Marjorie Harris Carr

Marjorie Harris Carr (March 26, 1915 – October 10, 1997) was an American scientist and environmental activist, well known for her conservation work in Florida. She was born in Boston and grew up in southwest Florida, where her parents taught her about native flora and fauna. After earning a Master of Science degree from the University of Florida in 1942, she went on to establish and lead several conservation efforts in the state, including co-founding the Alachua Audubon Society in 1960 and co-founding Florida Defenders of the Environment in 1969. Her work with Florida Defenders of the Environment — which continued until her death in 1997 — to preserve the Ocklawaha River Valley helped halt construction of the Cross Florida Barge Canal, which is now a public conservation and recreation area named in her honor in 1998. She was inducted in the Florida Women's Hall of Fame in 1996. She was married to herpetologist Archie Carr from 1937 until his death in 1987; they had five children.
Early life.
Born in Boston, Massachusetts, Carr was raised in southwest Florida, where her naturalist parents taught her how to identify the state's native flora and fauna while on nature hikes and while horseback riding to school. In 1918, her parents moved the family from Boston to Bonita Springs, Florida and later relocated to Fort Myers in 1928, where she attended high school.
Education and early career.
Carr graduated from Fort Myers high school in 1932, and enrolled in Florida State University (which at the time was the Florida State College for Women). Her studies included biology, ecology, botany, ornithology, and bacteriology. In 1936, she received a Bachelor of Science degree in zoology from Florida State University.
Denied admission or funding to graduate programs in zoology and ornithology at Cornell University and the University of North Carolina due to her gender, Carr took a position as the nation's first female wildlife technician at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Welaka National Fish Hatchery. In 1937, she took a position as laboratory technician and field collector at the Bass Zoological Lab in Englewood, Florida. In 1939, Carr was admitted to a graduate program in zoology at the University of Florida. At the time, UF was still officially an all-male institution, but Carr was able to leverage her husband's reputation within the biology department to obtain admission.
In 1942, she earned a Master of Science degree in zoology from the University of Florida. Her thesis work was entitled "The Breeding Habits, Embryology and Larval Development of the Large-mouthed Black Bass in Florida with Notes on the Feeding Habits of the Fry" and was later published in the scientific journal "Proceedings of the New England Zoology Club."
From 1945 until 1949, Carr and her family lived in Honduras, where she explored the rainforest daily with her husband, Archie Carr. Marjorie completed thousands of scientific bird skins and later published her research on the birds of Honduras, including "Notes on the Breeding Habits of the Eastern Stumpknocker "Lepomis Punctatus Punctatus" (Cuvier)" in the "Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences" in 1946, “The San Geronimo Swift in Honduras” in the "Wilson Bulletin" in 1951, and "Notes on the Birds of Honduras for the Years 1945-1949, with Special Reference to the Yeguare River Valley, Department of Francisco Morazan” in "Ceiba" in 1995.
Conservation work in Florida.
In the late 1950s, Carr launched her career in conservation and environmental activism in Florida. Her early efforts were focused in Alachua County and included the preservation and restoration of Lake Alice on the University of Florida campus in 1969 and the establishment of Paynes Prairie Preserve State Park in 1970. She began work on Paynes Prairie preservation in 1957 when she joined the Gainesville Garden Club, and served on the Club's board of directors from 1958 through 1962. She also co-founded the Alachua Audubon Society in 1960 and served on its board of directors from 1960 through 1968 and again from 1972 through 1980. She also served on the board of directors for the Florida Conservation Foundation from 1971 through 1990.
In 1969, Carr co-founded Florida Defenders of the Environment (FDE) with fellow Alachua Audubon society member David Anthony and began her work leading conservation efforts on the Ocklawaha River Valley ecosystem. She helped write one of the nation's first environmental impact statements in support of a lawsuit brought by FDE and the Environmental Defense Fund against the United States Army Corps of Engineers for environmental impacts of the Cross Florida Barge Canal on the Ocklawaha River ecosystem. As part of this work, Carr also prepared and gave a statement for FDE to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in 1978. Carr continued to work on Ocklawaha River conservation, including removal of the Rodman Dam and Reservoir, and to preserve parks and green spaces in Florida for nearly 30 years until her death in 2005. Florida Defenders of the Environment remains an active environmental conservation organization with a primary mission to "restore the Ocklawaha River."
Marjorie Harris Carr Cross Florida Greenway.
The Barge Canal was officially deauthorized by Congress in 1990, and all lands and structures associated with the project were transferred to the state of Florida for use as a public conservation and recreation area. The Florida Governor and Cabinet signed a resolution to deauthorize the Canal on January 22, 1991. The lands transferred to the state of Florida became the Cross Florida Greenway State Recreation and Conservation Area. Carr was appointed by the Florida legislature to the Canal Lands Advisory Committee in 1991 to represent the public at large and help create a master plan for the Greenway.
In 1998, the Greenway was officially renamed the Marjorie Harris Carr Cross Florida Greenway in Carr's honor. The Greenway runs 110 miles and comprises more than 70,000 acres through portions of Citrus, Levy, Marion, and Putnam counties, from Yankeetown on the Gulf of Mexico to south of Palatka on the St. Johns River. It is part of the system of Florida State Parks and is managed by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Recreation and Parks.
Honors and awards.
Marjorie Harris Carr won a number of awards and honors for her work. As detailed largely by Peggy Macdonald, her awards included:


Ossification center

An ossification center is a point where ossification of the cartilage begins. The first step in ossification is that the cartilage cells at this point enlarge and arrange themselves in rows.
The matrix in which they are imbedded increases in quantity, so that the cells become further separated from each other.
A deposit of calcareous material now takes place in this matrix, between the rows of cells, so that they become separated from each other by longitudinal columns of calcified matrix, presenting a granular and opaque appearance.
Here and there the matrix between two cells of the same row also becomes calcified, and transverse bars of calcified substance stretch across from one calcareous column to another.
Thus there are longitudinal groups of the cartilage cells enclosed in oblong cavities, the walls of which are formed of calcified matrix which cuts off all nutrition from the cells; the cells, in consequence, atrophy, leaving spaces called the primary areolæ.
Types of ossification centers.
There are two types of ossification centers – primary and secondary.
A primary ossification center is the first area of a bone to start ossifying. It usually appears during prenatal development in the central part of each developing bone. In long bones the primary centers occur in the diaphysis/shaft and in irregular bones the primary centers occur usually in the body of the bone. Most bones have only one primary center (e.g. all long bones except clavicle) but some irregular bones such as the os coxa (hip) and vertebrae have multiple primary centers.
A secondary ossification center is the area of ossification that appears after the primary ossification center has already appeared – most of which appear during the postnatal and adolescent years. Most bones have more than one secondary ossification center. In long bones, the secondary centers appear in the epiphyses.


Jo-Jo The Dog-Faced Boy


Wings for My Flight

Wings for My Flight: The Peregrine Falcons of Chimney Rock is a 1991 book by American wildlife biologist Marcy Cottrell Houle. "Wings for My Flight" documents Houle's observations of a pair of the then-endangered peregrine falcons at Chimney Rock, a prominent rock formation in Colorado, while employed by the Colorado Division of Wildlife in the summer of 1975. To protect the falcons, Houle had to halt a million-dollar project to turn ancient Anasazi ruins in the area into a tourist attraction and faced opposition and harassment by the Chimney Rock community as a result.
By 1975, peregrine falcons had been reduced to 324 pairs in North America, primarily as a result of DDT, a widely used pesticide. DDT lowered estrogen levels in female peregrines and inhibited the production of calcium, causing eggs to thin and break during incubation. Recovery efforts for the peregrine falcon have been remarkably successful: agricultural DDT was banned by the U.S. in 1972 and efforts to breed and train peregrine falcons in captivity to later release to the wild were effective. In 1999, the peregrine falcon was removed from the U.S. Endangered Species list.
"Wings for My Flight" was originally published in hardcover by Addison-Wesley in 1991. The book was republished in 1999 by Pruett Publishing with a foreword by Robert Michael Pyle and a new preface and epilogue by Houle. The book was updated again in 2014 and republished by the University of New Mexico Press with photographs and a preface by Houle touching upon the recovery of the peregrine falcon. In May 1996, the children's magazine "Cricket" published a short story written by Houle titled "Albert", adapted from "Wings for My Flight". Reception to "Wings for My Flight" has generally been positive. The book co-received the Oregon Book Award in 1991 and received a Christopher Award for books in 1992.
Background.
Marcy Cottrell Houle wrote "Wings for My Flight" in the decades following a major decline in the peregrine falcon population, which occurred between 1950 and 1970. During the 1930s and 1940s, an estimated 1000 breeding pairs of peregrine falcons inhabited the western United States and Mexico, coupled with 500 pairs in the eastern U.S. By the 1970s, no peregrine falcons were discovered east of the Rocky Mountains, and in the west, peregrine falcon populations had declined by 80 to 90 percent. By 1975, the year in which the events of "Wings for My Flight" take place, only 324 pairs of peregrine falcons were known to reside in North America, with only seven pairs in the Rocky Mountains region, and one at Chimney Rock, a prominent rock formation in southwestern Colorado.
During the peregrine falcon decline, Houle studied biology at Colorado College in Colorado Springs. The institution's block scheduling system meant that Houle had fewer classes each day, allowing her to travel frequently to experience various ecosystems in addition to her academic studies. Upon leaving college, Houle began working for the Colorado Division of Wildlife, and her first field assignment was to observe peregrine falcon activity along the Rocky Mountains for four summers, two of which were spent at Chimney Rock. Following her experience with the peregrine falcons, Houle had to decide whether to continue pursuing wildlife biology or to commit instead to her passion of writing. "Wings for My Flight" combined both of Houle's interests; it recounted her observations of the peregrines as well as her interaction with the community at Chimney Rock during her first summer there.
The peregrine falcon became an endangered species primarily due to the use of organochlorine pesticides, especially DDT, the breakdown of which lowered estrogen levels in the bloodstream of female peregrine falcons and inhibited the production of calcium, causing eggs to grow thinner by up to 20 percent. Since peregrine falcons lay their eggs on rocky ledges rather than nests, the thinned shells would break under the stress of both the rocky ledge and the weight of the parents during incubation. Following 1970, recovery efforts for the peregrine falcon population have been successful. The agricultural use of DDT was banned in the United States in 1972, and recovery teams in the eastern United States were successful in breeding and training peregrines in captivity to later release to the wild, a procedure called hacking. In 1999, the peregrine falcon was removed from the U.S. Endangered Species list.
Content summary.
The events of "Wings for My Flight" take place throughout 1975. Marcy Cottrell Houle (then "Marcy Cottrell"), a 21-year-old wildlife biologist, is sent by her supervisor, Barry Layne, to the U.S. Forest Service office near Chimney Rock in Colorado, where a pair of peregrine falcons reside. The pair is one of only seven pairs remaining in the Rocky Mountains region. Mr. Preston Fitch, an administrator involved with the peregrine falcon project, criticizes Houle for her lack of experience in the field upon meeting her. Nevertheless, Mr. Fitch introduces Houle to Chimney Rock. He explains that the Forest Service spent more than half a million dollars building a road which led to Chimney Rock; work on the road had to be discontinued upon discovery of the falcons. Further, the Chimney Rock area is home to 250 Anasazi ruins dated between 900 and 1100. The Chimney Rock community had been planning a million-dollar development to build a tourist attraction for the ruins. Houle spends several weeks with the peregrine falcons, recording her observations in her notebook. In spite of her initial attempt at maintaining an impersonal relationship with the falcons, Houle names the female peregrine "Jenny" and the male "King Arthur". In the middle of June, after Houle had spent several days of making field observations alone and with limited equipment, Mr. Fitch introduces Houle to her teammate, Alex Porter. He also provides them with a garbage truck for transportation.
Meanwhile, Houle faces indignation and harassment from the residents of the Chimney Rock community, who view her presence as impeding the progress of the construction of a tourist attraction for the Anasazi ruins. At one point, Maurice Richards, a high-ranking official of the Colorado Division of Wildlife, attempts to host a picnic on an area restricted for the peregrines. When Houle forces him to leave, Richards threatens to fire her. Later, the female peregrine, Jenny, disappears and never returns. A local resident claims she was shot and killed by a member of the Chimney Rock community.As a result of Jenny's disappearance, King Arthur spends several days ignoring the hatchlings that they had been raising. After this period of "grief", King Arthur begins to raise the young falcons singlehandedly. Following this, Houle discovers that of five nestlings hatched by the pair, only two received enough food to survive. Houle names the surviving pair of nestlings "Bold Leopold" and "Albert" after their distinct personalities; Leopold was more courageous and was always the first to try new things, such as flying, whereas Albert was more hesitant. In spite of all the attempts to intimidate her, the people of Chimney Rock eventually sympathize with Houle after her trailer, containing valuable field equipment as well as personal items, is broken into and vandalized.
Publication history.
"Wings for My Flight" was first published in 1991 in hardcover by Addison-Wesley. Houle later wrote a short story titled "Albert" that was adapted from "Wings for My Flight", focusing on Albert and Leopold's first attempts at flying. The story was published in the May 1996 issue of the children's magazine "Cricket". "Wings for My Flight" was republished, this time in paperback, in 1999 by Pruett Publishing. This edition included a foreword by Robert Michael Pyle and a new preface and epilogue by Houle. In 2014, the book was updated and republished again by University of New Mexico Press. The updated edition contained photographs of the Chimney Rock landscape, as well as a preface by Houle that addressed the recovery of the peregrine falcon population since the book was first published in 1991. Houle highlighted the 1972 agricultural prohibition of DDT, which was the chemical primarily responsible for the peregrine decline; the Endangered Species Act of 1973, which allowed the pursuit of wildlife conservation to take precedence over land issues; and successful attempts to raise peregrines in captivity and later release them to the wild. While writing the book, Houle changed the names of various people and places, explaining the choice by saying "I felt more comfortable changing the names because I worked for so long with those people, it was impossible to be honest about them if I named them".
Reception.
"Wings for My Flight" was generally well received. In 1991, the book received the Oregon Book Award for literary nonfiction, co-receiving the award with "My Country, My Right to Serve" by Mary Ann Humphrey. The Oregon Book Award, presented annually by Literary Arts, a non-profit organization that promotes literature, intends to recognize the works of Oregon-based authors in a variety of literary genres. Additionally, in 1992, the book received a Christopher Award, which is presented annually by The Christophers, a non-profit Christian inspirational group, and recognizes creators of books, motion pictures, and television specials that "affirm the highest values of the human spirit".
Dolores and Roger Flaherty wrote a positive review in the "Chicago Sun-Times", noting how "Houle blends elements of adventure, romance, humor and pathos in the story of her rookie summer as a wildlife biologist. Along the way she offers vivid descriptions of her skydiving subjects and the seductive beauty of the wilderness." David M. Schwartz, in the May 1992 edition of "Smithsonian", praised Houle's prose in "Wings for My Flight", and wrote that the story is "told with a charming simplicity in fewer than 200 pages". Schwartz also praised Houle for including her notational system for documenting field observations, stating that it "opens a window on field biology". Writing in the "Library Journal", Henry T. Armistead referred to the book as "well crafted and compelling, a dramatization of the classic conflict between the legitimate interests of conservationists and developers", and, "highly recommended on several levels, as science, sociology, or a story". Andrew Gulliford, a professor of history and environmental studies at Fort Lewis College, noted in "The Durango Herald" the significance of Houle's efforts to prevent "inappropriate development" at Chimney Rock, which was proclaimed a U.S. National Monument by President Barack Obama in 2012. "Wings for My Flight is a personal story", wrote Gulliford, "but also a chronicle of environmental success. Without a doubt, peregrines saved Chimney Rock for the rest of us."
Freehance writer Paul De Witte wrote a mixed review in "The Record" (now the "Waterloo Region Record"), writing that although the book "will certainly find its audience, its Disneyesque sensibilities will kill its broader appeal. The topics of wildlife conservation and global ecological accountability warrant a depth that the author seems unwilling to give her book." "Kirkus Reviews" referred to the book as "an enlightening cautionary take" and "a charmingly personal account", but also as "loosely organized and occasionally sparse on detail". John Wilkes, in the "Los Angeles Times", wrote, "Although naive and overdrawn at times, this heartfelt tale will bring tears and smiles to even the most stubbornly objective reader." Donna Mitchell, writing in "The Wilson Bulletin" (now "The Wilson Journal of Ornithology"), wrote that Houle's interpretation of the falcons' behavior is excessively "anthropomorphic", but also that "Ms. Houle's perseverance and dedication to the protection of the Peregrine Falcon is admirable and an incentive not only to young biologists just getting started but to those of us who get a little more than discouraged with the struggle to protect endangered species and their habitats."


Anatomy Museum


Triphyllozoon

Triphyllozoon is a genus of bryozoans in the family Phidoloporidae.


Southern plains gray langur

Southern plains gray langur was the common name ascribed to "Semnopithecus dussumieri" by "Mammal Species of the World" (3rd edition) in 2005. Along with several other "Semnopithecus", it had been previously considered a subspecies of the
northern plains gray langur, "Semnopithecus entellus", i.e., "Semnopithecus entellus dussumieri". Subsequent genetic research has revealed that "Semnopithecus dussumieri" is an invalid taxon. These monkeys live in groups in forests and other rural habitats, with some groups being habituated to human contact and feeding. They are herbivorous, feeding by day mainly on foliage, fruits and flowers, and sleeping at night high in a tree.
Taxonomy.
The taxonomy of gray langurs has been in a state of flux. At first, all gray langurs were included in a single species, "Semnopithecus entellus", with several subspecies, but more recently some authorities have elevated these to species status. The southern plains gray langur was the common name ascribed to "Semnopithecus dussumieri" by "Mammal Species of the World" (3rd edition) in 2005. Along with several other "Semnopithecus", it had been previously considered a subspecies of the northern plains gray langur, "Semnopithecus entellus", i.e., "Semnopithecus entellus dussumieri". Subsequent genetic research has revealed that "Semnopithecus dussumieri" is an invalid taxon. As a result, most populations of gray langurs that had been considered to be southern plains gray langur are considered to be populations of northern plains gray langurs "S. entellus".
Description.
The populations formerly regarded as southern plains gray langur are among the smaller gray langurs, with a height of about , a tail longer than the body and a weight of about . The hair on the top of their heads are cream-coloured, the body fur is grayish-brown or purplish-brown and the underparts are yellowish. The face and ears are black as are the hands and feet, and sometimes the ends of the limbs. When they move around, they carry their tails pointing backwards.
Distribution and habitat.
The populations that had been considered to be southern plains gray langur are native to western, central and south-western India. They are found in various forest habitats, both humid and dry, and in dry scrubby locations, and have adapted to live in close proximity to humans, visiting agricultural areas, orchards, grassland and villages.
Ecology.
The diet mainly consists of leaves, fruits and flowers, supplemented by insects, gum and soil. The food is mostly gathered from trees and shrubs, but grasses and small herbs are also eaten. A range of other foods are also eaten such as cultivated plants, tubers and roots. The monkeys are often fed by humans and accept cakes, millet, and other foods. The diet varies according to the time of year and food availability. In some areas, cattle and deer will stand under trees where the langurs are feeding and consume the edible pieces that they drop. The monkeys are preyed on by leopards, tigers and dholes, and they sometimes mob snakes.
Groups may consist of a mature male with several females and their offspring of different ages; or they may be larger mixed-sex groups, or groups of different sizes formed entirely of males. Females often remain permanently in their natal group while males change groups more often. The dominant male in a mixed-sex group fathers all or most of the young. The incidence of infanticide is high and dominant females are more likely to raise their young successfully. The gestation period is about two hundred days and weaning takes place at about thirteen months. Females are sociable towards each other and much infant care is provided by females other than the mother. The southern plains gray langur can live for about thirty years.
Status.
The populations that had been regarded as southern plains gray langur have a very wide range and are common. It faces no particular threats and when it was considered a species the International Union for Conservation of Nature assessed its conservation status as being of least concern. It is illegal to kill or capture these monkeys, but the law is not well known or well enforced, and many are used for public entertainment or kept as pets. They are considered sacred and some are used by Hindu priests for religious purposes. They have adapted to living in close proximity to humans in urban settings and occasionally get killed on the road. In rural areas, they may be persecuted by farmers when they raid crops. They are also sometimes hunted for food, and certain parts of their body are used for lucky charms.


Ailsacrinus

Ailsacrinus is an extinct genus of crinoid from the Middle Jurassic of Europe.


Actinoconchus

Actinoconchus is an extinct genus of brachiopods that lived from the Carboniferous to the Late Permian in Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America.


Suprahyoid muscles

The suprahyoid muscles are four muscles located above the hyoid bone in the neck. They are the digastric, stylohyoid, geniohyoid, and mylohyoid muscles. They are all pharyngeal muscles, with the exception of the geniohyoid muscle. The digastric is uniquely named for its two bellies. Its posterior belly rises from the mastoid process of the cranium and slopes downward and forward. The anterior belly arises from the digastric fossa on the inner surface of the mandibular body, which slopes downward and backward. The two bellies connect at the intermediate tendon. The intermediate tendon passes through a connective tissue loop attached to the hyoid bone. The mylohyoid muscles are thin, flat muscles that form a sling inferior to the tongue supporting the floor of the mouth. The geniohyoids are short, narrow muscles that contact each other in the midline. The stylohyoids are long, thin muscles that are nearly parallel with the posterior belly of the digastric muscle.
Function.
These four muscles have different actions, but in general assist in elevating the hyoid bone and widening the esophagus during swallowing. When the two bellies of the digastric contract, they pull upward on the hyoid bone; but if the hyoid is fixed from below, the digastric assists in extreme opening of the mouth such as yawning or taking a large bite of an apple. The mylohyoid elevates the hyoid bone, tenses the floor of the mouth. The Geniohyoid pulls the hyoid bone anterosuperiorly, shortening the floor of the mouth and widening the pharynx during swallowing. The Stylohyoid elevates and retracts the hyoid bone, elongating the floor of the mouth during swallowing.


Robert George Wardlaw-Ramsay

Colonel Robert George Wardlaw-Ramsay FLS, FZS (25 January 1852 – 22 April 1921) was an army officer and naturalist. His father was Robert Balfour Wardlaw-Ramsay while his mother Louisa was the third daughter of George, eighth Marquess of Tweeddale. He studied at Cheam and Harrow before joining the Hampshire Regiment in January 1871 to be stationed in India, Afghanistan and Burma. His interest in birds began as a young boy and in 1872 (aged 20) he was elected a member of the British Ornithologists' Union and was later (1913-1918) to become its president. He was also a Fellow of the Zoological Society. During his various army postings he took a great interest in the local ornithology. He was a nephew of Arthur Hay, 9th Marquess of Tweeddale and inherited a large collection of over 20,000 bird skins that was later presented to the British Museum. He also edited "The Ornithological works of Arthur 9th Marquis of Tweeddale" (1881) and towards the end of his life was writing a "Guide to the birds of Europe and North Africa" (1923) which was published posthumously.
He was married to the elder daughter of Charles Swinton Hogg, Administrator-General of Bengal. He actively corresponded with other ornithologists in the region and many of his notes were published by Allan Octavian Hume in "Stray Feathers".
He saw action during the Afghan Campaign and also served in Burma and on the Andaman Islands. He later joined the Highland Light Infantry, becoming commander of the 7th Volunteer Battalion of the Royal Scots. He retired from the Army in 1882, shortly after the death of his father, and took to working in the County of Midlothian, where he served as Deputy Lieutenant.


Joint capsule

In anatomy, a joint capsule or articular capsule is an envelope surrounding a synovial joint. Each joint capsule has two parts: an outer fibrous layer or membrane, and an inner synovial layer or membrane.
Membranes.
Each capsule consists of two layers or membranes:
On the inside of the capsule, articular cartilage covers the end surfaces of the bones that articulate within that joint.
The outer layer is highly innervated by the same nerves which perforate through the adjacent muscles associated with the joint.
Fibrous membrane.
The fibrous membrane of the joint capsule is attached to the whole circumference of the articular end of each bone entering into the joint, and thus entirely surrounds the articulation. It is made up of dense irregular connective tissue. It's a long spongy tissue.
Clinical significance.
Frozen shoulder (adhesive capsulitis) is a disorder in which the shoulder capsule becomes inflamed.
Plica syndrome is a disorder in which the synovial plica becomes inflamed and causes abnormal biomechanics in the knee.


Acanthopolymastia

Acanthopolymastia is a small genus of demosponges belonging to the family Polymastiidae. It has three describe species. These small, bristly, cushion-shaped sponges are only known from deep-sea sites (to a depth of 3400 m) in the southern oceans.
Species.
Species include:


Sphenoid sinus

The sphenoid sinus is one of the four paired paranasal sinuses that is contained within the body of the sphenoid bone. The sphenoid sinuses vary in size and shape, and owing to the lateral displacement of the intervening septum, which may insert on the carotid canal, they are rarely symmetrical. They cannot be palpated during an extraoral examination.
The following are their average measurements: vertical height, 2.2 cm; transverse breadth, 2 cm; antero-posterior depth, 2.2 cm.
Structure.
When exceptionally large the sphenoid sinuses may extend into the roots of the pterygoid processes or great wings, and may invade the basilar part of the occipital bone.
Each sinus opens into the roof of the nasal cavity via apertures on the posterior wall of the sphenoethmoidal recess directly above the choana. The apertures are located high on the anterior walls of the sinuses themselves.
Development.
They are not present at birth, they slowly develop with the growth of the skull. Just after puberty the sinuses finish development.
Nerve supply.
The mucous membrane receives sensory innervation by the posterior ethmoidal nerves (branch of the ophthalmic nerve), and postganglionic parasympathetic fibers of the facial nerve that synapsed at the pterygopalatine ganglion which controls secretion of mucus.
Clinical significance.
If the tumor spreads laterally, the cavernous sinus and all its constituent nerves could be in danger.
An endonasal surgical procedure called a sphenoidotomy may be carried out to enlarge the sphenoid sinus, usually in order to drain it.
Use in neurosurgery.
Because only thin shelves of bone separate the sphenoidal sinuses from the nasal cavities below and hypophyseal fossa above, the pituitary gland can be surgically approached through the roof of the nasal cavities by first passing through the anterioinferior aspect of the sphenoid bone and into the sinuses, followed by entry through the top of the sphenoid bone into the hypophyseal fossa.


P-site

The P-site (for peptidyl) is the second binding site for tRNA in the ribosome. The other two sites are the A-site (aminoacyl), which is the first binding site in the ribosome, and the E-site (exit), the third. During protein translation, the P-site holds the tRNA which is linked to the growing polypeptide chain. When a stop codon is reached, the peptidyl-tRNA bond of the tRNA located in the P-site is cleaved releasing the newly synthesized protein. During the translocation step of the elongation phase, the mRNA is advanced by one codon, coupled to movement of the tRNAs from the ribosomal A to P and P to E sites, catalyzed by elongation factor EF-G.
Overview.
The ribosomal P-site plays a vital role in all phases of translation. Initiation involves recognition of the start codon (AUG) by initiator tRNA in the P-site, elongation involves passage of many elongator tRNAs through the P site, termination involves hydrolysis of the mature polypeptide from tRNA bound to the P-site, and ribosome recycling involves release of deacylated tRNA. Binding a tRNA to the P-site in the presence of mRNA establishes codon-anticodon interaction, and this interaction is important for small subunit ribosome (30S) contacts to the tRNA.
The classical two-state model proposes that the ribosome contains two binding sites for tRNA, P-site and A-site. The A-site binds to incoming aminoacyl-tRNA which has the anti-codon for the corresponding codon in the mRNA presented in the A-site. After peptide formation between the C-terminal carbonyl group of the growing polypeptide chain (attached to a P-site bound tRNA) and the amino group of the aminoacyl-tRNA (A-site bound), the polypeptide chain is then attached to the tRNA in the A-site. The deacylated tRNA remains in the P-site and is released once the peptidyl-tRNA is transferred to the P-site.
Chemical modification experiments provided evidence of a hybrid model, in which tRNAs can sample a hybrid state of binding during the elongation phase (pre-translocation step). In these hybrid states of binding, acceptor and anti-codon ends of tRNA are in different sites (A, P and E). Using chemical probing methods, a set of phylogenetically-conserved bases in ribosomal RNA where the tRNA binds has been examined, and is suggested to be directly involved in the binding of tRNA to the prokaryotic ribosome. Correlation of such site-specific protected bases in rRNA and occupancy of the A, P and E sites has allowed diagnostic assays of these bases to study the location of tRNA in any given state of the translational cycle. Authors proposed a hybrid model in which higher affinity of the deactivated tRNA and peptide tRNA for the E and P sites of the 50S subunit, thermodynamically favours P/P to P/E and A/A to A/P transitions, which were further demonstrated through cryo-EM experiments. Also, single molecule FRET studies have detected fluctuations in the positions of tRNAs, leading to the conclusion that the classical (A/A-P/P) and hybrid states (A/P-P/E) of the tRNAs are certainly in dynamic equilibrium.
Prior to peptide bond formation, an aminoacyl-tRNA is bound in the A-site, a peptidyl-tRNA is bound in the P-site, and a deacylated tRNA (ready to exit from the ribosome) is bound to the E-site. Translation moves the tRNA from the A-site through the P- and E-sites, with the exception of the initiator tRNA, which binds directly to the P-site. Recent experiments have reported that protein translation can also initiate from the A-site. Using toeprinting assay, it has been shown that protein synthesis initiates from the A-site of the ribosome (eukaryotic) in the cricket paralysis virus (CrPV). IGR-IRES (intragenic regions-internal ribosome entry sites) can assemble 80S ribosomes from 40S and 60S ribosomal subunits in the absence of eIF2, Met-tRNAi, or GTP hydrolysis and without a coding triplet in the ribosomal P-site. Authors also showed IGR-IRES can direct translation of a protein whose N-terminal residue is not methionine.
Structure.
The complete three-dimensional structure of the "T. thermophilus" 70S ribosome was determined using X-ray crystallography, containing mRNA and tRNAs bound to the P and E sites at 5.5 Å resolution and to the A site at 7 Å resolution. Authors found that all three tRNA binding sites (A, P, and E) of the ribosome contact all three respective tRNAs at universally conserved parts of their structures. This allows the ribosome to bind different tRNA species in precisely the same way. The translocation step of protein synthesis requires movements of 20 Å or more by the tRNAs, as they move from the A to P to E sites
tRNA-targeting antibiotics.
Oxazolidines (e.g. linezolid) prevent the binding of the initiator tRNA at the P-site. Oxazolidines have been demonstrated to pleiotropically affect initiator-tRNA binding, EF-P (elongation factor P)-stimulated synthesis of peptide bonds, and EF-G-mediated translocation of initiator-tRNA into the P-site.
Macrolide, lincosamide and streptogramin classes of antibiotics prevent peptide bond formation and/or the translocation of tRNA from the A-site to the P-site on the ribosome that eventually leads to interference with the elongation step and thus the inhibition of protein translation.


Abrekia

Abrekia is an extinct genus of brachiopods found in Early Triassic strata in Russia and China. It was a stationary epifaunal suspension feeder.


Chalinidae

Chalinidae is a family of marine demosponges, containing the following genera:
Predators.
An unidentified species from the family Chalinidae is a prey of the sea slug "Tyrinna evelinae" in Brazil.


Osbert Salvin

Osbert Salvin FRS (25 February 1835 – 1 June 1898) was an English naturalist, ornithologist, and herpetologist best known for co-authoring "Biologia Centrali-Americana" (1879–1915) with Frederick DuCane Godman. This was a 52 volume encyclopedia on the natural history of Central America.
Biography.
Osbert Salvin was born in Finchley, north London, the second son of the architect Anthony Salvin, of Hawksfold, Sussex. He was educated at Westminster and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, taking his degree in 1857. Shortly afterwards he accompanied his second cousin by marriage, Henry Baker Tristram, in a natural history exploration of Tunisia and eastern Algeria. Their account of this trip was published in "The Ibis" in 1859 and 1860.
In the autumn of 1857, he made the first of several visits to Guatemala, returning there with Frederick DuCane Godman in 1861. It was during this journey that the "Biologia Centrali-Americana" was planned.
In 1871 Salvin became editor of "The Ibis". He was appointed to the Strickland Curatorship in the University of Cambridge, and produced his "Catalogue of the Strickland Collection". He was one of the original members of the British Ornithologists' Union. He produced the volumes on the "Trochilidae" and the "Procellariidae" in the "Catalogue of Birds in the British Museum". One of his last works was the completion of Lord Lilford's "Coloured Figures of British Birds" (1897).
Salvin was a Fellow of the Royal Society, the Linnean, Zoological and Entomological Societies, and at the time of his death was Secretary of the British Ornithologists' Union.
The Godman-Salvin Medal, a prestigious award of the British Ornithologists' Union, is named after him and Godman.
In the scientific field of herpetology, he described two new species of Central American reptiles: "Bothriechis aurifer" and "Typhlops tenuis". Also, three species and one subspecies of reptiles have been named in his honor: "Anolis salvini", "Crotalus scutulatus salvini", "Sceloporus salvini", and "Staurotypus salvinii".
Family.
In 1863, he married Caroline Octavia Maitland in Loughton, Essex. They had three daughters, Sybil Maitland Salvin (born 1867), who married Edmund Leveson Calverley in 1893, Heloise Salvin (born 1875) and Viola Salvin (born 1878). Heloise Salvin married biologist John Edmund Sharrock Moore.


Cerioheterastraea

Cerioheterastraea is an extinct genus of prehistoric stony corals in the extinct family Stylophyllidae. Species are from the Trias of China and the Russian Federation.


Megascolides

Megascolides is a genus of earthworms in the family Megascolecidae.


Geryoniidae

The Geryoniidae are a family of hydrozoans in the order Trachymedusae.


Mixopteridae

The Mixopteridae are a family of eurypterids, an extinct group of chelicerate arthropods commonly known as "sea scorpions". The family is one of two families contained in the superfamily Carcinosomatoidea (along with Carcinosomatidae), which in turn is one of the superfamilies classified as part of the suborder Eurypterina.
Description.
Mixopterids were characterized by large exoskeletons with scattered tubercles or semicircular scales. The prosoma (head) was subquadrate, protruding antemedially. The chelicerae (claws in front of the mouth) were small. The first two pairs of walking legs were strongly developed, with long paired spines. The third and fourth walking legs were moderately sized, with short spines. The preabdomen, the front portion of the body, was narrow with axial furrows, while the postabdomen was narrow. The telson was a curved spine.


Adenotrophic viviparity

Adenotrophic viviparity means "gland fed, live birth". This is the reproductive mode of insects such as tsetse flies (Glossinidae), keds (Hippoboscidae) and bat flies (Streblidae and Nycteribiidae) as adenotrophic viviparity is a characteristic feature of the superfamily Hippoboscoidea.
Adenotrophic viviparity differs from ovoviviparity in that the eggs (usually one at a time) are retained within the female's body, hatch and are nourished through "milk glands" until the developed larvae are ready to pupate. The larvae are then 'larviposited' and immediately pupate. This is one way insects avoid predation during their most vulnerable life stage. In ovoviviparity one or more egg hatches internally in the female, but they are not nourished after hatching and are immediately 'larviposited' and continue their development outside the female.


Vertebrate paleontology

Vertebrate paleontology is the subfield of paleontology that seeks to discover, through the study of fossilized remains, the behavior, reproduction and appearance of extinct animals with vertebrae or a notochord. It also tries to connect, by using the evolutionary timeline, the animals of the past and their modern-day relatives.
The fossil record shows aspects of the meandering evolutionary path from early aquatic vertebrates to mammals, with a host of transitional fossils, though there are still large blank areas. The earliest known fossil vertebrates were heavily armored fish discovered in rocks from the Ordovician Period about 500 to 430 Ma (megaannum, million years ago). The Devonian Period (395 to 345 Ma) brought in the changes that allowed primitive air-breathing fish to remain on land as long as they wished, thus becoming the first terrestrial vertebrates, the amphibians.
Amphibians developed forms of reproduction and locomotion and a metabolism better suited for life exclusively on land, becoming more reptilian. Full-fledged reptiles appeared in the Carboniferous Period (345 to 280 Ma).
The reptilian changes and adaptations to diet and geography are chronicled in the fossil record of the varying forms of therapsida. True mammals showed up in the Triassic Period (225 to 190 Ma) around the same time as the dinosaurs, which also sprouted from the reptilian line.
Birds first diverged from dinosaurs between 100 Ma and 60 Ma.
History.
One of the people who helped figure out the vertebrate progression was French zoologist Georges Cuvier (1769–1832), who realized that fossils found in older rock strata differed greatly from more recent fossils or modern animals. He published his findings in 1812 and, although he steadfastly refuted evolution, his work proved the (at the time) contested theory of extinction of species.
Thomas Jefferson is credited with initiating the science of vertebrate paleontology in the United States with the reading of a paper to the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia in 1797. Jefferson presented fossil bones of a ground sloth found in a cave in western Virginia and named the genus ("Megalonyx"). The species was ultimately named "Megalonyx jeffersonii" in his honor. Jefferson corresponded with Cuvier, including sending him a shipment of highly desirable bones of the American mastodon and the woolly mammoth.
Paleontology really got started though, with the publication of "Recherches sur les poissons fossiles" (1833–1843) by Swiss naturalist Louis Agassiz (1807–1873). He studied, described and listed hundreds of species of fossil fish, beginning the serious study into the lives of extinct animals. With the publication of the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin in 1849, the field got a theoretical framework. Much of the subsequent work has been to map the relationship between fossil and extant organisms, as well as their history through time.
In modern times, Alfred Romer (1894–1973) wrote what has been termed the definitive textbook on the subject, called "Vertebrate Paleontology". It shows the progression of evolution in fossil fish, and amphibians and reptiles through comparative anatomy, including a list of all the (then) known fossil vertebrate genera. Romer became the first president of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology in 1940, alongside co-founder Howard Chiu. An updated work that largely carried on the tradition from Romer, and by many considered definitive book on the subject was written by Robert L. Carroll of McGill University, the 1988 text "Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution". Carroll was president of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology in 1983. The Society keeps its members informed on the latest discoveries through newsletters and the "Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology".
Classification.
The "traditional" vertebrate classification scheme employ evolutionary taxonomy where several of the taxa listed are paraphyletic, i.e. have given rise to another taxa that have been given the same rank. For instance, birds are generally considered to be the descendants of reptiles (Saurischian dinosaurs to be precise), but in this system both are listed as separate classes. Under phylogenetic nomenclature, such an arrangement is unacceptable, though it offers excellent overview.
This classical scheme is still used in works where systematic overview is essential, e.g. Benton (1998), Hildebrand and Goslow (2001) and Knobill and Neill (2006). While mostly seen in general works, it is also still used in some specialist works like Fortuny & al. (2011).
Kingdom Animalia


Lanarkia

Lanarkia is a genus of extinct thelodont agnathan which existed in what is now Scotland and Canada during the upper Silurian period.