Experimental petrology

Experimental petrology is the field of research concerned with experimentally determining the physical and chemical behavior of rocks and their constituents. Because there is no way to directly observe or measure deep earth processes, geochemists rely on experimental petrology to establish quantitative values and relationships in order to construct models of the deep earth. Experimental petrology can range from creating artificial magmas to measure crystallization behavior to observing recrystallization of minerals at varying pressure/temperature conditions.
Methodology.
Although methodology varies from experiment to experiment, in general the procedure involves evaluating a synthetic rock or magma (created from a blend of oxides to replicate the chemistry of the rock/system in question) in an apparatus capable of creating and sustaining high pressures and temperatures such as a diamond anvil cell. In general, it is ideal if the enclosing capsule is relatively nonreactive, such as diamond or platinum/gold alloys.
Experimental igneous petrology.
Experimental igneous petrology is the subset of experimental petrology concerned with quantifying the behavior of magmas and their associated igneous rocks at depth. Standard procedure generally involves the creation of a synthetic magma (often corresponding to a real world analog) which is then cooled to a target temperature. After crystallization, the products are analyzed - qualities of interest include mineral assemblage (which minerals crystallized and how much), mineral chemistry, and liquid (the remainder of the synthetic magma base) composition.
Equilibrium crystallization.
Equilibrium crystallization studies are those in which a starting liquid is cooled until fully crystalline. This is taken to be the "equilibrium state" of the composition under those particular P/T conditions. Criticisms of equilibrium crystallization include the observation that real-world systems are believed to rarely sit still during crystallization and thus would not be able to properly equilibrate.
Fractional crystallization.
Fractional crystallization studies represent a fairly recent trend in experimental petrology, gaining popularity as a way to more accurately depict magma evolution in scenarios where a cumulate layer is built. In them, a starting liquid is cooled in small temperature steps (e.g. 30 °C). At each temperature step the contents are removed and analyzed as in equilibrium crystallization. Afterwards, a new liquid corresponding to the residual liquid from the previous step is synthesized, heated, and then subjected to another cooling step. The purpose of this stepwise approach is to examine how each new interval of crystallization affects the chemistry of the parent magma and, thus, the behavior of future crystallization steps. In such a manner it is possible to examine the behavior of a magma body as it slowly cools and crystallizes over time.


Engelmann Formation

The Engelmann Formation is a geologic formation in Utah. It preserves fossils dating back to the Devonian period.


Coronados Volcanics

The Coronados Volcanics is a geologic formation in Alaska. It preserves fossils dating back to the Devonian period.


Gene Autry Formation

The Gene Autry Formation is a geologic formation in Oklahoma. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.


Meaford Formation

The Meaford Formation is a geologic formation in Ontario. It preserves fossils dating back to the Ordovician period.


Crescent Formation

The Crescent Formation is a geologic formation in Washington (state). It preserves fossils dating back to the Paleogene period.


Structural geology

Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with respect to their deformational histories. The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of present-day rock geometries to uncover information about the history of deformation (strain) in the rocks, and ultimately, to understand the stress field that resulted in the observed strain and geometries. This understanding of the dynamics of the stress field can be linked to important events in the geologic past; a common goal is to understand the structural evolution of a particular area with respect to regionally widespread patterns of rock deformation (e.g., mountain building, rifting) due to plate tectonics.
Use and importance.
The study of geologic structures has been of prime importance in economic geology, both petroleum geology and mining geology. Folded and faulted rock strata commonly form traps that accumulate and concentrate fluids such as petroleum and natural gas. Similarly, faulted and structurally complex areas are notable as permeable zones for hydrothermal fluids, resulting in concentrated areas of base and precious metal ore deposits. Veins of minerals containing various metals commonly occupy faults and fractures in structurally complex areas. These structurally fractured and faulted zones often occur in association with intrusive igneous rocks. They often also occur around geologic reef complexes and collapse features such as ancient sinkholes. Deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and other metals, are commonly located in structurally complex areas.
Structural geology is a critical part of engineering geology, which is concerned with the physical and mechanical properties of natural rocks. Structural fabrics and defects such as faults, folds, foliations and joints are internal weaknesses of rocks which may affect the stability of human engineered structures such as dams, road cuts, open pit mines and underground mines or road tunnels.
Geotechnical risk, including earthquake risk can only be investigated by inspecting a combination of structural geology and geomorphology. In addition, areas of karst landscapes which reside atop caverns, potential sinkholes, or other collapse features are of particular importance for these scientists. In addition, areas of steep slopes are potential collapse or landslide hazards.
Environmental geologists and hydrogeologists need to apply the tenets of structural geology to understand how geologic sites impact (or are impacted by) groundwater flow and penetration. For instance, a hydrogeologist may need to determine if seepage of toxic substances from waste dumps is occurring in a residential area or if salty water is seeping into an aquifer.
Plate tectonics is a theory developed during the 1960s which describes the movement of continents by way of the separation and collision of crustal plates. It is in a sense structural geology on a planet scale, and is used throughout structural geology as a framework to analyze and understand global, regional, and local scale features.
Methods.
Structural geologists use a variety of methods to (first) measure rock geometries, (second) reconstruct their deformational histories, and (third) estimate the stress field that resulted in that deformation.
Geometries.
Primary data sets for structural geology are collected in the field. Structural geologists measure a variety of planar features (bedding planes, foliation planes, fold axial planes, fault planes, and joints), and linear features (stretching lineations, in which minerals are ductilely extended; fold axes; and intersection lineations, the trace of a planar feature on another planar surface).
Measurement conventions.
The inclination of a planar structure in geology is measured by "strike and dip". The strike is the line of intersection between the planar feature and a horizontal plane, taken according to the right hand convention, and the dip is the magnitude of the inclination, below horizontal, at right angles to strike. For example; striking 25 degrees East of North, dipping 45 degrees Southeast, recorded as N25E,45SE.

Alternatively, dip and dip direction may be used as this is absolute. Dip direction is measured in 360 degrees, generally clockwise from North. For example, a dip of 45 degrees towards 115 degrees azimuth, recorded as 45/115. Note that this is the same as above.
The term "hade" is occasionally used and is the deviation of a plane from vertical i.e. (90°-dip).
Fold axis plunge is measured in dip and dip direction (strictly, plunge and azimuth of plunge). The orientation of a fold axial plane is measured in strike and dip or dip and dip direction.
Lineations are measured in terms of dip and dip direction, if possible. Often lineations occur expressed on a planar surface and can be difficult to measure directly. In this case, the lineation may be measured from the horizontal as a "rake" or "pitch" upon the surface.
Rake is measured by placing a protractor flat on the planar surface, with the flat edge horizontal and measuring the angle of the lineation clockwise from horizontal. The orientation of the lineation can then be calculated from the rake and strike-dip information of the plane it was measured from, using a stereographic projection.
If a fault has lineations formed by movement on the plane, e.g.; slickensides, this is recorded as a lineation, with a rake, and annotated as to the indication of throw on the fault.
Generally it is easier to record strike and dip information of planar structures in dip/dip direction format as this will match all the other structural information you may be recording about folds, lineations, etc., although there is an advantage to using different formats that discriminate between planar and linear data.
Plane, fabric, fold and deformation conventions.
The convention for analysing structural geology is to identify the planar structures, often called "planar fabrics" because this implies a textural formation, the linear structures and, from analysis of these, unravel deformations.
Planar structures are named according to their order of formation, with original sedimentary layering the lowest at S0. Often it is impossible to identify S0 in highly deformed rocks, so numbering may be started at an arbitrary number or given a letter (SA, for instance). In cases where there is a bedding-plane foliation caused by burial metamorphism or diagenesis this may be enumerated as S0a.
If there are folds, these are numbered as F1, F2, etc. Generally the axial plane foliation or cleavage of a fold is created during folding, and the number convention should match. For example, an F2 fold should have an S2 axial foliation.
Deformations are numbered according to their order of formation with the letter D denoting a deformation event. For example, D1, D2, D3. Folds and foliations, because they are formed by deformation events, should correlate with these events. For example, an F2 fold, with an S2 axial plane foliation would be the result of a D2 deformation.
Metamorphic events may span multiple deformations. Sometimes it is useful to identify them similarly to the structural features for which they are responsible, e.g.; M2. This may be possible by observing porphyroblast formation in cleavages of known deformation age, by identifying metamorphic mineral assemblages created by different events, or via geochronology.
Intersection lineations in rocks, as they are the product of the intersection of two planar structures, are named according to the two planar structures from which they are formed. For instance, the intersection lineation of a S1 cleavage and bedding is the L1-0 intersection lineation (also known as the cleavage-bedding lineation).
Stretching lineations may be difficult to quantify, especially in highly stretched ductile rocks where minimal foliation information is preserved. Where possible, when correlated with deformations (as few are formed in folds, and many are not strictly associated with planar foliations), they may be identified similar to planar surfaces and folds, e.g.; L1, L2. For convenience some geologists prefer to annotate them with a subscript S, for example Ls1 to differentiate them from intersection lineations, though this is generally redundant.
Stereographic projections.
Stereographic projection is a method for analyzing the nature and orientation of deformation stresses, lithological units and penetrative fabrics wherein linear and planar features (structural strike and dip readings, typically taken using a compass clinometer) passing through an imagined sphere are plotted on a two-dimensional grid projection, facilitating more holistic analysis of a set of measurements.
Rock macro-structures.
On a large scale, structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional interaction and relationships of stratigraphic units within terranes of rock or geological regions.
This branch of structural geology deals mainly with the orientation, deformation and relationships of stratigraphy (bedding), which may have been faulted, folded or given a foliation by some tectonic event. This is mainly a geometric science, from which "cross sections" and three-dimensional "block models" of rocks, regions, terranes and parts of the Earth's crust can be generated.
Study of regional structure is important in understanding orogeny, plate tectonics and more specifically in the oil, gas and mineral exploration industries as structures such as faults, folds and unconformities are primary controls on ore mineralisation and oil traps.
Modern regional structure is being investigated using seismic tomography and seismic reflection in three dimensions, providing unrivaled images of the Earth's interior, its faults and the deep crust. Further information from geophysics such as gravity and airborne magnetics can provide information on the nature of rocks imaged to be in the deep crust.
Rock microstructures.
Rock microstructure or "texture" of rocks is studied by structural geologists on a small scale to provide detailed information mainly about metamorphic rocks and some features of sedimentary rocks, most often if they have been folded.

Textural study involves measurement and characterisation of foliations, crenulations, metamorphic minerals, and timing relationships between these structural features and mineralogical features.

Usually this involves collection of hand specimens, which may be cut to provide petrographic thin sections which are analysed under a petrographic microscope.

Microstructural analysis finds application also in multi-scale statistical analysis, aimed to analyze some rock features showing scale invariance.
Kinematics.
Geologists use rock geometry measurements to understand the history of strain in rocks. Strain can take the form of brittle faulting and ductile folding and shearing. Brittle deformation takes place in the shallow crust, and ductile deformation takes place in the deeper crust, where temperatures and pressures are higher.
Stress fields.
By understanding the constitutive relationships between stress and strain in rocks, geologists can translate the observed patterns of rock deformation into a stress field during the geologic past. The following list of features are typically used to determine stress fields from deformational structures.
Characterization of the mechanical properties of rock.
The mechanical properties of rock play a vital role in the structures that form during deformation deep below the earth's crust. The conditions in which a rock is present will result in different structures that geologists observe above ground in the field. The field of structural geology tries to relate the formations that humans see to the changes the rock went through to get to that final structure. Knowing the conditions of deformation that lead to such structures can illuminate the history of the deformation of the rock.
Temperature and pressure play a huge role in the deformation of rock. At the conditions under the earth's crust of extreme high temperature and pressure, rocks are ductile. They can bend, fold or break. Other vital conditions that contribute to the formation of structure of rock under the earth are the stress and strain fields.
Stress-strain curve.
Stress is a pressure, defined as a directional force over area. When a rock is subjected to stresses, it changes shape. When the stress is released, the rock may or may not return to its original shape. That change in shape is quantified by strain, the change in length over the original length of the material in one dimension. Stress induces strain which ultimately results in a changed structure.
Elastic deformation refers to a reversible deformation. In other words, when stress on the rock is released, the rock returns to its original shape. Reversible, linear, elasticity involves the stretching, compressing, or distortion of atomic bonds. Because there is no breaking of bonds, the material springs back when the force is released. This type of deformation is modeled using a linear relationship between stress and strain, i.e. a Hookean relationship.
Where σ denotes stress, formula_2 denotes strain, and E is the elastic modulus, which is material dependent. The elastic modulus is, in effect, a measure of the strength of atomic bonds.
Plastic deformation refers to non-reversible deformation. The relationship between stress and strain for permanent deformation is nonlinear. Stress has caused permanent change of shape in the material by involving the breaking of bonds.
One mechanism of plastic deformation is the movement of dislocations by an applied stress. Because rocks are essentially aggregates of minerals, we can think of them as poly-crystalline materials. Dislocations are a type of crystallographic defect which consists of an extra or missing half plane of atoms in the periodic array of atoms that make up a crystal lattice. Dislocations are present in all real crystallographic materials.
Hardness.
Hardness is difficult to quantify. It is a measure of resistance to deformation, specifically permanent deformation. There is precedent for hardness as a surface quality, a measure of the abrasiveness or surface-scratching resistance of a material. If the material being tested, however, is uniform in composition and structure, then the surface of the material is only a few atomic layers thick, and measurements are of the bulk material. Thus, simple surface measurements yield information about the bulk properties. Ways to measure hardness include:
Indentation hardness is used often in metallurgy and materials science and can be thought of as resistance to penetration by an indenter.
Toughness.
Toughness can be described best by a material's resistance to cracking. During plastic deformation, a material absorbs energy until fracture occurs. The area under the stress-strain curve is the work required to fracture the material. The toughness modulus is defined as:
Where formula_4 is the ultimate tensile strength, and formula_5 is the strain at failure. The modulus is the maximum amount of energy per unit volume a material can absorb without fracturing. From the equation for modulus, for large toughness, high strength and high ductility are needed. These two properties are usually mutually exclusive. Brittle materials have low toughness because low plastic deformation decreases the strain (low ductility). Ways to measure toughness include: Page impact machine and Charpy Impact Test
Resilience.
Resilience is a measure of the elastic energy absorbed of a material under stress. In other words, the external work performed on a material during deformation. The area under the elastic portion of the stress-strain curve is the strain energy absorbed per unit volume. The resilience modulus is defined as:
where formula_7 is the yield strength of the material and E is the elastic modulus of the material. To increase resilience, one needs increased elastic yield strength and decreased modulus of elasticity.


Dunham classification

The Dunham classification system for carbonate sedimentary rocks was originally devised by Robert J. Dunham in 1962, and subsequently modified by Embry and Klovan in 1971 to include coarse-grained limestones and sediments that had been organically bound at the time of deposition. The "modified Dunham Classification" has subsequently become the most widely employed system for the classification of carbonate sedimentary rocks with 89% of workers currently adopting this system over the alternative Folk classification scheme
History.
Original classification.
Robert J. Dunham published his classification system for limestone in 1962. The original Dunham classification system was developed in order to provide convenient depositional-texture based class names that focus attention on the textural properties that are most significant for interpreting the depositional environment of the rocks.
The three criteria used to define the original Dunham classes were:
On the basis of these criteria, the following four classes were defined:
Recognising that these classes did not encompass all carbonate lithologies, Dunham defined two additional classes within his scheme:
Dunham specifically stated that, where appropriate, these six textural class names are intended to be combined with modifiers describing grains and mineralogy. The original classification can be summarized as follows:
Modification by Embry and Klovan (1971).
Following the publication of the original Dunham Classification System a number of modifications were proposed. The most widely adopted of these has been that of Embry and Klovan (1971) who recognized that the Dunham classification scheme lacked detail when it came to the description of organically-bound and coarse-grained limestones.
Embry and Klovan proposed the subdivision of the Dunham 'boundstone' category on the basis of the means by which the sediment was organically-bound, thus yielding three new classes within the Dunham boundstone class:
Recognising that the identification of these structures is problematic at the limited scale of a petrographic thin section and typically requires examination of outcrop exposures or core, Embry and Klovan stated that where the mode of binding is not identifiable then the original Dunham classification term boundstone should be retained.
To address the issue of coarse-grained allochthonous limestones (lithologies where >10% of the components are >2 mm in diameter), Embry and Klovan proposed the introduction of two further new classes:
As with the original Dunham classification, modifiers should be employed to enhance the classification. Additionally, the class names should be employed as textural modifiers to describe the matrix. Embry and Klovan also redefined 'mud matrix' as material with a diameter of <30 μm.
Following the wide adoption of the Embry and Klovan (1971) modifications, the Dunham Classification system is typically referred to as the "'modified Dunham Classification System"' with both Dunham (1962) and Embry and Klovan (1971) being cited.
It can be summarized as follows:
Revised classification by Wright (1992).
A revised classification was proposed by Wright (1992). It adds some diagenetic patterns and can be summarized as follows:


Oro Loma Formation

The Oro Loma Formation is a geologic formation in California. It preserves fossils dating back to the Neogene period.


Lone Mountain Formation

The Lone Mountain Formation is a geologic formation in Utah.
It preserves fossils dating back to the Silurian period.


Bentham Grit

The Bentham Grit is a geologic formation in England. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.


Suisei Planitia

Suisei Planitia is a large area of smooth plains on Mercury, approximately 570 km wide. Ghost craters are unusual forms that occur in the Suisei Planitia. They are buried and rounded in profile, with only their rim crests rising above the surrounding smooth plains. It has been suggested that material forming Suisei Planitia is ejecta from the impact that formed Caloris Planitia. The name for this Planitia was approved in 1976 by the IAU.
The "MESSENGER" Mercury orbiter crashed into the southern part of the plain on April 30, 2015, east of the crater Janáček.


Calhouns Shale

The Calhouns Shale is a geologic formation in Kansas. It preserves fossils.


Seabird Exploration

SeaBird Exploration () is a global provider of marine 2D and 3D seismic data and associated products and services to the oil and gas industry. The Company is listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange with headquarters in Cyprus. They also have regional offices in Houston, Texas and Oslo. The company operate a fleet of six seismic vessels, specialising in long offset 2D and shallow water 3D seismic data acquisition.
During autumn 2014 it became known that Seabird Exploration operated controversial seismic surveys off the coast of Western Sahara. Moroccan oil exploration has previously been considered illegal under international law according to the UN Office of Legal Affairs. The company later apologized for its operations in Western Sahara.


Caliente Formation

The Caliente Formation is a geologic formation in California. It preserves fossils dating back to the Neogene period.


East Kirkton Limestone

The East Kirkton Limestone is a rock unit in the West Lothian Oil-Shale Formation in Scotland. It preserves fossils of the Carboniferous period. The limestone outcrops at East Kirkton Quarry.


Goodwin Limestone

The Goodwin Limestone is a geologic formation of the Pogonip Group in Nevada.
It preserves fossils dating back to the Ordovician period.


Putnam Formation

The Putnam Formation is a geologic formation in Texas. It preserves fossils dating back to the Permian period.


Green Point Formation

The Green Point Formation is a geologic formation in Newfoundland and Labrador. It preserves fossils dating back to the Ordovician period.


Coal Valley Formation

The Coal Valley Formation is a geologic formation in Nevada. It preserves fossils dating back to the Neogene period.


Volcano House (Iceland)

Volcano House is a geology exhibition in Reykjavík, Iceland, located at Tryggvagata 11.
The exhibition gives a brief overview of Iceland's geological history and volcanic systems.
Every hour the Volcano House shows two documentaries, one about the volcanic eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in 2010 and one about the volcanic eruption in the Westman Islands in 1973. The mission of Volcano House is to give visitors a glimpse of the reality of living in Iceland, where volcanoes and earthquakes are a part of daily life.
Admission to the geology exhibition is free, but the documentary cinema is requires paid tickets.
History.
Volcano House was established in 2011 by the siblings Hörður Gunnarsson, Þórir Gunnarsson, Svavar Gunnarsson, Dagbjört
Gunnarsdóttir and their families.
According to the official website, the Volcano House closed "indefinitely" as of January 15, 2020.
Dóra Magnúsdóttir is the general manager of Volcano House. Dóra is a Geographer with 25 years of experience in Icelandic tourism. Other staff members are for example Geologists, Geographers and tour guides.
Exhibition.
A brief synopsis of Iceland's geological history and volcanic system are displayed in the Volcano House, together with photographs of the volcanic eruptions and other aspects of Icelandic nature. Volcano House offers a hands-on geology exhibition where guests can handle various samples of pumice, ash and lava from Icelandic volcanoes, for example ash from Eyjafjallajökull and Grímsvötn and pumice from Hekla. A collection of semi-precious rocks and minerals from around the country are also on display, and are available for purchase. Rocks on display are for example Jaspis, Opal, Obsidian, Rock crystal and Iceland spar. Volcano House offers guidance and information throughout the exhibit.
The interior design of the exhibition intended to evoke the style of 1973, the year when the volcanic eruption in Heimaey in the Westman Islands occurred.
Cinema.
The Volcano House cinema presents two documentaries covering two of the most powerful volcanic eruptions that have occurred in Iceland over the last 40 years - the 1973 eruption in Heimaey on the Westman Islands, and the 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in South Iceland. The documentaries are exclusively made for Volcano House and can not be shown anywhere else. Each screening is about 55 minutes and starts with a short personal introduction on Volcanology in Iceland. The films are shown every hour from 09:00 to 21:00. The films are also available in German, French and Icelandic. In the summertime the films are shown in German and French but from September until May they are shown in other languages upon request.


Mulloch Hill Sandstone

The Mulloch Hill Sandstone is a geologic formation in Scotland. It preserves fossils dating back to the Silurian period.


Drewsey Formation

The Drewsey Formation is a geologic formation in Oregon. It preserves fossils dating back to the Neogene period.


Horse Road Sandstone

The Horse Road Sandstone is a geologic formation in Scotland. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.


Parchucla Formation

The Parchucla Formation is a geologic formation in Florida. It preserves fossils dating back to the Neogene period.


Sri Aman

Sri Aman is a town and the capital of Sri Aman District and Sri Aman Division in Sarawak, east Malaysia.
Sri Aman is also called Bandar Sri Aman, and was formerly known as Simanggang. Sri Aman means "town of peace" in the Malay language. Located on the Lupar River, it is 193 kilometers, a three-hour drive, from Kuching, the capital of Sarawak. It is a trade center for the timber, oil palm, rubber, and pepper of its mostly agricultural district.
Sri Aman is famous for the "benak", or tidal bore, of the Batang Lupar River. The tidal bore comes in from the river mouth and fills up the river very rapidly in the course of about 10 minutes. The wave crest at Sri Aman is up to 2 to 3 metres high. This is one of approximately 48 rivers and estuaries in the world where this phenomenon happens. What is special about Sri Aman's benak is that it occurs everyday, the only river in the world that does that.
There is a timetable at the river which has the time and dates for when the tidal bore will occur, but the really big ones occur only a couple of times a year. The author Somerset Maugham almost died at Simanggang during one of these tidal bores, an event commemorated the event in his short story The Yellow Streak.
Sri Aman is also a gateway for tourists to the Batang Ai National Park, and cultural tours to the Iban longhouses along the rivers.
Demography.
According to the 2010 Malaysian census, Sri Aman has a total population of 64,500. Indigenous people form the largest ethnic group in the city which consists of Iban , Malay, other indigenous tribes. This is followed by Chinese, non-Malaysians Indians, and Others.
Fort Alice.
Fort Alice, built in 1864, is the oldest heritage building in Sri Aman, constructed following the victory of Rajah Charles Brooke, the second Rajah of Sarawak, over Rentap, the last of the major Iban chieftains, in 1864. The Fort was named after Charles Brooke's wife, Margaret Alice Lili de Windt. It served as a defensive structure controlling the Lupar River.
The structure was built on a strategic hilltop position and had a commanding view of the river with cannons bearing down to stop any threats coming from upriver. It played a major role in suppressing piracy, slavery, and head-hunting, while encouraging trade and expanding the authority of the Rajah. Fort Alice was the Simanggang administrative center, housing various government departments and even a prison.
It was here Rajah Charles used to preside as judge settling disputes among the local Ibans during his many visits to Simanggang. It was built entirely of belian (ironwood) timber. Much of the timber used was taken from an earlier fort, Fort James Brooke, which had been built further upriver in Nanga Skrang. However, Fort James was built on lowland and was hard to defend, as was proven in 1853 when one of the Rajah's officers, Alan Lee, died in an attack by the Iban chieftain Rentap.
It was decided to dismantle Fort James and to rebuild it in a more strategic and more defensible site in Simanggang District (now Sri Aman Division). Thus Fort Alice was built. Most of the original structure remains substantially intact, but it is in an extremely dilapidated and run down condition and sadly in need of urgent restoration work. Many articles have been written to highlight the sorry state of the grand old lady. Restoration for the fort had been done in April 2015 and been changed into a museum.
Climate.
Sri Aman has a tropical rainforest climate (Af) with heavy to very heavy rainfall year-round.


TGS-NOPEC Geophysical Company

TGS-NOPEC Geophysical Company ASA, referred to as TGS and listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange, was founded by a 1998 merger of TGS (Tomlinson Geophysical Services Inc.), Calibre Geophysical Co. Inc (founded 1981), and NOPEC (Norwegian Petroleum Exploration Consultants) International ASA founded in 1981, with financial headquarters in Oslo, Norway and operational headquarters in Houston, Texas.
The Company is led by CEO Kristian Johansen with nearly 500 employees around the globe with main offices located in Oslo, Houston, London, and Perth.


Noachian period


Banner Formation

The Banner Formation is a Carboniferous period geologic formation in northern Elko County, Nevada.
It is composed of conglomerate, sandstone, and limestone and was formed in connection with the Antler orogeny.
It preserves fossils dating back to the Early Late Mississippian stage of the Carboniferous period during the Paleozoic Era.


Ghost craters on Mercury

Ghost craters on the planet Mercury have tectonic features such as graben and wrinkle ridges. These features were formed by extensional and contractional forces originating in tectonic processes such as uplift and global contraction. The combination of graben and wrinkle ridges inside ghost craters found on Mercury has not been observed on any of the other terrestrial planets.
Discovery.
The tectonic features on Mercury were not studied in precise detail until the "MESSENGER" spacecraft was sent to Mercury; by 2009 the "MESSENGER" spacecraft had mapped 98% of the planet's surface. By 2013, Messenger mapped 100% of the planet's surface. Mercury Dual Imaging System cameras and Mercury Laser Altimeter equipment on the messenger spacecraft allowed for researchers to obtain high-resolution images of the planet's surface for analyzing Mercury's tectonics.
Ghost craters.
Ghost craters are impact craters that have been filled with volcanic deposits. Ghost craters can be observed on the surface of the Moon, Mars, Mercury, and may possibly exist on Venus. On Mercury, ghost craters are most commonly found in the northern hemisphere of the planet in the smooth plains. There are three types of ghost craters on Mercury. Type one ghost craters contains a wrinkle ridge that forms a ring while type two ghost craters contain a wrinkle ridge ring and graben in the interior. Type three ghost crater's wrinkle ridge ring either does not exist or can not be observed. Instead, it has a ring of graben along its border.
Tectonic features.
Graben.
A graben is a tectonic feature associated with normal faulting. The footwall is raised while the hanging wall is lowered, creating a depression. The graben are thought to have formed from extensional stresses due to uplift and contraction of the volcanic deposits that filled the crater. Uplift is possible by isostatic rebound in response to the formation of the crater or from the volcanic material being deposited. The volcanic material will contract as it cools, and this cooling generates extensional stresses. The orientation of a graben is determined based on the stress at the time of its formation. Radial graben form when basin-circumferential stresses are the most extensional. When radial stresses are the most extensional, circumferential graben form. If radial stress and circumferential stress are equal, then polygonal patterns form.
Wrinkle ridges.
Wrinkle ridges are tectonic feature where sections of the crust are uplifted. Wrinkle ridges are associated with compressional stresses. On Mercury, the planet's interior is cooling and contracting. This contraction creates planet-wide compression. Wrinkle ridges on Mercury are thought to come from material loaded on top of the volcanic plains, in addition to the cooling. When plains have volcanic material deposited on top, the lithosphere can flex and create more compressional stresses.
Temporal relationships.
Scientists used cross-cutting relationships in order to determine the sequence of events that formed ghost craters. Most likely, an impact struck Mercury. Then volcanic material flooded over the surface and filled the inside of the crater. Next, the graben or wrinkle ridges formed. When the graben are all included within the wrinkle ridges, then they are interpreted to have formed after the wrinkle ridges. If a graben cuts across a ridge and appears to be modified, then it is interpreted to be older, and to have formed before the ridges.
Importance.
The presence of both graben and wrinkle ridges within ghost craters is a feature unique to Mercury. This combination is because of the tectonic processes that formed the graben and wrinkle ridges. The graben and wrinkle ridges came from rapidly accumulating lava flows that cooled within impact craters while the planet was experiencing global contraction from interior cooling. Other planetary bodies such as the Moon and Mars do not have both tectonic features within their ghost craters, possibly due to the accumulation rates of volcanic material on the Moon and Mars being slower than the rates on Mercury.


Ronald Ringsrud

Ronald Ringsrud is an emerald dealer, gemologist, and author of "Emeralds, A Passionate Guide". This work draws on Ringsurd's decades of work in the emerald industry and includes a foreword written by John Koivula, the Chief Gemologist at GIA.
Gemology.
Ronald Ringsrud has a background in emerald gemology and the world emerald market. He has given presentations and lectures on these issues since 1986. As the owner of Ronald Ringsrud Company, he was the host and guide in Bogotá for visits to the emerald marketplace from foreign buyers as well as guiding groups from the L.A. County Museum of Natural History and the G.I.A. [Gemological Institute of America] on their trips to the Colombian emerald source.
Ringsrud has published three articles in the journal "Gems and Gemology", produced by the Gemological Institute of America (GIA). He was a speaker at the GIA’s International Gemological Symposium in 1991.” In 2006, he presented at the GIA Gemological Research Conference in San Diego, California with the topic of “Subjectivity in Gemology.”
In an interview with "Southern Jewelry News", Ringsrud describes his rise to the Board of Directors of the American Gem Trade Association (AGTA). He mentions the secrecy and intrigue of the emerald mines of Colombia, stating that “the mines are very shrouded and closed.” He has posted video clips about the subject on sites such as YouTube. Also, his charitable activities in Colombia aim to assist people in the mining area.
"Emeralds, A Passionate Guide".
"Emeralds, A Passionate Guide" is a 2009 non-fiction work published by Ringsrud's own company "Green View Press". This work is an “adventure into the unique world of emeralds". In addition to the textual combination of anecdotes and scientific facts, this guide contains 70 microphotos and over 250 color photos and illustrations.
The screenwriter Diane Lake reviewed "Emeralds, A Passionate Guide" as “a book [that] glistens and gleams—that fairly sparkles with its intensity.” The reviewer for pricescope.com states: “The subtitle of Ronald Ringsrud’s new book "A Passionate Guide, The Emeralds, The People, Their Secrets" has been well selected. The book is not just about an emerald, more specifically a Colombian emerald; it is about a country, its people and one man’s love affair with it all.” The book has received other positive reviews.
Books by Ronald Ringsrud
Emeralds A Passionate Guide
Medellin Colombia and the Prophesies of Joaquim of Fiore


Marcia Neugebauer

Marcia Neugebauer (born September 27, 1932) is a prominent American geophysicist who made contributions to space physics. Neugebauer's research was among the first that yielded the first direct measurements of the solar wind and shed light on its physics and interaction with comets.
Life.
Neugebauer was born in New York City. She received a B.A. in physics from Cornell University in 1954, followed by an M.S. in physics from the University of Illinois in Urbana in 1956. She was awarded an honorary Doctorate of Physics in 1998 by the University of New Hampshire.
She was married to astrophysicist Gerry Neugebauer.
Work.
Neugebauer was an investigator of the Mariner 2 plasma analyzer that made the first extensive measurements of the solar wind and discovery of its properties. She also developed analytical instruments that orbited Earth, some set up on the moon by the Apollo astronauts, and others that flew by Halley's comet on the European Giotto mission.
Neugebauer was Study Scientist for many space missions during her long career with NASA and held several management positions at the Propulsion Laboratory, including Manager of the Physics and Space Physics sections, Manager of the Mariner Mark II study team, and Project Scientist for Rangers 1 and 2 and the Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby mission.
Neugebauer served as president of the American Geophysical Union from 1994-1996 and was Editor-in-Chief of its journal "Reviews of Geophysics". She also chaired the National Academy of Sciences' Committee on Solar and Space Physics.
Awards and honors.
In 1967 the Museum of Science and Industry named Neugebauer "California Woman Scientist of the Year." She received many awards from NASA, including the Exceptional Scientific Achievement Award, the Outstanding Leadership Medal, and the Distinguished Service Medal (the highest award given by NASA). In 1997 she was inducted in the Women in Technology International Hall of Fame. In 2004 Neugebauer was awarded the William Kaula Award and in 2010 was awarded the Arctowski Medal from the National Academy of Sciences "for definitively establishing the existence of the solar wind, critical to understanding the physics of the heliosphere, and for elucidating many of its key properties."
In 2010 Neugebauer was awarded the George Ellery Hale Prize of the Solar Physics Division of the American Astronomical Society "for her seminal contributions to the discovery of the solar wind and her extensive and ongoing contributions to solar-heliospheric physics."


Geisheck Formation

The Geisheck Formation is a geologic formation in Germany. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.


Canoe Formation

The Canoe Formation is a geologic formation in Texas. It preserves fossils dating back to the Paleogene period.


Hindsville Limestone

The Hindsville Limestone is a geologic formation in Oklahoma. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.


Jeju Oreum

Jeju Oreum (Hangul: 오름, Hanja: 岳) is the rising small defunct volcano in the Jeju Island in South Korea. The word "oreum" is the Jeju dialect which implies the parasitic cone [Hangul: 측화산, Hanja: 側火山) (also Hangul: 기생화산, Hanja: 寄生火山) and the origin of a word "oreum" is a noun type of the word "climb" (Hangul: 오르다). The name refers to a small volcano within a main volcanic crater in Jeju-do and is usually applied to the hill in Jeju. The cinder cone, symbolizing the oreum, is a typical form of Jeju Oreum. The Oreum is divided into pyroclastic cone, tuff cone and lava dome depending on the nature of volcanic eruptions. The pyroclastic cones are volcanic bodies formed by the accumulation of volcanic clusters released into the air by explosive eruption.
More than 360 Oreums are distributed throughout Jeju Island from the mountains to coast, centered on Mt. Halla. These Oreums are characterized by the fact that their formations are not long and the prototype is well preserved due to the high permeability of rainwater. When talking about life in Jeju Island, Oreum is an indispensable object with Dol Hareubang (Hangul: 돌하르방) and is a symbol of Jeju Island. To the people of Jeju Island, it has been sacred as a site of folk religion. So, even now, in the areas, can be found traces of the site in which the villagers performed ancestral worship rituals. Oreum has also become the home of the villages as a base for people living in Jeju. The people gathered at the base of Oreums, planted the fields, farmed the fields, and livestocked.
Efforts are being made to protect and manage Oreum as a target of sustainable development. It was designated as Natural Monument (No. 444) in 2005 and was registered as A World Heritage Site in 2007 under the name of 'Geomunoreum Lava Cave System' in Korea. The Geomunoreum lava tube system (Hangul: 거문오름 용암동굴계) is one of Jeju's three locations to be designated as UNESCO World Natural Heritage Sites.
Formation.
Magma erupting under pressure can solidify into scoria, which may fall and pile up around the crater to form circular and elliptical scoria cones and cinder cones. These are popularly known as Oreum in Jeju Island. There are about 360 such Oreum. Oreum are classified as cinder cones, lava domes, fault blocks, or cryptodomes.
If the internal density of the volcano sufficient to prevent collapse, a crater is formed, while a collapse produces a caldera. In the case of Mt. Halle, the crater Baekrokdam was formed. The typical caldera terrain on the Korea peninsula is Cheonji on Mt. Baekdu.
As the formation of the Oreum occurred in the Cenozoic era and is thus relatively recent, the initial topography of the volcanoes has been well preserved and frequently allows investigation of characteristics like spouting time and eruption specifics, in addition to influences on surface formation that lead to different oreum shapes (e.g., horseshoe-, cone-, circle-, or hybrid-type).
Famous Oreum.
Geomunoreum.
Geomunoreum (Hangul: 거문오름) forms boundary among Jocheon-eup Jeju-si, Namwon-eup Seogwipo-si and Pyoseon-myeon Seogwipo-si. The crater of top is complex form divided into east and west by ridge. The Oreum located Jeju 400 m of Jeju northeast bevel's sea is where many caves are concentrated. This Oreum is important because the lava flows that flowed from this volcano reached shoreline in the direction of the northeast along the terrain gradient and completed the lava tube structure including about 20 caves. The cave system of three direction are formed in this cave structure. The first cave system is Geomunoreum to Dangcheomul cave, which is about 13 km and leads to Banjul cave (Hangul: 뱅뒤굴), Manjanggul Cave (Hangul: 만장굴), Gimnyongsa cave (Hangul: 김녕사굴) and Dangcheomul cave (Hangul: 당처물굴) in lava cave structure formed nearly straight line. It can be traced on a topographic map. According to result of research on the Jeju natural heritage site, the scale of lava cave developed around Sunheul-ri Geomunoreum and the extension cave things have been confirmed to be world class. It was listed as UNESCO World Natural Heritage in June 2007 because of its high academic and natural heritage value.
Yongnunioreum.
Yongnunioreum (Hangul: 용눈이오름) is located in Jongdal-ri Gujwa-eup Jeju-si. The top of Yongnunioreum is composed of three peaks around the top of north-east direction, and there is an elliptical crater somewhat opened in the east–west direction. Overall, the shape of mountain is a horseshoe-shaped crater that spreads shallowly toward the east slope. At the foot of the west slope, there are a small parasitic volcano with marginated top and two conical parasitic volcanos, Aloreum, and it is recorded as a complex Oreum formed with two or more crater along with Yongnunioreum (Hangul: 용눈이오름) and Donurioreum (Hangul: 도너리오름). Especially, a complex volcano made up of various craters is known as an unusual shape. It is said that it is called Oreum because of the shape of Oreum, the figure of the dragons playing, lying and rising in regard to the origin of the place name.
Geumoreum.
Geumoreum (Hangul: 금오름) is located in Geumak-ri Hallim-eup Jeju-si. It is one of the representative Oreum of western middle mountain area. It is parasitic volcanic with a large circular crater and a mountaintop crater lake. It has 2 peaks in the north and the south, leading to a low col in the east and the west. The mountaintop crater lake was in a great volume of water but the floor of the lake is exposed now. "Geum" (Hangul: 금) stands for God and it can be seen that it has been sacred from ancient time.
Saebyeoloreum.
Saebyeoloreum (Hangul: 새별오름) is located in Bongseong-ri Aewol-eup Jeju-si. Saebyeoloreum was also called the Saebeloreum or Saebiloreum. It was written as Hyobyeolak(Chinese: 曉別岳) in Sinjeungdonggukyeojiseungram (Hangul: ), Hyoseongak(Chinese: 曉星岳)in Tamraji (Hangul: ) and Sinseongak(Chinese: 新星岳) in Jejuguyneupji (Hangul: 제주군읍지). There is a view that Saebel and Saebil are Jeju dialect and they mean stars but it's uncertain. At the southern peak, there are ridges in the southwest, northwest, and northeast directions and there are 5 dagger-shaped mountaintops looked like a star. And Saebyeoloreum was the place where Goryeo[Korean] military under General Choi Young suppressed Mongolian military.
Darangswioreum.
Darangswioreum (Hangul: 다랑쉬오름) is located in Sehwa-ri, Gujwa-eup, Jeju-si. Although it is only 382 meters above sea level, it has all of the characteristics of a volcanic terrain and is called a 'queen of Oreum'. Darangswi (Hangul: 다랑쉬) is the dialect of Jeju which means the Moon. It is named Darangswi because the crater of mountain peaks looks like a full moon. There is a large, deep funnel-shaped circular crater in the mountain area. The outer circumference of this crater is about 1,500 m. It forms a long ellipse from south to north, the north is relatively flat. The depth of the crater is 115 m, which is same with Baekrokdam in Halla Mountain. Most of Oreum are asymmetrically inclined, whereas Darangswioreum is arranged with concentric contour lines. There is a village of Darangswi, which was abandoned due to the . In 1992, eleven of the remains of the victims were unearthed at the Darangswi cave.
Ttarabioreum.
Ttarabioreum (Hangul: 따라비오름) is located in Gasi-ri, Pyoseon-myeon, Seogwipo-si. The biggest feature is there are 3 craters. Several large and small peaks are connected with a smooth ridge. On the horseshoe-shaped foot of the mountain, there are debris slide layers as Dunjioreum in Gujwa-eup. It is said that it is considered to belong to a recent volcano erupted because of the debris slide. It is said that the name, Ttarabi (Hangul: 따라비) comes from the name Ttangharabeoji (hangul: 땅할아버지), which looks like a family with near oreums. Ttangharabeoji means grandfather for ground in English. Ttarabioreum is a typical autumn oreum. As well as the foot of the oreum, the surrounding mountain are all silver grass field. The old days, horses was released and raised in this great grassland.
List of Oreums.
This is a list of...
Jeju City.
This is a list of 51 oreums in Jeju City (Hangul: 제주시)
Seogwipo City.
This is a list of 31 oreums in Seogwipo City (Hangul: 서귀포시)
Aewol Town.
This is a list of 32 oreums in Aewol Town (Hangul: 애월읍)
Hallim Town.
This is a list of 16 oreums in Hallim Town (Hangul: 한림읍)
Daejeong Town.
This is a list of 8 oreums in Daejeong Town (Hangul: 대정읍)
Seongsan Town.
This is a list of 18 oreums in Seongsan Town (Hangul: 성산읍)
Gujwa Town.
This is a list of 33 oreums in Gujwa Town (Hangul: 구좌읍)
Jocheon Town.
This is a list of 25 oreums in Jocheon Town (Hangul: 조천읍)
Namwon Town.
This is a list of 23 oreums in Namwon Town (Hangul: 남원읍)
Andeok-myeon.
This is a list of 30 oreums in Andeok-myeon (Hangul: 안덕면)
Pyoseon-myeon.
This is a list of 26 oreums in Pyoseon-myeon (Hangul: 표선면)
Hangyeong-myeon.
This is a list of 12 oreums in Hangyeong-myeon (Hangul: 한경면)
Udo-myeon.
This is a list of 1 oreums in Udo-myeon (Hangul: 우도면)


Clyde River (New Zealand)

The Clyde River is a river of New Zealand, one of Canterbury's braided rivers. It is formed from the confluence of the Frances River and McCoy Stream, flowing southwest to join with the Havelock River and Lawrence River to form the Rangitata River.


Elgin Formation

The Elgin Formation is a geological formation in Minnesota. It preserves fossils dating back to the Ordovician period.


Paludal

Paludal is derived from the Latin word "palus" ("marsh").


Isopodichnus

Isopodichnus is an ichnogenus of trace fossil. Ribbon-like in form, "Isopodichnus" traces were likely formed by the activity of an isopod crustacean foraging within the preserved sediment. Parallel to the bedding plane, a central furrow is flanked by two hypichnial ridges. Trails may also exhibit scratch marks and be associated with "Rusophycus"-like resting traces. "Isopodichnus" are very similar in form to "Cruziana" traces, making delineation of the two forms difficult, and controversial.


Sjorvoll Formation

The Sjorvoll Formation is a geologic formation in Norway. It preserves fossils dating back to the Silurian period.


Cross-cutting relationships

Cross-cutting relationships is a principle of geology that states that the geologic feature which cuts another is the younger of the two features. It is a relative dating technique in geology. It was first developed by Danish geological pioneer Nicholas Steno in "Dissertationis prodromus" (1669) and later formulated by James Hutton in "Theory of the Earth" (1795) and embellished upon by Charles Lyell in "Principles of Geology" (1830).
Types.
There are several basic types of cross cutting relationships:
Cross-cutting relationships may be compound in nature. For example, if a fault were truncated by an unconformity, and that unconformity cut by a dike. Based upon such compound cross-cutting relationships it can be seen that the fault is older than the unconformity which in turn is older than the dike. Using such rationale, the sequence of geological events can be better understood.
Scale.
Cross-cutting relationships may be seen cartographically, megascopically, and microscopically. In other words, these relationships have various scales. A cartographic crosscutting relationship might look like, for example, a large fault dissecting the landscape on a large map. Megascopic cross-cutting relationships are features like igneous dikes, as mentioned above, which would be seen on an outcrop or in a limited geographic area. Microscopic cross-cutting relationships are those that require study by magnification or other close scrutiny. For example, penetration of a fossil shell by the drilling action of a boring organism is an example of such a relationship.
Other use.
Cross-cutting relationships can also be used in conjunction with radiometric age dating to effect an age bracket for geological materials that cannot be directly dated by radiometric techniques. For example, if a layer of sediment containing a fossil of interest is bounded on the top and bottom by unconformities, where the lower unconformity truncates dike A and the upper unconformity truncates dike B (which penetrates the layer in question), this method can be used. A radiometric age date from crystals in dike A will give the maximum age date for the layer in question and likewise, crystals from dike B will give us the minimum age date. This provides an age bracket, or range of possible ages, for the layer in question.


Japhet Formation

The Japhet Formation is a geologic formation in France. It preserves fossils dating back to the Devonian period.


Mont Peyroux Formation

The Mont Peyroux Formation is a geologic formation in France. It preserves fossils dating back to the Devonian period.


Battery Point Formation

The Battery Point Formation is a geologic formation in Quebec. It preserves fossils dating back to the Devonian period.


Modelo Formation

The Modelo Formation is a Miocene geologic formation in the Simi Hills and western Santa Susana Mountains of southern California.
It preserves fossils dating back to the Late Miocene of the Neogene period.


La Vieille Formation

The La Vieille Formation is a geologic formation in Quebec. It preserves fossils dating back to the Silurian period.


Huerfano Formation

The Huerfano Formation is a geologic formation in Colorado. It preserves fossils dating back to the Paleogene period.


Chisholm Shale

The Chisholm Shale is a geologic formation in Nevada. It preserves fossils dating back to the Cambrian period.


Long Pine Formation

The Long Pine Formation is a geologic formation in Nebraska. It preserves fossils.


Colton Formation

The Colton Formation is a geologic formation in Utah. It preserves fossils dating back to the Paleogene period.


Briones Sandstone

The Briones Formation is a Late/Upper Miocene epoch geologic formation of the East Bay region in the San Francisco Bay Area, California.
It is found in western Contra Costa County.
It preserves fossils dating back to the Late/Upper Miocene epoch of the Neogene period.


Collier Shale

The Collier Shale is a geologic formation in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Oklahoma. Dating from the Late Cambrian to Early Ordovician periods, the Collier Shale is the oldest stratigraphic unit exposed in Arkansas. First described in 1892, this unit was not named until 1909 by Albert Homer Purdue in his study of the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas. Purdue assigned the type locality to the headwaters of Collier Creek in Montgomery County, Arkansas, but did not designate a stratotype. As of 2017, a reference section for this unit has yet to be designated.


Clarita Formation

The Clarita Formation is a geologic formation in Oklahoma. It preserves fossils dating back to the Silurian period.


Grubstake Formation

The Grubstake Formation is a geologic formation in Alaska. It preserves fossils dating back to the Neogene period.


Adirondack (Mars)

Adirondack is the nickname for Mars Exploration Rover "Spirit"'s first target rock. Scientists chose Adirondack to be "Spirit"s first target rock after considering another, called Sashimi, that would have been a shorter, straight-ahead drive. "Spirit" traversed the sandy martian terrain at Gusev Crater to arrive in front of this football-sized rock on January 18, 2004, just three days after it successfully rolled off the lander.
Scientists named the angular rock after the Adirondack mountain range in New York.
The name "Adirondacks" is an Anglicized version of the Mohawk "ratirontaks", meaning "they eat trees", a derogatory name which the Mohawk historically applied to the Algonquian-speaking tribes of the Adirondack Mountains; when food was scarce, the Algonquians would eat the buds and bark of trees.
The rock was selected as "Spirit"s first target because its dust-free, flat surface was ideally suited for grinding. Clean surfaces also are better for examining a rock's top coating. "Spirit" also returned microscopic images and Mössbauer spectrometer readings of Adirondack taken the day before the rover developed computer and communication problems on January 22, 2004. Both are unprecedented investigations of any rock on another planet. The microscopic images indicate Adirondack is a hard, crystalline rock. The peaks large and small in Adirondack's electromagnetic spectrum reveal that the minerals in the rock include olivine, pyroxene and magnetite - a common composition in volcanic basalt rocks on Earth.
Adirondack turned out to be typical of the other rocks on the plains. "Spirit" rover's instruments determined that Adironack and other rocks of the plains contain the minerals pyroxene, olivine, plagioclase, and magnetite. These rocks can be classified in different ways. The amounts and types of minerals make the rocks primitive basalts—also called picritic basalts. The rocks are similar to ancient terrestrial rocks called basaltic komatiites. Rocks of the plains also resemble the basaltic shergottites, meteorites which came from Mars. One classification system compares the amount of alkali elements to the amount of silica on a graph; in this system, Gusev plains rocks lie near the junction of basalt, picrobasalt, and tephite. The Irvine-Barager classification calls them basalts.
Adirondack has been very slightly altered, probably by thin films of water because they are softer and contain veins of light colored material that may be bromine compounds, as well as coatings or rinds. It is thought that small amounts of water may have gotten into cracks inducing mineralization processes.
Coatings on the rocks in the plains may have occurred when rocks were buried and interacted with thin films of water and dust.
One sign that they were altered was that it was easier to grind these rocks compared to the same types of rocks found on Earth.

Pieszyce

Pieszyce () is a town in Dzierżoniów County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland. It is the seat of the administrative district (gmina) Gmina Pieszyce.
Geography.
It is situated in the historic Lower Silesia region on the northern slopes of the Owl Mountains, approximately southwest of Dzierżoniów, and southwest of the regional capital Wrocław.
As of 2019, the town has a population of 7,123.
History.
The "Waldhufendorf" settlement in the Duchy of Silesia, one of the duchies of fragmented Poland, was first mentioned in a 1250 deed. The first church was built in the 13th century. In 1291 it fell with the lands of Świdnica to the Silesian Duchy of Jawor, which upon the death of Duke Bolko II the Small in 1368 was ruled by the Kings of Bohemia.
From the 16th century onwards, Peterswaldau developed as a centre of weaving. The Lords of Perswaldau had a castle erected in 1617, which was rebuilt in a Baroque style in 1710. The Polish-Saxon cabinet minister Erdmann II of Promnitz acquired the estates in 1721 and gained the privilege to fabricate woven goods by Emperor Charles VI.
With most of Silesia, Peterswaldau was annexed from Habsburg-ruled Bohemia by Prussia after the First Silesian War in 1742. In 1765 the lordship passed to Count Christian Frederick of Stolberg-Wernigerode, whose descendants held the estates until their expulsion in 1945. The social hardship of the population in the course of the 19th century industrialisation was perpetuated by the famous Silesian author Gerhart Hauptmann in his play "The Weavers", which is set in Peterswaldau. From 1871 the village was part of Germany and in 1945, after Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II, it became again part of Poland. It was granted town rights in 1962. From 1975 to 1998 Pieszyce was in Wałbrzych Voivodeship.
Sights.
The most significant historic landmarks of the town are:
Twin towns – sister cities.
See twin towns of Gmina Pieszyce.


Gosau

Gosau is a municipality in the district of Gmunden in Upper Austria, Austria.
Location.
Gosau is situated along the Gosaubach stream in the Salzkammergut region. The center of the town is at an elevation of 767m (2,516'). 58.9% of the municipality is forested. At the southern end of Gosau there is a road leading to the Vorderer Gosausee, a lake with a view of the Dachstein.
Gosau is one of the few Lutheran communities in Austria, with about 71% of the population being Lutheran.
History.
The valley around Gosau was settled in the 13th century by monks from St. Peter's Abbey in Salzburg. Timber production for the salt mine in Hallstatt was a major industry. In 1490 the town became part of the Principality above the Enns River. The area was repeatedly occupied by the French during the Napoleonic wars. When the Republic of Austria was formed in 1918, Gosau became part of the federal state of Upper Austria. In 1938 the area was annexed by the German Reich along with the rest of Austria, and Gosau became part of the "Gau Oberdonau," returning to Upper Austria when the Republic of Austria was reconstituted in 1945.
Economy.
In the past timber production and salt mining in neighboring Hallstatt were the major industries in Gosau. Today, tourism is the main source of income, although raising livestock, mainly cattle, is also an important economic activity.
Politics.
Gosau is governed by a 37-member council and Mayor Friedrich Posch of the Social Democratic Party of Austria.


Hutysche

Hutysche (, , also known as "Huta Oleska" or "Huta Olejska") is a village in Zolochiv Raion, Lviv Oblast, Ukraine. It is located on the road to Zolochiv. In 2001, it had 114 residents.
Before the Nazi German and Soviet invasions of Poland, it was located in Second Polish Republic. The village was a site of one of hundreds of massacres of Poles in Volhynia by the Ukrainian OUN-UPA between 1942 and 1945. In October 1944 and in December 1944 Christmas Eve raids, Zygmunt Konopka and Józef Gabinski were executed there.
Polish villagers of Hucisko have been noted for harboring Jews trying to escape the Nazi German Holocaust.


Jasenje

Jasenje is a village in the municipality of Aleksinac, Serbia. According to the 2002 census, the village has a population of 210 people.


Moro (Italian river)

The Moro is a river in Italy. It is located in the province of Chieti in the Abruzzo region of southern Italy. Its source is located near Guardiagrele. The river flows northeast past Orsogna and Lanciano before flowing into the Adriatic Sea near San Vito Chietino. The Allied Eighth Army fought the German 10th Army in the vicinity of the Moro in December 1943.


Hellange

Hellange (, ) is a small town in the commune of Frisange, in southern Luxembourg. , the town has a population of 606.


Terdoppio

The Terdoppio is a river of Piedmont and Lombardy (northern Italy). It starts from the Piedmontese Prealps in the area between Lake Orta and Lake Maggiore, and then crosses the province of Novara. Near Cerano, it splits into two different streams: the first joins the Ticino River, while the second flows through the Lomellina (province of Pavia) until it merges with the Po River.
The Terdoppio is long, with an average discharge of and a drainage basin of about .


Myrtia, Heraklion

Myrtia (, before 1965: "Βάρβαροι" - "Varvaroi") is a village in the northern part of the municipal unit Nikos Kazantzakis, Crete, Greece. It is 15 km from Heraklion. It is situated at an altitude of 365 meters from the sea. It borders with the municipal unit of Episkopi and the municipality of Heraklion, and the villages Astrakoi and Agies Paraskies. It has a population of 560 inhabitants, according to the 2011 census.
The jewel of the village is the Nikos Kazantzakis Museum which was founded by designer and the Centre of Cretan Literature, founded by the municipality in cooperation with the University of Crete and Cretan Philologists.


Monte Pezza

Monte Pezza is a mountain found just southwest of Bologna, Italy near the area of Monte Sole. The site was the location of the well known World War II battle that took place approximately from October 16–23, 1944. Allied troops (with a main contingent of the 12th South African Motorized Infantry Brigade), fiercely fought the German stronghold that was well positioned on Monte Pezza and the surrounding area.


Kozja

Kozja is a village in the municipality of Bela Palanka, Serbia. According to the 2002 census, the village has a population of 76 people.


Krasyliv

Krasyliv (, ) is a city in Khmelnytskyi Oblast (province) of western Ukraine. Krasyliv is also the administrative center of the Krasyliv Raion (district), housing the district's local administration buildings. Population:


Berlaar

Berlaar () is a municipality located in the Belgian province of Antwerp. The municipality comprises the towns of Berlaar proper and Gestel. On January 1, 2011, Berlaar had a total population of 10,891. The total area is 24.57 km² which gives a population density of 443 inhabitants per km².
History.
The current municipality of Berlaar was founded on 1 January 1965. Berlaar is actually a fusion of the former municipality Gestel and the Core of Berlaar itself. Berlaar is a part of the Belgische Kempen.
According to legend, the citizens of the early Middle Ages couldn't agree on where the church had to be built. They let fate decide and let two bears fight over it. Where the one bear killed the other, that would be the location the church should be built. Hence the exceptional position of the church at the end of the village square and not in the center as usual.


Bitovik

Bitovik (Serbian Cyrillic: Битовик) is a mountain in southwestern Serbia, above the village of Bistrica. Its highest peak has an elevation of above sea level.


Oravce

Oravce is a village and municipality in Banská Bystrica District in the Banská Bystrica Region of central Slovakia.
History.
In historical records the village was first mentioned in 1557.
Geography.
The municipality lies at an altitude of 424 metres and covers an area of 4.722 km². It has a population of about 178 people.


Drummin, County Mayo

Drummin () is a small village in County Mayo, Ireland, near the town of Westport.
The village has a church, St. Mary's, a national (primary) school, and a public house. Drummin National School, also known as "Scoil Náisiúnta Coill Mór", had 20 pupils enrolled as of 2010. The area previously had a post office, but this has since closed.
Situated close to Croagh Patrick, Drummin is known for its scenery and rumours about gold.


Munsbach

Munsbach (, ) is a small town in the commune of Schuttrange, in southern Luxembourg. As of 2007, the town has a population of 612. The Baroque style Munsbach Castle from 1775 is home to the "Institut Universitaire International Luxembourg" which provides educational courses in business, European law and public sector management.


Moordown (ward)

Moordown is a ward in Bournemouth, Dorset. Since 2019, the ward has elected 2 councillors to Bournemouth, Christchurch and Poole Council.
History.
The ward formerly elected councillors to Bournemouth Borough Council before it was abolished in 2019.
Geography.
Moordown ward covers the suburbs of Moordown and Charminster.


Bosna (ridge)

Bosna () is a ridge in the northern reaches of the Strandzha mountain range situated in the south-eastern part of the Balkan peninsula close to the Black Sea coast. While Strandzha is shared between Bulgaria and Turkey, the Bosna ridge is located entirely within the Bulgarian section of the mountain range. Its highest peak is Papiya (501,4 m). The ridge is approximately 65 km in length and 25 km in width. Most of Bosna falls within the borders of Strandzha Nature Park, the largest protected area in Bulgaria.


Langhirano

Langhirano (Parmigiano: ) is a "comune" (municipality) in the Province of Parma in the Italian region Emilia-Romagna, located about west of Bologna and about south of Parma.
Langhirano borders the following municipalities: Calestano, Corniglio, Felino, Lesignano de' Bagni, Neviano degli Arduini, Parma, Tizzano Val Parma.
Its most striking feature is the castle of Torrechiara. The town is also known as a major production centre for the Prosciutto di Parma.
Langhirano was the childhood home of soprano Renata Tebaldi, who is buried there.
International relations.
Langhirano is twinned with:
External links.
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Gornja Kupinovica

Gornja Kupinovica is a village in the municipality of Leskovac, Serbia. According to the 2002 census, the village has a population of 189 people.


Leira (river)

Leira is a river in Innlandet and Akershus, Norway. It comes from Leirsjøen, above sea level, in Romeriksåsene between Hadeland and Romerike, in Lunner municipality in Innlandet. From here, it runs east through the countryside to Nannestad municipality in Akershus, and exits in Stråtjern, above sea level). It comes down to Romerikssletten westwards, until Maura and swings southwest, until it joins the Rotua and moves southeast and then southwards. Southwest of Gardermoen it runs through land between Nannestad and Ullensaker, along Gjerdrum and Ullensaker, and Gjerdrum and Sørum municipalities. Northeast of Hekseberget it joins the Gjermåa, and at the same time runs into Skedsmo municipality. Later, it passes through Frogner and Leirsund, runs into a meander over the flat lands around Lillestrøm, and exits into the Nitelva. It ends in the land between Skedsmo and Fet.
The name.
The name is derived from "leire" 'clay'. "Leira" is a common name of rivers many places in Norway.


Homole u Panny

Homole u Panny (until 1991 "Homole", ) is a village and municipality ("obec") in Ústí nad Labem District in the Ústí nad Labem Region of the Czech Republic.
The municipality covers an area of , and has a population of 376 (as at 25 February 2008).
Homole u Panny lies approximately east of Ústí nad Labem and north of Prague.


Argusto

Argusto () is a "comune" and town in the province of Catanzaro in the Calabria region of southern Italy.


Hennaarderadeel

Hennaarderadeel is a former municipality in the Dutch province of Friesland, southwest of Leeuwarden. Since 1984, the area has been a part of the municipality of Littenseradiel.
Some of the larger villages in Hennaarderadeel are Wommels and Easterein.


Fiorina (San Marino)

Fiorina is a curacy (it: "curazia") located in San Marino. It belongs to the municipality ("castello") of Domagnano and it is its most populated parish ("curazia").
Geography.
The village is situated in the north of Domagnano, close to the municipality of Serravalle.


Natalinci

Natalinci () is a village in the municipality of Topola, Serbia. According to the 2002 census, the village has a population of 834 people.


Lefkochori (Gortynia)

Lefkochori () is a mountain village in the municipal unit of Lagkadia in Gortynia, Greece. It is 5 km west of Lagkadia. It is considered a traditional settlement. The village was previously under the administration of Arcadia until 2011.


Walshpark

Walshpark ("Doire Leathan" in Irish) is a townland in the historical Barony of Ormond Lower, County Tipperary, Ireland. It is located south of the staggered junction where the R438 and R489 roads meet. It is within the civil parish of Dorrha in the north of the county. The name comes from the Walsh family who made their home here in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Buildings of note.
Derrylahan Park, built for Willian Henry Head in 1862 to designs by Thomas Newenham Deane stood in Walshpark until 1921. The house was occupied by Head's son, Charles Octavius Head, when it was burnt down on 1 July 1921 during the War of Independence. All that remains is the main gateway, a gate house and farm buildings, all visible from the R438 road south west of its junction with the R489.


Neanurme

Neanurme is a village in Põltsamaa Parish, Jõgeva County in eastern Estonia.


Karamanica

Karamanica is a village in the municipality of Bosilegrad, Serbia. According to the 2002 census, the town has a population of 83 people.


Drawsko Lake

Drawsko is a lake located nearby the town of Czaplinek in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland. It is 1,956 hectares large, 12,6 km long and 3.9 km wide. Maximum depth is 79.7 m, making it the second deepest lake in Poland (after Hańcza Lake).


Corblonog

Corblonog () is a very small townland in the north of County Monaghan in Ireland. It is in area, and lies the east of the townland of Sheskin in the civil parish of Tydavnet.
During the late 19th century, and during the Great Famine, most of the townland, if not all, was owned by the Williamson family. A hill in Corblonog, still carries the name Porridge Hill, as it was the location that the Williamsons provided gruel to those who needed it during the famine. The prefix Cor-, as found in this townland's name, typically refers to small rounded hill, and likely to refer to the same hill as Porridge Hill, being the only prominent hill in this small townland.


Borgstena

Borgstena is a locality situated in Borås Municipality, Västra Götaland County, Sweden. It had 386 inhabitants in 2010.


Yovkovo

Yovkovo ( ) is a village in General Toshevo Municipality, Dobrich Province, in northeastern Bulgaria. The village is named after Yordan Yovkov in 1942. Its Turkish name was Chifut Kyusu (; ).
The village has a population of 256 people (as of 2019), down from its peak of 782 inhabitants in 1985. The population consists mainly of ethnic Turks and Tatars.


Maja e Madhe

Maje e Madhe is a mountain in the Albanian part of the Albanian Alps. It reaches a height of 2,011m above sea level. The Albanian name "Maja e Madhe" means 'Big Peak', although in comparison to other Albanian mountains it is quite small.


Elminiech Battery

Elminiech Battery (), also known as Figuella Battery (), San Raimondo Battery () or Oitelboura Battery, was an artillery battery in Birżebbuġa, Malta. It was built by the Order of Saint John in 1715–1716 as one of a series of coastal fortifications around the Maltese Islands.
Elminiech Battery was part of a chain of fortifications that defended Marsaxlokk Bay, which also included six other batteries, the large Saint Lucian Tower, two smaller De Redin towers, four redoubts and three entrenchments. The nearest fortifications to Elminiech Battery were the Birżebbuġa Entrenchments to the northwest and Fresnoy Redoubt to the east. Construction of the battery cost 1451 scudi.
The battery was demolished, and its site is now occupied by part of the Malta Freeport.


Gabrovnitsa, Sofia Province

Gabrovnitsa is a village in Svoge Municipality, Sofia Province, western Bulgaria.


Kjellerup

Kjellerup is a Danish town with a population of 5,119 (1 January 2020) It is located 17 km north from Silkeborg and 20 km south from Viborg in Central Jutland.
The town was the seat of the former Kjellerup Municipality.


Seudre

The Seudre () is a river in the Charente-Maritime "département", southwestern France, flowing into the Atlantic Ocean. It is long. Its source is near Saint-Genis-de-Saintonge. It flows northwest through Saint-André-de-Lidon, Saujon and La Tremblade. It flows into the Atlantic Ocean near Marennes. The lower course of the Seudre is brackish, and is used for oyster farming.


Werfenweng

Werfenweng is a municipality in the St. Johann im Pongau district in the state of Salzburg in Austria.
Politics.
The Mayor is Dr.Peter Brandauer from the ÖVP party.


Kumshatske

Kumshatske () is a rural settlement in Shakhtarsk Raion, Donetsk Oblast, eastern Ukraine. As of 2001 it had a population of 158 people.


Tarhos

Tarhos is a village in Békés County, in the Southern Great Plain region of south-east Hungary.
Geography.
It covers an area of 57.45 km² and has a population of 773 people (2015).


Kengyel

Kengyel is a village in Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok county, in the Northern Great Plain region of central Hungary.
Geography.
It covers an area of and has a population of 3552 people (2015).


Chiaravalle, Marche

Chiaravalle is a "comune" (municipality) in the Province of Ancona in the Italian region Marche, located about west of Ancona. As of 31 December 2004, it had a population of 14,397 and an area of .
The municipality of Chiaravalle contains the "frazione" (subdivision) Grancetta.
Chiaravalle borders the following municipalities: Camerata Picena, Falconara Marittima, Jesi, Monte San Vito, Montemarciano.


Herringlose

Herringlose (Danish: "Herringløse") is a village with a population of 403 (1 January 2020) in Roskilde municipality, Denmark.


Kibura

 Kibura is a village in Lääneranna Parish, Pärnu County in southwestern Estonia.


Mendavia

Mendavia is a town and municipality located in the province and autonomous community of Navarre, northern Spain. The Postal code is 31587.
Mendavia is an agricultural town. It produces high-quality asparagus, peaches and a certain variety of large red pepper.
Roque Romero Sainz (died 1997), active promoter of baseball in Spain between 1940 and 1970, was born in Mendavia in 1910. He was the founder of one of the rare baseball clubs in Spain, Pops CB, and became chairman of the Catalan Baseball Federation for a while.


Reigilaid

Reigilaid is a small islet in the Baltic Sea belonging to the country of Estonia.
Reigilaid comprises and is situated in an oblong NW-SE direction, above sea level. The islet lies from the beach of Kõrgessaare, near the village of Reigi (from which it takes its name) on the larger island of Hiiumaa and is administered by Hiiu Parish.
See also.
List of islands of Estonia


Cieszyce, Szczecin

Cieszyce is a part of the Szczecin City, Poland situated on the right bank of Oder river, east of the Szczecin Old Town, and Szczecin-Dąbie.


Zobnatica

Zobnatica (, ) is a village in northern Vojvodina. It is situated in the Bačka Topola municipality, itself a part of the North Bačka District. The village a population of 309 people of mostly Hungarians (according to the 2002 census). Zobnatica is also a known and successful horse stable, being the home for several winning horses that achieved success in Yugoslavia and, today, Serbia.
The Zobnatica stable.
The tradition of horse breeding in the region has lasted continuously for hundreds of years, and Zobnatica has been a known horse breeding place for almost 500 years. The horse farm in Zobnatica was founded in 1779 by Bela Vojnic.
The Zobnatica stable encompasses a hippodrome, stables, a museum, a hotel and a restaurant. It has had a tradition of breeding thoroughbred horses for over two hundred years. The achievements of the Zobnatica horses are held in the museum, which is built in the shape of a horseshoe, and the former family hall now holds the hotel.


Eidsfoss

Eidsfoss is a village in Hof municipality, Vestfold county, Norway. It is located near Lake Eikeren.
The village was the site of the Eidsfos Iron Works ("Eidsfos Jernverk") which dated to 1697. The iron works was closed in 1873. The village is also the location of the historic Eidsfos Manor ("Eidsfos Hovedgård") where the owners and manager of the iron works maintained residence for over 250 years. The manor house, which reflects both Renaissance and Baroque architecture, dates from approximately 1750.


Giebelrain

The Giebelrain is a hill in Hesse, Germany.


Hochwang

The Hochwang is a mountain of the Plessur Alps, located between the valleys of Schanfigg and Prättigau in the canton of Graubünden. With a height of 2,534 metres above sea level, it is the highest summit of the chain lying west of Durannapass. Several trails lead to its summit. The closest locality is Castiel.


Jelovo

Jelovo () is a settlement in the Municipality of Radeče in eastern Slovenia. It is dispersed in the hills northwest of Radeče in the historical region of Lower Carniola. The municipality is now included in the Lower Sava Statistical Region; until January 2014 it was part of the Savinja Statistical Region.
The local church is dedicated to the Three Kings and belongs to the Parish of Radeče. It dates to around 1520.


Augstenberg (Liechtenstein)

Augstenberg is a mountain in Liechtenstein in the Rätikon range of the Eastern Alps close to the border with Austria and the town of Malbun, with a height of .


Brunn an der Wild

Brunn an der Wild is a town in the district of Horn in Lower Austria, Austria.
Geography.
Brunn an der Wild lies in the Waldviertel in Lower Austria, about 11 km west of Horn, Austria. About 27.47 percent of the municipality is forested.


Bozhak

Bozhak is a village in Kardzhali Municipality, Kardzhali Province, southern Bulgaria.


Altare

Altare (, , L’Atæ in local dialect) is a "comune" (municipality) in the Province of Savona in the Italian region Liguria, located about west of Genoa and about northwest of Savona. As of 1 January 2009, it had a population of 2,160 and an area of .
Altare borders the following municipalities: Cairo Montenotte, Carcare, Mallare, Quiliano, and Savona.
Geography.
Altare is just west of the Cadibona pass, which at divides the Ligurian Alps from the Ligurian Apennines. Also called pass of Altare, it is accessed from the coast by the "Via Nazionale Piemonte", winding up from Savona and crossing into Piedmont towards the north Italian plain.
History.
Altare was home to an ancient glassmaking tradition, dating back to the Middle Ages. The origin of Altare glassworks is still unknown. Oral tradition has it that the art was spread from Northern France by Benedectine monks. Samuel Kurinsky posits that the original glassmakers were Sephardic Jews, based on the secretive character of their techniques and the distinct identity of the glassmakers as opposed to the rest of the population. If that is the case, they were completely assimilated, except for their traditional self-distinction.
Altarist glassmakers were organized in guilds, not unlike other medieval craftsmen. The guild, known as the University maintained a very strict control over the glassmakers' techniques. Unlike the Venetians though, Altare was a net exporter of know-how throughout its history, as the local guild was never able to prevent the migration of its people to other places. Sometimes it even encouraged it. The importance of Altare revolves around this difference. For example, it appears that Giobatta Da Costa's invention of flint glass took place in London, while he worked for the Ravenscroft manufactory in 1674. Altarist glassmakers operated in France, at Olréans and Nevers and one of them, Bernard Perrot went on to become master of the in Orléans, after patenting many innovative techniques. The Museum of Glass in Villa Rosa at Altare preserves many pieces of fine glass produced during this tradition.


Kontovazaina

Kontovazaina () is a village and a former municipality in Arcadia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Gortynia, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 137.496 km2. In 2011 its population was 386 for the village and 1,171 for the municipal unit. Achaea borders the municipal unit to the north and Elis to the west. It is situated in mountainous northwestern Arcadia, between the rivers Erymanthos and Ladon. The Ladon reservoir is in easternmost part of the municipal unit, and the mountain Afrodisio (1,447 m elevation) is in the north. The village Kontovazaina is situated in a valley, 3 km north of the Ladon. It is considered a traditional settlement.
Subdivisions.
The municipal unit Kontovazaina is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):


Rgaje

Rgaje is a village in the municipality of Prokuplje, Serbia. According to the 2002 census, the village has a population of 26 people.


Ivantsi

Ivantsi is a village in Kardzhali Municipality, Kardzhali Province, southern Bulgaria.


Erra-Liiva

Erra-Liiva is a village in Lüganuse Parish, Ida-Viru County in northeastern Estonia.


Nevestino, Kyustendil Province

Nevestino (, ) is a village in southwestern Bulgaria, part of Kyustendil Province. It is the administrative centre of Nevestino municipality, which lies in the central part of Kyustendil Province.
The village lies 13 kilometres from the provincial capital of Kyustendil, on both banks of the Struma River and near the Kyustendil-Dupnitsa and Kyustendil-Boboshevo-Blagoevgrad roads. Nevestino was first mentioned in 1576 under the name "Gospozhino pole" (Госпожино поле, "lady's field"); a parallel Ottoman Turkish name was "Köprü" ("[the] bridge"), referring to the famous bridge Kadin most in the village, which has existed since 1470. Nevestino's name roughly means "the bride's [place, field]", from the word "nevesta" (невеста), "bride", attested in Old Bulgarian .
Municipality.
Nevestino municipality has an area of 442 square kilometres and a population of around 3000 people. It includes the following 23 villages:
Honour.
Nevestino Cove in Robert Island, South Shetland Islands is named after Nevestino.


Dobrije

Dobrije () is a small settlement on the right and left banks of the Meža River in the Municipality of Ravne na Koroškem in the Carinthia region in northern Slovenia.
There is a small chapel in the settlement. It was built in 1917 and has an elliptical floor plan with a belfry.


Alykes

Alykes () is a former municipality on the island of Zakynthos, Ionian Islands, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Zakynthos, of which it is a municipal unit. It is situated along the northeastern coast of the island, about northwest of Zakynthos (city). It has a land area of and a population of 5,203 (2011 census). The seat of the municipality was in Katastari (pop. 1,378). The next largest towns in the municipality are Skoulikádo (pop. 653), Agios Dimitrios (531), Pigadákia (431), Alikanas (441), and Káto Gerakári (347).
Subdivisions.
The municipal unit Alykes is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):


Mbrostar

Mbrostar is a village and a former municipality in the Fier County, southwestern Albania. At the 2015 local government reform it became a subdivision of the municipality Fier. The population at the 2011 census was 7,460.


Dolna Kula

Dolna kula () is a village in Kardzhali Province in the very south of Bulgaria, located in the Eastern Rhodopes on the banks of the river Krumovitsa. The majority of its population consists of ethnic Turks.


Piosina

Piosina is a "frazione" of the "comune" of Città di Castello in the Province of Perugia, Umbria, central Italy. It stands at an elevation of 286 metres above sea level and at around 4.5 km northwest of the centre of the town. At the time of the Istat census of 2001 it had 452 inhabitants.


Bantega

Bantega () is a village in the Dutch province of Friesland. It is located in the municipality De Fryske Marren, and lies about 6 km east of the town of Lemmer.
Bantega has about 650 inhabitants. It is a young village; until after the second World War, it was only a hamlet, named "Echtenpolder". The village is named after the drowned village of Bant.


De Aker

De Aker () is a neighborhood of Amsterdam, Netherlands.


Tsarkva

Tsarkva is a village in Balchik Municipality, Dobrich Province, northeastern Bulgaria.


Kaarma Parish

Kaarma Parish was a municipality of Saare County, Estonia next to Kuressaare. In 2014, it was merged with the municipalities of Kärla and Lümanda to become the Lääne-Saare municipality.
The municipality had a population of 4,608 (as of 1 January 2012) and covered an area of 400 km². It had 87 km of land border and 98 km of waterline.
Islands in Kaarma Parish: Abruka, Kasselaid, Linnusitamaa, Vahase, Väike-Tulpe.
Settlements.
Kaarma Parish contains 70 settlements: 3 small boroughs and 67 villages.
Aste - Kudjape - Nasva
Abruka - Anijala - Ansi - Aste - Asuküla - Aula-Vintri - Eikla - Endla - Haamse - Hakjala - Hübja - Irase - Jootme - Jõe - Kaarma - Kaarmise - Kaisvere - Kasti - Kaubi - Kellamäe - Keskranna - Keskvere - Kiratsi - Kirikuküla - Koidu - Koidula - Kuke - Kungla - Käku - Kärdu - Laadjala - Laheküla - Laoküla - Lilbi - Maleva - Meedla - Metsaküla - Mullutu - Muratsi - Mändjala - Mõisaküla - Nõmme - Paimala - Parila - Piila - Praakli - Pähkla - Pärni - Põlluküla - Randvere - Saia - Sepa - Sikassaare - Tahula - Tamsalu - Tõlli - Tõrise - Tõru - Uduvere - Unimäe - Upa - Vaivere - Vantri - Vatsküla - Vestla - Viira - Õha


Vasylivka

Vasylivka (; ) is a city in Zaporizhzhia Oblast (province) in southern Ukraine. It serves as the administrative center of Vasylivka Raion. The city is situated on the banks of the Kakhovka Reservoir on the Dnieper River. Population:
History.
The area was settled by the Zaporozhian Cossacks in the 1740s. In 1788, Catherine II of Russia granted the region to a landlord Vasili Stepanovich Popov, a Russian general whose name Vasylivka as his manor still bears. His grandson built the Popov Manor House there. The residence was visited by Anton Makarenko in 1925.
In January 1989, according to the census, population was 16,325.
In January 2013, population was 13,996.


Cae Cilmaenllwyd

Cae Cilmaenllwyd is a Site of Special Scientific Interest in Carmarthen & Dinefwr, Wales.


Grinitajet

Grinitajet is a village in Viken, Norway.


Kastre

Kastre is a village in Kastre Parish, Tartu County in eastern Estonia.


Kunstteich Neudorf

Kunstteich Neudorf is a reservoir near Neudorf in the Harz Mountains, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It is fed and drained by a small tributary of the Schmale Wipper, itself a tributary of the Wipper.


Koksi

Koksi is a village in Saaremaa Parish, Saare County, Estonia, on the island of Saaremaa. As of 2011 Census, the settlement's population was 19.


Vathi, Athens

Vathi () is a neighborhood of Athens. It is located north of Athens' downtown and is part of the 1st suburb of the city. The center of the neighborhood is Vathis Square ("Plateía Váthis").