Meinrat Andreae

Meinrat O. Andreae, born in 1949 in Augsburg, is a German biogeochemist. Since 1987, he has worked as Director and Scientific Member at the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry (MPIC) in Mainz.
Biography.
Meinrat O. Andreae studied chemistry, mineralogy, and geochemistry at the Universities of Karlsruhe and Göttingen. In his diploma thesis, he studied the chemical composition and isotope geochemistry of highly metamorphic rocks of southern Norway. In 1977, he completed his PhD in oceanography from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California at San Diego. In his doctoral thesis, he examined the chemical speciation of arsenic in the ocean. He discovered that planktonic algae regulate the oxidation state of arsenic in seawater and synthesize a variety of organoarsenic compounds. A secondary discovery of his work was that marine phytoplankton also manufactures the raw materials for the volatile sulfur compound dimethyl sulfide.
Andreae taught oceanography in the Department of Oceanography at Florida State University in Tallahassee, from 1978 until 1982 as an assistant professor, then from 1982 to 1986 as associate professor, and from 1986 to 1987 as full professor. During this time he researched the biogeochemical cycle of sulfur in the ocean and in the atmosphere. Along with Robert Jay Charlson, James Lovelock, and Stephen G. Warren, he developed the CLAW hypothesis, named after the initials of the authors. This hypothesis states that dimethyl sulfide from the ocean is converted in the atmosphere to sulfate particles, which then influence the formation of clouds and therefore the climate. Other works from this period were concerned with biogeochemical transformations of compounds of arsenic, antimony, selenium, tellurium and tin in the marine and terrestrial ecosystems. In the 1980s, he was together with Paul Crutzen one of the first scientists to discover the worldwide importance of biomass burning.
In 1987 he was appointed member of the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry (MPIC) in Mainz as director and scientific member. He initiated the Biogeochemistry Department at the MPIC and designed a broad research agenda on the chemical aspects of Earth System Science. There, he continued his work on biogeochemical cycles of trace metals, and extended his studies to the formation of aerosols from marine sulfur emissions. Campaigns in the Amazon forest then led to a new focus, the biogeochemical processes of exchange between tropical forests and the atmosphere. On expeditions in the Congo, the Amazon, and Southern Africa he studied the emissions from vegetation fires, the exchange of trace gases, and the production of biogenic aerosol particles. Since 2000, research into the role of atmospheric aerosols in the climate system has been at the center of Andreae's research. In 2009, he set up a new working group, applying methods of isotope geochemistry and mass spectrometry to problems of paleoclimatology and marine biogeochemistry.
As a visiting professor, Andreae taught at the University of Antwerp, the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, the University of California, Irvine and the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. He is a member of the scientific steering committee of the "Large Scale Biosphere Atmosphere Experiment in Amazonia" (LBA) and was chairman of the IGBP’s "Integrated land Ecosystem Atmospheric Processes Study" (ILEAPS). In addition, Andreae is a reviewing editor of the journal Science. In 2009 he became a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, in 2012 he became a Foreign Member of the Brazilian Academy of Arts and Sciences, in 2013 he was elected as a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and in 2014 he was awarded the Waldo E. Smith Medal and became a fellow of the American Geophysical Union. In 2010, Andreae was awarded the degree of Doctor honoris causa by the Ghent University in Belgium.
Meinrat O. Andreae and his coworkers have published nearly 500 articles in scientific journals and books.
Research.
The scientists of the MPIC Department of Biogeochemistry, in close cooperation with the Departments of Atmospheric Chemistry and Multiphase Chemistry, study interactions between the atmosphere and biosphere of our planet. The results of these studies contribute to the understanding of global biogeochemical cycles, global climate processes, and the impact of mankind on these processes.


Coaledo Formation

The Coaledo Formation is a geologic formation in Oregon. It preserves fossils dating back to the Paleogene period.


Riepe Spring Formation

The Riepe Spring Formation is a geologic formation in Nevada. It preserves fossils dating back to the Permian period.


Pradineaux Formation

The Pradineaux Formation is a geologic formation in France. It preserves fossils dating back to the Permian period.


Geodynamics of Venus

NASA's Magellan spacecraft mission discovered that Venus has a geologically young surface with a relatively uniform age of 500±200 Ma (million years). The age of Venus was revealed by the observation of over 900 impact craters on the surface of the planet. These impact craters are nearly uniformly distributed over the surface of Venus and less than 10% have been modified by plains of volcanism or deformation. These observations indicate that a catastrophic resurfacing event took place on Venus around 500 Ma, and was followed by a dramatic decline in resurfacing rate. The radar images from the Magellan missions revealed that the terrestrial style of plate tectonics is not active on Venus and the surface appears to be immobile at the present time. Despite these surface observations, there are numerous surface features that indicate an actively convecting interior. The Soviet Venera landings revealed that the surface of Venus is essentially basaltic in composition based on geochemical measurements and morphology of volcanic flows. The surface of Venus is dominated by patterns of basaltic volcanism, and by compressional and extensional tectonic deformation, such as the highly deformed tesserae terrain and the pancake like volcano-tectonic features known as coronae. The planet's surface can be broadly characterized by its low lying plains, which cover about 80% of the surface, 'continental' plateaus and volcanic swells. There is also an abundance of small and large shield volcanoes distributed over the planet's surface. Based on its surface features, it appears that Venus is tectonically and convectively alive but has a lithosphere that is static.
Resurfacing hypotheses.
The global distribution of impact craters that was discovered by the Magellan mission to Venus has led to numerous theories on Venusian resurfacing. Phillips et al. (1992) developed two conceptual end-member resurfacing models that describe the distribution of impact craters. The first end-member model suggests that a spatially random distribution of craters can be maintained by having short-duration resurfacing events of large spatial area that occur in random locations with long intervening time intervals. A special case of this end-member would be global resurfacing events; for this case one would be unable to tell from the current surface whether the last global event was part of a recurring cycle or a singular event in the planet's history. The other end-member is that resurfacing events that wipe out craters are of small spatial area, randomly distributed and frequently occurring.
This is effectively a uniformitarian hypothesis as it assumes that geologic activity is occurring everywhere at similar rates. Global events that periodically resurface nearly the entire planet will leave a crater-free surface: craters then occur and aren't subsequently modified until the next global event. Resurfacing events occurring frequently everywhere will produce a surface with many craters in the process of being resurfaced. Thus, the end-members can be distinguished by observing the extent to which the craters have experienced some degree of tectonic deformation or volcanic flooding.
Initial surveys of the crater population suggested that only a few percent of the craters were heavily deformed or embayed by subsequent volcanism, thus favoring the "catastrophic resurfacing" end member. A number of geophysical models were proposed to generate a global catastrophe, including
The portion of the planet with large rift zones and superposed volcanoes was found to correlate with a low crater density and an unusual number of heavily deformed and obviously embayed craters. The tessera regions of the planet seem to have a slightly higher than normal percentage of craters, but a few of these craters appear to be heavily deformed. These observations, combined with global geologic mapping activities, lead to scenarios of geologic surface evolution that paralleled the catastrophic geophysical models. The general vision is that the tessera regions are old and date to a past time of more intense surface deformation; in rapid succession the tessera ceased deforming and volcanism flooded the low-lying areas; currently geologic activity is concentrated along the planet's rift zones.
Episodic plate tectonics.
Turcotte (1993) suggested that Venus has episodic tectonics, whereby short periods of rapid tectonics are separated by periods of surface inactivity lasting on the order of 500 Ma. During periods of inactivity, the lithosphere cools conductively and thickens to over 300 km. The active mode of plate tectonics occurs when the thick lithosphere detaches and founders into the interior of the planet. Large scale lithosphere recycling is thus invoked to explain resurfacing events. Episodic large scale overturns can occur due to a compositionally stratified mantle where there is competition between the compositional and thermal buoyancy of the upper mantle.
This sort of mantle layering is further supported by the 'basalt barrier' mechanism, which states that subducted basaltic crust is positively buoyant between the mantle depths of 660–750 km, and negatively buoyant at other depths, and can accumulate at the bottom of the transition zone and cause mantle layering. The breakdown of mantle layering and consequent mantle overturns would lead to dramatic episodes of volcanism, formation of large amounts of crust, and tectonic activity on the planet's surface, as has been inferred to have happened on Venus around 500 Ma from the surface morphology and cratering.
Catastrophic resurfacing and widespread volcanism can be caused periodically by an increase in mantle temperature due to a change in surface boundary conditions from mobile to stagnant lid.
Stagnant lid convection.
Despite their categorical separation, all of the models display some sort of conceptual overlap that applies to the others. Solomatov and Moresi (1996) suggested that a reduction in convective stresses caused the surface lid to change from mobile to stagnant. This argument proposed that the present surface of Venus records a permanent end to lithospheric recycling. The decrease in planetary heat flow, as convective vigor decreased, changed the mode of mantle convection from mobile to stagnant.
Despite their previous publication, Moresi and Solomatov (1998) used numerical models of mantle convection with temperature-dependent viscosity to propose that at intermediate levels of yield stress for the lithosphere, a change from a mobile to an episodic convective regime for Venus could occur. They focused on an episodic regime for a current explanation of Venus, whereby brittle mobilization of the Venusian lithosphere may be episodic and catastrophic.
Transition from thin to thick lithosphere.
Reese et al. (2007) proposed a model of planet resurfacing, whereby lithosphere thinning and widespread melting follows a shift from mobile lid to stagnant lid convection. These parameterized convection models suggest that a cessation of magmatic resurfacing can occur in several ways: (1) the mantle temperature drops sufficiently such that mantle rising adiabatically does not cross the solidus, (2) the molten layer migrates below the solid/melt density inversion at 250–500 km so that no melt can escape, and (3) sublithospheric, small-scale convection stops and conductive thickening of the lid suppresses melting. In each case, the inability of magma to penetrate the thickened Venusian lithosphere plays a role. However, it has been suggested that Venus's surface has experienced a continuous but geologically rapid decline in tectonic activity due to the secular cooling of the planet, and no catastrophic resurfacing event is required to explain its heat loss.
Directional history hypothesis.
In a series of subsequent papers, Basilevsky and colleagues extensively developed a model that Guest and Stofan (1999) termed the "directional history" for Venus evolution. The general idea is that there is a global stratigraphy that progresses from heavily deformed tessera, to heavily deformed, then moderately deformed plains, and then to undeformed plains. Most recent activity is focused near major rift zones that tend to intersect with large shield volcanoes.
If the directional evolution model is valid then the evolution must have been slow and the timing of events would have overlapped considerably. A valid end member interpretation is that the crater population still represents a population emplaced on a mostly inactive planet, but the final throes of a global emplacement of volcanic plains has filled most of the craters with a few hundred meters of volcanic flows. If this is true, then post-tessera plains emplacement must have dragged on for most of the visible surface history of the planet and the cessation of tessera deformation must have overlapped considerably with emplacement of plains. Thus, while a tessera/plains/rifts evolution is a valid hypothesis, that evolution could not have occurred as a "catastrophe". The highly varying levels of post-impact volcanism and deformation that the craters have experienced are consistent with a steady state model of Venus resurfacing. The craters are in a variety of stages of removal but display the same processes that have operated throughout the visible surface history. It remains a powerful constraint that the distribution of geologic features on the planet (plains, volcanoes, rifts, etc.) is decidedly more nonuniform than the crater population. This means that while the nature of resurfacing on Venus may vary regionally in the uniformitarian hypothesis, the rates must be similar.


Brian Head Formation

The Brian Head Formation is a geologic formation in Utah. It preserves fossils dating back to the Paleogene period.


Xenolith

A xenolith ("foreign rock") is a rock fragment that becomes enveloped in a larger rock during the latter's development and solidification. In geology, the term "xenolith" is almost exclusively used to describe inclusions in igneous rock entrained during magma ascent, emplacement and eruption. Xenoliths may be engulfed along the margins of a magma chamber, torn loose from the walls of an erupting lava conduit or explosive diatreme or picked up along the base of a flowing body of lava on the Earth's surface. A xenocryst is an individual foreign crystal included within an igneous body. Examples of xenocrysts are quartz crystals in a silica-deficient lava and diamonds within kimberlite diatremes. Xenoliths can be non-uniform within individual locations, even in areas which are spatially limited, e.g. rhyolite-dominated lava of Niijima volcano (Japan) contains two types of gabbroic xenoliths which are of different origin - they were formed in different temperature and pressure conditions.
Although the term xenolith is most commonly associated with inclusions in igneous rocks, a broad definition could also include rock fragments which have become encased in sedimentary rock. Xenoliths have been found in some meteorites.
To be considered a true xenolith, the included rock must be identifiably different from the rock in which it is enveloped; an included rock of similar type is called an "autolith" or a cognate inclusion.
Xenoliths and xenocrysts provide important information about the composition of the otherwise inaccessible mantle. Basalts, kimberlites, lamproites and lamprophyres, which have their source in the upper mantle, often contain fragments and crystals assumed to be a part of the originating mantle mineralogy. Xenoliths of dunite, peridotite and spinel lherzolite in basaltic lava flows are one example. Kimberlites contain, in addition to diamond xenocrysts, fragments of lherzolites of varying composition. The aluminium-bearing minerals of these fragments provide clues to the depth of origin. Calcic plagioclase is stable to a depth of . Between and about , spinel is the stable aluminium phase. At depths greater than about 60 km, dense garnet becomes the aluminium-bearing mineral. Some kimberlites contain xenoliths of eclogite, which is considered to be the high-pressure metamorphic product of basaltic oceanic crust, as it descends into the mantle along subduction zones.
The large-scale inclusion of foreign rock strata at the margins of an igneous intrusion is called a "roof pendant".


Stratigraphic cycles

Stratigraphic cycles refer to the transgressive and regressive sequences bounded by unconformities in the stratagraphic record on the cratons. These cycles represent a large scale eustasy cycle since the Cambrian period with further sub-divisions of those units.
Divisions.
The division of these sequences were originally constructed in the Appalachian Basin and Cordilleran Basin of North America. Eventually these sequences were correlated in Russia and South America. The transgressive-regressive units show gaps in the rock records which indicate times of continual erosion and very little deposition. Local tectonics did not play a role in these global events, rather, a worldwide rise and fall of sea level (which is not to say that local tectonics have no influence on how the global events are expressed locally).
Smaller orders in stratigraphic cycles have also been proposed. Fifth-order cycles and sixth order cycles have also been described in much of the Absaroka sequence. The time scale is much smaller and instead of Wilson cycle controlled sea-level change, these shorter cycles were controlled by glaciers (also called glacio-eustasy).
First-order cycles.
This cycle is most likely caused by the break-up and formation of super-continents. The earth went through major climatic swings over the course of 200 to 400 million years. From the late Pre-Cambrian to the late Cambrian, late Devonian to the Triassic-Jurassic border, and since the Miocene until the present time, the earth was an "icehouse", with ice sheets covering the poles. In the intervening years, the earth was a "greenhouse", with high global temperatures and elevated atmospheric CO2. Volcanic activity was also high in the greenhouse years. These long periods of continental emergence helped produce changes in ocean currents and the distribution of atmospheric heat.
Second-order cycles.
There are two competing arguments for second-order sea-level changes. The first states the sea level can be affected by the number of and the volume of the magma being produced at mid-ocean ridges. During times of increased sea floor spreading, more magma is being produced and the volume of the ocean basins are displaced by this. This would result in a higher sea level. This increase in magmatic activity corresponds to increased mantle activity and the Earth's magnetic field.
Another theory, is that earth's true polar wander occurs over a long period of time. The tectonic plates of the earth would move relatively faster due to imbalance of continents near the poles. This was true during the Cambrian Period, but the same event also happened approximately 66 million years ago but not as severely.
Third-order cycles.
This order of sea-level change has yet to be fully explained. It was originally thought that glaciers controlled these sea-level changes. But glaciers form and retreat far too rapidly, only tens of thousands of years instead of over a million years. Instead, short-term changes in earth's surface due to volcanics and tectonic events could change global sea levels over a million years. This change to earth's shape could produce "bulges" or "sags" that contribute to ocean level fluctuations.
Fourth order cycles.
Again, there are two competing theories for what controls fourth order cycles. Often called cyclothems, the relative short time period in which individual layers of rock are never more than 1 million years. Glaciers are capable of causing quick changes in sea level that can show up in the rock record. Some think that many of the Carboniferous-aged coal deposits were due to glaciers retreating and advancing over a few million years.
Others propose that delta switching produced the cyclothems. A modern analogue to describe delta switching would be the Mississippi embayment. As the Mississippi River carries its sediment load into the Gulf of Mexico, the delta lobe can become sediment-choked and the river will look for a new channel to follow the path of least resistance. Once the influx of terrestrial sand and silt stops, the area might subside and marine sediments may dominate. Also, whatever terrestrial plants are there can be buried and could eventually become coal. The new river channel will now carry the terrestrial sediments to a new delta, once again starting a new cycle of delta-switching.
Event stratigraphy.
This can refer to accumulation of sediments in one specific event. This event could be a large storm, landslide, volcanic eruption, or flood. The thickness of the bed could sometimes be over in depth. The uniform (or often the erratic) nature of the sediments in relation to the surrounding sediments is the only clue that a particular bed might have been deposited in a single event. A sandstone, for instance, that is well-sorted, contains erratic fossils (like brachiopods) and is wedged between sandstones that are generally poorly-sorted and contain minor siltstone layers and contains no fossils, can be interpreted as tempestite. Other event indicators could be volcanic ash falls, lava flows, lahars, and glacial ice-dam breaks; all of which have been identified in the rock record.


Janet Hergt

Janet Margaret Hergt is an Australian geochemist. She is a Redmond Barry Distinguished Professor in the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. The main focus of her research has been in the chemical analysis of rocks and minerals to explore the exquisite record of Earth processes preserved within them. Hergt is best known for her geochemical investigations of magmatic rocks although she has employed similar techniques in interdisciplinary projects including areas of archaeological and biological science.
Early life and education.
Hergt's earliest years were spent living on dairy farms in rural Victoria before moving to Frankston where she attended Karingal Primary School, and later Karingal High School. Hergt completed her undergraduate degree (BScHons) at La Trobe University in Melbourne in 1983, where she was awarded the David Myers University Medal and Ian Carlyle Medal in Geology. She received an Australian Government scholarship to study at the Australian National University in Canberra where she completed her PhD under the joint supervision of Bruce Chappell and Ian McDougall. Her project involved the analysis of compositionally unusual continental flood basalts (magmatism on a vast scale often occurring as a precursor to continental breakup) from the Ferrar Province and her thesis is entitled 'The Origin and Evolution of the Tasmanian Dolerites'. It was during this time that she learned to appreciate the power of trace element and isotopic data retrieved from magmatic rocks.
Career and impact.
Throughout her career, Hergt has retained a keen interest in extracting high quality geochemical data from rocks and minerals to solve problems in the geosciences. Her work on the Tasmanian Dolerites provided arguably the first dataset that combined major element, trace element, Sr-, Nd-, Pb- and oxygen isotope data on the same samples from a single suite of flood basalts. The dataset for the Tasmanian Dolerites, together with the extreme compositions of these rocks, provided the first opportunity to test competing hypotheses about source processes and constrain the origin of these magmas.
Hergt secured her first post-doctoral research position in the UK in 1988 working at the Open University with Chris Hawkesworth on a range of topics including further work on flood basalt magmatism (in Antarctica, Brazil and Siberia) with a number of Australian and international colleagues. It was at the Open University that she also began her studies into the geochemical expression of arc rupture and back-arc basin opening in the Lau Basin in the Southwest Pacific. Hergt participated on Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) Leg 135, identifying two mantle domains with geochemical characteristics of "Indian" or "Pacific" mid-ocean ridge basalts that has aided in understanding the mantle dynamics in this region. Other work from the IODP expedition demonstrated that magmas erupted at the earliest stages of arc rupture had the ability to tap mantle sources as well as source rocks modified by the flux of elements released from the subducting slab.
Following her move to the University of Melbourne in 1994, Hergt's contributions have involved a wide range of international collaborators and graduate students, and have included investigations of continental flood basalts, arc magmas, granite formation, ore deposits, the origin of kimberlites and processes preserved in mantle xenoliths. Hergt has also made important contributions in establishing innovative laboratory protocols and has supported the development of Iolite data visualisation software since its inception. Most recently, her work has extended to applications of geochemistry in the biosciences and archaeological science.
Hergt has held a variety of senior leadership roles at the University of Melbourne, including Deputy Head of the School of Earth Sciences (2001-2004), Associate Dean-Academic Programs in the Faculty of Science (2001–2003), Head of the School of Earth Sciences (2005–2013), Deputy Dean of the Faculty of Science (2011–2013 & 2014–2017), Acting Dean of the Faculty of Science (2013–2014), Deputy Vice President then Vice President of Academic Board (2018–2019) and President of Academic Board (2020–current). Hergt became a Vincent Fairfax Fellow in 2018 and was recognised as a Redmond Barry Distinguished Professor in 2019.
Hergt has served on a wide range of Advisory Boards, Senior Committees, Review Panels, and the Editorial Boards of several international journals (Chemical Geology 2008–2016, Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research 2000–2013; Journal of the Geological Society of London, 2002–2007). In 2021 the Geochemical Society (USA) and the European Association of Geochemistry awarded her the honorary title of Geochemistry Fellow for her contributions to the field of geochemistry.


Mignon Talbot

Mignon Talbot (August 16, 1869 – July 18, 1950) was an American paleontologist. Talbot recovered and named the only known fossils of the dinosaur "Podokesaurus holyokensis", which were found near Mount Holyoke College in 1910, and published a scientific description of the specimen in 1911. In 1909 she became the first woman elected to be a member of the [[Paleontological Society]. In the state of New York, she contributed to the Helderbergian crinoids and studied the faunas of Stafford limestone.
Born in [[Iowa City]], Talbot received a Ph.D. in geology from [[Yale University]] in 1904, the first woman to do so. There she was a student of Charles Schuchert. She was named a professor of geology and geography at [[Mount Holyoke College]] in 1904. In 1908, Talbot became professor and chairman of the Geology department. In 1929, she became the chairman of both Geology and Geography departments. During her thirty-one years at Mount Holyoke College, she amassed a large collection of invertebrate fossils and Triassic footprints and minerals. Unfortunately, the museum burned down in 1917 and almost all the specimens were destroyed, including the one extant partial skeleton of "Podokesaurus." Talbot retired in 1935 and is said to have remained passionate about her profession.
Research and findings.
[[File:Podokesaurus holotype.jpg|thumb|left|"[[Podokesaurus]]" fossil found and described by Talbot, the first non-bird dinosaur named by a woman]]
Talbot is the only known discoverer of fossils of the dinosaur "[[Podokesaurus|Podokesaurus holyokensis]]," which she found near Mount Holyoke college where she was a professor. The location was by the Connecticut River between two outcroppings of mountains in a bed of [[sandstone]]. During a meeting at the [[Paleontological Society]] in December 1910, the dinosaur was first labelled as a herbivore by Talbot. As her research continued she subsequently identified the creature as [[Theropoda|theropod]], in collaboration with Yale University professor [[Richard Swann Lull|Richard Swan Lull]]. A colleague of Lull, [[Friedrich von Huene]], moved "[[Podokesaurus|Podokesaurus holyokensis]]" to a new family based on genus. The specimen was formally described in June 1911 by Talbot, who thereby became the first woman to discover and name a non-bird dinosaur.
Many of her research notes are considered historical artifacts. Talbot's contributions to geology were later reproduced in a collection decided upon by various scholars.
Personal life.
Born in an upper-middle class with her maternal grandfather a doctor and her father the superintendent of a school for deaf children, she had the opportunities to pursue a post-secondary education and further a career in academia. She was one of three children, her sister being Dr. Ellen Bliss Talbot, a professor of philosophy at the same college -- Mount Holyoke College -- as Mignon, and a brother, Herbert S. Talbot. Throughout her years of university, she was a member of [[Kappa Kappa Gamma]] sorority and [[Phi Beta Kappa]]. After her successful career as a paleontologist and professor, she retired in Stevens House, South Hadley.
Education.
Talbot attended [[Ohio State University]] from 1888 to 1892, where she studied geology with [[Edward Orton Sr.|Edward Orton]] and received her undergraduate degree. She received her doctorate degree in paleontology from [[Yale University|Yale]] University in 1904 with a dissertation on Helderbergian crinoids of New York State.
External links.
[[Category:American geologists]]
[[Category:American paleontologists]]
[[Category:Mount Holyoke College faculty]]
[[Category:People from Iowa City, Iowa]]
[[Category:1869 births]]
[[Category:1950 deaths]]
[[Category:Women paleontologists]]
[[Category:Ohio State University College of Arts and Sciences alumni]]
[[Category:Yale University alumni]]


Banta Shut Formation

The Banta Shut Formation is a geologic formation in Texas. It preserves fossils dating back to the Neogene period.


Dyer Formation

The Dyer Formation is a geologic formation in Colorado. It preserves fossils dating back to the Devonian period.


Brackwater Molasse Formation

The Brackwater Molasse Formation is a geologic formation in Germany. It preserves fossils dating back to the Neogene period.


Clifton Down Limestone

The Clifton Down Limestone is a geologic formation in England. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.


Forest Hollow Beds

The Forest Hollow Beds is a geologic formation in England. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.


List of shear zones of Great Britain

This is a list of the named shear zones affecting the rocks of Great Britain and the Isle of Man. See the main article on shear for a fuller treatment of shear in rocks.


O. Frank Tuttle

Orville Frank Tuttle (June 25, 1916, Olean, New York – December 13, 1983, Tucson, Arizona) was an American mineralogist, geochemist, and petrologist, known for his research on granites and feldspars, with pioneering development of apparatus in experimental petrography.
After completing high school in Smethport, Pennsylvania, he worked in the Bradford oilfields and studied geology at Pennsylvania State College (renamed in 1953 Pennsylvania State University), where he received a bachelor's degree in 1939 and a master's degree in 1940. He then matriculated at Massachusetts Institute of Technology for his doctoral work, which was interrupted by the Second World War, in which he was engaged in wartime research on crystal growth and characterization. In 1948 he received his doctorate at MIT. In 1947, he started his collaboration in experimental petrography with Norman L. Bowen at the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution in Washington. There he invented the "Tuttle Press" and the "Tuttle Bomb" (a high-pressure chamber), which were widely used in experimental petrography. Together with Bowen he explored in particular the formation of granite. In 1953 he became professor of geochemistry at Pennsylvania State University. In 1959 he became Dean of the College of Mineral Industries. In 1960, he was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in the early stages. In 1965, he moved to Stanford University, where he was granted sick leave in 1967 and formally resigned in 1971. He moved to Tucson with his wife. In 1977 he received a tentative diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease and moved to a nursing home.
He was awarded in 1952 the Mineralogical Society of America Award, in 1975 the Roebling Medal, and in 1967 the Arthur L. Day Medal. He was elected a foreign member of the Geological Society of London and in 1968 a member of the National Academy of Sciences.
He married Dawn Hardes in 1941 and the couple had two daughters.


Paragenesis

Paragenesis is a petrologic concept meaning an "equilibrium sequence of mineral phases". It is used in studies of igneous and metamorphic rock genesis and importantly in studies of the hydrothermal deposition of ore minerals and the rock alteration (vein metasomatism) associated with ore mineral deposits. The concept and application of paragenesis, from the Greek for "born beside", was first applied by August Breithaupt in 1849 in his work "Die Paragenesis der Mineralien".
The paragenetic sequence in mineral formation is an important concept in deciphering the detailed geologic history of ore deposits and metamorphic events. The sequence is worked out through detailed microscopic studies in polished ore mineral section, petrologic thin section and fluid inclusion studies as well as macroscopic field relations.


Chesapeake Group

The Chesapeake Group is a geologic group in Maryland, Virginia, Delaware, and North Carolina. It preserves mainly marine fossils dating back to the Miocene and Pliocene epochs of the Neogene period. This group contains one of the best studied fossil record of Neogene oceans in the world. Professional Paleontologists and amateur fossil hunters alike collect from this group intensely. The Calvert Cliffs stretch the length of Calvert County, Maryland and provide the best continuous stretch of the Calvert, Choptank, and St. Marys Formations. Ward (1985) recommended including the Old Church Formation in this group.


Bead Mountain Formation

The Bead Mountain Formation is a geologic formation in Texas. It preserves fossils dating back to the Permian period.


Kaieteur Falls

Kaieteur Falls is the world's largest single drop waterfall by the volume of water flowing over it. Located on the Potaro River in the Kaieteur National Park, it sits in a section of the Amazon rainforest included in the Potaro-Siparuni region of Guyana. It is 226 metres (741 ft) high when measured from its plunge over a sandstone and conglomerate cliff to the first break. It then flows over a series of steep cascades that, when included in the measurements, bring the total height to 251 metres (822 ft). While many falls have greater height, few have the combination of height and water volume, and Kaieteur is among the most powerful waterfalls in the world with an average flow rate of 663 cubic metres per second (23,400 cubic feet per second).
Kaieteur Falls is about four times higher than Niagara Falls, on the border between Canada and the United States, and about twice the height of Victoria Falls, on the border of Zambia and Zimbabwe in Africa. It is a single drop waterfall.
Upriver from the falls, the Potaro Plateau stretches out to the distant escarpment of the Pakaraima Mountains. The Potaro River empties into the Essequibo River which is one of the longest and widest rivers in South America and the longest river in Guyana.
History and discovery.
The falls were rediscovered by Europeans in 1870 by a party led by Charles Barrington Brown, a British geologist appointed as a government surveyor to the colony of British Guiana. Brown and his partner James Sawkins had arrived in Georgetown in 1867, and while they did some of their mapping and preparation of geological reports together, some work was performed in separate expeditions, and Sawkins was taking a break from his work at the time of Brown's discovery of Kaieteur. At this point, Brown did not have time to investigate Kaieteur Falls closer, so he returned one year later to make comprehensive measurements.
Brown’s book "Canoe and Camp life in British Guiana" was published in 1876. Two years later, in 1878, he published "Fifteen Thousand Miles on the Amazon and its tributaries".
According to a Patamona Indian legend, Kaieteur Falls was named for Kai, a chief, or Toshao who acted to save his people by paddling over the falls in an act of self-sacrifice to Makonaima, the great spirit.
Another legend though was told to Brown by Amerindians in the night of discovery of falls: Kaieteur has been named after an unpleasant old man who was placed in a boat and shoved in the fall by his relatives. Thus the fall was named "Kaieteur", which means "old-man-fall".
Tourism.
Kaieteur Falls is a major tourist attraction in Guyana. It is in Kaieteur National Park in the centre of Guyana's rainforest.
The park is served by Kaieteur International Airport, about a 15-minute walk from the top of Kaieteur falls, with frequent flights to Ogle Airport and Cheddi Jagan International Airport in Georgetown.
Popular culture.
Kaieteur Falls is featured in:


Duplin Marl

The Duplin Marl is a geologic formation in North Carolina. It preserves fossils dating back to the Neogene period.


Capistrano Formation

The Capistrano Formation is a geologic formation in coastal southern Orange County, California.
It crops out along the coast from Dana Point to San Clemente, and inland for seven miles.
It preserves fossils dating back to the Neogene period. Fifty-nine species and varieties of foraminifera are recognized from the Capistrano Formation.


Shafter Formation

The Shafter Formation is a geologic formation in Nevada. It preserves fossils dating back to the Cambrian period.


Tempestite

Tempestites are studied throughout sedimentary geology and paleotempestology, they are storm deposits that can be recognized throughout the rock record. The deposit gets its meaning from the word tempest which simply means a violent storm, the tempestite describes the preservation and physical representation of a violent storm event (tempest) within the rock record. Tempestites can be preserved within a multitude of sedimentological environments, including delta systems, estuarian systems, coastal environments, deep sea environments, and even fresh water lacustrine environments. Tempesites most often form in wave dominated delta systems and are preserved within the sedimentological record below fair weather wave base and above storm weather wave base. They are commonly characterized by hummocky cross stratified beds that have an erosive base, and can form under combined flow regimes. This erosive base is often seen in the form of gutter casts.
Sequencing.
Tempestites had been identified in the rock record for a long time, however the exact sequence of sedimentary structures that are commonly seen in the rock record, known as the idealized sequence, wasn't described until 1979 by Dott and Bourgeois. This idealized sequence follows the order of a hummocky cross stratified layer (H) often with sole markings on the base, followed by a planar laminated layer (F) synonymous to the lower place bed, followed by a cross laminated layer (X) preserved as ripple marks in plan view, and finally topped with a muddy layer (M) which is generally interpreted to be caused by suspensions settling of finer material during the waning period of the storm. Each one of these sedimentary structures can be affected by bioturbation, when organisms living in the sediment at the time burrow through it. Bioturbation, can be a great indicator of the depth of the water column the tempestite was deposited in, in a given study area, through the use if ichnology, as certain organisms will only persist at certain depths and will generate unique markings within the sedimentary structures that can be identified. However too much bioturbation can wipe out the preservation of the sedimentary structures and essentially making the bed massive, making the confident interpretation of a tempestite much more difficult for geologists. Tempestites can also amalgamate due to their erosive bases and this will cause for portions of the idealized H-F-X-M sequence to repeat, as each storm event has eroded down into the sediment that was deposited by the last, and incorporating that sediment into its own deposit.
Significance and Usage.
Tempestite deposits are very useful for aiding in paleoecological and paleogeographical interpretations. As storms that generate tempestite deposits can only form in between 5 degrees and 20 degrees north and south latitude (with even the largest 1000 year storm only being preserved upwards of 35 degrees latitude), accurate recognition of a tempestite deposit within the rock record allows for confident interpretation of a range of latitudes. Since hummocky cross stratification forms during the combined flow and waning oscillatory flow current regimes, the preserved amplitudes of their hummocks and swales are reflective of the storm intensity. Once it is understood where the deposit in question was deposited relative to the paleo-shoreline, which can usually be done using the ichnological data preserved in the same location, the hummock amplitudes/wavelengths, grainsize (decreases with increase in paleo water depth), and bedding thickness (decreases with increase in paleo water depth) can be used to estimate the storm intensity/energy. An understanding of the intensity of past storms has large implications for our understanding of how storm intensity might change with climate change occurring today. During the Cretaceous, CO2 levels were much higher and the global temperature was much higher. With an understanding of how storm intensity changed throughout this time period towards today, we can begin to understand how it will change with our changing climate.
Tempestite deposits are also highly sought after petroleum reservoirs, as they are large laterally continuous sheet like deposits that have the potential to hold high volumes of petroleum with good permeability and porosity.


Colsterdale Marine Beds

The Colsterdale Marine Beds is a geologic formation in North Yorkshire, England. It is exposed in Colsterdale and upper Nidderdale, and preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.


English Head Formation

The English Head Formation is a geologic formation in Quebec. It preserves fossils dating back to the Ordovician period.


Heimdallia

Heimdallia is an ichnogenus comprising a strange planar trace that does not have a circular cross-section; its maker may have been fed upon by "Beaconella".
The trace was probably made by a small crustacean.


Murchison River (New Zealand)

The Murchison River lies within the Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park in the South Island of New Zealand.
It is fed by the Murchison Glacier and flows into Tasman Lake, thus effectively feeding the Tasman River.


Lamonte trevallis

Lamonte trevallis is a late Ediacaran ichnogenus representing burrowing behavior.


Parent body

In meteoritics, a parent body is the celestial body from which originates a meteorite or a class of meteorites.
Identification.
The easiest way to correlate a meteorite with a parent body is when the parent body still exists. This is the case for Lunar and Martian meteorites. Samples from Lunar meteorites can be compared with samples from the Apollo program. Martian meteorites can be compared to analysis carried out by rovers (e.g. Curiosity).
Meteorites can also be compared to spectral classes of asteroids. In order to identify the parent body of a class of meteorites, scientists compare their albedo and spectra with other known bodies. These studies show that some meteorite classes are closely related to some asteroids. The HED meteorites for example are correlated with 4 Vesta. Another, perhaps most useful way to classify meteorites by parent bodies is by grouping them according to composition, with types from each hypothetical parent body clustering on a graph. Meteoriticists have tentatively linked extant meteorites to 100-150 parent bodies; far fewer than the ~1 million main-belt asteroids larger than a kilometer, this apparent sampling bias remains an area of active research.


Laura Wallace

Laura Wallace is a geophysicist who works between the University of Texas at Austin and GNS Science in New Zealand. She was elected Fellow of the Royal Society Te Apārangi in 2018.
Early life and education.
Wallace grew up in Augusta, Georgia. She intended to study English literature at university and had dreamed of becoming a writer. Wallace completed a geology course during her undergraduate degree at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and switched her focus from literature to earth sciences. She graduated with honours in 1995 before moving to the University of California, Santa Cruz for her graduate studies. She studied the tectonics of Papua New Guinea using geodetic and geophysical data. After completing her doctoral degree, Wallace moved to New Zealand to study the origins of local tectonic activity.
Research and career.
Wallace was involved with designing the network of the 150 continuous Global Positioning System (cGPS) reference stations that are located around New Zealand to study local geophysics. She makes use of cGPS to understand the milli-metre scale movement of land. In 2002 she was the first to demonstrate slow slip events at the Hikurangi subduction zone East of Gisborne, New Zealand. The Hikurangi subduction zone is one of New Zealand's most significant geological hazards and can result in earthquakes and tsunamis. The Hikurangi Ocean Bottom Investigation of Tremor and Slow Slip (HOBITSS) project included a network of seafloor instruments that could measure the vertical movement of the seafloor, deployed from the R/V Tangaroa. This instrumentation allowed for high resolution mapping of an area that was previously inaccessible. The slow slip events that occurred in the Hikurangi occurred for about two weeks and can cause up to 20 cm of movement along the New Zealand and Pacific Plates. She has shown that these slip events occur on five year cycles and at depths of up to 50 km – though some are shallow enough to permit sample collection and analysis. Wallace showed that slow-slip events can cause the shallower parts of a fault – the parts that are involved with earthquakes and tsunamis – can rupture.
In 2018 Wallace led the installation of sub-seafloor observatories off the coast of Gisborne, New Zealand. One of the observatories, "Te Matakite", was the first observatory in New Zealand that was located at a subduction plate boundary and can provide information that cannot be seen by the human eye. She has worked with the Australian and New Zealand Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) Consortium to build the observatories. The instruments and components for the observatories were deployed from the Hawke's Bay coast in 2018. In 2020 it was announced that five of the thirty instruments worth $30,000 could not be located.
Wallace was elected to the Royal Society Te Apārangi in 2018. She is a member of the East Coast Lab, a collective of scientists who look to understand and communicate risks associated with natural hazards. In 2018 Wallace was awarded the Geoscience Society of New Zealand McKay Hammer award, which recognised the ‘most meritorious contribution to geology’.


Hartford Limestone

The Hartford Limestone is a geologic formation in Kansas. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.


Lawrence Alexander Hardie

Lawrence Alexander Hardie (January 13, 1933 – December 17, 2013) was an American geologist, sedimentologist, and geochemist. For nearly 50 years, he mentored students and pursued research as a Professor at Johns Hopkins University (JHU) in Baltimore MD in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences. He authored or co-authored many scientific papers and several books.
Hardie's research topics included evaporites, dolomitization, cyclical deposition of carbonate sediments, and plate tectonic driven changes in seawater chemistry. In the latter, he proposed that changes in the seafloor spreading rates at mid-ocean ridges have altered the composition of seawater throughout earth history, producing oscillations in the mineralogy of carbonate and evaporite precipitates. Specifically citing these scientific contributions, the Society for Sedimentary Geology (SEPM) awarded him the Francis J. Pettijohn Medal in 2003.
Early life and education.
Hardie was born in Durban, Natal, South Africa, on January 13, 1933.
He attended the University of Natal, Durban, originally to pursue an undergraduate degree in chemistry. He focused instead on geology after attending lectures by South African geologist Lester Charles King. While a student, Hardie played soccer, and was selected as a member of the South African Universities "All Star" team four times. He earned a B.Sc. degree in Geology and Chemistry in 1955, and a B.Sc. (Hons.)degree in Geology in 1956.
In 1957, he was hired by King as an Instructor and taught beginning classes in geology while working on his Master's thesis on the origin of the Table Mountain Sandstone. He earned an M.Sc. in Geology in 1959 under the guidance of Drs. Peter Matthews and Joseph Frankel.
In 1960, he was awarded a Fellowship by the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research to spend an academic year in the U.S. He went to Johns Hopkins University and began working with sedimentologist Francis J. Pettijohn and geochemist Hans Eugster, in a newly built geochemistry laboratory.
There he conducted experimental work on evaporite minerals. He was offered a full-time graduate fellowship to earn a Ph.D. He briefly returned to South Africa to marry Glenys Kathleen Smith in Durban, and then graduated with a Ph.D. in 1965.
Academic career.
Hardie joined the faculty at JHU as an assistant professor in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences in 1965. He later became a full professor, mentoring more than 30 graduate students. He also taught introductory geology to many undergraduate students, including his own children, introducing them to the intricacies of geological process through extensive field trips. He also served as the department chair from 1992 to 1995, and again in 2004–2006. He retired in 2007 to the status of professor emeritus.
Hardie ran the JHU field camp (Camp Singewald) in western Maryland for many summers in the 1960s and 1970s. He led regular field trips to the Florida Keys and Assateague Island, and also took students to the Bahamas and Baja California, Mexico. His work also took him frequently to the Dolomites in Italy, and he partook in long hikes and climbs. Some of his field work required travel by Zodiac inflatable boats, minibikes, and 3-wheeled all terrain vehicles.
Scientific achievements.
Early in his career, Hardie conducted research and experimentation with evaporites. Later he showed that the signal from evaporites provides evidence for seawater chemistry change. He observed that secular changes in the mineralogy of potash evaporites and ooids and cements in marine limestones are synchronous with greenhouse/hothouse climates and global sea level. Hardie's study of evaporites led to the hypothesis, since verified through study of seawater trapped inside crystals of marine halite, that seawater has undergone long-term variations in its major ion composition. He demonstrated that these variations are linked to plate tectonic processes at mid-ocean ridges. These studies improved the understanding of calcifying marine organisms and their role in the global carbon cycle, and also had implications for geochemistry, mineralogy, tectonics, biological evolution (biomineralization), oil/gas resources, and climate change. In recognition, he was awarded the Francis J. Pettijohn Medal for Excellence by the Society for Sedimentary Geology in 2003.
Hardie completed field research on the modern shallow marine carbonates of the Bahamas with Bob Ginsburg and others. In 1977 he wrote a book on comparative sedimentology entitled "Sedimentation on the modern carbonate tidal flats of northwest Andros Island, Bahamas". He went on to study ancient carbonates of western Maryland (Cambro-Ordovician) and the Italian Dolomites (Triassic). Hardie's work on carbonates advanced the understanding of climate and sea level change, and the role of Milankovitch cycles in carbonate deposition.
Another of Hardie's contributions involves the study of the origins of dolomite, a mineral associated with the world's oil reserves. When dolomite replaces calcite minerals, its slightly smaller molar volume leaves voids in carbonate rock, causing oil migration. In the Italian Dolomites, Hardie (with student Edith Wilson) demonstrated the hydrothermal origin of dolomite in the Triassic Latemar buildup.
Hardie and his students and colleagues also studied cyclic sedimentation, confirming that platform carbonates of the Middle Triassic (Anisian-Ladinian) of the Latemar buildup consist of a vertical stack of over 500 thin (ave. thickness 0.6-0.85m) shallowing-upward depositional cycles that record high frequency eustatic sea level oscillations in tune to Milankovitch astronomical rhythms. They described the details of the cycles and deposition and created computer simulations that accurately modeled the Latemar cyclostratigraphy using Milankovitch-controlled sea level oscillations.
Personal life and death.
Hardie and his wife Glenys became U.S. citizens. They had two children; his daughter Deborah obtained a degree in mathematics at JHU, and Russell studied engineering at Loyola University Maryland. His son Russell is currently a professor in the department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Dayton.
Hardie enjoyed jazz and attended concerts at the Famous Ballroom in Baltimore. After moving from Baltimore to Pasadena, Maryland, in the 1970s, Hardie took to sailing on the Magothy River and the Chesapeake Bay. He taught his children and many of his students to sail. He later took up snow skiing and golf.
Hardie died at age 80 from complications of Alzheimer's disease on December 17, 2013, at the Community Hospital of the Monterey Peninsula in Monterey, California.


Riepetown Formation

The Riepetown Formation is a geologic formation in Nevada. It preserves fossils dating back to the Permian period.


Marine band (geology)

A marine band, in geology, is a bed of rock, commonly black or dark grey shale, containing an abundance of fossils of marine organisms. These strata represent episodes of flooding by seawater and are important in enabling the comparison or correlation of rock sequences in different localities.


Traun (river)

Traun () is a river in the Austrian state of Upper Austria. Its source is in the Totes Gebirge mountain range in Styria. It flows through the Salzkammergut area and the lakes Hallstätter See and Traunsee. The Traun is a right tributary of the Danube, which it meets near the city of Linz. Other towns along the river are Bad Aussee, Bad Ischl, Gmunden, Wels and Traun.
Until the late 19th century, it was only possible to reach Hallstatt (at the Hallstätter See) by boat or via narrow trails. However, this secluded and inhospitable landscape nevertheless counts as one of the first places of human settlement due to the rich sources of natural salt, which was mined for thousands of years, originally in the shape of hearts. Some of Hallstatt's oldest archaeological finds, such as a shoe-last celt – a long thin stone tool used to fell trees and to work wood – date back to around 5000 B.C. One of the first blacksmith's sites was excavated there. Active trade and thus wealth allowed for the development of a highly sophisticated society, hence the term Hallstatt culture. In 1846, a large prehistoric cemetery was discovered close by the current location of Hallstatt. There is little room for cemeteries so every ten years bones used to be exhumed and removed into an ossuary to make room for new burials. A collection of elaborately decorated skulls with the owners' names, professions, death dates inscribed on them is on display at the local chapel.


Phoebe Regio

Phoebe Regio is a regio on the planet Venus. It lies to the southeast of Asteria Regio. It is in diameter and is the principal feature of the V41 quadrangle, to which it gave its name. Four Soviet landers, Venera 11, Venera 12, Venera 13 and Venera 14, landed on the eastern side of Phoebe Regio and performed various scientific measurements.


Guus Berkhout

Augustinus Johannes "Guus" Berkhout (born 1940) is a Dutch engineer who has worked for the oil and gas industry, and as a professor.
Berkhout started his career working for Shell. Between 1976 and 2007, he served as professor of acoustics, geophysics and innovation management, at Delft University of Technology. From 2000 to 2002 he was chair of a commission dealing with projected sound norms at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, from which he resigned after feeling the commission's independence was undermined by the Ministry for Transport and Water Management. In 2019, Berkhout co-founded the climate sceptic organization Climate Intelligence Foundation (CLINTEL).
Early life and education.
Berkhout was born in 1940 in Den Helder. He studied electrical engineering at Delft University of Technology and obtained his degree in 1963. In 1970 he obtained a PhD "cum laude" in physics from the same university.
Career.
In 1964 Berkhout started working for Royal Dutch Shell. In 1976 he returned to Delft University of Technology, and became a professor of acoustic imaging and sound control. In 1987 he also became professor of geophysics. In 1998 he joined the board of the university, he stepped down in 2001, before the end of his term, due to differences with other board members in vision on the future of the university. In 2001 he became professor of innovation management and he retired from the university in 2007. Berkhout has pleaded against the increase of bureaucratic processes at universities.
During his time at Delft University Berkhout was the founder and scientific director of the Delphi Consortium, which does seismic research for a consortium of oil and gas companies.
Public sector.
Berkhout was chair of the independent Commission Experts Airplane sound from mid 2000 to December 2002. On request of the House of Representatives the Dutch Minister for Transport and Water Management, Tineke Netelenbos, instigated the commission. The commission was to look into the sound norms for Amsterdam Airport Schiphol for the upcoming five years. Berkhout resigned as chair after having the feeling that the independence of the commission was hindered by the Ministry, and having to wait for approval of a measurement plan for over half a year. The whole commission resigned, citing they had been actively worked against by the Ministry.
For the 2006 Dutch general elections Berkhout had planned to form a new party with several scientists and entrepreneurs, but did not enter the elections, seeing the huge increase in new parties contesting the election.
Climate Intelligence Foundation.
Berkhout founded the Netherlands-based organization Climate Intelligence Foundation (CLINTEL). Mid 2019 plans of CLINTEL and Berkhout were leaked showing that they were organizing a campaign against political commitments to net zero carbon emissions being made into law. The campaign features a number of academics and industry figures with ties to climate change denial groups, as well as members from oil and gas companies. Berkhout claimed the ideal of the organization was to provide an alternative to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
In late September 2019 the group produced an open letter which stated that there was no climate emergency and repeated a number of claims that were inconsistent with the scientific evidence on climate. A fact check performed by climate scientists for Climate Feedback gave the letter an overall scientific credibility of "very low", and tagged it as "Biased, Cherry-picking, Inaccurate, Misleading". The analysis also added that, out of the roughly 500 signatories, only 10 self-identified as climate scientists.
Honours and distinctions.
Berkhout was elected a member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1990.
In 2008 he was made an Officer in the Order of Orange-Nassau.


List of presidents of the American Geophysical Union

The president of the American Geophysical Union is an elected representative who provide scientific leadership for the American Geophysical Union.


Moore Hollow Group

The Moore Hollow Group is a geologic group in Texas. It preserves fossils dating back to the Cambrian period.


Croisaphuill Formation

The Croisaphuill Formation is a geologic formation in Scotland. It preserves fossils dating back to the Ordovician period.


Oldhaven Formation

The Oldhaven Formation is a geologic formation in England, outcropping near Herne Bay, Kent. According to Philip Hadland, it preserves finely preserved fossils, such as those belonging to birds, fishes, snakes and turtles, dating back to the Eocene epoch (Ypresian).


Keith Rowley

Keith Christopher Rowley (born 24 October 1949) is a Trinidadian and Tobagonian politician serving as the seventh and current prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago, first elected into office on 9 September 2015 and again following the 2020 National General Elections. He has led the People's National Movement (PNM) since May 2010 and was Leader of the Opposition from 2010 to 2015. He has also served as the Member of the House of Representatives for Diego Martin West since 1991. He is a volcanologist by former profession, holding a doctorate in geology, specializing in geochemistry.
Career.
Rowley was a pupil of Bishop's High School, Tobago, and graduated from the University of the West Indies (Mona). He then went on to earn an MSc (1974) and a PhD (1978) from the University of the West Indies at St. Augustine in geology, specializing in geochemistry. He first served in Parliament as an opposition senator from 1987 to 1990 (3rd Parliament). Subsequently, he was appointed as Minister of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources (4th Parliament), Minister of Planning and Development and Minister of Housing (8th Parliament) and Minister of Trade and Industry (9th Parliament).
Leader of the Opposition.
Following the People's National Movement's defeat in the 2010 general election, Rowley was appointed as Leader of the Opposition. Rowley has served on several parliamentary committees. In 2004, he chaired the Joint Select Committee of Parliament which examined and made recommendations for the live broadcasting of parliamentary debates.
Prime Minister.
Rowley led the People's National Movement in the September 2015 general election, in which his party secured 23 out of 41 seats in the House of Representatives to form the government, defeating the previous People's Partnership coalition government. On 9 September 2015, Rowley was sworn in as Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago by President Anthony Carmona, and is credited for revival of the local natural gas sector and laying groundwork for further oil and gas exploration, the largest economic sector of Trinidad and Tobago. Rowley again led the People's National Movement to victory in the August 10th 2020 general elections for another term in government. He was sworn in as Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago on 19 August by Her Excellency, President Paula-Mae Weekes at the President's House in St. Anns after the Opposition party asked for recounts to be done in marginal constituencies. He tested positive for COVID-19 in April 2021.


Ross Geller

Ross Geller, portrayed by David Schwimmer, is one of the six main fictional characters of the NBC sitcom "Friends". Ross is considered by many to be the most intelligent member of the group and is noted for his goofy but lovable demeanor. His relationship with Rachel Green was included in "TV Guide"s list of the best TV couples of all time, as well as "Entertainment Weekly"s "30 Best 'Will They/Won't They?' TV Couples". Kevin Bright, one of the executive producers of the show, had worked with Schwimmer before, so the writers were already developing Ross's character in Schwimmer's voice; hence, Schwimmer was the first person to be cast on the show.
Appearances.
Ross is a paleontologist and has a Ph.D. from Columbia University. His romantic feelings toward Rachel Green (Jennifer Aniston), which began as a high-school infatuation, are an ongoing theme of his narrative arc. Likewise, their on-again, off-again romantic relationship is a nearly constant theme of "Friends".
Raised on Long Island, Ross is the elder brother of Monica Geller (Courteney Cox), and son of Jack (Elliott Gould) and Judy Geller (Christina Pickles). Ross and Monica are Jewish and see themselves as at least cultural Jews, with Ross taking a more active role in wanting to teach his son, Ben, about the faith. Ross gets divorced and is newly single in the very first episode because his wife, Carol (Jane Sibbett), has realized she's a lesbian. Later in the series, he dates Rachel, but they split up when he sleeps with another woman the night they decide their relationship is "on a break". After his relationship with Rachel ends, Ross marries Emily Waltham (Helen Baxendale), the niece of Rachel's boss. However, because Ross says "I take thee Rachel" instead of Emily during the nuptials, the marriage doesn't last long. In season 5, Ross and Rachel drunkenly marry in Las Vegas, and ultimately that marriage results in a divorce as well; however, they confess that if they ever got married properly it would be the one that lasted. Throughout the series, Ross gets divorced three times. In the first episode of "Joey", the spinoff series, it is hinted that Ross and Rachel may have gotten married again, as Joey Tribbiani (Matt LeBlanc) tells his sister Gina (Drea de Matteo) that all of his friends are married.
A running theme in Ross' narrative is his competition with Monica, manifested through wrestling and paranoia. As children, they took part in a family football game for the "Geller Cup" every Thanksgiving. This tradition ended in its sixth year, after Monica "accidentally" broke Ross's nose. The siblings came up with a dance in primary school called "The Routine", which they performed as adults at Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve in a New Year's Eve TV broadcast. When they were children, Monica felt that their parents favored Ross, but as time passed and they grew up, she actually liked Ross as a person and loved him more than out of a sense of family obligation. As adults they became close, though the competition between them was still visible as seen in the season three episode, "The One with the Football".
Ross often comes into conflict with Phoebe Buffay (Lisa Kudrow). His rationality and Phoebe's eccentricity lead to conflict over evolution, gravity, and whether Phoebe's mother was reincarnated as a cat. It is also revealed that Phoebe once mugged Ross (stealing a copy of the comic book "Science Boy" that Ross had created) when they were teenagers. The two are roommates for a few weeks when a fire forces Phoebe to move out of her apartment. She first moves into Chandler Bing (Matthew Perry) and Monica's apartment, but then decides she wants to give the newly engaged couple some privacy, so she moves in with Ross. In a "flashback" episode, they are alone at a bar and start kissing, but the moment quickly passes when Ross keeps bumping his head. Phoebe also helps Ross on numerous occasions, ultimately making him realize that he loves Rachel and they both are meant to be together.
Since college, Ross' best friend has been Chandler Bing. In college, they were in a band called "Way/No Way", and Ross blamed Chandler when he was caught smoking marijuana. They become brothers-in-law after Chandler marries Monica. Though they are best friends, at times Chandler gets annoyed with Ross's geeky behavior.
Ross is friends with Rachel Green, whom he has had a crush on since high school. Rachel viewed Ross as ‘Monica’s geeky older brother’ during high school. During the first episode of the series, when they meet after years apart, he rediscovers his feelings for her. They become close and have an on-and-off romantic relationship through the series. In the final season of the show, Rachel tells him that he means more to her than any other member of their group.
He is also close friends with Joey Tribbiani and helps him with auditions. He kisses Joey once in order to help him practice a role as a gay man, only to find out that Joey had already done the audition and didn't get the part. Joey and Ross also briefly try to cut Chandler out of their friend group after Chandler ignores them. They once fall asleep together on the couch after watching "Die Hard". Toward the end of the series, however, Ross and Joey become closer friends, often hanging out together after Chandler gets married.
Ross often tries to bring out the best of his friends in difficult situations. For instance, in season 2, he encourages Joey to audition for "Another World" after being fired from "Days of Our Lives" despite Joey's refusal to audition for a two-line part of a secondary character. In season 7, he buys Phoebe the bicycle of her dreams but threatens to take it away from her because of her reluctance to learn how to ride it. Also, when he discovers that Joey has a crush on Rachel, he tells him to go for it, even though he finds it difficult to accept the idea of Joey and Rachel being together. Above all, Ross is portrayed as a very sweet, loving and adorable character who is always looking out for everyone's best interests and often the most mature compared to the rest of the gang (despite his ego, outbursts, and paranoia).
He has two children. Ross's son, Ben[ Full Name: Ben Geller Willick Bunch ], was conceived while Ross and Carol were still married and born at the end of Season 1. Ross shares joint custody of Ben with his ex-wife Carol and her wife Susan (Jessica Hecht).
Ben appeared in a total of 24 episodes (25 including uncut episodes) and was played chronologically as follows: as an infant by Michael Gunderson Season 1 to 2, by brothers Charles Thomas Allen and John Christopher Allen from Season 3 to 5, and by Cole Sprouse from Season 6 to 8.
Ross' daughter with Rachel, Emma Geller-Green, was born at the end of Season 8. Rachel's pregnancy was originally revealed in the season finale of Season 7. The conception of Emma was predominantly the result of a one-night stand, which was later revealed in the Season 8 episode, "The One With The Videotape".
Ross claims to have "given up a career in basketball" to become a paleontologist, and claims that the ideas for "Jurassic Park" and "Die Hard" were stolen from him. He also had major interest in music, playing keyboard for hours in the basement of their house in Long Island.
Ross had a pet in the earlier seasons of the show: a white-headed capuchin monkey named Marcel.
Relationships.
Over the course of the show, Ross dates a considerable number of women. He married three times and is divorced three times. His proclivity to marry and divorce is a running gag within the series.
Rachel Green.
Rachel is Ross's most significant relationship during the series. His attraction to her is established early on; Ross met Rachel through his sister Monica, who was Rachel's best friend in high school. He developed an unrequited crush on her, but never followed through on it. After leaving college, Ross married Carol, whom he had met at college, and had seemingly put his feelings for Rachel aside before he met her again in The Pilot.
They have an on-again, off-again dynamic throughout most of the show.
In the Season 1 finale, Ross has to go to China for his work so he asks Chandler to give Rachel a present on her birthday which he had bought for her. Chandler does give the present to Rachel during her birthday celebration while Ross is in China but also accidentally reveals Ross's feelings for Rachel, prompting Rachel to panic and start thinking about Ross in a romantic way. After Ross arrives back from China, Rachel goes to the airport to receive him on realising that she likes him, but she sees him with Julie and reluctantly backs off.
In the season 2 episode "The One Where Ross Finds Out", Rachel is on a date with a guy when she confesses to Ross over the phone in a drunken state that she had feelings for him but now she is over him. Ross hears this message the next day at Monica's apartment with Rachel begging him not to check his messages. Later, in the same episode they share a passionate kiss at the doors of Central Perk. Later he breaks up with Julie but Rachel decides she does not want to be with him after finding out that he had made a list, on the insistence of Chandler, comparing the good and bad qualities about her and Julie. In the later episode "The One with the Prom Video" it is revealed that Ross, despite being two years senior to Rachel, had decided to be her date on her and Monica's prom, as Rachel's date had not arrived, only to be left disappointed as her date arrives and they both along with Monica and her date take off for the prom. Touched by this, Rachel kisses Ross on learning this revelation, and the two begin dating.
However, they take a break from their relationship on their one-year anniversary together after Rachel's overtime work prevents them from spending time together. That same night, Ross has a one-night stand with Chloe, which causes Rachel to officially end their relationship. They get together again at the end of season 3 but again break up at the start of season 4. Some of the later episodes show them to be still in love with each other such as when Ross cancels his Discovery channel show appearance to be with Rachel when she breaks her rib or when Rachel flies to London to tell Ross before his wedding with Emily, that she is still in love with him, only to realize that it would be better not to tell. However, Ross accidentally says Rachel's name at the altar and the marriage soon dissolves.
In the season 5 finale "The One in Vegas", Ross and Rachel marry each other after getting drunk in Las Vegas. This marriage ends in a divorce after a failed application for an annulment; the two sadly admit that they thought if they ever married each other it would last.
In the seventh season premiere "The One with Monica's Thunder", after the news of Monica and Chandler's engagement, a passionate moment between them leads to Ross and Rachel kissing. Monica is hurt by this as she believed that Rachel was trying to “steal her thunder”. The kiss is later revealed to have happened because Rachel is upset that she is “not even close” to being engaged.
At the end of season 7 at Monica and Chandler's wedding, it is revealed that Rachel is pregnant. The father is revealed to be Ross in the second episode of season 8, and Rachel tells him in the next episode. They decide to have the baby, but the two do not resume their romantic relationship. In the middle of the season, Joey asks Rachel to move in with Ross so Ross can be more involved with her pregnancy. In the season 8 finale, Ross's daughter with Rachel named Emma Geller-Green is born. Rachel soon moves out of Ross's apartment in the middle of season 9 when she realizes their situation is not working.
In the final episode of the show, when Rachel is moving to Paris for her job with a new fashion brand, Ross tells her at the airport that he loves her and asks not to leave. Rachel initially does not heed his feelings, but when the plane is about to take off, she realizes that she loves him too and gets off the plane. They profess their love for each other and decide to be together once and for all.
In the first episode of the spin-off/sequel "Joey", it is hinted that Ross and Rachel were remarried shortly after the events of season 10 as Joey tells his sister Gina that all of his friends have married. In the fifteenth episode, Ross is mentioned, though not by name, in discussion when Joey tells his sister Gina that he confessed his love to Rachel but she was pregnant with Ross's baby and eventually ended up with him, the reason why Joey becomes reluctant to confess the same feelings to his girlfriend, Sarah.
Carol Willick.
Carol (Anita Barone for pilot episode, Jane Sibbett thereafter) is Ross's first wife and the mother of his son Ben. In the very first episode, Carol has just moved out of their apartment after coming out of the closet as a lesbian and leaving Ross for a woman named Susan Bunch, whom she later marries.
In the early days, however, Ross and Carol seemed to have had a very passionate relationship. Carol is the only woman he's ever had sex with (and hence lost his virginity to) at the start of the series. It is also revealed they shared a steamy session at Disneyland behind the "Dutch children" in It's a Small World, which got them a lifetime ban from the theme park. In the third-season episode, "The One with the Flashback", it is revealed that Carol met Susan at her gym, and it is implied that they had a short affair before Carol could no longer bring herself to cheat on Ross, who innocently believed they were just friends, and told him the truth.
Ross maintains a fairly healthy relationship with Carol after their divorce and both decide to raise Ben together through shared parenting, but he doesn't hide his contempt for Susan as he believes she destroyed their marriage and since she initially wanted to keep him out of Ben's life, having once told him to his face that the baby was not his and would not have the surname "Geller". He briefly considers getting back together with Carol and they even share a kiss at a sushi restaurant, but Carol makes it clear that she can't reciprocate his feelings and has chosen to be with Susan. In the second season, when Carol and Susan briefly call off their wedding due to Carol's homophobic parents' refusal to bless their relationship, Ross gives Carol away at the wedding and shares a dance with Susan, who develops a newfound respect for him.
In the alternate timeline episode "The One that Could have Been" (season 6), Carol and Susan are portrayed in a far more negative light. Exploring what could have happened if Ross and Carol never got divorced, it is revealed that they have been on a sexual dry spell that has lasted for months. During ideas to improve their sex life, Carol suddenly becomes very excited when Ross proposes that they have a threesome with another woman. Picking Susan, whom she met at her gym just like in the real timeline, the two women immediately proceed to have sex without Ross right in front of him, seemingly indifferent to his feelings. Ross later explains to Joey that he felt like a third wheel, just having sex with Carol while Susan kept kicking him away, and ended up being so bored he made himself a sandwich. Ross realizes his wife is a lesbian when Rachel states outright that Carol "sounds gay."
Emily Waltham.
During the fourth season, Ross meets and falls in love with Emily Waltham (Helen Baxendale), a British woman who is set up with Ross by Rachel. Six weeks into their relationship, Ross spontaneously asks Emily to move in with him. This escalates into a marriage proposal. The two plan a wedding in London, to which Rachel is invited.
During the ceremony, Ross, upon seeing Rachel, has a slip of the tongue and says Rachel's name instead of Emily's during his vows. Emily is furious and exits her own wedding. Later, however, she decides to forgive Ross, and reaches the airport in time to leave for their honeymoon, but is upset when she sees Ross and Rachel boarding the plane together after Ross, having given up on meeting Emily at the airport, invites Rachel on their honeymoon as friend. She flees again, and Ross unsuccessfully tries to follow her, and Rachel ends up going on the honeymoon alone. Emily, later, calls Ross only to confront him by saying that he has to stop calling and harassing her relatives, but Ross makes her reveal her love for him. She said that she will return only if Ross stops being friends with Rachel. Unable to do so, Ross ends his marriage with Emily.
Shortly before Emily gets remarried to an anonymous man (although it might be assumed it is former lover Colin, whom she previously dumped to be with Ross), she gets cold feet and calls Ross to ask if their divorce was a mistake. While Ross is on a police ride-a-long with Phoebe's cop boyfriend Gary, Rachel hears and accidentally deletes Emily's message on the answering machine. Despite Monica pleading to keep Ross in the dark about it, Rachel tells him that Emily called, as she believes he should be in charge of his own happiness. When he starts to doubt whether or not he should return Emily's call, however, Rachel is quick to convince him not to. From this point onwards, Emily is never seen in the show again.
Reception.
Ross Geller has become a well-known figure in pop culture, in particular due to his relationship with Rachel Green, his neurotic nature, and his love for dinosaurs.
In 2015, a play titled "Ross & Rachel" debuted at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival.
In October 2016, Ross Geller was voted "the Best Friends Character" in an international poll held by Comedy Central, during six weeks of "FriendsFest" on the channel.


Arbuckle Group

The Arbuckle Group is a geologic group in Oklahoma. It preserves fossils dating back to the Ordovician period.


Road River Formation

The Road River Formation is a geologic formation in Alaska. It preserves fossils dating back to the Silurian period.


Crossdale Shales

The Crossdale Shales is a geologic formation in England. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.


Fern Glen Formation

The Fern Glen Formation is a geologic formation in eastern and southeastern Missouri. It preserves fossils dating back to the Osagean Series of the Mississippian subperiod.
The Fern Glen is richly fossiliferous with abundant crinoids, corals, brachiopods and bryozoa.


Graford Formation

The Graford Formation is a geologic formation in Texas. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.


Precambrian Supereon


Electromagnetic Geoservices

Electromagnetic Geoservices ASA (EMGS) is a Norwegian geophysical services company using proprietary marine electromagnetic technology to support oil and gas companies in their search for offshore hydrocarbons. The administrative and research headquarters are located in Trondheim.
The company was established on February 1, 2002 by the founders Terje Eidesmo, Ståle Johansen and Svein Ellingsrud. EMGS pioneered marine electromagnetic technology with the first successful application and commercialization of controlled source electro-magnetic surveying technology (CSEM). Marine EM, or CSEM, is an emerging exploration method that uses electromagnetic energy to detect resistive bodies - including hydrocarbon reservoirs - beneath the seabed. The technique used by EMGS was trialled in 1998 using a towed, high-power EM source and a series of seabed receivers, while the founders were working for Statoil.
The company acquires 3D electromagnetic and marine magnetotelluric data, which are used to assess formation resistivity before drilling, and interpret and integrate this information with other geodata to aid exploration decision making. 3D EM data is routinely used for lead generation, prospect ranking and volume assessments.
Main offices and research department are located in Trondheim, Norway. The company was listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange on March 30, 2007. EMGS also hold offices in Oslo, Norway together with Houston, US and Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia.
In 2007, two of the founders of EMGS, Terje Eidesmo and Svein Ellingsrud, were awarded the Virgil Kauffman Gold Medal from the Society of Exploration Geophysicists in recognition of their pioneering work in applying controlled-source electromagnetics to the detection of hydrocarbons.