Oocyte activation

Oocyte (or ovum/egg) activation is a series of processes that occur in the oocyte during fertilization.
Sperm entry causes calcium release into the oocyte. In mammals, this is caused by the introduction of phospholipase C isoform zeta (PLCζ) from the sperm cytoplasm. Activation of the ovum includes the following events:
Sperm trigger of egg activation.
The sperm may trigger egg activation via the interaction between a sperm protein and an egg surface receptor. Izumo is the sperm cell signal, that will trigger the egg receptor Juno. This receptor is activated by the sperm binding and a possible signaling pathway could be the activation of a tyrosine kinase which then activates phospholipase C (PLC). The inositol signaling system has been implicated as the pathway involved with egg activation. IP3 and DAG are produced from the cleavage of PIP2 by phospholipase C. However, another hypothesis is that a soluble 'sperm factor' diffuses from the sperm into the egg cytosol upon sperm-oocyte fusion. The results of this interaction could activate a signal transduction pathway that uses second messengers. A novel PLC isoform, PLCζ (PLCZ1), may be the equivalent of the mammalian sperm factor. A 2002 study demonstrated that mammalian sperm contain PLC zeta which can start the signaling cascade.
Fast and slow block to polyspermy.
Polyspermy is the condition when multiple sperm fuse with a single egg. This results in duplications of genetic material. In sea urchins, the block to polyspermy comes from two mechanisms: the fast block and the slow block. The fast block is an electrical block to polyspermy. The resting potential of an egg is -70mV. After contact with sperm, an influx of sodium ions increases the potential up to +20mV. The slow block is through a biochemical mechanism triggered by a wave of calcium increase. The rise of calcium is both necessary and sufficient to trigger the slow block. In the cortical reaction, cortical granules directly beneath the plasma membrane are released into the space between the plasma membrane and the vitelline membrane (the perivitelline space). An increase in calcium triggers this release. The contents of the granules contain proteases, mucopolysaccharides, hyalin, and peroxidases. The proteases cleave the bridges connecting the plasma membrane and the vitelline membrane and cleave the bindin to release the sperm. The mucopolysaccharides attract water to raise the vitelline membrane. The hyalin forms a layer adjacent to the plasma membrane and the peroxidases cross-link the protein in the vitelline membrane to harden it and make it impenetrable to sperm. Through these molecules the vitelline membrane is transformed into the fertilization membrane or fertilization envelope. In mice, the zona reaction is the equivalent to the cortical reaction in sea urchins. The terminal sugars from ZP3 are cleaved to release the sperm and prevent new binding.
Reactivation of meiosis.
The meiotic cycle of the oocyte was suspended in metaphase of the second meiotic division. Once PLCζ is introduced into the oocyte by the sperm cell, it cleaves phospholipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) into diacyl glycerol (DAG) and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3). In most cells, this occurs at the cell membrane however, evidence suggests that the PIP2 required for oocyte activation is potentially stored in intracellular vesicles dispersed throughout the cytoplasm. The IP3 produced then triggers calcium oscillations which reactivate the meiotic cycle. This results in the production and extrusion of the second polar body.
DNA synthesis.
4 hours after fusion of sperm and ovum, DNA synthesis begins. Male and female pronuclei move to the centre of the egg and membranes break down. Male protamines are replaced with histones and the male DNA is demethylated. Chromosomes then orientate on the metaphase spindle for mitosis. This combination of the two genomes is called syngamy.
The sperm contributes a pronucleus and a centriole to the egg. Most other components and organelles are rapidly degraded. Mitochondria are rapidly ubiquinated and destroyed. Oxidative stress theory is a hypothesis that it is evolutionarily favourable for mitochondria from the father to be destroyed, as it there is a greater possibility that the mitochondrial DNA has become mutated or damaged. This is because mtDNA is not protected by histones and has poor repair mechanisms. Due to the increased metabolic activity of the sperm compared to the egg, due to its motility, there is greater production of reactive oxygen species and therefore greater chance of mutation. Furthermore, sperm are exposed to reactive oxygen species from leukocytes in the epididymis during transit. Additionally, quality control of spermatozoa is much worse than for the ovum, as many sperm are released whereas only one dominant follicle is released per cycle. This competitive selection helps to ensure the most 'fit' ova are selected for fertilisation.
Artificial oocyte activation.
Oocyte activation may be artificially facilitated by calcium ionophores, something that is speculated to be useful in case of fertilization failure, such as still occurs in 1–5% of intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) cycles. Another of method is by using the drug Roscovitine, this reduces the activity of M-phase promoting factor activity in mice.
Indications for artificial oocyte activation include :
Oocyte related activation deficiency
In vitro maturation
Low number of oocytes at retrieval
Severe teratozoospermia
Severe Oligoasthenoteratozoospermia
Globozoospermia
Testicular Sperm extraction (MicroTESE)
Previous fertilization failure
Unexplained infertility
Frozen-thawed oocytes


Glomerulus (kidney)

The glomerulus (plural glomeruli) is a network of small blood vessels (capillaries) known as a "tuft", located at the beginning of a nephron in the kidney. The tuft is structurally supported by the mesangium (the space between the blood vessels), composed of intraglomerular mesangial cells. The blood is filtered across the capillary walls of this tuft through the glomerular filtration barrier, which yields its filtrate of water and soluble substances to a cup-like sac known as Bowman's capsule. The filtrate then enters the renal tubule of the nephron.
The glomerulus receives its blood supply from an afferent arteriole of the renal arterial circulation. Unlike most capillary beds, the glomerular capillaries exit into efferent arterioles rather than venules. The resistance of the efferent arterioles causes sufficient hydrostatic pressure within the glomerulus to provide the force for ultrafiltration.
The glomerulus and its surrounding Bowman's capsule constitute a renal corpuscle, the basic filtration unit of the kidney. The rate at which blood is filtered through all of the glomeruli, and thus the measure of the overall kidney function, is the glomerular filtration rate.
Structure.
The glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries located within Bowman's capsule within the kidney. Glomerular mesangial cells structurally support the tufts. Blood enters the capillaries of the glomerulus by a single arteriole called an afferent arteriole and leaves by an efferent arteriole. The capillaries consist of a tube lined by endothelial cells with a central lumen. The gaps between these endothelial cells are called fenestrae. The walls have a unique structure: there are pores between the cells that allow water and soluble substances to exit, and after passing through the glomerular basement membrane, and between podocyte foot processes, enter the capsule as ultrafiltrate.
Lining.
Capillaries of the glomerulus are lined by endothelial cells. These contain numerous pores - also called fenestrae - 50–100 nm in diameter. Unlike those of other capillaries with fenestrations, these fenestrations are not spanned by diaphragms. They allow for the filtration of fluid, blood plasma solutes and protein, at the same time preventing the filtration of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
The glomerulus has a glomerular basement membrane consisting mainly of laminins, type IV collagen, agrin and nidogen, which are synthesized and secreted by both endothelial cells and podocytes: thus the glomerular basement membrane is sandwiched between the glomerular capillaries and the podocytes. The glomerular basement membrane is 250–400 nm in thickness, which is thicker than basement membranes of other tissue. It is a barrier to blood proteins such as albumin and globulin.
The part of the podocyte in contact with the glomerular basement membrane is called a "podocyte foot process" or "pedicle" (Fig. 3): there are gaps between the foot processes through which the filtrate flows into Bowman's space of the capsule. The space between adjacent podocyte foot processes is spanned by slit diaphragms consisting of a mat of proteins, including podocin and nephrin. In addition, foot processes have a negatively charged coat (glycocalyx) that repels negatively charged molecules such as serum albumin.
Mesangium.
The mesangium is a space which is continuous with the smooth muscles of the arterioles. It is outside the capillary lumen, but surrounded by capillaries. It is in the middle (meso) between the capillaries (angis). It is contained by the basement membrane, which surrounds both the capillaries and the mesangium.
The mesangium contains mainly:
Blood supply.
The glomerulus receives its blood supply from an afferent arteriole of the renal arterial circulation. Unlike most capillary beds, the glomerular capillaries exit into efferent arterioles rather than venules. The resistance of the efferent arterioles causes sufficient hydrostatic pressure within the glomerulus to provide the force for ultrafiltration.
Blood exits the glomerular capillaries by an efferent "arteriole" instead of a "venule", as is seen in the majority of capillary systems (Fig. 4). This provides tighter control over the blood flow through the glomerulus, since arterioles dilate and constrict more readily than venules, owing to their thick circular smooth muscle layer (tunica media). The blood exiting the efferent arteriole enters a renal venule, which in turn enters a renal interlobular vein and then into the renal vein.
Cortical nephrons near the corticomedullary junction (15% of all nephrons) are called juxtamedullary nephrons. The blood exiting the efferent arterioles of these nephrons enter the vasa recta, which are straight capillary branches that deliver blood to the renal medulla. These vasa recta run adjacent to the descending and ascending loop of Henle, and participate in the maintenance of the medullary countercurrent exchange system.
Filtrate drainage.
The filtrate that has passed through the three-layered filtration unit enters Bowman's space. From there, it flows into the renal tubule - the nephron - which follows a U-shaped path to the collecting ducts, finally exiting into a renal calyx as urine.
Function.
Filtration.
The main function of the glomerulus is to filter plasma to produce glomerular filtrate, which passes down the length of the nephron tubule to form urine. The rate at which the glomerulus produces filtrate from plasma (the glomerular filtration rate) is much higher than in systemic capillaries because of the particular anatomical characteristics of the glomerulus. Unlike systemic capillaries, which receive blood from high-resistance arterioles and drain to low-resistance venules, glomerular capillaries are connected in both ends to high-resistance arterioles: the afferent arteriole, and the efferent arteriole. This arrangement of two arterioles in series determines the high hydrostatic pressure on glomerular capillaries, which is one of the forces that favour filtration to the Bowman's capsule.
If a substance has passed through the glomerular capillary endothelial cells, glomerular basement membrane, and podocytes, then it enters the lumen of the tubule and is known as glomerular filtrate. Otherwise, it exits the glomerulus through the efferent arteriole and continues circulation as discussed below and as shown on the picture.
Permeability.
The structures of the layers determine their permeability-selectivity ("permselectivity"). The factors that influence permselectivity are the negative charge of the basement membrane and the podocytic epithelium, and the effective pore size of the glomerular wall (8 nm). As a result, large and/or negatively charged molecules will pass through far less frequently than small and/or positively charged ones. For instance, small ions such as sodium and potassium pass freely, while larger proteins, such as hemoglobin and albumin have practically no permeability at all.
The oncotic pressure on glomerular capillaries is one of the forces that resist filtration. Because large and negatively charged proteins have a low permeability, they cannot filtrate easily to the Bowman's capsule. Therefore, the concentration of these proteins tends to increase as the glomerular capillaries filtrate plasma, increasing the oncotic pressure along Ofa glomerular capillary.
Starling equation.
The rate of filtration from the glomerulus to the Bowman's capsule is determined (as in systemic capillaries) by the Starling equation:
Regulation of blood pressure.
The walls of the afferent arteriole contain specialized smooth muscle cells that synthesize renin. These juxtaglomerular cells play a major role in the renin–angiotensin system, which helps regulate blood volume and pressure.
Clinical significance.
Damage to the glomerulus by disease can allow passage through the glomerular filtration barrier of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and blood proteins such as albumin and globulin. Underlying causes for glomerular injury can be inflammatory, toxic or metabolic. These can be seen in the urine (urinalysis) on microscopic and chemical (dipstick) examination. Examples are diabetic kidney disease, glomerulonephritis, and IgA nephropathy.
Due to the connection between the glomerulus and the glomerular filtration rate, the glomerular filtration rate is of clinical significance when suspecting a kidney disease, or when following up a case with known kidney disease, or when risking a development of renal damage such as beginning medications with known nephrotoxicity.
History.
In 1666, Italian biologist and anatomist Marcello Malpighi first described the glomeruli and demonstrated their continuity with the renal vasculature (281,282). About 175 years later, surgeon and anatomist William Bowman elucidated in detail the capillary architecture of the glomerulus and the continuity between its surrounding capsule and the proximal tubule.


Supralabial scale

In reptiles, the supralabial scales, also called upper-labials, are those scales that border the mouth opening along the upper jaw. They do not include the median scale (rostral scale). The term "labial" originates from "Labium" (Latin for "lip"), which refers to any lip-like structure. The numbers of these scales present, and sometimes the shapes and sizes, are some of many characteristics used to differentiate species from one another.


Song-bird


Shellcraft

Shellcraft, also known as shell craft, is the craft of making decorative objects, or of decorating surfaces, using seashells. The craft includes the design and creation of small items such as shell jewelry and figurines made from shells; middle-sized objects such as boxes and mirror frames covered in shells; sailor's valentines; and larger constructions including mosaics and shell grottos.
Shellcraft is sometimes simply a folk art which is carried out by amateurs, however, in some parts of the world, including the Philippines, it is a business.


Hal Whitehead

Hal Whitehead is a biologist specializing in the study of the sperm whale ("Physeter macrocephalus"). Whitehead is professor at Dalhousie University. The primary field research vessel of his laboratory is the "Balaena", a Valiant 40 ocean-going cruising boat, which normally does its work off the coast of Nova Scotia. Other marine mammals studied by Whitehead's laboratory include beluga whales, pilot whales, northern bottlenose whales, and bottlenose dolphins.
Research findings.
Whitehead's research is focused primarily upon the behavior, population biology, and ecology of the sperm whale. Topics include social structure, cultural transmission of behavior, as well as acoustic communicative behavior such as click trains.


The Literature of Australian Birds

The Literature of Australian Birds is a book published in 1954 by Paterson Brokensha in Perth, Western Australia. Its full title is The Literature of Australian Birds: A History and a Bibliography of Australian Ornithology. It was authored by Hubert Massey Whittell. It is in large octavo format (252 x 184 mm) and contains some 900 pages, two separately paginated parts bound in one volume in brown buckram. It contains a coloured frontispiece (Plate 1) of a drawing of the superb lyrebird by Lieutenant-General Thomas Davies from 1799, with another 31 black-and-white plates bound between Parts 1 and 2.
Part 1, titled “A History of Australian Ornithology 1618 to 1850”, is 116 pages in length. It covers the period from the exploratory Dutch voyages of the early 17th century to the voyages of HMS "Fly" and HMS "Rattlesnake" during 1842–1850. Much the larger part of the book, however, lies in the 788 pages of Part 2, titled “A Bibliography of Australian Ornithology 1618 to 1950, with Biographies of Authors, Collectors and Others”, where Whittell has attempted to be exhaustively comprehensive in compiling mentions of Australian birds, not only from the scientific literature but also from newspapers, magazines and other published sources, and including potted biographies of their authors. The two parts of the book are dedicated separately, Part 1: "To D.L.S. in Appreciation of our long Association in Australian Ornithology", and Part 2: "In Memoriam. GREGORY MACALISTER MATHEWS C.B.E.. A Pioneer Bibliographer of the Literature of Australian Birds. OBIT 1947."
A facsimile edition was published by Oak Knoll Press in 1993 (). In 1995 the Bird Observers Club of Australia (BOCA) published BOCA Report Number 6 – “Whittell (1618-1950) Supplemented. Additions and Emendations to H.M. Whittell’s The Literature of Australian Birds”, compiled by Tess Kloot. In the preface to this latter work Kloot comments, with regard to Whittell:
”In his monumental work, "The Literature of Australian Birds", (Paterson Brokensha Pty Ltd, 1954), the late Major H. M. Whittell paid tribute to those who went before him : In 1925 Gregory M. Mathews issued, as a supplement to his "Birds of Australia", a bibliography of books and articles studied in the preparation of his work, plus brief biographical notes on the authors; and in 1935 Anthony Musgrave published his "Bibliography of Australian Entomology 1775-1930". In turn, I can do no better than pay tribute to Major Whittell. With his book constantly before me as I worked, I never ceased to wonder at his exhaustive research and meticulous attention to detail. It is indeed a remarkable achievement. I offer this modest contribution (and later, "A Bio-bibliography of Australian Ornithology: 1951-1975") in the hope that others who come after me will build upon my work.”


Carijoa

Carijoa is a genus of soft corals in the family Clavulariidae.
Species.
The World Register of Marine Species includes the following species in the genus:


Falco antiquus

Falco antiquus is an extinct species of falcon lived during the Middle Pleistocene in southern Europe. It is thought to be the common ancestor of modern gyrfalcons and saker falcons.


Jatinga

Jatinga (Pron: ʤʌˈtɪŋgə or ʤæˈtɪŋgə ), a village on a ridge, is located in Dima Hasao district, Assam State in India. It is south of Guwahati The village is inhabited by about 2,500 Khasi-pnar tribal people and a few Assamese.
Bird deaths.
At the end of the monsoon months especially on moonless and foggy dark nights between 6 p.m. and 9:30 p.m., birds are not disturbed by the locals but out of the dark northern skies will start to descend as they are attracted to lights. These dazed birds are captured using bamboo poles by the locals. The local tribals first took this natural phenomenon to be spirits flying from the sky to terrorize them. This phenomenon is not confined to a single species, with tiger bittern, black bittern, little egret, pond heron, Indian pitta, and kingfishers all being affected, as well as hill partridge, green pigeon, emerald dove, necklaced laughingthrush, black drongo. The birds are mostly juvenile, according to Assam's best known ornithologist, Anwaruddin Choudhury.
The late naturalist E. P. Gee brought this phenomenon to global attention in the 1960s. He drove to Jatinga with famed ornithologist late Salim Ali. The cause of it is likely to be disorientation at high altitudes and high speed winds due to the widespread fog characteristic at the time. The zoological survey of India sent Sudhir Sengupta to unravel this mystery. The most recent description of the phenomenon and its comparison with similar incidents elsewhere in Malaysia, Philippines, and Mizoram is found in the book "The Birds of Assam" by Anwaruddin Choudhury. He concluded that the birds, mostly juveniles and local migrants, are disturbed by high velocity winds at their roost. When the disturbed birds fly towards lights as refuge they are hit with bamboo poles and killed or injured.
Conservation groups and wildlife officials in India have taken steps to prevent wanton killing of birds across India, creating awareness in the illiterate villagers. Bikash Brahma, Additional Principal Chief Conservator of Forests of Dima Hasao, stated the killings as well as the number of birds arriving at the village has been declining gradually since the last few years. Much of this is due to loss of habitat caused by "development and environment degradation".


Outline of human anatomy

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to human anatomy:
Human anatomy – scientific study of the morphology of the adult human. It is subdivided into gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy (also called topographical anatomy, regional anatomy, or anthropotomy) is the study of anatomical structures that can be seen by unaided vision. Microscopic anatomy is the study of minute anatomical structures assisted with microscopes, and includes histology (the study of the organization of tissues), and cytology (the study of cells).
Anatomy of the human body.
The following list of human anatomical structures is based on the Terminologia Anatomica, the international standard for anatomical nomenclature. While the order is standardized, the hierarchical relationships in the TA are somewhat vague, and thus are open to interpretation.
Alimentary system.
Human gastrointestinal tract
Thoracic cavity.
Thoracic cavity
The thoracic cavity is the chamber of the body of vertebrates that is protected by the thoracic wall. The central compartment of the thoracic cavity is the mediastinum.
Urinary system.
Urinary system
Genital systems.
Reproductive system
Abdominopelvic cavity.
Abdominopelvic cavity
Endocrine glands.
Endocrine system
Cardiovascular system.
Cardiovascular system
Lymphoid system.
Lymphatic system
Nervous system.
Human nervous system
The integument.
Integumentary system


Aalenirhynchia

Aalenirhynchia is an extinct subgenus of brachiopods found in Aalenian strata in Gloucestershire, England. It was a stationary epifaunal suspension feeder. Originally classed as a genus, it was reclassified as a subgenus of "Rhynchonelloidea" by Williams et al. in 2002.


Leopold Schenk

Leopold Schenk (23 August 1840 – 17 August 1902) was an Austrian embryologist.
Biography.
Schenk was born in Ürmény, Hungary. He graduated from the University of Vienna in 1865 and was appointed assistant professor of embryology there in 1873. He attained world-wide notoriety and the censure of the medical profession generally for his theories concerning sex control of the embryo through the diet of the mother. He also worked the theory into an elaborate plan for control of the development of the race. He was eventually forced to resign his position in the university. He died in Schwanberg, aged 61.
Works.
Besides several textbooks, he was author of "Einfluss auf das Geschlechtsverhältniss des Menchen und der Thiere" (1898; Eng. trans., "The Determination of Sex", 1898). In it he expounds on his theories relating to the pre-conception influence of the mother's diet, especially sugars and carbohydrates, on the sex of her offspring. He later expanded his ideas to include post-conception influences on the health and future life of her child.
In 1878 Schenk was the first to attempt in vitro fertilization of a mammalian egg cell using rabbit ova.
Honors.
1985 Schenk became an elected member of the Academy of Sciences Leopoldina.


Joseph Whitaker (naturalist)

Joseph Whitaker, Esq., (12 July 1850 – 27 May 1932) was an English naturalist who lived for most of his life at Rainworth, in Nottinghamshire, England. He was also a keen sportsman, botanist, fisherman and collected curios. He wrote several books, and some of his collection passed to the Mansfield Museum.
Personal life.
Whitaker was born at Ramsdale Farm, Arnold near Nottingham on 12 July 1850, the oldest son of another Joseph Whitaker. He received his education at Uppingham School, and loved the outdoors, a trait he learned from his father. For most of his life he lived at Rainworth Lodge, on Blidworth Lane at Rainworth. He married Mary Edison at Blidworth church on 16 April 1872, and they had five children. The first, Ethel Mary, died in infancy, while the fifth, Vera, married Sir Harold Bowden, 2nd Baronet, in 1908, but the marriage was short lived and they divorced in 1919. Among Whitaker's unusual traits was his habit of always walking on the road, and never on the pavement. He died on 27 May 1932 at Rainworth Lodge.
The Joseph Whitaker School in Rainworth was named after him.
Professional life.
Whitaker was a naturalist, and his home at Rainworth Lodge looked more like a museum, as it was full of cases of stuffed birds and other exhibits of natural life. One was an Egyptian nightjar, at the time the first known sighting of one in Britain, and only the second in Europe. It had been shot by a gamekeeper called Albert Spinks on 23 June 1883. Spinks knew of Whitaker's interest in birds, and having mentioned it, Whitaker retrieved the bird and had it stuffed. He erected a 'Bird Stone' to commemorate the event in Thieves Wood, to the west of Rainworth, but this was vandalised in the 1980s, and was replaced by a modern artifice. The nightjar, together with many other exhibits, was given to Mansfield Museum on his death. He became an authority on many kinds of wildlife, and especially British birds, although he was not averse to shooting them. On 10 October 1906 he and six others held a shooting party, which gained the record for the biggest bag in Nottinghamshire. The game killed that day included 1,504 partridges.
Whitaker was a keen botanist, fisherman and sportsman, and collected curios. He collected deer horns, aided by the fact that he had his own deer park, which he populated with Japanese deer. This was situated immediately to the south of his house, and is shown on the 1900 Ordnance Survey map, but not on the map from 1885/1891. In his own description of the park, Whitaker stated that it covered and contained 21 fallow deer. Also in the enclosure were ten four-horned St Kilda sheep, three emus and two rheas.
As well as serving as a Justice of the Peace, he became a fellow of the Zoological Society of London, and vice-president of the Selborne Society. He also commissioned a window in Selborne church as a memorial to Revd. Gilbert White, a pioneer of birdwatching. The window has three lights, showing St Francis and a number of birds, all of which are mentioned in White's book "The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne". Whitaker wrote a number of books, including at least one volume of poems, and made contributions to the Victoria County History series of books. His collection included china, bric-a-brac, books and prints, and among the curios he amassed was possibly the first known circular saw, which was manufactured at the Barringer, Manners and Wallis factory in Rock Valley, Mansfield.
Works.
The following books written by Whitaker are listed in the British Library catalogue.


Dendrogale

Dendrogale is a genus of treeshrew in the family Tupaiidae found in Southeast Asia and Borneo. It contains these species:


Sanctuary (season 3)

The third season of the Canadian science fiction–fantasy television series "Sanctuary", premiered on Syfy in the United States on October 15, 2010 and consists of 20 episodes. Created by Damian Kindler, the series was adapted from a series of webisodes released in 2007. The increased number of episodes in this season allows the producers to include numerous story arcs. The second half of the third season premiered on April 15, 2011 until it was moved to Monday nights on April 25, 2011.
Premise.
The Sanctuary team deal with the aftermath of the gigantic tidal wave released by Big Bertha while Will's life remains in balance but soon the errand comes to an end once Will leads one final plea to "Kali" A.K.A. Big Bertha in his near death experience to stop the destruction. Following Will's return to life two abnormals appear to him to rekindle his memory and in doing so Will remembers an important message that Gregory sent for Helen to find an underground city with great technology and secrets.
Later Nikola sends an SOS call and after his rescue continues to help Helen in discovering the secrets of the city which eventually leads them to a Hollow Earth atlas. Soon Adam Worth, a former acquaintance, tricks Helen and causes radiation poisoning (that should kill both Helen and Adam in a few weeks) so that she may show Adam the Hollow Earth. Upon Adam's interference Helen, Will, Henry and Kate enter the city to save Gregory and find a cure for the poisoning but only to be executed immediately when caught while Adam imprisons John, leaving Tesla and Big-Guy alone in the mysteries. Magnus is then revived by Ranna for answering and Magnus finds out that she needs her to help an abnormal from the events of 'KALI', thereby Magnus and the gang is revived and she given the cure and is reunited with her father, together Gregory and Helen save the abnormal and reach the surface back again while John kills Adam.
The show returned to its original format, featuring a new short story for every episode until Tesla and Magnus discover a Praxian Stronghold. This is revealed to have been taken by Vampires and as such was a Vampire Stronghold where a whole army of Vampires and their queen were buried to be awakened someday. Magnus views this as a threat and destroys the stronghold, but not before restoring Tesla to a Vampire again.
Episodes.
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Production.
On December 12, 2009 "Sanctuary" was renewed for a third season consisting of 20 episodes. It will conclude the second-season cliffhanger. The expanded season will also give the producers the opportunity to involve "really big story arcs", as well as exploring more on Helen's past and deal with "something that's much bigger than Big Bertha." Former "Rome" and "Caprica" actress Polly Walker will guest star as antagonist Ranna in two episodes during the middle of the season. In addition, former wrestler Edge (Adam Copeland) will guest star as an abnormal named Thelo in the season finale, scheduled to air during the Spring 2011. Production of the season commenced on March 15, 2010.
Broadcast and reception.
Broadcast and ratings.
Syfy originally announced that the third season will premiere alongside the second season of "Stargate Universe" on September 28, 2010. However, they later announced it will be delayed until Friday, October 15 on their original 10 pm timeslot. The season premiere "Kali, Part 3" was seen by almost 1.8 million viewers and 1.3 household ratings. Viewership increased 17 per cent in total viewers, and 12 per cent among adults aged 18 through 49, compared to the average for season two. After the fall season concluded, the first ten episode averaged 1.483 million viewers, with an adults 18–49 rating of 0.4, per episode, making it one of the higher rated shows in 2010 for the network.
The spring season began airing on April 15, 2011 with 1.217 million viewers, a season low. Syfy later announced it would swap the show with "Urban Legends" where it was moved to Monday nights and be paired with "Stargate Universe" starting April 25 due to the low rating from the mid season premiere. However ratings for the show worsened, with 868,000 viewers watching "One Night". Ratings hit an all-time low when only 656,000 saw "Normandy". However, the last three episodes of the season saw a sizeable recovery, likely due to the ending of the 2010/11 broadcast season from the major networks; nearly 1.3 million watched the season finale. The spring season averaged 997,000 however, though Syfy picked up the show for a fourth season in January 2011. In Canada the season premiered on the Space channel on October 15, 2010. In the United Kingdom, the satellite channel Watch bought the rights to show the third season of the show. The previous two season were shown on ITV4.
Awards and nominations.
The third season won three Leo Awards out of seventeen nominations. Jean Tejkel, Kevin Sands, Hugo de la Cerda, Kevin Belen won "Best Overall Sound in a Dramatic Series" for "Kali, Part 3". Christina McQuarrie won "Best Costume Design in a Dramatic Series" for her role in "For King and Country". Ryan Robbins won "Best Supporting Performance by a Male" for his role in "Animus". it was the second time he won the award in the category, the first time being in 2009. The season was also nominated for "Best Dramatic Series", but lost out to the final season of "Smallville".
Home video releases.
The third season was released on DVD and Blu-ray by E1 Entertainment in the United States on September 13, 2011 and in the United Kingdom on September 26, 2011. The six-disc set consists of all 20 episodes, with audio commentaries from cast and crew on selected episodes. The set also includes numerous special featurettes: "Visual Effects of Sanctuary Season 3", "Amanda Tapping Directs "One Night"", "Hollow Earth", "Damian Kindler: In the Director's Chair", "The Music of Sanctuary", "Behind the Scenes: Normandy", and "Character Profile: Nikola Tesla", as well as a blooper reel.


Pterygoid processes of the sphenoid

The pterygoid processes of the sphenoid (from Greek "pteryx", "pterygos", "wing"), one on either side, descend perpendicularly from the regions where the body and the greater wings of the sphenoid bone unite.
Each process consists of a medial pterygoid plate and a lateral pterygoid plate, the latter of which serve as the origins of the medial and lateral pterygoid muscles. The medial pterygoid, along with the masseter allows the jaw to move in a vertical direction as it contracts and relaxes. The lateral pterygoid allows the jaw to move in a horizontal direction during mastication. Fracture of either plate are used in clinical medicine to distinguish the Le Fort fracture classification for high impact injuries to the sphenoid and maxillary bones.
The superior portion of the pterygoid processes are fused anteriorly; a vertical groove, the pterygopalatine fossa, descends on the front of the line of fusion. The plates are separated below by an angular cleft, the pterygoid notch, the margins of which are rough for articulation with the pyramidal process of the palatine bone.
The two plates diverge behind and enclose between them a V-shaped fossa, the pterygoid fossa, which contains the medial pterygoid muscle and the tensor veli palatini.
Above this fossa is a small, oval, shallow depression, the scaphoid fossa, which gives origin to the tensor veli palatini.
The anterior surface of the pterygoid process is broad and triangular near its root, where it forms the posterior wall of the pterygopalatine fossa and presents the anterior orifice of the pterygoid canal.
In many mammals it remains as a separate bone called the pterygoid bone.
Its name is Greek for "resembling a fin or wing", from its shape.
Medial pterygoid plate.
The medial pterygoid plate (or medial pterygoid lamina) of the sphenoid bone is a horse-shoe shaped process that arises from its underside.
It is narrower and longer than the lateral pterygoid plate and curves lateralward at its lower extremity into a hook-like process, the pterygoid hamulus, around which the tendon of the tensor veli palatini glides.
The lateral surface of this plate forms part of the pterygoid fossa, the medial surface constitutes the lateral boundary of the choana or posterior aperture of the corresponding nasal cavity.
Superiorly the medial plate is prolonged on to the under surface of the body as a thin lamina, named the vaginal process, which articulates in front with the sphenoidal process of the palatine and behind this with the "ala" (wing) of the vomer.
The angular prominence between the posterior margin of the vaginal process and the medial border of the scaphoid fossa is named the pterygoid tubercle, and immediately above this is the posterior opening of the pterygoid canal.
On the under surface of the vaginal process is a furrow, which is converted into a canal by the sphenoidal process of the palatine bone, for the transmission of the pharyngeal branch of the internal maxillary artery and the pharyngeal nerve from the sphenopalatine ganglion.
The pharyngeal aponeurosis is attached to the entire length of the posterior edge of the medial plate, and the constrictor pharyngis superior takes origin from its lower third.
Projecting backward from near the middle of the posterior edge of this plate is an angular process, the processus tubarius, which supports the pharyngeal end of the Eustachian tube.
The anterior margin of the plate articulates with the posterior border of the vertical part of the palatine bone.
In many animals it is a separate bone called the pterygoid bone.
Lateral pterygoid plate.
The lateral pterygoid plate of the sphenoid (or lateral lamina of pterygoid process) is broad, thin, and everted and forms the lateral part of a horseshoe like process that extends from the inferior aspect of the sphenoid bone, and serves as the origin of the lateral pterygoid muscle, which functions in allowing the mandible to move in a lateral and medial direction, or from side-to-side.
Its lateral surface forms part of the medial wall of the infratemporal fossa, and gives attachment to the lateral pterygoid muscle; its medial surface forms part of the pterygoid fossa, and gives attachment to the medial pterygoid muscle. Posterior edge is sharp, and often has sharp projection - pterygospinous process (Civinini process).


Halobiotus

Halobiotus is a genus of water bear or moss piglet, a tardigrade in the class Eutardigrada.


Strepsodus

Strepsodus is a genus of rhizodont lobe-finned fish that lived during the Carboniferous period. Fossils have been found in North America and Australia.


Ossicone

Ossicones are columnar or conical skin-covered bone structures on the heads of giraffes, male okapi, and some of their extinct relatives. Ossicones are distinguished from the superficially similar structures of horns and antlers by their unique development and a permanent covering of skin and fur.
Structure.
Giraffe ossicones consist of a highly vascularized and enervated bone core covered with vascularized and enervated skin. The base of an ossicone is attached to the skull with vascularized enervated connective tissue. Ossicones are formed at late pregnancy, but in early development they are not bony and not fused to the skull yet. Ossicones usually fuse to the skull at sexual maturity.
All male and female giraffes have a pair of parietal ossicones on the parietal bones of the skull. Males also usually have a single median ossicone on the frontal bone that is larger in northern animals and smaller in southern giraffes. Giraffes can also have small additional paired occipital ossicones on the occipital bones, paired orbital ossicones associated with eyes, and azygous ossicones.
In giraffes, male and female ossicones vary in structure and purpose (a manifestation of sexual dimorphism). Males typically have thicker ossicones that become bald on top due to frequent necking. In okapi, the male's ossicones are smaller in proportion to the head, and taper towards their tips, forming a sharper point than the comparatively blunt giraffe ossicone. Whereas female giraffes have reduced ossicones, female okapi lack ossicones entirely.
The morphology of ossicones in the extinct relatives of giraffes and okapi varies widely. Some species had two pairs of ossicones rather than one (e.g. "Giraffokeryx"), some had rugged textures (e.g. "Shansitherium"), and some had large, flattened ossicones (e.g. male "Prolibytherium").
Function.
Similar to species that possess horns or antlers, male giraffes use their ossicones as a weapon during combat where they use their heads as clubs with the ossicones concentrating the force of impact onto a small area. Ossicones also add weight to the animal's head, allowing it to deliver heavier blows. The nerve bundles and large blood supply in the ossicones led some researchers to speculate that the structures may also play a role in thermoregulation. Given the neurological composition of ossicones, and their importance to reproductive behavior, any research method affecting giraffe ossicones should be carefully reviewed for purpose and needs that are urgent enough to overcome the risk of pain and suffering to giraffes. Claims that ossicones are not ennervated, such as those made by Giraffe Conservation Foundation, should be considered inaccurate.
Examples.
Ossicones are only found in some members of the superfamily Giraffoidea, which includes the family Giraffidae (to which giraffes, okapi, and extinct relatives belong) and the entirely extinct family Climacoceratidae. It has been argued that the so-called ossicones known from fossils are actually horns; however, later research has revealed these structures to be consistent with the ossicones of giraffes and okapi. The following is a list of some ossicone-bearing genera:


Ateliosis

Ateliosis or ateleiosis is a diagnosis used in the early 1900s to describe patients with short stature. Ateliosis literally means "failure to achieve perfection", and was used to describe proportional dwarfism. The term was popularised by Hastings Gilford, who used the term to refer to forms of dwarfism associated with and without sexual maturation.
Ateliosis was reported as early as 1904 in relation to progeria, a syndrome of premature aging.
According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, it is “dwarfism associated with anterior pituitary deficiencies and marked by essentially normal intelligence and proportions though often retarded sexual development”. The physical characteristics include: normal facial features, childlike high pitched voice, proportioned body, and abnormal genitalia. Their mental development is normal to slightly delayed. Hastings Gilford originated the term to describe patients with "continuous youth".


Renal calyx

The renal calyces are chambers of the kidney through which urine passes. The minor calyces surround the apex of the renal pyramids. Urine formed in the kidney passes through a renal papilla at the apex into the minor calyx; two or three minor calyces converge to form a major calyx, through which urine passes before continuing through the renal pelvis into the ureter.
Function.
Peristalsis of the smooth muscle originating in pace-maker cells originating in the walls of the calyces propels urine through the renal pelvis and ureters to the bladder. The initiation is caused by the increase in volume that stretches the walls of the calyces. This causes them to fire impulses which stimulate rhythmical contraction and relaxation, called peristalsis. Parasympathetic innervation enhances the peristalsis while sympathetic innervation inhibits it.
Clinical significance.
A "staghorn calculus" is a kidney stone that may extend into the renal calyces.
A renal diverticulum is diverticulum of renal calyces.


Cribriform plate

In mammalian anatomy, the cribriform plate, horizontal lamina or lamina cribrosa (from Latin "cribrum", "sieve" + -form) of the ethmoid bone is received into the ethmoidal notch of the frontal bone and roofs in the nasal cavities.
The cribriform plate is narrow with deep grooves supporting the olfactory bulb, and is perforated by olfactory foramina allowing the passage of the olfactory nerves. The foramina in the middle of the groove are small and allows the passing of the nerves to the roof of the nasal cavity. The foramina at the medial part of the groove allow the passage of the nerves to the upper part of the nasal septum while the foramina at the lateral part transmit the nerves to the superior nasal concha.
A fractured cribriform plate can result in olfactory dysfunction, septal hematoma, cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhoea (CSF rhinorrhoea), and possibly infection which can lead to meningitis. CSF rhinorrhoea (clear fluid leaking from the nose) is very serious and considered a medical emergency. Aging can cause the openings in the cribriform plate to close, pinching olfactory nerve fibers. A reduction in olfactory receptors, loss of blood flow, and thick nasal mucus can also cause an impaired sense of smell.
Structure.
Projecting upward from the middle line of this plate is a thick, smooth, triangular process, the crista galli, so called from its resemblance to a rooster's comb.
The long thin posterior border of the crista galli serves for the attachment of the falx cerebri.
Its anterior border, short and thick, articulates with the frontal bone, and presents two small projecting "alae" (wings), which are received into corresponding depressions in the frontal bone and complete the foramen cecum.
Its sides are smooth, and sometimes bulging from presence of a small air sinus in the interior.
On either side of the crista galli, the cribriform plate is narrow and deeply grooved; it supports the olfactory bulb and is perforated by foramina for the passage of the olfactory nerves. The foramina in the middle of the groove are small and transmit the nerves to the roof of the nasal cavity; those at the medial and lateral parts of the groove are larger—the former transmit the nerves to the upper part of the nasal septum, the latter those to the superior nasal concha.
At the front part of the cribriform plate, on either side of the crista galli, is a small fissure that is occupied by a process of dura mater.
Lateral to this fissure is a notch or foramen which transmits the nasociliary nerve; from this notch a groove extends backward to the anterior ethmoidal foramen.
Clinical significance.
A fractured cribriform plate (anterior skull trauma) can result in leaking of cerebrospinal fluid into the nose and loss of sense of smell. The tiny apertures of the plate transmitting the olfactory nerve become the route of ascent for a pathogen, "Naegleria fowleri". This amoeba tends to destroy the olfactory bulb and the adjacent inferior surface of the frontal lobe of the brain. This surface initially becomes the site of proliferation of the trophozoites of "Naegleria fowleri" and their subsequent spread to the rest of the brain and CSF. Because of its initial involvement and trophozoite presence in early phases of "Naegleria fowleri" infection, flushing of this region with saline using a device, to obtain "Naegleria fowleri" for diagnostic PCR and microscopic viewing, has been proposed for patients affected by naegleriasis, by (Baig AM., "et al") in a recent publication. Researchers have suggested the same route to administer drugs at an early phase of infection by using a "Transcribrial Device" that has been proposed to kill this pathogen at the place of its maximum proliferation. In 2017 the inventor of this device suggested that after slight modifications this method could be effective in delivery of stem cells to the brain as well. A recent Australian study has shown that the bacterium causing the tropical disease melioidosis, "Burkholderia pseudomallei," can also invade the brain via the olfactory nerve within 24 h by traversing the cribriform plate.
Keros classification.
The Keros classification is a method of classifying the depth of the olfactory fossa.
The depth of the olfactory fossa is determined by the height of the lateral lamella of the cribriform plate. Keros in 1962, classified the depth into three categories.


Renal papilla


Ascaltis grisea

Ascaltis grisea is a species of sea sponge in the family Leucascidae, first described as "Leucosolenia grisea" by Arthur Dendy in 1891. It is known only from its type locality on the Houtman Albrolhos archipeligo in Western Australia. It is a marine sessile filter-feeder.


Eoperipatus

Eoperipatus is a Southeast Asian genus of velvet worm in the family Peripatidae.
Species.
The genus contains the following described species:
"Eoperipatus sumatranus" is considered a "nomen dubium" by Oliveira et al. 2012.
An undescribed species is known to occur in Thailand. In addition, an unidentified onychophoran has also been observed in central Vietnam, north of the known distribution of "Eoperipatus totoro". This may or may not represent a distinct species.


Common fat-tailed mouse opossum

The common fat-tailed mouse opossum ("Thylamys pusillus") is a species of opossum in the family Didelphidae. It occurs in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay in chaco and Andean foothill habitats. Its head-and-body length is about 75 to 120 (mean 94.3) mm, and its tail length is about 90 to 134 (mean 103.6) mm. Its dorsal fur is brownish gray, and its ventral fur is yellowish to white. The legs and cheeks are the same color as the ventral surface. Its tail is sharply bicolored (divided into two colors). A ring of faintly darker fur surrounds each eye. Its tail often lacks fat deposits, but does not always.


Thyroarytenoid muscle

The thyroarytenoid muscle is a broad, thin muscle that forms the body of the vocal fold and that supports the wall of the ventricle and its appendix. It functions to shorten the vocal folds.
Structure.
It arises in front from the lower half of the angle of the thyroid cartilage, and from the middle cricothyroid ligament.
Its fibers pass backward and laterally, to be inserted into the base and anterior surface of the arytenoid cartilage.
Parts.
The lower and deeper fibers of the muscle can be differentiated as a triangular band which is inserted into the vocal process of the arytenoid cartilage, and into the adjacent portion of its anterior surface; it is termed the "Vocalis", and lies parallel with the vocal ligament, to which it is adherent.
The vocal muscle is the upper portion of the thyroarytenoid muscle which is primarily involved in producing speech.
A considerable number of the fibers of the thyroarytenoid muscle are prolonged into the aryepiglottic fold, where some of them become lost, while others are continued to the margin of the epiglottis. They have received a distinctive name, thyroepiglottic muscle, "thyreoepiglotticus" or "thyroepiglottic", and are sometimes described as a separate muscle.
A few fibers extend along the wall of the ventricle from the lateral wall of the arytenoid cartilage to the side of the epiglottis and constitute the "ventricularis" muscle.
Function.
The thyroarytenoid muscle, consisting of two parts having different attachments and different directions, is rather complicated as regards its action.
Its main use is to draw the arytenoid cartilages forward toward the thyroid, and thus relax and shorten the vocal folds.
But, owing to the connection of the deeper portion with the vocal fold, this part, if acting separately, is supposed to modify its elasticity and tension, while the lateral portion rotates the arytenoid cartilage inward, and thus narrows the rima glottidis by bringing the two vocal folds together.


Thoracic inlet

The thoracic inlet, also known as the superior thoracic aperture, refers to the opening at the top of the thoracic cavity. It is also clinically referred to as the thoracic outlet, in the case of thoracic outlet syndrome; this refers to the "superior" thoracic aperture, and not to the lower, larger opening, the inferior thoracic aperture.
Structure.
The thoracic inlet is essentially a hole surrounded by a bony ring, through which several vital structures pass.
The thoracic inlet is bounded by: the first thoracic vertebra (T1) "posteriorly"; the first pair of ribs "laterally", forming lateral C-shaped curves posterior to anterior; and the costal cartilage of the first rib and the superior border of the manubrium "anteriorly".
Relations.
The clavicle articulates with the manubrium to form the anterior border of the thoracic inlet. Superior to the thoracic inlet is the root of the neck, and the superior mediastinum is inferiorly related. The brachial plexus is a superolateral relation of the thoracic inlet. The brachial plexus emerges between the anterior and middle scalene muscles, superior to the first rib, and passes obliquely and inferiorly, underneath the clavicle, into the shoulder and then the arm. Impingement of the plexus in the region of the scalenes, ribs, and clavicles is responsible for thoracic outlet syndrome.
Function.
Structures that pass through the thoracic inlet include:
This is not an exhaustive list. There are several other minor, but important, vessels and nerves passing through, and an abnormally large thyroid gland may extend inferiorly through the thoracic inlet into the superior mediastinum.
The oesophagus lies against the body of the T1 vertebra, separated from it by the prevertebral fascia, and the trachea lies in front of the oesophagus, in the midline, and may touch the manubrium. The apices of the lungs lie to either side of the oesophagus and trachea, and is separated from them by the other vessels and nerves listed above. Furthermore, they extend slightly superior past the level of the inlet (e.g. the horizontal plane of the first rib).


Pectinatites

Pectinatites is an extinct cephalopod genus belonging to the order Ammonoidea, that lived during the upper Tithonian stage of the Late Jurassic. They were fast-moving nektonic carnivores.
Clutches of eggs attributed to this genus have been discovered in the Kimmeridge Clay.


Megabelodon

Megabelodon is an extinct gomphotherid genus of proboscid which inhabited North America in from the Miocene to the Pliocene. Specimens were found in Nevada and New Mexico. The genus has been disputed, with some paleontologists considering "Megabelodon" as a synonym of "Gomphotherium".


Mark Harvey (arachnologist)

Mark Stephen Harvey (born 17 September 1958) is a museum scientist and biologist. Since 1989 he has been based at the Western Australian Museum.
Career.
Harvey graduated from Monash University in 1983 with a PhD titled "Contributions to the systematics of the pseudoscorpionida (arachnida) : the genus synsphyronus chamberlin (garypidae) and the family sternophoridae".
His research interests include the systematics and evolution of arachnids and other terrestrial invertebrates.
, he is a member and Vice-President of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.
Achievements, awards and recognition.
Harvey was presented with the 1991 Edgeworth David Medal by the Royal Society of New South Wales, and the Bonnet Award by the International Society of Arachnology in 2013.
In 2017, he was awarded the Distinguished Career Award by the Society of Australian Systematic Biologists.


Planipapillus tectus

Planipapillus tectus is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. It is found in Victoria, Australia.


Mesocrista

Mesocrista is a genus of water bear or moss piglet, a tardigrade in the class Eutardigrada.


Portuguese ibex

The Portuguese ibex ("Capra pyrenaica lusitanica") is an extinct subspecies of Iberian ibex that inhabited the north mountainous zones of Portugal, Galicia, Asturias and western Cantabria. In size and colouration it was much like the Spanish animals, though inclining towards brown rather than black markings. Its horns were strikingly different from any of the other Iberian subspecies. They were only half the length of the Pyrenean ibex (about 51 cm or 20"), but were almost twice as wide, and, consequently, much closer together at their base.
Extinction.
Until 1800, the Portuguese ibex was widespread in its range, but thereafter its decline was rapid as hunting pressure increased. Local hunters did not respect the closed hunting seasons and shot Portuguese ibexes when the herds came down to lower altitudes in May. Local people hunted it for its meat and for the bezoar stones in its stomach which were regarded as potent medicine and antidotes for poisons of all kind. The skins were used as coverlets and the horns both as ornaments and as trumpets of alpine horns to call across the narrow valleys of the north-western mountains.
By 1870, this ibex was a rare animal. The last herd of about a dozen animals was recorded in 1886. An old female was captured alive in September 1889 but only survived for three days. Two more females were found dead next year, victims of a Galician avalanche. The last known Portuguese ibex in Spain died in 1890, and the last known sighting was a female near Lombade Pan in the Serra do Gerês in Portugal in 1892.
Some scientists have pointed to factors other than human interference that may have affected the decline of the Portuguese ibex. Iberian wolves and golden eagles, disease from domestic herds and a disproportionate number of males may have contributed to the rapid population decline. But the last point can be debated since the bucks were a more likely target for hunters and the last recorded sightings were all of females.
Another subspecies, the Gredos ibex "Capra pyrenaica victoriae" Cabrera, 1911, was introduced in territory formerly occupied by the Portuguese ibex for hunting purposes, such as in Riaño, Province of León; isolated populations of Spanish ibex also exist in Galicia and El Bierzo. Around 2001 ibexes resident in the Parque Natural Baixa Limia-Serra do Xurés in the Galician-Portuguese frontier crossed the border and established themselves in the nearby Portuguese Peneda-Gerês National Park, thus colonizing what had been the last spot inhabited by the Portuguese ibex. Ten years later, the new Portuguese population had increased to about 100 animals.
A Portuguese ibex specimen was on display in the Bocage Museum in Lisbon until a fire destroyed it in 1978.
Cave art of ibexes is present in the Côa Valley in Northeastern Portugal.


Millsodon

Millsodon is a member of the order Haramiyida, which lived during the Late Bathonian in Dorset and Oxfordshire. There are three sorts known, all with molariform teeth, of which BM(NH) M46645 is the holotype and BMNH M46183 is the paratype; an assigned specimen is BDUC J 3. The only species, "M. superstes", was described by Percy M. Butler & Jerry J. Hooker in 2005. The genus is named after the late Professor John R. E. Mills, who contributed a lot to the interpretation of Mesozoic mammalian teeth and was one of the original authors of the paratype, with the Greek word , (tooth). The species designation, ", is Latin for 'survivor'. It is still unclear to which family "Millsodon" belongs.


Mesozoicaphididae

Mesozoicaphididae is an extinct family of aphids in the order Hemiptera. There are at least four genera and about seven described species in Mesozoicaphididae.
Genera.
These four genera belong to the family Mesozoicaphididae:


James Halliday McDunnough

James Halliday McDunnough (10 May 1877 – 23 February 1962) was a Canadian linguist, musician, and entomologist best known for his work with North American Lepidoptera, but who also made important contributions about North American Ephemeroptera.
Early life.
McDunnough travelled with his mother and aunt to Berlin to be trained as a classical musician, studying under the great violinist Joseph Joachim. After a season as a violinist in a symphony orchestra in Glasgow, Scotland (presumably what is now the Royal Scottish National Orchestra), he taught English to a Russian family and then decided to change careers. In 1904 he went back to study in Berlin, receiving his doctorate in zoology in 1909.
Returning to North America, he worked briefly at the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole, Massachusetts and married Margaret Bertels, from Berlin. He soon learned of an important opportunity: a wealthy surgeon in Decatur, Illinois named William Barnes needed an entomologist to serve as curator and researcher for his private collection of North American Lepidoptera - probably the best in existence at the time.
From 1910 to 1919 McDunnough produced, with Barnes credited as co-author, an impressive volume of research on the taxonomy of North American Lepidoptera, including the first four volumes of the privately published "Contributions to the Natural History of the Lepidoptera of North America", the 1917 "Check list of the Lepidoptera of Boreal America", "Illustrations of the North American Species of the Genus Catocala", and numerous journal articles, 67 papers in all. He also published nine articles solely under his own name during this period.
In 1918, McDunnough spent a summer helping with the Canada National Collection of Insects (now the Canadian National Collection of Insects, Arachnids and Nematodes) by arranging the microlepidoptera part of the collection. This led to his leaving the job with Barnes in 1919 and heading the newly created Division of Systematic Entomology within the Entomological Branch of the Canadian Department of Agriculture. He remained there until 1946.
During those 28 years, he oversaw the development of the Canadian National Collection into a world-class repository of insect and other arthropod specimens along with an extensive library of entomological publications, conducted faunal surveys throughout Canada, and published 199 taxonomic papers.
Over the same period, he also was editor for the Entomological Society of Canada's journal, "The Canadian Entomologist", from 1921 to 1938. After retirement, he was appointed a research associate at the American Museum of Natural History, working there from late 1946 to 1950.
In 1950, after the death of his wife, he moved to Halifax, Nova Scotia, where he became a research associate for the Nova Scotia Museum of Science, while still publishing papers through the AMNH. The following year, he became the first president of the Lepidopterists' Society. His last paper was published in the year of his death, 1962, at the age of 84.


External jugular vein

The external jugular vein receives the greater part of the blood from the exterior of the cranium and the deep parts of the face, being formed by the junction of the posterior division of the retromandibular vein with the posterior auricular vein.
Structure.
It commences in the substance of the parotid gland, on a level with the angle of the mandible, and runs perpendicularly down the neck, in the direction of a line drawn from the angle of the mandible to the middle of the clavicle superficial to the sternocleidomastoideus.
In its course it crosses the sternocleidomastoideus obliquely, and in the subclavian triangle perforates the deep fascia, and ends in the subclavian vein lateral to or in front of the scalenus anterior, piercing the roof of the posterior triangle.
It is separated from the sternocleidomastoideus by the investing layer of the deep cervical fascia, and is covered by the platysma, the superficial fascia, and the integument; it crosses the cutaneous cervical nerve, and its upper half runs parallel with the great auricular nerve.
Valves.
It is provided with two pairs of valves, the lower pair being placed at its entrance into the subclavian vein, the upper in most cases about 4 cm above the clavicle. The portion of vein between the two sets of valves is often dilated, and is termed the sinus.
These valves do not prevent the regurgitation of the blood, or the passage of injection from below upward.
Variation.
The external jugular vein varies in size, bearing an inverse proportion to the other veins of the neck, it is occasionally double.
Function.
This vein receives the occipital occasionally, the posterior external jugular, and, near its termination, the transverse cervical, transverse scapular, and anterior jugular veins; in the substance of the parotid, a large branch of communication from the internal jugular joins it.
The external jugular vein drains into the subclavian vein lateral to the junction of the subclavian vein and the internal jugular vein.
Clinical significance.
The external jugular is a large vein used in prehospital medicine for venous access when the Paramedic is unable to find another peripheral vein It is commonly used in cardiac arrest or other situations where the patient is unresponsive due to the pain associated with the procedure. In a cardiac arrest using this vein has the advantage that the paramedic can stay at the head and intubate the patient as well. Although many EMTs and paramedics use this vein, the American Heart Association still recommends the use of the cephalic vein.


Spilapteroidea

Spilapteroidea is an extinct superfamily of palaeodictyopterans.


Minuisis

Minuisis is a genus of deep-sea bamboo coral in the family Isididae.


Parvclass


Superior cerebellar artery

The superior cerebellar artery (SCA) arises near the termination of the basilar artery.
Structure.
It passes lateralward, immediately below the oculomotor nerve, which separates it from the posterior cerebral artery, winds around the cerebral peduncle, close to the trochlear nerve, and, arriving at the upper surface of the cerebellum, divides into branches which ramify in the pia mater and anastomose with those of the anterior and posterior inferior cerebellar arteries.
Several branches are given to the pineal body, the anterior medullary velum, and the tela chorioidea of the third ventricle.
Function.
The artery supplies:
Clinical significance.
The SCA is frequently the cause of trigeminal neuralgia, where it compresses the trigeminal nerve causing lancinating pain in the distribution of this nerve on the patient's face. However, at autopsy, 50% of people without trigeminal neuralgia will also be noted to have vascular compression of the nerve.


Pygmy seahorse

The pygmy seahorses comprise several species of tiny seahorse in the syngnathid family or Syngnathidae (seahorses and pipefish). Family Syngnathidae is part of order Syngnathiformes, which contains fishes with fused jaws that suck food into tubular mouths. They are found in Southeast Asia in the Coral Triangle area. They are some of the smallest seahorse species in the world, typically measuring less than in height.
The first pygmy seahorse known to science was "Hippocampus bargibanti". At least six more species were named after 2000. The first species discovered lives exclusively on fan corals and matches their colour and appearance. So effective is pygmy seahorse camouflage that it was discovered only when a host gorgonian was being examined in a laboratory. In 1969 a New Caledonian scientist, Georges Bargibant, was collecting specimens of Muricella spp gorgonians for the Nouméa museum and whilst one of these was on his dissection table he happened to notice a pair of tiny seahorses. The next year they were officially named by Whitley as Bargibant's pygmy seahorse. Other species live on soft corals or are free-ranging among seagrasses and algae.
Description.
The pygmy seahorse is both tiny and well camouflaged. It is very difficult to spot amongst the sea grasses, soft corals, or gorgonians (sea fans) that it inhabits. Other distinctive pygmy seahorse characteristics include a fleshy head and body, a very short snout, and a long, prehensile tail. With their short snouts, they have the appearance of baby animals. Pygmy seahorses are long from the tip of the tail to the end of the snout, so that their vertical height while swimming is still smaller. An adult may be as small as long.
True pygmy seahorses have distinctive morphological markers.
Males and females are distinguished by openings at the bottom of the trunk: females have a tiny, raised round pore for extruding eggs and males have a fore-and-aft slit for accepting them.
Species.
The known species are these:
Other dwarf species.
Other small seahorses are sometimes called pygmy seahorses, but lack the single gill opening and trunk brooding that distinguish the true pygmy seahorse. They can be called dwarf seahorses:


Posterior nasal spine

The medial end of the posterior border of the horizontal plate of palatine bone is sharp and pointed, and, when united with that of the opposite bone, forms a projecting process, the posterior nasal spine for the attachment of the musculus uvulae. It serves as a cephalometric landmark.


Eparctyona

Eparctyona is a clade of placental mammals comprising the artiodactyls (even-toed ungulates), cetacea (whales and related), and the extinct condylarths.


Lynne R. Parenti

Lynne R. Parenti (born 1954) is an American ichthyologist. She serves as a Research Scientist and Curator of Fishes at the National Museum of Natural History of the Smithsonian Institution. Her specialty is the systematics and historical biogeography of freshwater and coastal fishes, and she has conducted research in this area for about thirty years.
Early life and education.
Parenti was born in Manhattan, New York, grew up in Staten Island. She earned her B.S. in Biological Sciences from the State University of New York at Stony Brook in 1975 and her Ph.D in Biology through a joint program between the City University of New York and the American Museum of Natural History in 1980.
Career.
Parenti has written, spoken and conducted research in the areas of systematics, phylogeny and biogeography of tropical freshwater and coastal marine fishes, comparative teleost anatomy, development and reproduction, and theory and methods of historical biogeography. She has led expeditions in Papua New Guinea, the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, China, Taiwan, Sulawesi, Hawaii, Tasmania, and New Zealand. She has been the principal investigator of several National Science Foundation (NSF) grants. Among other work, her research has led to biological reclassification of Killfish.
In 1995, Parenti became a member of the Washington Biologists’ Field Club. In 2005, she was the first woman ichthyologist to be President of the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists.
Publications.
Parenti has written more than 100 peer-reviewed articles published in scientific journals including "Science". Many of her articles are highly cited. She has also written four books, including "Cladistic Biogeography — Interpreting Patterns of Plant and Animal Distributions", for which a second edition was published in 1999. Her most recent book, "Comparative Biogeography: Discovering and Classifying Biogeographical Patterns of a Dynamic Earth" (2009, University of California Press), was recognized in 2010 as the Smithsonian Secretary’s Research Prize Winner.
Honors and awards.
She is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Honorary Fellow of the California Academy of Sciences, and Honorary member of the Indonesian Ichthyological Society. In 2005, she was a Distinguished Lecturer in the Petrus Artedi Tricentennial Symposium on Ichthyology.


Sicyophorus

Sicyophorus is a genus of archaeopriapulid known from the Chengjiang biota; synonymous with "Protopriapulites haikouensis".


Cadulus delicatulus

Cadulus delicatulus is a species of small tusk shell, a marine scaphopod mollusk in the family Gadilidae. This species is endemic to New Zealand.
It can be found from Northland to Fiordland, including the Chatham Rise and Chatham Islands. It lives at depths of between , and in the Milford Sound area between .


Geniohyoid muscle

The geniohyoid muscle is a narrow muscle situated superior to the medial border of the mylohyoid muscle. It is named for its passage from the chin ("genio-" is a standard prefix for "chin") to the hyoid bone.
Structure.
It arises from the inferior mental spine, on the back of the mandibular symphysis, and runs backward and slightly downward, to be inserted into the anterior surface of the body of the hyoid bone. It lies in contact with its fellow of the opposite side. It thus belongs to the suprahyoid muscles. The muscle is supplied by branches of the lingual artery.
Innervation.
The geniohyoid muscle is innervated by fibres from the first cervical nerve travelling alongside the hypoglossal nerve. Although the first three cervical nerves give rise to the ansa cervicalis, the geniohyoid muscle is said to be innervated by the first cervical nerve, as some of its efferent fibers do not contribute to ansa cervicalis.
Variations.
It may be blended with the one on opposite side or double; slips to greater cornu of hyoid bone and genioglossus occur.
Function.
The geniohyoid muscle brings the hyoid bone forward and upwards. This dilates the upper airway, assisting respiration. During the first act of deglutition, when the mass of food is being driven from the mouth into the pharynx, the hyoid bone, and with it the tongue, is carried upward and forward by the anterior bellies of the Digastrici, the Mylohyoidei, and Geniohyoidei. It also assists in depressing the mandible
History.
The inclined position of the geniohyoid muscle has been contrasted to the horizontal position in neanderthals.


Demonwarp

Demonwarp is a 1988 American science-fiction horror film directed by Emmett Alston and starring George Kennedy.
Plot.
The film begins with Bill Crafton talking to his daughter inside their cabin. Suddenly a Bigfoot-like being breaks in and takes away the girl. Some teenage campers arrive and they too eventually meet the Bigfoot, with many of them being killed or captured. It is later discovered that one of the campers came there to find his uncle. His uncle is later found to be the Bigfoot, and that a bigoted Catholic priest used him for his own evil plans. Actually, the priest thinks an alien who arrived from an unknown planet 100 years ago is an angel who is here to be served by him. After unearthing such alien conspiracy and a horde of mindless zombies, the hidden spacecraft is destroyed inside the cave they used to hide it.
Production.
Rick Albert and executive producer Mark Amin decided that their first film production should be a genre film, using as many special effects and monsters as the small $250,000 budget could support. To save costs, Rick Albert recruited many of his friends, who were lawyers, to appropriately play the army of zombies. The film was edited on a Moviola using 35 mm film.
The film was produced by Richard L. Albert through his motion picture design and marketing firm, Design Projects Inc.. Financing was provided by the individual owners of Trimark Pictures which was then called Vidmark.
The film was shot mostly in Topanga Canyon in Los Angeles, with the final scene shot at Bronson Caves in Griffith Park.


Biremis blandi

Biremis blandi is a species of marine polychaete worm and the only species in the genus Biremis. It was first described by Polloni, Rowe, and Teal in 1973. The species was discovered in 1971 during a dive by the research submersible DSV "Alvin" at in the Tongue of the Ocean in the Bahamas. It is named for "Alvin" pilot Edward L. Bland, Jr., who first observed it.
"Biremis blandi" is described as a terebellid worm with an enlarged tentacular lobe with numerous long tentacles, prominent longitudinal muscular ventral ridges, thoracic segments lacking chaetae, and abdominal segments with pinnules bearing uncini. The worm lacks eyes and gills. It has been observed swimming and resting on the ocean floor.


Fulmar

The fulmars are tubenosed seabirds of the family Procellariidae. The family consists of two extant species and two extinct fossil species from the Miocene.
Fulmars superficially resemble gulls, but are readily distinguished by their flight on stiff wings, and their tube noses. They breed on cliffs, laying one or rarely two eggs on a ledge of bare rock or on a grassy cliff. Outside the breeding season, they are pelagic, feeding on fish, squid and shrimp in the open ocean. They are long-lived for birds, living for up to 40 years.
Historically, the northern fulmar lived on the Isle of St Kilda, where it was extensively hunted. The species has expanded its breeding range southwards to the coasts of England and northern France.
Taxonomy.
As members of Procellaridae and then the order Procellariiformes, they share certain traits. First, they have nasal passages that attach to the upper bill called naricorns. The bills of Procellariiformes are unique in being split into between seven and nine horny plates. Finally, they produce a stomach oil made up of wax esters and triglycerides that is stored in the proventriculus. This can be sprayed out of their mouths as a defence against predators and as an energy rich food source for chicks and for the adults during their long flights. It will mat the plumage of avian predators, which can lead to their death. Fulmars have a salt gland that is situated above the nasal passage and helps desalinate their bodies, due to the high amount of ocean water that they imbibe. It excretes a strong saline solution from their nose.
Fossils.
Two prehistoric species have been described from fossil bones found on the Pacific coast of California: "Fulmarus miocaenus" (Temblor Formation) and "Fulmarus hammeri" from the Miocene.
Etymology.
The genus name "Fulmarus" is derived from the Old Norse word "fúll" meaning foul, and "már" meaning gull, in reference to the smell of their stomach oil.
Description.
The two fulmars are closely related seabirds occupying the same niche in different oceans. The northern fulmar ("Fulmarus glacialis") or just fulmar lives in the North Atlantic and North Pacific, whereas the southern fulmar, ("Fulmarus glacialoides") is, as its name implies, a bird of the Southern Ocean. These birds look superficially like gulls, but are unrelated, and are in fact petrels. The northern species is grey and white with a yellow bill, in length with a wingspan. The southern form is a paler bird with dark wing tips, long, with a wingspan.
Behavior.
Breeding.
Both recent species breed on cliffs, laying a single white egg. Unlike many small to medium birds in the Procellariiformes, they are neither nocturnal breeders, nor do they use burrows; their eggs are laid on the bare rock or in shallow depressions lined with plant material.
In Britain, northern fulmars historically bred on St. Kilda (where their harvesting for oil, feathers and meat was central to the islands' economy). They spread into northern Scotland in the 19th century, and to the rest of the United Kingdom by 1930. The expansion has continued further south; the fulmar can now often be seen in the English Channel and in France along the northern and western coasts, with breeding pairs or small colonies in Nord, Picardy, Normandy and along the Atlantic coast in Brittany.
Feeding.
Fulmars are highly pelagic outside the breeding season, like most tubenoses, feeding on fish, small squid, shrimp, crustaceans, marine worms, and carrion. The range of these species increased greatly in the 20th century due to the availability of fish offal from commercial fleets, but may contract because of less food from this source and climatic change. The population increase has been especially notable in the British Isles.
Like other petrels, their walking ability is limited, but they are strong fliers, with a stiff wing action quite unlike the gulls. They look bull-necked compared to gulls, and have short stubby bills. They are long-lived, the longest recorded lifespan for "F. glacialis" being 40 years, 10 months and 16 days.
Exploitation.
Fulmars have for centuries been exploited for food. The engraver Thomas Bewick wrote in 1804 that "Pennant, speaking of those [birds] which breed on, or inhabit, the Isle of St Kilda, says—'No bird is of so much use to the islanders as this: the Fulmar supplies them with oil for their lamps, down for their beds, a delicacy for their tables, a balm for their wounds, and a medicine for their distempers. A photograph by George Washington Wilson taken about 1886 shows a "view of the men and women of St Kilda on the beach dividing up the catch of Fulmar". James Fisher, author of "The Fulmar" (1952) calculated that every person on St Kilda consumed over 100 fulmars each year; the meat was their staple food, and they caught around 12,000 birds annually. However, when the human population left St Kilda in 1930, the fulmar population did not suddenly grow.


Cedarapis

Cedarapis is an extinct genus from a well-known class of fossil marine arthropods, the trilobites. It lived from 501 to 490 million years ago during the Dresbachian faunal stage of the late Cambrian Period.


Pterygoid fovea

The pterygoid fovea (occasionally called pit or depression) is located on the mandible. It is a concave surface on the medial side of the neck of the condyloid process of the mandible. It is located posterior to the mandibular notch and inferior to the mandibular condyle. The pterygoid fovea is the site of insertion for the inferior head of the lateral pterygoid muscle.


Hobhouse Inlet

Hobhouse Inlet is a body of water in the Qikiqtaaluk Region of Nunavut, Canada. It lies off the southern coast of Devon Island. Like Stratton Inlet, Burnett Inlet, Powell Inlet, and Cuming Inlet, Hobhouse is situated between Maxwell Bay and Croker Bay, in the eastern high Arctic, north of Lancaster Sound and Barrow Strait.
The inlet is named in honour of Sir Benjamin Hobhouse.
Fauna.
The Hobhouse Inlet is a Canadian Important Bird Area (#NU060), a Key Migratory Terrestrial Bird Site, and an International Biological Program Site (Region 9, #2-16). Notable bird species include the northern fulmar and colonial waterbirds and seabirds.


Planipapillus

Planipapillus is a genus of Australian velvet worms in the Peripatopsidae family. They are commonly known as lawn-headed velvet worms.
Species.
The genus contains the following species:


Megadictyon

Megadictyon is a genus of cambrian lobopodian with similarities to "Jianshanopodia" and "Siberion".
Occasionally mis-spelt "Magadictyon".
Megadictyon is a large lobopodian, with body length (excluding appendages) possibly up to 20 centimeters in total. The head has a pair of robust frontal appendages associated with rows of spine and terminal claws. Underside the head is a radiodont-like mouthpart forming by multiple layers of plates and teeth-like structures. The trunk is wide and annulated, with a pair of well-developed lobopodous limbs on each body segment. Only 8 segment/limb pairs are countable in the incomplete fossil materials which lacking posterior region, so it may have had more (possibly up to 11 to 13) in nature. It also has pairs of digestive glands similar to those of basal arthropods.


Bass (fish)

Bass () is a name shared by many species of fish. The term encompasses both freshwater and marine species, all belonging to the large order Perciformes, or perch-like fishes. The word "bass" comes from Middle English , meaning 'perch'.
Other species known as bass.
Many species are also known as basses, including:
Fishing.
Largemouth, smallmouth, and spotted bass are the most popular game fish in North America.
It is also very popular in South Africa. In the country, largemouth bass is often found in lakes, rivers, creeks, and dams.
When fishing, lures (Bass worms) or live bait will work. Lures that mimic baitfish, worms, crayfish, frogs, and mice are all effective.


Ascandra densa

Ascandra densa is a species of calcareous sponge from Australia. The species name is derived from a Latin term meaning "dense" or "compact".


Caucasian wisent

The Caucasian wisent ("Bison bonasus caucasicus") or dombay ("домбай") was a subspecies of European bison that inhabited the Caucasus Mountains of Eastern Europe.
Description.
Little is known about morphological details of this subspecies including body size due to extinction before modern scientific approaches were made.
Comparared to the lowland wisent or the extant European bison, Caucasian bison was morphology more adapted to mountainous habitat. Apparently, Caucasian wisent was generally smaller (there had been arguments regarding the Caucasian wisent to be smaller than the lowland bison, but most certainly less weighed), had shorter but higher hooves, had more developed shoulder girdles, had skulls similar in size to those found in Kuban region, had significantly thicker and larger horns, less shaggy coats, and curly hairs on head rear.
Natural enemies.
It was hunted by the Caspian tiger and the Asiatic lion (until the 10th century) in the Caucasus, as well as other predators such as wolves and bears.
Decline and extinction.
In the 17th century, the Caucasian wisent still populated a large area of the Western Caucasus. After that human settlement in the mountains intensified and the range of the Caucasian wisent became reduced to about one tenth of its original range at the end of the 19th century. In the 1860s the population still numbered about 2,000, but was reduced to only 500-600 in 1917 and to only 50 in 1921. Local poaching continued; finally, in 1927, the last three Caucasian wisent were killed.
Hybrid survivors.
Only one Caucasian wisent bull is known to have been kept in captivity. This bull, named Kaukasus, was born in the Caucasus Mountains in 1907 and brought to Germany in 1908 where he lived until 26 February 1925. While in captivity, he bred with cows from the lowland subspecies "Bison bonasus bonasus". Thus, he became one of the twelve ancestors of the present lowland-Caucasian breeding line of the European wisent pedigree book.
Wisent reintroductions in the Caucasus.
In 1940, a group of wisent-American bison hybrids were released into the Caucasian
Biosphere Reserve and later in 1959 in the Nalchik Forestry Game Management Unit (Kabardino-Balkariya). Later some pure-blood wisent of the lowland-Caucasian breeding line were released there to form a single mixed herd together with the hybrids.
In 2000, these hybrids were described as a different (without scientific basis) subspecies, the highland bison - "Bison bonasus montanus" ().


List of fossil bird genera

Birds evolved from certain feathered theropod dinosaurs, and there is no real dividing line between birds and non-avian dinosaurs except that some of the former survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event while the latter did not. For the purposes of this article, a 'bird' is considered to be any member of the clade Aves in the broadest sense. Some dinosaur groups which may or may not be true birds are listed below under Proto-birds.
This page contains a listing of prehistoric bird taxa only known from completely fossilized specimens. These extinctions took place before the Late Quaternary and thus took place in the absence of significant human interference. While the earliest hominids had been eating birds and especially their eggs, human population and technology was simply insufficient to seriously affect healthy bird populations until the Upper Paleolithic Revolution. Rather, reasons for the extinctions listed here are stochastic abiotic events such as bolide impacts, climate changes due to orbital shifts, mass volcanic eruptions etc. Alternatively, species may have gone extinct due to evolutionary displacement by successor or competitor taxa – it is notable that an extremely large number of seabirds have gone extinct during the mid-Tertiary; this seems at least partly due to competition by the contemporary radiation of marine mammals.
The relationships of these taxa are often hard to determine, as many are known only from very fragmentary remains and due to the complete fossilization precluding analysis of information from DNA, RNA or protein sequencing. The taxa listed in this article should be classified with the "Fossil".
Before the late 19th century, when minerals were still considered one of the kingdoms of binomial nomenclature, fossils were often treated according to a parallel taxonomy. Rather than assigning them to animal or plant genera, they were treated as mineral genera and given binomial names typically using Osteornis ("bone-bird") or Ornitholithus ("bird fossil") as "genus". The latter name, however, is still in use for an oogenus of fossil bird eggs. Also, other animals (in particular pterosaurs) were placed in these "genera". In sources pre-dating the Linnean system, the above terms are also seen in the more extensive descriptions used to name taxa back then.
Taxonomic list of fossil prehistoric birds.
Higher-level taxa are presented in likely or suspected phylogenetic order. Genus-level taxa and lower are sorted chronologically, in ascending order (i.e., older taxa first).
The higher-level groups of non-Neornithes are arranged based on the phylogeny proposed by Luis Chiappe, updated and expanded to incorporate recent research. The categories are inclusive in ascending order.
"Taxonomic assignments, especially in the pygostylian to early neornithine genera, are still very provisional and subject to quite frequent change."
Basal Avialae (extinct).
The most primitive "birds", usually still possessing a long bony tail with generally unfused vertebrae. Not all of these may be on the line of bird ancestors; whether they are not closer to other theropods groups than to the Avialae remains to be thoroughly tested (see "Xiaotingia").
Basal Pygostylia (extinct).
The earliest birds with a modern pygostyle: a reduction and fusion of the tail vertebrae; possibly a paraphyletic group. Two types of pygostyle are known, a rod-shaped one found in Confuciusornithidae, Enantiornithes and some non-avian theropods such as "Nomingia", and a plowshare-shaped one, only known in the lineage leading to modern birds. It is not certain that the pygostyles found in birds are indeed synapomorphies.
Enantiornithes (extinct).
The taxonomic list of enantiornithine groups presented here follows a summary published by Thomas R. Holz, Jr. in 2011.
†Enantiornithes
Note that Holtz (2011) also included "Zhyraornis" in his classification of euenantiornithines, though this genus is more often classified as an ornithuran. Holtz also placed "Liaoningornis" as an ornithuromorph, though more recent studies have placed it as a close relative of "Eoalulavis".
Basal Euornithes (extinct).
Also called "basal Ornithuromorpha". Essentially modern birds, except many still possess a few primitive features such as teeth or wing claws. These have the plowshare-shaped pygostyle and proper tail fan as seen in most living birds. The taxonomy of this group is confusing; the name "Ornithurae" was first proposed by Ernst Haeckel in 1866 and has been revised in meaning several times since.
The following is a list of primitive euornithian genera and those that cannot be confidently referred to any subgroups, following Holtz (2011).
Note that Holtz also included the genera "Eurolimnornis", "Holbotia", "Palaeocursornis" and "Piksi" as euornitheans, though they have since been re-identified as pterosaurs.
Neornithes.
The subclass that contains all modern birds.
Unresolved and basal forms
These modern birds are known from remains that cannot be placed in relation to any one modern group and are neither autapomorphic enough to assign them to own orders. Especially the Late Cretaceous/early Paleogene taxa are probably basal to several modern orders, while later Paleogene taxa often represent extinct lineages outside the modern families.
Struthioniformes.
Ostrich and related ratites.
Casuariiformes.
Cassowaries, emus and related ratites.
Rheiformes.
Rheas and related ratites.
†Dinornithiformes.
Moas.
Two unnamed Saint Bathans Fauna species.
Anseriformes.
The group that includes modern ducks and geese.
Galliformes.
The group that includes domestic chickens and their relatives.
Charadriiformes.
Gulls, auks, shorebirds
†Gastornithiformes (extinct).
The diatrymas, a group of huge flightless Paleogene birds of unclear affinities. Traditionally placed within the Gruiformes, they are usually considered a distinct order nowadays and appear closer to the Anseriformes.
Gruiformes.
The group that includes modern rails and cranes. Probably paraphyletic.
Ciconiiformes.
The diverse group that includes storks, herons and New World vultures. Paraphyletic as listed here.
Pelecaniformes.
The group that includes modern pelicans and cormorants. As presented here paraphyletic; the tropicbird lineage is not part of this group and relationships with Procellariiformes and Sphenisciformes require more research. Also, as the pelicans are at least as close to the Ciconiiformes as to cormorants, the latter group is being recognized as Phalacrocoraciiformes by some recent authors and the core Pelecaniformes are occasionally merged into the Ciconiiformes.
Procellariiformes.
The group that includes modern albatrosses, petrels and storm-petrels.
Psittaciformes.
Unresolved and basal fossil parrots:
Opisthocomiformes.
Hoatzins
Cuculiformes.
Cuckoos, turacos and allies.
Aegotheliformes.
Owlet-nightjars
Apodiformes.
Swifts and hummingbirds.
Coliiformes.
Mousebirds and relatives
Strigiformes.
Owls and barn owls
Coraciiformes.
Rollers and allies. Probably paraphyletic.
Avialans "incertae sedis".
These fossil taxa cannot be assigned to any major group with reasonable certainty. The "proto-birds" above are of some indeterminate basal position in the entire avialan (and paravian) radiation, but known from such diagnostic material that their relationships at the family level are known. In contrast, the taxa here have a hypodigm that is usually just sufficient for giving them a valid scientific name, but not for phylogenetic purposes beyond classing them as pygostylians or more modern birds. Some, however, are known from such fragmentary remains that the possibility that they are non-avian "reptiles" such as dinosaurs cannot be ruled out at present.


Philip Pearsall Carpenter

Philip Pearsall Carpenter Rev. Dr. (4 November 1819 – 24 May 1877) was ordained Presbyterian minister in England in 1841, and earned a Doctorate of Philosophy in 1860. His field work as a malacologist or conchologist in North America is still well regarded today. A man of many talents, he wrote, published, taught, and was a volunteer explaining the growing study of shells in North America.
Life.
Philip P. Carpenter was born in Bristol, England on 4 November 1819. His father was Lant Carpenter. His mother was Anna or Hannah Penn, daughter of John Penn and Mary. Anna was christened on 11 May 1787 in Bromsgrove, Worcester, England.
P. P. Carpenter, as he was called, was educated at Trinity Bristol College, and then Manchester College at York, gaining a BA from the University of London in 1841, the year of his ordination as a minister.
Carpenter was a Presbyterian minister in Warrington between 1846 and 1862 and he studied the collection of shells in the local museum between 1860 and 1865, before moving to Canada.
He married Minnie Meyer in 1860. Minnie was born about 1830 in Hamburg, Germany. Her parents are unknown. In 1881 she was still living in their house in the Saint Antoine Ward of Montreal.
P. P. Carpenter died 24 May 1877 in Ste-Antoine Ward, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, of typhoid complicated by rheumatism.
A memorial drinking fountain to Carpenter is situated in Bank gardens by the town hall in Warrington.
Notable siblings.
Mary Carpenter was born on 3 April 1807 in Kidderminster, Worcester, England. She died on 14 June 1877 and was buried in Arnos Vale, Bristol, England. Mary was founder of the Ragged school movement. Mentioned in brother William's insert in the "Dictionary of Scientific Biography" by Charles Coulton Gillispie. She was a social reformer.
William Benjamin Carpenter was born on 29 October 1813 in Exeter, Devon, England. He died on 19 November 1885 in London and was buried in Highgate Cemetery, London.
Russell Lant Carpenter was born in 1816 in Kidderminster, Worcester, England. and was christened in Devon. He died in 1892.


Precerebral artery

A precerebral artery is an artery leading to the cerebrum, but not in the cerebrum.
In the human they are: