Fauna of Estonia

Estonia is a small, heavily forested country situated on the Baltic Sea. It is a part of the Euro-Siberian region of terrestrial Palearctic realm, and the Temperate Northern Atlantic marine ecoregion.
Phytogeographically, Estonia is shared between the Central European and Eastern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Estonia belongs to the ecoregion of Sarmatic mixed forests.
Estonia's sparse population and large areas of forest have allowed stocks of European lynx, wild boar, brown bears, and moose to survive, among other animals. Estonia is thought to have a wolf population of around 200, which is considered slightly above the optimum range of 100 to 200. Estonian birdlife is characterized by rare seabirds like the Steller's eider ("Polysticta stelleri"), lesser white-fronted goose ("Anser erythropus") and black-tailed godwit ("Limosa limosa"), wetland birds like the great snipe ("Gallinago media"), dry open country birds like the corn crake ("Crex crex") and European roller ("Coracias garrulus") and large birds of prey like the greater spotted eagle ("Aquila clanga"). Estonia has five national parks, including Lahemaa National Park on the northern coast as the largest. Soomaa National Park, between Pärnu and Viljandi, is known for its wetlands. Reserves such as Käina Bay Bird Reserve and Matsalu National Park (a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention) are also popular with locals and tourists and support a wide variety of birdlife.
Vertebrates.
The largest bear populations can be found in north east Estonia in Ida-Viru County and Lääne-Viru County. The numbers of bears, lynx and wolves suffered during the Soviet Occupation as the animals were persecuted heavily. After they were given protection the numbers of the larger carnivores peaked in the early 1990s but they have since fallen slightly from those highs due to increased hunting pressure. In 2008, Estonia was home to approximately 620 brown bears, 760 lynx, and 135 wolves. As of early 2010, large ungulates included 48,040 roe deer (down from 63,000 in 2009), 11,741 European elk, 2,831 red deer, and 22,642 wild boars.
Its birdlife includes golden eagles and white storks. It has around a dozen national parks and protected areas, including Lahemaa National Park, the country's largest park, on the northern coast. Soomaa National Park, near Pärnu, is known for its ancient wetlands. Reserves such as Käina Bay Bird Reserve and Matsalu Nature Reserve (a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention) are also popular with locals and tourists and support a wide variety of birdlife.
Invertebrates.
The following table gives an overview of species numbers of selected invertebrate groups.


Papurana kreffti

Papurana kreffti is a species of true frog, family Ranidae. It is native to New Ireland and Buka Island (Papua New Guinea) and the Solomon Islands. The specific name "kreffti" honours Gerard Krefft, a German adventurer who settled in Australia and became there to be regarded as the father of Australian herpetology. Common names San Cristoval frog and San Cristobal treefrog have been coined for it.
Description.
Males grow to in snout–vent length, but are generally closer to . Females grow to at least in snout–vent length. The snout is pointed. The tympanum is visible but moderate in size. The fingers are long and have oval or slightly pointed discs but no webbing. The toes are almost fully webbed and moderately sized, oval discs. The legs are relatively short. There is a conspicuous, cream-coloured labial stripe.
The male advertisement call sounds like a series of short squeaks and consists of 3–6 pulsed notes.
Habitat and conservation.
"Papurana kreffti" is a common species in many areas and found inhabiting small, slow-flowing streams in lowland rainforest; it has also been recorded from wet grassy areas in disturbed habitats.


Atretium yunnanensis

Atretium yunnanensis (common name Yunnan olive keelback) is a species of snake in the family Colubridae . It is found in the Lianghe County and Longchuan County of Yunnan China, typically in areas between 2,000 and 4,500 feet above sea level.


Pinus yunnanensis

Pinus yunnanensis, the Yunnan pine, is a species of conifer in the family Pinaceae. It is found in the Chinese provinces of Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, and Guangxi.


Leptolalax heteropus

Leptolalax heteropus (Malaysian Asian toad or variable litter frog) is a frog species in the family Megophryidae. It is found in the Malay Peninsula, both in Malaysia and southern Thailand. The type locality is Maxwell Hill in Taiping, Perak, Malaysia. Its natural habitats are tropical moist lowland forests, moist montane forests, and rivers. It is not considered threatened by the IUCN.
Male "Leptolalax heteropus" grow to snout-vent length of and females to . These frogs are usually encountered while perched on the leaves of small plants close the ground. The call of male "L. heteropus" is short and consists of a short series of 3–6 notes, the first note being longer in duration and higher in dominant frequency than subsequent ones. The call characteristics are among the features that separate this species from superficially similar "Leptolalax solus". Indeed, frogs reported from Thailand as "Leptolalax heteropus" might actually be the relatively recently (2006) described "L. solus".


Oxybelis fulgidus

Oxybelis fulgidus, commonly known as the green vine snake or the flatbread snake (not to be confused with green-colored species in the genus "Ahaetulla", which are also referred as "green vine snake"), is a species of long, slender, arboreal colubrid snake, which is endemic to Central America and northern South America.
Common names.
Common names used in South America for this species include "bejuca lora, bejuquilla verde, cipo, " and "cobra bicuda".
Geographic range.
It is found in Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela.
Description.
This snake is very slender, roughly thick, and may attain a total length of about . The tail is long and very delicate, but mostly used to hold on while reaching for prey. The head is aerodynamically shaped and very pointy, the mouth is very large and extends almost the whole length of the head. The tongue is long and green; when in use it is kept outside the mouth and moved up and down. this behavior is reflected in other species of vine snake and it is believed that they are using their tongues as sights the way a cat uses its whiskers, as they move very quickly through branches and brush.
It is bright green dorsally, and yellowish green ventrally and on the upper lip. There is a narrow yellowish-white stripe along each side of the belly and tail.
Snout very prominent, about three times as long as the diameter of the eye. No loreal, prefrontal contacting 2 or 3 upper labials. 9-10 upper labials, 4th, 5th, and 6th (or 5th, 6th, and 7th) entering the eye. Temporals very large, 1 + 2.
Dorsal scales weakly keeled, arranged in 17 rows at midbody. Ventrals 198-217; anal plate divided; subcaudals 139-165, also divided.
Catching prey.
The green vine snake stays high on trees and looks down to the ground. When a mouse, lizard or nest is found, the snake follows the prey a short distance and smells it carefully. If the snake is content with it, it bites into the head and lifts the prey from the ground. With this the snake prevents the prey from using its physical strength. The vine snake has two larger upper teeth at the back of its mouth; these teeth permit the toxic saliva to penetrate the wounds and to immobilize the prey. Then it is rapidly swallowed. Once the prey is completely in the snake's body, the vine snake searches for a resting place, usually in the highest point of a tree. The venom of "Oxybelis fulgidus" is fast acting on small animals, but has little or no effect on humans. Envenomation of human beings is rare as the rear fangs require the snake to grab and chew to get its venom in, something most people will not stand for. In the rare instance of human envenomation, slight tingling to temporary numbness at the site of the bite is reported. As with all venomous creatures, serious allergic reactions are possible so caution should still be taken when handling these snakes.
Behavior in captivity.
Vine snakes must be kept in large terrariums with a height of at least and a surface of . The behavior towards humans is neutral and the snake usually goes to the other end of the terrarium. Some adapt very well and even come closer. Unlike their Asian look-alikes, these snakes will readily take mice and some are even large enough to eat rats. This fact makes them a prized choice among reptile collectors. Captive life spans are estimated at 9–15 years.


Greenhouse frog

The greenhouse frog ("Eleutherodactylus planirostris") is a species of frog in the family Eleutherodactylidae, native to Cuba, the Bahamas, and the Cayman Islands, and it has been introduced to other areas, such as Florida, Hawaii, Guam, Hong Kong and Shenzhen.
Description.
The greenhouse frog is a very small species, ranging from in length. These frogs are usually drab or olive-brown in colour, and occur in two forms; one has two broad stripes running longitudinally down the back, and the other is mottled. The undersides of both are a paler colour than the back, and the eyes are red.
Distribution and habitat.
The greenhouse frog is native to Cuba and some other islands in the West Indies. It has been introduced to Hawaii and Florida, where it has become common. It has been sporadically found in southern Georgia, southern Alabama and eastern Louisiana. It is an introduced species in Jamaica , Guam and Shenzhen, China. It lives in moist leaf litter, often near human habitations, but is seldom seen because it is nocturnal. It sometimes emerges on warm, rainy days in summer, and in Florida, it has been found hibernating in March under the flaking bark of a wild tamarind ("Lysiloma") tree.
Diet.
The diet of the greenhouse frog consists of small invertebrates, such as ants, beetles, mites, spiders, and roaches.
Reproduction.
The greenhouse frog is unusual in that its eggs are not laid in water or in a frothy mass as is the case in some tree frogs. Instead, the eggs are enclosed in a thick membrane and laid singly in concealed, damp locations, such as beneath a log, buried in debris, or even under a flower pot. Clutch sizes vary between three and 26 eggs in Florida. They pass through their tadpole stage while still in the egg, and emerge as fully developed juvenile frogs about long with a short tail that soon gets reabsorbed. In warm conditions, hatching may occur on the 13th day of development. The tadpoles have an "egg tooth" on the end of their snouts to help them to emerge from the egg case. Afterwards, this is no longer of use, so is shed. The adult frog may provide some parental care by guarding the eggs, as frogs have been observed lurking in the vicinity of egg clumps.


Xenodon merremii

Xenodon merremii, also known commonly as Wagler's snake, is a species of snake in the subfamily Dipsadinae of the family Colubridae. The species is endemic to South America and is widespread in the eastern half of the continent.
Geographic range.
"X. merremii" occurs in Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and northern Argentina.
Etymology.
The specific name, "merremii", is in honor of German herpetologist Blasius Merrem.
Description.
Adults of "X. merremii" are usually or less in total length (including tail). Its color pattern is very variable. Some "red phase" specimens are a uniform reddish tan. Other specimens are pale brown dorsally, with broad dark-brown crossbands, which are edged with black, and are narrower or interrupted in the middle. The latter color pattern resembles that of the venomous snake "Bothrops alternatus".
Diet.
"X. merremii" preys on insects, frogs, toads, lizards, and sometimes snakes. Like other rear-fanged toad-eaters of the genera "Heterodon" and "Lystrophis", "X. merremii" uses its enlarged posterior maxillary teeth to puncture and deflate toads which have defensively puffed themselves up, thereby making them easier to swallow.
Defensive behavior.
When threatened, "X. merremii" raises the anterior part of its body, inflating and spreading its neck, similar to a cobra.
Reproduction.
"X. merremii" is oviparous.


Yellow-throated white-eye

The yellow-throated white-eye ("Zosterops metcalfii") is a species of bird in the family Zosteropidae. It is found in the Solomon Islands archipelago (Bougainville, Choiseul, Santa Isabel and Nggela Islands).


Dendrelaphis effrenis

Dendrelaphis effrenis is a species of arboreal snake endemic to Sri Lanka. It was considered synonym of "D. caudolineolatus" until revalidation in 2020. At the same time, "D. sinharajensis" was brought into synonymy of "D. effrenis". Proposed vernacular names for "D. sinharajensis" include Sinharaja tree snake, "Sinharaja haldanda" (Sinhala; සිංහරාජ හාල්දණ්ඩා), and "Sinharaja komberi muken" (Tamil).
Description.
Prominent black and white cross bars are present throughout the body. Black bars are paired and make the margins for the white bars. Parietal strip is present. Dorsal color bright red on nape and becomes fade to tail. There are 13 midbody scale rows, 174–175 ventral scales, and 129–139 subcaudal scales. Loreal scale is absent. The largest specimen measures in snout–vent length.
Distribution.
"Dendrelaphis effrenis" was described based on a single specimen from Colombo, perhaps from rainforest patches near the city. At the time of description, the former "D. sinharajensis" was restricted to higher canopies of Sinharaja rain forest and its vicinity lowland wet zone. "D. effrenis" has now also been recorded in the Sabaragamuwa Province. It is known from elevations between above sea level and might once have been widely distributed in lowland rainforests of Sri Lanka.
Ecology.
It is diurnal and predominantly arboreal, and hard to encounter as a canopy-dwelling snake.


Micropterix amsella

Micropterix amsella is a species of moth belonging to the family Micropterigidae that was described by Heath in 1975, and is endemic to Croatia.
The wingspan is .


Strongylognathus destefanii

Strongylognathus destefanii is a species of ant in the genus "Strongylognathus". It is endemic to Italy.


Band-backed wren

The band-backed wren ("Campylorhynchus zonatus") is a small songbird of the wren family.
The band-backed wren is a resident breeding species from south-central Gulf Coast Mexico to northwestern Ecuador. It occurs in five disjunct areas, the central region being in southern Central America, in Costa Rica and northern Panama. The next two regions are northern Colombia adjacent to Panama, and 800 km to the south in northwestern Ecuador.
Species description.
This large wren breeds in lowlands and foothills from sea level up to 1700 m altitude in thinned forest or open woodland, scrub, second growth and groves around houses. It mainly occurs on the Caribbean side of the Central American mountain ranges. Its large spherical nest has a wide side entrance and is constructed 2 – 30 m high in a tree or shrub, often hidden amidst bromeliads. The female alone incubates the three to five unmarked or lightly brown-spotted white eggs for about two weeks to hatching, and the young fledge in about the same length of time again. After breeding, families sleep together in dormitory nests like those used for breeding throughout the year.
The adult band-backed wren is 16.5 cm long and weighs 29 g. It has a brown-grey crown, black nape, and the rest of the upperparts and tail are heavily barred with black, tawny and white. The breast and throat are white, heavily spotted with black, and the belly is cinnamon. Young birds have duller upperparts and off-white to buff underparts.
This species has a short rasping "zek" call. The song is a mix of dry chatters, splutters and gurgles.
The band-backed wren forages actively in family groups of 4-12 birds. It eats mainly insects, spiders and other invertebrates.


Hellinsia mesoleucus

Hellinsia mesoleucus is a moth of the family Pterophoridae. It is known from New Guinea.


Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

Henderson Island (formerly also San Juan Bautista and Elizabeth Island) is an uninhabited island in the south Pacific Ocean. It is part of the Pitcairn Island Group, together with Pitcairn, Oeno and Ducie Islands.
Henderson is one of the last two raised coral atolls in the world whose ecosystems remain relatively unaffected by human contact. Ten of its 51 flowering plants, all four of its land birds and about a third of the identified insects and gastropods are endemic – a remarkable diversity given the island's size.
Measuring by , it has an area of and is located northeast of Pitcairn Island. It has poor soil and little fresh water, and is unsuitable for agriculture. There are three beaches on the northern end and the remaining coast comprises steep (mostly undercut) cliffs up to in height.
In 1902, Henderson was annexed to the Pitcairn Islands colony, which is now a South Pacific British Overseas Territory. In 1988, it was designated a World Heritage Site by the United Nations.
History.
The island was settled by Polynesians — possibly as early as 800 AD - but by the 1600s it had been abandoned. There is good evidence that the island was continuously occupied for a 600-year period sometime between those dates. The reasons for the inhabitants’ disappearance remain uncertain, but they may relate to an exhaustion of resources and to the disappearance around the same time of the Polynesians on Pitcairn Island, on whom the Hendersonians would have had to depend for many of the basics of life, especially for the stone needed to make tools. The Pitcairn Polynesians may in turn have disappeared because of the decline of nearby Mangareva; thus, Henderson was at the end of a chain of small, dependent colonies of Mangareva.
On 29 January 1606, Portuguese captain Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, leading a Spanish expedition in search of the fabled great south land (Terra Australis), was the first European to see the island, and named it "San Juan Bautista". More than 200 years later, on 17 January 1819, Captain Henderson of the British East India Company ship "Hercules" rediscovered the island. As a result, on 2 March 1819, Captain Henry King, in the "Elizabeth", landed on the island to find the king's colors already flying. His crew scratched the name of their ship into a tree, and for a while the island was known as both Elizabeth and Henderson Island. Thomas Raine, master of the ship "Surry" of London, named it Henderson's Island because it appeared to him, from a conversation he had with James Henderson at Valparaíso, to have been Henderson's discovery.
On 20 November 1820, a sperm whale rammed and sank the Nantucket whaleship "Essex" (a report of which inspired Herman Melville to write "Moby-Dick"), and the ship's 20 crewmen arrived at Henderson on 20 December in three small whaleboats. They found the island's only known drinkable water source – a brackish spring on the north shore, exposed at half tide – and ate fish, birds, eggs, crabs and peppergrass, but within a week they had largely exhausted the readily available food. Therefore, on 27 December, the three boats set sail for South America, leaving behind Thomas Chappel, Seth Weeks and William Wright, who chose to stay. They survived until their rescue several months later, on 9 April 1821.
In 1902, Henderson Island, along with Oeno and Ducie islands, was formally annexed to the British Empire by Captain G. F. Jones, who visited the islands in a cutter with a crew of Pitcairn Islanders. In August 1937, HMS "Leander", on a journey from Europe to New Zealand, carried out an aerial survey of Henderson, Oeno and Ducie, and, on each island, a British flag was planted and an inscription was nailed up proclaiming: "This island belongs to H.B.M. King George VI".
In 1957, a 27-year-old American, Robert Tomarchin, lived the life of a castaway on the island for approximately 2 months, accompanied by a pet chimpanzee, apparently as a publicity stunt, until people from Pitcairn rescued him in two longboats.
In the early 1980s, the American businessman Arthur "Smiley" Ratliff expressed interest in establishing a mansion for himself on the island, with an airstrip. The Pitcairn Island Council approved his plans but, after environmentalists lobbied to protect the natural ecology and environment of the island, the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office overrode the decision and vetoed the proposed development. Henderson Island was listed as a World Heritage Site in 1988.
In 2019, a group of scientists, journalists, film makers and artists took part in an expedition to Henderson Island to investigate plastic pollution and marine litter on the island. Five members of the expedition became stranded on the island when their inflatable craft capsized.
Natural resources.
Since the introduction of aluminium-hulled long-boats in the 20th century, Pitcairners have made regular trips to Henderson to harvest the wood of "miro" and "tou" trees. Usually, they venture to Henderson once per year, but they may make up to three trips if the weather is favourable. Pitcairners carve the wood into curios for tourists, from which they derive much of their income.
Geography.
Henderson Island is a raised coral atoll that, with Pitcairn, Ducie and Oeno islands, forms the Pitcairn Island Group. The nearest major landmass is the continent of South America, more than away. This coral limestone island sits atop a conical (presumed volcanic) mound, rising from a depth of roughly . Its surface is mostly reef-rubble and dissected limestone – an extremely rugged mixture of steep, jagged pinnacles and shallow sinkholes – and, except for the north end, the island is encircled by steep limestone cliffs up to high.
There are three main beaches, on the northwest, north, and northeast shores, and the north and northwest beaches are fringed by reefs. The depression at the island's center is thought to be a raised lagoon. There is only one known potable water source, a brackish spring on the north shore exposed at half tide, rising from a crevice in flat rock, large surfaces of which compose the face of the beach. The surrounding ocean tidal range is about one meter at spring tide.
Flora.
Apart from five species bordering the beaches, including coconut palms, the vegetation is undisturbed. Henderson Island is covered by 5–10 m tall tangled scrub forest, more thinly covered in the central depression. It has 51 native species of flowering plants, ten of which are endemic to the island. Dominant tree species include coconut palms, "Pandanus tectorius"," Thespesia populnea" (miro), "Heliotropium foertherianum", "Cordia subcordata" (tou), "Guettarda speciosa", "Pisonia grandis", "Geniostoma hendersonense", "Nesoluma st.-johnianum", "Hernandia stokesii", "Myrsine hosakae", and "Celtis sp."
Fauna.
Birds.
The island is home to four extant endemic land bird species – the Henderson fruit dove, Henderson lorikeet, Henderson reed warbler and the flightless Henderson crake. Three species of the family Columbidae – the Henderson ground dove, the Henderson imperial pigeon and the Henderson archaic pigeon – as well as a species of Polynesian sandpiper, were formerly endemic to the island, but became extinct when the Polynesians arrived around 1000 CE. Of the fifteen non-endemic seabird species found, nine or more are believed to breed on the island. Breeding colonies of the globally endangered Henderson petrel formerly existed on Ducie but were wiped out by invasive rats by 1922. It is believed to now nest uniquely on Henderson island.
Bones associated with prehistoric Polynesian settlement sites dating to somewhere between 500 and 800 years ago include those of the Polynesian storm petrel, Marquesan imperial pigeon, and Polynesian or Pacific imperial pigeon which are no longer found on the island, and two others – Christmas shearwater and red-footed booby – that still visit but no longer nest. It is hypothesized that the Polynesian settlers may have driven these bird species, along with six terrestrial snail species, to local extinction, and this loss of a ready and regular food supply may have contributed to the Polynesians' subsequent disappearance. The island has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area for its endemic landbirds and breeding seabirds.
Other animals.
The invertebrate species are largely unknown but a third of the island's known non-marine gastropods and insects are endemic. There are no native mammals but the Pacific rat, introduced by Polynesians 800 years ago, abounds. A skink ("Emoia cyanura") and the green sea turtle have been identified, and an unidentified gecko has been reported. There are also crabs.
Biological risk.
Land bird populations appear to be relatively stable but there is a high risk of introduction to the island of predators, disease vectors, and diseases by unauthorized landings of yachts. Introduction of the Eurasian black rat or the domestic cat would be likely to cause almost immediate extinction of the ground-dwelling Henderson crake and possibly other species. The endemic birds may have no immunity to the fatal avian pox which is transmitted by biting flies such as hippoboscidae.
Between July and November 2011 a partnership of the Pitcairn Islands Government and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds implemented a poison baiting programme aimed at eradicating the Pacific rat. Mortality was massive but of the 50,000 to 100,000 population, 60 to 80 individuals survived and the population has now fully recovered.
Plastic debris.
Research published in April 2017 looked at debris on several beaches, and reported "the highest density of plastic rubbish anywhere in the world" as a result of the South Pacific Gyre. The beaches contain an estimated 37.7 million items of debris together weighing 17.6 tonnes. In a study transect on North Beach, each day 17 to 268 new items washed up on a 10-meter section. The study noted that purple hermit crabs ("Coenobita spinosus") make their homes in plastic containers washed up on beaches, and the debris may reduce shoreline gastropod diversity, may contribute to a reduction in the number of sea turtle laying attempts and may increase the risk of entanglement for coastal-nesting seabirds.
In June 2019, an expedition organised by the UK Government attempted to remove some of the plastic debris from the island's East beach. The team collected six tonnes of rubbish, but weather conditions hampered efforts to take the rubbish off the island. A further expedition, planned for April 2020, was delayed because of the COVID-19 pandemic.


Rio Beni titi

Rio Beni titi ("Plecturocebus modestus") is a species of titi, a type of New World monkey, endemic to Bolivia.


Niphargus hadzii

Niphargus hadzii is a species of crustacean in family Niphargidae. It is endemic to Slovenia, and is named after Slovene zoologist Jovan Hadži.


Mistletoe tyrannulet

The mistletoe tyrannulet ("Zimmerius parvus") is a very small bird, a passerine in family Tyrannidae, the tyrant flycatchers.
Taxonomy.
The mistletoe tyrannulet was described in 1862 by the American amateur ornithologist George Newbold Lawrence under the binomial name "Tyranniscus parvus". It was formerly considered to be conspecific with the Guatemalan tyrannulet ("Zimmerius vilissimus"), but the species were split based on a molecular phylogenetic study published in 2013.
Description.
The mistletoe tyrannulet is a small bird, 11 - 12 cm in length as an adult. Adults have a slaty cap, a bright white supercilium ("eyebrow"), an olive-green back and conspicuous yellow edging along the wing.
Distribution & habitat.
Appearance.
The mistletoe tyrannulet ranges from Guatemala and Honduras south to the extremity of northwestern Colombia. It can be found in humid evergreen forest and edge, cultivation and semi-open areas with large trees. It is a fairly common to common bird across its range.
Vocalizations.
This species is a very frequent caller, incessantly giving a call that has been rendered variously as "peeyaik", "pee-peeu" or "pee-yuip" and sounds similar to that of the thick-billed euphonia ("Euphonia laniirostris"), another mistletoe-loving species.
Behaviour.
Nesting.
The mistletoe tyrannulet's nest is a globular mass of rootlets, mosses and other plant matter, hidden in a tangle or growth or in an epiphyte. The clutch is two whitish eggs, speckled rusty.
Feeding.
The mistletoe tyrannulet is an active forager, moving quickly about with its tail cocked as it searches for prey, mainly arthropods, amidst the foliage. It can be found as a member of a mixed-species feeding flock. The bird also takes fruit, preferentially that of mistletoes (order Santalales).


Himalayan cutia

The Himalayan cutia ("Cutia nipalensis") is a bird species in the family Leiothrichidae. Its scientific name ultimately means "the "khutya" from Nepal", as "Cutia" is derived from the Nepali name for these birds, and "nipalensis" is Latin for "from Nepal".
This species inhabits the Himalayan region, from India to northern Thailand. A subspecies also occurs in Peninsular Malaysia. Previously the genus "Cutia" was monotypic, but the Vietnamese cutia, for long lumped with the Himalayan birds as subspecies, has been recently raised to full species status as "C. legalleni".
Its natural habitat are tropical to subtropical humid montane forests. It is not a bird of the high mountains however, rather inhabiting broadleaf forest – e.g. of oaks ("Quercus") – of the foothills upwards of 1,500 m ASL or so, but rarely if ever ascending above 2,500 m ASL.
The Himalayan cutia is not considered threatened by the IUCN, retaining its pre-split status as a Species of Least Concern; in Bhutan for example it is a fairly frequently seen resident.


Xenocretosuchus

Xenocretosuchus is an extinct genus of tritylodont therapsids from the Aptian (Early Cretaceous) Ilek Formation of Siberia, in the Russian Federation. The type species, "X. sibiricus", is known only from dental elements, as is "X. kolossovi", described from the Batylykh Formation in 2008. Both species may be part of the genus "Stereognathus".
Alongside "Montirictus", it is the latest known non-mammalian synapsid (excepting the perhaps also not-mammalian haramiyidan "Avashishta"), extending their range to the Early Cretaceous.


Banana bat

The banana bat ("Musonycteris harrisoni") is an endangered species of bat in the family Phyllostomidae. It is also commonly known as the trumpet-nosed bat or the Colima long-nosed bat.
Description.
"M. harrisoni" is a medium-sized bat ( 12.6g males, 10.9g females) with an extremely long rostrum, small rounded ears, and a short tail. Due to the size of the rostrum this bat also has a long skull. The rostrum makes up approximately half the length of the skull. The common coloring of this bat is grayish brown. The base of each individual hair is white with a brown tip.
Distribution and habitat.
This species was first discovered in a banana grove. (Gardner, 1977) "Musonycteris harrisoni" is endemic to Mexico. The main distribution within Mexico is in the states of Colima, Michoacán, and Guerrero. This bat is one of the phyllostomid bats with the smallest range, covering only approximately 20,000 km2. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry shrubland. It is threatened by habitat loss. The maximum recorded altitude for the species is over 1,700 m.
Phylogeny.
"Musonycteris harrisoni" is monotypic within the genus Musonycteris.
This bat is also a neotropical nectar-feeding bat (Phyllostomidae: Glossophaginae). Neotropical nectar-feeding bats comprise approximately 40 species that differ widely in their dependence on a diet of nectar.
"M. harrisoni" can be grouped into two clades. These clades are divided by region. There are individuals from the northern or southern portion of the species' range. These clades have a 41% genetic variance. The northern clade is restricted by the Sierra Madre mountain range along the Pacific coast of Mexico.
Diet.
Banana bats are nectarivores. This bat consumes both forest and cultivated plant species in its diet. The main plant diet of the banana bat consists of "Cleome, Pseudobombax, Crataeva, Agave, Helicteres", and "Pachycereus pecten-aboriginum -" however they have been seen visiting other types of plants as well. Even with the long rostrum that "Musonycteris harrisoni" has they have no tight relationships with long-tubed flowers that usually require a long rostrum. The pollen collected on the hair of "M. harrisoni" when feeding is usually eaten as one of the only reliable nitrogen sources for the bat. Many other nectarivores shift their main diet from nectar to fruits or insects for part of the year however "M. harrisoni" is unable to do this due to their long jaws. (Gardner 1977) Their jaw size restricts them to a liquid food source for leverage reasons.
Based on 84 pollen findings, "M. harrisoni" visited at least 14 pollen-producing plant species during an annual cycle. Additionally, these bats were using the cultivated bananas ("Musa") that did not produce any pollen.
Behavior.
In one study, eight lactating females were caught in the dry season between mid-March and mid-April. Females caught between July and September showed no signs of advanced pregnancy or lactation, so "M. harrisoni" seems to reproduce during the dry season and only once a year. Recaptures of study animals were always less than 1 km apart; most were within 100 m of the initial capture.
In spite of an obviously variable floral resource environment, "M. harrisoni" was a year-round resident in the study area, which might be also related to its body size. Migrations following regional nectar availability (Fleming et al. 1993) are known so far only from larger glossophagine species such as "Leptonycteris, Choeronycteris mexicana", and to a lesser extent, "Anoura geoffroyi"
Physiology.
Since "Musonycteris harrisoni" feeds on nectar it has developed some special adaptations. One example of this is that the scales on their hairs spread out at an angle to the main shaft. This is unique because the hairs of most bats are relatively smooth. These scales allow for a heavier coat of pollen. The collected pollen is useful as a source of nitrogen, however it is also used to pollinate plants. "M. harrisoni" serves as a pollinator for "C. grandiflora."
Another adaptation for nectar feeding is that these bats have a specialized hovering flight to feed on flowers. They also have a long tongue which can be up to two-thirds of their body length. This tongue length allows for maximum nectar extracting power. The tongue of one individual measured 76 mm from the ‘‘gape of the jaw to the outstretched tip’’.


Cuban dogfish

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The Cuban dogfish ("Squalus cubensis") is a dogfish, a member of the family Squalidae in the order Squaliformes.
Distribution and habitat.
It is found in the Western Atlantic from North Carolina to Florida, in the Gulf of Mexico, around Cuba, Hispaniola, southern Brazil, and Argentina. It inhabits continental shelves and uppermost slopes at depths from 60 to 380 m.
Description.
It is a slim, gray shark with black tips to its dorsal fins black and at the edges of its pectoral fins, its pelvic and caudal fins are white; It possess a spine at front edge of each of its two dorsal fans. Its length may reach 110 cm. It probably feeds on bottom fishes and invertebrates. The isopod parasites which commonly infest the mouth and gills of marine fish are unusually large in the Cuban dogfish. Its reproduction is ovoviviparous, with 10 pups in a litter. It is not generally used for food, but taken commercially for the oil and vitamins extracted from its liver.


Gillmeria vesta

Gillmeria vesta is a moth of the family Pterophoridae. It is found in the Russian Far East.


Abrothrix sanborni

Abrothrix sanborni, also known as Sanborn's grass mouse or Sanborn's akodont, is a species of rodent in the genus "Abrothrix" of family Cricetidae. It is found in southern Argentina and Chile, but may not be distinct from "A. longipilis".


Mirificarma flavonigrella

Mirificarma flavonigrella is a moth of the family Gelechiidae. It is found in Algeria.
The wingspan is about 6 mm for males. The head is cream. The forewings are mottled light brown and cream, but darker in the apical fifth. There is a faint yellowish tinge scattered on the forewing. Adults are on wing in May.


Gerrhopilus ceylonicus

Gerrhopilus ceylonicus, also known as the Sri Lanka worm snake, is a species of snake in the family Gerrhopilidae. It is endemic to Sri Lanka.


Mystiornis

Mystiornis is an extinct genus of bird which existed in what is now western Siberia, Russia during the early Cretaceous period (Barremian/Aptian age). It is known from an isolated metatarsus found in the Shestakovo-1 locality of southern Western Siberia. It was named by Evgeny N. Kurochkin, Nikita V. Zelenkov, Alexandr O. Averianov and Sergei V. Leshchinskiy in 2011, and the type species is "Mystiornis cyrili". While most recent studies place it as an Enantiornithine, specifically an Avisaurid, the authors note that the placement in both groups is tentative and further material will be required to make a firm decision on placement due to the unusual features of the existing material.
Based on the strongly shortened metatarsal II and orientation of throchleae, "Mystiornis" had diving adaptations similar to that of "Gansus" and "Neogaeornis". It was the size of a thrush.


Balearic shearwater

The Balearic shearwater ("Puffinus mauretanicus") is a medium-sized shearwater in the seabird family "Procellariidae". "Puffinus" is a New Latin loanword based on the English "puffin" and its variants, that referred to the cured carcass of the fat nestling of the Manx shearwater, a former delicacy. The specific "mauretanicus" refers to Mauretania, an old name for an area of North Africa roughly corresponding to Morocco and Algeria.
Taxonomy.
The Balearic shearwater was long regarded a subspecies of the Manx shearwater. Following an initial split, it was held to be a subspecies of the "Mediterranean shearwater" for nearly ten more years, until it was resolved to be a distinct species, separate from the yelkouan shearwater. It is the last taxon of the "Puffinus" complex that was recognized as a separate entity.
It appears to belong to a group of Mediterranean and adjacent Atlantic species which includes the yelkouan shearwater and one to three prehistorically extinct taxa, Hole's and possibly also Olson's shearwater and an undescribed form of unclear distinctness from Menorca. Hole's shearwater may be the closest known relative of "P. mauretanicus". The two living Mediterranean lineages had probably separated before the end of the Pliocene (c. 2 mya), as indicated by molecular differences and the Ibizan fossil "Puffinus nestori" from the Late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene, which may have been the direct ancestor of the present species.
Description.
This bird is approximately long, with an wingspan. It has the typically "shearing" flight of the genus, dipping from side to side on stiff wings with few wingbeats, the wingtips almost touching the water. This bird looks like a flying cross, with its wing held at right angles to the body, and it changes from dark brown to dirty white as the dark upperparts and paler undersides are alternately exposed as it travels low over the sea.
Apart from its less contrasting plumage, this species is very similar to the Manx and yelkouan shearwaters found elsewhere in the Mediterranean. At least one mixed breeding colony of Balearic and yelkouan shearwaters exists on Menorca, and the species' winter ranges overlap in the Central Mediterranean; for scientific purposes at least, a combination of morphological characteristics and DNA sequence data is suggested to identify the species.
Habitat and range.
This species breeds on islands and coastal cliffs in the Balearic islands. Most winter in that sea, but some enter the Atlantic in late summer, reaching north to Great Britain and Ireland.
Behaviour.
This is a gregarious species, which can be seen in large numbers from boats or headlands, especially in autumn. It is silent at sea, but at night the breeding colonies are alive with raucous cackling calls, higher pitched than the Manx shearwater's.
Breeding.
This species nests in burrows and caves which are visited only at night to avoid predation by large gulls.
Feeding.
The Balearic shearwater feeds on fish and molluscs. It does not follow boats.
Conservation and threats.
The Balearic shearwater is considered critically endangered with extinction by the IUCN. Recent models estimate a mean decrease of 7.4% per year and a mean extinction time of 40.4 years. This equates to an ongoing decline of more than 80% over the next three generations (54 years). It is under severe threat from the development of holiday resorts near its breeding sites. These can destroy or alter its natural breeding habitat by, for example, producing light pollution around nesting colonies. Predation from introduced animals such as cats and rats also cause problems. The discovery of yelkouan shearwaters in the Menorcan colony suggests that hybridization may also pose a problem.
External links.
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List of amphibians and reptiles of Saint Kitts and Nevis

This is a list of amphibians and reptiles found on the islands of Saint Kitts and Nevis, a two-island nation in the Caribbean Lesser Antilles. The islands are separated by a narrow strait that is only 3.2 km wide and 15 m deep, and thus the two islands have very similar faunas.
Amphibians.
There are two species of amphibian recorded on Saint Kitts and Nevis.
Reptiles.
Including marine turtles and introduced species, there are 14 reptile species reported on Saint Kitts and 12 species on Nevis.


Orbicular batfish

The orbicular batfish ("Platax orbicularis"), also known as the circular batfish, orbiculate batfish, round batfish, or orbic batfish is a popular aquarium fish which occurs naturally in the tropical waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
Description.
The body of "Platax orbicularis" is almost disc-shaped, and very thin. Its tail, about 20% of the body length, is fan-shaped and is taller than it is long. Males can grow to up to in length, though aquarium specimens are generally much shorter.
Distribution.
In the wild, the orbicular batfish is found in brackish or marine waters, usually around reefs, at depths from 5 to 30 meters. Its range extends from the Red Sea and East Africa in the east to the Tuamotu Islands in French Polynesia in the west, and from southern Japan in the north to northern Australia and New Caledonia. It has been recorded off the coast of Florida, though this may be the result of dumping of aquarium specimens.
Juvenile fish are solitary or live in small groups, among mangroves or other inner sheltered lagoons. Adults are found in more open waters and at greater depth.


Gastrotheca antoniiochoai

Gastrotheca antoniiochoai is a rare species of frog in the family Hylidae. It is endemic to Peru and only known from near its type locality near the Wayqecha Biological Station (Cusco Region). It has been collected from cloud forest at elevations of about above sea level. It appears to be an arboreal species living in bromeliads. The species occurs in the Manú National Park and does not face significant threats.


Eucalantica costaricae

Eucalantica costaricae is a moth in the family Yponomeutidae. It is found in Costa Rica (high elevations of Cerro de la Muerte of the Talamancan Mountain Range in Cartago and San José provinces).
The length of the forewings is 6.5–8 mm.
Adults have been collected exclusively from the high elevation forests of Cerro de la Muerte where oaks are dominant below 3,300 meters. One individual has been found resting on the underside of a leaf of "Vaccinium floribundum", which is likely the larval host.
Etymology.
The species is named after Costa Rica, where the type locality is situated.


Psilogramma salomonis

Psilogramma salomonis is a moth of the family Sphingidae. It is known from the Solomon Islands.


Fauna of Finland

This is a list of the fauna of Finland. Finland borders Sweden to the west, Russia to the east, and Norway to the north, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland, allowing an ecological mix. Finland contains many species of mammals, birds, and fish, but only a few reptiles and amphibians. This article discusses all the vertebrate animals which can be found on Finland itself, not the oceans.
Mammals.
There are over 90 species of mammals found in Finland and the surrounding oceans. Some were introduced from other countries in Europe, as well as other continents, such as Asia and North America. Rodents and shrews are most common in Finland.
Rodents.
There are close to 30 species of rodents living throughout Finland. These include the widespread Muridae, such as the house mouse, brown rat and wood mouse which live throughout Europe, and the Norway lemming, which only lives in Scandinavia. Some were introduced there, and they include the muskrat and nutria among others.
Lagomorphs.
There are 3 species of rabbits and hares found in Finland. The common rabbit spread there from central Europe. It is now found in practically all of Europe. The other two species are hares.
Insectivores.
There are 10 species of insectivore living in Finland. Eight of the ten are shrews, from the common shrew to the Eurasian water shrew. Shrews are very common in the forests of Finland. A species of mole and one of hedgehog are the remaining insectivores.
Bats.
About 13 kinds of bat live in Finland.
Carnivores.
Around 15 species of carnivore are found in Finland. Many of the larger carnivores were or are still in danger of dying out.
Pinnipeds.
Pinnipeds includes all the seals, sea lions, and the walrus. Four pinnipeds are native to Finland year round (most living on the northern coast), but other species, such as the walrus, may migrate there during certain times of the year. The Saimaa ringed seal is a subspecies of ringed seal native exclusively to Finland and is a famous animal there, though it is also one of the most endangered seal subspecies in the world.
Artiodactyls.
The order of Artiodactyl includes all even-hooved mammals. There are about 10 species that can be found in Finland. Many species have been either introduced or reintroduced there.
Cetaceans.
This order includes all the whales, toothed whales, and dolphins of the different waters. Finland does not have any large Cetacean species within its territories. Finland's only coast is on the baltic sea which is home to the harbour porpoise ("Phocoena phocoena") which is the smallest of the dolphin species in the world's oceans. However, the Baltic Sea the population of harbour porpoise has dropped dramatically since the mid-1950s and is now at under 500. The top current threats for Baltic harbour porpoise are bycatch in fisheries, environmental toxins mostly from the Swedish paper industry and anthropogenic noise.
Birds.
There are around 340 different kinds of birds all over Finland, from the cold north, to the temperate south. Most are native all year, but some species migrate to warmer areas during the winter. Like mammals, some of Finlands birds have been introduced.
Grebes and loons.
Grebes and loons are two separate orders of birds. They are both semi-aquatic and appear similar to ducks.
Albatrosses and petrels.
Albatrosses and petrels are two of the four families of marine diving birds that make up this order. Some of them look similar to sea gulls, but are found further out at sea. They live mostly off the coasts of Finland.
Pelicaniforms.
This includes not only pelicans, but also gannets and cormorants. There are 6 families in this order but only a few species are found in Finland.
Herons and storks.
Herons and storks are just two of the better known families in this order, which contains a total of six families. All are wading birds who generally have predatory characteristics.
Ducks.
This order contains the ducks, geese, and swans. All are in a single family, which is very large and has species from all over the world. Finland has many species.
Grouse and pheasants.
These include all the fowl of the world. Many species live in Finland and are a common food source.
Birds of prey.
These are the most predatory birds in the world. There are five families in all. Eagles, hawks, falcons, and osprey can all be found in Finland.
Gruiforms.
There are 12 families in this order, which contains wading and ground birds. Cranes, rails, and bustards are the larger of the families, and contain members living in Finland.
Charadriforms.
This is a large order which contains many kinds of semi-aquatic and coastal birds. Plovers, sandpipers, gulls, and puffins are some of the members of the order. They all occur in Finland.
Pigeons.
These are small birds that are very familiar to city people because of feral rock pigeons, which occur worldwide.
Cuckoos.
This family of birds is unique in that the mother bird may lay her eggs in another species nest, and have that female take care of her young. Only one species is found in Finland.
Owls.
Owls are considered nocturnal birds of prey. They hunt and are mostly active during the night. Two families, the owls and barn owls, make up this order.
Nightjars.
Only one species in this order is found all over Europe. Nightjars and their relatives are nocturnal and some show predatory behavior.
Swifts.
Swifts are a family of quick flying birds related to hummingbirds.
Coraciforms.
This order includes rollers, kingfishers, bee-eaters, and others. Most of these birds have very large beaks in proportion to their bodies.
Woodpeckers.
The woodpeckers can make holes in trees with their strong beaks.
Reptiles.
see List of reptiles of Finland


Gilded sapphire

The gilded sapphire ("Hylocharis chrysura"), also known as the gilded hummingbird, is a species of hummingbird in the family Trochilidae. It is found in a wide range of open and semi-open habitats in southern Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay and northern Argentina. It is generally common, and therefore considered to be of least concern by BirdLife International and consequently the IUCN. It is overall greenish-golden with a coppery tail, whitish-buff underparts, a rufous chin, and a slightly decurved, black-tipped red bill.


Acalyptris trifidus

Acalyptris trifidus is a moth of the family Nepticulidae. It was described by Puplesis and Robinson in 2000. It is known from Belize.


Hoplobatrachus tigerinus

Hoplobatrachus tigerinus, the Indus Valley bullfrog or Indian bullfrog, popular name Asian bullfrog, Asean bullfrog or Asia bullfrog, is a large species of frog found in mainland Myanmar, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Nepal. It has been introduced in Madagascar and India's Andaman Islands, where it is now a widespread invasive species.
Description.
They are found in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Myanmar, Afghanistan, and Sri Lanka. They are also found in the Maldives and Madagascar.
They prefer freshwater wetlands and aquatic habitats. Generally they avoid coastal and forest areas.
"Rana tigrina" is mostly solitary and nocturnal in nature. They inhabit holes and bushes near permanent water sources. The frog does not stay in water for a long time; it spends most of its time hiding and feeding in surrounding vegetation.
They feed on various type of insects, invertebrates, mice, shrews, young frogs, earthworms, roundworms, juvenile snakes, and small birds.
Vomerine teeth in two strong oblique series commence from the inner anterior angle of the choanae; lower jaw with two not very prominent bony processes in front. Head moderate; Snout more or less pointed; "canthus rostralis" obtuse; nostril a little nearer to the end of the mouth than to the eye; interorbital space narrower than the upper eyelid; tympanum distinct, about two thirds the size of the eye. Fingers rather short, first extending beyond second; toes moderate, obtuse, nearly entirely webbed ; a much developed membranaceous fringe along the fifth toe; sub-articular tubercles moderate; inner metatarsal tubercle very variable, small and blunt, or (var. "ceylanica", Ceylon and S. India) nearly as long as the inner toe, strongly compressed, crescent shaped, shovel-shaped; no outer tubercle, a tarsal fold. Tibio-tarsal articulation reaching the ear, the eye, or a little beyond. Skin of back with longitudinal folds; a strong fold above the tympanum. Green or olive above, with dark spots; often a light vertebral line. Male with two subgular vocal sacs, conspicuous externally by folds of the skin on the sides of the throat; these regions generally blackish.
It is semiaquatic, and is said, to jump over the surface of the water much in the same way as on land when frightened.
This large frog can reach a snout to vent length of 170mm.
This species is classified as "Least Concern" in the IUCN red list.
Cultivation.
Captive farming of this species as a food source, and also of the American bullfrog ("Rana catesbeiana"), started in Thailand in the 1990s. China imposed a ban, for exporting legs of "Rana tigerina". Largest frogs' exportation include, three major countries: India, Bangladesh and Indonesia.


Typhlochactidae

Typhlochactidae is a family of troglomorphic scorpions native to eastern Mexico.
Overview of genera.
Subfamily: Alacraninae
Subfamily: Typhlochactinae


Black-legged kittiwake

The black-legged kittiwake ("Rissa tridactyla") is a seabird species in the gull family Laridae.
This species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of "Systema Naturae" as "Larus tridactylus". The English name is derived from its call, a shrill 'kittee-wa-aaake, kitte-wa-aaake'. The genus name "Rissa" is from the Icelandic name "rita" for this bird, and the specific "tridactyla" is from Ancient Greek "tridaktulos", "three-toed", from "tri-", "three-" and "daktulos", "toe".
In North America, this species is known as the black-legged kittiwake to differentiate it from the red-legged kittiwake, but in Europe, where it is the only member of the genus, it is often known just as kittiwake.
Range and distribution.
The black-legged kittiwake is a coastal bird of the arctic to subarctic regions of the world. It can be found all across the northern coasts of the Atlantic, from Canada to Greenland as well as on the Pacific side from Alaska to the coast of Siberia. Black-legged kittiwakes' wintering range extends further south from the St-Lawrence to the southern coast of New Jersey as well as in China, the Sargasso sea and of the coast of west Africa. There are two subspecies of black-legged kittiwake. "Rissa tridactyla tridactyla" can be found on the Atlantic coast whereas "Rissa tridactyla pollicaris" is found on the Pacific coast.
Out of all the laridae, the kittiwakes are the most pelagic ones. Kittiwakes are almost exclusively found at sea with the exception of the breeding period, from May to September, where they can be found nesting on the sheerest sea cliffs. They are rarely found inland, though they have been reported on few instances as far as 20 km inland. For the rest of the year, kittiwake spend most of their time on the wing out of sight from the coast.
Description.
Adult plumage.
The adult is in length with a wingspan of and a body mass of . It has a white head and body, grey back, grey wings tipped solid black, black legs and a yellow bill. Occasional individuals have pinky-grey to reddish legs, inviting confusion with red-legged kittiwake. The inside of their mouth is also a characteristic feature of the species due to its rich red colour. Such red pigmentation is due to carotenoids pigments and vitamin A which have to be acquired through their diet. Studies show that integument coloration is associated with male's reproductive success. Such hypothesis would explain the behavior of couples greeting each other by opening their mouth and flashing their bright mouth it to their partner while vocalizing. As their Latin name suggests, they only possess three toes since their hind toe is either extremely reduced or completely absent. The two subspecies being almost identical, "R. tridactyla pollicaris" is in general slightly larger than its counterpart "R. tridactyle tridactyla".
In winter, this species acquires a dark grey smudge behind the eye and a grey hind-neck collar. The bill also turns a dusky-olive color.
Since kittiwakes winter at sea and rarely touch ground during this period, very little is known about their exact molting pattern.
Juvenile plumage.
At fledging, the juveniles differ from the adults in having a black 'W' band across the length of the wings and whiter secondary and primary feathers behind the black 'W', a black hind-neck collar and a black terminal band on the tail. They can also be identified due to their solid black bill. This plumage is a hatch-year plumage and will only remain for their first year. Kittiwakes obtain their mature plumage at 4 years old, but will gradually change their juvenile plumage over time until maturity is reached. A second-year juvenile resembles a hatch-year regarding the plumage, though the bill is no longer solid black but instead has a greenish color. The black marking on the coverts and the tail is still visible. The black marking will only molt during their third year, where the black is no longer present on the coverts, but the grey smudge on the head remains. A third-year bird will also exhibit a small zone of bright yellow/orange at the base of its mostly greenish bill. It is only at four years old that the bill will reach an overall colour of bright yellow and complete its mature plumage.
The old fisherman's name of "tarrock" for juvenile kittiwakes is still occasionally used.
Similar species.
The red-legged kittiwake is the only other species in the Rissa genus and can be differentiated from its counterpart by its red legs, as the name suggests. The head of the red-legged kittiwake is slightly smaller and bears a shorter bill. The chicks of the Pacific black-legged kittiwake and red-legged kittiwake cannot be distinguished during their youngest downy phase.
The juvenile black-legged kittiwake can be confused with the Bonaparte's gull juveniles although the kittiwakes' plumage has more black on the primaries and a different pattern going across the coverts.
Breeding.
It is a coastal breeding bird around the north Pacific and north Atlantic oceans, found most commonly in North America and Europe. Kittiwakes are colonial nesters that form monogamous pairs and exhibit biparental care, meaning that both take part in nest building, incubation and chick rearing. They tend to nest in large numbers on cliffs by the sea side. It breeds in large colonies on cliffs and is very noisy on the breeding ground. Cliff nesting for gulls occurs only in the "Rissa" species, and the kittiwake is capable of utilizing the very sheerest of vertical cliffs, as is evident in their nesting sites on Staple Island in the outer Farne Islands. There are few instances of kittiwakes nesting on man-made structure in Europe and Alaska. Kittiwake pairs both participate in building the nest in which the female will lay their eggs. The breeding season begins in mid-June and usually end in August.
Nest formation.
Building the nest in order to welcome their fragile eggs is a tedious task and requires time and energy. The parents begin with a layer of mud and grass in order to form a platform that will cushion and help to isolate the eggs from the cold ground. A cup is then built around the platform in order to keep the eggs from rolling out of the nest. Finally, the nest is lined with soft and dry material such as moss, grass or seaweed. The nest is solidified by a continuous trampling of the materials by the pair. Throughout this period, the male will do courtship feeding by feeding the female at their nest site. The reasons for such behavior are not quite understood but many hypothesis have been brought up to explain the phenomenon. Hypothesis such as the "nutrition hypothesis" and the "copulation enhancement hypothesis" have shown evidence that this behavior evolved either through natural or sexual selection.
Egg formation and incubation.
Kittiwakes are single-brooded, meaning that the pair will only reproduce once per year. Egg formation within the female usually takes around 15 days and normal egg clutch size ranges from one to two sub-elliptical eggs, though three eggs clutches are not impossible. The female will lay eggs on alternate days. The eggs' color varies quite a bit, ranging from white, brownish to turquoise with dark brown speckles. Once the eggs are laid, the parents will take turns and incubate their clutch for an average period of 27 days. In case of egg loss, the female might relay another egg within 15 days after the loss.
Chick-rearing.
Chicks usually hatched through the larger end of the egg using their egg tooth. The egg tooth usually disappear after seven days post-hatching. The alpha and beta chicks tend to hatch 1.3 days apart. Kittiwake are born semi-precocial. The downy young of kittiwakes are white, since they have no need of camouflage from predators, and do not wander from the nest like "Larus" gulls for obvious safety reasons. Regardless of predation, the chicks are most vulnerable within their first week due to their incapacity to properly thermoregulate during that period. Kittiwake chicks also exhibit siblicide, meaning that the first-born chick may kill its sibling in order to avoid competition for food from their parents. If siblicide is to occur, it will most likely occur within the first 10 days of life of the smaller chick, in most cases the last born.
The downy plumage of chicks start to be replaced by the juvenile plumage only five days after hatching and will continue to do so for about 30 days, until the juvenile plumage is complete. It is not long after the completion of their juvenile plumage that the chicks will have their first flight at 34–58 days old. Chicks will come back to the nest for several weeks after hatching and will eventually follow the adults at sea where they spend the winter. Kittiwakes reach sexual maturity at around 4–5 years old.
Behavior.
Feeding and diet.
Kittiwakes are primarily pelagic piscivorous birds. Their main food source consists of fish, though it is not unlikely to find invertebrates such as copepods, polychete and squids in their diet, especially when fish is harder to find. Due to their wide range, kittiwake diet is quite variable. In the Gulf of Alaska, their diet is usually composed of Pacific capelin, Pacific herring, Pacific sand land and much more. Kittiwakes of the coast of the United Kingdom, in Europe, rely mostly on sandeels. In 2004, the kittiwake population in the Shetland islands, along with the murre (guillemot) and tern population, completely failed to reproduce successfully due to a collapse in sandeel stock. Like most gulls, kittiwake forage at the surface of the water where they tend to catch their prey while in flight or sitting on the water. Throughout winter, kittiwakes spend all of their time at sea where they forage. Unlike some gull species, they do not scavenge at landfills.
The foraging style of the kittiwakes is often compared to the terns' foraging strategy due to their frequent hovering and their head diving quickly at the surface of the water. Instances of kittiwakes following whales are also common since they benefit from the fish fragments expelled by these huge marine mammals. Fishers and commercial fishing boats are also the frequent witnesses of big groups of kittiwakes, often mixed with other gull species and terns, hovering around their ship in order to benefit from the scraps rejected in their sewage water or thrown overboard.
There are few studies focussing on their water needs, though they seem to prefer salt water to fresh water. Captive kittiwakes are known to refuse fresh water but will willingly drink salt water.
Vocalization.
The kittiwake is named after its call that resembles a long "kit-ti-wake". Apart from their typical call, kittiwakes have a wide array of vocalization. Their greeting call is used by the two members of a pair when meeting at the nest after an absence of one or both members. Before and during copulation, the female will often vocalize by making a series of short high pitched "squeak". This call is also used by the female to beg for food from the male (courtship feeding). When predators are around, the kittiwake alarm call, an "oh oh oh oh" will be heard all across the colony. Kittiwake will vocalize all day for various reasons and will only stop when the sun is down.
Flight.
Kittiwake are known for their graceful flight. Unlike larger gulls, their flight is light with the wings beating in fast strokes. When looking at them flying around the colony, kittiwakes often look as if they are playing in the wind with their agile flips and loops. Kittiwakes are highly gregarious and therefore are rarely seen flying alone far away from the colony.
Relationship with humans.
Kittiwakes are a frequent encounter of fisheries in northern regions. Their diet consisting almost exclusively of fish, fishermen tend to seek large aggregation of seabirds since they are often a sign of fish abundance. On the other hand, kittiwake and other seabirds hang around fishing boats or platforms to collect scraps or any fish that might have been left out. Due to the kittiwake pelagic lifestyle, they rarely interact with humans on the land, other than occasional sight near the ocean's coast.
In New England, the black-legged kittiwake is often called the "winter gull" since its arrival often signals to people that winter is coming.
Conservation.
Population trends.
Since the 1970s, its it believed that the global population of black-legged kittiwake has declined of about 40% in only three generations (one generation is in average 12.9 years), putting the species in a dangerous place for the future. The global population is estimated at 14,600,000-15,700,000 individuals and is in constant decline. The individual distribution of kittiwakes across the world varies quite a bit, with Europe representing more than 50% of the world's kittiwake and North America representing only 20%. In their recent species assessment, the IUCN Red List pointed out that all but one populations of kittiwakes were in decline, with the exception of the small Canadian arctic population that seems to be increasing at a rate of 1% per year. The last IUCN Red List report in 2017, the species was moved from "least concern" to a "vulnerable" status on a global scale.
Threats.
Fisheries.
Since the kittiwakes are fish specialist and tend to rely on prey species, their reproductive success highly depends on fish availability. Commercial fisheries have been known to have many direct and indirect impacts on their surrounding ecosystem. Direct impacts on the fish species themselves are well known, but the presence of fisheries also has an array of impacts on marine predators that not only rely on the species harvested but also on the "bycatch" species. Fisheries harvesting species such as the sandeel, one of the main food source for kittiwakes in Europe, are known to have a huge impact of the reproductive success of local populations kittiwakes and other seabirds. Long term research on the effect of food availability on kittiwakes in the Gulf of Alaska showed a direct correlation between food availability and reproductive success, using a supplemental-feeding experiment. Seabirds can also be a direct victim of fisheries. Their tendency to hang around them in hope of a good meal can lead to entanglements in fishing gear, often resulting in death by drowning.
Global warming.
With global warming, the rising of ocean temperature is becoming a serious concern, affecting not only the marine flora and fauna but also the species exploiting the marine environment. Kittiwake are extremely sensitive to variation in food stocks. Such variations can be due to over exploitation, as mentioned above, but can also be due to variations in sea surface temperature. With the rising the sea surface temperature, many fishes, such as sandeels, are negatively affected by a rise in ocean temperature. Studies show that sandeels and many copepods populations are being negatively impacted due to increasing sea surface temperature. Such effect on marine species can have tremendous impact on breeding kittiwakes which rely almost exclusively on pelagic fishes, making food more scarce in a time of high energetic needs.
Conservation plan.
There are still no global conservation plans for the black-legged kittiwake though the species is closely monitored for population trends shifts. There are currently no international legislations regarding this species. However, the black-legged kittiwake is protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 that has been ratified by the US, Canada, Mexico, Russia and Japan. As for many gull species, the kittiwake is not a species of special interest for the public, therefore there are no education plans put in place in order to inform and educate people regarding this species.
Subspecies.
There are two subspecies of black-legged kittiwake:


Poritia phama

Poritia phama is a small butterfly found in the Indomalayan realm that belongs to the lycaenids or blues family. The species was first described by Hamilton Herbert Druce in 1895.


Craspedoma costata

Craspedoma costata is a species of tropical land snail with an operculum, terrestrial gastropod mollusks in the family Cyclophoridae. This species is endemic to Spain.


Dibamus bourreti

Dibamus bourreti, also known as Bourret's blind skink, the white-tailed dibamid, or the white-tailed worm-like lizard, is a species of legless lizard in the family Dibamidae. The species is endemic to Asia.
Etymology.
The specific name, "bourreti", is in honor of French herpetologist René Léon Bourret.
Geographic range.
"D. bourreti" is found in China and Vietnam.


Cnemaspis molligodai

Cnemaspis molligodai, commonly known as Molligoda's day gecko, is a species of diurnal lizard in the family Gekkonidae. The species is endemic to the island of Sri Lanka.
Etymology.
The specific name, "molligodai", is in honor of Sri Lankan Hayasinth Molligoda for his service and commitment to the conservation of the amphibians and reptiles of Sri Lanka.
Description.
Adult males of "C. molligodai" measure in snout–vent length (SVL).
Reproduction.
"C. molligodai" is oviparous.


Bungarus bungaroides

Bungarus bungaroides, the northeastern hill krait, is a species of venomous elapid snake.
Description.
Diagnostic characters:
Distribution and habitat.
This species is found in Myanmar, India (Assam, Cachar, Sikkim), Nepal, and Vietnam at elevations around 2040 m as well as in Tibet. The type locality is given as: "Cherra Pungi, Khasi Hills, Assam, India".


Ctenus ceylonensis

Ctenus ceylonensis, is a species of spider of the genus "Ctenus". It is endemic to Sri Lanka.


Arulius barb

The Arulius barb ("Dawkinsia arulius") is a tropical cyprinid fish native to the Kaveri River basin of south east India. Other common names include Tamiraparani barb, Silas barb and longfin barb.
Description.
Adult fish are dark brownish olive on the back, becoming lighter on the sides to white on the ventral surface. It has a black, vertical blotch in the middle of its body, above the origin of its pelvic fin. It has a second black, vertical blotch above its anal fin, and a third black bar or blotch on the base of the caudal fin, though less well defined as the other two blotches. The fins are thin and transparent or translucent. Adults possess more pronounced colors than the juvenile. The adult male differs from a closely related filament barb species found in Tambraparni River basin, "Dawkinsia tambraparniei", and lacks the filament-like extensions to the branched dorsal-fin rays which lend to the incorrect use of the common name, longfin barb ("Dawkinsia filamentosa"). It reaches an adult size of TL.
Habitat.
Its native habitat is large streams, rivers, and lakes, with a pH of 6.0 – 6.5, dH of 10, and temperature 19 °C to 25 °C.
Etymology.
The name "arulius" is derived from the name "aruli" used by local inhabitants.
In the aquarium.
Though less common to the hobby than other related barbs, this peaceful, active, egg-laying fish is compatible with other related species in the home aquarium such as tiger barbs ("Puntigrus tetrazona"), and rosy barbs ("Pethia conchonius") and other fast swimming cyprinid species of similar size. Also compatible with some cichlid species, but smaller fish such as neon tetras would be at risk of predation. As with many barbs, nippy behavior is common, but alleviated by keeping the fish in numbers of at least 5–6 individuals in the aquarium, while taking into account the space requirements of the adult size of 4–5 inches (10–12 cm).


Dismorphia laja

Dismorphia laja is a butterfly in the family Pieridae. It is found in northern South America.
Adults are sexually dimorphic. Males are black with cream bands and mimic "Heliconius wallacei", while females are orange, yellow and black, and mimic species of the "tiger-complex" Ithomiines.
Subspecies.
The following subspecies are recognised:


Hyponephele davendra

Hyponephele davendra, the white-ringed meadowbrown, is a butterfly species belonging to the family Nymphalidae. It can be found from Iran to Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan, the Himalayas, Tibet, and central Asia.
The wingspan is 38–45 mm. Adults are on wing in multiple generations per year.


Plectrohyla psiloderma

Plectrohyla psiloderma is a species of frogs in the family Hylidae. It is found in the mountains of western Honduras and adjacent El Salvador. It occurs in lower montane moist forests at elevations of above sea level, and lives on low vegetation and boulders along pristine streams, its breeding habitat. It is threatened by habitat loss caused primarily by agricultural encroachment and wood extraction. Pesticides are suspected to be a threat. Chytridiomycosis is also a potential threat. It is found in the Celaque National Park in Honduras, and might also occur is some other protected areas.


Merrifieldia diwani

Merrifieldia diwani is a moth of the family Pterophoridae that is found in Iran.
The wingspan is about . The forewings are cream white with white fringes. The hindwings are white, although the last segment is brown.
Adults have been recorded in May and June.


Tropidophis melanurus

Tropidophis melanurus, commonly known as dusky dwarf boa, Cuban wood snake, or Cuban giant dwarf boa, is a non-venomous dwarf boa species found mainly in Cuba. Currently, there are three subspecies recognized, including the typical form described here.
Description.
Adults grow to an average of 32 to 39 in (80 to 100 cm) in length.
Geographic range.
Found in Cuba, as well as on some nearby islands, including Cayos de San Felipe (Cayo Real), Isla de la Juventud and Navassa Island. The type locality given is "l'île de Cuba."
Feeding.
Under natural circumstances, the diet consists of lizards and amphibians, although specimens in captivity can be switched to rodents.


Moustached turca

The moustached turca ("Pteroptochos megapodius") is a passerine bird which is endemic to Chile. It belongs to the tapaculo group and is a member of the genus "Pteroptochos", along with the two species of Huet-huet.
Description.
It is a stocky bird, 23–24 cm long, with a heavy bill and strong legs and feet. The tail is often held cocked. The plumage is mostly brown with white barring on the breast, belly and undertail-coverts. The bird has a dark eyestripe, white eyebrow and a broad white moustachial stripe. The bill and legs are black. The northern race "atacamae" is smaller and paler with less obvious barring on the underparts.
Behaviour and ecology.
The song is a series of low, hooting notes lasting for 5 to 10 seconds. Birds often call while perched on top of a rock.
The nest is built at the end of a tunnel up to two metres long which is dug in an earth bank or roadside cutting. Two or three white eggs are laid.
Distribution and habitat.
The nominate subspecies is found in central Chile from northern Bío-Bío Region north to Coquimbo Region. The isolated form "atacamae" occurs in Atacama Region. Both inhabit arid slopes with rocks and shrubbery from sea level to high in the foothills of the Andes, reaching 3700 metres in the north. It is a mainly ground-dwelling bird which can run quickly. It feeds on invertebrates such as insects and worms.


Paludiscala de oro snail

The paludiscala de oro snail, scientific name Paludiscala caramba, is a species of freshwater snail, an aquatic gastropod mollusk in the family Hydrobiidae. This species is endemic to freshwater marshes in Coahuila State, Mexico.
"Paludiscala caramba" is the only species in the genus "Paludiscala". Its specific name is from a Spanish exclamation expressing surprise: "caramba". This name was given by its discoverer, the American malacologist Dwight Taylor, who said the name was a loose translation of his "original remarks at seeing the shells," which are surprisingly similar to those of a predominantly marine family, the wentletraps or Epitoniidae.


Parornix bifurca

Parornix bifurca is a moth of the family Gracillariidae. It is known from Italy.


Nebria fallaciosa

Nebria fallaciosa is a species of ground beetle in the Nebriinae subfamily that is endemic to China.


Scardinius scardafa

Scardinius scardafa is a species of ray-finned fish in the family Cyprinidae.
It is found only in Italy.
Its natural habitats are rivers and freshwater lakes.


Indian gerbil

The Indian gerbil ("Tatera indica") also known as "antelope rat", is a species of rodent in the family Muridae.
It is found in southern Asia from Syria to Bangladesh.
It is the only species in the genus Tatera. Members of the genus "Gerbilliscus" have historically been placed in "Tatera".
Description.
Head and body length is 17–20 cm. Tail is 20–21 cm. Dorsal surface including entire head is light brown or light brown with rusty wash. Underparts are white. Tail fully furred, dark blackish brown with grayish sides and prominent black tuft on tip. Fur on body soft, sparse underneath; tail fur is longer. Eyes are large and prominent. Bounding gait is distinguished when running.
Reproduction.
Both the sexes of this species lives apart. The relation between male and female gerbils is not known yet.
Diet.
Omnivorous. Known to eat grains, seeds, plants, roots, insects, reptiles and even small birds and mammals it can catch up.


Guanaco

The guanaco ("Lama guanicoe") is a camelid native to South America, closely related to the llama. Its name comes from the Quechua word "huanaco" (modern spelling "wanaku"). Young guanacos are called "chulengos". Guanacos are one of two wild South American camelids, the other being the vicuña, which lives at higher elevations.
Characteristics.
Guanacos stand between at the shoulder, body length of , and weigh . Their color varies very little (unlike the domestic llama), ranging from a light brown to dark cinnamon and shading to white underneath. Guanacos have grey faces and small, straight ears.
Guanacos are one of the largest terrestrial mammals native to today's South America. Other terrestrial mammalian megafauna to weigh similar to or exceed the guanaco include the tapirs, the marsh deer, the white-tailed deer, the spectacled bear, and the jaguar.
Guanacos have thick skin on their neck, a trait also found in their domestic counterparts, the llama and in their relatives, the wild vicuña and domesticated alpaca. This protects their neck from predator attacks. Bolivians use the neck-skin of these animals to make shoes, flattening and pounding the skin to be used for the soles. In Chile, hunting is allowed only in Tierra del Fuego, where the only population not classified as endangered in the country resides. Between 2007 and 2012, 13,200 guanacos were legally hunted in Tierra del Fuego.
Hemoglobin levels.
Guanacos are often found at high altitudes, up to 4,000 meters above sea level, except in Patagonia, where the southerly latitude means ice covers the vegetation at these altitudes. For guanacos to survive in the low oxygen levels found at these high altitudes, their blood is rich in red blood cells. A teaspoon of guanaco blood contains about 68 million red blood cells – four times that of a human.
Guanaco fiber.
Guanaco fiber is particularly prized for its soft, warm feel and is found in luxury fabric. The guanaco's soft wool is valued second only to that of the vicuña. The pelts, particularly from the calves, are sometimes used as a substitute for red fox pelts, because the texture is difficult to differentiate. Like their domestic descendant, the llama, the guanaco is double-coated with coarse guard hairs and a soft undercoat, the hairs of which are about 16–18 µ in diameter and comparable to the best cashmere.
Population and distribution.
Guanacos inhabit the steppes, scrublands and mountainous regions of South America. They are found in the altiplano of Peru, Bolivia and Chile, and in Patagonia, with a small population in Paraguay. In Argentina they are more numerous in Patagonian regions, as well as in places such as Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego. In these areas, they have more robust populations, since grazing competition from livestock is limited. Guanaco responded to forage availability, occupying zones with low to intermediate food availability in the breeding season, and those with the highest availability in the non-breeding season. Estimates, as of 2011, place their numbers at 400,000 to 600,000;466,000–520,000 in Argentina, 150-200 in Bolivia, 66,000 in Chile, 100 in Paraguay, 3,500 in Peru. A small population introduced by John Hamilton exists on Staats Island in the Falkland Islands, with a population of around 400 as of 2003.
Guanacos live in herds composed of females, their young, and a dominant male. Bachelor males form separate herds. While reproductive groups tend to remain small, often containing no more than 10 adults, bachelor herds may contain as many as 50 males. When they feel threatened, guanacos alert the herd to flee with a high-pitched, bleating call. The male usually runs behind the herd to defend them. They can run at 56 km (35 mi) per hour, often over steep and rocky terrain. They are also excellent swimmers. A guanaco's typical lifespan is 20 to 25 years.
Atacama Desert.
Some guanacos live in the Atacama Desert, where in some areas it has not rained for over 50 years. A mountainous coastline running parallel to the desert enables them to survive in what are called "fog oases" or lomas. Where the cool water touches the hotter land, the air above the desert is cooled, creating a fog and thus, water vapor. Winds carry the fog across the desert, where cacti catch the water droplets and lichens that cling to the cacti soak it in like a sponge. Guanacos then eat the cacti flowers and the lichens.
Ecology.
Natural predators of the guanaco include pumas and the culpeo. When threatened, they alert the rest of the herd with a high-pitched bleating sound, which sounds similar to a short, sharp laugh. Though typically mild-mannered, Guanacos often spit when threatened, and can do so up to a distance of six feet.
Mating season.
Mating season occurs between November and February, during which males often fight violently to establish dominance and breeding rights. Eleven-and-a-half months later, a single chulengo is born. Chulengos are able to walk immediately after birth. Male chulengos are chased off from the herd by the dominant male around one year of age.
Domestication.
Although the species is still considered wild, around 300 guanacos are in U.S. zoos, and around 200 are registered in private herds. Guanacos have long been thought to be the parent species of the domesticated llama, which was confirmed via molecular phylogenetic analysis in 2001, although the analysis also found that domestic llamas had experienced considerable cross-hybridization with alpacas, which are descended from the wild vicuña.


Xerocrassa grata

Xerocrassa grata is a species of air-breathing land snail, a pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Hygromiidae, the hairy snails and their allies. This species is endemic to the southern half of the province of Tarragona in Catalonia, Spain.


Singing quail

The singing quail ("Dactylortyx thoracicus") is a species of bird in the family Odontophoridae. It is found in Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forest, subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest, and subtropical or tropical moist montane forest.


Pseudorhabdosynochus vagampullum

Pseudorhabdosynochus vagampullum is a species of diplectanid monogenean parasitic on the gills of a grouper. It was described in 1969, from eight specimens, under the name "Diplectanum vagampullum" and transferred to the genus "Pseudorhabdosynochus" in 1986. The species has been redescribed several times.
Description.
"Pseudorhabdosynochus vagampullum" is a small monogenean, 0.4-0.5 mm in length. The species has the general characteristics of other species of "Pseudorhabdosynochus", with a flat body and a posterior haptor, which is the organ by which the monogenean attaches itself to the gill of is host. The haptor bears two squamodiscs, one ventral and one dorsal.
The sclerotized male copulatory organ, or "quadriloculate organ", has the shape of a bean with four internal chambers, as in other species of "Pseudorhabdosynochus".
The vagina includes a sclerotized part, which is a complex structure.
Hosts and localities.
The type-locality is off Heron Island, Queensland, Australia.
The host in the original description of "Pseudorhabdosynochus vagampullum" is "Epinephelus merra". However, Justine, Dupoux & Cribb (2009) showed that the identification of the host was erroneous and that the type-host and only host was "Epinephelus quoyanus".
In addition to Australia, the species has also been recorded from the coasts of China.


Euspondylus paxcorpus

Euspondylus paxcorpus is a species of lizard in the family Gymnophthalmidae. It is endemic to Peru.


Gobionotothen gibberifrons

Gobionotothen gibberifrons, also known as the humped rockcod or the humphead notothen, is a species of notothen native to the islands of the Scotia Arc (the South Shetland, South Orkney, South Sandwich and South Georgia islands), the northern part of the Antarctic Peninsula, and Heard Island in the Southern Ocean. This species inhabits depths of 6-429 m (20-1,407 ft), but is most abundant at depths of 100-400 m (328-1,312 ft), at least around Elephant Island.
Etymology.
In Latin, 'gobius' means gudgeon, 'giber' means hump, and 'frons' means forehead. (This refers to the humped forehead which is a diagnostic feature of this species.)
Description.
This species is distinguished by its steep snout profile, narrow interorbital region (or the interorbital space) and humped forehead (the head is depressed behind the eyes). 1-2 series of small, conical teeth are present on each jaw, and the gill rakers are short.
The general body color is yellowish with irregular dark spots and blotches present on the upper part of the head and body. Juveniles have irregular cross-bars on the body (broken up into three or four series of alternating spots) that are rarely present in adults. The fins are greenish (with the only exception being the anal fin which is pale with 2-3 horizontal bands). The dorsal, caudal and pectoral fins have a series of brown spots present that form transverse bands. The maximum recorded length of this species is 55 cm (21.7 inches), but a length of 40 cm (15.7 inches) is more common.
Ecology.
This species is a benthopelagic predator that feeds on polychaetes, echiurans, sipunculids, priapulids, bivalves and crustaceans. If krill is abundant, this species will feed heavily on it. Fish eggs are also taken when available. This species reaches sexual maturity at 36 cm (14.2 inches) TL for both sexes. Males first spawn at 36 cm TL and females first spawn at 38.6 cm (15.2 inches) TL. Mature females may spawn for the first time at 6-8 years of age, and up to 143,620 eggs of up to 2.5 mm diameter may be laid. Spawning occurs from late winter to early spring (the exact months are different from place to place: i.e. August-September around Elephant Island and July-August at South Georgia). Hatching takes place in spring and early summer, and length at hatching is around 7 mm SL. The larvae appear in the water column in September around South Georgia and in November around Elephant Island. The larvae only end their pelagic phase at the end of summer and change to a benthopelagic lifestyle from that time on.
 Predators include the marbled rockcod "(Notothenia rossii)", South Georgia icefish "(Pseudochaenichthys georgianus)", blackfin icefish "(Chaenocephalus aceratus)", imperial shag "(Phalacrocorax atriceps)" and the Antarctic fur seal "(Arctocephalus gazella)".
Commercial importance.
This species is of minor importance to commercial fisheries at present, but it once was heavily fished (total catches amounted to 21,800 tonnes (24,030 tons) in the year 1978 alone) .


Niphargobates orophobata


Capperia zelleri

Capperia zelleri is a moth of the family Pterophoridae found on Sicily.
The wingspan is about 14 mm.


Caribbean hermit crab

The Caribbean hermit crab ("Coenobita clypeatus"), also known as the soldier crab, West Atlantic crab, tree crab, or purple pincher (due to the distinctive purple claw), is a species of land hermit crab native to the west Atlantic, Bahamas, Belize, southern Florida, Venezuela, the Virgin Islands, and the West Indies. Adults burrow and hide under the roots of large trees, and can be found a considerable distance inland. As with other terrestrial crabs, they use modified gills to breathe air. Their shells help maintain the humidity necessary for gas exchange to function.
Caribbean hermit crabs are both herbivorous and scavengers. In the wild, "C. clypeatus" feeds on animal and plant remains, overripe fruit, and faeces of other animals, including the Mona ground iguana, "Cyclura stejnegeri". The West Indian top snail ("Cittarium pica") shell is often used for its home, and the hermit crab can use its larger claw to cover the aperture of the shell for protection against predators. As with other species of hermit crabs, "C. clypeatus" may engage in "shell fights" and can emit a chirping noise when stressed. Typically, the Caribbean hermit crab's left claw is larger in size than its right claw and is purple in color. Female land hermit crabs release fertilized eggs into the ocean. The spawning (called "washing" in the English-speaking Caribbean) occurs on certain nights, usually around August.
This species is one of the two land hermit crabs commonly sold in the United States as pets, the other being the Ecuadorian hermit crab. "C. clypeatus" has been confirmed to live as long as 12 years, and some crab owners have claimed to have crabs live up to 40 years.


Triplophysa griffithii

Triplophysa griffithii is a small species of stone loach from Afghanistan and China. It grows to total length.


List of amphibians and reptiles of Sint Eustatius

This is a list of amphibians and reptiles found on the Caribbean island of Sint Eustatius, part of the Netherlands.
Amphibians.
There is one species of amphibian recorded on Sint Eustatius.
Reptiles.
Including marine turtles and introduced species, there are 14 reptile species reported on Sint Eustatius.