 February 2021) was an Italian physicist who made significant contributions to laser physics and quantum optics.
Biography.
Arecchi graduated from the Polytechnic University of Milan in 1957 with a degree in electrical engineering. He became an assistant professor at the University of Milan in 1963 and a physics professor at the University of Pavia in 1970. From 1975 until his retirement in 2008, he was a physics professor at the University of Florence. He also served as a guest professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1969 to 1970 and was invited to IBM research laboratories in San Jose and Zurich.
Arecchi was President of the from 1975 to 2000. In 1995, he was awarded the Max Born Award by The Optical Society. In 2006, the Italian Physical Society awarded he and Giorgio Careri the Premio Enrico Fermi for their contributions to the study of radiation and matter.
Arecchi died from a fall in Florence on 15 February 2021 at the age of 87.


Susan Blessing

Susan K. Blessing (born April 10, 1961) is an American physicist who is currently a professor at Florida State University and an elected fellow of the American Physical Society.
Education.
She earned her B.S. at Illinois Institute of Technology in 1982 and her Ph.D at Indiana University in 1989. After earning her Ph.D., she was a research associate at Northwestern University from 1989-1993.
Career.
Blessing joined Florida State University in 1994 as an Assistant Professor in physics rising to Professor by 2007. She has served as Director of the Women in Math, Science, and Engineering (WIMSE) program since 2005. From 2010-12, she held the Nancy Marcus Professorship.
Research.
Her academic interest is in particle physics. Her highest cited paper is "Transverse energy distributions within jets in collisions at TeV" at 100 times, according to Google Scholar.


Robert B. Meyer

Robert Bruce Meyer (born 13 October 1943, St. Louis) is an American physicist and professor at Brandeis University.
Meyer graduated from Harvard University in 1965 with a bachelor's degree and in 1970 with a doctoral degree with advisor David Turnbull and dissertation on effects of electromagnetic fields on the structure of liquid crystals. At Harvard, Meyer was a post-doctoral student and became in 1971 an assistant professor and in 1974 an associate professor. At Brandeis University he was appointed an associate professor in 1978 and a full professor in 1985.
He was a visiting professor in 1977 of Nordita at Chalmers University in Gothenburg and in 1978 Joliot Curie Professor at the École Supérieure de Physique et de Chimie Industrielle in Paris.
In 2006 Meyer received, jointly with Noel A. Clark, the Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize for basic theoretical and experimental studies of liquid crystals, in particular their ferroelectric and chiral properties (laudation). He was elected in 1985 a Fellow of the American Physical Society and received the 2004 Benjamin Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute.


Elanor Huntington

Elanor H. Huntington is a Professor of Quantum Cybernetics at the Australian National University. She is the Dean of Engineering and Computer Science. She leads a research program in the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Quantum Computation and Communication Technology.
Early life and education.
Huntington studied physics at the Australian National University and graduated in 1996 with a University Medal. She decided that she enjoyed using science to help others, and switched to engineering. She earned her PhD in 1999 working in experimental quantum optics. Huntington joined the Australian Defence Science and Technology Organisation after graduating, where she worked for 18 months before joining the University of New South Wales Canberra at the Australian Defence Force Academy.
Research.
Huntington specialises in high speed measurements and the generation of non-classical states. She works on quantum computation, creating optical microchips that can detect, generate and manipulate states of light. She is interested in the intersection of quantum theory and applications. She joined the University of New South Wales in 2000. She has worked in the School of Engineering and Information Technology at the Australian Defence Force Academy at University of New South Wales, where she was made Head of the School of Engineering and IT in 2010. She leads a research program in the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Quantum Computation and Communication Technology.
In 2011, Huntington and collaborators made a major breakthrough in quantum computation, by demonstrating that it was possible to teleport quantum non-Gaussian beams of light on a quantum superposition. These days, she makes use of waveguide technology, coupled with systems engineering, to design and build quantum technologies. She was appointed Dean of the Australian National University College of Engineering and Computer Science in June 2014. She was the first woman to be made an Executive Dean of Engineering in Australia, the first woman to be a Professor of Engineering at ANU, and the first woman to be Chair of the Australian Group of Eight Engineering Deans. She is also a member of the Global Engineering Deans Council. She discussed quantum computation at the World Economic Forum.
Huntington believes that in the future, public trust in engineering will become increasingly important. She delivered a TED Talk in 2017 on "Why We Need Engineers Now More Than Ever" and is leading the Reimagine Investment at the Australian National University to bring those ideas into being. The Reimagine Investment under Huntington is intended to redefine the nature of engineering and computing skills, who will exercise them and how. Genevieve Bell is a foundation member of Reimagine and the leader of its flagship program to create the next engineering discipline. Huntington has discussed the future of engineering at the Sydney Writers' Festival. and the Australian Strategic Policy Institute, where she looks to improve the gender balance of the engineering community.
Honours and awards.
Huntington was elected a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Technology and Engineering in 2020, she was made an honorary fellow of Engineers Australia in 2017 and she was a finalist in the 2019 Eureka Prizes.


Noemie Benczer Koller

Noemie Benczer Koller is a nuclear physicist. She was the first tenured female professor of Rutgers College.
Early life and education.
Koller was born Noemie Benczer in Vienna, Austria, on born August 21, 1933. Her father was a Ph.D. chemist and her mother worked as a bookbinder. The family moved frequently in her early childhood due to the turbulence of World War II. Her family moved from Vienna to Paris, and then subsequently moved further south in France several times to escape the German invasion. They subsequently emigrated to Cuba, and then to Mexico where she attended the Lycée Franco-Mexicain beginning in 1943. Upon completing high school at the Lycée in 1951, she traveled to New York to receive a college education. She was accepted into Barnard College, the women's college associated with Columbia University, which did not accept female applicants at the time. She entered Barnard with standing as a junior, as she received credit for the humanities courses at the Lycée, and was able to attain a B.A. in Physics in two years. She entered graduate studies at Columbia University in 1953; she received her M.S. in 1955 and earned her Ph.D. in 1958 in experimental physics. She continued at Columbia as a postdoctoral research associate until 1960.
During her time at Barnard and Columbia, Koller worked as a laboratory assistant to Chien-Shiung Wu, an experimental physicist whose work focused on beta decay. Wu became a mentor and friend. Upon Wu's death, Koller spoke about her at the meeting of the American Physical Society; Koller later wrote a brief biography of Dr. Wu for the National Academy of Sciences. She has written that Wu was an "extremely careful experimentalist," and credits Wu with giving her a hands-on education with experimental technique.
Career.
In the fall of 1960, Koller was hired at Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ. She was the first woman hired in the Physics department; in 1965, she became the first tenured female professor of Rutgers College.
At Rutgers she has been a major member of the nuclear physics research group working on the tandem Van de Graaff accelerator, as well as a condensed-matter physicist, performing experiments using the Mössbauer effect, by which she investigated the electronic structure of magnetic materials.
According to the 'Contributions of 20th Century Women to Physics' (CWP) Project of the UCLA entry on Koller, Koller was a pioneer in several areas of nuclear and condensed matter physics, including the first identification of the double gamma decay of the observationally stable but theoretically unstable 40Ca isotope to the ground state: a 0+ → 0+ transition; the observation of the interplay of single particle and collective motions in nuclei; and the description of a broad range of nuclear electromagnetic transitions in the rare earth region using a simple relation based on constant gyromagnetic ratios for nucleon pairs. Accordering to the "Encyclopedia of World Scientists", she was the first person to directly measure the "magnetic moments of super-deformed nuclear states" and developed techniques "to study magnetic properties of nuclei far from the valley of stability."
Koller was active in administrative duties also. She served as a member of the Physics Advisory Panel, US National Science Foundation (1973–76), and of the Panel on Nuclear Physics, National Academy of Sciences Committee on Physics and Astronomy (1983–84). She was the Director of the Nuclear Physics Laboratory from 1986 to 1989. At Rutgers, Koller served in the administration of the University as the Associate Dean for Sciences of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences from 1992 to 1996, and was active in the American Physical Society (APS), serving on many national committees, as well as Chair of the 2,500-member APS Nuclear Physics Division. Koller is a strong supporter of women in science and has contributed a significant amount of research to the physics community internationally.
Personal life.
While in graduate school at Columbia University in 1956, Noemie Benczer married fellow physics student Earl Leonard Koller. When the Noemie took up her position at Rutgers, Earl was hired at the Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, NJ. The Kollers had two sons, David, a geologist, and Daniel, a physicist.


Ann Heinson

Ann Heinson is an American high-energy particle physicist known for her work on single top quark physics. She established and lead the DØ Single Top Group which first published experimental observations of the top quark, and in 1997 she co-authored a paper which laid the foundations for further investigation into the top quark.
Early life and education.
Heinson grew up in Billericay, S.E. England. She earned both her B.Sc. in Physics (1984) and Ph.D. in High Energy Physics (1988, advisor Peter Dornan) from Imperial College.
Career and research.
Heinson worked for the BBC's engineering research department before emigrating to California in 1989. There, she worked as a postdoctoral researcher at UC Irvine on a rare kaon decay experiment E791 at Brookhaven National Laboratory. In 1992, she began working on the Dø collaboration at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. She established and lead the Dø Single Top working group from 1995 to 2009. In 1997, she co-authored the paper "Single Top Quarks at the Fermilab Tevatron," which laid the conceptual foundations for the next decade of top quark experimental research. Under her leadership, the single top working group discovered the first evidence of single top quark production at Fermi labs Tevatron. She retired in 2012.


Time-dependent variational Monte Carlo

The time-dependent variational Monte Carlo (t-VMC) method is a quantum Monte Carlo approach to study the dynamics of closed, non-relativistic quantum systems in the context of the quantum many-body problem. It is an extension of the variational Monte Carlo method, in which a time-dependent pure quantum state is encoded by some variational wave function, generally parametrized as
where the complex-valued formula_2 are time-dependent variational parameters, formula_3 denotes a many-body configuration and formula_4 are time-independent operators that define the specific ansatz. The time evolution of the parameters formula_2 can be found upon imposing a variational principle to the wave function. In particular one can show that the optimal parameters for the evolution satisfy at each time the equation of motion
where formula_7 is the Hamiltonian of the system, formula_8 are connected averages, and the quantum expectation values are taken over the time-dependent variational wave function, i.e., formula_9.
In analogy with the Variational Monte Carlo approach and following the Monte Carlo method for evaluating integrals, we can interpret formula_10
as a probability distribution function over the multi-dimensional space spanned by the many-body configurations formula_3. The Metropolis–Hastings algorithm is then used to sample exactly from this probability distribution and, at each time formula_12, the quantities entering the equation of motion are evaluated as statistical averages over the sampled configurations. The trajectories formula_13 of the variational parameters are then found upon numerical integration of the associated differential equation.


Linear energy transfer

In dosimetry, linear energy transfer (LET) is the amount of energy that an ionizing particle transfers to the material traversed per unit distance. It describes the action of radiation into matter.
It is identical to the retarding force acting on a charged ionizing particle travelling through the matter. By definition, LET is a positive quantity. LET depends on the nature of the radiation as well as on the material traversed.
A high LET will attenuate the radiation more quickly, generally making shielding more effective and preventing deep penetration. On the other hand, the higher concentration of deposited energy can cause more severe damage to any microscopic structures near the particle track. If a microscopic defect can cause larger-scale failure, as is the case in biological cells and microelectronics, the LET helps explain why radiation damage is sometimes disproportionate to the absorbed dose. Dosimetry attempts to factor in this effect with radiation weighting factors.
Linear energy transfer is closely related to stopping power, since both equal the retarding force. The unrestricted linear energy transfer is identical to linear electronic stopping power, as discussed below. But the stopping power and LET concepts are different in the respect that total stopping power has the nuclear stopping power component, and this component does not cause electronic excitations. Hence nuclear stopping power is not contained in LET.
The appropriate SI unit for LET is the newton, but it is most typically expressed in units of kiloelectronvolts per micrometre (keV/μm) or megaelectronvolts per centimetre (MeV/cm). While medical physicists and radiobiologists usually speak of "linear energy transfer", most non-medical physicists talk about "stopping power".
Restricted and unrestricted LET.
The secondary electrons produced during the process of ionization by the primary charged particle are conventionally called delta rays, if their energy is large enough so that they themselves can ionize. Many studies focus upon the energy transferred in the vicinity of the primary particle track and therefore exclude interactions that produce delta rays with energies larger than a certain value Δ. This energy limit is meant to exclude secondary electrons that carry energy far from the primary particle track, since a larger energy implies a larger range. This approximation neglects the directional distribution of secondary radiation and the non-linear path of delta rays, but simplifies analytic evaluation.
In mathematical terms, Restricted linear energy transfer is defined by
where formula_2 is the energy loss of the charged particle due to electronic collisions while traversing a distance formula_3, "excluding" all secondary electrons with kinetic energies larger than Δ. If Δ tends toward infinity, then there are no electrons with larger energy, and the linear energy transfer becomes the unrestricted linear energy transfer which is identical to the linear electronic "stopping power". Here, the use of the term "infinity" is not to be taken literally; it simply means that no energy transfers, however large, are excluded.
Application to radiation types.
During his investigations of radioactivity, Ernest Rutherford coined the terms alpha rays, beta rays and gamma rays for the three types of emissions that occur during radioactive decay.
Alpha particles and other positive ions.
Linear energy transfer is best defined for monoenergetic ions, i.e. protons, alpha particles, and the heavier nuclei called HZE ions found in cosmic rays or produced by particle accelerators. These particles cause frequent direct ionizations within a narrow diameter around a relatively straight track, thus approximating continuous deceleration. As they slow down, the changing particle cross section modifies their LET, generally increasing it to a Bragg peak just before achieving thermal equilibrium with the absorber, i.e., before the end of range. At equilibrium, the incident particle essentially comes to rest or is absorbed, at which point LET is undefined.
Since the LET varies over the particle track, an average value is often used to represent the spread. Averages weighted by track length or weighted by absorbed dose are present in the literature, with the latter being more common in dosimetry. These averages are not widely separated for heavy particles with high LET, but the difference becomes more important in the other type of radiations discussed below.
Beta particles.
Electrons produced in nuclear decay are called beta particles. Because of their low mass relative to atoms, they are strongly scattered by nuclei (Coulomb or Rutherford scattering), much more so than heavier particles. Beta particle tracks are therefore crooked. In addition to producing secondary electrons (delta rays) while ionizing atoms, they also produce bremsstrahlung photons. A maximum range of beta radiation can be defined experimentally which is smaller than the range that would be measured along the particle path.
Gamma rays.
Gamma rays are photons, whose absorption cannot be described by LET. When a gamma quantum passes through matter, it may be absorbed in a single process (photoelectric effect, Compton effect or pair production), or it continues unchanged on its path. (Only in the case of the Compton effect, another gamma quantum of lower energy proceeds). Gamma ray absorption therefore obeys an exponential law (see Gamma rays); the absorption is described by the absorption coefficient or by the half-value thickness.
LET has therefore no meaning when applied to photons. However, many authors speak of "gamma LET" anyway, where they are actually referring to the LET of the secondary electrons, i.e., mainly Compton electrons, produced by the gamma radiation. The secondary electrons will ionize far more atoms than the primary photon. This gamma LET has little relation to the attenuation rate of the beam, but it may have some correlation to the microscopic defects produced in the absorber. It must be noted that even a monoenergetic gamma beam will produce a spectrum of electrons, and each secondary electron will have a variable LET as it slows down, as discussed above. The "gamma LET" is therefore an average.
The transfer of energy from an uncharged primary particle to charged secondary particles can also be described by using the "mass energy-transfer coefficient".
Biological effects.
Many studies have attempted to relate linear energy transfer to the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of radiation, with inconsistent results. The relationship varies widely depending on the nature of the biological material, and the choice of endpoint to define effectiveness. Even when these are held constant, different radiation spectra that shared the same LET have significantly different RBE.
Despite these variations, some overall trends are commonly seen. The RBE is generally independent of LET for any LET less than 10 keV/µm, so a low LET is normally chosen as the reference condition where RBE is set to unity. Above 10 keV/µm, some systems show a decline in RBE with increasing LET, while others show an initial increase to a peak before declining. Mammalian cells usually experience a peak RBE for LET's around 100 keV/µm. These are very rough numbers; for example, one set of experiments found a peak at 30 keV/µm.
The International Commission on Radiation Protection (ICRP) proposed a simplified model of RBE-LET relationships for use in dosimetry. They defined a "quality factor" of radiation as a function of dose-averaged unrestricted LET in water, and intended it as a highly uncertain, but generally conservative, approximation of RBE. Different iterations of their model are shown in the graph to the right. The 1966 model was integrated into their 1977 recommendations for radiation protection in ICRP 26. This model was largely replaced in the 1991 recommendations of ICRP 60 by radiation weighting factors that were tied to the particle type and independent of LET. ICRP 60 revised the quality factor function and reserved it for use with unusual radiation types that did not have radiation weighting factors assigned to them.
Application fields.
When used to describe the "dosimetry" of ionizing radiation in the biological or biomedical setting, the LET (like linear stopping power) is usually expressed in units of keV/µm.
In "space applications", electronic devices can be disturbed by the passage of energetic electrons, protons or heavier ions that may alter the state of a circuit, producing "single event effects". The effect of the radiation is described by the LET (which is here taken as synonymous with stopping power), typically expressed in units of MeV·cm²/mg of material, the units used for mass stopping power (the material in question is usually Si for MOS devices). The units of measurement arise from a combination of the energy lost by the particle to the material per unit path length (MeV/cm) divided by the density of the material (mg/cm³).
"Soft errors" of electronic devices due to cosmic rays on earth are, however, mostly due to neutrons which do not directly interact with the material and whose passage can therefore not be described by LET. Rather, one measures their effect in terms of neutrons per cm2 per hour, see Soft error.


Herbert Gleiter

Herbert Gleiter (born 13 October 1938 in Stuttgart) is a German researcher in physics and nanotechnology.
In 1966, he received his Ph.D. in physics from the University of Stuttgart in Germany. He received the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize in 1988 for contributions to the field of nanotechnology. He became the Chair Professor of the Institute of Material Science at Saarland University, Germany in 1979. He has also held positions at Harvard University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the University of Bochum.
Since 2012, he is Director and Chair Professor of the 'Herbert Gleiter Institute of Nanoscience' of 'Nanjing University of Science and Technology' of Nanjing in China.In 2019, he received the Advanced Materials Laureate during the 30th IAAM Award Assembly.


Diego Krapf

Diego Krapf (born November 21, 1973) is an Argentine-Israeli physicist known for his work on anomalous diffusion and ergodicity breaking. He currently is a professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Colorado State University.
Early life and education.
Diego Krapf was born on November 21, 1973, to Martha Elbert and Luis Krapf. He spent his childhood growing up in Rosario, Argentina, and he attended the Instituto Politécnico Superior.
In 1992, after finishing high school, Krapf immigrated to Israel, where he spent half a year in Kibbutz Gan Shmuel and then moved to Jerusalem. He enrolled in physics at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
Krapf holds a BSc in physics (1997), a MSc in applied physics (2000) and a PhD in applied physics (2004) from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. After finishing his PhD, he completed a postdoc at the Delft University of Technology (2007), doing research in nanoelectrode fabrication and single molecule experiments using nanopores under the supervision of Cees Dekker and Serge Lemay.
Research.
Since 2007, Krapf is a faculty member in Colorado State University, where he currently heads a Biophysics lab that focuses on anomalous diffusion and cellular architecture using a combination of analytical and experimental tools including single particle tracking and super-resolution imaging.
In 2011, Krapf and his team at Colorado State University showed that the motion of membrane proteins on the surface of mammalian cells display anomalous diffusion with a non-ergodic underlying physical mechanism. These results represented a breakthrough in the understanding of membrane dynamics because they provide a completely new way of interpreting the motion of membrane proteins. In 2017, the Krapf lab discovered that due to complex branching processes the actin cytoskeleton adjacent to the plasma membrane of mammalian cells form an intricate fractal structure. In 2018, an international team led by Krapf involving researchers from the University of Massachusetts and the Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (Argentina) revealed the organization of the actin-based cytoskeleton in the sperm flagellum using three-dimensional super-resolution imaging. It was discovered that in the midpiece of murine sperm, the actin cytoskeleton forms a double-helix that follows the mitochondrial sheath, a type of filamentous actin structure that had not been previously observed.


James A. Krumhansl

James Arthur "Jim" Krumhansl (August 2, 1919 – May 6, 2004) was an American physicist who specialized in condensed matter physics and materials science. He spent much of his career at Cornell University. He also served as president of the American Physical Society and assistant director for mathematics, physical sciences, and engineering for the National Science Foundation. In 1987 he testified before Congress that the Superconducting Super Collider would be too costly.
Personal life.
Krumhansl was born August 2, 1919, in Cleveland, Ohio. He married twice; each marriage ended in divorce. He had three children: Carol L. Krumhansl, James L. Krumhansl, and Peter A. Krumhansl.
Education.
Krumhansl did his undergraduate work in electrical engineering at the University of Dayton, earning a B.S. in 1939. He went on to receive an M.S. from Case Western Reserve University in 1940 and a Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1943. Both graduate degrees were in physics. His doctoral dissertation concerns the klystron.
Career.
After earning his Ph.D. Krumhansl spent one year as an Instructor in Physics at Cornell. In 1944 he left Cornell for the Stromberg-Carlson Company, where he researched microwave pulse communication systems for the U.S. Navy during World War II. He remained at Stromberg-Carlson until 1946, when he became an assistant professor of physics and applied mathematics at Brown University. He was promoted to associate professor in 1947. In 1948 he moved back to Cornell as an assistant professor of physics and was promoted to associate professor in 1950. In 1955 he returned to industry as a research director for the National Carbon Company.
In 1959 Krumhansl became a full professor of physics at Cornell. From 1960 to 1964 he directed the university's Laboratory of Atomic and Solid State Physics. He was named the Horace White Professor of Physics in 1981. Before retiring in 1990, he also held visiting appointments at the University of Oxford, the University of Cambridge, and the University of Pennsylvania. In retirement he held adjunct professorships at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and Dartmouth College.
During his career Krumhansl had several opportunities to serve the academic physics community. He was the editor-in-chief of the "Journal of Applied Physics" from 1958 to 1964 and of "Physical Review Letters" from 1974 to 1977. From 1973 to 1978 he served on the governing board of the American Institute of Physics. He chaired the American Physical Society's Division of Condensed Matter Physics and was the society's President from 1989 to 1990. As President he advocated for more visas and immigration opportunities for Chinese scholars following the Tiananmen square massacre of 1989.
Krumhansl was also active in government service through much of his career. He served on advisory committees for the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission from 1954 to 1959. Soon after, he and Robb Thomson co-founded the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency's Materials Research Council. From 1975 to 1979 he was a senior fellow at Los Alamos National Laboratory, where he served as a consultant to the laboratory's director. In 1977 President Jimmy Carter appointed him assistant director for mathematics, physical sciences, and engineering for the National Science Foundation, a position he held until 1979.
Krumhansl received a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1959. He also traveled to Yugoslavia as a Fulbright Scholar. He served on the science advisory board of Allied Corporation from 1979 to 1987, and on that company's board of directors from 1980 to 1987.
Research.
Krumhansl worked primarily in theoretical condensed matter physics and materials science. During his time at Penn he and John Robert Schrieffer formulated an influential model of structural phase transitions based in statistical mechanics. He also did important work on crystal twinning in martensite with Gerhard Barsch. He was also known for his research on phonons, solitons, and material defects. His broad interests, spanning not only his own areas of physics but also information theory, applied mathematics, metallurgy, and biophysics, led him to characterize himself as a "gadfly".
Congressional testimony.
In 1987, while serving as the American Physical Society's President-elect, Krumhansl testified before the Science Committee of the U.S. House of Representatives, arguing against building the Superconducting Super Collider. In his view, the collider would be so expensive that it would drain funds from other worthy research. As his Cornell colleague James P. Sethna put it, Krumhansl "valued the science of the supercollider highly, but he did not value it a thousand times more than other fields of science." Congress canceled the collider project in 1993 after completing one-fifth of it at a cost of $2 billion.
Later years and legacy.
After retiring from Cornell, Krumhansl moved to Amherst, Massachusetts, and later Hanover, New Hampshire. He died May 6, 2004, at Dartmouth–Hitchcock Medical Center in Lebanon, New Hampshire, following a stroke, one month after giving an invited lecture at a conference in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Cornell established a postdoctoral fellowship in his memory, and Los Alamos held a memorial symposium in January 2005.


Mark Veyngerov

Mark Leonidovich Veyngerov (, 1903–1973) was a Soviet Physicist, USSR State Prize 1946 awardee for papers in the field of Optics.
Biography.
Mark Veyngerov was born in Saint Petersburg in the family of doctors: Cecilia Borisovna Brushteyn (, ?-1953) was a physiotherapist and Leonid Iosifovich Veyngerov (, 1867-1934) was a wide-known balneologist. Leonid Veyngerov was the author of such well-known medical books as "Compendium to recipe with a description of the most common drugs that are not included in the Russian pharmacopoeia" (). He also was the leader of the "Aid Society for Poor Jews" and was the Main Secretary of St. Petersburg Medical Society in 1907–1911.
Mark Leonidovich Veyngerov graduated from Physics department of Saint Petersburg State University in 1925. He worked on PhD under scientific supervision of academician .
At 1931 he was hired at the State Optics Institute and had been working in Infrared Optics Laboratory for many years. Before World War II he taught physics in Mozhaisky Military Space Academy.
After World War II he became lecturer in LITMO. He occupied the following positions: Professor of General Physics Department (1945-1948); Head of the Infrared Optics Department (1948-1954); Professor (1954-1956, 1965-1967) and the Head of the Physical Optics and Spectroscopy Department (1956-1965).
Mark Veyngerov received the following science degrees: PhD (1930); Docent (1935); Doctor Nauk (1940), Professor (1942).
He designed Infrared Radiation Detector on the basis of Bimetallic Plate Vacuum Diode (1932), designed Selective Optic-Acoustical Detector -- Spectrophone with wide sensitivity spectrum (1937). In collaboration with S.M. Luchin designed non-selective Optic-Acoustical Detector (1941).
He was Awarded USSR State Prize in 1946 for developing of Express Optic-Acoustical Gas Analysis. Also awarded Order of the Badge of Honour and other medals.


Laboratori Nazionali di Legnaro

The Laboratori Nazionali di Legnaro (Legnaro National Laboratories, LNL) is one of the four major research centers of the Italian National Institute for Nuclear Physics (INFN). The primary focus of research at this laboratory is in the fields of nuclear physics and nuclear astrophysics, where five accelerators are currently used. It is one of the most important facilities in Italy for research in these fields. The main future project of the laboratory is the Selective Production of Exotic Species (SPES), in which various radionuclides will be produced for research and medicinal purposes.
History.
The establishment of a laboratory in Legnaro was first suggested in 1956 to promote nuclear physics research in Italy in addition to previous work in particle physics. In 1959, the University of Padua decided that a new laboratory would be built near Legnaro, rather than install new equipment in older facilities. The laboratory was founded in 1960 by physicist Antonio Rostagni and research commenced within the next year. After initial investigations demonstrated the conceived role of the Legnaro Laboratories in nuclear physics research, the facility became integrated into the INFN in 1968.
In subsequent years, several accelerators were newly installed or upgraded. The original CN accelerator, whose operations commenced with the opening of the laboratory, was upgraded to allow use and study of heavier ions. More advanced facilities were installed in the next decades: the XTU Tandem accelerator in 1981 (inaugurated in 1982) and the Linear Superconducting Accelerator (ALPI) in 1991. The installation of new facilities enabled more advanced studies to be performed at the Legnaro laboratories, increasing its importance in international research in nuclear physics.
Currently, most work at the Legnaro National Laboratories involves studies of nuclear structure, nuclear reactions, and gamma-ray spectroscopy; the last was internationally recognized in the 1990s. The recent focus of the Legnaro Laboratories, and the main future project, is SPES (Selective Production of Exotic Species). A new accelerator for the production of radioactive ion beams has been under construction since 2007, and the alpha phase of the project, featuring a new cyclotron, was inaugurated in December 2016. Subsequent beta, gamma, and delta phases are planned, approved, and funded by INFN and the Italian government; it will be possible to synthesize new isotopes and mass produce medically useful isotopes once they are completed.
Facilities and projects.
Accelerators.
There are six accelerators in operation at the Legnaro National Laboratories:
All accelerators are used to accelerate various ions for nuclear physics purposes.
AURIGA.
The Legnaro National Laboratories are the site of AURIGA, a gravitational wave detector for astrophysical gravitational waves research. It became operational in 2004, and has been continuously in operation since then. In 2016, it was proven that the AURIGA resonant mass detector is sufficiently sensitive for dark matter searches, and perhaps more suitable than more modern detectors such as LIGO.
SPES.
The SPES (Selective Production of Exotic Species) project involves the construction of several new accelerators specially designed for the production of radioisotopes. In the beta phase, fission at 1013 fissions per second and fragmentation of uranium will be studied to yield exotic neutron-rich isotopes and produce beams with these isotopes at higher intensities than those currently available. These include nuclei near the nuclear drip lines and shell closures that play an important role in the astrophysical r-process. A variety of medically useful radioisotopes will also be mass produced as part of the project's gamma phase. By 2017, significant progress was made on the construction of the SPES facility; the first beams of exotic isotopes are expected to be available in late 2019.
GAMMA experiment.
The GAMMA experiment is underway at several European laboratories including the Legnaro National Laboratories. It uses gamma-ray spectroscopy to study the structure of light nuclei, as well as their unbound states and roles in nucleosynthesis processes. At present, LNL is one of the facilities delivering stable ion beams, though the development of SPES will also allow contribution of high-intensity radioactive ion beams.
PVLAS.
PVLAS is an axion search experiment.


Andrei Doroshkevich

Andrei Georgievich Doroshkevich (, born 1937) is a Russian (and former Soviet) theoretical astrophysicist and cosmologist, head of the laboratory on the physics of the early universe at the Lebedev Physical Institute.
He is best known for his work with Igor Novikov, which they published in 1964, providing a theoretical basis for the cosmic microwave background radiation and pointing out that this radiation should be experimentally measurable. The signal of this radiation had been discovered experimentally by T. A. Shmaonov in 1957, but his work had been forgotten even in the Soviet Union by the time of Doroshkevich and Novikov's work. Their own work, also, remained unknown in the west until after the Nobel prize winning rediscovery of the same signal by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson in 1965.