Great black-backed gull

The great black-backed gull ("Larus marinus"), mistakenly called "greater black-backed gull" by some, is the largest member of the gull family. Described by the Cornell Lab of Ornithology as "the king of the Atlantic waterfront", it is a very aggressive hunter, pirate, and scavenger. It breeds on the European and North American coasts and islands of the North Atlantic and is fairly sedentary, though some move farther south or inland to large lakes or reservoirs. The adult great black-backed gull has a white head, neck and underparts, dark grey wings and back, pink legs and yellow bill.
Taxonomy.
The great black-backed gull was one of the many species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of "Systema Naturae", and it still bears its original name of "Larus marinus". The scientific name is from Latin. "Larus" appears to have referred to a gull or other large seabird. The specific name "marinus" means "marine", or when taken together, "sea gull". This predates Linnean taxonomy, as it had been called "Larus ingens marinus" by Carolus Clusius.
The terms "swaabie" (from ), "baagie" and "baigie" (, from ) are local names from the Shetland Islands. Francis Willughby called it the "great black and white gull" in the 17th century, noting that it was called the "swarth-back" in the Faroe Islands.
Description.
This is the largest gull in the world, considerably larger than a herring gull ("Larus argentatus"). Only a few other gulls, including Pallas's gull ("Ichthyaetus ichthyaetus") and glaucous gull ("Larus hyperboreus"), come close to matching this species' size. It is long with a wingspan and a body weight of . In a sample of 2009 adults from the North Atlantic, males were found to average and females were found to average . Some adult gulls with access to fisheries in the North Sea can weigh up to roughly and averaged . An exceptionally large glaucous gull was found to outweigh any known great black-backed gull, although usually that species is slightly smaller. The great black-backed gull is bulky and imposing in appearance with a large, powerful bill. The standard measurements are: the bill is , the wing chord is and the tarsus is .
The adult great black-backed gull is fairly distinctive, as no other very large gull with blackish coloration on its upper-wings generally occurs in the North Atlantic. In other white-headed North Atlantic gulls, the mantle is generally a lighter gray color and, in some species, it is a light powdery color or even pinkish. It is grayish-black on the wings and back, with conspicuous, contrasting white "mirrors" at the wing tips. The legs are pinkish, and the bill is yellow or yellow-pink with some orange or red near tip of lower bill. The adult lesser black-backed gull ("L. fuscus") is distinctly smaller, typically weighing about half as much as a great black-back. The lesser black-back has yellowish legs and a mantle that can range from slate-gray to brownish-colored but it is never as dark as the larger species. A few superficially similar dark-backed, fairly large gulls occur in the Pacific Ocean or in the tropics, all generally far outside this species' range, such as the slaty-backed ("L. schistisagus"), the western ("L. occidentalis") and the kelp gull ("L. dominicanus").
Juvenile birds of under a year old have scaly, checkered black-brown upper parts, the head and underparts streaked with gray brown, and a neat wing pattern. The face and nape are paler and the wing flight feathers are blackish-brown. The juvenile's tail is white with zigzag bars and spots at base and a broken blackish band near the tip. The bill of the juvenile is brownish-black with white tip and the legs dark bluish-gray with some pink tones. As the young gull ages, the gray-brown coloration gradually fades to more contrasting plumage and the bill darkens to black before growing paler. By the third year, the young gulls resemble a streakier, dirtier-looking version of the adult. They take at least four years to reach maturity, development in this species being somewhat slower than that of other large gulls. The call is a deep "laughing" cry, "kaa-ga-ga", with the first note sometimes drawn out in an almost bovid-like sound. The voice is distinctly deeper than most other gull species.
Distribution and habitat.
This species can be found breeding in coastal areas from the extreme northwest portion of Russia, through much of coastal Scandinavia, on the Baltic Sea coasts, to the coasts of northwestern France, the United Kingdom and Ireland. Across the northern portion of the Atlantic, this gull is distributed in Iceland, the Faroe Islands, southern Greenland and on the Atlantic coasts of Canada and the United States. Though formerly mainly just a non-breeding visitor south of Canada in North America, the species has spread to include several colonies in the New England states and now breeds as far south as North Carolina. Individuals breeding in harsher environments will migrate south, wintering on northern coasts of Europe from the Baltic Sea to southern Portugal, and regularly down to coastal Florida in North America. During the winter in the Baltic Sea, the bird usually stays close to the ice boundary. North of the Åland islands, the sea often freezes all the way from Sweden to Finland, and then the bird migrates to open waters. Exceptionally, the species can range as far south as the Caribbean and off the coast of northern South America.
The great black-backed gull is found in a variety of coastal habitats, including rocky and sandy coasts and estuaries, as well as inland wetland habitats, such as lakes, ponds, rivers, wet fields and moorland. They are generally found within striking distance of large bodies of water while ranging inland. Today, it is a common fixture at refuse dumps both along coasts and relatively far inland. The species also makes extensive use of dredge spoils, which, in the state of New Jersey, comprise their most prevalent nesting sites. It generally breeds in areas free of or largely inaccessible to terrestrial predators, such as vegetated islands, sand dunes, flat-topped stacks, building roofs and sometimes amongst bushes on salt marsh islands. During the winter, the great black-backed gull often travels far out to sea to feed.
Diet.
Great black-backed gulls are opportunistic feeders, apex predators, and are very curious. They will investigate any small organism they encounter and will readily eat almost anything that they can swallow. They get much of their dietary energy from scavenging, with refuse, most provided directly by humans, locally comprising more than half of their diet. The proliferation of garbage or refuse dumps has become a major attractant to this and all other non-specialized gull species in its range. However, apparently, in attempt to observe how much time they spend foraging at refuse dumps in Massachusetts, great black-backed gulls were only observed actively foraging 19% of their time there, eating less garbage than other common gulls, and spent most of their time roosting or loafing.
Like most gulls, they also capture fish with some regularity and will readily capture any fish smaller than itself found close to the surface of the water. Whether caught or eaten after death or injury from other sources, stomach contents of great black-backed gulls usually show fish to be the primary food. On Sable Island in Nova Scotia, 25% of the stomach contents were comprised by fish but 96% of the regurgitations given to young was made up fish. Similarly, on Great Island in Newfoundland, 25% of the stomach contents were fish but 68% of regurgitants were fish. The most regularly reported fish eaten in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland were capelin ("Mallotus villosus"), Atlantic cod ("Gadus morrhua"), Atlantic tomcod ("Microgadus tomcod"), Atlantic mackerel ("Scomber scombrus"), Atlantic herring ("Clupea harengus") and sand lance ("Ammodytes hexapterus"). Other prey often includes various squid, Jonah crabs ("Cancer borealis"), rock crabs ("Cancer irroratus"), sea urchins, green crabs ("Carcinus maenas"), starfish ("Asterias forbesi" and "Asterias rubens") and other echinoderms, crustaceans and mollusks when they come across the opportunity. From observations in northern New England, 23% of observed prey was echinoderms and 63% was crustaceans.
Unlike most other "Larus" gulls, they are highly predatory and frequently hunt and kill any prey smaller than themselves, behaving more like a raptor than a typical larid gull. Lacking the razor-sharp talons and curved, tearing beak of a raptor, the great black-backed gull relies on aggression, physical strength and endurance when hunting. When attacking other animals, they usually attack seabird eggs, nestlings or fledglings at the nest, perhaps most numerously terns, but also including smaller gull species as well as eiders, gannets and various alcids. In Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, 10% of the stomach contents of great black-backed gulls was made up of birds, while a further 17% of stomach contents was made up of tern eggs alone. Adult or fledged juveniles of various bird species have also been predaceously attacked. Some fully-fledged or adult birds observed to be hunted in flight or on the ground by great black-backed gulls have included "Anas" ducks, ruddy ducks ("Oxyura jamaicensis"), buffleheads ("Bucephala albeola"), Manx shearwaters ("Puffinus puffinus"), pied-billed grebes ("Podilymbus podiceps"), common moorhens ("Gallinula chloropus"), terns, Atlantic puffins ("Fratercula arctica"), Dovekie ("Alle alle"), coots ("Fulica" ssp.), glossy ibises ("Plegadis falcinellus"), rock pigeons ("Columba livia") and even predatory birds such as hen harriers ("Circus cyaneus"). When attacking other flying birds, the great black-backed gulls often pursue them on the wing and attack them by jabbing with their bill, hoping to bring down the other bird either by creating an open wound or simply via exhaustion. They may kill healthy adult birds weighing up to at least but take exclusively the small young of larger birds such as common eider ("Somateria mollissima") and cormorants. They will also catch flying passerines, which they typically target while the small birds are exhausted from migration and swallow them immediately. Great black-backed gull also feed on land animals, including rats ("Rattus" ssp.) at garbage dumps and even sickly lambs ("Ovis aries").
Most foods are swallowed whole, including most fish and even other gulls. When foods are too large to be swallowed at once, they will sometimes be shaken in the bill until they fall apart into pieces. Like some other gulls, when capturing molluscs or other hard-surfaced foods such as eggs, they will fly into the air with it and drop it on rocks or hard earth to crack it open. Alternate foods, including berries and insects, are eaten when available. They will readily exploit easy food sources, including chum lines made by boats at sea. They are skilled kleptoparasites who will readily pirate fish and other prey captured by other birds and dominate over other gulls when they encounter them. At tern colonies in coastal Maine, American herring gulls ("L. smithsonianus") occasionally also attack nestling and fledgling terns but in a great majority of cases were immediately pirated of their catch by great black-backs. In one observation, an adult great black-back was seen to rob a female peregrine falcon ("Falco peregrinus") of a freshly caught gadwall ("Anas strepera"). In another case, a third-year great black-back was observed fighting an adult female northern goshawk ("Accipiter gentilis") off its kill, although the goshawk attempted to strike the gull before leaving. Due to their method of using intimidation while encountering other water and raptorial birds, the species has been referred to as a "merciless tyrant". Naturally, these gulls are attracted to the surface activity of large marine animals, from Atlantic bluefin tuna ("Thunnus thynnus") to humpback whales ("Megaptera novaeangliae"), to capture fish driven to the surface by such creatures.
Breeding.
This species breeds singly or in small colonies, sometimes in the middle of a "Larus argentatus" colony. Young adult pair formation occurs in March or April. The following spring the same birds usually form a pair again, meeting at the previous year's nest. If one of the birds doesn't appear, the other bird begins looking for a new mate. Usually a single bird does not breed in that season.
They make a lined nest on the ground often on top of a rocky stack, fallen log or other obstructing object which can protect the eggs from the elements. Usually, several nest scrapes are made before the one deemed best by the parents is selected and then lined with grass, seaweed or moss or objects such as rope or plastic. When nesting on roofs in urban environments, previous year's nests are often reused over and over again. The female lays usually three eggs sometime between late April and late June. When only two eggs are found in a nest, the reason is almost always that one egg, for one reason or another, has been destroyed. It takes around one week for the female to produce the three eggs, and the incubation doesn't begin until all three eggs are laid. Hence all three chicks are hatched the same day. The birds are usually successful in bringing up all the three chicks.
The eggs are greenish-brown with dark speckles and blotches. Both parents participate in the incubation stage, which lasts for approximately 28 days. During this time, the birds attempt to avoid being noticed and stay silent. The breeding pair are devoted parents who both take shifts brooding the young, defending the nest and gathering food. Young great black-backed gulls leave the nest area at 50 days of age and may remain with their parents for an overall period of around six months, though most fledglings choose to congregate with other immature gulls in the search for food by fall. These gulls reach breeding maturity when they obtain adult plumage at four years, though may not successfully breed until they are six years old.
Longevity and mortality.
This is a relatively long-living bird. The maximum recorded age for a wild great black-backed gull is 27.1 years. This species is rarely kept in captivity, but domestically kept European herring gulls have been known to live for over 44 years and generally larger birds can outlive smaller ones. Mortality typically occurs in the early stages of life, when harsh weather conditions (including flooding) and starvation can threaten them, as well as predators. Chicks and eggs are preyed on by crows ("Corvus" ssp.), cats ("Felis catus"), other gulls, raccoons ("Procyon lotor") and rats ("Rattus" ssp.). The bald eagle ("Haliaeetus leucocephalus"), white-tailed eagle ("H. albicilla") and golden eagle ("Aquila chrysaetos") are the only birds known to habitually predate healthy, fully grown great black-backed gulls. In one study from Norway, great black-backed gulls were the fifth highest frequency prey item for white-tailed eagles and gulls are prone to mobbing these huge eagles. A great skua ("Stercorarius skua") was filmed in Scotland unsuccessfully attempting to kill a second or third year great black-backed gull. In Norway, great black-backed gulls have also been reported to fall prey to Eurasian eagle-owls ("Bubo bubo"). Killer whales ("Orcinus orca") and sharks also reportedly prey upon adult and juvenile birds at sea. In some biomes, where large eagles are absent the great black-backed gull may be considered the apex predator.
Status.
Historically, the great black-backed gull was harvested for its feathers, which were used in the hat-making trade, and this species was extirpated from large parts of its range as a result of this exploitation. Today, however, its adaptability to human presence and the use of urban environments as artificial nesting sites has resulted in the great black-backed gull rapidly increasing in number and range. It is now a widespread and abundant species in its range and its numbers have increased to such high levels in some areas that it is often seen as a pest species, especially near airports where it risks collisions with airplanes, and in some coastal areas where it sometimes outcompetes or hunts rarer seabirds, such as Atlantic puffins, possibly resulting in conservationist intervention. The increase and expansion of great black-backed gulls has been attributed to increasing winter fishery activities in the North Sea. Although there are no known major threats to the great black-backed gull, high levels of toxic pollutants, which are ingested with contaminated prey, are often found in individuals and eggs, reducing reproductive success. Breeding is also interrupted by human disturbance, which can lead to eggs being abandoned, leaving them vulnerable to exposure and predation.


Tylototriton notialis

Tylototriton notialis, the Laos knobby newt, is a species of newt in the family Salamandridae. It is only known from its type locality in the Nakai-Nam Theun Biodiversity Conservation Area, Khammouane Province, central Laos. The type locality is an evergreen mixed deciduous–pine forest; the newts were found in and near a small stream. It is likely that Laos knobby newt will also be found in adjacent areas of Vietnam. Based on molecular genetic data, it belongs to the "Tylototriton asperrimus" group of knobby newts. Laos knobby newt is a small newt, with total length of about .


Acalyptris bovicorneus

Acalyptris bovicorneus is a moth of the family Nepticulidae. It was described by Puplesis and Robinson in 2000. It is known from Belize.


Abadzekhia

Abadzekhia is an extinct genus of prehistoric snake mackerel that lived from the early to late Oligocene epoch in what is now the Caucasus Mountains of Southern Russia.


Ctenosaura bakeri

Ctenosaura bakeri, also known as the Utila iguana, Baker's spinytail iguana, swamper or wishiwilly del suampo, is a critically endangered species of spinytail iguana endemic to the island of Utila, one of the Islas de la Bahía off the coast of Honduras in the Caribbean.
The Utila iguana is the only species of iguana and one of only two species of lizard to exclusively inhabit brackish mangrove swamps, forced there due to competition from larger species. It is the smallest of the three species of iguana found on Utila, and unique among spiny-tailed iguanas as it is born a dark color as opposed to bright green or yellow. It is arboreal and primarily herbivorous, although it can be an opportunistic carnivore. Males may grow up to in length, while females are smaller, with a length of up to . Eggs are laid in sandy beaches and hatch about 60–76 days later, with the hatchlings returning to live in the mangrove forests.
Brought to the brink of extinction by the 1990s due to hunting, it was brought back to international attention by German herpetologist Dr. Gunther Köhler and his book "Reptiles of Central America". Although several zoos and wildlife associations have instituted programs for the iguanas on Utila, the species still finds itself threatened due to overhunting and may face more of a threat in the form of habitat loss. Extreme conservation efforts are in place to try to prevent this species from going extinct.
Taxonomy.
"Ctenosaura bakeri" was first described by Norwegian-born American zoologist Leonhard Stejneger in 1901, while working for the Smithsonian Institution. The generic name, "Ctenosaura", is derived from two Greek words: "ctenos" (Κτενός), meaning "comb" (referring to the comblike spines on the lizard's back and tail), and "saura" (σαύρα), meaning "lizard". Its specific name, "bakeri", is the Latinized form of Stejneger's friend and colleague Frank Baker, who was a former director of the National Zoo in Washington, D.C..
The species is believed to have evolved from mainland-based ancestors, and may share ancestors with "C. melanosterna" and "C. palearis", as it is phylogenetically closer to these two than it is to "C. similis". Access to Utila may have involved over-water dispersal during hurricanes, as is known for "Iguana iguana" in the Lesser Antilles or a land bridge to the mainland lost during the close of the last ice age.
Distribution and habitat.
Endemic to Utila, an island off the northern Honduras coast, "Ctenosaura bakeri" is an inhabitant of of mangrove forests. Unique among iguanids and rare among reptiles, it is believed that "C. bakeri" was pushed into the mangrove swamps due to competition from the larger, more aggressive "C. similis", which typically inhabits the drier habitats on Utila. It has interbred with this very species and produced viable offspring. From evolutionary and ecological perspectives, inhabiting brackish mangrove forests entails very specific adaptations of diet, behavior, and resource utilization. It is one of only two known species of lizard, the other being a species of anole, "Anolis utilensis", that lives solely in mangrove forests.
Description.
The Utila iguana has a grey-brown to black coloring when young, the only species of spiny-tail iguana with such a dark color when young. Other members of the genus have a green or yellow coloring when young and turn darker with age. As this animal matures it can be a blue or light gray in color, depending on heat conditions or even the animal's temper.
Males achieve a maximum total length (including tail) of , while females are typically 30% smaller at total length. Males have a small dewlap and a dorsal crest made up of 56 large dorsal spines, making the animal sexually dimorphic. This dorsal crest consists of white and black spines arranged in alternating groups of two or three of the same color.
Diet.
Like most iguanids, "Ctenosaura bakeri" is primarily herbivorous, eating flowers, leaves, stems, and fruit, but they will opportunistically eat smaller animals, eggs, and arthropods that inhabit the mangroves. It has been observed eating smaller green iguanas ("Iguana iguana") and geckos such as "Hemidactylus frenatus".
Reproduction.
Adults make their homes within holes in various mangrove trees and maintain an arboreal existence whereas the young are strictly terrestrial for the first year of their lives. As the Utila iguana cannot successfully lay its eggs in the mangrove swamps, the gravid females are forced to migrate to nearby sandy beaches in order to bury their clutches of eggs so they can incubate in the hot sun. After digging their nest burrows and laying their eggs, the females abandon the nests and return to the mangroves. Sixty to seventy-four days later the hatchlings emerge and move back to the swamps.
The hatchlings are long, the body length being a mere with the tail accounting for of its total length. The hatchlings' dark skin color enables them to blend in with the dark floor of the mangrove forests to help elude predators.
Conservation status.
Gunther Köhler found the species at the brink of extinction, perhaps even functionally extinct in the wild as of 1994 due to overhunting and its restricted habitat. As a result, the Iguana Research and Breeding Station was built in April 1997 with the help and funds of various organizations such as the Frankfurt Zoological Society, the Senckenberg Nature Research Society, AFE-COHDEFOR (State Forestry Administration-Honduran Forestry Development Corporation), BICA (Bay Islands Conservation Association) and the National Autonomous University of Honduras.
This species currently has an estimated wild population of 10,000 animals in 2–3 subpopulations, but is greatly threatened by loss of habitat, as mangrove forests are being used as garbage dump sites and deforested for the construction of homes, resorts, and marinas. Beach habitat is being lost as natural vegetation is removed in preparation for hotel and road construction. According to a survey conducted by the IUCN, exotic invasive plants cover the ground near the mangroves and make the area inappropriate for nesting sites. The iguana is locally hunted for meat, although efforts to educate locals have helped reduce this somewhat in recent years.
In 2004, as a result of Köhler's expedition and subsequent book, "Reptiles of Central America", the Conservation Project of the Utila Iguana (CPUI) was founded. The International Iguana Society and the CPUI have sought to purchase land to preserve habitats for the iguanas and plan to establish an outpost manned by Iguana Research and Breeding station personnel, who will aid in monitoring the property and work with developers to select building sites that preserve as much undisturbed beach area as possible.
The Iguana Research and Breeding station employs a "head-starting" program for newly hatched iguanas. "Head-starting", originally used to protect hatching sea turtles, is a process by which iguana eggs are hatched in an incubator and the animals are protected and fed until they are large enough to be protected from predation upon them. In the case of the Utila iguana, 50% of the animals hatched at the Center are maintained for the head-start program and the rest are released into mangrove forests after hatching. The purpose is to get the animals to a size where they are more capable of fleeing from or fighting off predators. The program has proven successful, as the iguanas behave like their wild-born counterparts. The success of the Utila program serves as a blueprint for other such programs in the Caribbean, particularly with "Cyclura" species such as the Cuban Iguana and Blue Iguana.
Zoological institutions.
The Utila iguana is maintained in a number of zoos throughout Europe, as well as two in the United States (Fresno Chaffee Zoo and the Fort Worth Zoo), each institution serving as an "ex-situ" breeding center. In September, 2007, the London Zoo successfully managed to breed "Ctenosaura bakeri" for the first time outside of Utila, an important step to ensure their survival if the species is lost from its natural habitat by hurricanes or over-hunting. The population is currently stable, but future declines are expected as a result of the threats mentioned above.
According to the International Species Information System, the following zoological parks maintain "Ctenosaura bakeri" in their exhibits.


Lindholmiola lens

Lindholmiola lens is a species of air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Helicodontidae.
Distribution.
This species occurs in Albania, Greece and Turkey.


Acromantis elegans

Acromantis elegans, common name elegant acromantis, is a species of praying mantis native to Nepal.


Eutropis rudis

The rough mabuya or brown mabuya (Eutropis rudis) is a species of skink. It is found in the Maritime Southeast Asia: Indonesia (Borneo, Sumatra, Mentawai Islands, Java, and Sulawesi), Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak), Philippine Islands, Sulu Islands, as well as on the Nicobar islands of India.


Samoan triller

The Samoan triller ("Lalage sharpei"), known in Samoan as miti tae, is a species of bird in the family Campephagidae. It is endemic to Samoa. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest and plantations. It is threatened by habitat loss.
Description.
The Samoan triller is a bird with a length of about 13 cm, smaller than its relative, the Polynesian triller. There is no sexual dimorphism in Samoan trillers, with both sexes possessing similar plumage, a yellow bill, and white iris. The upperparts of the plumage range from a brown to a grey-brown. The underparts, chest, and throat are white, with faint brown bars present on the bird's flanks.


Aglossa thamii

Aglossa thamii is a species of snout moth in the genus "Aglossa". It was described by Patrice J.A. Leraut in 2003 and is known from Morocco.


Micropterix sikhotealinensis

Micropterix sikhotealinensis is a species of moth belonging to the family Micropterigidae. It is endemic to Russia where it was described by Margarita Gennadievna Ponomarenko and Eugene Anatolievich Beljaev in 2000.


Synaphe subolivalis

Synaphe subolivalis is a species of moth of the family Pyralidae. It was described by Oberthür in 1887. It is found in Morocco.


Syngnathus macrobrachium

Syngnathus macrobrachium (large-fin pipefish) is a species of pipefishes, which is common in the southern-eastern Pacific in the coastal waters from Tumbes (Peru) to Puerto Montt (Chile). It is a marine subtropical demersal fish, up to length. Very little is known about this species' biology but it is thought that it lives over sand and other soft sea beds in shallow coastal waters including estuaries and brackish lagoons. This species is ovoviviparous, the males brood the fertilised eggs below the tail before giving birth to the larvae.


Oriole whistler

The oriole whistler ("Pachycephala orioloides"), also known as the yellow-throated whistler (leading to easy confusion with "Pachycephala macrorhyncha"), is a species of bird in the family Pachycephalidae, which is endemic to the Solomon Islands (archipelago).
Taxonomy and systematics.
It is variably considered a subspecies of a widespread golden whistler ("P. pectoralis") or treated as a separate species, but strong published evidence in favour of either treatment is limited, and further study is warranted to resolve the complex taxonomic situation. Even if not recognized as a separate species, the oriole whistler includes several very different subspecies, though the males are united by their yellow throat.
Subspecies.
Nine subspecies are recognized:
Distribution.
The oriole whistler is found throughout the Solomons, except in the Santa Cruz Islands.


Oxynoemacheilus tongiorgii

Oxynoemacheilus tongiorgii is a species of stone loach from the genus "Oxynoemacheilus". It is found in the Kul River basin in Iran. It has only been recorded once.


Yacare caiman

The yacare caiman ("Caiman yacare"), also known commonly as the jacare caiman, Spanish yacaré, Paraguayan caiman, piranha caiman, red caiman, southern spectacled caiman, jacaré in Portuguese, and îakaré in Old Tupi, is a species of caiman, a crocodilian in the family Alligatoridae. The species is endemic to Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay. Brown in color and covered with dark blotches, males grow to a total length (including tail) of and females to . Typical habitats of this caiman include lakes, rivers, and wetlands. Its diet primarily consists of aquatic animals, such as snails, and occasionally land vertebrates. Mating occurs in the rainy season and eggs hatch in March, with young fending for themselves as soon as they hatch. The yacare caiman was hunted heavily for its skin to use for leather in the 1980s, which caused its population to decrease significantly. However, trading restrictions placed since have caused its population to increase. Its population in the Pantanal is about 10 million, and it is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List.
Taxonomy.
François Marie Daudin originally described the yacare caiman in 1802 as "Crocodilus yacare". Its specific name, "yacare", comes from the word "jacaré", which means "alligator" in Old Tupi and then transliterated to Portuguese. As of 2010, the exact relationship between the yacare caiman and related species is unclear and complicated. There have been attempts to analyze this relationship, but these have not produced definite conclusions. It is sometimes considered a subspecies of the spectacled caiman ("Caiman crocodilus"), which would make its scientific name "Caiman crocodilus yacare". These two species are the same morphologically, but are considered separate species due to their geographical differences.
Description.
"C. yacare" is a medium-sized caiman, brown in color. Male specimens grow to in total length (including tail) and in weight. Females are much smaller, with an adult total length of and weight of . The average snout–vent length (SVL) of hatchlings is for females and for males. "National Geographic" has described young individuals as "look(ing) like nothing more than tiny, windblown seeds floating amid the rushes at the edge of a lagoon in Brazil's remote interior." Based on a study of the growth of multiple specimens in the Pantanal from 1987–2013, both sexes are about SVL at age five. By age 15, they have mostly finished growth, with females being about SVL and males over SVL. The study also showed that individuals have significant variation in their growth rates.
Dark marks are distributed across the body; most noticeably, its lower jaw is covered with three to five blotches. It has a smooth snout, which is medium in length and broad. It has lumps on its eyelids and a curved ridge between its eyes. It has osteoderms on its scales, a feature also present in the spectacled caiman. It has an average of 74 teeth, with 5 pre-maxillary, 14–15 maxillary, and 17–21 mandibular. Some of the teeth on its lower jaw can poke through holes in its upper jaw. This feature makes its teeth more prominent and has been compared to piranhas, which has established the common name "piranha caiman".
Ecology.
The yacare caiman is ecologically similar to the spectacled caiman. It lives in semi-aquatic habitats, including lakes, rivers, and wetlands, but is able to adapt to a variety of habitats. Individuals sometimes move to different locations in groups if their habitat is disturbed. The species' diet consists of aquatic animals, such as snails and fish, and occasionally snakes. It has also been known to eat capybaras. When hunting for snails, this caiman looks within vegetation floating in water and uses its jaws to break the shells of the snails. In July 1986, the stomach of a specimen in Bolivia was observed to be full of mud, along with small parts of eggshells that likely belonged to a caiman. In general, crocodilians can eat the eggshells of their own young subsequent to the young hatching.
Breeding usually occurs in December–February, in the middle of the rainy season. Nests are constructed by the females, built in a mound shape using mud and rotting vegetation. The species can lay as many as 44 eggs, but it most commonly lays 22–35, with the exact number often depending on the habitat type. It often exhibits multiple paternity, more so than several other crocodilian species. Females usually protect nests during incubation, but do so less when the human hunting pressure is high, ultimately causing a lower hatching success rate. Eggs hatch in March. Young exhibit precociality, receiving very little help from their parents and having to care for themselves. They hide in grasses in the daytime, as herons and storks can eat young caimans. Females become sexually mature at age 10–15. Similar species of the yacare caiman live to about age 50, which has been used as an estimate for this caiman's lifespan, but its exact lifespan is unknown.
Distribution and conservation.
The range of the yacare caiman includes Argentina (north), Bolivia, Brazil (south), and Paraguay. It is one of three species of genus "Caiman" in South America, the others being the broad-snouted caiman ("C. latirostris") and the spectacled caiman ("C. crocodilus"), with more easterly and northerly ranges, respectively. The yacare caiman is one of the most common species on its continent.
In the 1980s, the species was "heading for oblivion" due to frequently being hunted for its skin; hunters often went to water holes containing many yacare caimans and shot large numbers of them. They utilized the skin for leather and left the other parts of the carcasses at the water holes. Although the species is covered with bony osteoderms, which had previously made it uncommon to be hunted for leather, it has some less bony spots which can be used for leather. This practice caused the caiman's population to drop by the millions. In 1992, a ban was issued in Brazil that prohibited the trading of crocodilian skins. This resulted in a significant increase in its population, with about 10 million specimens living in the Pantanal alone as of 2013. Current threats of the yacare caiman include deforestation, tourism, construction of dams and seaports, and illegal hunting. The species reproduces quickly, which makes it less susceptible to hunting pressure.
The IUCN Red List designated the yacare caiman a species of least concern in 1996. It is listed as threatened by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service as of June 5, 2000, after having been listed as endangered since June 2, 1970. As of 2010, it is listed as an Appendix II species by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.


Myoxocephalus sinensis

Myoxocephalus sinensis is a species of sculpin fish in the family Cottidae. The species is native to China and is indicated variously either as a freshwater or as a marine fish.


Megophrys daweimontis

Megophrys daweimontis, the Mount Dawei horned toad, is a species of frog in the family Megophryidae. It is only known from Mount Dawe) in Pingbian Miao Autonomous County, Yunnan, China, near the Vietnamese border. It is also likely to occur in the adjacent parts of Vietnam. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests and rivers. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Convict cichlid

The convict cichlid ("Amatitlania nigrofasciata") is a fish species from the family Cichlidae, native to Central America, also known as the zebra cichlid. Convict cichlids are popular aquarium fish and have also been the subject of numerous studies on fish behaviour.
Taxonomy.
Albert Günther originally described the species in 1867 after Frederick DuCane Godman and Osbert Salvin collected specimens in Central America. In 2007, the species was moved from the genus "Archocentrus" to a new genus, "Amatitlania", based on Juan Schmitter-Soto's study of "Archocentus" species. However, a 2008 study led by Oldrich Rican proposed moving the species in "Cryptoheros" and "Amatitlania", including "Amatitlania nigrofasciata" into the genus "Hypsophrys".
The convict cichlid displays significant color across its range. Some of these regional variants are now considered different species. In the cichlid-keeping hobby, Rusty Wessel collected one such fish, the Honduran Red Point Cichlid ("Amatitlania" sp.) from a stream in Honduras. The Honduran Red Point Convict ranges from Atlantic Honduras south to Costa Rica. Other new species formerly included in "A. nigrofasciata" are "Amatitlania coatepeque", from Lake Coatepeque in El Salvador, and "Amatitlania kanna", from Panama's Atlantic coast.
The type species, "A. nigrofasciata", which used to cover all these species, is restricted to the northern population ranging from El Salvador to Guatemala on the Pacific coast and from Honduras to Guatemala on the Atlantic coast.
A number of synonyms exist for this species including: "Archocentrus nigrofasciatus", "Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum", "Cryptoheros nigrofasciatus" and "Heros nigrofasciatus".
Etymology.
The common name convict cichlid is, like the species name, derived from the vertical black stripes on the body which are reminiscent of the striped prison uniforms of British convicts. Similarly, the species epithet "nigrofasciatus" literally means "black-striped".
Description.
The wild-type of the species has 8 or 9 black vertical bars on a blue-grey body, along with a dark blotch on the operculum. Juvenile convict cichlids are monomorphic until they reach sexual maturity. The male is mostly gray with light black stripes along the body. Males are larger than females, and they have more pointed ventral, dorsal and anal fins which often extend into filaments. In addition, older males frequently develop vestigial fatty lumps on their foreheads. Unusually for fish, the female is more highly coloured. She has more intense black bands across the body, and pink to orange colouration in the ventral region and on the dorsal fin. The maximum standard length has been reported to be 10 centimeters, with total length near . The body weight of the fish is about . Selective breeding has resulted in a leucistic strain, which lacks the dark barring of the wild type. These are known commonly as white convicts, pink convicts, gold convicts, and "A. nigrofasciata" "Kongo". The leucistic colouration is caused by a mutation in an autosomal gene and is recessively inherited.
Range and habitat.
Convict cichlids are native to the lakes and streams of Central America. In particular, the species occurs along the eastern coast of Central America from Guatemala to Costa Rica, and on the western coast from Honduras to Panama. Convict cichlids prefer moving water, and are most frequently found in habitats with cover in the form of rocks or sunken branches. At four natural habitats of the convict cichlid in Costa Rica, the pH was found to range from 6.6–7.8, while carbonate hardness (KH) ranged from 63 to 77 ppm . The daily water temperature ranged from . Convict cichlids can be relatively tolerant of cool water, allowing them to colonise volcanic lakes at elevations of .
Feral populations.
The species also occurs outside its natural range, even being found in Australia, where it can be found in the warm effluent of power stations in Victoria, and in tropical Queensland. It has also been captured in Perth, Western Australia, although this initial capture also resulted in its eradication. In addition to Australia, the species has been introduced to Réunion, Japan, Mexico, Colombia, Taiwan, and the USA.
Feeding.
In natural habitats, the species has a diet composed of various prey, including crustaceans, small fish, insects, worms, plants and algae. The fish can protrude its jaw 4.2% of its standard length, allowing it to have a varied diet. Inferior social status and associated stress can affect digestive function in convict cichlids.
Reproduction.
Life cycle.
The convict cichlid can reach sexual maturity as young as 16 weeks, though sexual maturity more commonly occurs at 6 months. Sexually mature convicts form monogamous pairs and spawn in small caves or crevices. In the wild, the fish excavate caves by moving earth from underneath large stones. Females adhere eggs to the walls of the cave.
Like most cichlids, such as "Oreochromis mossambicus", convicts brood (exhibit parental care of) both eggs and free-swimming fry. The eggs hatch approximately 72 hours after fertilization. Until that time the parents expel intruders and potential egg predators from around the nest. They also fan the eggs, moving water with their fins over the clutch to provide oxygenation. They fan the eggs both day and night; at night they use their sense of smell to recognize the presence of the eggs in the dark, and they keep their pelvic fins in contact with the eggs to remain at the right distance for fanning. In darkness the pair recognizes each other and detect predators using their sense of smell.
After hatching, the larvae spend another 72 hours absorb their yolk sacs and developing their fins before they become free-swimming fry. The fry forage during daylight in a dense school and return to the cave or crevice for the night. Like other cichlids, the parents retrieve their young just before dark, sucking up three or four at a time and delivering them into the nest. The parents anticipate night, using a sense of time; in laboratory experiments convict cichlids continued to retrieve young as night approached even in the absence of any signal, such as dimming light. During the night, the fry bunch up at the bottom of the cave or nest, where the parents fan them.
Both parents remain involved in guarding the fry from brood predators and engage in behaviors to assist feeding such as moving leaves or fin digging (digging up the substrate with their fins). Brood care of eggs, larvae and free-swimming juveniles in the wild can last 4 to 6 weeks, and occurs only once per season for the majority of females. In contrast, females in aquaria are known to breed many times per year with short intervals of 12 or 13 days between broods, as long as suitable rocks or similar surfaces are available for them to lay their eggs on.
Mating system.
Convict cichlids are serially monogamous, so pair bonds may form first before they establish a territory together, or the male and female may each obtain a territory before pairing with each other. Because the convict cichlids are also substrate-brooding, this territory will include a breeding site for the deposition of eggs.
Sexual selection.
The effect of population density on sexual selection for convict cichlids has been studied. When nest density was greater, the females tended to be larger, which is more accurately explained by density-dependent mate preference and mating competition, as opposed to predation and resource competition. Moreover, as the two nest density regimes were compared, with one high and one low, there was no significant difference in brood survival between the two; however, the convict cichlids did prefer to breed farther away from each other, not in close proximity. This indicates that there are some other costs with breeding in an environment with high population density, an example being energy loss because of the resulting increased aggression when guarding territory.
The female's preference for the male mate has also been examined, in accordance to the male's size and fighting ability. The female cichlid always chooses the larger of the two males if the smaller male is next to the larger male, and if the larger male defeats the smaller male in a fight. If the males are not viewed together at the same time for a comparison to be drawn by the female, the female has no particular preference. Females do benefit by mating with a larger male, as it has been shown that larger males can raise more offspring to independence, are better at chasing predators that might attack offspring, and are better at competing for breeding sites. Male size may act as a more effective indicator of aggression, which may thus repel intruders before they can come closer to the offspring. It has been shown that individuals of significantly greater size relative to their opponent often win fights without much physical contact.
Parental roles.
Convict cichlids are a biparental species, so the parents will usually cooperate by carrying out tasks specific to their individual parental roles when raising their offspring. This is common in cichlid fish, and studies have shown coordination between the female and male. The female tends to remain with the brood and perform activities involving the brood fanning the eggs, whereas the male tends to patrol the area to chase intruders and defend from predators. Both parents are able to carry out all of the parental care tasks to a certain extent. However, because they are biparentally custodial, each sex will still focus on a specific set of behaviors in particular, which is susceptible to change during the brood cycle. In fact, it is observed that when one of the mates is removed, either parent is still able to raise the offspring independently by having the capacity for all the parental behaviors. As the young offspring grow and become free-swimming fry, the parental activities are distributed more equally between the parents, which appears to be typical behavior in other types of cichlids as well.
The different ways in which this biparental sex role specialization can be influenced was studied by manipulating the presence and absence of the mate as well as the presence and absence of an intruder. The former variable was considered because the specialization of parental roles only occurs when both parents are present, while the latter variable was considered because it is thought that biparental care in these cichlids was an evolutionary consequence of the protection of offspring from intruders. When both mates are present with no intruder, both parents may stay with the offspring by resembling single parents because each parent is addressing only the offspring and not its mate, or one parent may be concentrated on activities associated with the offspring while the other parent concentrates on patrolling and defending the area. Under these isolated conditions, a more equal sharing of parental behaviors tends to occur. However, when both mates are present and an intruder is introduced, the male spends more time chasing intruders while the female remains with the offspring more. When the intruder is present but a parent is by itself, the widowed male tends to leave the offspring unattended and instead attacks the intruder or predator. Therefore, the conclusive finding is that the male rarely remains with the offspring when the female is absent, and the female rarely confronts the intruder when the male is absent.
Brood adoption.
Convict cichlids may show extended biparental care and adopt unrelated young of the same species of similar or smaller body size compared to their own biological offspring. The parents may benefit by adopting smaller young by taking advantage of the dilution effect, which is when the risk of predation for an individual is reduced because the group size is larger. Another reason that has been considered is that foreign young that are larger than the biological offspring may be a direct predatory threat to them. However, it has been shown that as the biological offspring develop and become stronger swimmers, the parents are less active about rejecting larger foreign young, but when they do reject, often foreign young are rejected before they are large enough to be perceived as a direct threat to the biological offspring. Thus, it can be concluded that the brood adoption and rejection rely more heavily on the protection of the biological offspring from differential predator instead of from larger adopted cichlids.
Aggressive behavior.
Convict cichlids are known to be highly aggressive and territorial when breeding, possessing a variety of complex behaviors and adaptations, which have been suggested to be a result of environmental conditions, individual development, and trait variation. Due to their aggressive nature, cichlids are popularly studied to investigate the factors that may potentially cause their behavior. Convict cichlids usually demonstrate their aggressive behavior by biting and chasing, which entails bursts of high speed targeted at the intruder, and also show their aggression via their body size.
It has been shown that environmental parameters like changes in temperature and prior residence may affect the cichlid's territorial aggression. The convict cichlids are more aggressive at 30 °C as opposed to 26 °C, which may be explained by the fact that convict cichlids tend to set up their breeding sites and spawn at 30 °C.
Aquarium care.
The aquarium should be decorated to mimic the natural environment and include rocks and artificial caves for breeding. Most experts agree that a pair of convicts should be kept in a 20-gallon aquarium or larger. The species is an unfussy omnivore and most types of prepared fish foods are readily accepted. The species also consumes aquatic plants so plastic plants or robust plants such as java fern or water sprite are recommended. Convict cichlids are aggressively territorial during breeding and pairs are best kept alone. Brood care is reduced in aquarium strains. Due to the species' tendency to dig, external filtration is superior to undergravel filter systems. Its relatively small size, along with ease of keeping and breeding, make the convict an ideal cichlid for beginners and advanced aquarists alike interested in observing pair bonds and brood care.
Breeding.
Breeding convicts is as simple as having a male and a female in the same tank with adequate water quality and feeding. There is no special conditioning required. Due to their prolific breeding in captivity, there is a very low demand for Convict fry, and one may easily find their aquarium overstocked with an inbreeding population of Convicts without any avenues for adoption.
Tank mates.
Ideal tank mates for convict cichlids consists of robust similar sized fish. Such fish include T-Bar cichlids, Honduran red points, Green Terrors, Jewel cichlids, Salvini, Jack Dempsey, (Keep in mind as Dempseys outgrow the convicts territorial issues will become a problem.) Pictus catfish, "plecostomus", as well as other convicts. Other fast moving fish such as Giant Danios can be used as dither fish. Also remember, if you have a breeding pair Convicts in a 40-gallon or smaller you will be most likely be unable to keep the convicts with any tank mates. But if your tank mates have established any type of dominance they will however breed and live together.


Pygmy flycatcher

The pygmy flycatcher ("Ficedula hodgsoni"), also known as the pygmy blue-flycatcher, is a bird species of the family Muscicapidae.
Distribution and habitat.
It is found in Bhutan, China, East Timor, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests.


Acrocercops imperfecta

Acrocercops imperfecta is a moth of the family Gracillariidae. It is known from Egypt.


Psilogramma discistriga

Psilogramma discistriga is a moth of the family Sphingidae. It is known from Bangladesh.


White-rumped swallow

The white-rumped swallow ("Tachycineta leucorrhoa") is a species of bird in the family Hirundinidae. First described and given its binomial name by French ornithologist Louis Vieillot in 1817, it was for many years considered a subspecies of the Chilean swallow. The species is monotypic with no known population variations. It has a white streak, or streak above its lores (the region between a bird's eye and nostrils), which can be used to differentiate it from the Chilean swallow. The lores, ear coverts, tail, and wings are black, with white tips on the inner secondaries, tertials, and greater coverts of the wings. The rest of the are a glossy blue. Its underparts and underwing-coverts are white, in addition to the rump, as the name suggests. The sexes are similar, and the juvenile is duller and browner with a dusky breast.
This species usually builds its nest in holes in trees or dead snags or under or in artificial structures like fence posts and the eaves of buildings. The white-rumped swallow is solitary and nests in distributed pairs during the breeding season. The breeding season is from October to December in Brazil and from October to February in neighboring Argentina. Usually, only one brood with four to seven eggs is laid, although a second one will occasionally be laid. The female incubates the eggs over a period usually between 15 and 16 days, with the fledging after usually between 21 and 25 days.
This swallow is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay. Its natural habitats are dry savanna, pastureland, the edge of forests, and subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland. It is classified as a least-concern species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Its population is increasing and it may benefit from the increase in availability of artificial nest sites. The shiny cowbird is an occasional brood parasite of the white-rumped swallow.
Taxonomy and etymology.
The white-rumped swallow was first formally described as "Hirundo leucorrhoa" by French ornithologist Louis Vieillot in 1817 in his "Nouveau Dictionnaire d'Histoire Naturelle". It was since moved to its current genus, "Tachycineta", which was created in 1850 by Jean Cabanis. The binomial name is derived from Ancient Greek. "Tachycineta" is from "takhukinetos", "moving quickly", and the specific "leucorrhoa" is from "leukos", "white", and "orrhos", "rump".
The species was formerly considered a subspecies of the Chilean swallow, most likely due to the similarity in morphology and calls. It is occasionally placed in the genus "Iridoprocne" with the tree swallow, mangrove swallow, white-winged swallow, and Chilean swallow. A study of the mitochondrial DNA of "Tachycineta" supports the split, although studies do show that the white-rumped swallow forms a superspecies, "leucorrhoa", with the Chilean swallow. This species is monotypic, with no known subspecies.
This swallow is named for its white rump but it is also sometimes called the white-browed swallow, due to its white supraloral streak.
Description.
The white-rumped swallow measures in length and weighs . It has an average wingspan of . It has a white supraloral streak, a white streak above its eye, and black lores and ear coverts. The lores and ear-coverts have a blue-green gloss. It has black wings, with white tips on its inner secondaries, tertials, and greater wing-coverts. The white tips erode with age. The tail is black and has a shallow fork. The white-rumped swallow also has, as the name implies, a white rump. The rump is not totally white; it has some fine shaft streaks. The rest of the upperparts, in addition to the crown, nape, and forehead, are a glossy blue. These features, when this bird is not breeding, are more greenish-blue. The underparts and underwing-coverts are white. The bill, legs, and feet are black, and the irides are brown. The sexes are alike, and the juvenile can be distinguished by its dusky breast and the fact that it is duller and more brownish.
This swallow is similar to the Chilean swallow but can be differentiated by the Chilean swallow's lack of a supraloral white streak. The Chilean swallow also seems to keep its glossy blue upperparts when not breeding. The white-rumped swallow is, in addition, larger than the Chilean swallow.
The song of the white-rumped swallow is often described as a soft gurgling or a broken warble. It usually sings while flying at dawn. The call is described as a quick and toneless "zzt". The alarm note it uses is short and harsh.
Distribution.
This swallow is native to Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay. It inhabits open and semi-open country near water, the edge of woodland, and human settlements. It also occurs in dry savannas, degraded former forest, and both subtropical and tropical seasonally flooded grassland. It is additionally known to occur in the pampas of Argentina and Uruguay. During the austral winter, the birds in the southern population usually move to the northern parts of its range. This bird can be found at altitudes ranging from sea level to .
Behaviour.
After the breeding season, the white-rumped swallow forms flocks that sometimes consist of hundreds of individuals. These flocks frequently consist of both the white-rumped swallow and other species of swallows.
Breeding.
The white-rumped swallow builds nests in holes or crevices in a tree or dead snag. It also builds them in artificial structures like holes in fence posts or under eaves, typically under those of abandoned buildings. This swallow will sometimes reuse favourable nest sites, which has a positive effect on fledgling survival. It occasionally nests in abandoned nests of the firewood-gatherer. The nests themselves are usually made of plant fibres and lined with hair and feathers. This swallow is solitary and, during the breeding season, is scattered in pairs. Pairs can be seen to fight and chase each other at the nest site.
This swallow displays nest prospecting behaviour, visiting potential future nesting sites. Nest prospecting is a behaviour recorded in both breeding and non-breeding individuals, and occurs both after the failure or success of a nest and while the bird is actively nesting. After a nest failure, the average distance an individual travels during a prospecting visit increases dramatically, from about to about . Nest prospecting seems to occur more frequently in individuals with a smaller clutch size. Male visits to other nests could be to care for extra-pair young, although it does not explain female visits. Extra-pair young, or young with parents outside of the breeding pair, account for about 56 percent of all offspring.
The breeding season of the white-rumped swallow is from October to December in Brazil, and from October to February in Argentina. During this period, one brood is usually laid, although it will occasionally lay a second brood. On average, 58 percent of nests will fledge at least one chick.
The clutch is usually four to seven eggs that transition from pinkish-white when laid to pure white. The eggs measure and weigh on average. Clutch size and egg size are noted to usually decrease as the breeding season progresses. Late-season nestlings also weigh less than early-season nestlings. It takes 15 to 16 days for the female to incubate the clutch. About 58 percent of the broods hatch synchronously, although the hatching sometimes lasts over four days. On average, 78 percent of the eggs will hatch. The fledging period is 21 to 25 days, with about 95 percent of the nestlings fledging. The white-rumped swallow, on average, lives for 2.12 years. The male lives slightly longer than the female.
Diet.
The white-rumped swallow is an aerial insectivore that usually feeds alone or in small groups, feeding on flies, beetles, flying ants, Orthoptera, and Lepidoptera. It usually feeds close over water, pastures, and open woodland. Occasionally skimming the ground, its flight is fast and direct. It follows humans and other animals, and can usually be seen near humans and animals that are disturbing insects.
Parasites.
The shiny cowbird is a brood parasite that occasionally lays its eggs in the nest of white-rumped swallow. After a shiny cowbird fledges, it exhibits behaviour that causes it to be fed more, much to the detriment of white-rumped swallow nestlings. About six percent of nests are affected by this. This swallow has been known to lose nests to the southern house wren, a subspecies of the house wren.
Conservation status.
The white-rumped swallow is classified as a least-concern species by the IUCN. This is due to its large range, estimated to be , its increase in population, and its large population. Increase in the availability of artificial nest sites may benefit this bird, and could be a factor in its increasing population. It is described as being fairly common in its range.


Canada geese in New Zealand

Canada geese ("Branta canadensis") were introduced as a game bird into New Zealand in 1905. They became problematic because of the damage caused to pastures and crops.
History.
Canada geese were introduced as a game bird into New Zealand in 1905. They were protected under the Wildlife Act of 1953 and the population was managed by Fish and Game New Zealand who culled excessive bird numbers. The number of birds increased and by 1996 they had reached an estimated population of 40,000 in the South Island. In 2011 the government removed the protection status allowing anyone to kill the birds.
Effects.
Canada geese are often seen in pastures and in the braided river valleys of the South Island and damage to pastures was reported as early as 1925. They affect pastures by competing for food with the farmed animals and by leaving droppings. The birds may also be responsible for some damage to crops.


Masked laughingthrush

The masked laughingthrush ("Pterorhinus perspicillatus") is a species of laughingthrush found in China and Vietnam. It is often seen in small noisy flocks of seven. Its Chinese name [七姊妹 qī zǐ-mèi] means 'seven sisters'.
This species was formerly placed in the genus "Garrulax" but following the publication of a comprehensive molecular phylogenetic study in 2018, it was moved to the resurrected genus "Pterorhinus".


Blue-capped redstart

The blue-capped redstart ("Phoenicurus coeruleocephala") is a species of bird in the family Muscicapidae.
It is found in most of the Himalayas and the northern parts of the Indian Subcontinent, with its range extending across Tajikistan and Afghanistan into India, from Jammu & Kashmir eastwards across Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal, to Nepal and Bhutan, and further east to Arunachal Pradesh and adjoining regions.
Its natural habitat is temperate forests.


Hypocoena stigmatica

Hypocoena stigmatica is a species of moth of the family Noctuidae. It is found on the Faroe Islands and Iceland, as well as parts of Russia and Alaska.
The length of the fore wings is about 13 mm.
The larvae probably feed on "Ammophila" and "Leymus" species.


Echis carinatus sinhaleyus

Echis carinatus sinhaleyus is a venomous viper subspecies endemic to Sri Lanka.
Common names.
Sri Lankan saw-scaled viper."
Known as () (can also be spelt as ) by the Sinhala speaking community. The vernacular name translates as "sand viper".
Geographic range.
It is found in Sri Lanka.
The type locality is described as "Chavakachcheri, Jaffna Peninsula" (Northern Province, Sri Lanka).


Hemicycla modesta

Hemicycla modesta is a species of gastropod in the family Helicidae.
Description.
The length of the shell attains 16.7 mm.
Distribution.
It is endemic to the Canary Islands, Spain.


Saprosites raoulensis

Saprosites raoulensis is a species of dung beetle endemic to the Kermadec Islands in New Zealand. The holotype specimen of this species was discovered during a scientific expedition to the Kermadecs by W. L. Wallace in 1908. It was found under rotten logs on Raoul Island.
Taxonomy.
New Zealand entomologist Thomas Broun first described this beetle as "Aphodius raoulensis" in 1910 after receiving the specimen for determination from its collector W. L. Wallace. This type specimen is currently held at the Auckland Museum. The species was placed in the genus "Saprosites" by Aola M. Richards in 1959 and the holotype specimen was redescribed by Richards as Broun's description differed from the type specimen in several ways.
The specific name is derived from the name of the island the species was collected from, Raoul Island, and "-ensis" a Latin derived adjective suffix meaning "originated in".
Description.
"Saprosites raoulensis" is 5.5 mm in length and 2.5 mm in width. The beetle is pitch black in colour with the front border of the prothorax being a dull brick red. Its legs are a reddish brown.
Distribution and habitat.
This beetle is apparently rare and specimens have only been recorded as being from Raoul Island.
Predation.
Broun hypothesized that the significant number of rats on Raoul Island at the time of collection of the type specimen were likely to negatively impact various beetle populations.


Eutropis austini

Eutropis austini is a species of skink found in Sri Lanka.


Red-backed salamander

The red-backed salamander ("Plethodon cinereus") is a small, hardy woodland salamander species in the family Plethodontidae. The species inhabits wooded slopes in eastern North America, west to Missouri, south to North Carolina, and north from southern Quebec and the Maritime provinces in Canada to Minnesota. It is also known as the redback salamander, eastern red-backed salamander, or the northern red-backed salamander to distinguish it from the southern red-backed salamander ("Plethodon serratus"). It is one of 56 species in the genus "Plethodon". Red-backed salamanders are notable for their color polymorphism and primarily display two color morph varieties ("red-backed" and "lead-backed"), which differ in physiology and anti-predator behavior.
Description and ecology.
The red-backed salamander is a small terrestrial salamander, in total length (including tail), which usually lives in forested areas under rocks, logs, bark, and other debris. It is one of the most numerous salamanders throughout its range. Red-backed salamanders are mostly insectivorous, but prey on a wide assortment of other small invertebrates including isopods, millipedes, centipedes, pseudoscorpions, harvestmen, spiders, and gastropods. On one occasion an individual was found to have cannibalized a "P. cinereus" embryo. Predators of the red-backed salamander are many and varied, and include small mammals, snakes, ground-foraging birds, and larger salamanders.
As with all amphibians, the red-backed salamander has permeable skin. They also lack lungs, a condition which is an ancestral trait of the Plethodontidae. Red-backed salamanders are thus entirely reliant on cutaneous respiration for gas exchange. Permeable skin is susceptible to desiccation and must be kept moist in order to facilitate cutaneous respiration; as a result much of the ecology and behavior of the red-backed salamander is restricted by climatic and microclimatic variables, particularly dryness and temperature. Individuals confine themselves to moist microhabitats (beneath rocks, woody debris, etc. as well as beneath the soil) for long periods of time in order to maintain hydration when surface conditions are inhospitably dry or hot, and are only active on the surface to travel, forage, or reproduce for short periods. The duration of surface activity is directly limited by the rate of cutaneous water loss to the environment, which is influenced by environmental variables such as altitude, forest canopy cover, and the amount of recent precipitation. Hydric limitations are thus a major constraint on red-backed salamander growth and reproductive success as well as the genetic interconnectedness of red-backed salamander populations.
The skin of red-backed salamanders was found to contain "Lysobacter gummosus", an epibiotic bacterium that produces the chemical 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol and inhibits the growth of certain pathogenic fungi.
Polymorphism.
The red-backed salamander exhibits color polymorphism and two color variations are common: the "red-backed" or "red-stripe" variety has a red dorsal stripe that tapers towards the tail, and the darker variety, known as the "lead-backed" (or simply "lead") phase, lacks most or all of the red pigmentation. The red-backed phase is not always red, but may actually be various other colors (e.g., yellow-backed, orange-backed, white-backed, or a rare erythristic morph in which the body is completely red). Both morphs have speckled black and white bellies. Additional color anomalies of this species also exist, including iridistic, albino, leucistic, amelanistic, and melanistic anomalies. These color morphs are rarer than the red-backed, lead-backed, and erythristic morphs, but still have been reported with consistency among varying populations of this species.
"P. cinereus" color morph frequencies are correlated with climatic variables, suggesting habitat temperature and more broadly climate to be potential sources of selective pressure on "P. cinereus" polymorphism. The red-backed form is found with greater frequency in colder regions at more northerly latitudes and easterly longitudes throughout its range, whereas the opposite is true of the lead-backed form. Additionally, lead-backed morphs withdraw from surface activity earlier in the autumn than red-backed morphs, presumably to avoid cooling temperatures. Standard metabolic rate has also been found to differ between the morphs at certain temperatures, with significantly lower metabolic rates being displayed by the lead-backed form at 15 °C; in the same study, lead-backed individuals were also more active on the ground surface at this temperature. These findings suggest that the lead-backed color variant is less tolerant of cool temperatures than the red-backed color variant, and that the two color forms differ physiologically and behaviorally at certain temperatures.
An alternate explanation for the uneven geographic distribution of the red-backed and lead-backed "P. cinereus" color morphs involves phenotypic plasticity responding to developmental temperature. Although the genetic origins of the "P. cinereus" polymorphic condition are not fully understood, initial studies indicate that color morph dominance is likely subject to epistasis, and that multiple loci may interact to determine an individual's morph condition. However, more recent research indicates that a plastic response to thermal conditions during development also contributes to color morph determination; in one study, "P. cinereus" eggs incubated at a higher temperature hatched a greater proportion of lead-backed morphs than eggs incubated at a lower temperature. Temperature-dependent color morph determination may therefore also potentially influence the spatial distribution of "P. cinereus" color morphs.
The two primary "P. cinereus" color morphs also differ in diet. The prevalence of certain prey taxa and the overall diversity and quality of prey items have been observed to differ seasonally between the two morphs in the spring and autumn when surface activity is greatest. In one study, the autumn diet of red-backed morphs was more diverse and of higher quality, and found to be dominated by mites, springtails, and ants, whereas the most important prey for lead-backed morphs were ants, mites, and isopods.
Behavior.
Antipredator behavior of "P. cinereus" was found to differ between the two color phases; the lead-backed phase has a tendency to run away from predators, whereas the red-backed phase often stays immobile and possibly exhibits aposematic coloration. Stress levels of each color phase were estimated by determining the ratio of neutrophil to lymphocyte cells in the blood, and the results suggest stress levels are higher in the lead-backed phase than in the red-backed phase. This may be a consequence of a higher predation risk experienced in the wild by the lead-backed phase, and may also mean lead-phase salamanders could be more vulnerable in captivity settings.
"Plethodon cinereus", like many plethodon species, exhibit homing behavior, with homing of females to their nests, as well as non-attending females and males to a home range. This allows for essential contact between a female and her eggs in order to ensure their survival, as well as for non-attending females and males to explore beyond the home range when under predation pressures, or searching for food or cover, and return to their home range if a more favorable microhabitat is not found.
Reproduction and biomass.
Males and females of "P. cinereus" typically establish separate feeding and/or mating territories underneath rocks and logs. However, some red-backed salamanders are thought to engage in social monogamy, and may maintain co-defended territories throughout their active periods. Breeding occurs in June and July. Females produce from four to 17 eggs in a year. The eggs hatch in 6 to 8 weeks. Not much is known about the dispersal of neonates, although neonates and juveniles are thought to be philopatric.The species largely consumes invertebrates and other detritus dwellers. In some areas with good habitat, these salamanders are so numerous, their population densities may surpass 1,000 individuals per acre (2,471 individuals per hectare). Pokagon State Park in Indiana is one such place.
As in many "Plethodon" species, female red-backed salamanders have the ability to store sperm as spermatophore, and have been evidenced in doing so up to eight months prior to the oviposition period in June and July. Sperm or spermatophores are not retained following the oviposition period.


Epicrionops columbianus

Epicrionops columbianus, the El Tambo caecilian, is a species of caecilian in the family Rhinatrematidae endemic to Colombia. It is known from the western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental in Cauca and Chocó Departments.
The species' natural habitats are montane forests where it occurs underground or among fallen leaves. Specific threats to it are unknown.


Odorrana anlungensis

Odorrana anlungensis is a species of frog in the family Ranidae that is endemic to China: it is only known from its type locality, Mount Longtou in Anlong County, Guizhou. Its common name is Lungtou frog or Anlung odorous frog. Little is known about this species found in shaded hill streams 2-3m wide in forested areas.
Male "Odorrana anlungensis" grow to a snout–vent length of and females to . Tadpoles are up to in length.


Sardinella razorbelly minnow

The Sardinella razorbelly minnow ("Salmostoma sardinella") is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus "Salmostoma". It occurs in the lower reaches of rivers in India, Bangladesh and Myanmar.


Yellow-bellied bush warbler

The yellow-bellied bush warbler ("Horornis acanthizoides"), also known as the yellowish-bellied bush warbler, is a species of bush warbler (family Sylviidae). It was formerly included in the "Old World warbler" assemblage.
It is found on mainland China and Taiwan. Hume's bush warbler was formerly considered conspecific.


Polkadot poison frog

The polkadot poison frog ("Oophaga arborea") is a species of frogs in the family Dendrobatidae endemic to Panama, where it is known as rana venenosa in Spanish. Its natural habitats are humid lowland and montane forests. It is threatened by habitat loss and is listed by the IUCN as being "critically endangered".
Description.
The snout-to-vent length of the polkadot poison frog is . The hind limbs are short and the forelimbs relatively long with large hands. The fingers are unwebbed, the second one being longer than the first, and all but the first finger have flat discs of thickened skin. This frog has brown eyes and no teeth in its upper jaw. Males have a small vocal sac on the throat, and when not in use, this hangs in folds. The skin on the belly and inside the thighs is coarsely wrinkled. This frog is black or some shade of brown with roundish yellow spots, which often have a raised surface. The call made by the male is similar to that of closely related species but can be distinguished by its pitch, duration and the length of time between successive calls.
Biology.
The polkadot poison frog is arboreal in its habits, living among the mosses and epiphytic plants growing on trees in the dense forests of western Panama at altitudes of up to above sea level. The male typically chooses the leaf of a bromeliad plant on which to call to attract a mate. If receptive, the female joins him in a courtship ritual after which a small batch of about four to eight eggs is laid on the leaf and fertilised by the male. The female remains with the eggs for a short time after which the male covers them with his body. The newly hatched tadpoles are carried to water bodies, such as pools forming in the rosettes of bromeliads, where they develop.
Status.
The total extent of occurrence of the polkadot poison frog is less than , and even within this range, there are a number of separate subpopulations. The population trend of this frog is unknown but the forests in which it lives are being affected by logging. Another factor limiting its numbers may be collection for the pet trade, and it may be susceptible to the disease chytridiomycosis. However, part of its range is within the bounds of the Parque Internacional La Amistad and the Bosque Protector Palo Seco. Taking these various factors into account, the IUCN has listed the conservation status of this species as "critically endangered".


Oxynoemacheilus parvinae

 Oxynoemacheilus parvinae is a species of stone loach which is endemic to the drainage of the Sirvan River, a tributary of the Tigris in Kermanshah Province of Iran where it prefers reasonable fast flowing, relatively clear water of a gravel substrate. it has not been evaluated for The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species but it may be threatened by drought, water abstraction and pollution. The specific name honours Parvin Etesami, a famous Iranian poet of the 20th-century.


Protobothrops jerdonii xanthomelas

Protobothrops jerdonii xanthomelas, commonly known as the red spotted pitviper, is a venomous pitviper subspecies endemic to China.
Description.
Adults may attain a total length of , which includes a tail long.
The scalation includes 21-23 rows of dorsal scales at midbody, 176-188 ventral scales, 54-67 subcaudal scales, and 7-8 supralabial scales.
Geographic range.
Found in Central and southern China, in the provinces of Henan, Shaanxi, Gansu, Sichuan, Guizhou, Hubei, and Guangxi. The type locality given is "Ichang" (=Yichang Shi, Hubei, China).


Smooth snake

The smooth snake ("Coronella austriaca") is a species of non-venomous snake in the family Colubridae. The species is found in northern and central Europe, but also as far east as northern Iran. The Reptile Database recognizes two subspecies as being valid, including the nominotypical subspecies described here.
Description.
Both sexes of "C. austriaca" grow to an average total length (including tail) of about to . Two specimens measuring have been recorded in Sweden, as well as one in Russia that was .
The head has a rostral scale that is at least as deep as it is wide, creating a triangular indentation between the internasal scales (rarely separating them). The top of the head is covered with nine large plates. The nasal scale is often divided. There is one (rarely two) preoculars and two postoculars. The temporals number 2+2 or 2+3 (rarely 1+2) . There are seven (rarely eight) upper labials, of which the third and fourth or fourth and fifth border the eye.
In the middle part of the body there are 19 (rarely 17 or 21) rows of dorsal scales. In contrast with many other snakes found in the region, these scales are flat (not keeled). This gives the snake a smooth texture to the touch, from which it gets its common name. The ventral scales number 150-164 in males and 162–200 in females. The anal scale is divided (rarely single) and the subcaudal scales are paired. Males have 54–70 subcaudal scales and females 40–76.
The colour pattern consists of a brown, grey or reddish ground colour with two rows of small, rather indistinct dark spots running down the back towards the tail. In some cases, each pair of spots may be united toward the neck area, forming a series of cross-bars over the back. There is also a very indistinct series of dark spots running along each of the flanks. These four series of spots along the body overlay four parallel, rather shadowy stripes that also run down the back and flanks.
On the top of the head is a dark marking which is often in the shape of a crown, giving rise to the generic name "Coronella" (which means coronet). A relatively thick dark stripe extends from each nostril, through the eye, and along the side of the head to a little beyond the neck. The upper labials are whitish, greyish-white or light brown, sometimes with darker spots. The tongue is reddish brown or dark red.
Biology.
The smooth snake feeds on smaller animals, especially other reptiles. It subdues larger prey by constriction, although unlike true constrictors it does not kill by this method. Smooth snakes are ovoviviparous. The juveniles hatch out of eggs internally and are born live.
In Britain it is restricted to heathland habitats.
Geographic range.
"Coronella austriaca" is found from the south of England through France and the Low Countries to northern Spain and Portugal, Germany, Norway and Sweden (as far north as latitude 63°), Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Switzerland, Austria, Italy and Sicily (but not in Corsica or Sardinia), the western Balkans and Greece, and European Russia as far north as latitude 57°. In Asia, it is found from Turkey to Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia and northern Iran. It is oddly absent in Denmark despite the species being found just south of the German border as well as southern Sweden. The species is only known from Denmark from 6 specimens, all found between 1870 and 1914.
In Finland, the species is found only on the Åland Islands, and it is not common there.


Liolaemus xanthoviridis

Liolaemus xanthoviridis is a species of lizard in the family Liolaemidae. It is endemic to Argentina.


Elachista toveella

Elachista toveella is a moth of the family Elachistidae that is endemic to Spain.


Newfoundland crossbill

The Newfoundland red crossbill is a member of the crossbill genus which has its crossed bill adapted for prying open the tightly closed spruce or pine cones in order to extract the seeds found abundantly on the island of Newfoundland.
It was thought to be fully endemic to Newfoundland, but breeding has been found on Anticosti island in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, administratively part of Quebec.
It is known locally as the "spruce mope". About 5.5 to 6.5 inches in length, wing about 3.75 inches and its bill .70 inches. The adult male is a dull red which is somewhat brighter on the rump, with wings and tail black in color. The adult female is an olive-gray with yellow on the rump and often on the under parts, the wings and tail a dark grayish. Juveniles vary in color from olive-green to yellow to reddish.
They nest in conifers building their nest from twigs or strips of bark and lining it with mosses, hair or fur. They lay 4 to 5 eggs which are greenish-blue, spotted with brown and lavender.
The local name refers to their slow movements while feeding in the spruce tops. They can be seen in mixed company with the slightly larger white-winged crossbill.
The taxonomy of the bird has been questioned.


Pyrenaearia parva

Pyrenaearia parva is a species of small air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Hygromiidae, the hairy snails and their allies. This species is endemic to Spain.


Nidirana hainanensis

Nidirana hainanensis is a species of frog in the family Ranidae. It is endemic to Hainan Island, China. Described in 2007, it is only known from its type locality, Mount Diaoluo in Lingshui Li Autonomous County. It most closely resembles "Nidirana adenopleura", a more widespread frog from southern and south-eastern China and Taiwan.


Nematogenys inermis

Nematogenys inermis is a species of mountain catfish, the only extant species in the family Nematogenyiidae. This species is endemic to Chile where it is found in fresh waters in central Chile. This species grows to a length of NG.
The body is naked (without scales) and elongated. The three pairs of barbels are the chin (mental) barbels, maxillary barbels, and nasal barbels. No adipose fin is present. The opercle lacks spines.
The Nematogenyidae and Trichomycteridae are sister groups that together form a clade sister to the families Callichthyidae, Scoloplacidae, Astroblepidae, and Loricariidae.
One extinct species, "Nematogenys cuivi", has been described in this genus.


Alopoglossus romaleos

Alopoglossus romaleos is a species of lizard in the family Alopoglossidae. It is endemic to Colombia.


Common snapping turtle

The common snapping turtle ("Chelydra serpentina") is a species of large freshwater turtle in the family Chelydridae. Its natural range extends from southeastern Canada, southwest to the edge of the Rocky Mountains, as far east as Nova Scotia and Florida. The three species of "Chelydra" and the larger alligator snapping turtles (genus "Macrochelys") are the only extant chelydrids, a family now restricted to the Americas. The common snapping turtle, as its name implies, is the most widespread.
The common snapping turtle is noted for its combative disposition when out of the water with its powerful beak-like jaws, and highly mobile head and neck (hence the specific epithet "serpentina", meaning "snake-like"). In water, it is likely to flee and hide underwater in sediment. The common snapping turtle has a life-history strategy characterized by high and variable mortality of embryos and hatchlings, delayed sexual maturity, extended adult longevity, and iteroparity (repeated reproductive events) with low reproductive success per reproductive event.
Females, and presumably also males, in more northern populations mature later (at 15–20 years) and at a larger size than in more southern populations (about 12 years). Lifespan in the wild is poorly known, but long-term mark-recapture data from Algonquin Park in Ontario, Canada, suggest a maximum age over 100 years.
Anatomy and morphology.
"C. serpentina" has a rugged, muscular build with a ridged carapace (upper shell), although ridges tend to be more pronounced in younger individuals. The carapace length in adulthood may be nearly , though is more common. "C. serpentina" usually weighs . Per one study, breeding common snapping turtles were found to average in carapace length, in plastron length and weigh about .
Males are larger than females, with almost all weighing in excess of being male and quite old, as the species continues to grow throughout life. Any specimen above the aforementioned weights is exceptional, but the heaviest wild specimen caught reportedly weighed . Snapping turtles kept in captivity can be quite overweight due to overfeeding and have weighed as much as . In the northern part of its range, the common snapping turtle is often the heaviest native freshwater turtle.
Ecology and life history.
Common habitats are shallow ponds or streams. Some may inhabit brackish environments, such as estuaries. Common snapping turtles sometimes bask—though rarely observed—by floating on the surface with only their carapaces exposed, though in the northern parts of their range, they also readily bask on fallen logs in early spring. In shallow waters, common snapping turtles may lie beneath a muddy bottom with only their heads exposed, stretching their long necks to the surface for an occasional breath. Their nostrils are positioned on the very tip of the snout, effectively functioning as snorkels.
Snapping turtles consume both plant and animal matter, and are important aquatic scavengers, but they are also active hunters that prey on anything they can swallow, including many invertebrates, fish, frogs, reptiles (including snakes and smaller turtles), unwary birds, and small mammals. In some areas adult snapping turtles can be incidentally detrimental to breeding waterfowl, as they will occasionally take ducklings and goslings, but their effect on such prey is frequently exaggerated.
Common snapping turtles have few predators when older, but eggs are subject to predation by crows, American mink, skunks, foxes, and raccoons. As hatchlings and juveniles, most of the same predators will attack them as well as herons (mostly great blue herons), bitterns, hawks, owls, fishers, American bullfrogs, large fish, and snakes. There are records during winter in Canada of hibernating adult common snapping turtles being ambushed and preyed on by northern river otters. Other natural predators which have reportedly preyed on adults include coyotes, American black bears, American alligators and their larger cousins, alligator snapping turtles. Large, old male snapping turtles have very few natural threats due to their formidable size and defenses, and tend to have a very low annual mortality rate.
These turtles travel extensively over land to reach new habitats or to lay eggs. Pollution, habitat destruction, food scarcity, overcrowding, and other factors drive snappers to move; it is quite common to find them traveling far from the nearest water source. Experimental data supports the idea that snapping turtles can sense the Earth's magnetic field, which could also be used for such movements (together with a variety of other possible orientation cues).
This species mates from April through November, with their peak laying season in June and July. The female can hold sperm for several seasons, using it as necessary. Females travel over land to find sandy soil in which to lay their eggs, often some distance from the water. After digging a hole, the female typically deposits 25 to 80 eggs each year, guiding them into the nest with her hind feet and covering them with sand for incubation and protection.
Incubation time is temperature-dependent, ranging from 9 to 18 weeks. In cooler climates, hatchlings overwinter in the nest. The common snapping turtle is remarkably cold-tolerant; radiotelemetry studies have shown some individuals do not hibernate, but remain active under the ice during the winter.
Hibernating snapping turtles do not breathe for, in the northern part of their range, more than six months since ice covers their hibernating site. These turtles can get oxygen by pushing their head out of the mud and allowing gas exchange to take place through the membranes of their mouth and throat. This is known as extrapulmonary respiration.
If they cannot get enough oxygen through this method they start to utilize anaerobic pathways, burning sugars and fats without the use of oxygen. The metabolic by-products from this process are acidic and create very undesirable side effects by spring, which are known as oxygen debt. Although designated as "least concern" on the IUCN redlist, the species has been designated in the Canadian part of its range as "Special Concern" due to its life history being sensitive to disruption by anthropogenic activity.
Systematics and taxonomy.
Currently, no subspecies of the common snapping turtle are recognized. The former Florida subspecies "osceola" is currently considered a synonym of "serpentina", while the other former subspecies "Chelydra rossignonii" and "Chelydra acutirostris" are both recognized as full species.
Behavior.
In their environment, they are at the top of the food chain, causing them to feel less fear or aggression in some cases. When they encounter a species unfamiliar to them such as humans, in rare instances, they will become curious and survey the situation and even more rarely may bump their nose on a leg of the person standing in the water. Although snapping turtles have fierce dispositions, when they are encountered in the water or a swimmer approaches, they will slip quietly away from any disturbance or may seek shelter under mud or grass nearby.
Relationship with humans.
As food.
The common snapping turtle is a traditional ingredient in turtle soup; consumption in large quantities, however, can become a health concern due to potential concentration of toxic environmental pollutants in the turtle's flesh.
Captivity.
The common snapping turtle is not an ideal pet. Its neck is very flexible, and a wild turtle can bite its handler even if picked up by the sides of its shell. The claws are about as sharp as those of dogs, but cannot be trimmed as can dog claws. Despite this, a snapping turtle cannot use its claws for either attacking (its legs have no speed or strength in "swiping" motions) or eating (no opposable thumbs), but only as aids for digging and gripping. Veterinary care is best left to a reptile specialist. A wild common snapping turtle will make a hissing sound when it is threatened or encountered, but they prefer not to invoke confrontations.
It is a common misconception that common snapping turtles may be safely picked up by the tail with no harm to the animal; in fact, this has a high chance of injuring the turtle, especially the tail itself and the vertebral column. Lifting the turtle with the hands is difficult and dangerous. Snappers can stretch their necks back across their own carapace and to their hind feet on either side to bite. When they feel stressed, they release a musky odor from behind their legs.
It may be tempting to rescue a snapping turtle found on a road by getting it to bite a stick and then dragging it out of immediate danger. This action can, however, severely scrape the legs and underside of the turtle and lead to deadly infections in the wounds. The safest way to pick up a common snapping turtle is by grasping the carapace above the back legs. There is a large gap above the back legs that allows for easy grasping of the carapace and keeps hands safe from both the beak and claws of the turtle. It can also be picked up with a shovel, from the back, making sure the shovel is square across the bottom of the shell. The easiest way, though, is with a blanket or tarp, picking up the corners with the turtle in the middle.
Snapping turtles are raised on some turtle farms in China.
In politics.
The common snapping turtle was the central feature of a famous American political cartoon. Published in 1808 in protest at the Jeffersonian Embargo Act of 1807, the cartoon depicted a snapping turtle, jaws locked fiercely to an American trader who was attempting to carry a barrel of goods onto a British ship. The trader was seen whimsically uttering the words "Oh! this cursed Ograbme" ("embargo" spelled backwards, and also "O, grab me" as the turtle is doing). This piece is widely considered a pioneering work within the genre of the modern political cartoon.
In 2006, the common snapping turtle was declared the state reptile of New York by vote of the New York Legislature after being chosen by the state's public elementary school children.
Reputation.
While it is widely rumored that common snapping turtles can bite off human fingers or toes, and their powerful jaws are more than capable of doing so, no proven cases have ever been presented for this species, as they use their overall size and strength to deter would-be predators. Common snapping turtles are "quite docile" animals underwater that prefer to avoid confrontations rather than provoke them.
In 2002, a study done in the "Journal of Evolutionary Biology" found that the common snapping turtle ("Chelydra serpentina") registered between 208 and 226 Newtons of force when it came to jaw strength. In comparison, the average bite force of a human (molars area) is between 300 and 700 Newtons. Another non-closely related species known as the alligator snapping turtle has been known to bite off fingers, and at least three documented cases are known.
Invasive species.
In recent years in Italy, large mature adult "C. serpentina" turtles have been taken from bodies of water throughout the country. They were most probably introduced by the release of unwanted pets. In March 2011, an individual weighing was captured in a canal near Rome; another individual was captured near Rome in September 2012.
In Japan, the species was introduced as an exotic pet in the 1960s; it has been recorded as the source of serious bite injuries. In 2004 and 2005, some 1,000 individuals were found in Chiba Prefecture, making up the majority of individuals believed to have been introduced.
Conservation.
The species is currently classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, but has declined sufficiently due to pressure from collection for the pet trade and habitat degradation that Canada and several U.S. states have enacted or are proposing stricter conservation measures. In Canada, it is listed as "Special Concern" in the Species at Risk Act in 2011 and is a target species for projects that include surveys, identification of major habitats, investigation and mitigation of threats, and education of the public including landowners. Involved bodies include governmental departments, universities, museums, and citizen science projects.
Further reading.
[[Category:Chelydra]]
[[Category:Turtles of North America]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Great Lakes region (North America)]]
[[Category:Reptiles of the United States|Turtle, Common Snapping]]
[[Category:Reptiles of Ontario]]
[[Category:Reptiles described in 1758]]
[[Category:Symbols of New York (state)]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]