Maxillary sinus

The pyramid-shaped maxillary sinus (or antrum of Highmore) is the largest of the paranasal sinuses, and drains into the middle meatus of the nose through the osteomeatal complex.
Structure.
It is the largest air sinus in the body. Found in the body of the maxilla, this sinus has three recesses: an alveolar recess pointed inferiorly, bounded by the alveolar process of the maxilla; a zygomatic recess pointed laterally, bounded by the zygomatic bone; and an infraorbital recess pointed superiorly, bounded by the inferior orbital surface of the maxilla. The medial wall is composed primarily of cartilage. The ostia for drainage are located high on the medial wall and open into the semilunar hiatus of the lateral nasal cavity; because of the position of the ostia, gravity cannot drain the maxillary sinus contents when the head is erect (see pathology). The ostium of the maxillary sinus is high up on the medial wall and on average is 2.4 mm in diameter; with a mean volume of about 10 ml.
The sinus is lined with mucoperiosteum, with cilia that beat toward the ostia. This membranous lining is also referred to as the Schneiderian membrane, which is histologically a bilaminar membrane with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells on the internal (or cavernous) side and periosteum on the osseous side. The size of the sinuses varies in different skulls, and even on the two sides of the same skull.
The infraorbital canal usually projects into the cavity as a well-marked ridge extending from the roof to the anterior wall; additional ridges are sometimes seen in the posterior wall of the cavity and are caused by the alveolar canals.
The mucous membranes receive their postganglionic parasympathetic nerve fibres for mucous secretion from the pterygopalatine ganglion. The preganglionic parasympathetic fibres are coming to this ganglion through the greater petrosal nerve (a branch of the facial nerve) and the nerve of the pterygoid canal. The superior alveolar (anterior, middle, and posterior) nerves, branches of the maxillary nerve provide sensory innervation.
Walls.
The nasal wall of the maxillary sinus, or base, presents, in the disarticulated bone, a large, irregular aperture, communicating with the nasal cavity. In the articulated skull this aperture is much reduced in size by the following bones:
The sinus communicates through an opening into the semilunar hiatus on the lateral nasal wall.
On the posterior wall are the alveolar canals, transmitting the posterior superior alveolar vessels and nerves to the molar teeth.
The floor is formed by the alveolar process, and, if the sinus is of an average size, is on a level with the floor of the nose; if the sinus is large it reaches below this level. Projecting into the floor of the antrum are several conical processes, corresponding to the roots of the first and second maxillary molar teeth; in some cases the floor can be perforated by the apices of the teeth.
The roof is formed by floor of the orbit. It is traversed by infraorbital nerves and vessels.
Development.
It is the first sinus to appear as a shallow groove. At birth it measures about 7*4*4mm. It continues to develops throughout childhood at an annual rate of 2mm vertically and 3mm anteroposteriorly. It reaches its final size in the seventeenth to eighteenth year of life.
Clinical significance.
Maxillary sinusitis.
Maxillary sinusitis is inflammation of the maxillary sinuses. The symptoms of sinusitis are headache, usually near the involved sinus, and foul-smelling nasal or pharyngeal discharge, possibly with some systemic signs of infection such as fever and weakness. The skin over the involved sinus can be tender, hot, and even reddened due to the inflammatory process in the area. On radiographs, there is opacification (or cloudiness) of the usually translucent sinus due to retained mucus.
Maxillary sinusitis is common due to the close anatomic relation of the frontal sinus, anterior ethmoidal sinus and the maxillary teeth, allowing for easy spread of infection. Differential diagnosis of dental problems needs to be done due to the close proximity to the teeth since the pain from sinusitis can seem to be dentally related. Furthermore, the drainage orifice lies near the roof of the sinus, and so the maxillary sinus does not drain well, and infection develops more easily. The maxillary sinus may drain into the mouth via an abnormal opening, an oroantral fistula, a particular risk after tooth extraction.
Oro-antral communication (OAC).
An OAC is an abnormal physical communication between the maxillary sinus and the mouth. This opening is only present when the structures, that normally separates the mouth and sinus into 2 separate compartments, are lost.
There are many causes of an OAC. The most common reason is following extraction of a posterior maxillary (upper) premolar or molar tooth. Other causes include trauma, pathology (e.g. tumours or cysts), infection or iatrogenic damage during surgery. Iatrogenic damage during dental treatment accounts for nearly half of the incidence of dental-related maxillary sinusitis. There is always a thin layer of mucous membrane ("Schneiderian membrane") and usually bone between the roots of the upper back teeth and the floor of the maxillary sinus. However, the bone can vary in thickness in different individuals, ranging from complete absence to 12mm thick. Therefore, in certain individuals the membrane +/- the bony floor of the sinus can be perforated easily, creating an opening into the mouth when a tooth is extracted.
An OAC that is smaller than 2mm can heal spontaneously i.e. closure of the opening. Those that are larger than 2mm have a higher chance of developing into oro-antral fistula (OAF). The passage is only defined as an OAF if it is persistent and lined by epithelium. Epithelialisation happens when an OAC persist for at least 2–3 days and oral epithelial cells proliferate to linethe defect. Large defects (more than 2mm) should be surgically closed as soon as possible to avoid accumulation of food and saliva which could contaminate the maxillary sinus, leading to infection (sinusitis). Various surgical techniques can be employed to manage an OAF but the most common involves pulling and stitching some soft tissue from the gum to cover the opening (i.e. soft tissue flap).
Sinusitis treatment.
Traditionally the treatment of acute maxillary sinusitis is usually prescription of a broad-spectrum cephalosporin antibiotic resistant to beta-lactamase, administered for 10 days. Recent studies have found that the cause of chronic sinus infections lies in the nasal mucus, not in the nasal and sinus tissue targeted by standard treatment. This suggests a beneficial effect in treatments that target primarily the underlying and presumably damage-inflicting nasal and sinus membrane inflammation, instead of the secondary bacterial infection that has been the primary target of past treatments for the disease. Also, surgical procedures with chronic sinus infections are now changing with the direct removal of the mucus, which is loaded with toxins from the inflammatory cells, rather than the inflamed tissue during surgery. Leaving the mucus behind might predispose early recurrence of the chronic sinus infection. If any surgery is performed, it is to enlarge the ostia in the lateral walls of the nasal cavity, creating adequate drainage.
Cancer.
Carcinoma of the maxillary sinus may invade the palate and cause dental pain. It may also block the nasolacrimal duct. Spread of the tumor into the orbit causes proptosis.
Age.
With age, the enlarging maxillary sinus may even begin to surround the roots of the maxillary posterior teeth and extend its margins into the body of the zygomatic bone. If the maxillary posterior teeth are lost, the maxillary sinus may expand even more, thinning the bony floor of the alveolar process so that only a thin shell of bone is present.
History.
The maxillary sinus was first discovered and illustrated by Leonardo da Vinci, but the earliest attribution of significance was given to Nathaniel Highmore, the British surgeon and anatomist who described it in detail in his 1651 treatise.


Macrostomidae

The Macrostomidae are a family of small basal free-living flatworms (Macrostomida, Rhabditophora, Platyhelminthes), and members of the marine, brackish, freshwater meiobenthos. There are currently about 180 named species in this family.


Schmidtea

Schmidtea is a freshwater triclad genus widely used in regeneration and developmental studies.
Until 1991 "Schmidtea" was considered a "Dugesia" subgenus, then it was upgraded to the genus rank.
Phylogeny.
Phylogenetic tree including five dugesiid genera after Álvarez-Presas et al., 2008:


Anagaloidea

Anagaloidea is an extinct order of mammals that first appeared during the Cretaceous period.
Taxonomy.
According to the traditional (morphological) view, Anagaloidea is part of the superorder Anagalida, along with the elephant shrews, rodents and lagomorphs.
However, the Anagalida are considered to be polyphyletic. Genetic studies have shown that the elephant shrews are actually part of a different macro-group of mammals called the Afrotheria, while the position of several extinct families of Anagalida is uncertain. The Zalambdalestidae are almost certainly unrelated to any of these groups; they probably represent more basal Eutherians and might not even be true Eutherians at all.
The Anagalidae and the Pseudictopidae probably represent a genuine clade. This clade is known as the Anagaloidea, which seems to be related to the rodents and lagomorphs after all. Together they form the clade Glires, often grouped with the Euarchonta to form the superorder Euarchontoglires.


Meningeal branches of vertebral artery

The meningeal branches of vertebral artery (posterior meningeal branch) springs from the vertebral opposite the foramen magnum, ramifies between the bone and dura mater in the cerebellar fossa, and supplies the falx cerebelli.
It is frequently represented by one or two small branches.


Homalorhagida

Homalorhagida is an order of kinorhynchs.


Pharyngeal tubercle

The pharyngeal tubercle is a part of the occipital bone of the head and neck. It is located on the lower surface of the basilar part of occipital bone, about 1 cm. anterior to the foramen magnum. The pharyngeal tubercle gives attachment to the fibrous raphe of the pharynx, also known as the pharyngeal raphe.
This is the point of attachment for the superior pharyngeal constrictor muscle.


Subcostal plane

The subcostal plane is a transverse plane which bisects the body at the level of the 10th costal margin and the vertebra body L3.


Luolishaniidae

The Luolishaniidae or Luolishaniida are a group of lobopodians with setiferous forelimbs known from the Cambrian period. The presence of thorn-shaped sclerites arranged as three per segment is diagnostic. The type genus is based on "Luolishania longicruris" Hou and Chen, 1989, from the Chengjiang Lagerstatte, South China. They are presumed to have been filter feeders. New specimens of the previously enigmatic "Facivermis" show that it was a sessile tube-dweller, and part of this group.


Canthocamptus sublaevis

Canthocamptus sublaevis is a species of harpacticoid copepod in the family Canthocamptidae. It is found in Australia.
The IUCN conservation status of "Canthocamptus sublaevis" is "VU", vulnerable. The species faces a high risk of endangerment in the medium term. The IUCN status was reviewed in 1996.


Girardia dorotocephala

Girardia dorotocephala is a species of dugesiid triclad native from America. It has been accidentally introduced in Japan. "Girardia dorotocephala" is cannibalistic, which led to its usage in memory transfer experiments.


Descending limb of loop of Henle

Within the nephron of the kidney, the descending limb of loop of Henle is the portion of the renal tubule constituting the first part of the loop of Henle.
Physiology.
The permeability is as follows:
Also, the medullary interstitium is highly concentrated (because of the activity of the ascending limb), leading to a strong osmotic gradient from the descending limb to the medulla.
Because of these factors, the concentration of the urine increases dramatically in the descending limb. Osmolality can reach up to 1400 mOsmol/kg by the end of the descending limb.
Histology.
The epithelium of the Thick segment is low simple cuboidal epithelium. The epithelium of the Thin segment is simple squamous.
They can be distinguished from the vasa recta by the absence of blood, and they can be distinguished from the thick ascending limb by the thickness of the epithelium.
Nomenclature.
Like the ascending limb, the descending limb has thick and thin portions. However, this distinction is not as important physiologically as in the ascending limb, so often the two are treated as one structure. The thick descending limb is less important than the thin descending limb, so often the terms "descending limb" and "thin descending limb" are used interchangeably.
Some sources simply refer to a "thin limb". In this context, the thin ascending limb of loop of Henle would be included.


Renal corpuscle

A renal corpuscle (also called malpighian body) is the blood-filtering component of the nephron of the kidney. It consists of a glomerulus - a tuft of capillaries composed of endothelial cells, and a glomerular capsule known as Bowman's capsule.
Structure.
The renal corpuscle is composed of two structures, the glomerulus and the Bowman's capsule. The glomerulus is a small tuft of capillaries containing two cell types. Endothelial cells, which have large fenestrae, are not covered by diaphragms. Mesangial cells are modified smooth muscle cells that lie between the capillaries. They regulate blood flow by their contractile activity and secrete extracellular matrix, prostaglandins, and cytokines. Mesangial cells also have phagocytic activity, removing proteins and other molecules trapped in the glomerular basement membrane or filtration barrier.
The Bowman's capsule has an outer parietal layer composed of simple squamous epithelium. The visceral layer, composed of modified simple squamous epithelium, is lined by podocytes. Podocytes have foot processes, pedicels, that wrap around glomerular capillaries. These pedicels interdigitate with pedicels of adjacent podocytes forming filtration slits.
There are two poles in the renal corpuscle, a vascular pole and a tubular pole. The vascular pole is a location of the glomerulus. At the vascular pole, the afferent arterioles and efferent arterioles enter and leave the glomerulus in the Bowman's capsule. The tubular pole is at the other end opposite to the vascular pole. At the tubular pole, the proximal convoluted tubule arises.
Function.
The renal corpuscle acts to filter blood. Fluid from blood in the glomerulus is collected in the Bowman's capsule to form "glomerular filtrate", which is then further processed along the nephron to form urine. It does this via a filtration barrier. The renal corpuscle filtration barrier is composed of: the fenestrated endothelium of glomerular capillaries, the fused basal lamina of endothelial cells and podocytes, and the filtration slits of the podocytes. This barrier permits passage of water, ions, and small molecules from the bloodstream into Bowman's space (the space between the visceral and parietal layers). Large and/or negatively charged proteins are prevented from passing into Bowman's space, thus retaining these proteins in the circulation. The basal lamina is composed of 3 layers: lamina rara externa, lamina densa, and lamina rara interna. The lamina rara externa is adjacent to the podocyte processes. The lamina densa is the central layer consisting of type IV collagen and laminin. This layer acts as a selective macromolecular filter, preventing the passage of large protein molecules into Bowman's space. The lamina rara interna is adjacent to endothelial cells. This layer contains heparan sulfate, a negatively charged glycosaminoglycan that contributes to the electrostatic barrier of the glomerular filter.
Eponym.
A renal corpuscle is also known as a "Malpighian corpuscle", named after Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694), an Italian physician and biologist. This name is no longer widely used, probably to avoid confusion with a Malpighian corpuscle in the spleen.


Redstart

Redstarts are a group of small Old World birds. They were formerly classified in the thrush family (Turdidae), but are now known to be part of the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae. They are currently treated in four genera, the true redstarts "Phoenicurus", the closely related genera "Chaimarrornis" and "Rhyacornis", and one species in the less closely related genus "Luscinia".
These are insectivorous ground feeding birds, most of which have the red tail which gives the group its name; "start" is the modern English reflex of Middle English "stert", Old English "steort", tail of an animal. Most species are migratory, with northern species being long-distance migrants and more southerly species often being altitudinal migrants breeding at high altitude and moving lower down in winter.
They are small insectivores, the males mostly brightly coloured in various combinations of red, blue, white, and black, the females light brown with a red tail. Recent genetic studies have shown that the genus "Phoenicurus" is not monophyletic, but may be made so by the inclusion of "Chaimarrornis" and "Rhyacornis" within "Phoenicurus"; this conclusion is yet to be taken up by the International Ornithological Congress.
The New World redstarts in the genera "Setophaga" and "Myioborus" are not closely related; they are New World warblers in the family Parulidae. Members of the latter genus, with extensive white and no red in their tails, are also called "whitestarts".


Dinokaryon

A dinokaryon is a eukaryotic nucleus present in dinoflagellates in which the chromosomes are fibrillar in appearance (i.e. with unmasked DNA fibrils) and are more or less continuously condensed.
The nuclear envelope does not break down during mitosis, which is thus termed closed mitosis, or "dinomitosis". The mitotic spindle is extranuclear.
Histones are absent. However, recent EST sequencing has revealed the presence of histones in one of the closest relative to dinoflagellates, "Perkinsus marinus" and an early-branching dinoflagellate, "Hematodinium" sp. However, histone-like proteins of bacterial origins are found in the coding regions at periphery of the dinokaryon's chromosomes.


Clathrina wistariensis

Clathrina wistariensis is a species of calcareous sponge in the family Clathrinidae from Australia, off the Queensland coast.


Edward Hindle

Prof Edward Hindle FRS FRSE FIB FRGS FRPSG (21 March 1886–22 January 1973) was a British biologist and entomologist who was Regius Professor of Zoology at the University of Glasgow from 1935 to 1943. He specialised in the study of parasites.
Early years.
Edward Hindle was born in Sheffield on 21 March 1886 the son of Edward James Hindle and his wife, Sarah Elizabeth Dewar.
He was educated at home. From Bradford Technical College (now the University of Bradford) he obtained a scholarship in biology at the Royal College of Science in 1903. He was further educated at King's College London, and after research at the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, he gained a Ph.D at Berkeley University of California in 1910. Returning to England, he entered Magdalene College, Cambridge, eventually becoming Sc.D in 1926.
First World War and following years.
Already a member of the Territorials, in 1914 he became a Second Lieutenant in the Royal Engineers, seeing service in France and Palestine until demobilised in Egypt in 1919.
In 1922 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. His proposers were James Hartley Ashworth, John Stephenson, Francis A H Marshall and George Leslie Purser. He served as the Society's Vice President from 1943 to 1946.
Appointed Professor of Biology at Cairo University School of Medicine, in 1924 he returned to research in England at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. From there in 1925 he joined and became leader of the expedition mounted by the Royal Society to China, returning in 1928 to research at the Wellcome Bureau of Scientific Research and then at the National Institute for Medical Research.
Glasgow.
Hindle was Regius Professor of Zoology in succession to John Graham Kerr. He was Curator of the Hunterian Museum at the University of Glasgow from 1935 to 1943, being elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1942. During his time at Glasgow, he encouraged research in genetics and freshwater biology. Among the talented scientists he invited to work in his department was Guido Pontecorvo, who returned to the university from internment as an enemy alien in 1942.
In 1938 Hindle had joined the Officers' Training Corps of Glasgow University, becoming a lieutenant-colonel and its commanding officer. He also commanded a battalion of the Glasgow Home Guard. He was a founder of the Zoological Society of Glasgow, which opened Calderpark Zoo after he had left the city.
Regent's Park.
In 1943 he was appointed the first Scientific Director of the Zoological Society of London, a new post mainly concerned in organizing all the more scientific branches of the Society’s work as well as scientific problems concerning the collections of animals at Regent’s Park Zoo and Whipsnade Zoo.
Retirement and achievements.
Hindle retired from Regent's Park in 1951, when he also gave up his post as General Secretary of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Among many interests, he continued his work for the Royal Geographical Society, being Honorary Secretary from 1951 to 1961 and Honorary Vice-President in 1962.
His three major achievements in his career were his work on leishmaniasis, on yellow fever and on spirochaetoses, all three arthropod-borne. A minor achievement was that every golden hamster in Europe and elsewhere descends from two pairs found in Syria that he was given in 1931.
Private life.
In 1919 he married Irene Margaret Twist D.1933), first cousin of Sir John Graham Kerr FRS. In 1936 he married the former Ellen Mary Theodora Schroeder, from whom he separated in 1951. There were no children by either marriage.
Hindle died in a taxi in London on 22 January 1973.


Ascute asconoides

Ascute asconoides is a species of calcareous sponge found in Australia.


Euclavarctus

Euclavarctus is a genus of tardigrades, in the subfamily Euclavarctinae which is part of the family Halechiniscidae. The genus was named and described by Jeanne Renaud-Mornant in 1975.
Species.
The genus includes two species:


Rhynchonella

Rhynchonella is an extinct genus of brachiopod found in Ordovician to Eocene strata worldwide. It was a stationary epifaunal suspension feeder.
Description.
These 1.75 to 3.75 cm long articulate brachiopods are characterized by a triangular shell with a spherical profile, powerful ribs, a curved hinge line and a small umbo. The anterior margin shows a tongue like projection.


Anthothelidae

Anthothelidae is a family of corals, a member of the phylum Cnidaria.
Genera.
Genera in this family include:


Oreella

Oreella is a genus of tardigrades in the family Oreellidae. It is the only genus of that family. It was named and described by James Murray in 1920; the family Oreellidae was named and described by Giuseppe Ramazzotti in 1962. Ramazzotti gave the first modern description of the genus with his findings on "O. minor", which was differentiated from another species by the name of "O. mollis" by its smaller size, spur presence on internal claws, and briefer stylets. Characteristics such as these can be considered as insufficient evidence of the delineation between species, however the differences in size of "O. minor" (≤170µm) and "O. mollis" (≤251µm), as well as the presence of the aforementioned claw spurs, would be considered notable features.
Species.
The genus "Oreella" contains the following species:


Geodiidae

Geodiidae is a family of sea sponges.


Occipital vein

The occipital vein begins as a plexus at the posterior aspect of the scalp from the external occipital protuberance and superior nuchal line to the back part of the vertex of the skull.
From the plexus emerges a single vessel, which pierces the cranial attachment of the Trapezius and, dipping into the venous plexus of the suboccipital triangle, joins the deep cervical and vertebral veins.
Occasionally it follows the course of the occipital artery and ends in the internal jugular; in other instances, it joins the posterior auricular vein and through it opens into the external jugular vein.
The parietal emissary vein connects it with the superior sagittal sinus; and as it passes across the mastoid portion of the temporal bone, it receives the mastoid emissary vein which connects it with the transverse sinus.
The occipital diploic vein sometimes joins it.


Anton Dohrn

Felix Anton Dohrn FRS FRSE (29 September 1840 – 26 September 1909) was a prominent German Darwinist and the founder and first director of the first zoological research station in the world, the Stazione Zoologica in Naples, Italy.
Family history.
Dohrn was born in Stettin (Szczecin), Prussian Province of Pomerania, into a wealthy middle-class family. His grandfather, Heinrich Dohrn, had been a wine and spice merchant, and had made the family fortune by trading in sugar. This wealth allowed Anton's father, Carl August, to devote himself to his various hobbies; travelling, folk music and insects. Anton, the youngest son, read zoology and medicine at various German universities (Königsberg, Bonn, Jena and Berlin). His brother Heinrich Wolfgang Ludwig Dohrn was also a zoologist.
In 1874 Dohrn married sixteen-year-old Maria Baranowska, a refugee from Poland whom he had met in Messina. They had four children Boguslaw, Wolfgang, Harald and Reinhard. Due to her linguistic abilities, Maria became a successful translator.
Entomology.
Dohrn was initially interested in Hemiptera. In 1859, he published "Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Harpactoridae" in "Entomologische Zeitung" and the more important "Catalogus hemipterorum". He gained his doctorate from Breslau in November 1865 with his thesis "On the Anatomy of Hemiptera". At this time, he became associated with the English scientific establishment through his father's friendship with Henry Tibbats Stainton. In 1866, he published a paper on fossil insects "Zur Kenntniss der Insecten in den Primärformationen". In this he describes "Eugereon boeckingi" (Palaeodictyoptera).
Introduction to Darwinism.
His ideas changed in summer 1862 when he returned to study at Jena, where Ernst Haeckel introduced him to Darwin's work and theories. Dohrn became a fervent defender of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.
At that time comparative embryology was the keystone of morphological evolutionary studies, based on Haeckel's recapitulation theory, the idea that an organism during its embryonic development passes through the major stages of the evolutionary past of its species. Morphology became one of the major ways in which zoologists sought to expand and develop Darwinian theory in the latter years of the 19th century. Dohrn chose to become a "Darwinian morphologist".
Dohrn received his doctorate in 1865 at Breslau under Eduard Grube, and his Habilitation in 1868 at Jena with Rudolf Virchow, Ernst Haeckel and Carl Gegenbaur. The study subjects were medicine and zoology, and his Jena monograph was "Studien zur Embryologie der Arthropoden". From 1868 to 1870, he was a Docent in zoology at Jena. During these times, he worked several times at facilities located by the sea: Heligoland alongside Haeckel in 1865, Hamburg in 1866, Millport, Scotland with David Robertson in 1867 and 1868 and moved to Messina, Italy, during the winter of 1868 together with his friend and colleague Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay to work on the marine life of the Straits of Messina. In 1870 Dohrn was called up to (briefly) serve in the Franco-Prussian War.
Development of "zoological stations".
From 1850 to 1852, the zoologist and geologist Carl Vogt had lived in Nice where he tried unsuccessfully to enlist support for a marine zoological station (one was later established as Observatoire Oceanologique de Villefranche). In Messina, Dohrn and Miklouho-Maclay conceived a plan to cover the globe with a network of zoological research stations, analogous to railway stations, where scientists could stop, collect material, make observations and conduct experiments, before moving on to the next station.
Dohrn realised how useful it would be for scientists to arrive at a location and find a ready to use laboratory. Dohrn rented two rooms for the "Stazione Zoologica di Messina", but quickly realized the technical difficulties of studying marine life without a permanent structure and support facilities, such as trained personnel and a library.
Foundation of the Stazione Zoologica.
In 1870 Dohrn decided that Naples would be a better place for his Station. This choice was due to the greater biological richness of the Gulf of Naples and also to the possibility of starting a research institute of international importance in a large university town that itself had a strong international element.
After a visiting a newly opened aquarium in Berlin, the he decided that charging the general public to visit an aquarium might earn the laboratory enough money to pay a salary for a permanent assistant. Naples, with a population of 500,000 inhabitants, was one of the largest and most attractive cities of Europe and also had a considerable flow of tourists (30,000 a year) that could potentially visit the aquarium.
Dohrn overcame the doubts of the city authorities and persuaded them to give him, free-of-charge, a plot of land at the sea edge, in the beautiful Villa Comunale on the condition that he promised to build the Stazione Zoologica at his own expense.
He opened the station to visiting scientists in September 1873, and to the general public in January 1874.
In 1875 Dohrn published "Der Ursprung der Wirbelthiere und das Princip des Functionswechsels: Genealogische Skizzen" which proposed the "change of function" theory of the origin of vertebrates.
The "Bench" system.
In order to promote the international status of the Stazione and to guarantee its economic and hence political independence and freedom of research, Dohrn introduced a series of innovative measures to finance his project. Firstly, the rental of work and research space (the "Bench system"), for an annual fee universities, governments, scientific institutions, private foundations or individuals could send one scientist to the Stazione for one year where he or she would find available all that was required to conduct research (laboratory space, animal supply, chemicals, an exceptional library and expert staff). He contributed his own library and obtained donations of books from publishers and authors, including Darwin. These facilities were supplied with no strings attached, in the sense that investigators were completely free to pursue their own projects and ideas.
This system worked extremely well, and when Anton Dohrn died in 1909 more than 2,200 scientists from Europe and the United States had worked at Naples and more than 50 tables-per-year had been rented out. It was in fact at Naples that international scientific collaboration in the modern sense was invented, based on quick and free communication of ideas, methods and results.
Legacy.
The success of the Stazione Zoologica, and the new way of thinking and funding research are the main legacies of Dohrn. The model was copied a number of times throughout the world. In 1878 Johns Hopkins University founded the Chesapeake Zoological Laboratory, under the direction of W.K. Brooks. Then, in 1888, the Marine Biological Laboratory was founded at Woods Hole and in 1892 the first laboratory on the west coast, the Hopkins Marine Station, opened in California. In Britain, current marine laboratories that originate from this time include the Dunstaffnage Marine Station (today Scottish Association for Marine Science, 1884), the Gatty Marine Laboratory (University of St Andrews, 1884), the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom (Plymouth, 1888), the Dove Marine Laboratory (Newcastle University, 1897), the Fisheries Research Services Marine Laboratory (Aberdeen, 1899), and the Bangor Marine Station (Queen's University of Belfast, 1903).
Dohrn's name has been immortalised in an undersea feature, the Anton Dohrn Seamount, a seamount in the Rockall Trough, to the north-west of the British Isles, which has become known for the great biodiversity which lives on the cold-water coral, "Lophelia pertusa", in this region.
The Carnegie Institution's Department of Marine Biology laboratory at Dry Tortugas, Florida placed the in service in July 1911 for ocean science work. The vessel served in the United States Navy as the patrol vessel "Anton Dohrn" (SP-1086) from 1917 to 1919.


Cladorhiza evae

Cladorhiza evae is a species of carnivorous sponge native to hydrothermal vents in the Gulf of California.


Elizabeth Kozlova

Elizabeth Vladimirovna Kozlova née Pushkariova (19 August 1892 – 10 February 1975) was a Russian ornithologist who worked on the avifauna of the Tibetan plateau.
Life and career.
Elizabeth was the daughter of Saint Petersburg physician Vladimir Pushkariov born in Krasnoe Selo. In 1910, at the age of 18, she was in Normandy where she impressed the famous Colonel Pyotr Kozlov, a well-known explorer 29 years her senior. A fan of the explorer Przewalski, he was smitten by the explorer in her and he divorced his wife Nadezhda Stepanovna Kamynina (married 1891) and married Elizabeth in 1912. The couple lived in Smolny Prospect 6 and began to travel widely together. From 1923–1926 she took part as the professional ornithologist in an expedition, organised by the Russian Geographical Society and led by her husband, to Mongolia. She returned to Mongolia in 1929 and 1930 to collect and to conduct further bird studies, her research resulting in the publication in 1930 of "Birds of South-western Transbaikalia, Northern Mongolia and the Central Gobi", for which she was awarded the Geographical Society's Silver Medal.
Kozlova was based at the Department of Ornithology in the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Saint Petersburg (then Leningrad) from 1932 to 1975. During the Second World War, the institute was moved to Dushambe, Tajikistan. During this period Kozlova studied mountain birds including the biology of "Phasianus colchicus bianchii". After returning to Leningrad to 1945, she no longer went on field expeditions. She then produced the monographs "Avifauna of the Tibetan Plateau, its Genetic Relationships and History" in 1952, and "The Birds of Zonal Steppes and Deserts of Central Asia" in 1975. She also published many papers on avian taxonomy and phylogeny as well as writing extensive sections of "The Birds of the USSR" (1951–1953) and the series "Fauna of the USSR".


Aorticopulmonary septum

The aorticopulmonary septum is developmentally formed from neural crest, specifically the cardiac
neural crest, and actively separates the aorta and pulmonary arteries and fuses with the interventricular septum within the heart during heart development.
Structure.
In the developing heart, the truncus arteriosus and bulbus cordis are divided by the aortic septum. This makes its appearance in three portions.
Clinical significance.
The actual mechanism of septation of the outflow tract is poorly understood, but is recognized as a dynamic process with contributions from contractile, hemodynamic, and extracellular matrix interactions. Misalignment of the septum can cause the congenital heart conditions tetralogy of Fallot, persistent truncus arteriosus, dextro-Transposition of the great arteries, tricuspid atresia, and anomalous pulmonary venous connection.


Sterrofustia

The Sterrofustia are one of the three orders of solenogaster.
The status of this order is uncertain, as it is deemed not monophyletic.
Taxonomy.
Families and genera include:


Alfred Brazier Howell

Alfred Brazier Howell (28 July 1886 – 23 December 1961) was an American zoologist, primarily a mammalogist.
A. B. Howell was born in Catonsville, Maryland, the son of Darius Carpenter Howell Sr. (1820–1887) and his second wife Katherine Elinor Hyatt Howell. A. B. Howell attended The Hill School in Pottstown, Pennsylvania for four years, graduating in 1905. He spent one year (1905–1906) at Yale University and then received no more formal academic education. In 1910 he moved to California, where he studied the birds of the Channel Islands of California and the Coronado Islands of Baja California. In 1918 he went on a collecting expedition to Arizona. In 1921 he became vice-president of the Cooper Ornithological Society. In 1922 he moved to Washington D.C.. In 1923 and in 1924, he went on collecting expeditions in California.
Howell worked from 1923 to 1927 as a scientific assistant with the United States Biological Survey. From 1928 to 1943 he taught anatomy at the Department of Anatomy of Johns Hopkins School of Medicine.
In 1929, with Remington Kellogg, he organized the Council for the Conservation of Whales (also involved in the conservation of other marine mammals). Howell was vice-president from 1938 to 1942 and president from 1942 to 1944 of the American Society of Mammalogists.
He married Margaret Gray Sherk in 1914. At the Cooper Ornithological Society, A. Brazier Howell, Harry R. Painton, and Frances F. Roberts have cash awards named after them. He died in Bangor, Maine.


Ascaltis reticulum

Ascaltis reticulum is a species of sea sponge the family Leucascidae. Like all sponges, it is a filter-feeder.


Knud Andersen (mammalogist)

Knud Christian Andersen (29 April 1867 in Frederiksberg – last seen alive June 1918 in England) was a Danish zoologist. His research focused on bats.
Life and work.
Towards the end of the 19th century, Andersen first worked as an ornithologist and ran field studies on the Faroe Islands. In 1901 Ferdinand I awarded him an appointment at the Zoological Museum of Sofia. Due to his frustration with the working conditions, he gave up this position. In 1904, he was hired by the British Museum to research bats in the Pacific, in South-East Asia and in Queensland. He was especially interested in the genus Flying Fox and Horseshoe bats, of which he described 15 new species. He published 13 scientific papers on the South-East Asian Horseshoe bats. His most famous work was his "Catalogue of the Chiroptera in the Collection of the British Museum," which is considered one of the most extensive works on flying foxes. Andersen was elected fellow of the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) in 1909.
In June 1918 he mysteriously disappeared; his body has never been found. His colleague Oldfield Thomas submitted his final manuscript on his behalf and stated that Andersen expected "to be absent from his scientific work for some time."
Dedicated taxa.
"Rhinolophus anderseni" (1909 by Ángel Cabrera; no longer a valid taxon, the subspecies "anderseni" and "aequalis" are today considered synonyms of the species "Rhinolophus arcuatus" and "Rhinolophus acuminatus").
"Dobsonia anderseni" (1914 by Oldfield Thomas), "Artibeus anderseni" (1916 by Wilfred Hudson Osgood).


Marywadea

Marywadea is a genus of Ediacaran biota shaped like an oval with a central ridge. It is a bilaterian organism as evidenced by its symmetry, vaguely resembling a very primitive trilobite. The fossil has an asymmetrical first chamber of the quilt. It has transverse ridges away from the central axis that may be gonads. The head is shaped as a semicircle and is the same width as the rest of the body. The ridges number about 50. There are two oval shapes below the head.
Marywadea ovata is the only described species of the genus. Originally "M. ovata" was grouped under the genus "Spriggina", but recent research has moved the species into its own genus. It is most often interpreted as an early arthropod, annelid, or a member of Proarticulata, but as with all Ediacarian fauna its phylogeny remains uncertain. Initially, it was described as the second species of "Spriggina". The genus was established by Martin Glaessner in 1976, who named it after fellow paleontologist Mary Wade, with whom he had described the species ten years earlier.


Eurydame

Eurydame is a genus of South American earthworm.


Posterior lateral nasal arteries

The sphenopalatine artery passes through the sphenopalatine foramen into the cavity of the nose, at the back part of the superior meatus. Here it gives off its posterior lateral nasal branches which spread forward over the conchæ and meatuses, anastomose with the ethmoidal arteries and the nasal branches of the descending palatine, and assist in supplying the frontal, maxillary, ethmoidal, and sphenoidal sinuses.


Helen Hays

Helen Hays is an American ornithologist and conservationist. Hays has lived on Great Gull Island for six months of each year since 1969 in her capacity as chair of the Great Gull Island committee at the American Museum of Natural History. As of 2014, this work saw the island's tern population increase tenfold compared to the level of 1969.
Early life.
Helen Hays grew up in Johnstown, New York. She attended Wellesley College, graduating with a bachelor's degree in biology in 1953. She next conducted graduate work in Manitoba at Cornell University’s Delta Waterfowl field station, but both Cornell and Wellesley refused to credit her with a master's degree for her work, studying ruddy duck breeding biology; Wellesley said her study was "not relevant". Nevertheless, her research into ruddy ducks was eventually published in the leading peer-reviewed ornithological journal in North America, "The Auk", as well as the "Handbook of North American Birds."
Career.
Without an advanced degree, Hays began her career in 1956 in low-level positions cataloguing specimens and performing secretarial work. In 1969 Hays made her first trip to Great Gull Island, which the American Museum of Natural History had recently purchased. At that time hunting had greatly reduced the numbers of breeding pairs of common terns and roseate terns in North America. In 1969 Hays began spending six months of the year on the island working to restore the local population. Hays lives in Manhattan in the other portion of the year. During her stays on the island, she lives in former barracks and is assisted by other volunteer conservationists in her work. The researchers weigh the terns and help to monitor hatchlings and improve nesting conditions for them. As of 2014, over 26,000 terns lived on the island, more than 10 times the number when Hays started her work.
Awards.
Hays has received the Conservation Service Award from the United States Department of the Interior, the Lifetime Achievement Award from the New York chapter of the National Audubon Society, and an Alumnae Achievement Award from Wellesley. In 2015, she was awarded an honorary doctorate of science from the University of Connecticut.


Enhydra


Reginald Innes Pocock

Reginald Innes Pocock F.R.S. (4 March 1863 – 9 August 1947) was a British zoologist.
Pocock was born in Clifton, Bristol, the fourth son of Rev. Nicholas Pocock and Edith Prichard. He began showing interest in natural history at St. Edward's School, Oxford. He received tutoring in zoology from Sir Edward Poulton, and was allowed to explore comparative anatomy at the Oxford Museum. He studied biology and geology at University College, Bristol, under Conwy Lloyd Morgan and William Johnson Sollas. In 1885, he became an assistant at the Natural History Museum, and worked in the section of entomology for a year. He was put in charge of the collections of Arachnida and Myriapoda. He was also given the task to arrange the British birds collections, in the course of which he developed a lasting interest in ornithology. The 200 papers he published in his 18 years at the museum soon brought him recognition as an authority on Arachnida and Myriapoda; he described between 300 and 400 species of millipedes alone, and also described the scorpion genus "Brachistosternus".
In 1904, he left to become superintendent of the London Zoo, remaining so until his retirement in 1923. He then worked, as a voluntary researcher, in the British Museum, in the mammals department.
He described the leopon in a 1912 letter to "The Field", based on examination of a skin sent to him by W. S. Millard, the secretary of the Bombay Natural History Society.
His brother Edward Innes Pocock played international rugby for Scotland and was part of Cecil Rhodes' Pioneer Column. His great grandfather was marine artist Captain Nicholas Pocock.


Otidimorphae

The Otidimorphae is a clade of birds that contains the orders Cuculiformes (cuckoos), Musophagiformes (turacos), and Otidiformes (bustards) identified in 2014 by genome analysis. While the bustards seem to be related to the turacos, other genetic studies have found the cuckoos to be closer to the bustards than the turacos are.


Descending palatine artery

The descending palatine artery is a branch of the third part of the maxillary artery supplying the hard and soft palate.
Course.
It descends through the greater palatine canal with the greater and lesser palatine branches of the pterygopalatine ganglion, and, emerging from the greater palatine foramen, runs forward in a groove on the medial side of the alveolar border of the hard palate to the incisive canal; the terminal branch of the artery passes upward through this canal to anastomose with the sphenopalatine artery.
Branches.
Branches are distributed to the gums, the palatine glands, and the mucous membrane of the roof of the mouth; while in the pterygopalatine canal it gives off twigs which descend in the lesser palatine canals to supply the soft palate and palatine tonsil, anastomosing with the ascending palatine artery.
According to Terminologia Anatomica, the descending palatine artery branches into the greater palatine artery and lesser palatine arteries.


Pulsating xenid

The pulsating xenid ("Heteroxenia fuscescens") is a species of soft coral in the family Xeniidae.
Description.
The polyps of "Heteroxenia fuscescens" grow to form large clumping colonies up to across. Its polyp stalks are approximately long, each stalk ending in a ring of large feathery pinnate tentacles, eight per polyp, as is typical of octocorals Polyps pulsate rhythmically around 40 times/ minute, moving their tentacles in a "pumping" or "pulsating" fashion. The function of this pulsing is not fully understood. Some hypotheses include creating a current to assist feeding, respiration, and helping to dispose of waste and detritus. It contains zooxanthellae, and draws most of its energy from these symbiotes.
Distribution.
These corals live on hard bottoms of lagoons and bays, and slopes with little current, and occurs from the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean.
In the aquarium.
This species, along with most other xeniids, are prized in the aquarium hobby for the rhythmic "pumping" of the polyps, and the ease of reproduction. However they tend to grow like weeds in the right environment and can quickly cover a tank. In some captive environments they may stop pulsing for long periods of time with no other signs of stress and suddenly start pulsing again later on as if there was never a problem. This may be due to instability in water conditions. Some hobbyists claim that the addition of iodide may help this species but there is only circumstantial evidence to suggest that.
"Heteroxenia" are very closely related to other xenia species and take an expert eye to identify. "Heteroxenia" grow smaller tentacles between the larger tentacles in mature specimen.


Parapytanga

Parapytanga is an extinct monotypic genus of temnospondyl amphibian, the type species being Parapytanga catarinensis. "Parapytanga" belongs to the family Rhinesuchidae. Fossils have been found in the Middle Permian Rio do Rasto Formation of Brazil.


Miogallus

Miogallus is an extinct genus of large pheasant that lived during the Miocene of Europe. It contains a single species, Miogallus altus.


Platyoposaurus

Platyoposaurus was a temnospondyl from the Middle Permian epoch about 270-268 Mya.
Discovery.
One of the discoveries includes a skull 28 cm long with a purported body length of 250 cm representing a carnivorous adult specimen.
The fossil remains were found in Belebey in Bashkortostan, Russia; the name "Platyoposaurus" means "flat-faced lizard" and was coined after the original name "Platyops" turned out to be preoccupied.


Flustridae

Flustridae is a family of bryozoans in the suborder Flustrina.


Hesionidae

Hesionidae are a family of phyllodocid "bristle worms" (class Polychaeta). They are (like almost all polychaetes) marine organisms. Most are found on the continental shelf; "Hesiocaeca methanicola" is found on methane ice, where it feeds on bacterial biofilms.
A characteristic apomorphy of the Hesionidae are the cirrophores of the anterior segments, which are well-developed cup-like sheaths; the cirri of the subsequent segments insert into the parapodia directly, or with just a vestigial cirrophore.
Systematics.
As phyllodocids, the Hesionidae belong to the order Aciculata, one of the three main clades of polychaetes. They appear to be part of the basal radiation of the main lineage of phyllodocids, alongside such families as the ragworms (Nereididae), the Pilargidae and Sphaerodoridae which are closely related to each other, the very ancient Syllidae, and perhaps the more advanced catworms (Nephtyidae).
Numerous genera are still treated as Hesionidae "incertae sedis", not reliably assignable to either of the three generally recognized hesionid subfamilies:


Akaimia

Akaimia is an extinct genus of carpet sharks which existed across Europe. Two species are known, the type species "A. altucuspis" from the middle or late Jurassic (Callovian or Oxfordian age) of Ogrodzieniec near Zawiercie, southern Poland, and "A. myriacuspis", from the middle Jurassic (Callovian) of the Oxford Clay, near Peterborough. It was first named by Jan Rees in 2010.


Lumbrineris latreilli

Lumbrineris latreilli is an annelid discovered by Jean Victoire Audouin and Henri Milne-Edwards in 1834.
In appearance they are iridescent; orange, pale pink or brown from different angles. They grow up to 300 cm and live mostly in muddy fine sand.
They are a marine species and are found worldwide in temperate waters.


Ooperipatellus duwilensis

Ooperipatellus duwilensis is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. It is found in Victoria, Australia.


Foramen tympanicum

The foramen tympanicum, or also known as the foramen of Huschke, is an anatomical variation of the tympanic part of the temporal bone in humans resulting from a defect in normal ossification during the first five years of life. The structure was found in 4.6% to as high as 23% of the population.
Structure.
If present, the foramen tympanicum is located at the anteroinferior portion of the external auditory canal, locating posteromedial to the temporomandibular joint. The structure connects the external auditory canal to the infratemporal fossa. Reduction in thickness of the temporal bone may also occur in the same location. During development of the skull, the foramen tympanicum normally closes by the age of 5 years. The foramen, however, may persists in rare cases resulting in its presence in adults. The persistence of this foramen may be the result of abnormal mechanical forces during development of face and/or ossification abnormalities attributed to genetic factors.
Clinical relevance.
Persistence of the foramen tympanicum may also predispose the individual to the spread of infection or tumor from the external auditory canal to the infratemporal fossa or vice versa. It is  associated with herniation of soft tissues from the temporomandibular joint into the external auditory meatus, and with formation of fistula between the parotid gland and the external auditory canal. During arthroscopy of the temporomandibular joint, the endoscope may inadvertently pass into the joint via the foramen, with resulting damage.


Ruth Padel

Ruth Sophia Padel FRSL FZS ( ; born 8 May 1946) is a British poet, novelist and non-fiction author, in whose work "the journey is the stepping stone to lyrical reflections on the human condition". She is known for her explorations through poetry of migration and refugees, science, and homelessness; for her involvement in wildlife conservation, Greece, and music; and for her belief that poetry "connects with every area of life" and "has a responsibility to look at the world". She is Trustee for conservation charity New Networks for Nature, has served on the Board of the Zoological Society of London, and broadcasts for BBC Radio 3 and 4 on poetry, wildlife and music. In 2013 she joined King's College London, where she is Professor of Poetry.
Biography.
Padel is daughter of psychoanalyst John Hunter Padel and Hilda Barlow, daughter of Sir Alan Barlow and Nora Barlow née Darwin, granddaughter of Charles Darwin, through whom Padel is Darwin's great-great-grandchild. Her brother is historian Oliver Padel; cousins include prison reformer Una Padel, sculptor Phyllida Barlow, mathematician Martin T. Barlow and biographer Randal Keynes; her uncle is Horace Barlow. Padel was born in Wimpole Street where her great-grandfather Sir Thomas Barlow practised medicine. She attended North London Collegiate School, studied Classics at Lady Margaret Hall Oxford where she sang in Schola Cantorum of Oxford, wrote a PhD on Greek poetry, and as the first Bowra Research Fellow at Wadham College Oxford, which altered its Statutes for her to accommodate female Fellows,
was among the first women to become Fellows of formerly all-male Oxford colleges. She taught Greek at Oxford and Birkbeck, University of London, taught opera in the Modern Greek Department at Princeton University, has lived extensively in Greece, and studied at the Sorbonne in Paris, where she sang in the Choir of Église Saint-Eustache, Paris. Her publishing career began in 1985, while she was teaching Greek at Birkbeck College, with a poetry pamphlet. She then left academe to support herself by reviewing and publish her first collection (1990). From 1984 to 2000 she was married to philosopher Myles Burnyeat. In 2013, she rejoined academic life, and is Professor of Poetry at King's College London.
Poetry.
Padel has published eleven collections, won the UK National Poetry Competition, and is said to be an exquisite image-maker of intense lyricism, delicate skill, rich imagery, deep resonance and a wild generous imagination. Her range includes the personal - her love poems caused her to be described as "the sexiest voice in British poetry", her elegiac poems explore loss and bereavement, - but also music, science, nature, painting, history, and socially engaged themes of homelessness, immigration, the Middle East, and wildlife conservation. Stylistic hallmarks are said to be juxtaposition of the modern world with the ancient, technical skill and musicality; wit, passion, lyrical intelligence, internal and half-rhyme, enjambement and unusual energy within and against the line, 'As if Wallace Stevens had hijacked Sylvia Plath with a dash of punk Sappho thrown in." Quoted influences include Gerard Manley Hopkins and Greek choral lyric. From 1998 to 2004, Padel's collections reflect themes of simultaneously written non-fiction: music ("I’m a Man - Sex, Gods and Rock 'n' Roll"); technical attention to the poetic line ("52 Ways of Looking at a Poem," exemplified in poems such as 'Icicles Round a Tree in Dumfrieshire' her National Poetry Competition winner); and wildlife ("Tigers in Red Weather"). Two later collections, "Darwin - A Life in Poems" and "The Mara Crossing", include prose; "Learning to Make an Oud in Nazareth"(2014), with its resonant last line, 'Making is our defence against the dark,' has been called a meditation on conflict and history: especially of the Abrahamic religions. "Tidings - A Christmas Journey" addressed homelessness in her local London borough. "Emerald" (2018), a memoir and meditation on the poet's mother at her death, explored the alchemy of mourning and the renewing value of green.
Migration, Middle East, homelessness.
Padel's collaboration with Syrian artist Issam Kourbaj, on Syrian refugees arriving on the Greek island of Lesbos, was performed on the first day of the Venice Biennale 2019. "Tidings - A Christmas Journey" (2016) dedicated to the Focus Homeless Outreach Team in Camden, North London, is described as an eloquent unsentimental narrative poem exploring homelessness and the meanings of Christmas today."The rough, apparently unmanageable contrast between child and tramp, hope and despair, gives the book its integrity. Padel's 2014 collection "Learning to Make an Oud in Nazareth" collects poems going back twelve years reflecting keen interest in the Middle East, from her prize-winning poem on Pieter Bruegel's "The Triumph of Death", the 2002 Siege of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, to the title poem "Learning to Make an Oud in Nazareth", which she has stated came from hearing Le Trio Joubran. She has held dialogues with Palestinian poet Mourid Barghouti, and written an Introduction to the posthumous poems of Mahmoud Darwish. "Learning to Make an Oud in Nazareth" is said to have a 'magnificent central section on the Crucifixion,' and be steeped in the Middle East, Judaism, Christianity and Islam: "Padel is a poetic Daniel Barenboim, determined to arrive at some approximation of Middle Eastern harmony." Her innovative poems-and-prose volume "The Mara Crossing" (2012) revivified the prosimetrum, a medieval mix of poetry and prose, It addresses animal and human migration.
 and is described as a sweeping, experimental volume. Migrants, cellular, animal or human, migrate to survive; human migration is inextricable from trade, invasion, colonization and empire. "Home is where you start from, but where is a swallow's real home? And what does "native" mean if the English Oak is an immigrant from Spain?" Padel supported the "Making It Home" project of the Refugee Survival Trust in Glasgow, which used poetry-based film-making to build bridges between groups of women of refugees and local women in Edinburgh.
Darwin and science.
Engaged in relating poetry and science, Padel has written on cell migration for "The Scientist", was a judge for the 2012 Wellcome Trust Science Book Prize and the 2005 Aventis Science Prize for the Royal Society has written poems on genetics and zoology, and her book on migration is said to connect micro-level cell migration with macro-level social migration. An interest in combining poetry, science and religion is reflected in poems on genetics, debates on poetry and prayer with Rowan Williams, Archbishop of Canterbury lectures at the Royal College of Surgeons and a residency at the Environment Institute, University College London.
Her poems on Charles Darwin (2009) employ Darwin's writings, letters and journals in an unusual form of biography, addressing his life, family and science. They were received as innovative work by scientists and by the literary community as a "new species" of biography in verse, whose emotional centre is the Darwins' marriage, shaken by divergent religious belief and the death of a daughter. The book's staging by the Mephisto Stage Company, Ireland, was described as intensifying the musicality of the verse and dramatic interplay between the scientific and the spiritual that permeates this collection. Since Padel is a Darwin descendant, the book was also a family memoir. Her preface illuminates the role of Padel’s grandmother, Nora Barlow, who in editing Darwin's "Autobiography" restored a passage in which Darwin said he did not see how anyone could wish the doctrine of hell to be true; this had been deleted by the first editor, Darwin's son Francis, at his mother's request. Padel's poems connected Darwin's loss of his mother as a child with his passion for collecting; and linked his early scientific writing with his taxidermy teacher in Edinburgh John Edmonstone, a freed slave from Guiana.
Music.
Since 2013, Padel has written and performed sequences of poems on composers in conjunction with the Endellion String Quartet: first on Josef Haydn's "Seven Last Words", which formed the central crucifixion section in her 2014 collection "Learning to make an Oud in Nazareth"; subsequently on Beethoven's late quartets and Schubert's "Death and the Maiden". She was first Writer in Residence at the Royal Opera House Covent Garden and is said to be a lifelong choral singer; she has presented Radio 3's programme "The Choir", has broadcast a series of BBC Radio 3 opera interval talks and has stated that if she could choose any other career it would be that of opera director. She has written on women's voices in opera and on a sixteenth-century madrigal for the London Review of Books, and in a Radio 3 essay series, "Writers as Musicians", she spoke about playing viola,
an instrument whose "inner voice" illustrates her Newcastle Poetry Lectures "Silent Letters of the Alphabet". For BBC Radio 4 she has written and presented features on writers, scientists and composers including Hans Christian Andersen, Edward Elgar, Charles Darwin and W.S. Gilbert. On "Desert Island Discs", her choices included Beethoven String Quartet Opus 132, Verdi's Requiem, "Down by the Salley Gardens" sung by Kathleen Ferrier, "I’m Ready for You" sung by Muddy Waters, a Cretan folksong and "The Boys from Piraeus", from the film "Never on Sunday". Her luxury was a herd of deer.
Love, journeying, bereavement, creativity.
Padel's 1996 to 2004 collections, "Fusewire, Rembrandt Would Have Loved You, Voodoo Shop" and "The Soho Leopard", mixed passionate love lyric with wide adventuring across the globe, but also challenged the supremacy of the male gaze at women. "Rembrandt Would Have Loved You" offered the female gaze: "The poems tangle with the shadowy undergrowth of political correctness, feminism and sex." "Emerald", 2018, a meditation on the consoling nature of green, "guides us around the world, intense flights of geological and geographical fancy anchored to the bedrock of real emotion"; "a wild and generous imagination, a writer at the peak of her powers, a rich excavation of the truths and mysteries found in grief", but also an exploration of the relation between loss and creativity.
Non-fiction.
Greek scholarship, Greek myth, rock 'n' roll.
Padel's non-fiction began with Princeton University Press studies of ancient Greek drama and the mind.
"In and Out of the Mind: Greek Images of the Tragic Self" explores the way Greek ideas of inwardness shaped European notions of the self. She used anthropology and psychoanalysis to support her thesis that male Greek culture spoke of the mind as mainly "female" and receptive rather than "male" and active. "Whom Gods Destroy: Elements of Madness in Greek and Other Tragedy" investigates madness in tragedy from the Greeks to Shakespeare and the moderns, parsing different views of madness in different societies. She presented the tragic hero as embodiment of the human mind, 'which lives catastrophe, suffers damage and endures.'
Her 2000 study "I'm A Man: Sex, Gods and Rock 'n' Roll" argued that rock music began as a "wishing well of masculinity", which drew on mythic connections between male sexuality, aggression, anxiety, misogyny and violence which derived from Ancient Greece. Padel has stated that she intended this to focus on women's voices but then felt she ought first to pick apart the maleness of rock music. The book had a mixed reception from male reviewers. Women reviewers described it as original, beautifully expressed, vivid, amusing and convincing; Rock writers Charles Shaar Murray and Casper Llewellyn Smith described it as "provocative and fascinating" and her analysis of rock's misogyny "dazzling".
Wildlife and conservation.
Padel is known for her poetry and prose on conservation, especially of tigers, served as Trustee for Zoological Society of London, inaugurated an influential programme of "ZSL Writers' Talks on Endangered Species" to highlight the Zoological Society of London's conservation work. and is an Ambassador for "New Networks for Nature", an alliance of practitioners in different fields, artistic and scientific, who celebrate Britain's nature and wildlife.
Her account of wild tiger conservation, drawing on her scientific background and Darwinian descent, was valued internationally for quality of nature writing, insights on conservation, travel writing on little-known parts of the world such as Sumatra, Bhutan and Ussuriland, her ear for dialogue. and portrait of both the tiger and the field-zoologist.
Fiction.
Padel's novel "Where the Serpent Lives"(2010), focussing on wildlife crime in India and the UK, was noted for vivid nature writing, innovative use of science and an animal's eye viewpoint. In India and UK, reviewers commented on the imaginative connections between nature, poetry and science. "She has done for the forests of Karnataka and Bengal what Amitav Ghosh did for the Sundarbans in "The Hungry Tide"."
Criticism, teaching.
Padel is Professor of Poetry at King's College London. From 1998 to 2001 she pioneered "The Sunday Poem", a weekly column in London's "Independent on Sunday" in readings of contemporary poems she collected in her popular books "52 Ways of Looking at a Poem" and "The Poem and the Journey". As Chair of the UK Poetry Society 2004-2007, she presided over the establishment of poetry 'Stanzas' across the UK. In 2010 she chaired Judges for the Forward Poetry Prize, in 2011 delivered the Housman Lecture at the Hay Festival on "The Name and Nature of Poetry," and inaugurated Radio 4's "Poetry Workshop", a series of programmes on writing poetry in which she led workshops with poetry groups across the UK.
Her books on reading poetry and the column from which they grew influenced a decade of writing about poetry in the UK, followed by her Newcastle University 'Bloodaxe' Lectures on poetry's use of silence, "Silent Letters of the Alphabet". Her criticism is reported to employ close analysis, knowledge of Greek poetics, myth, metaphor, tone and rhyme; she is said to read with aural acuity, generosity and no polemic; her precision "does not obscure but builds the big picture", addressing the general reader but with "utmost attention to the page".
She has written introductions to the works of Palestinian poets Mahmoud Darwish, Mourid Barghouti and Ramsey Nasr, and British poets Walter Ralegh, Tennyson and Gerard Manley Hopkins.
At the opening festival of the T S Eliot Festival at Little Gidding in 2006, 70 years after Eliot's visit there, Padel described the contrast between Eliot's memories of Little Gidding and his experience of The Blitz whilst writing the poem. "It reminded him there was still a place that had a sense of truth." She returned to this moment in her Foreword to the posthumous volume of Mahmoud Darwish, comparing his sense of the poet's role in a time of violence to that of Seamus Heaney in Northern Ireland during the Troubles and of Eliot during the London blitz.
Awards and appointments.
Oxford Professor of Poetry.
In 2009, with 297 votes, Padel became the first woman to be elected Oxford Professor of Poetry. (Predecessors James Fenton and Christopher Ricks were elected on 228 and 214 votes; online voting now allows wider participation.) She was elected in a media storm, triggered by photocopied pages from a university publication describing sexual harassment charges against her rival Derek Walcott, who withdrew his candidacy. Padel denied connection with them, but commentators alleged her involvement and she resigned, saying she did not wish to do the job under suspicion. Public comment attributed treatment of Padel to a gender war, or misogyny, or 'toxicity of the media', which both 'pursued allegations against Walcott's past and criticised Padel for having mentioned them as a source of voters' disquiet,'; unfairly excavating Walcott's past while unfairly denigrating Padel, "justly held in high regard for her poetry and teaching." Oxford had "missed out for the worst of reasons on an inspirational teacher; Walcott removed the decision from the electorate by his own choice; Padel should not have been made to pay for his decision to confront neither his accusers nor his past." On "Newsnight Review", poet Simon Armitage, elected to the Chair in 2016, expressed regret at her resignation. "Ruth's a good person. I don't think she should have resigned, she would have been good."


Epiperipatus lewisi

Epiperipatus lewisi is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatidae family. The type locality is in Jamaica.


Thalattoarchon

Thalattoarchon is an extinct genus of ichthyosaur from the Middle Triassic of the western United States. The type species Thalattoarchon saurophagis (meaning "lizard-eating sovereign of the sea" in Greek) was discovered in Nevada, USA, in 2010 and formally described in 2013. It is known from a single skeleton, holotype FMNH PR 3032, consisting of a partial skull, vertebral column, hip bones, and parts of the hind fins. The total length of "Thalattoarchon" is estimated to have been at least . "Thalattoarchon" is thought to have been one of the first marine macropredators capable of eating prey that was similar in size to itself, an ecological role that can be compared to that of modern orcas. "Thalattoarchon" lived four million years after the first appearance of ichthyosaurs in the Early Triassic and is therefore the oldest known marine reptile to have been an apex predator. It lived eight million years after the Permian-Triassic extinction event, indicating a fast recovery of marine ecosystems after the mass extinction.
Description.
"Thalattoarchon" is a large-bodied ichthyosaur that is estimated to have grown at least in length. The only known skeleton of "Thalattoarchon" is incomplete, but it can be inferred on the basis of other early ichthyosaurs to have had an elongated body and a weakly developed caudal fin. "Thalattoarchon" is diagnosed by a single distinguishing feature that is unique among ichthyosaurs: large, thin teeth that bear two cutting edges and that have smooth tooth crowns. Most later ichthyosaurs have much smaller cone-shaped teeth. The Late Triassic ichthyosaur "Himalayasaurus tibetensis" also has large teeth with cutting edges, but can be distinguished from "Thalattoarchon saurophagis" by the presence of grooves across the surfaces of its tooth crowns. "Thalattoarchon" is very similar in appearance to "Cymbospondylus", another large-bodied Middle Triassic ichthyosaur, but differs in having a head that is about twice as large as that of "Cymbospondylus" relative to its body.
Classification.
Below is a cladogram from Fröbisch "et al." (2013):
A 2016 cladistic analysis recovers "Thalattoarchon" as a cymbospondylid rather than a basal merriamosaur.


Antral follicle

An antral follicle, also known as Graafian follicle and tertiary follicle, is an ovarian follicle during a certain latter stage of folliculogenesis.
Definitions differ in where the shift into an antral follicle occurs in the staging of folliculogenesis, with some stating that it occurs when entering the "secondary" stage, and others stating that it occurs when entering the "tertiary" stage.
Appearance.
The antral follicle is marked by the formation of a fluid-filled cavity adjacent to the oocyte called the antrum. The basic structure of the mature follicle has formed and no novel cells are detectable. Granulosa and theca cells continue to undergo mitosis concomitant with an increase in antrum volume. Antral follicles can attain a tremendous size that is hampered only by the availability of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), which it is dependent on in this stage of folliculogenesis.
By command of an oocyte-secreted morphogenic gradient, the antral follicle's granulosa cells begin to differentiate themselves into four distinct subtypes: "corona radiata" that surrounds the zona pellucida, "membrana" that's interior to the basal lamina, "periantral" that's adjacent to the antrum, and "cumulus oophorus" that connects the membrana and corona radiata granulosa cells together. Each type of cell behaves differently in response to FSH.
Endocrine properties.
Theca cells express receptors for luteinizing hormone (LH). LH kicks off the production of androgens by the theca cells, most notably androstenedione, which are aromatized by granulosa cells to produce estrogens, primarily estradiol. Consequently, estrogen levels begin to rise.
Antral follicle count.
The "antral follicle count" (AFC) is the number of antral follicles, generally in both ovaries taken together if not else specified. It can be determined by transvaginal ultrasonography.
A low AFC is a major factor in the diagnosis of poor ovarian reserve, that is, low fertility characterized by low numbers of remaining oocytes in the ovaries, usually accompanied by high follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) levels. Several studies show that an AFC test is more accurate than basal FSH testing for older women (< 44 years of age) in predicting IVF outcome. However, it does not appear to add any predictive information about success rates of an already established pregnancy after IVF.
It is also a major determinant of the success of ovarian hyperstimulation.
It has been suggested that counting the antral follicles measuring 2–5 or 4–6 mm in diameter is preferable. On the other hand, the number of smaller antral follicles (2–5 mm) is highly correlated with the total number of antral follicles (2–10 mm), and therefore it is suggested that counting all identifiable antral follicles of 2–10 mm in diameter would provide the most practical method for assessment of AFC in clinical practice.
Three-dimensional (3D) automated follicular tracking is a developing technique that can substantially decrease both
intra- and inter-observer variability in estimating the AFC.


Not Your Typical Bigfoot Movie

Not Your Typical Bigfoot Movie is a 2008 American documentary film about Dallas Gilbert and Wayne Burton, two Bigfoot researchers from Portsmouth, Ohio. The documentary was directed by Jay Delaney.
Release.
The film was released at the Pioneer Theater in New York on October 17, 2008.
Reception.
The film has an 80% rating on Rotten Tomatoes. Ed Gonzalez of "Slant Magazine" awarded the film two stars out of four. Mel Valentin of Slash Film gave it a 6 out of 10.


The Red Guard (novel)

The Red Guard is the twenty-eighth novel in the long-running Nick Carter-Killmaster series of spy novels. Carter is a US secret agent, code-named N-3, with the rank of Killmaster. He works for AXE – a secret arm of the US intelligence services.
Publishing history.
The book was first published in 1967 (Number A261X) by Award Books part of the Beacon-Signal division of Universal Publishing and Distributing Corporation (New York, USA), part of the Conde Nast Publications Inc. The novel was written by Manning Lee Stokes. Copyright was registered on 12 October 1967.
Plot summary.
The novel is set in October 1967.
Sun Yat, an elderly Chinese bookseller in San Francisco's Chinatown is murdered by Mafia hitmen who stage the murder to make it look like a Tong assassination. The murdered man is a double agent employed by AXE and Chinese communist agents.
Carter is summoned to a meeting of the Joint Intelligence Chiefs at CIA headquarters. Carter learns that Fan Su – an anti-communist agent he helped on an earlier mission (described in Dragon Flame) has requested his help in supporting an anti-communist underground movement within China. Fan Su is currently in San Francisco. Carter also learns that Chinese forces are constructing a 500-mile long tunnel beneath the Chumbi Valley from Tibet into India to invade India and to conceal construction of the world's largest hydrogen bomb. Carter's mission is to enter China and destroy the bomb and tunnel before they can be used.
Carter heads to San Francisco to meet Fan Su. He visits a pharmacist in Chinatown where Sun Yat delivered his secret materials for forwarding to AXE. Carter is met by a Chinese acupuncturist who gives the correct response to his coded introduction. The Chinese man attacks Carter with curare-tipped acupuncture needles but is overpowered and killed. Carter finds the real contact dead in a closet and Fan Su tied up next to him. Carter and Fan Su kill another two agents as they escape from the pharmacy.
They head to a safe house in Los Angeles and plan their strategy. Carter will travel to Pusan where he will take a submarine to Shanghai. There he will meet up with Fan Su who will enter China via Hong Kong. Together they will head across China to Tibet with assistance from an elderly warlord known to Fan Su. If the mission to destroy the bomb in the Chumbi valley is a success the CIA will support Fan Su's anti-communist Undertong movement.
After spending several days in Shanghai, Carter learns that Po-Choy, Fan Su's half-brother and a fellow ringleader of the underground movement who had infiltrated the Red Guard, has been captured and tortured by the Red Guard. To prevent him revealing any information that might compromise the mission Carter and Fan Su kill Po-Choy as he is paraded at a Red Guard rally. Carter and Fan Su escape from Shanghai with the assistance of a CIA-operated Civil Air Transport plane which takes them deep into China yet still 500 miles from the Chumbi valley.
In the Chinese hinterland, Fan Su's family friend, a local warlord named General Teng Fa, provides shelter and armed guides while they wait for a CIA plane from Sikkim to take them to the Chumbi valley. General Teng tells Carter of an unguarded valley running parallel to Chumbi valley with ancient carved steps that will provide a shortcut into the Chumbi valley. Teng warns Carter that the place is called the Valley of the Yeti.
Carter and Fan Su arrive at the valley by parachute. Carter leaves Fan Su alone guarding their camp and infiltrates the secret tunnel excavation where he plants a small atomic grenade near the unfinished H-bomb assembly. The bomb is timed to explode 30 minutes after Carter and Fan Su are picked up by helicopter at their pre-arranged landing site.
Carter hears shots as he scales the cliff to return to Fan Su. Carter finds only blood stains, a bent rifle and giant footprints. Carter follows the bloodstains and footprints and discovers Fan Su's mangled body. She has been killed by some large animal – possibly a Yeti. Carter follows the wounded animal into a series of interconnected caves but loses it. Carter is picked up by the CIA helicopter and returns to base in Sikkim as the tunnel and bomb are destroyed.


Amram Ducovny

Amram Ducovny (September 11, 1927 – August 23, 2003) was an American non-fiction writer, playwright and novelist.
Life and career.
Ducovny, born as Duchovny, was born and raised in New York City area. His father, Moshe Duchovny, who came to the United States in 1918, from Berdychiv, Russian Empire (now in Ukraine), was a noted Yiddish writer and journalist, who, among the others, wrote for the "Morning Journal". His mother, Julia, was an immigrant from Poland. Ducovny dropped the "h" in his last name to avoid its mispronunciations.
He graduated from New Utrecht High School and received a B.A. from New York University. First, he worked in public relations for the American Jewish Committee in New York, and until his retirement for the Combined Jewish Philanthropies of Boston. In 1977, he moved to Boston and became director of public affairs for Brandeis University. From 1978 to 1982, he was the vice president for public affairs at the university.
Around 1964, he started his writing career. He wrote ten nonfiction books and a play "The Trial of Lee Harvey Oswald" that was brought into Broadway in 1967, and was soon thereafter adapted for television. In 2001, Ducovny fulfilled his lifelong dream and published a novel, "Coney", that received several positive reviews. It was based on his childhood experience as a Jewish immigrant before the World War II. In 2003, Ducovny died from heart disease in Paris, where he lived. He was 75 years old at the time of his death.
His son, David Duchovny, is an actor and writer.


Nambashag

Nambashag is an extinct genus of early cormorant from Late Oligocene and Early Miocene (about 26–24 mya) deposits of South Australia. The genus was first named by Trevor H. Worthy in 2011 and the type species is "Nambashag billerooensis". A second species, "N. microglaucus", was also named. The type species is known from 30 specimens while "N. microglaucus" is known from 14 specimens. The specimens of "Nambashag" were collected from the Etadunna and Namba Formations in the Lake Eyre and Lake Frome Basins.


Iliac crest

The crest of the ilium (or iliac crest) is the superior border of the wing of ilium and the superiolateral margin of the greater pelvis.
Structure.
The iliac crest stretches posteriorly from the anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) to the posterior superior iliac spine (PSIS). Behind the ASIS, it divides into an outer and inner lip separated by the intermediate zone. The outer lip bulges laterally into the iliac tubercle.
Palpable in its entire length, the crest is convex superiorly but is sinuously curved, being concave inward in front, concave outward behind.
It is thinner at the center than at the extremities.
Development.
The iliac crest is derived from endochondral bone.
Function.
To the external lip are attached the "Tensor fasciae latae", "Obliquus externus abdominis", and "Latissimus dorsi", and along its whole length the "fascia lata"; to the intermediate line, the "Obliquus internus abdominis".
To the internal lip, the "iliac fascia", the "Transversus abdominis", Quadratus lumborum, Sacrospinalis, and "Iliacus".
Clinical significance.
The iliac crest has a large amount of red bone marrow, and thus it is the site of bone marrow harvests (from both sides) to collect the stem cells used in bone marrow transplantation. The iliac crest is also considered the most ideal donor site for bone grafting when a large quantity of bone is needed. For example, oral and maxillofacial surgeons will often use iliac crest bone to fill in large osseous defects of the oral cavity caused by severe periodontal disease, excess bone resorption following tooth loss, trauma, or congenital defects including alveolar clefts.
The top of the iliac crests also marks the level of the fourth lumbar vertebral body (L4), above or below which lumbar puncture may be performed.


Muscles of respiration

The muscles of respiration are those muscles that contribute to inhalation and exhalation, by aiding in the expansion and contraction of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm and, to a lesser extent, the intercostal muscles drive respiration during quiet breathing. The elasticity of these muscles is crucial to the health of the respiratory system and to maximize its functional capabilities.
Diaphragm.
The diaphragm is the major muscle responsible for breathing. It is a thin, dome-shaped muscle that separates the abdominal cavity from the thoracic cavity. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts, so that its center moves caudally (downward) and its edges move cranially (upward). This compresses the abdominal cavity, raises the ribs upward and outward and thus expands the thoracic cavity. This expansion draws air into the lungs. When the diaphragm relaxes, elastic recoil of the lungs causes the thoracic cavity to contract, forcing air out of the lungs, and returning to its dome-shape.
The diaphragm is also involved in non-respiratory functions, helping to expel vomit, faeces, and urine from the body by increasing intra-abdominal pressure, and preventing acid reflux by exerting pressure on the esophagus as it passes through the esophageal hiatus.
Intercostal muscles.
Along with the diaphragm, the intercostal muscles are one of the most important groups of respiratory muscles. These muscles are attached between the ribs and are important in manipulating the width of the rib cage. There are three layers of intercostal muscles. The external intercostal muscles are most important in respiration. These have fibres that are angled obliquely downward and forward from rib to rib. The contraction of these fibres raises each rib toward the rib above, with the overall effect of raising the rib cage, assisting in inhalation.
Accessory muscles of respiration.
The term "accessory muscles" refers to those that assist, but do not play a primary role, in breathing. Use of these while at rest is often interpreted as a sign of respiratory distress. There is no definitive list of accessory muscles, but the sternocleidomastoid and the scalenes (anterior, middle, and posterior) are typically included, as they assist in elevating the rib cage. The involvement of these muscles seems to depend on the degree of respiratory effort. During quiet breathing, the scalenes are consistently physically active, while the sternocleidomastoids are quiet. With an increase in the respiratory volume, sternocleidomastoids also become active. Both muscles are simultaneously activated when one breathes in at the maximal flow rate.
Apart from the above neck muscles, the following muscles have also been observed contributing to respiration: serratus anterior, pectoralis major and pectoralis minor, trapezius, latissimus dorsi, erector spinae, iliocostalis, quadratus lumborum, serratus posterior superior, serratus posterior inferior, levatores costarum, transversus thoracis, subclavius (Kendall et al., 2005). The levator labii superioris alaeque nasi muscle lifts the sides of the nostrils.
Muscles of exhalation.
During quiet breathing, there is little or no muscle contraction involved in exhalation; this process is simply driven by the elastic recoil of the lungs. When forceful exhalation is required, or when the elasticity of the lungs is reduced (as in emphysema), active exhalation can be achieved by contraction of the abdominal wall muscles (rectus abdominis, transverse abdominis, external oblique muscle and internal oblique muscle). These press the abdominal organs cranially (upward) into the diaphragm, reducing the volume of the thoracic cavity.
The internal intercostal muscles have fibres that are angled obliquely downward and backward from rib to rib. These muscles can therefore assist in lowering the rib cage, adding force to exhalation.


Fustiaria

Fustiaria is a genus of scaphopods in the order Dentaliida and is the only genus comprising the family Fustiariidae, with 24 species.
Description.
The shells of "Fustiaria" are characterized as smooth, slender, circular in cross section, slightly curved, thin-walled, and virtually transparent. The central tooth of its radula (chewing organ), called a "rachis", is unusual compared with that of other Dentaliids in that it is flat on its tip rather than pointed. The space around the foot (the "pedal sinus") is divided by a thin horizontal membrane called a septum.


Vitelline membrane

The vitelline membrane or vitelline envelope is a structure surrounding the outer surface of the plasma membrane of an ovum (the oolemma) or, in some animals (e.g., birds), the extracellular yolk and the oolemma. It is composed mostly of protein fibers, with protein receptors needed for sperm binding which, in turn, are bound to sperm plasma membrane receptors. The species-specificity between these receptors contributes to prevention of breeding between different species.
It is called zona pellucida in mammals.Between the vitelline membrane and zona pellucida is a fluid filled periviteline space.
As soon as the spermatozoon fuses with the ovum, signal transduction occurs, resulting in an increase of cytoplasmic calcium ions. This itself triggers the cortical reaction, which results in depositing several substances onto the vitelline membrane through exocytosis of the cortical granules, transforming it into a hard layer called the “fertilization membrane”, which serves as a barrier inaccessible to other spermatozoa. This phenomenon is the slow block to polyspermy.
In insects the vitelline membrane is called the vitelline envelope and is the inner lining of the chorion.
Structure and function.
The vitelline membrane of the hen is made of two main protein layers that provide support for the yolk and separation from the albumen. The inner layer is known as the perivitelline lamina. It is a single layer that measures roughly 1μm to 3.5μm thick and is mainly composed of five glycoproteins that have been discovered to resemble glycoproteins of the zona pellucida in mammals involved in maintaining structure. The outer layer, known as the extravitelline lamina, has multiple sublayers which results in thickness that ranges from 0.3μm to 9 μm. It is primarily composed of proteins, such as lysozyme, ovomucin and vitelline outer membrane proteins that are responsible for constructing the network of dense, thin protein fibres that establish the foundation for further growth of the outer layer during embryonic development.
The vitelline membrane is known to function as a barrier that allows for diffusion of water and selective nutrients between the albumen and the yolk.
Formation.
In the adult hen, liver cells express the proteins required for initial formation of the inner layer. These proteins travel via the blood from the liver to the site of assembly in the ovary. Before ovulation occurs, the inner layer forms from follicular cells that surround the oocyte. After ovulation, fertilization of the egg proceeds with the formation of the outer layer that is secreted by infundibulum glands located along the first parts of the oviduct.
Sperm recognition and fertilization.
After the sperm digests its way through the jelly layer, the acrosomal process of the sperm makes contact with the vitelline envelope. The vitelline envelope has glycoproteins and peptides that allow for species-specific sperm binding and recognition. For example, in the sea urchin species, "Strongylocentrotus franciscanus and Strongylocentrotus purpuratus", the vitelline membrane has bindin receptors for the bindin protein present on the sperm head. In the "Xenopus laevis", it was found that the gp69/gp64 glycoprotein pair is involved in sperm recognition and binding.
Infections and diseases.
The vitelline membrane serves a different purpose in chickens. In the chicken egg, the yolk is separated from the albumen by the vitelline membrane which acts as a barrier to microbial infection. Apart from the 13 proteins identified to make up the membrane, the proteins that are key to providing antimicrobial properties to the membrane are the vitelline outer membrane proteins (VMO) 1 and 2. A recent study reports that VMO 1 can be a potential diagnostic marker for ovarian cancer in hens due to its ability to regulate estrogen and target microRNAs in the chickens’ oviduct. Another difference is that the vitelline membrane has two major layers: the inner layer that faces the yolk, intermediary and external outer layer that contacts the albumen.
Other animals.
In sea urchins, the formation of the vitelline membrane comes directly after fertilization and later thickens to form the fertilization membrane. This process is completed in about a minute. The innermost membrane of all animal eggs except some cnidarians is called the vitelline membrane. Some invertebrates and some lower chordate eggs are covered by this membrane only while most have other membranes. Frog and bird eggs have a very thin vitelline membrane which are surrounded by either a jelly layer (frogs) or other membranes (birds). In mammals, the structure is called the zona pellucida and is surrounded by a layer of support cells, called the corona radiata.


Sex-lethal

Sex-lethal (Sxl) is a gene found in Dipteran insects, named for its mutation phenotype in "Drosophila melanogaster" (). It is most closely related to the ELAV/HUD subfamily of splicing factors.
In fruit flies, this protein participates in alternative splicing of the "transformer" gene, deciding the sex of the fly. It induces female-specific alternative splicing of the "transformer" ("tra") pre-mRNA by binding to the "tra" uridine-rich polypyrimidine tract at the non-sex-specific 3' splice site during the sex-determination process. SXL binds also to its own pre-mRNA and promotes female-specific alternative splicing. SXL contains an N-terminal Gly/Asn-rich domain that may be responsible for the protein-protein interaction, and tandem RNA recognition motifs (RRMs) that show high preference to bind single-stranded, uridine-rich target RNA transcripts.


Prechordal plate

In the development of vertebrate animals, the prechordal plate is a "uniquely thickened portion" of the endoderm that is in contact with ectoderm immediately rostral to the cephalic tip of the notochord. It is the most likely origin of the rostral cranial mesoderm.
STAGE 6
The prechordal plate is a thickening of the endoderm at the cranial end of the primitive streak seen in Embryo Beneke by Hill J.P., Florian J (1963)
STAGE 7
The prechordal plate is described as a median mass of cells, located at the anterior end of the notochord, which appears in early embryos as an integral part of the roof of the foregut. e.g. Embryos Bi 24 and Manchester 1285. O'Rahilly R., Müller F. (1987) p 55 and Gilbert P.W., (1957)
STAGE 8
O'Rahilly R., Müller F. (1987) present a detailed discussion of the term 'prechordal plate' and its relation to the 'prochordal plate'. These essentially synonymous terms refer to the horseshoe-shaped band of thickened endoderm rostral to the notochord but not quite reaching the rostral extremity of the embryo. It reaches its maximum state of development at about this stage and contributes mesodermal type cells to the surrounding tissue. Cells derived from the prechordal plate become incorporated into the cephalic mesenchyme ( including the 'premandibular' condensation described by Gilbert P.W., (1957) and some of the foregut endoderm.
STAGE 9
The prechordal plate is continuous rostrally with the cardiac mesenchyme and it is rotated caudo-ventrally as the cranial flexure develops and the head moves ventrally.
STAGE 10
In the 10 somite embryo, Carnegie No. 5074, the prechordal plate is continuous posteriorly with the notochord, and is made up of about 35-40 cells. The prechordal mesenchyme proliferates laterally over the junction of the dorsal aorta and first aortic arch on each side. Gilbert P.W., (1957)
STAGE 11
The prechordal plate contributes largely to the premandibular condensation and the mesenchyme of the heart such that little is seen in the median plane at this stage. Müller F., O'Rahilly R., (1986)
STAGE 12
The premandibular condensation is situated bilaterally at the rostral end of the notochord, bridged in the median plane by mesenchymal cells also of prechordal origin. e.g. The 26 somite embryo, Carnegie No. 4736. Gilbert P.W., (1957)
STAGE 13
The premandibular condensation has formed from the prechordal plate mesoderm, the bilateral masses remain connected by a bridge of mesenchyme that is thought to later contribute to the meninges. Müller F., O'Rahilly R., (1986)


Sand eel

Sand eel or sandeel is the common name used for a considerable number of species of fish. While they are not true eels, they are eel-like in their appearance and can grow up to in length. Many species are found off the western coasts of Europe from Spain to Scotland, and in the Mediterranean and Baltic seas.
Sand eels are an important food source for seabirds, including puffins and kittiwakes. They are a commercially important for the production of fish meal and made up 4% of fish globally caught for fish meal production (behind anchovy, capelin and blue whiting) between 1997-2001.
Habitat.
The preferential habitat for sand eels is a seabed floor, with a relatively smooth bottom of gravelly sand; an example of this prime habitat is the floor of the Sea of the Hebrides.
Sand eel species.
Most sand eels are sea fish of the genera "Hyperoplus" (greater sand eels), "Gymnammodytes" or "Ammodytes". The three genera listed above all fall within the family Ammodytidae, the sand lances. Members of these genera found in other oceans are not usually called sand eels, and species from other parts of the world are known as sand eels are usually less closely related.
Commercial fishing.
Traditionally, they have been little exploited for human food, but are a major target of industrial fishing for animal feed and fertilizer. Increasing fishing for them is thought to be causing problems for some of their natural predators, especially the auks which take them in deeper water. They are also tied as flies to catch fish.
An instance of this was the RSPB report linking a population crash of seabirds in the North Sea to fishing for sand eels. This led to political pressure for the closure of this fishery; the seabird populations subsequently improved.


Adolf Stossich

Adolf (Adolfo) Stossich (16 January 1824 in Fiume – 24 June 1900 in Trieste) was an Austrian-Italian naturalist. He was the father of helminthologist Michele Stossich.
He received his education in Vienna, and from 1861 to 1891 worked as a teacher at an upper secondary school in Trieste. He conducted studies of bryozoans native to the Kvarner Gulf as well as research of marine, terrestrial and freshwater mollusks of the Adriatic region. As a malacologist he worked closely with Simon Robič (1824–1897). During his career, he served as secretary of the Società agraria di Trieste and as vice-president of the Società Adriatica di Scienze naturali.


Monopeltis anchietae

Monopeltis anchietae, also known commonly as Anchieta's worm lizard, Anchieta's spade-snouted worm lizard, and the Angolan spade-snouted worm lizard, is a species of amphisbaenian in the family Amphisbaenidae. The species is native to southern Africa.
Etymology.
The specific name, "anchietae", is in honor of Portuguese naturalist José Alberto de Oliveira Anchieta, who was an explorer of Africa.
Geographic range.
"M. anchietae" is found in Angola, Botswana, Namibia (including the Caprivi Strip), and Zambia.
Habitat.
The preferred natural habitat of "M. anchietae" is savanna, at altitudes of .
Description.
"M. anchietae" is reddish brown dorsally, and unpigmented ventrally. The head shields are yellowish tan. Adults usually have a snout-to-vent length (SVL) of . The maximum recorded SVL is .
Reproduction.
"M. anchietae" is viviparous.