Greater and Lesser Tunbs

Greater Tunb and Lesser Tunb (, "Tonb-e Bozorg" and "Tonb-e Kuchak", , "Tunb el-Kubra" and "Tunb el-Sughra") are two small islands in the eastern Persian Gulf, close to the Strait of Hormuz. They lie at and respectively, some from each other and south of the Iranian island of Qeshm. The islands are administered by Iran as part of its Hormozgan Province, but are also claimed by the United Arab Emirates as a territory of the Emirate of Ras al-Khaimah.
Greater Tunb has a surface of . It is known for its red soil. There are conflicting descriptions about its population: While some sources state there are between a few dozen and a few hundred inhabitants, others describe the island as having no native civilian population. There is reported to be an Iranian garrison and naval station, an aircraft runway, a fish storage facility and a red-soil mine. Lesser Tunb has a surface of and is uninhabited with the exception of a small airfield, harbour, and entrenched Iranian military unit.
Toponymy.
The toponymy of Tonb is in all likelihood of Persian origin. In the local Persian dialect(s) of southern Persia, the noun Tomb and"Tonb", with its diminutive "Tonbu" or Tombu, as it applied to Lesser Tonb (Nāmiuh or Nābiuh Tonb), means “hill” or “low elevation” (cfr. Medieval Latin "tumba" and Ancient Greek "tymbos", with the same meaning, roots for "tomb"). The terms have the same meaning in the larger Dari Persian language system; this explains in part the traces of "tonb" and "tonbu" in the toponyms found in the Bushehr and Lengeh regions, some 300 miles (480 km) apart. There are other toponyms such as Tonb-e Seh in Tangestān and Tonbānu on Qeshm island.
Etymologically, the word TNB is also a proper Arabic word, which means to anchor, according to the Medieval Arab linguist Ibn Fares.
Dispute.
Reference to Great Tonb as an Iranian island is found in Ibn Balkhi's 12th-century "Farsnameh" and Hamdallah Mustawfi Kazvini's 14th-century "Nuzhat al-Qulub". The Tonbs were dominions of the Kings of Hormuz from 1330 or so until Hormuz's capitulation to the Portuguese in 1507. The Tonbs remained a part of the Hormuzi-Portuguese administration until 1622, when the Portuguese were expelled from the Persian littoral by the Persian central government. During this period, the human geography, commerce, and territorial administration of the Tonbs, along with Abu Musa and Sirri islands, became intimately connected with the Province of Fars, notably the Persian ports of Bandar Lengeh and Bandar Kang, and the nearby Qeshm and Hengam islands.
It has been remarked, in the context of the limits of the Persian empire in the Persian Gulf in the middle of the 18th century, that "[a]ll the islands off the Persian coast, from Kharqu and Kharaq in the north to Hormoz and Larak in the south, were rightly Persian, though many were in the hands of Arab tribes". Consistent with this, the British in 1800 were also of the belief that "[a]lthough the King exercises no positive authority over any of the islands of the Persian Gulf, those on the northern shore are all considered as part of the Empire".
An 1804 map of German origin showed the southern coast of Iran as the habitat of the "Bani Hule" tribe and the islands, coloured in the same orange, were designated as "Thunb unbenohul". The "Bani Hule" or Howalla were a loosely defined grouping of peoples of distant Arab origin but with longstanding residence on the Iranian coast. Regardless of the spelling of the toponym as "Tonb", be it from the Arabic tÂonb (abode) or from the Persian tonb (hill), the attribution to the larger island of this epithet highlighted the islands' intimate association with the Persian coast and its inhabitants. One of the clans belonging to the Howalla or "Bani Hule" of the Persian coast was that of the Qasimi. Their Arab tribal origins are not as clearly established as is, however, their Persian geographical origin immediately prior to their rise to notoriety in the lower Persian Gulf. This occurred in the 18th century.
18th century.
During the 1720s, the Qasami had emigrated from the Persian coast and established themselves as a force in Sharjah and Julfar (Ras al-Khaimah, now part of UAE). In the period 1747–59, a branch of the Qasemi from Sharjah established itself on the Persian littoral, but it was expelled in 1767. By 1780, the Qasemi branch was re-established on the Persian coast and began to feud with other coastal tribes over pasturage in the islands off Langeh. The Iranian argument for the ownership of the disputed islands is that the Qasami controlled the islands while they were located on the Persian coast, not when they later emigrated to the UAE coast. In April 1873, the islands were reported as a dependency of the Persian Fars province to the British Resident, which the Resident acknowledged. In the period 1786–1835 the official British opinion, surveys, and maps identified the Tonbs as part of Langeh, subject to the government of the province of Fars. Chief among them were the works of Lt. John McCluer (1786), political counselor John Macdonald Kinneir (1813), and Lt. George Barns Brucks (1829).
19th century.
In 1835, the Bani Yas attacked a British ship off Greater Tonb. In the ensuing maritime peace arranged by the British Political Resident Samuel Hennell, a restrictive line was established between Abu Musa and Sirri islands, and pledges were obtained from the tribes of the lower Persian Gulf not to venture their war boats north of the line. In view of Sirri and Abu Musa being pirate lairs themselves, Hennell's successor, Major James Morrison, in January 1836, modified the restrictive line to run from Sham on the Trucial Coast to a point ten miles south of Abu Musa to Sáir Abu Noayr island. In either of its configurations, the restrictive line placed the Tonbs outside of the reach of the war boats of the Qasemi, Bani Yas, and other tribes of the lower Persian Gulf. The 1835 maritime truce was made permanent in 1853 after a series of earlier extensions. Force being no longer a viable option for settlement of disputes, especially on the part of the Qasemi of the lower Persian Gulf, the enforcement of Qasemi's claims to islands such as Abu Musa and Greater Tonb became a subject for the British colonial administration in the Persian Gulf. In that context, the Resident and its agents on several occasions (1864, 1873, 1879, 1881) had been seized with the question of the ownership of the Tonbs, but the British government had refused to go along with the claims of the Qasemi of the lower Persian Gulf.
In the period 1836–86, the official British surveys, maps, and administrative reports continued to identify the Tonbs as part of Langeh, subject to the government of Fars province. Among them were the works of Lt. Colonel Robert Taylor (1836), the Resident A.B. Kemball (1854), the Resident Lewis Pelly (1864), The Persian Gulf Pilot (1864), an admiralty publication, the 1870 (second) edition of The Persian Gulf Pilot, and the 1886 Map of Persia, which was issued by the intelligence branch of the British war office and showed the Tonbs in the colour of Persia.
Until this date (1886), the British acknowledged Persian ownership of the islands. In February 1887, the Persian central government reorganised the ports of Bushehr, Langeh, and Bandar Abbas, together with their dependent districts and islands, into a new administrative unit called the Persian Gulf Ports and placed it under the charge of a member of the Qajar royal family, dissolving the Qasami governorship later in September. These and other Persian actions prompted the British to change their stance on the ownership of the islands due to suspicion that the new Persian policy was influenced by German and Russian interests. By August 1888, Britain decided to acquiesce in the Persian actions on Sirri, leaving alone the concerns over Tonb, even though the Persian government's rebuff of the British protests had coupled their claim to Sirri with one to Tonb). The British regard for the Persian claim to Sirri (and perhaps Tonb) was affected significantly by the depiction of the Tonbs and Serri in the same colour as that of Persia in the 1886 Map of Persia, which Naser-al-Din Shah Qajar of Persia now astutely cited against the British when they protested the Persian actions on Sirri. The British acquiescence in the Persian claim to Serri demeaned the very theory on which the protest had been based.
The Qasemi administrators of Langa were of the same original stock as the Qasemi of the lower Persian Gulf; however, their rise on the Persian littoral and to the political administration of Langa and its dependencies were attributable primarily to their distance from the politics and piratical activities of their kinsmen in Sharjah and Ras al-Khaimah . Consequently, when the British government pacified the tribes of the lower Persian Gulf, which it had labelled as "pirates" (hence the term "Pirate Coast") in a series of naval engagements in the early 19th century, and then exacted from them a general surrender in 1820 and a maritime truce in the 1830s (hence the term "Trucial" Shaikhdoms), the Qasemi of the Persian coast were spared the ravages and humiliation suffered by their namesake in the lower Persian Gulf. The view that the Qasemi of Langeh had administered the Tonbs, Abu Musa, and Serri islands as the lieutenants of the Qasemi of the lower Persian Gulf was rebutted in later years by a legal adviser at the British foreign office in 1932 and the head of its eastern department in 1934.
Besides the Persian territorial and political ambitions in the Persian Gulf, in the period 1888–1903 the British government was worried equally about French intrigues, and Russian and German naval and economic interests in the region. It had already been determined by the British that the Persian actions on Sirri and elsewhere in the Persian Gulf were inspired by Russia. In pursuit of a forward policy based on Curzon's views, which included the marking of the territories under their direct and indirect colonial control, the British government undertook a project to erect flagstaffs in a number of locations in the Persian Gulf.
In the pursuit of British imperial considerations, the lack of regard for Persian sensibilities was no problem. Already, in 1901, a British government memorandum openly suggested that, where strategic necessity required, Britain would seize any of the Persian islands, and in March 1902 Curzon recommended that the British navy hoist a flag on Qeshm island in the case of necessity. On June 14, 1904, the Persian government removed its presence from Abu Musa and Greater Tonb subject to the reservations, as reported by the British minister. In a note to the British minister, the Persian foreign minister stated that neither party should hoist flags in the islands until the settlement of the question of ownership, but the sheikh of Sharjah hoisted their flags three days later. In the Iranian annals of the diplomatic history of the Tonbs and Abu Musa, the Persian agreement to withdraw from the islands on 14 June 1904, subject to reservations, is known as the "status quo agreement." The re-flagging of the islands by Sharjah three days after the withdrawal of the Persians violated the status quo agreement, rendering moot the legal relevance of any subsequent presence and activity by Sharjah on the islands and also any by Ras al-Khaimah with respect to the Tonbs from 1921 onward.
20th century.
During the 20th century, several attempts at negotiations were made. On 29 November 1971, shortly before the end of the British protectorate and the formation of the UAE, Iran seized semi-control of Abu Musa under an agreement of joint administration together with Sharjah, with both sides nominally upholding their separate claims. A day later, on 30 November 1971, Iran forcibly seized control of the Tunb Islands and Abu Musa, against the resistance of the tiny Arab police force stationed there. The Iranians were instructed not to open fire, and the first shots came from the Arab resistance which killed four Iranian marines and injured one. In his book "Territorial foundations of the Gulf states", Schofield states that according to some sources, the Arab civilian population of Greater Tunb of about 120 was then deported to Ras Al Khaimah, but according to other sources the island had already been uninhabited for some time.
Present situation.
In the following decades, the issue remained a source of friction between the Arab states and Iran. The Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf repeatedly declared support for the UAE claims. Bilateral talks between the UAE and Iran in 1992 failed. The UAE have attempted to bring the dispute before the International Court of Justice, but Iran refuses to do so. Tehran says the islands always belonged to it as it had never renounced possession of the islands, and that they are an integral part of Iranian territory. The emirate of Ras al-Khaimah argue that the islands were under the control of Qasimi sheikhs, a branch of which administered the port of Bandar Lengeh for the Persian government from ca. 1789 to 1887, and UAE as the successor to the tribal patrimony of the tribe, may inherit their rights. Iran counters by stating that the local Qasimi rulers during a crucial part of the previous centuries were actually based on the Iranian, not the Arab, coast, and had thus has been Persian subjects. The UAE refers to the islands as "occupied".


Sarantaporos (Epirus)

The Sarantaporos (, ) is a river in northwestern Greece and southern Albania. It is a right tributary of the river Aoös ("Vjosë"), which flows into the Adriatic Sea. Its length is , of which the final approx. form the border between Greece and Albania. Its source is between the mountain ranges Gramos and Voio, in the Kastoria regional unit. It flows through the municipal units Arrenes, Mastorochoria and Konitsa in Greece, and the municipalities Qendër Leskovik and Çarshovë in Albania. Its basin area is , and its year-average discharge is per second.


Aripal Tehsil

Aripal is a subtehsil of Tral area in Kashmir Division of the Indian part of Jammu and Kashmir. It is one of eight subdistricts of Pulwama district, and was created when Pulwama changed from a four-tehsil structure to an eight-tehsil structure. The administration of Aripal Tehsil is subdivided into six patwar halqa (revenue circles).
Villages in Aripal tehsil.
The villages along with their patwar halqa (revenue circle) in Aripal tehsil are listed below:
Aripal Spring.
Aripal spring is a freshwater spring located in Aripal tehsil of Tral. The spring is located around 11 km from Sub-district headquarters Tral. The spring is surrounded by large tracts of trees and a chain of hills. The Aripal spring is now being developed as a tourist resort as it has tourism generating potential. Many people from Tral and adjacent towns visit the spring during summers particularly in July and August to enjoy the amiable weather around the spring. In summers, when almost every place is sizzling in day heat, the Aripal area witnesses an amiable weather which attracts the people of Tral and other areas to throng this very spring. This spring is also home to a few varieties of fish which adds to its beauty. The spring has not been given proper attention by the tourism department and thus this spring awaits proper development and beautification.
Nearby Tourist Attractions.
Nagberan(Upper Dachigaam), Tarsar-Marsar and Hajin are the nearby tourist destinations of Aripal.


Sabrina Island (Azores)

Sabrina Island () was an islet formed during the months of June and July 1811 by a submarine volcanic eruption off the coast of Ponta da Ferraria, São Miguel Island, Azores. The first person to land on the island was Commander James Tillard, captain of the British warship , who hoisted the Union Jack on the island and claimed sovereignty for Great Britain. A diplomatic row with Portugal over the issue ensued, which the island's sinking back into the sea rendered moot.
History.
Formation and discovery.
Between January and February 1811 a prolonged period of seismic activity affected the settlements to the extreme southeast of São Miguel, in particular in the parishes of Ginetes and Mosteiros. During these months, gases emitted from the ocean around Ponta da Ferraria, but by the end of February they abruptly ceased. New tremors returned in May and June, destroying many homes in Ginetes. Finally on 10 June 1811, in an area about from the original seismic zones and about off the coast, a submarine eruption occurred alongside Ponta da Ferraria, killing many fish.
On 12 June, the eruption was seen from the British sloop-of-war HMS "Sabrina", which was patrolling the Azores due to the then ongoing Peninsular War. Commander James Tillard, thinking the smoke from the eruption was a naval battle, sailed to the area but found a situation quite different than he imagined. He later wrote a description of the eruption and his visit to the island of Sabrina for the "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society".
The next morning, 13 June, HMS "Sabrina" landed in Ponta Delgada as Tillard had a pre-appointed meeting with William Harding Read, British consul general to the Azores. Read informed Tillard of the multiple earthquakes felt on São Miguel, especially in Ginetes and Mosteiros, which had caused panic among the island's residents. On 14 June Tillard desired to approach the eruption zone again by sea but wind conditions disallowed it, so instead he rode to Ginetes by horse, where he was able to observe the eruption from land. As Tillard lunched by the coast in Ginetes, seismic activity was so intense it caused a landslide destroying part of the cliff nearest him.
Tillard, even more enthusiastic, sailed HMS "Sabrina" toward the eruption area on the night of 15 June, but weak winds still kept him from approaching as closely as he hoped.
Again on 18 June HMS "Sabrina" approached the eruption zone. In an area where "Sabrina"s crew had previously measured a depth of , they now observed rock formations just below the water's surface, as well as constant emission of ash and steam. After three hours of observation, the growing volcanic landmass had reached an estimated altitude of above sea level. Tillard christened the newly-formed island Sabrina after his ship.
The following day, 19 June, Sabrina Island had grown to an estimated altitude of above sea level and measured approximately in diameter. Despite being away from the island, "Sabrina" became covered in fine black ash and water thrown into the air by the eruption. The ship's crew unsuccessfully attempted a closer approach of the island, after which they returned to port in Ponta Delgada.
Diplomatic row between Great Britain and Portugal.
On 4 July, the eruption appeared to stop and constant tremors—felt in Ginetes since May—ceased. In fair weather "Sabrina" finally approached the new island. Tillard and Read landed on the island, planted the Union Jack, and formally claimed the island for Great Britain and King George III.
This claim caused a diplomatic conflict with the Kingdom of Portugal, as the Azores were under Portuguese sovereignty and had been since their discovery. This was compounded by the fact England and Portugal have been allies continuously since at least 1386. In fact, as previously noted, "Sabrina" was in the Azores because Britain was assisting Portugal in the Peninsular War.
Because of the war, the Portuguese government and monarchy had relocated to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. As they were dependent on British aid against the French, they did not pursue the issue with too much zeal. The conflict petered out naturally by October of 1811, by which time water erosion had dismantled the new island, as is often the case with islands formed by certain types of volcanic eruptions.
Legacy.
A member of HMS "Sabrina"s crew, Colonel John William Miles, drew Sabrina Island during the 19 June 1811 approach. His work is today exhibited at the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, England, United Kingdom.
The eruption garnered international scientific interest and commentary at the time. Among others, Charles Darwin wrote a letter regarding the incident.
A similar occurrence and diplomatic spat took place in 1831 in the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Sicily. After a volcanic eruption formed an island, Great Britain claimed it as Graham Island. The ensuing four-way territorial dispute between Great Britain, France, Spain, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ultimately resolved as the Sabrina Island conflict had.
Geography.
At its largest, Sabrina Island was a circular volcanic cone with a perimeter of and an altitude between above sea level. The cone was similar in form to the existing Islet of Vila Franca do Campo, with an open ring to the northwest. From the central ring debris escaped into the sea.
Because of water erosion, islands formed by submarine volcanic activity often have short, ephemeral existences, especially if they are formed of uncompacted tephra. This was the case with Sabrina Island: despite reaching a height of about , it was quickly destroyed by erosion.
Today, the area where the eruption occurred measures deep. The underwater rock formation there slopes toward the southeast, and the surrounding area has an average depth of . Volcanic activity continues: volcanic gases can still be seen rising to the surface.


Acre River

The Acre River (called Aquiry in the local Iñapari language; locally, "Rio Acre") is a long river in central South America.
Course.
The river is born in Peru, and runs North-Eastwards, forming part of the border between Peru and Brazil and then part of the border between Bolivia and Brazil. It runs through the Brazilian states of Acre and Amazonas, before eventually running into the Purus River at Boca do Acre. It runs along the Bolivian frontier and flows northeastward to a junction with the Purus at 8° 45' South latitude. The name is also applied to a district situated on the same river and on the former boundary line of 1867, between Bolivia and Brazil. This region's area is estimated at about .
It is navigable from the mouth until the Xapuri River (), even farther in the wet season from January until May. The river was an important transportation artery at the end of the 19th century due to newly discovered rubber tree forests.
The Rio Acre Ecological Station lies in the municipalities of Assis Brasil and Sena Madureira in the state of Acre, Brazil.
It contains Amazon forest bounded to the north by an Indian reservation and to the south by the Acre River.
It was created to preserve the headwaters of the Acre River.
History.
The region was settled by Peruvians between 1870 and 1878, but was invaded by Brazilian rubber collectors during the next decade (during the 'rubber boom') and became tributary to the rubber markets of Iquitos, Manaus and Pará. In 1899, the Bolivian government established a custom-house at Puerto Alonso, on the Acre river, for the collection of export duties on rubber, which precipitated a conflict with the Brazilian settlers, and finally brought about a boundary dispute between the two republics. In July 1899 the "Acreanos" declared their independence and set up a republic of their own, but in the following March they were reduced to submission by Brazil. Various disorders followed until Brazil decided to occupy Puerto Alonso with a military force. The boundary dispute was finally settled at Petropolis on November 17, 1903, through the purchase by Brazil of the rubber-producing territory, south to about the ninth parallel.


Tulipa armena

Tulipa armena is a species of flowering plant in the Liliaceae family. It is referred to by the common name Armenian tulip, and is native to the historical Armenian Highlands as the name implies; current regions of Armenia, modern day Turkey, Iran, and South Caucasus.
Description.
"Tulipa armena" is extremely variable. The bulb has a papery tunic that is not very hairy. The stems are between eight and 25 cm long, the 3–6 leaves are broad, scimitar-shaped, hairy or smooth and often have wavy edges. They are grey-green, but with a red overlay. They can be up to 20 cm long. The large solitary flowers are cup- or bowl-shaped and very variable. Some are red with a dark violet, black or dark green basal blotch, sometimes striped and mottled in yellow, others yellow, in the red form, sometimes the black basal blotch has a yellow border. The tepals are normally oval. The filaments are black or blackish purple, the anthers yellow or black.
"Tulipa armena" is placed in the subgenus "Tulipa". In Turkey, the subspecies "lycica" and "armena" are differentiated by the hairs on the bulb.
"Tulipa armena" is easily confused with "Tulipa julia", which has a hairier tunic.
Habitat.
The Armenian tulip was found from Northeast Turkey through Transcaucasia (Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia) to northwestern Iran. It grows on rocky mountain slopes between 1000- 2700m ASL and flowers between April and June. It also occurs on the Marmaris peninsula in Southwestern Turkey at much lower elevations, where it may have been introduced as an ornamental plant in Ottoman times.
It grows in steppe areas on alkalic soils with a high humus-content.
Synonyms.
"Tulipa armena" was first described by Edmund Boissier in 1859, the locus typicus is located in Northeast Turkey.
Populations found in the Karabakh mountain range in Armenia and Azerbaijan have been called "T. karabachensis", but this is regarded as a synonym of "T. armena".
Plants from Eastern Turkey and Northwest Iran with a hairy tunic and longer stems have been described as T. willmottiae Freyn.
"T. mucronata" Fomin, "T. karabachensis" Grossh. pro parte, "T. confusa" Gabrielian may also be synonyms of T. armena.
The name "T. galatica" has been used for the yellow variety without basal blotch.
In contrast, "Tulipa gumusanica" has been confirmed as a separate species.
Uses.
The Armenian tulip is used as a garden plant. It needs dry, hot summers and should be grown in free draining soil and full sun. In England, it flowers in April.


Ulster Express

The Ulster Express was a named passenger train operating in the United Kingdom.
History.
The "Ulster Express" was introduced into service by the London, Midland and Scottish Railway and began operating in June 1927 between London Euston and Fleetwood. The northbound service departed London Euston at 6.10pm, with the southbound working departed Fleetwood at 6.05pm. It was usually hauled by a LMS Royal Scot Class locomotive. As well as serving Fleetwood, the service also ran to Heysham.
The service was suspended for the duration of the Second World War and restarted in 1949.
In 1955 the service saw the introduction of stainless steel first-class coaches with corridor compartments and open saloons in which the seats were pivoted, so that they could be rotated to form groups of four.
It was withdrawn by British Rail in 1975 when the ferry service between Heysham harbour and Belfast was withdrawn.


Melanesia

Melanesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It extends from the island of New Guinea in the west to Tonga in the east, and includes the Arafura Sea.
The region includes the four independent countries of Fiji, Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, and Papua New Guinea. It also includes the French special collectivity of New Caledonia and parts of Indonesia – notably Western New Guinea, which is the Indonesian part of the island of New Guinea. Almost all of the region is in the Southern Hemisphere; only a few small islands that are considered part of Oceania — specifically the northwestern islands of Western New Guinea — lie in the Northern Hemisphere.
The name "Melanesia" (in French, "Mélanésie") was first used in 1832 by French navigator Jules Dumont d'Urville: he coined the three terms "Melanesia", "Micronesia" and "Polynesia" to designate what he viewed as the three main ethnic and geographical regions forming the Pacific.
Etymology and name ambiguity.
The name "Melanesia", from Greek , "black", and , "island", etymologically means "islands of black [people]", in reference to the dark skin of the inhabitants.
The concept among Europeans of "Melanesia" as a distinct region evolved gradually over time as their expeditions mapped and explored the Pacific. Early European explorers noted the physical differences among groups of Pacific Islanders. In 1756, Charles de Brosses theorized that there was an "old black race" in the Pacific who had been conquered or defeated by the peoples of what is now called Polynesia, whom he distinguished as having lighter skin. In the first half of the nineteenth century, Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent and Jules Dumont d'Urville characterized Melanesians as a distinct racial group.
Over time, however, Europeans increasingly viewed Melanesians as a distinct cultural, rather than racial, grouping. Scholars and other commentators disagreed on the boundaries of Melanesia, descriptions of which were therefore somewhat fluid. In the nineteenth century, Robert Codrington, a British missionary, produced a series of monographs on "the Melanesians," based on his long-time residence in the region. In his published works on Melanesia, including "The Melanesian Languages" (1885) and "The Melanesians: Studies in Their Anthropology and Folk-lore" (1891), Codrington defined Melanesia as including Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, and Fiji. He reasoned that the islands of New Guinea should not be included because only some of its people were Melanesians. Also, like Bory de Saint-Vincent, he excluded Australia from Melanesia. It was in these works that Codrington introduced the Melanesian cultural concept of "mana" to the West.
Uncertainty about the best way to delineate and define the region continues to this day. The scholarly consensus now includes New Guinea within Melanesia. Ann Chowning wrote in her 1977 textbook on Melanesia that there is
no general agreement even among anthropologists about the geographical boundaries of Melanesia. Many apply the term only to the smaller islands, excluding New Guinea; Fiji has frequently been treated as an anomalous border region or even assigned wholly to Polynesia; and the people of the Torres Straits Islands are often simply classified as Australian aborigines.
In 1998, Paul Sillitoe wrote: "It is not easy to define precisely, on geographical, cultural, biological, or any other grounds, where Melanesia ends and the neighbouring regions ... begins". He ultimately concludes that the region is
a historical category which evolved in the nineteenth century from the discoveries made in the Pacific and has been legitimated by use and further research in the region. It covers populations that have a certain linguistic, biological and cultural affinity – a certain ill-defined sameness, which shades off at its margins into difference.
Both Sillitoe and Chowning include the island of New Guinea in the definition of Melanesia, and both of them exclude Australia.
Most of the peoples of Melanesia live either in politically independent countries, or in areas administered by France, or in a country (West Papua) that currently has an active independence movement. Some have recently embraced the term 'Melanesia' as a source of identity and empowerment. Stephanie Lawson writes that the term has "moved from a term of denigration to one of affirmation, providing a positive basis for contemporary subregional identity as well as a formal organisation". The author Bernard Narokobi has written that the concept of the "Melanesian Way" as a distinct cultural force could give the people of the region a sense of empowerment. This concept has in fact been used as a force in geopolitics. For instance, when the countries of Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, and Fiji reached a regional preferential trade agreement, they named it the Melanesian Spearhead Group.
History.
The people of Melanesia have a distinctive ancestry. According to the Southern Dispersal theory, a number of human beings emigrated from Africa between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago and dispersed along the southern edge of Asia. For some, the endpoint of this ancient migration was the ancient continent of Sahul, a single land mass comprising both the areas that are now Australia and New Guinea. (At that time, they were united by a land bridge, because sea levels were lower than they are now.) The first migration into Sahul was over 40,000 years ago. Some migrants settled in the part that is now New Guinea, while others continued south and became the aboriginal inhabitants of Australia.
Another wave of Austronesian migrants, originating ultimately from Taiwan, arrived in Melanesia much later, probably between 4000 and 3000 BC. They settled mostly along the north coast of New Guinea and on the islands to its north and east. When they arrived, they came into contact with the much more ancient indigenous Papuan-speaking peoples.
Some late-20th-century scholars developed a theory, known as the “Polynesian theory,” that there then followed a long period of interaction between these newcomers and the pre-existing inhabitants that led to many complex genetic, linguistic, and cultural mixing and other changes among the descendants of all the groups. This theory was later called into question, however, by the findings of a genetic study published by Temple University in 2008. That study found that neither Polynesians nor Micronesians have much genetic relation to Melanesians. The study's results suggest that, after ancestors of the Polynesians, having developed sailing outrigger canoes, migrated out of East Asia, they moved quickly through the Melanesian area, mostly without settling there, and instead continued on to areas east of Melanesia, finally settling in those areas.
The genetic evidence suggests that they left few descendants in Melanesia, and therefore probably "only intermixed to a very modest degree with the indigenous populations there". The study did find a small Austronesian genetic signature (below 20%) in some of the Melanesian groups who speak Austronesian languages, but found no such signature at all in Papuan-speaking groups.
Languages.
Most of the languages of Melanesia are members of the Austronesian language family or one of the numerous Papuan languages. The term “Papuan languages” refers to their geographical location rather than implying that they are linguistically related. In fact they comprise many separate language families. By one count, there are 1,319 languages in Melanesia, scattered across a small amount of land. On average, there is one language for every 716 square kilometers on the island. This is by far the densest collection of distinct languages on Earth, almost three times as dense as in Nigeria, a country famous for having a very large number of languages in a very compact area.
In addition to the many indigenous Melanesian languages, pidgins and creole languages have developed from trade and cultural interaction within the area and with the wider world. Most notable among these are Tok Pisin and Hiri Motu in Papua New Guinea. They are now both considered distinct creole languages. Use of Tok Pisin is growing. It is sometimes learned as a first language, above all by multi-cultural families. Examples of other Melanesian creoles are Unserdeutsch, Solomon Islands Pijin, Bislama, and Papuan Malay.
Geography.
A distinction is often made between the island of New Guinea and what is known as Island Melanesia, which consists of "the chain of archipelagos, islands, atolls, and reefs forming the outer bounds of the sheltered oval-shaped coral sea". This includes the Louisiade Archipelago (a part of Papua New Guinea), the Bismarck Archipelago (a part of Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands), and the Santa Cruz Islands (a part of the country called Solomon Islands). The country of Vanuatu is composed of the New Hebrides island chain (and in the past 'New Hebrides' has also been the name of the political unit located on the islands). New Caledonia is composed of one large island and several smaller chains, including the Loyalty Islands. The nation of Fiji is composed of two main islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, and smaller islands, including the Lau Islands.
The names of islands in Melanesia can be confusing: they have both indigenous and European names. National boundaries sometimes cut across archipelagos. The names of the political units in the region have changed over time, and sometimes have included geographical terms. For example, the island of Makira was once known as San Cristobal, the name given to it by Spanish explorers. It is in the country Solomon Islands, which is a nation-state and not a contiguous archipelago. The border of Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands separates the island of Bougainville from nearby islands like Choiseul, although Bougainville is geographically part of the chain of islands that includes Choiseul and much of the Solomons.
In addition to the islands mentioned above, there are many smaller islands and atolls in Melanesia. These include:
Norfolk Island, listed above, has archaeological evidence of East Polynesian rather than Melanesian settlement. Rotuma in Fiji has strong affinities culturally and ethnologically to Polynesia.
Political geography.
The following countries are considered part of Melanesia:
Melanesia also includes:
Several Melanesian states are members of intergovernmental organizations. Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu are also members of the Melanesian Spearhead Group.
Genetic studies.
Melanesians were found to have a mysterious third archaic "Homo" species along with their Denisovan (3–4%) and Neanderthal (2%) ancestors in a genetic admixture with their otherwise modern "Homo sapiens sapiens" genomes. Their most common Y-chromosome haplogroup is M-P256.
The frequent occurrence of blond hair among these peoples is due to a specific random mutation, different from the mutation that led to blond hair in peoples indigenous to northern regions of the globe. This is evidence that the genotype and phenotype for blond hair arose at least twice in human history.


Bay of Pomerania (nature reserve)

The Bay of Pomerania Nature Reserve () is a coastal region east of the German island of Rügen in Germany's exclusive economic zone and the continental shelf of the Baltic Sea. It was created on 15 September 2005 by the Red-Green federal government and, together with the Sylt Outer Reef Nature Reserve ("Naturschutzgebiet Sylter Außenriff"), is one of the few nature reserves established by the federation.
Protected area.
The area is part of a European bird reserve, i.e. a Special Protection Area under the Habitats Directive. It has an area of 200,938 hectares and lies east of the island of Rügen and runs from the northern edge of the Adlergrund south of the "Arkonasee" to the outer boundary of the German exclusive economic zone with Poland in the east as well as in the south to the boundary of the German coastal sea north of the Oder estuary. In the north the Rønnebank and the Adlergrund separate the region from the Arkona Basin.
The conservation order aims to preserve and reinstate the sea region's function as a feeding, over-wintering, moulting, migration and rest area for the species living there, especially for red-throated loon ("Gavia stellata"), black-throated loon ("Gavia arctica"), horned grebe ("Podiceps auritus"), little gull ("Larus minutus"), common tern ("Sterna hirundo"), Arctic tern ("Sterna paradisaea"), red-necked grebe ("Podiceps grisegena"), long-tailed duck ("Clangula hyernalis"), scoter ("Melanitta nigra"), velvet scoter ("Melanitta fusca"), common gull ("Larus canus"), lesser black-backed gull ("Larus fiscus"), guillemot ("Uria aalge"), razorbill ("Alca torda") and black guillemot ("Cepphus grylle").


Italian occupation of Adalia

The Italian occupation of Adalia, city of Turkey, occurred in the turbulent times that led to the Treaty of Sèvres (from 1919 to 1922).
History.
Background.
With the Treaty of London of 1915, Italy had negotiated, in exchange for the intervention alongside the Triple Entente, in addition to Trentino-Alto Adige up to the border at the Brenner Pass, to Venezia Giulia and some territories of Dalmatia, other compensations in the case of a dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire, such as the port of Antalya in Turkey and the contiguous territory , where a carboniferous basin was reported.
With the Mudros Armistice (the 30th of October, 1918), the Ottoman Empire accepted the conditions unilaterally dictated by the winning powers; while in Italy, where the idea of a Vittoria mutilata was growing, it was feared that the clause of the Pact of London would be annulled.
Italian disembarkation in Anatolia.
In this circumstances, the 9th of March 1919, the Italian government made an Italian expeditionary force in Anatolia disembark in Adalia, and in a brief time nearby localities were also occupied: Makri Budrun, Kuch-Adassi, Alanya, Konya, Ismidt and Eskişehir.
This show of force was met by a harsh opposition from the Greek government - not part of the Pact of London - who aspired to occupy a large territory of Anatolia.
In the absence of the Italian delegation headed by the prime minister Orlando, at the Paris peace conference, Greece managed to obtain, from the Supreme Council, permission to intervene on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. On 15 May 1919, therefore, the Greek army made a landing at Smyrna with the occupation of Aydin, Magnesia, Kassaba, Ayalik and Edemieh.
A bitter dispute arose between the Italian and Greek governments, which was later resolved with a secret agreement signed on 29 July 1919 by Tittoni and Venizelos in which Italy renounced Adalia and the islands of Dodecanese except for Rhodes, in exchange for Greek support for an Italian “mandate” over Albania. This agreement, however, was denounced by the subsequent Italian Foreign Minister Carlo Sforza (June 1920).
The Paris Peace Conference, following the events of World War I, was articulated with a series of treaties with the individual defeated nations. The Ottoman Empire led to the Treaty of Sèvres (10 August 1920), which recognized Italy's area of influence on Antalya and its surroundings, as well as the possession of the Dodecanese, and the Greek occupation of Smyrna and its surroundings.
As the Greco-Turkish War spread, the Turkish revolutionaries obtained significant military assistance from Italy, which used the Antalya base to arm and train the troops of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk against the Greeks.
Withdrawal.
Italy began the withdrawal of its expeditionary force in the autumn of 1922.
After the victorious war against the Greeks and the establishment of Mustafa Kemal's Turkish Republic, the Treaty of Sèvres was annulled and replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). In this last act, Turkey confirmed to Italy the possession of the Dodecanese and recognized for the first time the Italian sovereignty over Libya, but did not grant it any area subject to economic influence or military occupation in Anatolia.


Oren Yiftachel

Oren Yiftachel (, born 1956) is an Israeli professor of political and legal geography, urban studies and urban planning at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, in Beersheba. He holds the Lynn and Lloyd Hurst Family Chair in Urban Studies.
Life and career.
Yiftachel was born in Haifa and grew up on kibbutz Matzuva.
During the 1980s and early 1990s, Yiftachel studied in Australia and Israel, specializing in urban studies and political geography. In 1990, he received a Doctor of Philosophy from the Department of Geography, the University of Western Australia, Perth, and the Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning, the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa. He returned to Israel, where he did his post-doctoral studies on regional planning at the Technion, Haifa.
He has subsequently taught urban planning, geography, political science and Middle East departments, at various institutions, including: Curtin University, Australia; the Technion, Israel; the University of Pennsylvania, Columbia University, and UC Berkeley, in the United States; the University of Cape Town, South Africa and the University of Venice, Italy. Most recently, he was appointed as a visiting professor at RMIT University, Melbourne; and as a Leverhulme professor at University College London (Geography and the Bartlett). He was also a research fellow at the United States Institute of Peace, Washington DC; and the Van Leer Jerusalem Institute, Jerusalem.
Yiftachel is the founding and past editor of the journal, ", and has serves on the editorial board of "Planning Theory", "IJMES", "MERIP", "Urban Studies", "Journal of Planning Literature", "Environment and Planning A", and "Territory, Politics, Governance".
Yiftachel has worked as an urban and regional planner in a range of institutions, including the Perth City Council in Australia, the Kibbutz Movement and "Israel 2020" project in Israel. He specialized in advocacy planning and land consultancy. Recently he has worked on an Israeli-Palestinian plan for a bi-national Jerusalem, an alternative plan for the unrecognized Bedouin villages in southern Israel, and a plan for a multicultural Beersheba. Yiftachel has worked as an urban and regional planner in a range of institutions, including the Perth City Council, the Kibbutz Movement, and "Israel 2020" project in Israel.
Yiftachel is also an activist, and has been a member of several notable organizations, including Faculty for Israel-Palestine Peace (FFIPP), PALISAD, The Negev Coexistence Forum, Adva (centre for social equality), and Habitat International Coalition. In recent years Yiftachel served as a board member and chair of B'tselem – the Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories; and has co-founded a new Israeli-Palestinian peace movement – "A Land for All - Two States, One Homeland". For many years he has worked as planner and advocate with the indigenous Bedouin populations in the Negev/Naqab and other regions. He is an occasional op-ed contributor to leading Israeli newspapers, including "Haaretz", "Ynet" and "Ma'ariv".
Scholarship.
Yiftachel has been a leading researcher drawing worldwide attention. During the last decade he has been the most highly cited Israeli scholar in geography and urban studies. A special issue of an international journal was recently devoted to the theory of ethnocratic regimes, two decades after their formulation by Yiftachel.
His works develops critical perspectives of space and power; minorities and public policy; 'ethnocratic' societies and land regimes. In urban and planning studies he's early work focused on Australian metropolitan planning and its impact on 'urban social sustainability'. He later developed a theory of the 'dark side' of urban planning and has contributed to opening up planning theory to critical theory in general, and to issues of identity, colonization and space in particular.
In recent years he has developed a theory of gray space and 'displaceability' as underlining condition of new urban regimes and citizenship. In parallel, he developed with colleagues a model of 'doing the just city' as a theoretical and professional alternative. In political geography, his work formulated the concept of 'ethnocratic' regimes, which has generated debates in ethnic and racial studies, regime theories and research in Israel/Palestine. His comparative work has focused on comparatively analyzing spatial policy towards minorities in a range of 'ethnocratic' states and cities, most particularly Australia, Sri Lanka, Estonia, Cyprus, Bosnia, Northern Ireland and South Africa. In recent years Yiftachel has worked on the political and legal geography of indigenous peoples, focusing on Bedouins in Israel/Palestine in a comparative framework, as well as on concepts such as 'gray spacing', 'mtrozenship' and 'urban displaceability' which he developed during the last decade.
In a series of books and articles, Yiftachel explores comparatively the types of regimes that typically develop under condition of ethnic conflict. In this framework, He conceptualizes the Israeli regime as an ethnocracy, promoting a dominant project of 'ethnicization' throughout Israel/Palestine, in which ethnicity dominates citizenship.[3] He documents the various practices of this project, and the manner in which it has constructed ethno-class identities and stratified citizenship through the process of expansion, development, projects of Judaisation and politicization in the different regions of Israel/Palestine.[4] His model traces the nature of the Zionist project, taking into account the historical circumstances spawning Jewish 'colonization of refugees'. His early work also focused on the tension between liberal and ethnocratic-religious components of the Israeli regime, and on the privileged status given European over Eastern Jews established during the settlement project, but also the recent closing of the gaps through on-going colonization of Palestinian lands.
Palestinians are relegated to the status of 'unwanted' indigenous peoples resisting the ethnocratic project.[3] Yiftachel uses a multidisciplinary approach, inspired by Neo-Gramscian thinking and by a range of Marxian, post- and neo-colonial theorists. In the study of Israel/Palestine he was one of the first to break the traditional scholarly divisions between analysis of Arab-Jewish relations and internal Jewish dynamics, and one of a handful of scholars to question whether Israel acts as a democratic state within the Green Line (Israeli pre-1967 borders). The Israeli regime, according to Yiftachel, has presided over the entire historic Palestine for over five decades, and should be analyzed according to the power structures he claims it imposed over the entire territory. Yiftachel developed the 'settler-ethnocratic' model to highlight the regime's main historical-material logic, and the concept of 'creeping apartheid' to describe its recent manifestation and the development of four different 'separate and unequal' types of citizenship under the Israeli regime..
Yiftachel's work is rich in conceptualization, with development of a conceptual architecture including terms such as 'trapped minorities', 'fractured regions', 'ruptured demos', 'internal frontiers', 'frontiphery', 'gray spacing' and 'displaceability'. His recent work also develops a 'South-Eastern' perspective by providing alternative conceptualizations to the dominant theories and discourses generated by American and European academic centers.
Publications.
Yiftachel has published over 120 articles and chapters. Among his books, edited collections, and monographs:


Western Sahara Resource Watch

Western Sahara Resource Watch (WSRW) is a network organization working on the natural resource situation in Western Sahara.
WSRW consists of organizations and campaigners from more than 40 countries researching and campaigning against the companies working in partnership with the Moroccan government in occupied Western Sahara. The organization was established in 2004, and works in solidarity with the Polisario. The organization believes that the occupation of Western Sahara will continue as long as Morocco profits from it.
A part of Western Sahara is controlled by Morocco. The United Nations (UN) Legal Counsel, Ambassador Hans Corell expressed in 2002 that the natural resources management in Western Sahara only would be in line with international law if it took into account the "wishes and interests of the people of Western Sahara".
WSRW works to inform international companies about the UN Legal Opinion and of the ethical aspects of business practice in the territory. The organization also launches campaigns, encouraging multinational companies and governments not to invest and participate in trade in the occupied territories of Western Sahara until a peaceful solution to the conflict has been found.
Previous campaigns.
WSRW has previously carried out campaigns against the phosphate, oil and fish industries. Since 2006, the organization has worked to prevent the European Union entering agreements with Morocco covering the territory of Western Sahara, most importantly its Fisheries Partnership Agreements. In 2011 the EU parliament terminated the last Fisheries Partnership Agreements with Morocco for the waters of Western Sahara.


Tumba Peak (Belasica)

Tumba (Greek: Τούμπα, Bulgarian and Macedonian: Тумба) is a peak in the Belasica mountains in the region of Macedonia. The peak, in height, lies on Belasica's main ridge, west of Lozen Peak and east of Sechena Skala Peak. A dome-shaped mountain with steep southern and northern slopes, Tumba is covered with low subalpine vegetation and is made of metamorphic rock. Tumba is notable as the point where the national borders of Bulgaria, Greece and North Macedonia meet (tripoint). It is one of the southwesternmost point of Bulgaria and one of the southeasternmost point of North Macedonia.
In Bulgaria, favourable starting points of an ascent are the villages Klyuch, Skrat and Gabrene. In North Macedonia, these are Smolari and Sharena Cheshma. In Greece these are Platanakia, Kalochori and Kastanoussa. Every August since 2001, an international excursion to the peak is organized under the motto "Balkans Without Borders".


Weston-sub-Edge

Weston-sub-Edge (also known as Weston Subedge) is a village in Gloucestershire, England.
History.
This Cotswold village, recorded in the Domesday Book, lies at the foot of Dover's Hill. Named after Robert Dover who organised his ‘Olimpick’ Games there from 1612, it is a well-known beauty spot with extensive views over the surrounding countryside. The Cotswold Olimpick Games, held annually, were revived in 1966. The Bowling Club, formed in 1987, has adopted certain features – their blazer badge is the silver castle (presented then as a prize in some events) while Robert Dover can be seen on the men's ties. The designs are taken from the frontispiece to the “Annalia Dubrensia”, a book of poems written in praise of Robert Dover and published in 1636. The hill was gifted to The National Trust in 1928 and lies within the Cotswolds AONB.
The Romans occupied Weston from the 2nd Century AD, a date based on coins and pottery found in the village. Their Ryknild Street (now called Buckle Street) forms the parish boundary with Saintbury and provided a link with Watling Street and The Fosse Way. Weston, said to have been a station for the Imperial Post, lies roughly halfway between Alcester and Slaughter Bridge, near Bourton-on-the-Water, where Ryknild joins the Fosse. There are three listed Romano-British sites in the village, including one just below the Lynches Wood. It is said that the Romans grew their vines on the clearly defined terraces there. Not far from the hill is the Kiftsgate Stone, the stone pillar marking the Kiftsgate Hundred. It is an ancient monument. Here in Saxon times, the Court of the Hundred met and public announcements were proclaimed. The Stone can be seen on the boundary of Weston Park, almost 200 acres of ancient woodland, first sold from the Giffard Estate in 1610. It still remains in private hands. A boundary stone at the south end of the parish was erected in the 18th century and has been designated as a listed building.
The manor house, next to the church, was built in the late 17th century. The village has some stone houses and a public house, called the Seagrave Arms which was built in the 17th century. The school, built in 1852, was closed in 1985, and the small post office closed in 2008.
Weston-sub-Edge railway station is a disused station on the Honeybourne Line from to Cheltenham which served the village between 1904 and 1960.
Name.
The exact spelling of the name is inconsistent, with several variants being used. The Domesday Book refers to Westone, but the Ordnance Survey currently use the spelling Weston Subedge, and that is the spelling used by the government in its statutory instruments. However the Parish Council now uses the hyphenated version.
The hyphenated version appeared on all of the railway timetables when the Honeybourne Line was active, as is shown in the Imperial Gazetteer of England and Wales of 1870-1872. To add to the problem, Royal Mail use a spelling of Weston-Subedge on postal addresses.
Industry.
As well as a few local businesses, Weston Industrial Estate just north of the village provides a number of specialist businesses. The site of the estate was originally developed as a service area for RAF Honeybourne and a number of the original buildings from the 1940s are still recognizable today. The area contained the CO's office, NAAFI and Sergeants Mess well away from the main runways and taxi areas.
Religious sites.
The church of St Lawrence was built in the 13th century. It underwent Victorian restoration by Frederick Preedy in the 1850s. The lych gate was added in 1922 by Norman Jewson.
Exclave.
The civil parish of Weston-sub-Edge is one of the few left in England to have a detached portion. The northern part of the parish is separated by a narrow strip of Aston Subedge's land.


West Pomeranian Voivodeship

West Pomeranian Voivodeship or West Pomerania Province (Polish: "województwo zachodniopomorskie" ) is a voivodeship (province) in northwestern Poland. It borders on Pomeranian Voivodeship to the east, Greater Poland Voivodeship to the southeast, Lubusz Voivodeship to the south, the German federal-states of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania and Brandenburg to the west, and the Baltic Sea to the north. Its capital and largest city is Szczecin.
It was established on January 1, 1999, out of the former Szczecin and Koszalin Voivodeships and parts of Gorzów, Piła and Słupsk Voivodeships, pursuant to the Polish local government reforms adopted in 1998. It is named for the historical region of Pomerania (). In spite of the name ("West Pomeranian"), the voivodeship does not include the most westerly parts of historical Pomerania, which lie in Germany's "Vorpommern" (see Western Pomerania).
The name "Pomerania" comes from the Slavic "po more", meaning "Land by the Sea".
Geography and tourism.
West Pomeranian Voivodeship is the fifth largest voivodeship of Poland in terms of area. Among the largest cities, of the region, are the capital Szczecin, as well as Koszalin, Stargard, and Świnoujście.
This is a picturesque region of the Baltic Sea coast, with many beaches, lakes and woodlands. Szczecin, Świnoujście and Police are important ports. Other major seaside towns include Międzyzdroje, Dziwnów, Kołobrzeg, and Mielno.
West Pomerania is considered one of the greenest regions of Poland, and one of the most attractive for tourists. It is characterized by incredible diversity of the landscape: beaches, hundreds of lakes, and forests full of wildlife (e.g. Wkrzanska Forest), spreading mainly up the hills of the glacial lakes areas. West Pomerania is also rich in various forms and styles of architecture that were built during the Middle Ages as well as the Gothic, Baroque, and Renaissance periods. There is a diverse repertoire of theaters, festivals, museums and galleries. During a few-day long annual Sea Festival in Szczecin, a number of free open-air concerts take place. In Świnoujście during the summer, the FAMA Academic Youth Arts Festival takes place – an event with several years of tradition, which attracts not only young people but also older alumni. In Międzyzdroje, there is a Festival Of The Stars, which draws many popular actors. In Wolin, a Viking Festival takes place, which draws "Vikings" from all across Europe.
Another draw to the area is a wide array of health resorts. Brine and peloid, discovered in the 19th century, together with geothermal water resources, are popular attractions in Świnoujście, Kamień Pomorski and Połczyn Zdrój.
A notable phenomenon on a worldly scale is the Crooked Forest outside the town of Gryfino.
Cities and towns.
The voivodeship contains 66 cities and towns. These are listed below in descending order of population (according to official figures for 2019):
The Polish districts of the historical region Western Pomerania (the 3 westernmost districts of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship) had a population of about 520,000 in 2012 (cities of Szczecin, Świnoujście and Police County combined) – while the German districts had a population of about 470,000 in 2012 (Vorpommern-Rügen and Vorpommern-Greifswald combined). So overall, about 1 million people live in the historical region of Western Pomerania today, while the Szczecin agglomeration reaches even further.
Administrative division.
West Pomeranian Voivodeship is divided into 21 counties (powiats): 3 city counties and 18 land counties. These are further divided into 114 gminas.
The counties are listed in the following table (ordering within categories is by decreasing population in 2019):
Protected areas.
Protected areas in West Pomeranian Voivodeship include two National Parks and seven Landscape Parks. These are listed below.
Demography.
After Germany's defeat in World War II, the region became part of Poland by way of the Potsdam Agreement, which created territorial changes demanded by the Soviet Union. Most Germans fled or were expelled; the area was re-settled by Poles, most of whom had been expelled from the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union.
In 1948 67 percent of the populace originated from Central Poland, Greater Poland and Pomeralia while 25 percent came from the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union. Another 6 percent returned to Poland from Western Europe. About 50,000 Ukrainians were forcefully resettled to West Pomerania in the Operation Vistula in 1947.
Economy.
The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the province was 18.3 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 3.7% of Polish economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 17,700 euros or 59% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 67% of the EU average.
Transportation.
There are two main international road routes that pass through the voivodeship: National road 3 (Poland) Świnoujście-Szczecin-Gorzów Wielkopolski-Zielona Góra-Legnica-Czech border (part of European route E65 from Swedish Malmö to Chaniá in Greece) and National road 6 (Poland) Szczecin-Koszalin-Słupsk-Gdańsk (part of European route E28 from Berlin to Minsk).
Most of the National road 3 in the voivodeship is in a standard of an expressway (Expressway S3 (Poland)). The National road 6 between German border and Rzęśnica is in the standard of autostrada (A6 autostrada (Poland)), whereas part between Rzęścnica and Goleniów and bypasses of Goleniów and Nowogard are in standards of an expressway (Expressway S6 (Poland)).
Other important national roads are National road 10 (Poland) (German border-Szczecin-Piła-Bydgoscz-Toruń-Płońsk) and National road 11 (Poland) (Kołobrzeg-Koszalin-Piła-Poznań-Bytom).
Apart from the above, some other national roads are located in the voivodeship. The voivodeship possesses also a well-developed network of regional roads.
Main railways in the province are line no. 351 Szczecin-Poznań, line no. 273 Szczecin-Wrocław (so-called “Odra railway”), line no. 202 Stargard-Gdańsk, line no. 401 Szczecin-Świnoujście and line no. 404 Kołobrzeg-Szczecinek.
The main railway stations of the province are Szczecin main station, Stargard and Koszalin. The stations are served by fast PKP Intercity trains which connect them with the capital Warsaw, as well as other major Polish cities.
In addition to these fast express services, inter-regional trains and intra-regional trains are operated by the firm Przewozy Regionalne.
Szczecin main station possesses international train connections with Berlin, Schwerin and Lübeck (operated by DB Regio). Świnoujście has a direct train connection with Stralsund, which is operated by Usedomer Bäderbahn.
The only domestic and international airport in West Pomeranian Voivodeship is Szczecin-Goleniów "Solidarność" Airport. Also, part of the runway of an abandoned airport in Bagicz (near Kołobrzeg) was converted to an airport licensed to service planes carrying not more than 20 passengers on board.


Carolinas

The Carolinas are the U.S. states of North Carolina and South Carolina, considered collectively. They are bordered by Virginia to the north, Tennessee to the west, and Georgia to the southwest. The Atlantic Ocean is to the east. Combining North Carolina's population of 10,488,084 and South Carolina's of 5,148,714, the Carolinas have a population of 15,636,798 as of 2015. If the Carolinas were a single state of the United States, it would be the fifth-most populous state, behind California, Texas, Florida, and New York. The Carolinas were known as the Province of Carolina during America's early colonial period, from 1663 to 1710. Prior to that, the land was considered part of the Colony and Dominion of Virginia, from 1609 to 1663. The province, named "Carolina" to honor King Charles I of England, was divided into two royal colonies in 1729, although the actual date is the subject of debate.
History.
The region was claimed as part of the Spanish territory named "La Florida" by Ponce de Leon in 1513. Santa Elena, a Spanish settlement on what is now Parris Island, South Carolina, was the capital of La Florida from 1566 to 1587. It was founded by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, the first governor of Spanish Florida. There had been a number of earlier attempts to establish colonies in the area by both the Spanish and the French, who had been inspired by earlier accounts of the plentiful land of Chicora. Menéndez's Santa Elena settlement shifted the focus of Spanish colonial efforts northward from St. Augustine, which had been established in 1565 to drive the French from their colony of Fort Caroline. Santa Elena was ultimately built at the site of the abandoned French outpost of Charlesfort, founded in 1562 by Jean Ribault.
The establishment of Santa Elena followed the destruction of the French Fort Caroline by Menéndez in 1565. The Spanish settlement housed a sizeable community, and became the base of operations for the Jesuits and military working in the northern zone of Spanish Florida. From this base the Spanish founded a number of other ephemeral forts as far inland as the Appalachian Mountains, but resistance from local Native American tribes and the lack of interest of Spain in the area, caused these to be abandoned, relocated or destroyed. Santa Elena was ultimately abandoned in 1587, with its survivors relocating to St. Augustine. The Spanish never pressed their colonial claims to the area again, focusing on other areas of the American continent. The territory was thereafter left to the native Americans until 30 October 1629, when Charles I granted a patent to his attorney-general, Sir Robert Heath, for the lands south of 36 degrees and north of 31 degrees, "under the name, in honor of that king, of Carolana"." "Carolus" is Latin for 'Charles'. The charter was unrealized and later ruled invalid.
On 24 March 1663, Charles II issued a new charter to a group of eight English noblemen, granting them the land of Carolina, as a reward for their faithful support of his efforts to regain the throne of England. The eight were called "Lords Proprietor" or simply "Proprietors". The 1663 charter granted the Lords Proprietor title to all of the land from the southern border of the Virginia Colony at 36 degrees north to 31 degrees north (along the coast of present-day Georgia). The establishment of separate colonies did not officially occur until 1729, when seven of the Lords Proprietors sold their interests in Carolina to the Crown, and both North Carolina and South Carolina became royal colonies.
In 1665, the charter was revised slightly, with the northerly boundary extended to 36 degrees 30 minutes north to include the lands of the Albemarle Settlements along the Albemarle Sound, which had been settled mainly by Virginians migrating south. Likewise, the southern boundary was moved south to 29 degrees north, just south of present-day Daytona Beach, Florida, which had the effect of including the existing Spanish settlement at St. Augustine, an unenforceable overreach of English power. The charter also granted all the land, between these northerly and southerly bounds, from the Atlantic Ocean, westward to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, an even more unenforceable overreach.
Between 1663 and 1729 there were many disagreements relating to defense, governance and the difference between the two differing agrarian styles employed by the inhabitants of the Colony of Virginia and that practiced by the planters arriving to Charles Town from the West Indies and Barbados.
In 1729 the Province of Carolina was divided when the descendants of seven of the eight Lords Proprietors sold their shares back to the Crown. Only the heirs of Sir George Carteret retained their original rights to what would become the Granville District. Both the Province of North Carolina and the Province of South Carolina became British Crown Colonies in 1729.
Culture.
The culture of the Carolinas is a distinct subset of larger Southern culture. Notably, the coastal Carolina region was settled by Europeans over a century before the inland regions of the South, and was influenced by the culture of the Caribbean, especially Barbados; many of the early governors during the unified period were Barbadians. Though the two states both form part of the South, there are historically a number of differences in the settlement patterns, political development, and economic growth of the two states. For example, during the Civil War, South Carolina was the first Southern state to secede from the Union, while North Carolina was the second to last state to secede.
During the war, South Carolina was generally one of the strongest supporters of the Confederacy. The war began in Charleston, South Carolina, where cadets of the South Carolina Military Academy, known as The Citadel, fired the opening shots at the Union Ship "Star of the West". North Carolina was also a key Confederate state, raising and giving more soldiers to The Confederacy than any other southern state. At Gettysburg, one in four Confederate soldiers was from North Carolina, despite the fact that some North Carolinians (especially in the western part of the state) refused to support the Confederacy. North Carolina's Civil War governor, Zebulon Vance, was an outspoken critic of Confederate President Jefferson Davis and frequently refused to obey Davis's orders for reinforcements and supplies; Vance insisted the soldiers and supplies would be needed for North Carolina's Confederate effort. However, during the seven days' battles, North Carolina did send large numbers of troops for the general aid of the South as a whole.
The Carolinas were both instrumental in keeping the Confederacy alive, because of their deepwater ports in Wilmington and Charleston. These two cities were key in supplying Southern armies with weapons, clothing, and ammunition, and producing food and provisions for Southern civilians.
Politics.
During most of the 20th century, South Carolina was a bastion of the "solid Democratic South" with almost no Republican officeholders, and the state frequently elected politicians who were outspoken supporters of racial segregation. North Carolina, while mostly Democratic, contained a large Republican minority – the state voted Republican in the presidential election of 1928 and elected several Republican congressmen, governors, and senators from 1868–1928 – and North Carolina was widely known as one of the more progressive Southern states on the issue of segregation and civil rights. In 1947, the journalist John Gunther wrote, "that North Carolina is by a good deal the most progressive Southern state will, I imagine, be agreed to by almost everybody." On the other hand, he described South Carolina as "one of the poorest American states, and probably one of the balkiest." In describing the differences between the two states, Gunther noted that, in 1947, divorce in North Carolina "may be granted simply on the ground of absence of cohabitation; South Carolina is the one American state in which divorce is not possible."
Despite North Carolina being a swing state in presidential elections, and South Carolina being one that reliably votes for Republican presidential candidates, they are technically the country's two most politically similar states, according to a comparison of the states along a range of 19 variables performed by the statistician Nate Silver in 2008.
Economy.
Traditionally, like much of the South, the Carolinas have been agricultural. However, the predominance of certain crops has influenced the regional economy:
Like other [Southern] states, until after World War II North Carolina remained primarily a region of small farms and factories heavily dependent on just a few labor-intensive crops, relying on sharecropping and tenancy, especially for black laborers. The Carolinas are distinct for their economic dependence on tobacco as well as on cotton and rice, and for their many small-scale furniture, textile, and tobacco factories.
These small industries gave the Carolinas, particularly North Carolina, a more significant industrial base than most Southern states, but as increased mechanization in the textiles, apparel, and furniture industries combined with the decline of the tobacco industry, many rural and small urban communities suffered. However, during the 1990s, both states began to experience growth in the technological and banking sectors, bringing jobs and population growth. These changes, as with earlier industrialization, were more pronounced in North Carolina, and South Carolina has experienced a slower rate of economic growth for several years.
Since the 1980s, North Carolina has emerged as a financial hub with Charlotte becoming the second-largest financial district in the United States after New York City. Charlotte is home to the headquarters of Bank of America, Truist Financial, and the East Coast operations of Wells Fargo, as well as six other Fortune 500 companies, including Lowe's, Duke Energy, Nucor, Honeywell, and Sonic Automotive.
Professional sports.
The Carolinas have three professional sports teams in the Big Four major leagues: the Carolina Panthers of the NFL, the Charlotte Hornets of the NBA, and the Carolina Hurricanes of the NHL. Supported by both states, the three teams are all based in NC, two in Charlotte and the third in Raleigh. All of the sports teams are fairly recent additions; the oldest team, the NFL's Panthers, was established in 1995, while the youngest, the Hornets, was added to the NBA in 2004 as the Charlotte Bobcats, although a prior NBA team also named the Hornets played in Charlotte from 1988 before leaving for New Orleans in 2002. The Bobcats were renamed the Hornets in May 2014, one season after the former New Orleans Hornets decided to rebrand themselves as the Pelicans. At that time, the Hornets also regained sole ownership of the pre-relocation history of the original Charlotte Hornets. The Hurricanes formed in 1971 as the New England Whalers of the World Hockey Association. After the NHL-WHA merger in 1979, they joined the NHL as the Hartford Whalers until 1997 when they relocated to Raleigh, North Carolina. Currently, the Hurricanes are the most successful after their 2006 Stanley Cup championship marked the first professional sports title for the region. In 2019, a Major League Soccer team was awarded to Charlotte.
In 1991, Charlotte was the host city of the 1991 NBA All-Star Game, which was held at the now demolished Charlotte Coliseum. In June of 2015, Charlotte won its bid to host the 2017 NBA All-Star Game. However, the award was rescinded in July of 2016 due to House Bill 2. On 24 May 2017, Charlotte was selected to host the 2019 NBA All-Star Game. The game was held on Sunday, 17 February 2019 at the Spectrum Center, home of the Charlotte Hornets.
Bank of America Stadium currently hosts three major sporting events, the Duke's Mayo Bowl, the Belk Kickoff Game and the ACC Championship Game. Charlotte Motor Speedway hosts three major NASCAR events, the Coca-Cola 600, the Monster Energy NASCAR All-Star Race, and the Bank of America 500.
The Carolinas are home to a number of NBA superstars, such as Chris Paul, James Worthy, John Wall, and Michael Jordan (from NC) and Kevin Garnett, Jermaine O'Neal, Ray Allen, and Raymond Felton (from SC). Six of these players are All Stars, four are NBA champions, and John Wall and James Worthy were the Number 1 draft picks in the 2010 NBA draft and 1982 NBA draft, respectively. A disproportional number of basketball players come from the Carolinas, on par with such big cities as New York City and Los Angeles. While the Hornets do little to generate buzz in the Carolinas, they are home to three of the most successful collegiate men's basketball teams in the NCAA, the North Carolina Tar Heels, North Carolina State Wolfpack and the Duke Blue Devils. All three schools are fierce rivals who have combined to win 13 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championships (UNC has 6, Duke has 5, North Carolina State has 2).
Boundary between the states.
Plotting the boundary.
According to the Prefatory Notes to Volume 5 of the "Colonial Records of North Carolina", the process of determining the boundary between North and South Carolina began in 1720 "when the purpose to erect a
third Province in Carolina, with Savannah for its northern boundary" began. On 8 January 1730 an agreement between the two colonies said for the border "to begin 30 miles southwest of the Cape Fear river, and to be run at that parallel distance the whole course of said river;" The next June Governor Robert Johnson of South Carolina said the border should start 30 miles southwest of the source of the Cape Fear "due west as far as the South Sea", unless the "Waccamaw river lyes [sic] within 30 miles of the Cape Fear river," which would make the Waccamaw the boundary. North Carolina agreed to this until the discovery that the Cape Fear headwaters were very close to Virginia, which would not have "permitted any extension on the part of North Carolina to the westward." In 1732, Governor George Burrington of North Carolina stated in "Timothy's Southern Gazette" that territory north of the Waccamaw was in North Carolina, to which Johnson replied that South Carolina claimed the land. Johnson also said that when the two met before the Board of Trade in London two years earlier, Burrington had "insisted that the Waccamaw should be the boundary from its mouth to its head," while South Carolina agreed the border should be located from the mouth, not the source. Johnson said this was "only a mistake in wording it."
Both Carolinas selected commissioners to survey the line between them. The plan called for the line to run northwest to 35 degrees latitude, unless the Pee Dee River was reached first, in which case it would run along the Pee Dee to 35 degrees north. Then the line would run west to Catawba town, though if the town were north of the line, the line was to run around Catawba to keep it in South Carolina.
In May 1735, the surveyors went from the Cape Fear westward 30 miles along the coast. Then they turned northwest and marked the location with stakes. The surveyors agreed to meet again on 18 September. However, only the North Carolina team returned at that time, extending the line northwest . The South Carolina team arrived in October and followed the previous line for only because they had not been paid. A deputy surveyor marked where the Pee Dee crossed the 35th parallel. An extension of the line in 1737 ran to a stake in a meadow. However, the stake placed at the endpoint of the survey was too far south.
In 1764, a second extension ran westward. In 1772, after making adjustments to keep the Catawba Indians in South Carolina, "extended in a due west course from the confluence of the north and south forks of the Catawba River to Tryon Mountain." However, this extension was based on the erroneous position of the 1737 stake, removing from South Carolina. Joseph Caldwell, president of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, found that the line west of the Pee Dee did not run along the 35th parallel, but 12 miles to the south. However, the western part of the line ran far enough to the north to make up for the difference. West of this point the border was shifted to run north of the 35th parallel so that the total areas of the states would return to what was intended, although the accuracy of this part of the survey was marred by a magnetic anomaly in the Charlotte, North Carolina area.
North Carolina did not agree to the line of 1772 until 1813. A 1905 survey determined the border between Scotland County, North Carolina and Marlboro County, South Carolina. A 1928 survey decided the border between Horry County, South Carolina and Brunswick and Columbus counties in North Carolina.
Recent history.
In the mid-1990s, Duke Energy determined that the border between the Carolinas needed to be re-surveyed, as the company was selling and donating land in the Jocassee Gorge area, which included parts of both states. Also, with more people living outside cities, the precise boundaries of fire, tax, and school district lines needed to be known. This was especially a problem in the mountains, where people had previously lived in valleys, not on the ridges where the border was. A 15-year plan to re-establish the boundary began, using maps from the 1813–1815 survey and GPS technology. A few stone markers still read, "NC/SC 1815 AD" but other locations were marked with trees which no longer stand.
South Carolina had recently been involved in a costly legal battle with Georgia over a small number of islands in the Savannah River, and wanted to avoid the expense of a lawsuit regarding the North Carolina border, so the two states agreed in 1993 to cooperate in resurveying the border. The effort included using colonial-era maps to reconstruct the positions of trees marking the border that had long since died, and tracking down the original positions of stone markers that had been moved.
After 18 years and $980,000, it was predicted that the process of determining the border between the Carolinas would be complete in 2012. Financial problems delayed the last survey until October 2012, meaning the results were not expected to be known until Spring 2013. It was found that a gas station and 30 homes could change states. Lake Wylie Mini Market has been located in South Carolina, along U.S. Route 321, and the move to North Carolina would result in higher gas taxes and change laws on beer and fireworks. The state legislatures involved expect to pass laws alleviating the concerns those changing states would face.
The Joint Boundary Commission met in February 2014 in Monroe, North Carolina to determine what actions still needed to be taken. The persons living in 50 homes that changed states would have to get driver's licenses and register to vote in their new states. Legislative action could allow people to keep utilities, avoid back taxes to the new state, and continue in the same schools. Lake Wylie Minimarket could be grandfathered, or Congress could change the defined border at the store's location, though the commission intended to avoid such an action. As of August 2014, the states were expected to pass legislation to mitigate many of the negative impacts to affected landowners.
On 1 June 2016, the South Carolina House of Representatives passed a bill setting the border. North Carolina's Senate also passed a bill, which also had to clear the House. North Carolina Governor Pat McCrory signed his state's bill in June. Three families who actually lived in North Carolina had South Carolina addresses, and 16 South Carolina residents had believed they lived in North Carolina. On 9 December 2016, McCrory announced that he signed a four-page executive order formally defining the border between the two states based on the 20 years of work.


Trebel (river)

The Trebel is a river in Western Pomerania, a region of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, some 75 kilometers long. The Poggendorf Trebel (; source Klein Zarnewanz) and "Beek" (source in Wittenhagen) are the sources of the river and merge in Grimmen. The Trebel then runs near Quitzin, merges with the "Blinde Trebel" near Franzburg, is connected to the Recknitz River by a ditch near Tribsees, merges with the Warbel River near Bassendorf (part of Deyelsdorf), then constitutes the historical border between Mecklenburg and Pomerania, and merges into the Peene River near Demmin. "Ibitzgraben", "Ibitzbach", and "Roter Brückengraben" are ditches connecting the Trebel and Peene rivers near their confluence.


Feni River

Feni River ( "Feni Nodi") is a river in southeastern Bangladesh and Tripura state of India. It is a trans-boundary river with an ongoing dispute about water rights. The Feni River originates in South Tripura district and flows through Sabroom town and then enters Bangladesh. Muhuri River, also called Little Feni, from Noakhali District joins it near its mouth. The river is navigable by small boats as far as Ramgarh, about upstream.
The question of sharing of the waters of the river between India and Pakistan was first discussed in 1958. Through at least 2006 the countries continued to consider possible compromises.
Course.
Feni River originates in South Tripura district and flows through Sabroom town and then enters Bangladesh. Muhuri River, also called Little Feni, from Noakhali District joins it near its mouth. The river is navigable throughout the year by small boats up to Ramgarh, some upstream.
Dispute.
The question of sharing of the waters of the river between India and Pakistan was discussed as early as 1958.
Reports from Pakistan in 2007 said, "India is trying to withdraw water from Feni River for irrigation projects in exchange of resolving erosion problem in Bangladesh side of this bordering river."
According to statement on sharing of river waters with Bangladesh, released by India in 2007, "Feni River has been added to its mandate in the 36th JRC meeting. A decision was taken in the meeting that the Ministers of Water Resources of both the countries would visit the sites where developmental works have been held up. This Joint Inspection of various locations of developmental and flood protection works on common rivers was held from September 14–21, 2006."
Inland port in Tripura.
Sabroom in South Tripura, in India, is only from the Bay of Bengal, but it is a virtually a landlocked territory. In 2007, there was a thinking that an inland harbour could be built at Sabroom, connected to the sea through a canal, if Bangladesh allowed it. The construction of such a harbour could reduce considerably the cost of transportation of goods from the rest of India to Tripura and the north-east of India. However, the idea had not been acted on through 2007.
Bridge.
A bridge is built over the Feni River to link up with Tripura. Construction was set to begin in December 2010 for the link between Sabroom and Ramgarh. The bridge provides the only land link between India's eastern states and its western states other than through Assam.
The foundation stone for the bridge was officially laid by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Bangladesh Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina in June 2015. The cost of constructing the bridge, as well as the approach roads to it in both Bangladesh and India, will be borne by India. The Tripura Public Works Department was appointed to execute the project. When completed, the bridge will connect Tripura with the Chittagong port in Bangladesh providing landlocked North East India with access to the sea, and enabling the transport of heavy machines and goods to North East India via Bangladesh.
The bridge was inaugurated on 9 March 2021 by the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Bangladesh Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina via video conference. The bridge was named "Maitri Setu" symbolizing the growing friendship and bilateral ties between India and Bangladesh.
Feni dam.
The Feni is closed near the sea by the Feni dam. This dam has been constructed in 1985 to prevent floodings by surges the lower reaches of the Feni due to cyclones and make a large area fitted for agriculture. The dam is mainly constructed by manual Labour. Between the dam and the Bay of Bengal the river is a tidal river.


Hurmuzachi brothers

The Hurmuzachi brothers, Alexandru (1823-1871), Constantin (1811-1869), Eudoxiu (1812-1874), Gheorghe (1817-1882), and Nicolae (1826-1909), were members of an old Hurmuzachi family of Romanian nobles in Austrian Bukovina with an estate in Cernăuca. They were activists in the Romanian national movement in Bukovina and elsewhere.
Their estate was a center of activity for Romanians during the Revolutions of 1848, and they were later a key source of material and financial support to nationalist exiles, as well as a point of contact through whom the ideas of the exiles reentered the country.
Their father was Doxachi (Doxache, Doxaki) Hurmuzachi (Hurmuzaki).
Eudoxiu and Alexandru Hurmuzachi were members of the Romanian Academy.


Western Pomerania (disambiguation)

Western Pomerania may be used as
Terminology.
The term "West Pomerania" is ambiguous, since it may refer to either Hither Pomerania (in German usage and historical usage based on German terminology) or to combined Hither and Farther Pomerania or the West Pomeranian Voivodeship (in Polish usage).
The term "East Pomerania" may similarly carry different meanings, referring either to Farther Pomerania (in German usage and historical usage based on German terminology), or to Pomerelia or the Pomeranian Voivodeship (in Polish usage).