Triosteum angustifolium

Triosteum angustifolium, commonly known as yellowfruit horse-gentian, is a species of flowering plant belonging to the family Caprifoliaceae. It is found Eastern North America, primarily in Limestone regions.


Cyclodium

Cyclodium is a plant genus in the fern family Dryopteridaceae, subfamily Polybotryoideae, in the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I).
Species.
, the "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World" accepted the following species:


Helianthemum apenninum

Helianthemum apenninum, the white rock-rose, is a white-flowering rock rose found in dry grassy and rocky places across large parts of Europe.
"Helianthemum apenninum" flowers from March to July, and may grow up to 50 cm tall. The flowers are pentamerous, up to 30 mm across, and are white with yellow centres and yellow stamens. The three outer sepals are hairy and striped; the 2 inner sepals are very small. The flowers grow in clusters of 3 to 10 on a stem.
The leaves are linear to lance-shaped, 30 mm long, in opposite pairs. They are covered with greyish or whitish hairs, especially on the underside, and the edges are rolled under.


Solanum bulbocastanum

Solanum bulbocastanum, the ornamental nightshade, is a plant in the family Solanaceae, native to Mexico and parts of the U.S. Southwest. It is closely related to the potato and, as it has evolved strong resistance to all known varieties of potato blight, has been used to genetically engineer resistance into the cultivated varieties of potatoes around the world. The use of genetic engineering is helpful, as efforts to hybridize by traditional methods have so far been unsuccessful, and the use of somatic hybridization to transfer genes is difficult. A resistance to the Columbia root-knot nematode Meloidogyne chitwoodi has been identified in S. bulbocastanum, which can be transferred to cultivated potato.


Auranticarpa

Auranticarpa is a genus of trees in the family Pittosporaceae.
All six species occur in monsoonal forest and rainforest margins in Northern Australia. The species, all formerly included in the genus "Pittosporum", are as follows:


Lithophragma affine

Lithophragma affine is a species of flowering plant in the saxifrage family known by the common name San Francisco woodland star. It is native to the coast of western North America from Oregon to Baja California, where it grows in open habitat on mountain slopes, hills, and canyonsides. It is a rhizomatous perennial herb growing erect or leaning with a tall naked flowering stem. The leaves are located on the lower part of the stem, each divided into sharp-pointed lobes. The stem bears up to 15 widely spaced flowers, each in a cuplike calyx of red or green sepals. The five petals are bright white, up to 1.3 centimeters long, and divided into three toothlike lobes at the tips.


Oxalis hedysaroides

Oxalis hedysaroides, known as the fire fern, is not a fern but a flowering perennial plant native to the Caribbean. It is a member of the woodsorrel genus ("Oxalis") that grows to 30 cm height and 10 cm spread.
The plant gets its common name from the fact that its leaves, while starting green, turn a deep purple red with exposure to sun. "Oxalis hedysaroides" is a very mobile plant and will rotate its foliage significantly to follow the sun. At dusk, the plant can seem to quiver slightly as the red leaves partially close by folding in half.
The foliage of the fire fern is supported by branched wiry purple stems, and the plant produces small yellow flowers when in bloom.


Crambe cordifolia

Crambe cordifolia, the greater sea-kale, colewort or heartleaf crambe ( syn. "Crambe glabrata" DC.), is a species of flowering plant in the family Brassicaceae, native to the Caucasus. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
Epithet.
The Latin specific epithet "cordifolia", meaning "heart-shaped", refers to the leaves.
Description.
Growing to tall by broad, it is a substantial clump-forming herbaceous perennial with kidney-shaped dark green leaves, or more in length, which die down in mid- to late summer. It is cultivated in gardens for its broad crinkled foliage and spectacular multi-branched inflorescences of many small fragrant white, cruciform (cross-shaped) flowers, reaching up to high and appearing in early summer. Under droughty conditions the foliage depreciates. The plant is tap-rooted and resents disturbance.


Cylindropuntia echinocarpa

Cylindropuntia echinocarpa is a species of cactus known by the common names silver cholla, golden cholla, and Wiggins' cholla. It was formerly named "Opuntia echinocarpa".
Distribution.
"Cylindropuntia echinocarpa" is native to the Southwestern United States and Northwestern Mexico, where it can be found the Sonoran Desert, the Mojave Desert, and Colorado Desert in California and other states.
It commonly occurs in desert dry wash, creosote bush scrub, Joshua tree woodland, and pinyon-juniper woodland communities. It ranges from Mono County to Baja California Peninsula.
Description.
Silver cholla is a large, tree-like cactus which may exceed in height. Its stems and branches are made up of cylindrical green tubercles (segments) up to 1.5 cm wide and just under 1.0 cm tall. The fleshy tubercles each bear up to 20 long, straight, grayish or yellowish spines which may be nearly 4 cm long. The width of the tubercles is less than twice the length, which helps to distinguish it from buckhorn cholla ("Cylindropuntia acanthocarpa"), which occurs in a similar geographical distribution.
The flowers are usually greenish yellow, sometimes pinkish or brownish in color. The fruit is lumpy, spiny, and tan in color, with white seeds and a foul scent, reminiscent of rancid butter. It measures up to two centimeters long. Very few fruits reach maturity, and many immature fruits can often be seen lying on the ground below. This plant reproduces mainly through seeds, but its tubercles may break off and have a chance of producing new plants through asexual reproduction.


Lintonia

Lintonia is a genus of African plants in the grass family.


Elaeocarpus munroi

Elaeocarpus munroi is a species of flowering plant in the Elaeocarpaceae family and is endemic to India. It was first formally described in 1838 by Robert Wight who gave it the name "Monocera munroii" in his book "Illustrations of Indian Botany". In 1874, Maxwell T. Masters changed the name to "Elaeocarpus munroi" in the Hooker's "Flora of British India". The specific epithet ("munroi") honours the botanist, William Munro.


Beach morning glory

Beach morning glory is a common name for several plants and may refer to:


Scabiosa graminifolia

Scabiosa graminifolia, grass-leaved scabious is a species of scabious found in the Mediterranean region. The plant grows on rocky slopes. As its name indicates, this species has grass-like leaves. Its flowers are pink or lilac and open in summer.


British NVC community M20

NVC community M20 ("Eriophorum vaginatum" raised and blanket mire) is one of the mire communities in the British National Vegetation Classification system.
It is a comparatively localised community. There are two subcommunities.
Community composition.
Two constant species, Common Cottongrass ("Eriophorum angustifolium") and Hare's-tail Cottongrass ("Eriophorum vaginatum"), are found in this community.
No rare species are associated with the community.
Distribution.
This community is found throughout northern England. It is extensive in the southern Pennines, but more local elsewhere. It is also found locally in eastern Scotland and south Wales. It is mainly found within tracts of upland blanket bog, but also locally on raised bogs.
Subcommunities.
There are two subcommunities:


Calycanthus chinensis

Calycanthus chinensis, known as Chinese sweetshrub, is a species of flowering plant in the family Calycanthaceae, native to . It was first given a valid scientific name in 1964. It is cultivated as an ornamental flowering shrub, and has been hybridized with two other species in the genus "Calycanthus" to combine its larger and broader tepalled flowers with their scented and more colourful ones.
It has been treated as the only species in the genus Sinocalycanthus.
Description.
"Calycanthus chinensis" is a deciduous shrub or small tree up to high and the same across. Older twigs are hairless and have greyish or greyish-brown bark. The leaves are aromatic and arranged in an opposite fashion. The leaf petiole (stalk) is about long. The leaf blade is variable in shape but broadly ovate, long by wide. The base of the leaf petiole hides the lateral buds.
In its original habitat in China, it flowers in May. The nodding flowers are terminal, about across, and borne singly on a short pedicel long. There is no clear distinction into sepals and petals. There are about 10–14 white outer tepals, often flushed pink, especially as they age, and about 7–16 yellowish inner tepals, with purple marks near the base. The inner tepals are shorter and thicker than the outer ones, and curve inwards. The fruit matures in October in the wild. It is ovoid, with a spiral of marks at the top showing the former position of the tepals. The seeds are achenes, about long, and have silky hairs.
Taxonomy.
"Calycanthus chinensis" has a somewhat confused taxonomic history. It was first described in 1963 as "Calycanthus chinensis" by W.C. Cheng and S.Y. Chang. However, their use of the name was invalid under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, because two different collections were both given as holotypes. (Article 9.1 requires the holotype to be only one specimen.) The authors then described it validly in 1964 in their new genus "Sinocalycanthus". In 1979, P.T. Li rejected the genus "Sinocalycanthus", and validated the original name "Calycanthus chinensis" (inadvertently according to the International Plant Names Index).
A 2006 molecular phylogenetic study of the family Calycanthaceae found that the three widely recognized species of "Calycanthus" formed a monophyletic group. Relationships among the three species differed depending on whether chloroplast or nuclear data was used: "C. chinensis" was either sister to "C. floridus" plus "C. occidentalis", or formed a clade with "C. occidentalis", "C. floridus" being sister to both.
Distribution and habitat.
"Calycanthus chinensis" is known from Zhejiang Province in southeastern China, where it is found at elevations of in woods, particularly along streams.
Cultivation.
"Calycanthus chinensis" is cultivated as an ornamental shrub. In the United States, it is usually considered hardy in zones 6–8. In Europe, it is hardy as far north as eastern Scotland. Well-drained but moist, acid soils are recommended. In cooler climates, full sun is recommended, and it will have a long flowering season, beginning in June in southern England. In warmer climates in the US, it will grow in some shade and has a shorter but earlier flowering season, beginning in April. It can be propagated by softwood cuttings in summer, or by seed.
Hybridization.
"Calycanthus chinensis" has been hybridized with the two North American species of "Calycanthus", the aim being to combine the larger flowers of "C. chinensis" with the colour and fragrance of those of "C. floridus" and "C. occidentalis". The North American species are also hardier. The first cross, made in 1991 by Richard Hartlage at North Carolina State University, was between "C. chinesis" and "C. floridus". The hybrid has been given the scientific name "C." × "raulstonii", with the original cross treated as the cultivar 'Hartlage Wine'. Further crosses have been made. 'Venus' also involves "C. occidentalis".


Tetracera sarmentosa

Tetracera sarmentosa is a vine/climber and shrub in the Dilleniaceae family. It is native to parts of Tropical and Temperate Asia, from Peninsular Malaysia to Zhōngguó/China and Sri Lanka.
Description.
A woody vine/climber, evergreen, growing up to 20m in Zhōngguó/China,
it can grow as a shrub in Bangladesh.
Scabrous branchlet that are hairy when young but become glabrous later. Leaves lethery, very scabrous, some 4-12 x 2-5 cm in size, at maturity the abaxial surface is glabrous, or only the veins pubescent. The carpels and sepals are glabrous. The 3 petals are white, some 4-5mm long. The orange fruit (follicle) are around 1 cm, thin and leathery pericarp is slightly bright when dry, and has persistent style. One black seed, with yellow aril, fringed, enclosing the base. Flowers from April to May in China, while in Tripura, India, it flowers from April to June and fruits from July and August.
Distribution.
The area of "Tetracera sarmentosa's" indigenous growth is in Asia, both in tropical and temperate areas. Countries and regions where it occurs are: Peninsular Malaysia; Thailand; Vietnam; Zhōngguó/China (Southeast and South-central including Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, Hainan); Laos; Myanmar; and Sri Lanka.
It is reported from Bangladesh (regions of Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts, Cox’s Bazar,
and Satchari National Park, Habiganj district),
from India (Gondacherra & Chawmanu, Dhalai District; Chamtilla, North Tripura District, Tripura),
and Biswanath district, Assam),
and in Indonesia (Bengkulu, Sumatera).
Habitat.
It is one of the dominant taxa in the secondary tropical evergreen seasonal angiosperm lowland swamp forests of Central Vietnam (Hải Lăng District, Quảng Trị Province, and in the vicinity of Nha Trang, Khánh Hòa Province). At those areas it grows on sandy soil 10–50m elevation near the sea shore.
In China the species occurs in sparse forests, thickets and on barren hills. In the Satchari National Park of Bangladesh it occurs on forest edges.
Vernacular names.
In Standard Chinese the plant is known as 锡叶藤, "xi ye teng".
The plant is known as "ulu ludi" by Tanchangya people of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh).
Amongst Karbi and Munda peoples of Assam, "Tetracera sarmentosa" is known as "samphat"
A name used in English is "sandpaper vine"
Uses.
The plant is one of the foods fed to captive elephants in Sri Lanka.
It is reported that Karbi and Munda peoples of Assam use cut stems to obtain water in dense forests where there is no other source.
The root extract of "Tetracera sarmentosa" is used for treatment of rheumatism by the Tanchangya people, Bangladesh. The species has a number of leaf extracts that have potential medical effects, though there is no evidence that the plant is effective against any disease.
History.
The species was first described in 1794 by the Danish-Norwegian botanist, herbalist and zoologist Martin Vahl (1749-1804), in his "Symbolae Botanicae".
Further reading.
Additional information can be found in the following:


Oenothera linifolia

Oenothera linifolia is a species of flowering plant in the evening primrose family known by the common name threadleaf evening primrose. It is native to the southeastern United States.


Eucalyptus pauciflora

Eucalyptus pauciflora, commonly known as snow gum, cabbage gum or white sally, is a species of tree or mallee that is native to eastern Australia. It has smooth bark, lance-shaped to elliptical leaves, flower buds in clusters of between seven and fifteen, white flowers and cup-shaped, conical or hemispherical fruit. It is widespread and locally common in woodland in cold sites above altitude.
Description.
"Eucalyptus pauciflora" is a tree or mallee, that typically grows to a height of and forms a lignotuber. It has smooth white, grey or yellow bark that is shed in ribbons and sometimes has insect scribbles. Young plants and coppice regrowth have dull, bluish green or glaucous, broadly lance-shaped to egg-shaped leaves that are long and wide. Adult leaves are the same shade of glossy green on both sides, lance-shaped to curved or elliptical, long and wide, tapering to a petiole long. The flower buds are arranged in leaf axils in cluster of between seven and fifteen, sometimes more, on an unbranched peduncle long, the individual buds on pedicels up to long. Mature buds are oval, long and wide with a conical to rounded operculum. Flowering occurs from October to February and the flowers are white. The fruit is a woody, cup-shaped, conical or hemispherical capsule long and wide.
Taxonomy.
"Eucalyptus pauciflora" was first formally described in 1827 by Kurt Polycarp Joachim Sprengel from an unpublished description by Franz Sieber. Sprengel published the description in "Systema Vegetabilium". The specific epithet "pauciflora" is from the Latin "pauciflorus" meaning "few-flowered". The term "pauciflora" (few-flowered) is a misnomer, and may originate in an early collected specimen losing its buds in transit.
Six subspecies are recognised by the Australian Plant Census as at 30 November 2019:
Distribution and habitat.
Snow gum grows in woodland along the ranges and tablelands, in flat, cold sites above from the far south-east of Queensland, through New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, and Victoria, to near Mount Gambier in South Australia and Tasmania.
In Tasmania the species hybridises with "Eucalyptus coccifera" and "Eucalyptus amygdalina".
Ecology.
Snow gum is amongst the hardiest of all eucalyptus species, surviving the severe winter temperatures of the Australian Alps. The species regenerates from seed, by epicormic shoots below the bark, and from lignotubers. It is the most cold-tolerant species of eucalyptus, with "E. pauciflora" subsp. "niphophila" surviving temperatures down to and year-round frosts. It has been introduced to Norway.
Influence on snowpack processes.
At altitudes where stands of snow gum coincide with seasonal snowfall above an altitude of about , the trees have been shown to increase snowpack accumulation and moderate melt, making snow gum critically important to the hydrology and water resources of southeast Australia. Bushfire impact on snow gums alters these effects and leads to reduced snowpack longevity and greater evaporation/sublimation processes, in turn reducing snowpack runoff available for ecosystem and human use. It is estimated that the 2019-2020 bushfires impacted 462 km2 (33%) of mapped snow gum forest that regularly has seasonal snowpack, which would equate to a reduction in annual snowpack runoff of 25.6 gigalitres (about 10,240 olympic swimming pools).
Use in horticulture.
In cultivation in the UK, "Eucalyptus pauciflora" subsp. "niphophila" and "Eucalyptus pauciflora" subsp.
"debeuzevillei" have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Cantua

Cantua is a genus of flowering plants in the family Polemoniaceae which is in the order Ericales.
They are restricted to central South America where many species are endemics in the countries of occurrence.
There are currently about 12 recognised species including:
Synonyms include:


Persicaria decipiens

Persicaria decipiens, commonly known as slender knotweed, is a species of flowering plant native to Australia and Asia.
"Persicaria decipiens" is a trailing plant whose stems grow horizontally at first but become more vertical with time, reaching high. Its narrow elliptic to lanceolate (spear-shaped) leaves are long and across. The slender pink flower spikes appear from November to June, with a peak in February. Cylindrical in shape, they are not stiff and tend to bend over. The plant tends to die back in winter and regenerate after water.
"Persicaria decipiens" was among the plants collected by Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander on 5 May 1770 at Botany Bay during the first voyage of Captain James Cook. Prolific Scottish botanist Robert Brown described the species as "Polygonum decipiens" in his 1810 work "Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen". It was given its current name by Karen Wilson in 1988 as the broadly defined genus "Polygonum" was split into smaller genera. Common names include slender knotweed, willow weed and snake root.
"P. decipiens" is found in water and wet soil. It is found across Africa and the Mediterranean, through southwestern Asia, Malesia and all states of Australia, as well as Norfolk Island, New Zealand and New Caledonia. It has become naturalised in Madagascar.
Likely pollinators of its flowers are insects, including honeybees, native bees, flies, wasps and small butterflies.
"Persicaria decipiens" is not cultivated but is eaten locally in times of famine in Africa.


Acer wuyuanense

Acer wuyuanense is a species of maple tree in the soapberry family. It has been found only in Jiangxi Province in southeastern China.


Micranthes oregana

Micranthes oregana is a species of flowering plant known by the common name Oregon saxifrage. It is native to western North America, including the mountainous regions of the western United States. It can be found in moist habitat, such as marshes and other wetlands. It is a perennial herb growing from a thick, fleshy or woody caudex. It produces a basal rosette of linear to lance-shaped leaves each up to 25 centimeters long. The inflorescence arises on a stout peduncle which may exceed a meter in height. It is topped with one or more dense clusters of white-petaled flowers.


Aptenia

Aptenia is a small genus of flowering plants in the family Aizoaceae. They are native to southern Africa. The genus name is from the Greek "a-" (not) and "ptenos" (winged), and refers to the wingless fruit capsules.
These are succulent subshrubs growing from a system of fibrous, often fleshy roots. The stems lie prostrate on the ground or may climb. The stem bases are woody, and the stems are green. The leaves are mostly oppositely arranged, but those near the inflorescences may be alternate. The leaf blades are flat, hairless, sometimes waxy, and usually heart-shaped, or occasionally lance-shaped. Flowers are solitary or grow in small, whorled clusters, usually in the leaf axils along the stem. The flower is about a centimeter wide. There are two large sepals and two smaller. The corolla contains many narrow petals in shades of pink, purple, yellow, or white, and several staminodes that look very much like the petals. The many fertile stamens at the center are white or yellow. The fruit is a capsule with four valves.
In 2007, this genus and several others were transferred into "Mesembryanthemum". Two years later other authors proposed that this move be reversed.
There are 4 species:


Celtis bungeana

Celtis bungeana, commonly known as Bunge's hackberry is a deciduous tree in the genus "Celtis" that can grow 15 meters in height.
Range.
The species is native to the temperate zone of Asia in China and Korea.
Flowers and fruit.
The tree flowers from April to May, and the fruit ripens from October to November.


Cyperus difformis

Cyperus difformis is a species of sedge known by several common names, including variable flatsedge, smallflower umbrella-sedge and rice sedge. This plant is native to southern Europe, most of Africa and Asia, and Australia, and it is naturalized in other areas of the world, including large parts of the Americas.
"Cyperus difformis" is a plant of aquatic and moist habitats. It is a weed of rice fields, but not generally a troublesome one. This is an annual herb with one to many thin, soft erect stems reaching over 30 centimeters in maximum height. There are usually a few long, wispy leaves around the base of the plant. The inflorescence is a rounded bundle one to three centimeters wide, containing up to 120 spikelets, each long and partially or entirely covered in up to 30 bracted flowers. The flowers are light brown with areas darker brown and sometimes a yellowish or purplish tint.


Salix planifolia

Salix planifolia is a species of willow known by the common names planeleaf willow, diamondleaf willow, and tea-leafed willow. It is native to northern and western North America, including most of Canada and the western United States. It grows in many types of arctic and alpine habitats in the north, and mountainous areas in the southern part of its range.
Description.
"Salix planifolia" is a shrub varying in size from low and bushy, to long thickets, to a treelike form in height. The leaves are generally oval in shape with pointed tips, measuring up to 6.5 cm long. They are smooth-edged or serrated, glossy on the upper surface, and sometimes with silky hairs. The inflorescence is a catkin of flowers a few centimeters long.
"Salix pulchra", also commonly called diamondleaf or tealeaf willow and sometimes treated as a subspecies of "S. planifolia" ("S. planifolia" ssp. "pulchra"), is now treated as a distinct species.


Cosmos sulphureus

Cosmos sulphureus is a species of flowering plant in the sunflower family Asteraceae, also known as sulfur cosmos and yellow cosmos. It is native to Mexico, Central America, and northern South America, and naturalized in other parts of North and South America as well as in Europe, Asia, and Australia.
This plant was declared invasive by the United States Southeast Exotic Pest Plant Council in 1996. The flowers of all "Cosmos" attract birds and butterflies, including the monarch butterfly.
Description.
This species of "Cosmos" is considered a half-hardy annual, although plants may re-appear via self-sowing for several years. Its foliage is opposite and pinnately divided. The plant height varies from 1–7 feet (30–210 cm). The original and its cultivars appear in shades of yellow, orange, and red. It is especially popular in Korea and Japan, where it is often seen in mass plantings along roadsides, following an initiative pursued by the Korean-Japanese botanist Woo Jang-choon.
Cultivars.
Cultivars include:
(those marked have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit).
Cultivation.
Growth characteristics of this plant include


Scaevola restiacea

Scaevola restiacea is a shrub in the family Goodeniaceae. It is endemic to the southwest of Western Australia. Plants grow to between 0.15 and 0.5 metres high and have blue-white flowers that can appear in March or June or from August to December in their native range. They are found growing on undulating plains on sandy soils
The species was first formally described in 1868 by English botanist George Bentham.


Grielum

Grielum is a genus of four accepted species of plants in the family Neuradaceae. They are low-growing annual herbs endemic to dry regions, mainly in Western South Africa and Namibia.
Description.
The genus comprises annual dwarf herbs with pronounced taproots.
Species.
Four species are recognised:


Root-knot nematode

Root-knot nematodes are plant-parasitic nematodes from the genus Meloidogyne. They exist in soil in areas with hot climates or short winters. About 2000 plants worldwide are susceptible to infection by root-knot nematodes and they cause approximately 5% of global crop loss. Root-knot nematode larvae infect plant roots, causing the development of root-knot galls that drain the plant's photosynthate and nutrients. Infection of young plants may be lethal, while infection of mature plants causes decreased yield.
Economic impact.
Root-knot nematodes ("Meloidogyne" spp.) are one of the three most economically damaging genera of plant-parasitic nematodes on horticultural and field crops. Root-knot nematodes are distributed worldwide, and are obligate parasites of the roots of thousands of plant species, including monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous, herbaceous and woody plants. The genus includes more than 90 species, with some species having several races. Four "Meloidogyne" species ("M. javanica, M. arenaria, M. incognita, and M. hapla") are major pests worldwide, with another seven being important on a local basis. "Meloidogyne" occurs in 23 of 43 crops listed as having plant-parasitic nematodes of major importance, ranging from field crops, through pasture and grasses, to horticultural, ornamental and vegetable crops. If root-knot nematodes become established in deep-rooted, perennial crops, control is difficult and options are limited.
"Meloidogyne" spp. were first reported in cassava by Neal in 1889. Damage on cassava is variable depending on cultivar planted, and can range from negligible to serious. Early-season infection leads to worse damage. In most crops, nematode damage reduces plant health and growth; in cassava, though, nematode damage sometimes leads to increased aerial growth as the plants try to compensate. This possibly enables the plant to maintain a reasonable level of production. Therefore, aerial correlations to nematode density can be positive, negative or not at all. Vegetable crops grown in warm climates can experience severe losses from root-knot nematodes, and are often routinely treated with a chemical nematicide. Root-knot nematode damage results in poor growth, a decline in quality and yield of the crop and reduced resistance to other stresses (e.g. drought, other diseases). A high level of damage can lead to total crop loss. Nematode-damaged roots do not use water and fertilisers as effectively, leading to additional losses for the grower. In cassava, it has been suggested that levels of "Meloidogyne" spp. that are sufficient to cause injury rarely occur naturally. However, with changing farming systems, in a disease complex or weakened by other factors, nematode damage is likely to be associated with other problems.
Control.
Root-knot nematodes can be controlled with biocontrol agents "Paecilomyces lilacinus", "Pasteuria penetrans" and Juglone.
Life cycle.
All nematodes pass through an embryonic stage, four juvenile stages (J1–J4) and an adult stage. Juvenile "Meloidogynes" parasites hatch from eggs as vermiform, second-stage juveniles (J2), the first moult having occurred within the egg. Newly hatched juveniles have a short free-living stage in the soil, in the rhizosphere of the host plants. They may reinvade the host plants of their parent or migrate through the soil to find a new host root. J2 larvae do not feed during the free-living stage, but use lipids stored in the gut.
An excellent model system for the study of the parasitic behaviour of plant-parasitic nematodes has been developed using "Arabidopsis thaliana" as a model host. The "Arabidopsis" roots are initially small and transparent, enabling every detail to be seen. Invasion and migration in the root was studied using "M. incognita". Briefly, second stage juveniles invade in the root elongation region and migrate in the root until they became sedentary. Signals from the J2 promote parenchyma cells near the head of the J2 to become multinucleate to form feeding cells, generally known as giant cells, from which the J2 and later the adults feed. Concomitant with giant cell formation, the surrounding root tissue gives rise to a gall in which the developing juvenile is embedded. Juveniles first feed from the giant cells about 24 hours after becoming sedentary.
After further feeding, the J2s undergo morphological changes and become saccate. Without further feeding, they moult three times and eventually become adults. In females, which are close to spherical, feeding resumes and the reproductive system develops. The life span of an adult female may extend to three months, and many hundreds of eggs can be produced. Females can continue egg laying after harvest of aerial parts of the plant and the survival stage between crops is generally within the egg.
The length of the life cycle is temperature-dependent. The relationship between rate of development and temperature is linear over much of the root-knot nematode life cycle, though it is possible the component stages of the life cycle, e.g. egg development, host root invasion or growth, have slightly different optima. Species within the genus "Meloidogyne" also have different temperature optima. In "M. javanica", development occurs between 13 and 34 °C, with optimal development at about 29 °C.
Gelatinous matrix.
Root-knot nematode females lay eggs into a gelatinous matrix produced by six rectal glands and secreted before and during egg laying. The matrix initially forms a canal through the outer layers of root tissue and later surrounds the eggs, providing a barrier to water loss by maintaining a high moisture level around the eggs. As the gelatinous matrix ages, it becomes tanned, turning from a sticky, colourless jelly to an orange-brown substance which appears layered.
Egg formation and development.
Egg formation in "M. javanica" has been studied in detail, and is similar to egg formation in the well studied, free-living nematode "Caenorhabditis elegans". Embryogenesis has also been studied, and the stages of development are easily identifiable with a phase contrast microscope following preparation of an egg mass squash. The egg is formed as one cell, with two-cell, four-cell and eight-cell stages recognisable. Further cell division leads to the tadpole stage, with further elongation resulting in the first stage juvenile, which is roughly four times as long as the egg. The J1 stage of "C. elegans" has 558 cells, and the J1 of "M. javanica" likely has a similar number, since all nematodes are morphologically and anatomically similar. The egg shell has three layers, with the vitelline layer outermost, then a chitinous layer and a lipid layer innermost.
Egg hatching.
Preceded by induced changes in eggshell permeability, hatching may involve physical and/or enzymatic processes in plant-parasitic nematodes. Cyst nematodes, such as "Globodera rostochiensis", may require a specific signal from the root exudates of the host to trigger hatching. Root-knot nematodes are generally unaffected by the presence of a host, but hatch freely at the appropriate temperature when water is available. However, in an egg mass or cyst, not all eggs will hatch when the conditions are optimal for their particular species, leaving some eggs to hatch at a later date. Ammonium ions have been shown to inhibit hatching and to reduce the plant-penetration ability of "M. incognita" juveniles that do hatch.
Reproduction.
Root-knot nematodes exhibit a range of reproductive modes, including sexuality (amphimixis), facultative sexuality, meiotic parthenogenesis (automixis) and mitotic parthenogenesis (apomixis).


Epidendrum tridactylum

Epidendrum tridactylum is an epiphytic species of orchid of the genus "Epidendrum", occurring in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil.


Canarium kipella

Canarium kipella is a species of plant in the Burseraceae family. It is endemic to Java in Indonesia. It is an endangered species threatened by habitat loss.


Limodorum

Limodorum is a genus of myco-heterotrophic orchids. All species are temperate terrestrial plants and occur across much of Europe, North-West Africa, the Mediterranean Islands, and as far east as Iran. Plants have evolved away from photosynthesis and as a result their leaves are reduced to scales. There is still chlorophyll present but the plants are believed to be solely dependant on their fungal partner for nutrients. They spend most of their life underground as a short stem with fleshy roots, the unbranched inflorescence can appear in April to June if conditions are favourable.
The name finds its origin in "haemodoron", first applied by Theophrastus and later adopted by Jacques Daléchamps to refer to parasitic plants most likely in Orobanche. The name is derived from the Greek “leimo-” (meadow) and “dōron,” (gift).
Species.
A very long list of names has been proposed over the years. Most of these species, once part of "Limodorum", have been transferred to other genera. There are currently three recognised species in "Limodorum":


Hymenophyllum bivalve

Hymenophyllum bivalve is a species of filmy fern. Found in moist sheltered areas, in or near mountain rainforests in Australia and New Zealand. The habitat is on tree trunks, rocks and fallen logs.


Ceratozamia whitelockiana

Ceratozamia whitelockiana is a species of plant in the family Zamiaceae. It is endemic to Mexico, where it is known only from Metates and Chiapan in Oaxaca state. Only two subpopulations have been found, with a total population of about 2200 individuals. The habitat is threatened by conversion to plantations using slash-and-burn techniques.
This cycad has a cylindrical trunk about 20 to 30 centimeters long. The leaves are up to 2.5 meters in length and have 30 to 40 pairs of leaflets. The plant was named for cycad expert Loran Whitelock.


Amphiroa

Amphiroa is a genus of thalloid red algae comprising 55 species. Specimens can reach around 30 cm in size. The thalli take a crustose form; dichotomous branches are formed. The organisms possess secondary pit connections. "Amphiroa" reproduces by means of conceptacles; it produces tetraspores. Its pore canals are lined with parallel filaments; the morphology of the pore canal is a key trait used to delineate species within the genus.
Species.
The valid species currently considered to belong to this genus are:


Ruppia tuberosa

Ruppia tuberosa is a submerged herb in the genus "Ruppia" found in shallow hypersaline waters in Australia.
Distribution and habitat.
This is a common submerged herb in Australian coasts, including NSW, SA, Vic, and WA (type locality).
Description.
This aquatic herb is one of the early diverged species in the genus.
Ecology.
The habitat is up to four times saltier than seawater.


Aralidiaceae


Catimbaua

Catimbaua is a genus of shrubs in the family Linderniaceae. It contains a single species, Catimbaua pendula. It has pendant branches, greyish leaves and red flowers. The species occurs on steep cliffs in the Catimbau National Park in Pernambuco, north-eastern Brazil.


Sagittaria lancifolia

Sagittaria lancifolia, the bulltongue arrowhead, is a perennial, monocot plant in the family Alismataceae, genus "Sagittaria", with herbaceous growth patterns. It is native to the southeastern United States. It is known from every coastal state from Delaware to Texas. The species is also considered native to Mexico, Central America, the West Indies and northern South America. It has become naturalized on the Island of Java in Indonesia.
A common name is "duck potato" because of the large potato-like corms which can form underground.
Description.
The plant is conspicuous for its large, lance-shaped leaves which grow up from underground rhizomes and its showy, white three-petaled flowers which form at the end of long, thick stalks. Each flower has three green sepals, three white or pink-tinged petals, at least six stamens, and pistils which may be in separate flowers. The plant likes to grow in fresh or brackish water and is commonly found in ditches, marshes, swamps and along the shores of lakes and streams.
"Sagittaria lancifolia" reproduces both asexually through spreading rhizomes and sexually through reproduction of copious achenes, a dry fruit each of which carries a single seed. The achenes are dispersed through animal vectors and through hydrochory (dispersal through wind, water, or gravity). The achenes germinate only under light, and with or without available fluid, but the period of their germination is shorter when they are submersed in water. Temperature is a factor, with 100% germination occurring at . Germination is reduced in anaerobic conditions. Growth is also dependent on temperature.
Sensitivity to in-situ burning of applied crude oil.
Louisiana is one of the top five U.S. states in oil production, oil that is piped through marshes in Louisiana to market and sometimes leaks into the marsh land polluting it. Field studies suggest that, although the application and burning of South Louisiana Crude oil on "Sagittaria l." plants in plots of fresh Louisiana marsh land had short term negative effects on the growth rate of "Sagittaria l.", over time plant recovery was just as rapid as in the plots where the plants were oiled but not burned. This suggests that allowing a polluted marsh to degrade and recover without burning is a viable option, while burning is a viable option when a rapid recovery is needed on sensitive lands.


Celastrales

The Celastrales are an order of flowering plants found throughout the tropics and subtropics, with only a few species extending far into the temperate regions. The 1200 to 1350 species are in about 100 genera. All but seven of these genera are in the large family Celastraceae. Until recently, the composition of the order and its division into families varied greatly from one author to another.
Description.
The Celastrales are a diverse order that has no conspicuous distinguishing characteristic, so is consequently hard to recognize. The flowers are usually small with a conspicuous nectary disk. The stipules are small or rarely absent. The micropyle has two openings and is therefore called a bistomal micropyle. Flowers with well-developed male and female parts are often functionally unisexual. The seed often has an aril. In bud, the sepals have a quincuncial arrangement. This means that two sepals are inside, two are outside, and the remaining sepal is half inside and half outside.
Relationships.
Perhaps the most conspicuous and unusual trait of the Celastrales is the nectary disk, a feature that it shares with another rosid order, Sapindales. Since the orders are not closely related, the disk must have been an independent development in each of these lines.
The Celastrales are a member of the Celastrales, Oxalidales (including Huaceae), and Malpighiales (COM) clade of Fabidae, with Fabidae being one of the two groups of Eurosids.
Circumscription.
The name Celastrales was first used by Thomas Baskerville in 1839. In the time since Baskerville first defined the order, until the 21st century, great differences of opinion occurred about what should be included in the order and in its largest family, the Celastraceae. The family Celastraceae was the only group consistently placed in the order by all authors who accepted it. Because of the ambiguity and complexity of its definition, the Celastraceae became a dumping ground for genera of dubious affinity. Several genera were assigned to this family with considerable doubt about whether they really belonged there. Also, some genera that properly belong in the Celastraceae were placed elsewhere.
By the end of the 20th century, "Goupia" and "Forsellesia" had been excluded from the Celastraceae and also from the Celastrales. "Goupia" is now in the Malpighiales. "Forsellesia" is now in the Crossosomatales. It continues to be the subject of a dispute about whether its proper name is "Forsellesia" or "Glossopetalon".
After being placed elsewhere, "Canotia, Brexia", and "Plagiopteron" were found to belong in the Celastraceae. The family Hippocrateaceae was found to be deeply nested within the Celastraceae and is no longer recognized as a separate family.
In 2000, Vincent Savolainen found that three families - Lepidobotryaceae, Parnassiaceae, and Celastraceae - were closely related. They stated that these three families should constitute the order Celastrales, and this idea was accepted by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, which later subsumed the Parnassiaceae into the Celastraceae. Savolainen and co-authors also excluded "Lophopyxis" from the Celastrales. "Lophopyxis" now constitutes a monogeneric family in the Malpighiales.
In 2001, in a molecular phylogenetic study of DNA sequences, Mark Simmons and others confirmed all of these results except for the placement of "Lophopyxis" and the Lepidobotryaceae, which they did not sample.
In 2006, Li-Bing Zhang and Mark Simmons produced a phylogeny of the Celastrales based on nuclear ribosomal, and chloroplast DNA. Their results showed that "Bhesa" and "Perrottetia" were misplaced in the Celastraceae. "Bhesa" is now in the Centroplacaceae, a family in the Malpighiales. and "Perrottetia" is in the Huerteales. Zhang and Simmons found "Pottingeria" and "Mortonia" to be closely related to the families Parnassiaceae and Celastraceae, as they were then defined, but not in either of them. These two genera are therefore in the Celastrales. They found that "Siphonodon" and "Empleuridium" are proper members of the Celastraceae, removing considerable doubt about their placement there. They also showed that the small family Stackhousiaceae, consisting of three genera, is embedded in the Celastraceae. Except for taxa that were not sampled, these results were confirmed by the second phylogeny of the Celastrales, which was produced by Mark Simmons and several co-authors in 2008.
"Nicobariodendron sleumeri", the only member of its genus, continues to be an enigma. It is a small tree from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India. Little is known of it and it has never been sampled for DNA. It is generally thought to belong in the Celastrales, but this is not a certainty. It is one of the five taxa placed "incertae sedis" in the angiosperms in the APG III system of classification.
Families.
The Celastrales have been divided into families in various ways. In their APG II classification in 2003, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group recognized three families in the Celastrales - Lepidobotryaceae, Parnassiaceae, and Celastraceae. When they revised their classification in 2009, they recognized only two families because "Pottingeria" and the two genera of Parnassiaceae were transferred to the Celastraceae. "Nicobariodendron" became one of the five taxa placed "incertae sedis" in the angiosperms.
In the 2006 phylogeny, "Nicobariodendron" was not sampled, but those species that were sampled fell into two strongly supported clades. One was a small clade consisting only of the family Lepidobotryaceae. Its sister was a very large clade containing the rest of the order. The large clade consisted of five strongly supported groups. These are the family Parnassiaceae, the genus "Pottingeria", the genus "Mortonia" (in the Celastraceae), and a pair of genera from the Celastraceae ("Quetzalia" and "Zinowiewia"), and the rest of the Celastraceae. No relationships were resolved among these groups.
In 2008, Simmons and others produced a phylogeny of the Celastrales that achieved better resolution than the 2006 study by sampling more species and more DNA. They found the same pentatomy of five strongly supported groups that the previous study had found, but only weak to moderate support for any relationships between the five groups. In the APG III system, the family Celastraceae was expanded to consist of these five groups. No one has yet published an intrafamilial classification for the expanded Celastraceae.
Phylogeny.
The following phylogenetic tree was made by combining parts of three different trees. Bootstrap support is 100% except where shown. Branches with less than 50% bootstrap support are collapsed. The clade numbers are from Simmons "et al." (2008).


Harold E. Robinson

Harold Ernest Robinson (22 May 1932, Syracuse, New York – 17 December 2020) was an American botanist and an entomologist.
Career.
Robinson's specialty was the sunflower family (Asteraceae) and the bryophytes. He has named or described over 2,800 new species and subtribes, more than one tenth of the number of species in the Asteraceae. This figure is also about one quarter of the number of flowering plants described by Carl Linnaeus.
Robinson has written over 650 publications, mainly on the Asteraceae, mosses (Bryophyta), Marchantiophyta, and the long-legged fly family Dolichopodidae (describing over 200 new species and 6 new genera, such as "Harmstonia" and "Nanomyina") and many other subjects.
He received a B.S. from Ohio University in 1955, an M.S. from the University of Tennessee in 1957, a Ph.D. from Duke University in 1960.
From 1960 to 1962 as assistant professor at Wofford College (Spartanburg, South Carolina), he became Associate Curator of lower plants at the Smithsonian Institution, Washington (1960–1962). Later he was appointed Associate Curator (1964–1971) and finally Curator of Botany from 1971.
Research.
Robinson, together with collaborators, investigated the taxonomy of several bryophytes, green algae (co-naming a new genus "Struveopsis"), and vines of family Hippocrateaceae (now a synonym of the staff vine family Celastraceae). He made a study of the phylogeny of the genus "Houstonia" of the madder family.
Robinson's major interest went to the sunflower family (Asteraceae). In the neotropical tribe Eupatorieae, Robinson (with co-worker King) has named at least one species in 27 of the genera. He later worked on the reorganization of the tribes Senecioneae, Heliantheae, Liabeae, and Vernonieae. Robinson has made a detailed study of the many secondary metabolite chemicals found in the Eupatorieae tribe, such as alkaloids, (poly)acetylenes, and terpenoids (see "Ichthyothere"), together with and Ferdinand Bohlmann. This resulted in a large number of publications mostly in the journal "Phytochemistry" in the 1970s and 1980s.
In 1970 Robinson and King stressed the need for diagnostic character analysis in his classic article entitled "The New Synantherology".
In 1974 Robinson named a new subtribe Luziolinae of oryzoid (= rice-like) grasses Poaceae, but this was not supported by molecular study. Robinson also named the small genus "Synanthes" of epiphytic orchids from Paraguay, as well as named 32 new species from the bromeliad family. These were mostly in the genera "Navia" and "Lindmania", "Connellia", and "Cottendorfia", such as "Navia albiflora" and "Navia aliciae". In 1999 he merged "Pepinia" into "Pitcairnia" at generic level. He made several illustrations for the "Catalog of Botanical Illustrations", Smithsonian Institution, such as for "Brewcaria duidensis".
In 1986 Robinson gave a critical but constructive opinion on cladistics in the article. "A Key to the Common Errors of Cladistics".
Awards and legacy.
In 2010, Robinson received the Asa Gray Award, the highest honour of the American Society of Plant Taxonomists.
The genus "Robinsonecio" is named for him.


Ellipanthus

Ellipanthus is a genus of plants in the family Connaraceae. The generic name is from the Greek meaning "defective flower", referring to the incomplete development of some of the stamens.
Description.
"Ellipanthus" species grow as shrubs or small trees. The twigs are tomentose, especially when young. Inflorescences consist of four or five flowers. The fruits are densely tomentose with a woody pericarp.
Distribution and habitat.
"Ellipanthus" species grow naturally in Africa, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, mainland Southeast Asia and Malesia. Their habitat is lowland mixed dipterocarp forest and mixed swamp forest.
Species.
 "The Plant List" recognises 10 accepted taxa (of species and infraspecific names):


Claytonia parviflora

Claytonia parviflora is a species of wildflower in the family Montiaceae known by the common name Indian lettuce. It is native to western North America from southwestern Canada to northwestern Mexico, where it is found in many types of habitat, particularly areas that are moist in the spring. This is an annual herb growing in a clump or spreading to a maximum length of about 30 centimeters. The basal leaves are linear, often with an indistinct petiole. Some races may have lance-shaped blades on long, tapering petioles. There are also leaves on the flower stem which may be similar in shape or may be rounded or squared and sometimes fuse together to create a bowl around the stem. The herbage is green to pink in color. The inflorescence is a cluster of up to 40 small flowers, each with petals a few millimeters long and white to pink-tinted, or deep pink in color. The largest flowers, up to 1 cm in diameter, are found in "Claytonia parviflora" subsp. "grandiflora", which is a subspecies endemic to the foothills and lower slopes of the western Sierra Nevada of North America. Together with "Claytonia perfoliata" and "Claytonia rubra", "Claytonia parviflora" comprises what is almost certainly a polyploid pillar complex
There are four well-defined subspecies of "Claytonia parviflora": "Claytonia parviflora" subsp. "grandiflora", "Claytonia parviflora" subsp. "parviflora", "Claytonia parviflora" subsp. "utahensis", and "Claytonia parviflora" subsp. "viridis"


Cinnamodendron cubense

Cinnamodendron cubense is a species of flowering plant in the family Canellaceae. It is a rare species endemic to Cuba.


Illicium kinabaluensis

Illicium kinabaluensis is a species of tree in the family Schisandraceae, or alternately, the Illiciaceae. It is endemic to Mount Kinabalu, the tallest mountain on Borneo. It grows in forests at an elevation of 1200 to 2000 meters.


Plenasium vachellii

Plenasium vachellii is a fern in the family Osmundaceae. The genus "Plenasium" is recognized in the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I); however, some sources place all "Plenasium" species in a more broadly defined "Osmunda", treating this species as Osmunda vachellii. It is native to south-central and southeast China (including Hainan) and Indochina (the Malayan peninsula, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam).


British NVC community OV9

British NVC community OV9 ("Matricaria perforata" - "Stellaria media" community) is one of the open habitat communities in the British National Vegetation Classification system. It is one of eight arable weed and wasteland communities of fertile loams and clays.
It is a widely distributed community. There are four subcommunities.
Community composition.
The following constant species are found in this community:
No rare species are associated with the community.
Distribution.
This is a widely distributed community, found throughout the British lowlands on disturbed, well-drained ground.
Subcommunities.
There are four subcommunities:


Eriogonum ursinum

Eriogonum ursinum is a species of wild buckwheat known by the common names Bear Valley buckwheat and talus buckwheat. It is endemic to northern California where it is found on mountains from the northern Sierra Nevada to the southern Klamath Mountains.
Description.
This is an uncommon perennial herb growing mats of leaves from a woody caudex, spreading to 60 centimeters wide at the base and growing erect inflorescences up to 40 centimeters high. The leaves are pale green to yellowish, woolly, and up to about two centimeters long. The compound inflorescence is made up of clusters of pale yellow to pale pink flowers atop long, naked stems.


Stackhousia monogyna

Stackhousia monogyna, commonly known as creamy stackhousia or creamy candles, is a perennial herb species in the family Celastraceae. It is native to Australia. Plants grow to high and produce a terminal spike of white, cream or yellow flowers between August and January in the species' native range.
The species was first formally described in 1805 by French naturalist Jacques Labillardière in "Novae Hollandiae Plantarum Specimen". His description was based on plant material collected in Tasmania.


Acaena rorida

Acaena rorida is a species of mat-forming perennial plant known only from grassy uplands on the Mangaohane Plateau in the northwestern part of the Ruahine Range in the North Island of New Zealand.
Within its range, this plant occurs in areas with moist, stable soils such as in hollows in tussocklands and the floors of ravines. It can be distinguished from its closest congeners by the purple or dull green (rather than bright green) foliage and the sessile fruits which are often hidden among the leaves rather than being borne above. Flowering occurs in December and January with fruit being produced in February.
Conservation status.
This species has the "Nationally Critical" conservation status under the New Zealand Threat Classification System.


Chimonanthus salicifolius

Chimonanthus salicifolius is a species of the genus of wintersweets "Chimonanthus" and member of the family Calycanthaceae.
Description.
A semi-evergreen shrub up to 4 m tall, with slender leaves 3–13 cm long and 1–3 cm broad; flowers yellowish, late summer or autumn.
Distribution.
Source:


Corbichonia

Corbichonia is a genus of flowering plant in the family Lophiocarpaceae. Species in the genus are seed-bearing, vascular, succulent-type plants.


Halenia pulchella

Halenia pulchella is a species of plant in the Gentianaceae family. It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical high-altitude grassland.


Russeting

Russeting or russetting is an abnormality of fruit skin which manifests in russet-colored (brownish) patches that are rougher than healthy skin. It is a common feature in apples and pears. Russeting is typically an undesirable trait, which reduces the storage life of fruits and makes their appearance unattractive to consumers, although some cultivars, so-called russet apples, are appreciated for the feature.
Causes.
In apples and pears, russet results from micro-cracking of the cuticle, the outer epidermal layer of the fruit. The cuticle is a natural waterproof barrier composed of a polymerized cutin matrix embedded with waxes, which protects the fruit from outside stresses, and helps maintain post-harvest preservation. When the cuticle cracks, a corky suberized layer is formed on the fruit skin.
Apples are particularly susceptible to russet. Many naturally-occurring varieties exhibit the feature consistently, while other cultivars may develop russet due to environmental stresses. As a result, cuticular structure is impaired, leading to reduced strength of the peel, which impacts handling and post-harvest processing. Russeting and cuticular cracks may accelerate the development of flesh browning due to oxidation, as well as softening of internal tissue due to the loss of an external support.


Papaveraceae

The Papaveraceae are an economically important family of about 42 genera and approximately 775 known species of flowering plants in the order Ranunculales, informally known as the poppy family. The family is cosmopolitan, occurring in temperate and subtropical climates (mostly in the northern hemisphere), but almost unknown in the tropics. Most are herbaceous plants, but a few are shrubs and small trees. The family currently includes two groups that have been considered to be separate families: Fumariaceae and Pteridophyllaceae.
Description.
The plants may be annual, biennial, or perennial. Usually herbaceous, a few species form shrubs or evergreen trees. They are lactiferous, producing latex, which may be milky or watery, coloured or plain. All parts contain a well-developed duct system (these ducts are called "laticifers"), producing a milky latex, a watery white, yellow or red juice.
The simple leaves are alternate or sometimes whorled. They have petioles and are not enclosed by a sheath. The leaves are usually lobed or pinnatifid (i.e. consisting of several not entirely separate leaflets), or much divided. There are no stipules.
The plants are hermaphroditic and are pollinated mostly by insects (entomophilous); flower nectaries are lacking. A few are wind pollinated (anemophilous). There is a distinct calyx and corolla, except in "Macleaya" where the corolla is lacking. The flowers are medium-sized or large. The terminal flowers are solitary in many species. In others the terminal inflorescence is cymose or racemose. The flowers are odourless and regular.
There are many stamens, mostly 16 to 60, arranged in two separate whorls, the outer one with stamens alternating with petals, the inner one opposite, or numerous in the subfamily Papaveroideae. The gynoecium consists of a compound pistil with 2 to 100 carpels. The ovary is superior and unilocular. The ovary is either stemless (sessile) or on a short stem (stipitate).
The non-fleshy fruit is usually a capsule, breaking open at maturity to release the seeds through pores (poricidal), through the partitions between the cells (septicidal), or by means of valves (valvular). The numerous seeds are small. Their nutritive tissue (endosperm) is oily and farinose. The fruit of "Platystemon" is a schizocarp.
The basic chromosome number, "x", is 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11, up to "2n" = 84 (dodecaploidy) in species of "Papaver", "Argemone" and "Meconopsis".
Taxonomy.
The APG III system (2009; unchanged from the APG II system of 2003 and the APG system of 1998) places the family in the order Ranunculales, in the clade eudicots. The Papaveraceae differ from the rest of the Ranunculales in some important characteristics but they share others such as the presence of isoquinoline-derived alkaloids. Based on molecular and morphological data, the family forms a clade with the families Lardizabalaceae, Circaeasteraceae, Menispermaceae, Berberidaceae and Ranunculaceae.
Genera.
The broad circumscription of Papaveraceae in the APG III system includes three taxa that have previously been separated into different families: the Papaveraceae "sensu stricto", the Fumariaceae and the Pteridophyllaceae. Thus the Cronquist system of 1981 recognised the Fumariaceae as a separate family, despite their close phylogenetic relationship to the Papaveraceae "sensu stricto". The three former families may be treated as subfamilies. One morphological and molecular study concluded that the former family Pteridophyllaceae has a basal position with a subsequent division into two terminal clades each containing one of the subfamilies Fumarioideae and Papaveroideae, which are clearly monophyletic. A more recent study includes the former Pteridophyllaceae in the Fumarioideae, dividing the Papaveraceae into only two subfamilies.
The internal division of the Fumarioideae shown below follows Lidén (1993), with the exception of the placement of "Pteridophyllum". The subtribes are given by the Germplasm Resources Information Network. The division of the Papaveroideae follows Hoot et al. (1997). In the latter study, the tribe Eschscholzieae would be the basal clade and sister group to the rest of the subfamily, which is divided into a different terminal clade (Chelidonieae) and into its sister group, formed by the Papavereae and Platystemoneae, whose separation is not based on the data presented by these authors. For discussions of subfamilies, see Carolan et al. (2006) and Blattner & Kadereit (1999).
Ecology.
Pollination is entomophile (basically by flies and wasps and bees, less often by beetles), except in "Bocconia" and "Macleaya". In Papaveroideae, the reward is pollen as there is no nectar. The visual attractant is the petals that are usually brightly coloured and often have basal guides, sometimes the attractant can also be the androecium as the petals do not last long. Some species, mostly those from the arctic and alpine regions, reinforce their attraction with floral fragrance (for example, "Papaver alpinum" smells of cloves), which in the case of "Romneya" drugs the insects. The anthers and stigmas mature at the same time, but "Bocconia" is clearly protogynous, the stigmas emerge from the calyx that encloses them. Autopollination is common and in some cases (for example, "Roemeria hybrida") it occurs before the bud opens (cleistogamy). The presence of an aril suggests dispersion of seeds by ants (myrmecochory), once they have been expelled by the fruit. In the case of "Bocconia" the seeds remain attached to the replums after the capsule's valves have fallen leaving their brilliant red or orange arils exposed, which attract birds to feed on them, facilitating their dispersal (ornithochory). Seeds that lack an aril appear to be dispersed by the wind (anemochory) for capsules that open, in the other cases they are freed when the fruit decomposes. Many Fumarioideae species have explosive fruits (ballistic), while "Rupicapnos" and "Sarcocapnos" species are chasmophytes, growing on rocks, and their fruit's peduncles and pedicels are geotropic and they lengthen so that the seeds bury into the base of the plant.
The Papaveroideae typically grow in cooler and wooded areas, forming part of the undergrowth. They have adapted to arctic and alpine habitats and to arid, Mediterranean areas, many species are ruderal and segetal (growing in cornfields). "Pteridophyllum" grows in the undergrowth of woods of needle-leaved trees between . The Fumarioideae are basically found in open, rocky, alpine landscapes or vertical or overhanging cracks, while some species are ruderal or segetal.
Phytochemistry.
Alkaloids: The isoquinolinic alkaloids present in the family are well known. They are derived from berberine, tetrahydroberberine, protopine and benzophenanthridine in Papaveroideae, and from spirobenzylisoquinoline and cularine in Fumarioideae, as well as from other groups that give them pharmacological properties: derivatives of aporphine, morphinan, pavine, isopavine, narceine and rhoeadine.
Others: Other characteristic substances contained within these species include: meconic acid and chelidonic acid, as well as cyanogenic glycoside compounds derived from tyrosine: dhurrin and triglochinin; in the Fumarioideae while the Chelidonieae contain the free amino acid δ-acetylornithine.
Flavonoids: Iridoids and proanthocyanidins absent. Flavonols, kaempferol and/or quercetin present.
Many of these plants are poisonous. The Mexican prickly poppy is poisonous if taken internally and may cause oedema and glaucoma. Even if an animal, such as a goat, should persist in grazing on this plant, not only will the animal suffer but so will those who drink its milk, because the poisons are passed along in the milk.
Fossil record.
The fossils of the late Cretaceous poppy "Palaeoaster inquirenda" from the Western Interior of North America occurs from 74.5 million year old deposits in the Fruitland Formation in New Mexico to 64.5 million year old deposits in the Hell Creek Formation in North Dakota. Dehiscent fruit fossils of "Palaeoaster" have been found at the excavation site for the well known "Tyrannosaurus rex" specimen BHI 3033. The seed capsule of "Palaeoaster" has some similarities to that of the extant poppy genus "Romneya".
Papaverites a fruit from the Eocene of Germany may be associated with Papaveraceae. Chesters et al. (1967) mentions Papaver pictum from the Oligocene of England.
Cultivation.
The family is well known for its striking flowers, with many species grown as ornamental plants, including California poppy ("Eschscholtzia californica", the California state flower), the stunning blue Himalayan poppies ("Meconopsis"), several species of "Papaver", and the wildflower bloodroot. Only two species are of economic importance for the production of opium and its derivatives for pharmaceutical use: "Papaver somniferum" is cultivated legally in order to obtain morphine and other opiates, and "Papaver bracteatum", for thebaine. "Papaver somniferum" is also the source of the poppy seeds used in cooking and baking, and poppy seed oil. The illegal cultivation of poppies in Asia for the production of opium and heroin is virtually equal to the legal production in the rest of the world. Some Funarioideae have a limited use in gardening, with "Lamprocapnos spectabilis" ("bleeding heart"), and "Pseudofumaria lutea" ("yellow corydalis") commonly used. Chinese traditional medicine used the boiled and dried tubers of "Corydalis yanhusuo" ("yanhusuo").
Symbolism.
The opium poppy and corn poppy are symbols, respectively, of sleep and death. In Great Britain, Canada, the United States, and Australia the corn poppy is worn in remembrance of World War I.


Conospermum coerulescens

Conospermum coerulescens is a shrub endemic to Western Australia.
The erect non-lignotuberous shrub typically grows to a height of . It blooms between July and February producing blue flowers. The leaves are filiform to narrow lanceolate in shape.
It is found on sand plains and low hills in the Great Southern regions of Western Australia between Albany and the Fitzgerald River National Park where it grows in sandy to loamy soils often over gravelly laterite.
There are three known subspecies:


Morinda jasminoides

Morinda jasminoides, known as the sweet morinda or jasmine morinda, is a common climber growing in eucalyptus forests and rainforests of eastern Australia. There is a record of this plant in the far north of Western Australia.
Sweet morinda is a small plant in the forest understorey. The orange fruit is edible but unpalatable to humans.


Chorispora sabulosa

Chorispora sabulosa is a plant species in the genus "Chorispora" found in China and Pakistan.


Diplocolea

Diplocolea is a genus of liverworts belonging to the family Solenostomataceae.
Species:


Renanstylis

× Renanstylis, abbreviated Rnst. in the horticultural trade, is the nothogenus for intergeneric hybrids between the orchid genera "Renanthera" and "Rhynchostylis" (Ren. x Rhy.).


Lomariopsis marginata

Lomariopsis marginata is a fern in the family Lomariopsidaceae. It is native to Brazil and possibly French Guiana.


Melianthus major

Melianthus major, the giant honey flower or kruidjie-roer-my-nie (Afrikaans for 'herb-touch-me-not'), is a species of flowering plant in the family Francoaceae. It is an evergreen suckering shrub, endemic to South Africa and naturalised in India, Australia and New Zealand. It grows to tall by wide, with pinnate blue-green leaves long, which have a distinctive musky odour. Dark red, nectar-laden flower spikes, in length, appear in spring, followed by green pods. All parts of the plants are poisonous.
The Latin binomial "Melianthus major" literally means "large honey flower". The plant is also sometimes called "honeybush" (along with many other plants)"."
In cultivation this plant requires a sheltered location and may also need a protective winter mulch in temperate regions. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Archigrammitis

Archigrammitis is a genus of ferns in the family Polypodiaceae, subfamily Grammitidoideae, according to the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I). It is known from Malesia and Polynesia.
Description.
The rhizomes are dorsiventral (having distinct upper and lower surfaces) with stipes closely spaced attached in two rows. The stipes are jointed and have phyllopodia at the base. The rhizome scales have hairy edges, and are of uniform color and usually glossy.
The leaf blades are undivided, usually bearing branched veins and more than one row of sori on either side of the costa. They always have unbranched hairs, while many species have branched hairs with a single gland at the apex. Some species have hydathodes, some of which are cretaceous (leaving a lime deposit on the leaf around them). The sporangia bear one to two (occasionally as many as six) stiff, simple straight hairs without glands at the tip of the sporangium.
Parris observed that the genus resembles "Prosaptia" in bearing phyllopodia at the stipe bases, but lacks the clathrate rhizome scales of that genus. The presence of simple, stiff hairs on the sporangium is shared with "Oreogrammitis" and "Radiogrammitis".
Taxonomy.
The genus was first described by Barbara Parris in 2013 to receive some of the species of the genus "Grammitis", which as then circumscribed was artificial and contained a number of disparate lineages. The name "Archigrammitis" means "chief "Grammitis"", referring to the size of the fronds, "A. friderici-et-pauli" being the largest member of "Grammitis" under the former circumscription.
Species.
Parris placed six species in the genus, which were accepted by the "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World", :
, the genus had not yet undergone phylogenetic study.


George Engelmann

George Engelmann, also known as Georg Engelmann, (2 February 1809 – 4 February 1884) was a German-American botanist. He was instrumental in describing the flora of the west of North America, then very poorly known; he was particularly active in the Rocky Mountains and northern Mexico, one of his constant companions being another German-American, the botanical illustrator Paulus Roetter.
Biography.
Origins.
George Engelmann was born in Frankfurt am Main, Germany, the oldest of thirteen children, nine of whom reached maturity. His father, Julius Bernhardt Engelmann, was a member of a family from which for several successive generations were chosen ministers for the Reformed Church at Bacharach-on-the-Rhine. Julius was a graduate of the University of Halle, and was also educated for the ministry, but he devoted his life to education. He established a school for young women in Frankfurt, which were rare at the time. George Engelmann's mother, Julie Antoinette, was the only daughter of Antoinette André and George Oswald May. The latter, in his earlier years, was an artist of note at the Court of Weimar. Julie Antoinette was Julius Engelmann's coadjutor in the school for young women, and its success was largely due to her management and tact.
His uncle, Friedrich Theodor, a German pioneer of Illinois, was an early American viticulturist.
Education.
George Engelmann received his early education at the gymnasium in Frankfurt. According to himself, he first became interested in plants around age 15. He voluntarily devoted much of his time after school duties to studying history, modern languages, and drawing.
Assisted by a scholarship (founded by the “Reformed Congregation of Frankfurt”), in 1827 he began to study sciences at the University of Heidelberg, where he met Karl Schimper and Alexander Braun. With the latter especially an intimate friendship and correspondence were preserved unbroken until Braun's death in 1877. He also retained friendship with Schimper. However, that erratic genius abandoned botany despite obtaining a remarkable grasp of philosophical botany and laying the foundations of phyllotaxy.
In 1828 young Engelmann's studies at Heidelberg were interrupted by his having joined the students in a political demonstration. He thereupon left Heidelberg and entered the University of Berlin, where he stayed for two years. In 1831, he received the degree of MD from the University of Würzburg.
His dissertation for the medical degree, more related to botany than to medicine, was published at Frankfurt in 1832 under the title of "De Antholysi Prodromus". It was devoted to morphology — mainly to the structure of monstrosities and aberrant forms of plants — and was illustrated by five plates of figures drawn and transferred to the lithographic stone by the author's own hand. Its subject was so directly in line with that of a treatise on the metamorphosis of plants by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe that it was heartily welcomed by the poet-philosopher, whose own life was then approaching its close. Having received Engelmann's treatise through his correspondent Marianne von Willemer, Goethe inquired after the young author, saying that Engelmann had completely apprehended Goethe's ideas concerning vegetable morphology, and had shown a peculiar genius for their development. So strong was his confidence in Engelmann's ability that he offered to give him his whole store of unpublished notes and sketches.
In 1832 Engelmann went to Paris, where he again became associated with Braun, and also with Louis Agassiz.
Emigration to United States.
Wishing to visit America, he accepted a proposition from his uncles to become their agent for the purchase of lands in the United States. In September 1832, he sailed from Bremen for Baltimore, Maryland. In addition to his duties assessing land investment opportunities, he also spent time on botanical travels, first visiting Thomas Nuttall in Philadelphia. He then went to St. Louis, Missouri, and from there around to the adjacent states. He settled with his relatives and the lawyer Gustav Koerner on a farm in St. Clair County, Illinois near Belleville for three years.
For the purpose of forming a correct judgment of the lands of the new country to which he had come, he made many long, lonesome, and often adventurous horse-back journeys in Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas. He often suffered sickness and hardship upon those journeys, but he persevered until he finished all the business he had planned to do. He made much use of his scientific, as well as practical, knowledge in the prosecution of that business, doing mineralogical and geological work, but only the botanical notes which he then made were used in his subsequent scientific career.
Medical practice.
Having completed his business engagement, in the autumn of 1835 Engelmann moved to St. Louis and established a medical practice. During the three years that had passed since he left his native land the slender means he brought with him became exhausted, and he began the practice of his profession in absolute poverty. To furnish an office he was even obliged to part with his gun and with the faithful horse which had carried him on so many long and lonesome journeys. At that time St. Louis was little more than a frontier trading post, but Engelmann had strong faith in its future greatness, and he lived to see it become one of the chief cities of the United States. In 1836 he founded a German newspaper called "Das Westland", which contained valuable articles on life and manners in the United States, and gained a high reputation both in the United States and in Europe.
Four years were passed before he had laid the foundation of his medical practice and had earned the means of making a visit to his old German home. In 1840 he returned to Germany, where in Kreuznach he married his cousin Dorothea Horstmann on June 11. (Their son George Julius Engelmann became a noted gynecologist.) They soon returned to America. Upon reaching New York City, Engelmann for the first time met Asa Gray, already the most noted of American botanists, and the friendship between those two eminent men thus begun was broken only by death. This friendship is noteworthy because of the evidently beneficial effect which it had upon botanical science in America.
Upon his return to St. Louis with his young wife, Engelmann immediately resumed his medical practice. Then, and long afterward, a large proportion of the inhabitants of St. Louis were of French and German-speaking families, and his familiarity with those languages, as well as with the English, gave him great advantage in extending his practice. Because of this and of his great professional ability, as the years went on he acquired a financial competence that gave him an independence. Never, however, did he take advantage of his success in this respect to lessen his labors, for whenever his medical labors were relaxed his scientific work fully engrossed his attention.
The confidence he inspired in his medical clientele was such that as he grew older he could take long vacations and resume his practice almost at will. After 1869, he no longer kept a medical office and attended the few patients he saw in his study. Still, it was always difficult for him to refuse medical aid to those who sought it, and even up to the last year of his life there were old friends to whose families he was the only acceptable medical adviser and whose appeal for aid he could not refuse. Illustrating this fact, as well as Engelmann's energetic manner, his son relates the following incident: “It was a bitter, sleety winter night, when the ringing of the doorbell awoke me, and I heard an urgent call for father from the messenger of a patient. I would not arouse him, and proposed to go myself; but he had heard all, and, hurrying into his clothes, was ready to go in spite of my remonstrance 'What of the night?' he said, vexed at my interference, 'Am I already useless, to be cast aside? I would rather die in harness than rust out.' So I helped him down the icy steps, through the blinding sleet, into his carriage, and off on his mission of mercy.”
Botanical studies.
Engelmann devoted himself to his medical practice, but in his later years made a specialty of botany.
An 1842 monograph on dodders, a very difficult genus to examine, had established his reputation as a botanist.
He took several vacations from his medical practice and devoted them all to the gathering of data for his scientific work, the details of which were elaborated at his home. One of these vacations extended from 1856 to 1858, the greater part of the first summer having been spent in botanical work at the Harvard gardens and herbarium in companionship with Asa Gray. Then, with his wife and young son, he visited his native land and other parts of Europe, occupying his time with scientific observation and study. In 1868 Dr. Engelmann and his wife again visited Europe for a year, the son being then in Berlin pursuing his medical studies. These visits to Europe were also the occasions of frequent and familiar personal interviews with men whose names were well known to the scientific world, such as Joseph Dalton Hooker, Alexander Braun, De Bary, Virchow, and others.
In 1859, he published "Cactaceae of the Boundary" which studied cacti on the border of the United States and Mexico.
He also made special studies of the pines, rushes, spurges, and other little-known and difficult groups, contributing numerous articles on them to the St. Louis Academy of Sciences, to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and to government reports. Material in his specialties collected by the federal government was sent to him for examination. He was one of the earliest to study the North American vines, and nearly all that is known scientifically of the American species and forms is due to his investigations. His first monograph on "The Grape-Vines of Missouri" was published in 1860, and his latest on this subject shortly before his death. His two major works on cacti remain important today.
He was a founder and longtime president of the St. Louis Academy of Sciences, and encouraged the wealthy St. Louis businessman Henry Shaw to develop his gardens to be of scientific as well as public use; "Shaw's Gardens" became the Missouri Botanical Garden. On a visit to England in 1857, he had consulted with William Jackson Hooker on the establishment of Shaw's gardens. He was also one of the original founders of the National Academy of Science.
Phylloxera.
In 1861, Engelmann had published a pioneering paper in the United States examining plant diseases. It focussed on the grape. He also established an herbarium for 10 species of grape he had discovered.
He then played an important, but little known role in rescuing the French wine industry. In the 1870s French vineyards came under attack by a small insect, "Phylloxera vastatrix", an aphid-like pest which sucks sap from the roots of grape vines. Growers observed that certain imported American vines resisted this pest, and the French government dispatched a scientist to St. Louis to consult with the Missouri state entomologist and with Engelmann, who had studied American grapes since the 1850s. Engelmann verified that certain living American species had resisted Phylloxera for nearly 40 years. In addition, "Vitis riparia", a wild vine of the Mississippi Valley, did not cross pollinate with less resistant species, the cause of previous grafting failures. Engelmann arranged to have millions of shoots and seeds collected and sent to France, where the species proved to be very successful in providing rootstock.
Other fields.
While botanical investigations constituted much the greater part of Dr. Engelmann's scientific work, he always had in hand data for other investigations. For example, he began meteorological observations when he first settled at St. Louis, and personally, or by proxy during his absence, he continued them without intermission until his death — a longer period, it is believed, than that of similar observations by any one man in America.
Engelmann often compared meteorological data with his friend and contemporary Augustus Fendler. The two also collaborated on horticultural experiments on cacti, and frequently corresponded on the matter of specimen collection.
Among the animals he studied were tapeworms ("Taenia"), the opossum, squirrels and mudpuppies ("Menobranchus").
He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1862.
Later explorations.
The death of his wife on January 29, 1879, greatly affected him. He turned to plants, seeking relief in study, but life and a continuance of its labors seemed to be almost hopeless. His condition changed but little during the remainder of the winter, but when in the spring C. S. Sargent came with the proposition that he should join him in a journey through the forests of the Pacific Coast region he accepted it. That journey, although a difficult one for a man of his age, was of great benefit to him physically. His shattered spirit also was much revived and, among his friends, he resumed and sustained his lifelong habit of cheerfulness of manner.
Legacy.
He is commemorated in the names of several plants, including Engelmann Oak ("Quercus engelmannii"), Engelmann Spruce ("Picea engelmannii"), Apache Pine ("Pinus engelmannii"), Engelmann's quillwort or Appalachian quillwort ("Isoetes engelmannii"), and Engelmann's Prickly-pear ("Opuntia engelmannii").
Engelmann's botanical collection, valuable as containing the original specimens from which many western plants have been named and described, was given to the Missouri Botanical Garden. This gift led to the founding of the Henry Shaw School of Botany as a department of Washington University in St. Louis, where an Engelmann professorship of botany has been established by Shaw in his honor.
Engelmann was interred in Bellefontaine Cemetery in St. Louis.


Exocarpos

Exocarpos is a genus of flowering shrubs and small trees in the sandalwood family, Santalaceae. They are found throughout Southeast Asia, Australia and the Pacific Islands.
They are semi-parasitic, requiring the roots of a host tree, a trait they share with many other members of the Santalaceae.
In Australia, they are known as "ballarts", and several species are known as cherries.
Within Australia, an identification key is available for New South Wales species, and for Victorian species.


Emancipation Oak

Emancipation Oak is a historic tree on the campus of Hampton University in what is now the City of Hampton, Virginia in the United States. The large sprawling oak is 98 feet (30 m) in diameter, with branches which extend upward as well as laterally. It is designated one of the 10 Great Trees of the World by the National Geographic Society and is part of the National Historic Landmark district of Hampton University. The tree is a southern live oak ("Quercus virginiana").
History.
During the American Civil War (1861 to 1865), Fort Monroe became a place of refuge for African American people escaping slavery. The Union Army defined the people as contraband in order to provide them asylum. Virginia law had prohibited the education of enslaved people following the Nat Turner slave rebellion in 1831.
In November 1861, the American Missionary Association asked Mary Smith Peake (1823 to 1862) to teach children of freedmen at the contraband camp related to Fort Monroe.(Jones-Wilson et al., 1996). She was said to start her classes outside, under the tree. Peake was the first black teacher of the AMA, which expanded to support numerous educational institutions in the South. Her base was 3 miles from the protective safety of Fort Monroe, but her classes also attracted adults at night. Soon the AMA provided the Brown Cottage for her classes. She taught up to 50 children during the day and 20 adults at night.
In 1863, the Virginia Peninsula's black community gathered under the oak to hear the first Southern reading of President Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, leading to its nickname as the Emancipation Oak.
After the conclusion of hostilities, a school was founded here in 1868 by General Samuel C. Armstrong and the American Missionary Association as Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, a land grant school. From 1872 to 1875, one of its many students was Booker T. Washington, the son of a freedman. He became a famous educator who founded Alabama's Tuskegee Institute in 1881. In the early 20th century, collaborating with the philanthropist Julius Rosenwald, Washington and staff at the Tuskegee Institute helped to establish dozens of rural schools for African-American children across the South.
Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute became Hampton Institute in 1930. It gained university status in 1984, becoming Hampton University. It is one of Virginia's major institutions of higher education. In the 21st century, the Emancipation Oak still stands to provide both shelter and inspiration to the school's students and staff.


Alsophila khasyana

Alsophila khasyana, synonym Cyathea khasyana, is a species of tree fern. Its natural distribution extends from India to Myanmar, although it is absent from Sri Lanka. "A. khasyana" grows in forest at an altitude of 1400–1700 m. The trunk of this plant is erect and 5–7 m tall. Fronds may be bi- or tripinnate and 2–3 m in length. "A. khasyana" has a long, dark stipe that is covered in numerous scales. These scales are dark and have broad, pale, fringed edges. Sori are borne near the midvein of fertile pinnules and lack indusia.
The specific epithet "khasyana" refers to the Khasi Hills of India.


Acacia nanodealbata

Acacia nanodealbata, known colloquially as dwarf silver-wattle, is a species of "Acacia" native to Australia.


Pseudopanax arboreus

Pseudopanax arboreus or five finger (Māori: 'puahou' or 'whauwhaupaku'), is a New Zealand native tree belonging to the family Araliaceae. It is one of New Zealand's more common native trees, being found widely in bush, scrub and gardens throughout both islands. The compound leaves with five to seven leaflets, hence the common name, are very characteristic of the tree and easily recognized.
Closely related and very similar to five finger are "P. laetus", "P. colensoi" and "P. macintyrei".
Description.
Leaflets obovate-oblong to oblong-cuneate, thinly coriaceous, coarsely serrate-dentate. Flowers usually unisexual; inflorescences are compound umbels with 8-20 primary branchlets up to 10 cm long, 15-20 secondary rays, umbellules with 10-15 flowers in each. Calyx truncate or obscurely 5-toothed; flowers 5mm in diameter, sweet-scented; petals 5, white to pink flushed, ovate to triangular, acute; stamens 5; ovary 2-loculed, each containing 1(-2) ovules; style branches 2, spreading. Fruit fleshy, very dark purple, laterally compressed, 5–8 mm diam.; style branches retained on an apical disc. Seeds 2(-3) per fruit, wrinkled, 3–6 mm long.
Ecology.
"Pseudopanax arboreus" is a host species for the caterpillar of the endemic North Island moth "Declana atronivea".


Polygonoideae

Polygonoideae is a subfamily of plants in the family Polygonaceae. It includes a number of plants that can be highly invasive, such as Japanese knotweed, "Reynoutria japonica", and its hybrid with "R. sachalinensis", "R." × "bohemica". Boundaries between the genera placed in the subfamily and their relationships have long been problematic, but a series of molecular phylogenetic studies have clarified some of them, resulting in the division of the subfamily into seven tribes.
Taxonomy.
Phylogeny.
A 2015 molecular phylogenetic study suggested that the genera and tribes in Polygonoideae were related as shown in the following cladogram.
"Rumex" included "Emex", and "Fallopia" was not monophyletic, with some species placed outside the main group in the tribe Polygoneae, and some others grouping with "Pteroxygonum", placed in the tribe Pteroxygoneae.
Genera.
Some of the boundaries between the genera are not settled ; in particular, "Fallopia" is at least paraphyletic. A 2011 classification divided the subfamily into five tribes, Calligoneae, Fagopyreae, Persicariae, Polygoneae and Rumiceae, leaving some genera unplaced. A 2015 molecular phylogenetic study added two new tribes accommodating these genera, Oxygoneae and Pteroxygoneae. Genera and their tribal placement accepted in the 2015 study are shown below.
Many species in the subfamily have at one time or another been placed in different genera; for example the invasive Japanese knotweed is currently in the genus "Reynoutria", but has been in "Polygonum" and "Fallopia".


Caudalejeunea

Caudalejeunea is a genus of liverwort in family Lejeuneaceae. It contains the following species (but this list may be incomplete):


Aristida oligantha

Aristida oligantha is a species of grass known by the common names prairie threeawn and oldfield threeawn.
It is native to the United States and southern Canada, and it is known from northern Mexico. It is a grass of many types of habitat, and it grows easily in dry areas with sandy or gravelly soils. It appears in disturbed and burned areas and is sometimes a weed of roadsides and railroads.
This is an annual forming clumps of branching gray-green and purple-tinted stems about 30 to 70 centimeters tall. The inflorescence is an open array of spikelets. The grain has three spreading awns, the central one reaching up to 7 centimeters long and the other two slightly shorter.


Dicroidium zuberi

Dicroidium zuberi is a large bipinnate species of the seed fern "Dicroidium" with a forked rachis. The leaves are affiliated with "Umkomasia feistmantellii" megasporophylls and "Petruchus" "barrealensis" microsporophylls.
"D. zuberi" was a common species in the coeval vegetation of the Sydney and Lorne Basins of New South Wales. Specimens have been found near Wairaki Hut and indicate that this species may have been as common in Scytho-Anisian vegetation of coastal New Zealand. In younger rocks younger than the late Anisian, they are outnumbered by unipinnate "Dicroidium" leaves such as those belonging to "D. odontopteroides".
Description.
"Dicroidium zuberi" had large, bipinnate, thick and leathery leaves. The leaves were up to 21 cm long. The rachis is proximately forked once with opposite or sub-opposite pinnae that is imparipinnate. The largest pinnae found measure 8 cm long and 3 cm wide. The pinna rachis are between 2 and 5 cm wide with a distinct median ridge. The individual pinnules were closely spaced and frequently overlapping. The pinnules were rhomboidal or broadly oval, and usually slightly contracted at the base with entire or slightly lobed margins and an obtuse apex. The terminal pinnule of each frond was oval or oblong in shape.
The stomatal frequency on both sides of the frond were similar, with irregularly oriented stomata evenly distributed over the entire surface of the leaves. Each of the stomata had typically 5 but sometimes 4 or 6 subsidiary cells that were rarely papillate and rarely in close contact with one another. The thinly cutinised guard cells were slightly sunken into the surface of the frond, appearing as an apature-like slit in a rectangular stomatal pit that was thickly cutinised on the lateral sides, with no encircling cells present.
Location.
D. zuberi is found in the southern hemisphere, from Australia, South Africa, India, and Argentina. It is the most consistently occurring species in the Triassic succession of Peninsular India, found in the Panchet Formation, Ramkola–Tatapani Coalfied, Balrampur District, Chhattisgarh, Tiki and Parsora formations, South Rewa Gondwana Basin and Pathargarh beds of Kamthi Formation, Mahanadi Valley Basin.
Taxonomy.
After 1967, "D. zuberi" now unites four species previously categorized in the genus "Zuberia", namely "Z. sahnii", "Z. barrealensis", "Z. zuberi", and "Z. feistmanteli". This combination was suggested by Sergio Archangelsky due to the lack of differences in size, shape, and venation of pinnules. These four species were described by Frenguelli in 1943 and 1944, and were originally united as a single species in the genus "Dicroidium" as "D. feistmanteli" by Bonetti in 1966.
Neotype.
The original type specimen of Zuberia zuberi was described by Szajnocha as Cardiopteris zuberi and under Archangelsky's combination of four Zuberia species should be the holotype for D. zuberi. However, a neotype (LP 9520) was selected by Archangelsky as he did not know where the holotype was located when he described D. zuberi.


Passiflora luzmarina

Passiflora luzmarina is a species of plant in the family Passifloraceae. It is endemic to Ecuador.


Coccothrinax moaensis

Coccothrinax moaensis is a palm which is endemic to eastern Cuba.
Henderson and colleagues (1995) considered "C. moaensis" to be a synonym of "Coccothrinax miraguama".


Abarema

Abarema is a neotropical genus of large trees in the legume family (Fabaceae). They grow from Mexico ("Abarema idiopoda") to Bolivia. Most of the species can be found in the Amazon Basin and the Guyana Highlands. They have a deep-green fernlike foliage, with bipinnately compound leaves.
Species.
Following the 1996 revision, there are currently about 45 species. In older works, the entire genus is usually included within "Pithecellobium".


Stackhousia minima

Stackhousia minima is a perennial herb species in the family Celastraceae. It is native to New Zealand.


Ilex venezuelensis

Ilex venezuelensis is a species of plant in the family Aquifoliaceae. It is endemic to Venezuela.


Andrei Famintsyn

Andrei Sergeyevich Famintsyn () (June 29 (O.S. June 17), 1835, Moscow – December 8, 1918, Petrograd) was a Russian botanist, public figure, and academician of the Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1884).
Career.
Famintsyn attended Saint Petersburg State University and studied under Russian fungal expert Lev Semionovich Tsenkovsky. In 1861, he continued his scientific career as a teacher at his alma mater and became a professor (1867-1889). In 1890, Famintsyn founded and headed the Laboratory of Plant Anatomy and Physiology of the Academy of Sciences (today's Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences).
Famintsyn is considered the founding father of the Petersburg School of plant physiologists (Ivan Borodin, Alexander Batalin, Dmitry Ivanovsky and others). In 1887, he authored the first Russian textbook on plant physiology. In 1906-1909, he was the president of the Free Economic Society. In 1915, Famintsyn was elected honorary president of the Russian Botanical Society.
Research.
His major works were dedicated to photosynthesis and plant metabolism. He was the first to use artificial light for plant growing and research (1868). Famintsyn showed that carbon dioxide conversion by plants and formation of starch may occur under artificial lighting. He and his student Osip Baranetsky were the first to separate unicellular green algae from lichens.
Famintsyn discovered the symbiosis of algae with radiolaria and he developed a theory of symbiogenesis, alongside Konstantin Mereschkowski.


Erythroxylum monogynum

Erythroxylum monogynum, the bastard sandal or red cedar, is a tropical tree in the family Erythroxylaceae. It is native to Peninsular India and Sri Lanka. It is a small, evergreen bushy tree reaching (but sometimes higher). The leaves are simple, alternate. Small white flowers are bisexual with 5–6 sepals. borne March through June; Fruit is a one-seeded drupe. Flowering and fruiting occur throughout the year. The plant is known to have high medicinal value. It is taken to cure many diseases such as Stomachic, Dyspepsia, Fever, and Dropsy in ayurvedic medicine.


Nepetoideae

Nepetoideae is a subfamily of plants in the family Lamiaceae.
, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (APweb) accepted the following genera:


Lophozia longidens

Lophozia longidens is a species of liverwort belonging to the family Jungermanniaceae.
Synonym:


Allionia incarnata

Allionia incarnata is a flowering plant in the four o'clock family (Nyctaginaceae) native to the Caribbean, the southern United States, and south through Central America and most of western South America. It is a perennial (sometimes annual) herbaceous plant with dark pink flowers. "Allionia incarnata" is known as pink three-flower, pink windmills, trailing allionia, trailing four-o'clock, and trailing windmills.
Three varieties are accepted: