Spectacled porpoise

The spectacled porpoise ("Phocoena dioptrica") is a small to midsize porpoise indigenous to the Southern Ocean. It is one of the most poorly studied cetaceans, partly due to its remote range in the southern ocean. What little is known about this porpoise species has been gathered mainly from stranded individuals, and a few observations of living animals made at sea.
Description.
As with other porpoise species, the spectacled porpoise has no beak. It has small pectoral fins with rounded tips positioned far forward on the body, and a triangular dorsal fin. Interestingly, this porpoise species shows obvious sexual dimorphism between adult males and females, as the dorsal fins in the former are much larger and more rounded.
Records for female length range up to , while males may reach , which represents the largest specimen documented thus far. The maximum weight for a female was , while a male has been recorded at .
The spectacled porpoise has a distinctive colouration. As an adult it is countershaded, with a black dorsal region which is sharply delineated from a white belly. In some individuals, this line can be feathered. An obvious dark eye patch is present in both juveniles and adults. A pale ‘saddle-patch’ around the dorsal fin and a dark line around the blowhole have also been documented. Females are described as lighter in colouration, while young animals may have a dorsal area that is grey rather than black, with a lighter grey on the belly, a clearly demarked line connecting the mouth and flipper.
Geographic range/distribution.
The distribution of the spectacled porpoise is thought to be circumpolar, and it is considered a predominately oceanic species, however occasional sightings and specimens are documented in coastal regions. Evidence from sightings and strandings suggest that the species can be found within cool temperate, sub-Antarctic and Antarctic waters, where water temperatures range between 0.9 °C and 10.3 °C.
Stranded individuals have been found across the southern hemisphere. In the south-western Atlantic records have been made at Santa Catarina in Southern Brazil, Uruguay, from Buenos Aires to Tierra del Fuego, and the Falkland Islands and South Georgia. Records exist from the south-western South Pacific (Auckland and Maquarie Islands) to the southern Indian Ocean (Heard and Kerguelen), and also from New Zealand, Burney Island, Tasmania and South Australia. This widespread distribution is evidence of a circumpolar range, and possible association with the Falkland Current and Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) which transports cold water along the Atlantic coast of South America, and around Antarctica respectively.
Sightings of spectacled porpoise at sea are similarly widespread, and include waters off Patagonia, South Georgia, Kerguelen, south of New Zealand, Tasmania and Heard Island. Nine sightings have been made south of 64°, in Antarctic waters.
Foraging.
Little dietary information is available for the spectacled porpoise, but it is thought to forage on fish and squid. No observations of foraging behaviour at sea have been made. Stomach contents from a small number of stranded specimens included anchovy (Eugraulis sp.), stomatopods, cephalopod beaks (Sepia sp.) and a half digested ornate cowfish ("Aracana ornata").
Reproduction.
Little is known about the reproduction of the spectacled porpoise. In the Tierra del Fuego region, studies estimate that young porpoises are born at long in late spring or summer (November to February). No information is available on gestation, lactation, or inter-birth intervals.
Taxonomy.
The species was named by the French naturalist Fernando Lihille in 1912 for its two distinctive black eye patches, with the latin dioptrica meaning ‘spectacled’. In Spanish, the spectacled porpoise is known as 'marsopa de anteojos', a literal translation of the English common name
Recent analyses of mitochondrial DNA from 50 porpoises indicated high levels of genetic diversity that would indicate a large and stable population, or one with a wide distribution. The study also revealed evidence for a recent expansion in population.
Phylogenetic tree analyses found that spectacled porpoises are more closely related to Burmeister's porpoise ("Phocoena spinipinnis") than to the vaquita ("Phocoena sinus") which appeared to diverge from Burmeister’s and spectacled porpoises in the Pliocene era. These three species diverged from the harbour porpoise ("Phocoena phocoena") and Dall’s porpoise ( "Phocoenoides dalli") around 4 million years ago, while the split between Burmeister’s and spectacled porpoises occurred 2.3 million years ago.
Population status.
The population size and its inter-connectedness across the Southern Ocean is unknown. Research cruises conducted between 1978 and 2004 in the Antarctic resulted in 28 sightings, however these were made in fair weather conditions and porpoises may have been missed during poorer conditions. It is possible that Passive Acoustic Monitoring (PAM) for spectacled porpoises may shed more light on their range and habitat use, however no studies have been conducted to date.
Threats.
The spectacled porpoise is likely prey for sharks, leopard seals ("Hydrurga leptonyx") and killer whales ("Orcinus orca"). In Tierra del Fuego, it has been observed that scavenging birds such as kelp gulls will target stranded spectacled porpoise carcasses over other cetacean species. Such scavenging can result in a carcass becoming skeletonised rapidly, within one to two hours.
Researchers have uncovered spectacled porpoise remains within the kitchen middens of the canoe people who lived in Tierra del Fuego between 6000 and 1400 years ago. It is possible the species was once a common food source for peoples in the region. More recently, porpoises may be caught and used as bait for the crab fishery industry, however the frequency of this activity and its impact on porpoise population status is unknown.
Bycatch and incidental capture are most likely the greatest anthropogenic threat to the spectacled porpoise. Porpoises and other small cetaceans are particularly at risk of entanglement and drowning in gillnets, as the thin filaments are not easily detected by their echolocation clicks. The extent of incidental bycatch is unknown, however strandings and fishing ground locations often coincide.
Conservation status.
While previously listed by the IUCN in 2008 as ‘Data Deficient’ the species was upgraded to ‘Least Concern’ in 2018. While it is widely accepted that spectacled porpoises are threatened by fishery bycatch and entanglement, and stranding rates in Tierra del Fuego may be unsustainable for the population, the category of Least Concern has been applied provisionally until more data is available.
Captivity.
At least two incidents have been documented where a living spectacled porpoise was taken into captivity, in both cases for medical treatment and rehabilitation following stranding. The first individual was a very young 127 cm long female calf that stranded in Port Elliot, Southern Australia, on 24 March 1997. The calf was disorientated and exhausted, preventing refloating attempts, and rescuers subsequently transported the calf to the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) marine rescue unit in Adelaide. The porpoise died five days later on 29 March 1997, and a necropsy revealed damage to the oesophagus and first stomach caused by intubation during force-feeding. However, other organs were normal and no direct cause of death was determined.
The second incident occurred on 26 January 2019, where an adult male live stranded 30 km up a river estuary in Argentina. The porpoise was emaciated and dehydrated, and was taken to the Marine Fauna Rescue and Rehabilitation Centre. The animal died four days later on 30 January 2019.


Eupithecia atacama

Eupithecia atacama is a moth in the family Geometridae. It is found in the regions of Antofagasta (Antofagasta Province) and Atacama (Huasco Province) in Chile. The habitat consists of the North Coast and Intermediate Desert Biotic Provinces.
The length of the forewings is about 8.5–9 mm for males and 8.5–10 mm for females. The forewings are greyish white with medium and dark brown plus some reddish brown scaling. The hindwings are paler than the forewings, with scattered dark scales distally. Adults have been recorded on wing in September, October and November.


Cheiracanthium taprobanense

Cheiracanthium taprobanense is a species of spider of the genus "Cheiracanthium". It is endemic to Sri Lanka.


Eastern Desert

The Eastern Desert is the part of the Sahara desert that is located east of the Nile river. It spans 223 000 square km of North-Eastern Africa and is bordered by the Nile river to the west and the Red Sea and Gulf of Suez to the east. It extends through Egypt, Eritrea, Sudan and Ethiopia. The Eastern Desert is also known as the Red Sea Hills. The Desert consists of a mountain range which runs parallel to the coast, wide sedimentary plateaus extending from either side of the mountains and the Red Sea coast. The rainfall, climate, vegetation and animal life sustained in the desert varies between these different regions.The Desert has been a mining site for building materials, and precious and semi-precious metals throughout history. It has historically contained many trade routes leading to and from the Red Sea, including the Suez Canal.
Geography.
Historical formation.
Between 100 and 35 million years ago the area that is now the Eastern Desert was underwater, covered by the Tethys Ocean. During the Oligocene period, around 34 million years ago, the land began to tilt and the coastline was pushed back to the north and west. Concurrently, the basement complex to the east was uplifted, forming the mountain range of the Desert. In this same sequence of land movements, a rift which is now the Red Sea was opened up.
Mountains.
The mountain range of the Eastern Desert runs between 80 and 137 km inland from and parallel to the Red Sea Coast. It has peaks around 1500m above sea level. The southern mountains are predominantly igneous rock while the mountains to the north are limestone. Separating the mountains are wide wadis which allow for the runoff of rainfall from the mountains to the Red Sea and the Nile River. The tallest peak of the mountain range is Gebel Shayeb EI-Banat, at 2184m above sea level. Other significant peaks include Jebel Erba (2217m) Jabal Oda (2160m), Jabal Shaib al Banat (2087m), Jebel Hamata (1961m), Gebel Amm Anad (1782),  South Galala (1464m), and North Galala (1274m).
Plateaus.
Sedimentary plateaus run on either side of mountains. In general, the Northern sections of these plateaus have a limestone base while the Southern sections are sandstone. The plateaus between the Nile River and the mountains is also known as the inland Eastern Desert and is subdivided into four sections: The Cairo-Suez Desert, The Limestone Desert , The Sandstone (Idfu-Kom Ombo) Desert, and the Nubian Desert.
Red Sea Coast.
The Red Sea coastland is the easternmost part of the Eastern Desert, running between Eritrea and the Gulf of Suez. The coastline varies to be between 30–175 km in width from the base of the mountain range.
Climate.
The Eastern Desert has a semi-arid/arid/hyper-arid climate. On average, the region usually receives less than 25mm of rainfall per year in infrequent patterns . Most of the rainfall occurs during the winter months around the mountains. The presence of the mountains can create a rain shadow, for the rest of the Desert, contributing to the arid environment.
Average temperatures are between 14-21 °C in winter (November–March) and 23.1-46 °C in summer (May–September). The weather is typically sunny however, sandstorms can occur, usually between March and June. The storms (khamsins) are caused by tropical air moving up from Sudan, accompanied by strong winds and an increased temperature. 'Khamsin' comes from the Arabic word meaning fifty, as the storms occur on an average of fifty days in a year.
Historic climate.
Carbon dating of samples of fossil tufas, a type of limestone which is deposited in the presence of high groundwater levels, has revealed that there have historically been two periods when the Eastern Desert was significantly wetter than it is today. These occurred in the late Pleistocene age, around 100 000 and the mid Holocene age, around 6000 years ago. The most recent wet period is known to be a result of summer monsoonal rains that moved over the Desert from the Indian Ocean. During these times, some areas of the land was swamp. The mountains and desert plateaus were also able to sustain more vegetation and animals. In between these periods the desert climate has remained mostly arid, as it is today.
Flora.
Coastal vegetation.
There are three main ecosystems within the coastal region of the Eastern Desert: littoral salt marsh, coastal desert and coastal mountains. The presence of sea spray, tidal movements and salt water seepage means that vegetation in these areas must be well adapted to living in a saline environment.
Littoral Salt Marsh.
A salt marsh vegetation community is created as mud builds up on tidal flats and plants grow on the mud, making it a more stable and permanent ecosystem. The two main types of vegetation in this area are mangrove and salt marsh vegetation.
Mangrove.
"Avicennia marina", or grey mangrove is the dominant mangrove plant in the Red Sea area. It grows consistently along a large stretch of the Red Sea coast but is rarely seen to the North of the Egyptian city, Hurghada"." "Rhizophora mucronata", or loop-root mangrove, also grows co-dominantly with "A.Marina" in some areas along the coast but it is less prevalent. The loop-root mangrove is taller than the grey mangrove and thus, in areas where they do grow together, they form a two-tiered canopy of leaves. Small plants such as "Cymodocea ciliata" and "Halophila oualis" typically form the undergrowth of the mangrove community.
Salt Marsh.
There are multiple plant species, and further subspecies, that the grow together within this community. "Halocnemum strobilaceum" is a woody sub-shrub which grows in the mud flats and on the sandy shoreline. It is most common on the northern section of the coast, near the Gulf of Suez. "Arthrocnemum glaucum" is a flowering shrub which grows in similar areas to "H. strobilaceum" but is less prevalent in the North"."
"Limonium pruinosum" is a flowering shrub from the "Limonium" family, also known as sea lavender, which grows commonly around the Gulf of Suez. Also from this family, the sub-species of Limonium axillare contributes to up to 50% of vegetation cover on the South of the coast. "Halopeplis perfoliata" is a succulent species which commonly grows in the southern region of the Red Sea coast.
Natural resources and mining.
The mining of precious metals dates back to Ancient Egyptian times and has carried on in the Eastern Desert until present day. From the early Pharaonic era (3000BC) , copper and gold were mined from the Desert and used to make tools and for jewellery and embellishment. It was not until much later, around 1000 BC, that iron was also discovered and began to be mined. Wadis were used as routes to cart the mined materials back to the civilisation.There were also mines for precious rocks such as emeralds and amethysts that were discovered by the Ancient Egyptians, and used during the Roman and Islamic periods. As well as precious materials, valuable building and sculpting materials have also been mined from the Eastern desert such as limestone, granite and marble. Today, most of the mining that occurs in and around the Eastern Desert is for crude oil and natural gas.
History.
The earliest signs of humans in the desert was found in the form of flint tools from 250 000 BC.
The Mesolithic Period (10000-5000BC).
Around 25 000 BC, the land underwent significant climactic change which  transformed the grassy plains into desert. This made the land much less habitable and, as a result of this change, nomads which had inhabited the land that is now the Eastern Desert were driven towards the Nile River.
Pharaonic Egypt (3000BC-30BC).
The Ancient Egyptian people exploited the natural resources of the Eastern Desert and the Nile River through mining of metals, building materials and precious stones. This practice has extended throughout history to the present day. From the early Pharaonic era, copper and gold were mined from the Desert and used to make tools and for jewellery and embellishment. It was not until much later, around 1000 BC, that iron was also discovered and began to be mined. Wadis were used as routes to cart the mined materials back to the Ancient Egyptian civilisation.  There were also mines for precious rocks such as emeralds and amethysts that were discovered by the Ancient Egyptians, and used during the Roman and Islamic periods.
Trade routes from the Nile to the Red sea were established through the Desert. Notably, there was a route between the Nile River and Mersa Gawasis, an Ancient Egyptian port. There were also many mines and quarries along this route. Boats were carried in pieces across the desert through the wadis and then set up once they reached the port to embark on expeditions.
Features.
The Eastern Desert's main geographic features are the western Red Sea coastline—with the "Red Sea Riviera"—and the Eastern Desert mountain range that runs along the coast, the highest peak of which is Shaiyb al-Banat (2,187 m). Other notable ecological areas are Wadi Gamal National Park, Gebel Elba and the Wadi Dib ring complex. The Eastern Desert is a popular setting for safaris and other excursions.


Elachista occidentella

Elachista occidentella is a moth of the family Elachistidae that is endemic to Portugal.


Near Eastern fire salamander

The near Eastern fire salamander ("Salamandra infraimmaculata"), in Arabic arouss al-ayn, is a species of salamander in the family Salamandridae found in Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel. Its natural habitats are subtropical dry shrubland and forests, often near rivers and freshwater springs. It is threatened by habitat loss.
Description.
This species is a black salamander with yellow spots on its back as warning coloration, but none on its belly. It has smooth, shiny skin, usually with four large, yellow blotches on the head. Various subspecies have different patterns of colours, for example, "S. i. orientalis" is virtually identical to "S. i. infraimmaculata", but has a large number of yellow dots all over its body. However, the validity of this subspecies is in question. Another subspecies, "S. i. semenovi", has a more rounded head and rose-shaped spots over the top part of the body. It can grow to in length with "S. i. infraimmaculata" being the largest subspecies. Females are in general larger than males.
Distribution and habitat.
In Turkey, Near Eastern fire salamanders can be found in Anatolia. The species is also native to north-western Iran, northern Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, northern Israel near the ancient city of Tel Dan and northern and western Galilee, and the Mount Carmel area. It is found at altitudes of between .
Depending on the terrain, it can be found in various kinds of forests. For example, in Iran, it inhabits open cork forests with scattered trees, while in Turkey and Lebanon, it can be found in damp woods and groves in mountainous and hilly regions, especially near water. It protects itself during the day by hiding under leaves, roots, or rocks and emerges at night to forage. Besides those terrains, it can also be found near springs and the temporary pools that form after winter rains. In Israel, it can be found around pools and spring-fed, slow-moving streams.
In spring, to infester their reproductive chances, those animals tend to grow singular yellowish swelling around their eyes: the bigger those heaves are, the better possibilities they have to find a female partner.
Physiology.
When these salamanders are larvae, they are able to detect whether the water volume from their pond drops and then they must morph to the next terrestrial phase before the water drops which is developing bigger heads.
Ecology.
Salamanders of this species can live up to 23 years for males and 21 years for females. Adults normally live on land, but water is used for breeding. Females lay their eggs in ponds, and both males and females visit the same body of water time after time. The adults are active at night and spend the day in hiding. During the hottest months of summer they may aestivate, depending on location, and individuals at higher elevations hibernate during the winter. They show great fidelity to their hiding and breeding places. It used to be thought that they were resident within small home ranges but it has now been shown that this is not the case. Migrations of populations sometimes take place and individuals sometimes wander far from their normal bases.
Diet.
Adults live on land and feed on insects, earthworms, slugs, snails, other small invertebrates, and even young salamanders of other species. The larvae (tadpoles) feed mainly on small crustaceans, mosquito larvae, and tadpoles of frogs and toads. They are very aggressive towards each other and often resort to cannibalism. They are more likely to eat unrelated tadpoles than their litter mates. If fish inhabit the pond, they prey heavily on newt tadpoles, but if not, the salamander tadpoles are at the top of the food chain and have a significant impact on the composition and diversity of species in the pool.
Breeding.
Breeding takes place during the cooler months of winter. Although courtship has not been much studied, it is believed to be similar to that of "Salamandra salamandra". The male holds the female in a ventral amplexus. He deposits a spermatophore on the ground underneath her and moves his tail and sacrum in such a way that her abdomen comes into contact with it. She grasps it with the lips of her cloaca and draws it inside. A female may receive spermatophores from several different males.
This salamander is ovoviviparous, with the developing embryos being retained in the female's oviduct. There may be about a year between the fertilisation of the eggs and the deposition of live tadpoles into pools. They are not all deposited at one time, and the female visits several ponds, choosing ones without large salamander larvae already present and those with plenty of crevices in which the young tadpoles hide.
Larvae.
When born, the larvae weigh about and already have two pairs of legs and two sets of external gills. They use their finned tails for swimming and grow rapidly. They soon encounter others of their kind, and if food is scarce, may become cannibalistic. This may be an adaptive feature related to the decreasing quantity of water in their temporary pools and may be sparked by the presence of dead tadpoles or a change in the quality of the water. Under these circumstances, cannibalism may be an important behaviour that allows some of the tadpoles to survive. Tadpoles grow in size to about before undergoing metamorphosis which takes place after two to four months.
Status.
This species is listed as "Near Threatened" in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. In some areas, it is quite plentiful, but in others is uncommon or rare. It is considered to be threatened in Israel and Lebanon due to road building and the pollution of water bodies by pesticides. The introduction of predatory fish such as the mosquitofish ("Gambusia affinis") can severely impact the number of tadpoles that survive to adulthood. In Turkey, the population trend is downwards and the threats include the drying up of water bodies due to the extraction of ground water, the damming of streams, traffic, and the fragmentation of suitable habitat by development. In Israel, it is listed as "Endangered" and is protected by national legislation. In Lebanon, its status is unknown, while in Syria, it is considered to be vulnerable because of habitat destruction. In both Turkey and Israel, it is present in some national parks and in these it should receive protection.
Captivity.
This salamander can be kept as a pet, and captive breeding has been successful on some occasions. A 26.5-cm female imported from Lebanon in 1966 at a larval stage successfully reproduced 79 larvae in 2007. Four years later, in another gestation period, 102 further larvae were produced.


Rainbow parrotfish

The rainbow parrotfish ("Scarus guacamaia") is a species of fish in the family Scaridae.
Description.
"S. guacamaia" is among the largest members of its family, and the largest in the Atlantic, reaching in length, 20 kg in weight and a maximum age of 16 years. It has a greenish-brown overall colouration; the fins are dull orange with tongues of green. Its dental plates are blue-green. Sexes appear alike.
Distribution and habitat.
The rainbow parrotfish has a relatively wide distribution in the western Atlantic, and can be found from Bermuda through South Florida, the Bahamas and the Caribbean to Venezuela. It inhabits coral reefs, mangroves and sea grass beds in shallow waters, at depths of 3–25 m.
Ecology.
"S. guacamaia" is primarily a detritivore, feeding on detritus, bacterial colonies and meiofauna but also taking sponges. Young fish appear to recruit mostly to mangroves.
Conservation.
"S. guacamaia" was formerly classified as vulnerable due to overfishing and habitat loss, but because the presently available data do not allow an estimate of the population decline, it is now considered near threatened by the IUCN. It is relatively rare in most of its range, but more common in Bermuda. The rainbow parrotfish is widely harvested in subsistence fisheries in many parts of the Caribbean.


Smithsonidrilus pauper

Smithsonidrilus pauper is a species of clitellate oligochaete worm. It was first found in Peru.


Rhyacia quadrangula

Rhyacia quadrangula is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is found in Iceland, central Asia, the Pamir Mountains, Greenland as well as Canada (Quebec, the Northwest Territories, Manitoba, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador) and the north-western United States.
The wingspan is 36–38 mm. Adults are on wing from July to September.
The larvae feed on "Gramineae" species.


Elegant fat-tailed mouse opossum

The elegant fat-tailed mouse opossum ("Thylamys elegans"), also known as the Chilean mouse opossum, is an opossum from central Chile. The type species of "Thylamys", it was first described by English naturalist George Robert Waterhouse in 1839. This medium-sized opossum is characterized by black rings around the eyes, white limbs, gray to light brown coat, lighter flanks and underbelly and a thick long tail covered with hairs. It is crepuscular (active mainly around twilight) and lives in nests in tree hollows or under rocks and roots. This opossum feeds mainly on arthropods and larvae apart from fruits. Litter size is typically between 11 and 13. The elegant fat-tailed opossum can occur in a variety of habitats – from cloud forests to chaparrals. The IUCN classifies the opossum as least concern.
Taxonomy and etymology.
The elegant fat-tailed mouse opossum is the type species of "Thylamys", and is placed in the family Didelphidae. It was first described by English naturalist George Robert Waterhouse as "Didelphis elegans" in 1839. It was given its present binomial name by English zoologist John Edward Gray in 1843.
The cladogram below, based on a 2016 study, shows the phylogenetic relationships of the elegant fat-tailed mouse opossum.
The generic name is composed of the Greek words "thylas" ("pouch") and "mys" ("mouse"), and the specific name "elegans" means "elegant" in Latin. Alternate names for this mouse opossum include Chilean mouse opossum, comadreja, llaca, marmosa chilena, marmosa elegante and yaca.
Description.
The elegant fat-tailed mouse opossum is a medium-sized opossum characterized by white limbs, gray to light brown coat, lighter flanks and underbelly, and a thick long tail covered with hairs. A prominent facial feature is the black ring around either eye; the rings slightly extend toward the nose. The coat color varies geographically. The tail can thicken due to accumulation of fat; the diameter of the tail can reach where it is connected to the body. The head-and-body length is ; the hindfeet measure , while ears measure .
This opossum can exhibit torpor, a mechanism that allows the opossum to significantly reduce its food and energy requirements. This is similar to hibernation, except that it is only done for a short period of time. Additionally, when water is scarce, the urine tends to become very concentrated.
Ecology and behavior.
The elegant fat-tailed mouse opossum is crepuscular (active mainly around twilight). It lives in nests (abandoned by birds and rodents, or built by itself) in tree hollows, under rocks and roots. It is arboreal (tree-living) as well as terrestrial (land-living). The opossum feeds mainly on arthropods and larvae, along with fruits, small vertebrates and carrion. This opossum can use its prehensile tail, regardless of its thickness, to efficiently climb and grasp branches – an ability not as developed in other small Chilean mammals. Nests are generally occupied by one individual; in southern Chile, the home range of this opossum is large in July, and shrinks to in December. Predators of this opossum include the culpeo fox, burrowing owl and the great horned owl.
Both sexes mature by the first year. A female can have one to two litters in the annual breeding season, typically from September to March. Up to 17 embryos can be produced, but the number of survivors will depend on the number of nipples functioning (typically 11 to 13).
Distribution and status.
The elegant fat-tailed mouse opossum occurs in a variety of habitats – from cloud forests to chaparrals, up to an altitude of above the sea level. It occurs to the west of the Andes in central Chile. The IUCN lists this opossum as least concern given its wide distribution and presumably large numbers, but deforestation and agricultural expansion have led to decline in populations in some parts of the range.


Pireneitega spasskyi

Pireneitega spasskyi is an araneomorph spider species found in Georgia and Azerbaijan.


Ichthyophis glutinosus

Ichthyophis glutinosus, the Ceylon caecilian or common yellow-banded caecilian, is a species of caecilian in the family Ichthyophiidae endemic to Sri Lanka. Its natural habitats are moist tropical and subtropical forests and pastures.
Description.
The Ceylon caecilian grows to about long and resembles a large earthworm. The skin is formed into over 300 transverse folds which give the caecilian the appearance of being segmented. The head has a rounded snout and a pair of extensible tentacles near the mouth, rather closer to the eyes than to the nostrils. The colour of this caecilian is steely blue above and pale yellow underneath, with a yellow band running along either side of the body.
Distribution and habitat.
The Ceylon caecilian is endemic to southwestern and central Sri Lanka. It has also been reported to occur in northeastern India, but more likely this sighting referred to a different species. It lives in burrows in damp earth or leaf litter in subtropical or tropical moist lowland and montane forests, subtropical or tropical swamps, cleared forested areas, and pasturelands at elevations of up to above sea level.
Biology.
The Ceylon caecilian feeds on earthworms and other small invertebrates. When it has captured an earthworm, it reverses into its burrow, sometimes twisting its head around or twirling its whole body to subdue its prey.
Reproduction takes place in underground chambers or other hidden places, where the female lays strings of about 30 white, jelly-coated eggs. She then coils her body around the eggs and broods them until they hatch into larvae about long. The larvae move out of the burrow and wriggle to pools or water courses that form in the wet season. They have three pairs of external feathery gills, a lateral line system, and a tail fin which enables them to swim. The gills persist, but they have lost their lateral lines by the time they undergo a relatively slow metamorphosis at about nine months old.
Status.
The Ceylon caecilian is listed as being of "vulnerable" by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. This is because, although its range is probably less than , it is locally common in the areas in which it lives and does not seem to have any significant threats. It is a very adaptable animal and can cope with changes in its habitat. Large areas of its range are found in well-protected national parks, including the Sinharaja World Heritage Site, the Knuckles Range Forest Reserve, the Dellawa Forest Reserve and the Udawatta Kele Sanctuary.


Amur minnow

The Amur minnow or Lagowski's minnow ("Rhynchocypris lagowskii") is an Asian species of small freshwater cyprinid fish. It is found from the Lena and Amur rivers in the north to the Yangtze in China in the south.


Pelobates varaldii

Pelobates varaldii, the Moroccan spadefoot toad or Varaldi's spadefoot toad, is a species of frog in the family Pelobatidae. It is found in Morocco and possibly Spain. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, rivers, intermittent rivers, freshwater marshes, and intermittent freshwater marshes. The species is threatened by habitat loss.
According to C.Michael Hogan, the species breeding sites are ephemeral lentic water bodies, which surface waters are scarce in the species range.


Dipoena sertata

Dipoena sertata, is a species of spider of the genus "Dipoena". It is endemic to Sri Lanka.


Himalayan woodpecker

The Himalayan woodpecker ("Dendrocopos himalayensis") is a species of bird in the family Picidae. It is found in the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent, primarily the Himalayas and some adjoining areas, and ranges across Afghanistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan and Pakistan. Its natural habitats are boreal forests and temperate forests. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of "least concern".
Description.
A medium-sized, pied woodpecker reaching a length of about . Glossy black above with broad white patches from shoulder to lower back, limited white barring on flight feathers and clean white tail edgings. Underparts and head white or plain pale buff with black Y-shaped mark on neck and cheeks. The crown is red in males and black in females. Black marks under eyes are unique and distinguish it from other species. Vent and under-tail coverts red or pink. Iris chestnut, beak blackish and legs grey. The juvenile is duller, greyish-black above, and with vent and under-tail areas less vivid and crown greyish with some red (in both sexes).
Ecology.
The Himalayan woodpecker is found at altitudes between . Its habitat is either wet or dry upland forest with either deciduous or coniferous trees, and often with rhododendrons. It forages individually, usually on trunks and large branches but sometimes on the ground. Its diet is varied, with insects, fruits, seeds and sap. It sometimes hammers fir cones on stones to extract the seeds.
Status.
The Himalayan woodpecker has a wide range and is generally a common or fairly common bird. No particular threats have been recognized and the population trend is thought to be steady. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of "least concern".


South American snipe

The South American snipe ("Gallinago paraguaiae") is a small, stocky wader. Its taxonomic position is complicated, sometimes treated as a race of common snipe. The Andean population is now usually considered a distinct species, known as the puna snipe.
This small snipe breeds in most of South America away from the Pacific coast and eastern Brazil, and also Trinidad and possibly Tobago The nominate lowland race "G. p. paraguaiae" is resident, but the southern Magellanic snipe, to which it was previously considered conspecific, migrates north in winter, abandoning Tierra del Fuego altogether.
The breeding habitat is boggy rivers'. The nest is a well-hidden depression on the ground. Both parents incubate the two buff eggs for about 19 days to hatching, the precocial young leaving the nest soon after hatching.
The adult South American snipe is 27–29 cm in length and weighs 110 g. It has short greenish-grey legs and a very long straight dark bill. The body is mottled brown on top and pale underneath. There is a dark stripe through the eye, with light stripes above and below it. The wings are pointed. In northern South America, it is difficult to distinguish in the field from wintering common snipe, although they can be separated in the hand. South American snipes forage in soft mud, probing or picking up food by sight. They mainly eat insects and earthworms, also plant material.
The male performs a "winnowing" display during courtship, flying high in circles and then taking shallow dives to produce a distinctive sound. The call is a rasping "tssk".


Amphisbaena mongoyo

Amphisbaena mongoyo is a worm lizard species in the family Amphisbaenidae. It is endemic to Brazil.


Ameles maroccana

Ameles maroccana is a species of praying mantis found in Morocco.


Six-banded armadillo

The six-banded armadillo ("Euphractus sexcinctus"), also known as the yellow armadillo, is an armadillo found in South America. The sole extant member of its genus, it was first described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in 1758. The six-banded armadillo is typically between in head-and-body length, and weighs . The carapace (hard shell on the back) is pale yellow to reddish brown, marked by scales of equal length, and scantily covered by buff to white bristle-like hairs. The forefeet have five distinct toes, each with moderately developed claws.
Six-banded armadillos are efficient diggers and form burrows to live in and search for prey. The armadillo is alert and primarily solitary. An omnivore, it feeds on insects, ants, carrion, and plant material. Due to their poor eyesight, armadillos rely on their sense of smell to detect prey and predators. Births take place throughout the year; gestation is 60 to 64 days long, after which a litter of one to three is born. Weaning occurs at one month, and juveniles mature by nine months. The six-banded armadillo inhabits savannas, primary and secondary forests, "cerrado"s, shrublands, and deciduous forests. Fairly common, its range spans from Brazil and southern Suriname in the northeast through Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay into northern Argentina in the southeast. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) classifies it as least concern, and there are no major threats to its survival.
Taxonomy and etymology.
The six-banded armadillo is the sole member of the genus "Euphractus" and is placed in the family Chlamyphoridae. It was first described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus as "Dasypus sexcinctus" in 1758. The genera "Chaetophractus" (hairy armadillos) and "Zaedyus" (pichi) have at times been included in "Euphractus", though karyotypical, immunological and morphological analyses oppose this. Fossil "Euphractus" excavated in Buenos Aires (Argentina), Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais (Brazil) and Tarija (Bolivia) date back to the Pleistocene.
The following five subspecies are recognized:
A 2006 morphological study of the phylogeny of armadillos showed that "Chaetophractus", "Chlamyphorus", "Euphractus" and "Zaedyus" form a monophyletic clade. The cladogram below (based only on the extant species) is based on this study.
However, a mitochondrial DNA investigation has concluded that Chlamyphorinae (fairy armadillos) is the sister group of Tolypeutinae (giant, three-banded and naked-tailed armadillos), with Euphractinae (hairy, six-banded and pichi armadillos) having diverged earlier.
The six-banded armadillo differs from others in the subfamily Euphractinae, which also contains the pichi and hairy armadillos, in having a narrow head and six to seven movable bands on the carapace (the hard shell on the back). Other names for this armadillo are ' and ' (in Portuguese), and 'yellow armadillo'.
Description.
The six-banded armadillo is the largest in Euphractinae, which also contains the pichi and hairy armadillos; in fact, it is the third largest armadillo after the giant armadillo and the greater long-nosed armadillo. This armadillo is typically between in head-and-body length, and weighs . The carapace is pale yellow to reddish brown (though not a dark shade of brown or black), marked by scales of equal length, and scantily covered by buff to white bristle-like hairs – unlike the hairy armadillos, that are covered by dense hairs. The shell narrows to 70 to 80 percent of its original width towards the top of the head, which is covered by plates arranged in a definite pattern. The forefeet have five distinct toes, each with moderately developed claws, of which the third is the longest.
Like the other euphractines and the pink fairy armadillo, the six-banded armadillo has a tympanic bulla; the ears are long. There are 9 pairs of teeth on the upper jaw and 10 pairs on the lower jaw; the teeth are large and strong and are assisted by strong muscles for chewing. A row of scutes, each wide, extends along the back of the neck. The tail, long, is covered by two to four bands of plates on the underside. Some of these plates have holes for scent gland secretions, a feature seen in no other armadillo except a few big hairy armadillos.
Ecology and behavior.
Different studies have recorded different activity patterns for the six-banded armadillo – some consider it to be diurnal (active mainly during the day), while others show it is nocturnal (active mainly at night). It is an alert animal; unlike other armadillos, it flees on sensing danger and bites if handled. Primarily solitary, six-banded armadillos will congregate only to feed on carrions. A 1983 study in eastern Brazil calculated the mean home range size as . An efficient digger, this armadillo can dig U-shaped burrows with a single opening, typically in dry areas; the burrows may or may not be permanent shelters. These burrows can go deep into the ground and help in foraging. A study of burrows dug by the giant, six-banded, southern naked-tailed and greater naked-tailed armadillos showed that all burrows were similar in the slopes of the burrow and the surrounding soil, and the direction of the entrance; the location preferred for them and time spent in them, however, differed. Burrows could be easily differentiated by their dimensions; burrows of six-banded armadillos had a mean height of and were wide at the opening, and narrowed down to with a height of to into the burrow. Generally, burrows become wide enough to allow the armadillo to turn around as the depth increases. Unlike the moles, that throw the soil to a side while digging, the six-banded armadillo digs with its forefeet and throws the soil behind with its hindfeet. Armadillos defecate outside their burrows.
Diet.
The six-banded armadillo is an omnivore that feeds on carrion, small invertebrates, insects, ants, fruits (typically from bromeliads), palm nuts and tubers. A 2004 study classified it as a "carnivore-omnivore". In a study in a Brazilian ranch, plant material was found to predominate in the diet. Captive individuals have been observed preying upon large rats. Due to their poor eyesight, armadillos rely on their sense of smell to detect prey and predators. To kill the prey, the armadillo stands on it, grabs it using its teeth and tears it into pieces. Six-banded armadillos can store subcutaneous fat to support themselves at times when food is scarce; this fat can increase the weight to .
Reproduction.
Breeding behaviour has been observed in captivity. Births take place throughout the year. After a gestational period of 60 to 64 days, a litter of one to three is born. Each newborn weighs , and has a hairless and soft carapace; it can give out soft clicks. The pregnant female builds a nest before giving birth; if disturbed, the mother can react aggressively and shift her offspring. The eyes, closed at birth, open at 22 to 25 days. Weaning occurs at one month and the juveniles mature by nine months. One of the armadillos lived for nearly 18 years.
Habitat and distribution.
The six-banded armadillo inhabits savannas, primary and secondary forests, "cerrado"s, shrublands and deciduous forests. It can adapt to a variety of habitats; it can even occur on agricultural lands and has been recorded at above the sea level. A study in southeastern Brazil estimated the population density at 0.14 individuals per hectare. The same study showed that the six-banded armadillo often displaces and is displaced by the sympatric southern naked-tail armadillo; this was considered to be helpful in their coexistence. The six-banded armadillo has a wide distribution in South America, from Brazil and southern Suriname in the northeast through Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay into northern Argentina in the southeast. Its presence in Peru is doubted.
Threats and conservation.
The IUCN classifies the six-banded armadillo as least concern, due to its wide distribution, good degree of tolerance and presumably large populations. Moreover, it occurs in several protected areas. Though there are no major threats to its survival, six-banded armadillo populations north of the Amazon River might be declining due to few patches of savannas, human settlement and industrial expansion. Moreover, these armadillos are reportedly hunted for medicinal purposes, though their meat is believed to have an unpalatable taste; in some areas in its range, people detest its meat due to the belief that the animal feeds on "rotting human corpses". A 2011 study compared the six- and nine-banded armadillos in Paraíba (Brazil); nine-banded armadillo meat tasted better according to the majority of the locals. Consumption of six-banded armadillo meat was not considered safe by the locals for people with certain health problems, such as injuries and hepatitis, a taboo that had stemmed probably from concerns over the armadillo's diet. Six-banded armadillos often raid cropfields to feed on tender plants; farmers are known to use traps aided by corn baits for these animals to curb the menace.


Butis koilomatodon

Butis koilomatodon, commonly known as the mudsleeper, is a species of fish in the family Butidae native to fresh, brackish and salt water of the Indo-Pacific region, ranging from Madagascar and Mozambique to the Philippines, China and Australia. It has been introduced to the Atlantic region where considered invasive and known from Panama, Venezuela and Brazil as well as Nigeria. This predatory species mainly lives in rivers, estuaries and mangroves, and reaches up to in total length.
Introduction to Brazil.
"B. koilomatodon" are expanding their range to the southwestern Atlantic along the coast of Brazil. It has been found on the eastern coast of Brazil, in 1989, but was not identified until 2000. As of the summer of 2012, 23 specimens of "B. koilomatodon" have been collected along the coast of Brazil, all specimens were collected at six different locations along the coast. Biologists have been able to identify 17 of the specimens as male, four as female, and two more were not able to be sexed. And many of the specimens were in different stages of maturity, a breeding population is likely to be established, but enough data are collected to conclude it finally. How this species got to the other side of the continent of South America is unclear. Many believe they were brought over in the ballast tanks of ships. The small size of the species makes it very easy for them to enter the intake holes on a ship's ballast tank. Also, their ability to tolerate a wide range of salinity levels, as well as temperature fluctuations, makes it likely for them to inhabit a ballast tank on journeys across the ocean.


Amphisbaena anaemariae

Amphisbaena anaemariae is a worm lizard species in the family Amphisbaenidae. It is endemic to Brazil.


Mordellistena hollandica

Mordellistena hollandica is a species of beetle in the genus "Mordellistena" of the family Mordellidae, part of the superfamily Tenebrionoidea. It was described in 1966 by Ermisch.


Pacific baza

The Pacific baza ("Aviceda subcristata"), also known as the crested hawk, crested baza, and Pacific cuckoo-falcon, is a slender, medium-sized species of hawk in the family Accipitridae. It is mostly grey, brown, and white coloured and grows to a length of . It is an omnivore and usually does not migrate. The breeding season for the species lasts from September to at least February, during which time specimens commonly fly and vocalise for display. It lives in Australia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and East Timor, in forests, savannas, and freshwater bodies. The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists it as a least concern species.
Taxonomy.
John Gould first presented this new species as "Lepidogenys subcristatus" to a Zoological Society of London meeting in December 1837, placing it into a genus ("Lophotes" Gray 1831, but with this new name as it was already in use for a genus of fish) that was at the time considered separate from "Aviceda". The name would be formally published in April of the next year, in part 3 of Gould's "A synopsis of the birds of Australia, and the adjacent islands", which reproduced the paper read the previous year. Frédéric de Lafresnaye would later—in 1846—combine the Asian "Lepidogenys" and African "Aviceda" into a single genus. However, the species was also known for some time as "Baza subcristata" before it was demonstrated that "Aviceda" held nomenclatural priority over Swainson's "Baza". Johann Jakob Kaup had in the meantime placed the species in "Pernis", a placement not followed by any other authors.
This bird, the African cuckoo-hawk ("Aviceda cuculoides"), Madagascar cuckoo-hawk ("A. madagascariensis"), and Jerdon's baza ("A. jerdoni"), were previously thought to form a species complex.
This hawk has 13 known subspecies:
"A. s. proxima" and "robusta" have been proposed as subspecies that live in various parts of the Solomon Islands, but these are considered to be the same subspecies as "gurneyi".
The genus name, "Aviceda", means "bird-killer", combining the Latin words "avis", which translates to "bird", and "caedere", which translates to "to kill". The specific name, "subcristata", combines the Latin words for "somewhat" and "crested", referring to the small crest on the back of its neck. This bird was historically most commonly known as the crested hawk, but Pacific baza is now the most frequently-used common name. It is often referred to as "cuckoo-hawk" in Africa and "lizard-hawk" in India.
Description.
The Pacific baza is a slender, medium-sized bird, with a slim head and neck. Its appearance is similar to that of other species in its genus. It grows to a total length of , with a wingspan of and a tail length of . It weighs , with females being slightly heavier than males. Specimens are typically smaller in the extreme western and eastern parts of its range.
The species have a white underside, which is barred with black. Its upperside is grey, with brown scapulas. It has a grey head, which is small proportionally and partially domed, and yellow eyes, which are round and located far into the side of its head. Its thighs are reddish-brown coloured and its feet are grey. It has bands on its fingers, which are visible when flying in circles. It is the only New Guinean raptor that is crested, having a small, spiky crest on its nape. Its wings are broad, rounded, and paddle-shaped with distinct bands; they are very large in comparison to its body. They are narrowest where they meet its body, broadening to their ends. The edges of the wings are curved when the bird is in flight. The species has a long tail with a square end, which is tipped with black. It is the same length as the entire rest of its body.
Females can be distinguished from males by having a slightly browner upperside and sometimes more barring on their secondary flight feathers. Juveniles can be differentiated from adults by having a much browner upperside. They also have pale eyes, rather than the sharp yellow eyes of adults, a patterned face, smaller barring on their belly, a rust-coloured breast, a white throat, and a cream to blue-grey coloured cere. The Pacific baza can be distinguished from the long-tailed honey buzzard ("Henicopernis longicauda"), which is similar in appearance to this species, by having less-rounded wings and a breast that is barred rather than streaked.
Behaviour.
The omnivorous diet of the Pacific baza consists of fruits, insects, tree-frogs, lizards, snakes, and birds. It was previously thought to be solely a carnivore and only eat fruits accidentally, but observations in the 1970s and later have shown that it frequently eats fruit intentionally. In fact, in 1981, several captive specimens of the Pacific baza would not breed without having lettuce as a part of their diet. It hunts in the canopy of forests and dives down into foliage or air to snatch its prey. Although unconfirmed, it has been rumoured to imitate the calls of tree-frogs when hunting, inducing them to return the call. It produces vocalisations of "pee-peow, pee-peow", consisting of a note rising in pitch followed by a "more explosive" descending note. Although populations in certain parts of Australia have been known to migrate partially, it is generally a non-migratory species. It is characterised as "unobtrusive and docile". A social species, multiple specimens often gather together in the non-breeding season.
The breeding season usually starts in September; in Australia it lasts until February but it can be longer in other countries. During this time, it often soars up and down repeatedly for display and vocalises, positioning its wings in a V-shape when descending. It has also been known to perform various types of somersaults, such as lateral rolls. Its nests are flimsy and composed of sticks, built high in the branches of trees. The species typically lays 1–4 eggs. They have an average size of in length, in breadth, and in volume, and are white-coloured with occasional spots. Both males and females incubate them, alternating in average intervals of 1.5 hours. A family studied in 2002 and 2003 had a pre-laying stage period of 16 days, incubation period of 29 days, and nesting period of 35 days. The juveniles became independent from their parents at least 22 days after hatching. The species has a generation length of 7.6 years.
Distribution.
The Pacific baza ranges across warmer and more humid parts of the Australasian realm, breeding in Australia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and Solomon Islands and resident in East Timor. In Australia, it is only found in areas where the coast is no further than away, primarily in northern and eastern parts of the country. Its total extent of occurrence is estimated to be . Its habitats are subtropical and tropical forests, dry savannas, and bodies of freshwater, including wetlands, streams, and rivers, usually at elevations less than and rarely greater than . It is utilised in the pet trade internationally. Because of its large range and stable population, it is listed as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List as of 2016.


Arctic ringed seal

The Arctic ringed seal ("Pusa hispida hispida") is a subspecies of ringed seals ("Pusa hispida"). Arctic ringed seals inhabit the Arctic Ocean, and are the most abundant and wide-ranging seal in the Northern Hemisphere. The ringed seal species is the smallest true seal, and gets its name from a distinctive patterning of light spots on dark grey colored fur. The ringed seal is commonly preyed upon by Polar bears, Arctic foxes, and Killer whales. Population estimates and survival rates are unknown, but average life expectancy is 15-28 years.  Ringed seals have long been a component of the diet of indigenous people of the Arctic. Arctic ringed seals have been listed as threatened on the Endangered Species Act since 2012, and increasingly face loss of their habitat due to shrinking ice and snow cover.
Physical characteristics.
The Arctic ringed seal looks very similar to other species of ringed seals. It has a small head, a cat-like snout with whiskers, and a plump, oblong body. Its coat is dark with a silver belly, and has silver rings on the back and sides. This feature is what gives it the common name 'ringed seal'. They have strong claws on their fore flippers, which they use to pierce ice to create breathing holes. Depending on subspecies and sex, adult seals can vary in size, measuring from 100 to 175 cm (39.5 to 69 in) and weighing from 70 to 140 kg (71 to 309 lb). The seal averages about 5 ft (1.5 m) long. This species is the smallest species in the true seal family.
Taxonomy and phylogeny.
Ringed seals are members of the Phocidae family. Researchers propose that the Phocidae family diverged from Pinnipeds, a monophyletic group of aquatic carnivores. Pinnipeds diverged from their terrestrial relatives around 40 million years ago. Pinnipeds originated in the Arctic, and diverged 20-25 million years ago into three families: Phocidae (true seals), Otariidae (sea lions), and Odobenidae (walruses). Members of the Phocidae group, which include ringed, Baikal, and Caspian seals, have adapted to breeding on sea ice. Molecular, biogeographic, and morphological approaches to classification of Pusa hispida remain incomplete.
The Arctic ringed seal, Pusa hispida hispida, is one of 5 recognized ringed seal subspecies. There have been up to 10 proposed subspecies, but current data only supports 5. The other four subspecies are found in the Sea of Okhotsk (Pusa hispida ochotensis), the Baltic Sea (Pusa hispida botnica), Lake Ladoga in Russia (Pusa hispida ladogensis), and Lake Saimaa in Finland (Pusa hispida saimensis). Ringed seals were geographically isolated from each other during the Last Glacial Maximum, during which land bridges and thick sea ice separate populations and pushed some populations southward. This expanded the range of ringed seals and created subspecies, which are discrete breeding populations. There is low genetic differentiation between species. There is some thought that Pusa h. hispida, the Arctic subspecies, may include multiple different subpopulations. More research into the Arctic population structure is needed to confirm.
Distribution and abundance.
Arctic ringed seals exhibit circumpolar distribution around the Northern Hemisphere. They have historically been found in most seasonally ice covered seas. The Arctic ringed seal is the most abundant out of all the ringed seal subspecies. Their distribution is divided into five regions. These regions are the Greenland Sea and Baffin Bay, Hudson Bay, Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, and the White, Barents and Kara Seas. These regions do not reflect their full distribution since estimates of Arctic ringed seal populations are not available in certain areas. It can be difficult to accurately assess ringed seals' abundance, due to difficulty in tracking their trends in movement. This is due to the remoteness of their habitat, time spent below ice, and their wide range of seasonal movements. Population estimates in the five regions have not been conducted since the late 1900s for most regions. Based on aerial surveys in 2007-2008, the Hudson Bay ringed seal population estimate is 53,346 seals. Based on available data for study areas within the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas, scientists estimate that there are about 1 million seals in this region.
There is no evidence that Arctic ringed seals were historically distributed in other regions. Various studies were conducted in the 1900s to determine population sizes. In 1979, the Greenland Sea and Baffin Bay region was estimated to have 787,000 seals. The population estimate for seals is about 220,000 seals in the White, Barents, Kara, and East Siberian Seas. This data was compiled in the late 1900s.
Note: There is no available range map for the Arctic ringed seal subspecies. See ringed seal wikipedia page for range map of entire species.
Habitat and seasonal behavior.
Arctic ringed seals are uniquely adapted to live on ice, and the seasonality of ice cover strongly influences ringed seal behaviors. Specifically, ice cover affects their movements, foraging, reproductive behavior, and vulnerability to predation. As water freezes in the late fall, ringed seals surface to breathe in the remaining open water. Once the ice becomes too thick, they create breathing holes by scraping the ice with their claws. The breathing holes can be maintained in ice 2 m or greater in thickness. They form subnivean lairs over the breathing holes, which are used mainly for pupping, and nursing young. As snow builds up around them, the seals breathe through the holes. According to tracking records, Arctic ringed seals breeding exhibits inter-annual fidelity to breeding sites. That is, they have a tendency to return to breeding sites that were previously used. These snow caves serve as refuge from low temperatures. These low temperatures can be dangerous to pups, and the lairs also hide the seals from predators.
As temperatures warm, ringed seals transition to laying on the surface of the ice near breathing holes. The number of seals on the surface of the ice starts to increase during spring as the  snow melts. Ringed seals are usually solitary, however they may gather in groups around breathing holes during the molting season each spring. Throughout most of its range, seals use ice as a location for resting, pupping, and molting.
Currently there is no specified critical habitat for the ringed seal. There is a proposed map for the critical habitat as of March 2019. The Endangered Species Act requires designation of a critical habitat for species within one year of listing. Various wildlife groups, including the Center for Biological Diversity, have taken legal action against the National Marine Fisheries Service for failing to designate a critical habitat for Ringed Seals.
Ecology and behavior.
Reproduction and life history.
Male ringed Seals reach sexual maturity as late as 7 years old. For females, sexual maturity can be as late as 9 years, but it can be as early as 3 years for both sexes. Ringed seals breed annually, but the timing varies based on the region. Though the timing varies with latitude, pupping usually occurs in late March through April in the Arctic. Much is unknown about the breeding system, but it is thought to be polygynous. Mating occurs while females are still nursing their pups, and mating is believed to happen near birth lairs. Males are reported to have territorial tendencies during the breeding season, producing a strong, gasoline-like scent to mark their breathing holes and lairs.  After a 9 month gestation period, female seals give birth to a single pup. At birth they pups are approximately 60-65 cm in length and weigh 4.5-5.0 kg. The pups are born with a white natal coat of blubber, known as the “lanugo,” that provides insulation until it sheds after 4-6 weeks. The pups nurse for as long as 2 months in stable shorefast ice, but for as little as 3-6 weeks in moving ice. During nursing, Arctic ringed seals spend about 50% of their time in the water, and practice developing deep diving skills. Pups are normally weaned before the spring ice breaks up, and pups are four times their birth weights at weaning. Ringed seals live about 25-30 years, and are solitary with territorial tendencies for most of their lives besides breeding.
Diet.
Ringed seals eat a wide variety of small prey that span several trophic levels. Scientists have some disagreement over their exact diet. Analysis reveals their diet varies depending on a variety of factors, such as location, season, life stage, and sex. Research suggests a latitudinal gradient as well. Arctic cod is most often reported as the primary prey species. Herring, redfish, snailfish, sand lance, and Atlantic salmon are also common prey items. Mating and molting occur in the spring, during which shrimp and invertebrates become more important to the diet. During summer and fall, seals feed on prey such as sand lance during the open water season, to prepare fat reserves for the winter. In the fall, prey from the cod family tend to make a higher percentage of the seal’s diet from late fall through spring. If females don't get adequate blubber reserves from feeding, they will suppress ovulation for that year. This ensures they always have enough energy reserves needed for reproduction. Feeding is usually a solitary behavior, during which they may dive to depths of 35 to 150 feet and stay submerged for up to 39 minutes. The mechanism of food consumption is unclear. Some studies report that seals eat small fish by swallowing them whole, while others suggest that seals filter food with their teeth.
Predation.
Polar bears are the primary predator of ringed seals. Ringed seal pups are especially vulnerable, and make easy kills for polar bears. Analysis of fatty acid signatures found that ringed seals are the predominant prey species for polar bears. While the ice lairs provide some protection, Arctic foxes are also a threat, as the foxes can enter the birth lairs and eat the pups. They will also eat the ringed seal remains leftover from the polar bear kills. Greenland sharks and the occasional Atlantic walrus also may prey on ringed seals in the water.  Pups have several behaviors that are adaptive responses to predation pressure. These include their time spent practicing diving, use of breathing holes, prolonged lanugo stage, and ability to hide in snow caves.
Conservation.
Major threats.
The major threat to ringed seals is habitat loss due to global climate change. Ringed seals depend on floating sea-ice platforms for reproduction. This leaves them extremely vulnerable to the effects of rising sea temperatures. The effects of a warming climate are most extreme in northern regions, where these arctic ringed seals inhabit. This is due to the albedo effect, in which melting snow and ice reduces the amount of sunlight reflected back. This means that more solar radiation is absorbed by the water, further increasing sea temperatures. Major declines in sea ice are predicted for July and November after 2050. It would take many years to restore previous ice thickness, and the loss of ice over multiple years makes it unlikely that the Arctic will return to previous conditions. This would be detrimental to ringed seals’ reproduction, foraging, and way of life. The ringed seal has a long gestational period and is only able to produce only a single pup each year. This reproductive habit makes them especially vulnerable to environmental challenges. Ringed seals need accumulated snow and stable ice to build their birth lairs. This habitat can be affected by warming temperatures, affecting the time period that the pups have to grow and mature in protection. By 2100, scientists predict that April snow cover will not be sufficient to form and occupy birth lair. They also predict that this will result in increased pup and adult mortality.
It has been proposed that increased temperatures could lead to increased biological productivity. This trend could benefit ringed seals in the short term. However, this can lead to increased vulnerability of seal pups to predation. Additionally, ocean acidification reduces seawater pH and absorption of the carbonate ions in the water. The waters of the Arctic are some of the most vulnerable to ocean acidification. The impact of ocean acidification on ringed seals could be at lower trophic levels. Seals rely on these trophic levels for food, leading to negative impacts on the seals’ dietary habits.
Human interactions.
Ringed Seals have been hunted by humans for thousands of years. For indigenous peoples in the Arctic, seals have long been an important component of their diet. Early Paleoskimo sites in Arctic Canada reveal signs of harvested ringed seals dating back from c. 300-3500 BC.  They are still an important resource for many northern coastal communities. Subsistence harvesting of Arctic ringed seals occurs, but in sustainable levels.
Additionally, there are many human-related threats to ringed seals. These include commercial fishing, ship traffic, petroleum drilling, pollutants, and human-aided global warming. Ringed Seals are also vulnerable to oil spills. The Trump administration is currently looking to expand offshore oil drilling in the Arctic. They are also expanding fossil fuel production in the Alaska National Wildlife Refuge. Drilling for oil in the ringed seal’s habitat threatens their health and safety.
Conservation efforts.
In the United States, ringed seals have been listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act since 2012. They also are included under the Marine Mammal Protection Act. The only population that lives in US waters are the Arctic subspecies, which reside in the Alaskan waters. They are only allowed to be harvested by Alaskan Natives for subsistence hunting. There is very little overlap between the ringed seals' habitat and US commercial fishing. Therefore, human-caused mortality rates are unknown. The Act prohibits all other forms of hunting of ringed seal. However, as of March 2019, there is no designated critical habitat for ringed seals, preventing these seals from getting vital habitat protection.
In Russia, the Franz Josef State Nature Reserve protects large swaths of ringed seal habitat in the Russian Arctic. This reserve spans the White and Kara seas, a region home to many ringed seals. Additionally, there have been quotas in place and licensing of hunting for decades.
Ringed seals are listed as a species of “Least Concern” on the IUCN Red List. The Red List assessment notes that the conservation status of ringed seals should be reassessed within a decade. This is in part due to the impact of climate change on ringed seals. The European Red List also assesses the conservation status of European species according to IUCN guidelines.The IUCN Red List does not have an Action Recovery Plan at this time, nor a Systematic monitoring scheme. This may be due to the ringed seals' current listing of “Least Concern." US Fish and Wildlife Services does not list any candidate information, species status assessments, recovery plans, conservation plans, or 5 year reviews for this species. A recovery plan will likely be added in the future as their habitat deteriorates due to climate change.
Anticipated conservation actions.
The IUCN recommends conservation actions which manage and protect the species, land, and water. Specifically, there needs to be effort to protect and manage the site, including resources and habitat. Procuring critical habitat designation under the Endangered Species Act would promote population recovery. More research must be done on population size, distribution, and trends, in order to design effective conservation plans.


Nototriton abscondens

Nototriton abscondens is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae.
It is endemic to Costa Rica where it is found in Cordillera de Tilarán and Cordillera Central.
Its natural habitat is tropical moist montane forests.
It is threatened by habitat loss.


Channa striata

Channa striata, the striped snakehead, is a species of snakehead fish. It is also known as the common snakehead, chevron snakehead, or snakehead murrel and generally referred simply as mudfish. It is native to South and Southeast Asia, and has been introduced to some Pacific Islands. Reports from Madagascar and Hawaii are misidentifications of "C. maculata".
A genetic study published in 2017 indicates that "C. striata" is a species complex.
Description.
It grows up to a meter in length, though because of fishing, this size is rarely found in the wild. It has a widespread range covering southern China, Pakistan, most of India, southern Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and most of Southeast Asia. It has more recently been introduced to the outermost parts of Indonesia, the Philippines, and Mauritius. Reports beginning in the early 20th century that it was introduced into the wild in Hawaii, particularly the island of Oahu, as well as later reports from Madagascar, are the result of misidentifications of "C. maculata". The only currently confirmed Hawaiian establishment of "C. striata" is on a commercial fish farm. Popular media and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service were perpetuating this apparent mistake as recently as 2002. Early- to mid-20th century reports and texts referring to its introduction in California appear to be the result of a misunderstanding.
It is an important food fish in its entire native range, and is of considerable economic importance. Adults are dark brown in colour with faint black bands visible across its entire body. Males and females both help to construct a nest out of water vegetation during breeding time. Eggs are guarded by both parents. Fry are reddish orange and are guarded by both parents until they turn greenish brown at around 5–6 cm.
It is common in freshwater plains, where it migrates from rivers and lakes into flooded fields, returning to the permanent water bodies in the dry season, where it survives by burrowing in the mud.
It preys on frogs, water bugs, and smaller fish, and it will attack anything moving when breeding.
Nomenclature.
Common snakeheads are known as "ngayan" () in Burmese; "Nga-mu porom" in Meitei, "xól/xol" (শ’ল/শল) in Assamese, "Garai" (गरई) in North Indian Languages, "shol" (শোল) in Bengali,"sol" (سول) in Urdu, Pakistan, "Sheula" (ଶେଉଳ) in Odia, "varaal" (വരാല്)) in Kerala, India; "viral/mural/selumural/nedumural" (in Tamil: விரால்,முறால்,செலுமுரல்,நெடுமுரல்) in Tamil Nadu, India; "Koramenu/Korra matta"(), India; "Madenji"(Tulu: ಮಡೆಂಜಿ) in Tulu Nadu, India; and "Loola" ලූලා in Sri Lanka; "trey ross" (Khmer: ត្រីរ៉ស់), "pla chon" () in Thailand; "gabus" in Indonesia; "haruan" in Malaysia; "dalak" in Brunei and "haloan", "aruan", "haruan", "halwan", "bulig", "dalag", "turagsoy" or "mudfish" in the Philippines.
Gastronomy.
A curry made with this fish and tapioca is a delicacy in Kerala. In Indonesia, common snakeheads are a popular type of salted fishes in Indonesian cuisine. In the Philippines, they are commonly served either fried, grilled, paksiw (poached in a water-vinegar mix), or with soup (commonly cooked with rice washing).
Dishes using this fish eaten with rice is very popular among Bengalis of Bangladesh and West Bengal.
Common snakeheads are very popular in Thai cuisine, where they are prepared in a variety of ways. Grilled fish is a common food item offered by street vendors or in "kaeng som". "Pla ra", a fermented fish sauce popular in northeastern Thai cuisine, is made by pickling common snakehead and keeping it for some time. Also, a Chinese sausage is prepared with common snakehead flesh in Thailand.
Immune system.
Worldwide inland fish culture industry is suffering from massive economic losses due to epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) and fish-based pathogens. The available literature indicate that infection from fish pathogens like bacteria ("Aeromonas hydrophila" and "Aeromonas sobria"), fungi ("Aphanomyces invadans") and viruses can cause stunted growth and severe mortality in the "C. striatus". "Channa striatus" rely on their innate immune components to fight against these infections. Some of the immune molecules that have been characterized in "Channa striatus" includes Chemokine, Chemokine receptors, Thioredoxin, Superoxide dismutase, Serine Protease, Cathepsin, Lectin.
In culture.
The Bathini Goud Brothers in Hyderabad, India, promote the swallowing of live murrel fish and herbs as an asthma treatment, although the high court ruled they cannot call it "medicine". They give it free to children on Mrigasira Nakshatra. No evidence indicates it is clinically effective, and children's rights campaigners have called for it to be banned.
Folklore among Chinese in South China and Southeast Asia has it that eating "haruan" fish helps in postsurgical wound healing.
Food.
The snakehead Murrell is very much known for its delicacy in Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Kerala in India.


Coleophora seguiella

Coleophora seguiella is a moth of the family Coleophoridae. It is found in Algeria.


List of mammals of Bosnia and Herzegovina

There are 59 mammal species in Bosnia and Herzegovina, of which one is endangered, eight are vulnerable, and two are near threatened.
The following tags are used to highlight each species' conservation status as assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature:
Some species were assessed using an earlier set of criteria. Species assessed using this system have the following instead of near threatened and least concern categories:
Order: Rodentia (rodents).
Rodents make up the largest order of mammals, with over 40% of mammalian species. They have two incisors in the upper and lower jaw which grow continually and must be kept short by gnawing. Most rodents are small though the capybara can weigh up to 45 kg (100 lb).
Order: Lagomorpha (lagomorphs).
The lagomorphs comprise two families, Leporidae (hares and rabbits), and Ochotonidae (pikas). Though they can resemble rodents, and were classified as a superfamily in that order until the early 20th century, they have since been considered a separate order. They differ from rodents in a number of physical characteristics, such as having four incisors in the upper jaw rather than two.
Order: Soricomorpha (shrews, moles, and solenodons).
The "shrew-forms" are insectivorous mammals. The shrews and solenodons closely resemble mice while the moles are stout-bodied burrowers.
Order: Chiroptera (bats).
The bats' most distinguishing feature is that their forelimbs are developed as wings, making them the only mammals capable of flight. Bat species account for about 20% of all mammals.
Order: Cetacea (whales).
The order Cetacea includes whales, dolphins and porpoises. They are the mammals most fully adapted to aquatic life with a spindle-shaped nearly hairless body, protected by a thick layer of blubber, and forelimbs and tail modified to provide propulsion underwater.
Order: Carnivora (carnivorans).
There are over 260 species of carnivorans, the majority of which feed primarily on meat. They have a characteristic skull shape and dentition.
Order: Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates).
The even-toed ungulates are ungulates whose weight is borne about equally by the third and fourth toes, rather than mostly or entirely by the third as in perissodactyls. There are about 220 artiodactyl species, including many that are of great economic importance to humans.


Thoosuchus

Thoosuchus is an extinct genus of basal trematosauroid trematosaurian temnospondyl. Fossils have been found from Russia and date back to the Early Triassic. It is the type genus of the family Thoosuchidae, formerly called the subfamily Thoosuchinae and placed within Benthosuchidae. The benthosuchids were originally composed of the majority of basal trematosaurian forms regarded as the ancestors of the trematosaurids. Although the genus was first named in 1940, material from one species, "E. yakovlevi", was originally tentatively referred to "Trematosuchus" in 1926.
For its family, "Thoosuchus" was fairly small, reaching a little over 60 cm with a 15 cm skull.
"Thoosuchus" superficially resembles the more derived trematosaurids, but can be distinguished from them on the basis of a deep, narrowing otic notch. It had widely spaced orbits and a moderately elongated skull roof that was well ornamented with ridges and grooves, especially on the parietals. This ornamentation is also a characteristic of trematosaurids and has been described as representing a "zone of intensive growth". The well developed lateral line system of "Thoosuchus" is indicative of its presumed aquatic lifestyle.


Pink-browed rosefinch

The pink-browed rosefinch ("Carpodacus rodochroa") is a finch in the family Fringillidae. The species was first described by Nicholas Aylward Vigors in 1831. It ranges across the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent, mainly in the Himalayas, and is migratory. It is found in Bhutan, Tibet, India, Nepal, and Pakistan. Its natural habitats are boreal forests and subtropical or tropical dry forests.


Navanax inermis

Navanax inermis, common name the California aglaja, is a large species of predatory sea slug, a marine opisthobranch gastropod mollusk in the family Aglajidae. "Navanax" is not a nudibranch, even though it somewhat resembles one; it belongs to a more ancient lineage of opisthobranchs called the cephalaspideans or head shield slugs and snails.
Description.
The body of "N. inermis" can be tan, black, or purple, with yellowish streaks. Yellow or orange streaks and blue dots are visible on the margins. It has two large parapodial folds that run the length of either side of the body, and almost touch at the midsection. This species possesses a small internal shell. Individuals are typically between 2.5 and 10 inches in length.
"Navanax inermis" does not possess a radula or organs associated with vision.
Distribution and habitat.
This species occurs in the eastern Pacific Ocean and Gulf of California. Its range is from Monterey, California to Baja California.
"Navanax inermis" can commonly be found on rocky intertidal regions and subtidal mudflats.
Ecology.
Diet.
"Navanax inermis" is a voracious carnivorous predator. Common prey items include other sea slugs, like bubble snails and nudibranchs, and small fish. As "N. inermis" lacks visual perception, it finds prey by using its chemoreceptors to follow the slime trails of other organisms.
Reproduction.
"Navanax inermis" is a simultaneous hermaphrodite. Copulation can occur in groups, commonly referred to as chains, of up to four individuals. In the southern portion of its range, "N. inermis" spawns year round, producing upwards of 800,000 eggs at a time. After 7 to 19 days of development, embryos are released and live as plankton.
Locomotion.
"Navanax inermis" slides over surfaces with the help of a mucopolysaccharide slime trail.
Defense.
When disturbed, "N. inermis" secretes a bright yellow substance into its slime trail, which can persist for several hours. This secretion causes some other organisms to break pursuit of the slug.


Cyrtodactylus bhupathyi

Cyrtodactylus bhupathyi is a species of lizard in the family Gekkonidae. The species is endemic to India.
Etymology.
The specific name, "bhupathyi", is in honor of Indian herpetologist Subramaniam Bhupathy.
Geographic range.
"C. bhupathyi" is found in West Bengal, East India.
Description.
Small for its genus, "C. bhupathyi" may attain a snout-to-vent length (SVL) of .


Phyllopetalia stictica

Phyllopetalia stictica is a species of dragonfly in the family Austropetaliidae. It is endemic to Chile. Its natural habitat is rivers. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Anisancylus obliquus

Anisancylus obliquus is a species of small, freshwater, air-breathing limpet, an aquatic pulmonate gastropod mollusc in the family Planorbidae, the ram's horn snails and their allies.
Distribution.
"A. obliquus" is native to Brazil, where it occurs in the southern part of the country, Chile, Uruguay and Argentina. Its occurrence in Peru, in the city of Callao, needs to be confirmed.
Description.
"A. obliquus" has a high shell, reaching in length. The apex is prominent but not sharp, dorsally flattened, curved to the back and slightly to the right, with the tip usually facing down.
The protoconch shows a deep apical depression, from which clear radial lines depart, and rounded, irregularly arranged punctuations. The teleoconch shows prominent radial lines, more salient in the anterior-medial region of the shell.
The mantle is strongly pigmented and can be totally black; pigmentation is also present in the areas of muscle insertion (foot and tentacles). The anterior right muscle impression is elongated, extending to the middle region of the body. The left impression is elliptical and transversely arranged while the posterior impression is rounded.
The rachidian tooth has two long main cusps and might have a denticle between them, with one to two cusps to the side of the left main cusp and one to the side of the right one. The lateral teeth are tricuspid, with the mesocone largest and two to five minor cusps to the side of the endocone and the ectocone. The marginal teeth have up to ten cusps.
The ovotestis has 30 follicles on average. The prostate has 3 to 5 follicles.


Malayan pygmy shrew

The Malayan pygmy shrew ("Suncus malayanus") is a species of mammal in the family Soricidae. It can be found in Malaysia and Thailand. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests.


Calinda muiscas

Calinda muiscas is a species of jumping plant lice of the genus "Calinda" in the family of "Triozidae". The species was first described in 1997 by Olivares and Burckhardt.
Etymology and habitat.
Although the species name is linked to the Muisca who inhabited the central highlands of Colombia, the holotype has been found near former Inca Emperor estate Ollantaytambo, Cusco, Peru.
Description.
An adult male specimen of "Calinda muiscas" has been described having a brownish-ochre head and thorax. The antennae are dark-brown and ochreous, legs, abdomen and genitalia are ochreous. The forewing is yellowish-transparent with ochreous veins. The louse as apical dilatation of aedeagus, elongate with distinct ventro-basal hook distant from shaft. The forewing is about 2 mm long. The host plant for the jumping plant louse is unknown.


Calyptoproctus elegans

Calyptoproctus elegans is a species of bugs in the family Fulgoridae. It is found in Surinam, Brazil, French Guiana, Honduras.


Megacrania batesii

Megacrania batesii, commonly known as the peppermint stick insect, is an unusual species of stick insect found in northeastern Australia, the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, New Guinea, and possibly as far north as the Philippines. It is notable for its aposematic coloration, as well as its robust chemical defense mechanism. Its common name refers to the irritating fluid — with an odor resembling peppermint — that it sprays as a defensive action from a pair of glands located at its prothorax when threatened, as well as the cylindrical, twig-like shape of its body. A member of the subfamily Megacraniinae, it was first described by English naturalist and explorer Henry Walter Bates in 1865.
Within their distribution, the habitat of these large insects occurs in complex mesophyll vine forests (lowland tropical and subtropical rainforests), at the transition area between the forest and the beach. They can be found in small numbers in such places, resting on the upper surfaces of the pandanus leaves upon which they feed. Some of the isolated subpopulations of this species in northern Queensland are at risk for local extinction as a result of natural or anthropogenic hazards.
This species appears to reproduce primarily by parthenogenesis, although sexual reproduction has also been observed. Predators of this insect include spiders, centipedes, green tree ants, mantises, katydids, and some birds. At least one species of parasitoid wasp has been observed to lay their eggs in the eggs of "M. batesii".
Taxonomy.
This species was first described (as "Platycrania alpheus") by Henry Walter Bates in 1865, and reclassified in 1896 by William Forsell Kirby. It is one of twelve known species within genus "Megacrania".
Description.
As is the case with most species of Phasmatodea, the males are significantly smaller than their female counterparts. The body length is in males, versus in females. The prothorax and mesothorax are also smaller in males. The tegmina are roughly the same size in both sexes, but the hind wings are larger in males, relative to their body size.
In the case of adults and the last larval instars, the entire body is a mostly uniform pale green; the head, thorax, mesothorax and legs are somewhat darker in color than the tegmina.
 In some cases, the antennae and wing-buds and eyes may be a different color (yellow, red, or black).
Distribution and habitat.
"M. batesii" occurs in a restricted and patchy distribution in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea, and possibly the Philippines. There are also two distinct populations of these insects in Australia: one on the Cape York Peninsula in Queensland, and the other on the Sir Edward Pellew Group of Islands in the Gulf of Carpentaria. The habitat is complex mesophyll vine forests, typically at the transition area between the rainforest and the beach, where the insects live in pandanus plants. In rare cases, this species has been recorded beside rainforest streams or swamps as far as 5 km inland. Because the distribution of this species occurs over a very small (less than 100 km2) and highly fragmented area, it appears to meet the IUCN criteria for a vulnerable species. Some of the isolated subpopulations of this species in northern Queensland are at risk for local extinction as a result of natural or anthropogenic hazards.
Behavior and ecology.
These sedentary insects are typically found resting on the upper surfaces of the pandanus leaves upon which they feed, with the front and mid legs stretched far forward and the hind legs stretched to the rear. They do not appear to use their hind legs for locomotion.
Although both sexes have wings, "M. batesii" cannot fly. The males, whose hind wings are larger in proportion to their body size, are capable of "parachuting" to the forest floor when threatened. They are not gregarious insects, with rarely more than 3 individuals residing on any given leaf cluster.
Diet and predators.
"M. batesii" has been observed to feed on three species of "Pandanus" in the wild: "P. monticola", "P. soloms-laubachii", and "P. tectorius". The presence of these phasmids can be inferred by detecting the feeding scars they leave on the pandanus plants, which are readily distinguishable from those of the few other insects that feed on these plants. In captivity, they have been observed to feed on "Freycinetia", "P. gemmifer", "P. utilis", and "P. whitei".
Although these insects can inflict a great deal of damage to the plants upon which they feed, they are not typically considered to be pests because the host plant is not of significant economic importance. That said, at least one example has been reported in which an infestation of stick insects — possibly "M. batesii" — in Capiz Province on Panay Island in the Philippines has resulted in the destruction of pandanus plants used in the manufacture of mats.
Predators of this insect include huntsman spiders, jumping spiders, scolopendrid centipedes, green tree ants, mantises, katydids, and black butcherbirds. Throughout their distribution within Queensland, eggs of "M. batesii" have been observed to be parasitized by eupelmid wasps of genus "Anastatus".
Life cycle and reproduction.
The vast majority of specimens observed and collected in the wild are female, with male specimens being uncommon. Parthenogenesis appears to be the primary means of reproduction in some populations of "M. batesii", although sexual reproduction has been observed in other populations, including in captivity.
Defense mechanisms.
There are roughly 2500 known species of stick insects. These large and often apterous insects are vulnerable to predators because they are slow and clumsy. Most species employ crypsis (for example, they are usually colored and shaped like twigs and leaves) as a primary defense mechanism. Only a few known species are aposematically colored or protected by defensive scent glands.
In addition to its aposematic coloration, "M. batesii" possesses a robust chemical defense mechanism. When sufficiently provoked (especially when the thorax and abdomen are touched) or when cornered by a perceived predator, these insects can spray an aerosolized cloud of noxious sticky white fluid from a pair of glands located at the prothorax.
In an early description of a closely-related species ("Megacrania wegneri") in the Maluku Islands of Indonesia, Wegner reported that even immature phasmids were already in possession of a well-developed chemical defense mechanism. He noted that the noxious effluvium could be directed in front of the insect as well as to the rear. He further noted that the female was able to eject the substance as far as , and even the considerably smaller male can spray up to . Wegner also carefully described the paired prothoracic glands — these are pits located on the left and right side, dorsolaterally, at the anterior margin of the prothorax. When threatened, the phasmid contracts a muscle that extrudes a dome-shaped membrane through these pits. This membrane serves as a nozzle through which two jets of aerosolized fluid can be sprayed in either a forward or backward direction, depending on from where the insect perceives the threat.
A few other phasmid species possess a chemical defense mechanism involving the secretion of a noxious fluid from a pair of prothoracic glands when disturbed. In nearly every species of phasmid studied thus far, the active components of these secretions appear to be cyclopentanoid monoterpenes. The only known exceptions to this rule are "Oreophoetes peruana" and "Phyllium westwoodii". Quinoline is the active component in the former, while the secretions of the latter contain various alkylpyrazines.
Examples of phasmids which secrete cyclopentanoid monoterpenes from their prothoracic glands include several species of genus "Anisomorpha", which secrete anisomorphal. Other examples include "Megacrania alpheus", "Megacrania nigrosulfurea", and "Megacrania tsudai", three species closely related to "M. batesii" that possess a nearly identical chemical defense mechanism. Actinidine is the chief component of the substance secreted by the prothoracic glands of these three species.