Living root bridge

A living root bridge is a type of simple suspension bridge formed of living plant roots by tree shaping. They are common in the southern part of the Northeast Indian state of Meghalaya. They are handmade from the aerial roots of rubber fig trees ("Ficus elastica") by the Khasi and Jaintia peoples of the mountainous terrain along the southern part of the Shillong Plateau. Most of the bridges grow on steep slopes of subtropical moist broadleaf forest between 50m and 1150m above sea level.
As long as the tree from which it is formed remains healthy, the roots in the bridge can naturally grow thick and strengthen. New roots can grow throughout the tree's life and must be pruned or manipulated to strengthen the bridge. Without active care, many bridges have decayed or grown wild, becoming unusable. Root bridges have also been observed in the Indian state of Nagaland.
Living root bridges have also been created in Indonesia at Jembatan akar on the island of Sumatra, and in the Banten province of Java, by the Baduy people.
Methods of creating living root bridges.
A living root bridge is formed by guiding the pliable roots of the "Ficus elastica" tree across a stream or river, and then allowing the roots to grow and strengthen over time until they can hold the weight of a human being. The young roots are sometimes tied or twisted together, and are often encouraged to combine with one another via the process of inosculation. As the "Ficus elastica" tree is well suited to anchoring itself to steep slopes and rocky surfaces, it is not difficult to encourage its roots to take hold on the opposite sides of river banks.
As they are made from living, growing, organisms, the useful lifespan of any given living root bridge is variable. It is thought that, under ideal conditions, a root bridge can last for many hundreds of years. As long as the tree from which it is formed remains healthy, the bridge will naturally self-renew and self-strengthen as its component roots grow thicker.
A root bridge can be made in several ways:
Root bridge generation by hand.
Some living root bridges are created entirely by manipulating the roots of the "Ficus elastica" tree by hand, and without the aid of a scaffolding or any other natural or man made materials.
Often, locals using root bridges will make small alterations to them, manipulating young roots as the opportunity presents itself. Because of this, one can say that the development of a living root bridge is very much a social endeavor, and that the structures are perpetual works in progress.
Root bridge generation using a wood or bamboo scaffold.
Root bridges are also commonly formed by training young "Ficus elastica" roots over scaffolds made from wood or bamboo, materials which are abundant in Northeast India. In these instances, the roots are wrapped around the outside of the perishable material. The scaffolds may be replaced many times over the years as the root bridge becomes stronger.
Root bridge generation using Areca Palm trunks.
Some living root bridges are grown by training young "Ficus elastica" roots through the hollowed-out trunks of Areca nut palms. The pliable tree roots are made to grow through betel tree trunks which have been placed across rivers and streams until the figs' roots attach themselves to the other side. The trunks serve to guide the roots, to protect them, and to provide them with nutrients as they decay. Sticks, stones, and other objects are used to stabilize the growing bridge This process can take up to 15 years to complete. This means of creating living root bridges can best be observed near the tourist friendly village of Nongriat.
Root bridge generation using conventional structures as scaffolding.
Root bridges can also be trained by guiding the young roots of "Ficus elastica" trees across conventional structures, such as already existing steel wire suspension bridges. As the structure being used as a scaffold is already functional, the problem of the length of time it takes for a root bridge to become functional is here essentially bypassed; the conventional structure can be used until the more sustainable root bridge is sufficiently strong.
Locations.
Living root bridges are known to occur in the West Jaintia Hills district and East Khasi Hills district. In the Jaintia Hills, examples of Living Root Bridges can be found in and around the villages of Shnongpdeng, Nongbareh, Khonglah, Padu, Kudeng Thymmai and Kudeng Rim. In the East Khasi Hills, living root bridges nearby Cherrapunji now called Sohra are known to exist in and around the villages of Tynrong, Mynteng, Nongriat, Nongthymmai, and around Laitkynsew.
East of Sohra (Cherrapunjee), examples of living root bridges are known to exist in the Khatarshnong region, in and around the villages of Nongpriang, Sohkynduh, Rymmai, Mawshuit, and Kongthong. Many more can be found near Pynursla and around the village of Mawlynnong.
History.
The Khasi people do not know when or how the tradition of living root bridges started. The earliest written record of Sohra's (Cherrapunji's) living root bridges is by Lieutenant Henry Yule, who expressed astonishment about them in the 1844 "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal".
Examples.
At over 50 meters in length, the longest known example of a living root bridge is near the small Khasi town of Pynursla, India. It can be accessed from either of the villages of Mawkyrnot or Rangthylliang.
There are several examples of double living root bridges, the most famous being the "Double Decker" root bridge of Nongriat Village, pictured above.
There are three known examples of double bridges with two parallel or nearly parallel spans. Two are in the West Jaintia Hills near the villages of Padu and Nongbareh, and one is in Burma Village, in the East Khasi Hills. There is also a "Double Decker" (or possibly even "Triple Decker") near the village of Rangthylliang, close to Pynursla.
Other examples of living root architecture in Meghalaya.
The War Khasis and War Jaintias also make several other kinds of structures out of the aerial roots of rubber trees. These include ladders and platforms. For example, in the village of Kudeng Rim in the West Jaintia Hills, a rubber tree next to a football field has been modified so that its branches can serve as living root bleachers. Aerial roots of the tree have been interwoven in the spaces between several branches so that platforms have been created from which villagers can watch football games.


Ctenitis

Ctenitis is a fern genus in the family Dryopteridaceae, subfamily Dryopteridoideae, in the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I).
Selected species.
The genus has a large number of species. The PPG I classification suggested that there were about 125 species; , the "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World" listed 143.


Ribes rotundifolium

Ribes rotundifolium is a North American species of currant known by the common names wild gooseberry and Appalachian gooseberry. It is native to the eastern United States, primarily the Adirondacks, from Massachusetts and the Appalachian Mountains south as far as South Carolina and Tennessee.
"Ribes rotundifolium" is a shrub up to tall, with cream-colored, pinkish or pale green pink flowers and dark blue or dark purple berries. Berries are sweet, tasty pale purple berries.


Anubias afzelii

Anubias afzelii is a species belonging to the Aroid genus "Anubias". It was first described scientifically by Heinrich Wilhelm Schott in 1857, based on material collected in Sierra Leone by Adam Afzelius, after whom the species was named. The genus "Anubias" was described simultaneously, with only "A. afzellii" belonging to it, which therefore is the type species of the genus. No other species currently placed in the genus "Anubias" was described earlier (in a different genus) and "A. afzelii" was therefore the first species of this genus known to science.
Distribution.
West Africa: Senegal, Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Mali.
Description.
"Anubias afzelii" has elongated, leathery leaf blades that can be up to 35 cm long and 13 cm wide. The leaf stems are generally shorter than the blade. The leaves are set on a creeping and rooting rhizome that is 1–4 cm thick. The spathe is 3–7 cm long (exceptionally up to 9 cm long) and has a 13–32 cm long peduncle. The spadix is 5–8 cm long (exceptionally up to 12 cm long) and slightly longer than the spathe, so that the tip slightly protrudes from it. The upper part is covered with male flowers, of which the 5-6 stamens are fused into synandria, with the thecae on its sides. The lower part of the spadix is covered with female flowers that are reduced to the ovary and stigma.
Ecology.
The plant grows in wet, shady places and flowers from the end of March to July, fruiting from April to September. It generally grows emerged, but can sometimes be completely submerged.
Cultivation.
This plant grows best when only partially submersed and not crowded by other plants and is most suited for the paludarium, but can also be used in larger aquariums, where it grows very slowly. It does not require much light. It prefers a temperature range of 22-26 °C. It can be propagated by dividing the rhizome, but seed-propagation is not difficult either.


Alupag

The alupag is a fruit of the Dimocarpus malesianus tree found in Indochina and Malaysia. Compared to a longan, it has bumpier skin. The tree's wood is used to make combs.
Description.
Tree with brown twigs. Leaves acute to acuminate with a sunken mid rib, tomentose on the bottom. Petioles and rachis tomentose, petals well developed


Martensia bibarii

Martensia bibarii is a species of red algae.


Chloronemata


Papilionaceous flower

Papilionaceous flowers (from Latin: "papilion", a butterfly) are flowers with the characteristic irregular and butterfly-like corolla found in many, though not all, plants of the species-rich Faboideae subfamily of legumes. Tournefort suggested that the term "Flores papilionacei" originated with Valerius Cordus, who applied it to the flowers of the bean.
Structure.
Corolla.
The flowers have a bilateral symmetry with the corolla consisting of five petals. A single, large, upper petal is known as the banner (also vexillum or standard petal). The semi-cylindrical base of the banner embraces and compresses two equal and smaller lateral wings (or alae). The wings in turn enclose a pair of small keel petals, that are situated somewhat lower than the wings, but are interior to them. They have concave sides and correspond with the shape of the wings. The two keel petals are fused at their bases or stuck together to form a boat-shaped structure that encloses the essential flower organs, namely the androecium and gynoecium. Typically these flowers have a vexillary (i.e. descendingly imbricate or overlapping) aestivation.
Stamens.
The stamens often have a diadelphous morphology, meaning that they are united in two sets with a distinct filament shape in each set. The inferior set forms a membranous sheath at its base, that envelops the single, superior pistil in a tube. The tube divides into nine filaments, which trace the base of the keel petals that enclose them. The single free filament lies above them. In "Smithia" the two sets are equal, with 5 stamens in each.
Many papilionaceous flowers however have ten distinct stamens. Genera that conform to the latter morphology include "Sophora", "Anagyris", "Cercis", "Daviesia", "Dillwynia", "Gompholobium", "Mirbelia" and "Pultenaea".
Ecology.
Charles Darwin observed that the fertility of plants with papilionaceous flowers depend to an important extent on visits by bees, and it is accepted that this corolla structure evolved under selective pressure of bee pollinators. Linnaeus remarked that they produce hardly any scent, but the flowers of Spanish broom, sweet pea, scorpion vetch, European yellow lupine, fava bean and various species of clover are notable exceptions.
Four different mechanisms of pollen release are known in papilionaceous flowers, which are respectively known as the explosive, valvular, piston and brush mechanisms. In the explosive or tripping mechanism ("cf." alfalfa, common broom, ox-eye bean) all pollen is instantly released when pressure on the staminal column is permanently released (usually by an insect) causing it to snap against the standard petal. In the valvular mechanism pollen is released repeatedly when pollinators unseal the upper rim of the keel petals, and force them downwards. In the piston mechanism ("cf." scorpion senna) pollen is released repeatedly when the keel tip is moved by an insect so as to release pollen through a hole in the tip. The brush mechanism employs a pistil which is longer than the stamens, so as to avoid self-pollination. When a pollinator presses against the standard and wing petals, a brush on the temporarily lifted pistil brushes pollen onto the pollinator, while the stigma receives external pollen.
Examples and exceptions.
Well-known plant genera in the Faboideae which exhibit this corolla morphology include beans, peas, sweet peas, alfalfa (lucerne), clovers, lupines, smoke trees, black locusts, locoweeds and coral trees. The flowers of coral trees are diadelphous and are considered papilionaceous, but the wings are much reduced, suggesting a flower with three petals. Their keel petals are elongate, fused together and sometimes tubular to facilitate pollination by certain bird groups, while secondary compounds in their nectar seem to repel bees.
The false indigo genus, though belonging to the Faboideae, does not exhibit a papilionaceous corolla morphology, as it has only one petal per flower, namely the banner. The corolla of clovers tends to be monopetalous, as all five petals are often fused below to form a tube.
Other legume subfamilies.
To the contrary, plants in the Mimosoideae subfamily of legumes have the petals reduced, and have numerous stamens arranged in showy spikes. In the Caesalpinioideae subfamily of legumes the upper petal is initially enveloped by the lateral petals, before the petals unfold to assume a radial five-fold symmetry. The aestivation of Mimosoideae, Caesalpinioideae and Faboideae is presented in diagram below.


Grevillea miniata

Grevillea miniata, commonly known as the sandstone grevillea, is a shrub or small tree between 1.8 and 5 metres in height which is native to Western Australia and the Northern Territory. It has yellow or orange flowers and holly-like leaves.
The species was formally described in 1906, based on plant material collected from Mount Leake in the western part of the Kimberley.


Eriogonum rixfordii

Eriogonum rixfordii is an uncommon species of wild buckwheat known by the common name pagoda buckwheat. It is native to the Mojave Desert, where it grows in California's Death Valley and adjacent parts of Nevada.
Description.
This is an annual herb growing up to 40 centimeters tall. It is shaped like a pagoda, with a narrow base of stems spreading out into a wider inflorescence, which is a multilayered array of slender branches. The branches are lined with tiny bell-shaped clusters of minute white to reddish flowers.
One threat to the survival of the interesting-looking plant is collectors who pick it and take it home.


Sticherus cunninghamii

Sticherus cunninghamii, also known as the waekura or umbrella fern, is a New Zealand native fern characterised by its drooping fronds that resemble an umbrella. The fronds are 15–30 cm long and it has an erect stalk between 20 and 50 cm high.
The fern is found from lowland to mountainous forest in dry areas often with infertile soil. The sap is used in traditional Māori Rongoā herbal medicine, and is claimed to have narcotic effects.


Edward Tuckerman

Edward Tuckerman (December 7, 1817 in Boston, Massachusetts – March 15, 1886) was an American botanist and professor who made significant contributions to the study of lichens and other alpine plants. He was a founding member of the Natural History Society of Boston and most of his career was spent at Amherst College. He did the majority of his collecting on the slopes of Mount Washington in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. Tuckerman Ravine was named in his honor. The standard botanical author abbreviation Tuck. is applied to species he described.
Early life and education.
Tuckerman was the eldest son of a Boston merchant, also Edward Tuckerman, and Sophia (May) Tuckerman. He studied at Boston Latin School and then at his father's urging at Union College in Schenectady, which he entered as a sophomore and where he completed a BA in 1837 and to which he returned for his MA after taking a Law degree at Harvard in 1839, traveling in Germany and Scandinavia, and making the first of his botanical studies in the White Mountains. In 1846, he returned to Harvard as a senior (telling the President he intended to correct his father's error in breaking the family tradition), completed a second BA in 1847, then two or three years later entered the Divinity School and graduated from there in 1852. His brother was Frederick Goddard Tuckerman (1821–1873), the American poet and his first cousin was Henry Theodore Tuckerman (1813–1871), an American writer, essayist and critic.
Career.
When Lewis and Clark went on their 1804-1806 expedition across the western United States, they collected many plant, seed, and flower species that had never been seen before. Lewis wrote notes about these species and they were put on scrap book paper. After Lewis supposedly committed suicide in 1809, dozens of his scrapbook pages were stolen by a botanist who was supposed to draw and classify the plants collected on the expedition. He took the papers to England to sell for money at an auction in 1842. Tuckerman noticed the auction and the significance of these papers. He bought them and then donated them to the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia.
After teaching at Union College, Tuckerman was a professor at Amherst College from 1854 until his death, successively Lecturer in History, Professor of Oriental History, and from 1858 Professor of Botany. Amherst awarded him an LLD.
He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1855.
His first paper, on New England lichens, was given in 1838 or 1839. In 1843, he published privately the first serious systematic analysis of the genus "Carex", "Enumeratio Methodica Caricum Quarundam." Tuckerman liked to write his botanical studies in Latin. He also made the first systematic study of native "Potamogeton", and after becoming Professor of Botany at Amherst, began preparing "A Catalogue of Plants Growing without cultivation within 30 miles of Amherst College" (published in 1875). However, his main focus was lichens. He published a number of important studies in the field, drawing on both his own collecting and specimens sent to him from elsewhere, in particular by Charles Wright from Cuba. His career culminated in the publication of "Genera Lichenum: An Arrangement of the North American Lichens" (1872) and "Synopsis of the North American Lichens", Part 1 (1882). His last botanical publication was in 1884, and he may have published anonymous theological articles after that. Tuckerman did not accept that lichens are a combination of fungi and algae, a theory advanced late in his life.
Personal life.
Tuckerman was married to Sarah, daughter of Thomas Parkman Cushing, who was his father's business partner. They had no children.
Tuckerman died on March 15, 1886.


Eligmocarpus

Eligmocarpus is a genus of flowering plants in the family Fabaceae. It belongs to the subfamily Dialioideae. It contains a single species, Eligmocarpus cynometroides.


Hibbertia scandens

Hibbertia scandens, the snake vine, climbing guinea flower, golden guinea vine or gold guinea plant, is a species of flowering plant in the family Dilleniaceae, native to Australia but widely cultivated. Growing to in length, it is a climbing or sprawling evergreen shrub with glossy leaves and solitary, bright yellow flowers.
Description.
The yellow flowers have been reported as having an unpleasant odour variously described as similar to mothballs or animal urine or sweet but with "a pronounced faecal element". The leaves are elliptic or obovate and average 6 cm in length. The fruits consist of segments of bright orange flesh, each surrounding a black seed. While the flesh looks attractive enough to eat, it is best not to. A minute or so after eating, the flesh produces an unpleasant burning sensation in the mouth and lips.
Near the sea plants tend to be densely hairy with spathulate leaves and flowers with 6 or 7 carpels, while inland, the plants tend to be smoother, with flowers having 3 or 4 carpels.
Taxonomy.
The species was first formally described in 1799 by German botanist Carl Willdenow who gave it the name "Dillenia scandens". The specific epithet "scandens" is derived from Latin, and means "to climb". In 1805, Swedish botanist Jonas Dryander transferred the species into the genus "Hibbertia".
Distribution.
"Hibbertia scandens" occurs in an area that extends from south-eastern New South Wales upwards to north-east Queensland. Australasian Virtual Herbarium data show records for New Zealand and for New Guinea.
Cultivation.
This species is cultivated as an ornamental, and adapts to a wide range of growing conditions. Although it readily grows in semi-shaded areas, it flowers best in full sun. As it is only hardy down to it requires winter protection in temperate regions. In the UK it has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit.
In popular culture.
"Hibbertia scandens" appeared on an Australian postage stamp in 1999.


Eriogonum libertini

Eriogonum libertini is a species of wild buckwheat known by the common name Dubakella Mountain buckwheat. This uncommon plant is endemic to California where it grows in the rocky serpentine terrain of the southern Klamath Mountains and nearby ranges.
It is named for the local peak Dubakella Mountain.
Description.
This is a squat mountain plant forming leafy mats up to half a meter wide with spindly erect inflorescences up to 30 centimeters tall. The leaves are woolly and pale green to silver. The clusters of flowers atop the inflorescences are bright yellow.


Ceroid cactus

The term ceroid cactus (or sometimes just cereus) is used to describe any of the species of cacti with very elongated bodies, including columnar growth cacti and epiphytic cacti.
The name is from the Latin "cēreus", wax taper (slender candle), referring to the stiff, upright form of the columnar species. Some species of ceroid cacti were known as torch cactus or torch-thistle, supposedly due to their use as torches by Native Americans in the past.
The genus "Cereus" was first genus for such cacti and one of the oldest cactus genera. Its circumscription varies depending on the authority.
According to Cactiguide the word "cereus" was commonly and freely used to describe any tree-like cacti, although this general use of the word is regarded as misleading and the word ceroid or ceriform is preferred.
Taxonomy.
The name "cereus" originates in a book by Tabernaemontanus published in 1625 and refers to the candle-like form of species "Cereus hexagonus". Regularly having been described by Philip Miller in 1754, and included all known cacti with very elongated bodies.
Ludwig Pfeiffer in 1838 divided "Cephalocereus" (type "Cephalocereus senilis"), the name is derived from the Greek κεφαλή ("kephalē"), head, thus headed cereus, referring to the hairy pseudocephalium.
Charles Lemaire described "Pilocereus" in 1839, now is renamed as "Pilosocereus". The name "Pilocereus" is derived from the Greek pilos, felted, hairy, thus hairy cereus, similar to the Latin pilosus, from which the name "Pilosocereus" was derived. Genus "Echinocereus" (type "Echinocereus viridiflorus") was described in 1848 by George Engelmann, the name is derived from the Greek echinos, hedgehog or sea urchin. Britton & Rose (1919-1923) and Alwin Berger (1929) continued to divide "Cereus" into many genera.
In 1984 a new approach to cactus classification was begun. The International Organization for Succulent Plant Study (IOS) founded a working group called the International Cactaceae Systematics Group. The group has recruited specialists in morphology and anatomy and experts in botanical research as electron microscopy, pollen studies, chromosomes, chemistry, and DNA analysis. Specialists in various groups of cacti have been included, or their comments solicited. The results were presented by Anderson 2001.
Selected species.
Smallest: "Pygmaeocereus", "Echinopsis chamaecereus" (synonymum "Chamaecereus silvestrii"), "Echinopsis (Seti-Echinopsis) mirabilis", small species of "Echinocereus: E. knippelianus, E. laui, E. ledingii, E. pulchellus, E. viridiflorus."
Highest: "Carnegia gigantea" (18 –20 m, max. 24 m), "Neobuxbaumia, Neoraimondia, Pachycereus" (synonymum "Mitrocereus") (12 – 18 m).
Longest stem: epiphytic "Hylocereus undatus" (90 m).
Edible fruits: "Carnegia, Myrtillocactus geometrizans, Pachycereus pringlei, Pachycereus schottii," "Echinocereus: E. fendleri, E. engelmannii" and other species, C"orryocactus pulquiensis, Selenicereus setaceus, Peniocereus serpentinus", "Cereus repandus" „cadushi“, "Stenocereus: S. fricii, S. griseus, S. queretaroensis", and "S. stellatus" also cultivated, "S. pruinosus" and "S. thurberi" wild.
Pitahaya: red pitahaya "Hylocereus undatus", yellow pitahaya "H. triangularis." Widely cultivated.
"Peniocereus greggii" develops a large subterranean root that may be baked, peeled, and eaten.
Cactus fences: "Pachycereus marginatus, Cereus repandus".
Firewood: "Cereus repandus, Eulychnia" sp.
Fishhooks: "Neoraimondia arequipensis".
Fishing: "Senocereus gummosus" contains several toxic triterpenes. Indigenous people in northern Mexico crush the stems of the plant and throw the pieces into the water, stupefying the fish, which are then scooped out of the water by hand.
Hairbrushes: Part of fruits "Pachycereus pecten-aboriginum".
"Neoraimondia arequipensis" is a Peruvian cereus reported to be used as an ingredient in the psychoactive drink called cimora, drunk at various ceremonies and containing material of the San Pedro cactus as well.


Connaraceae

Connaraceae is a pan-tropical plant family of 19 genera and more than 180 species of largely evergreen trees, woody shrubs and climbers.
The family was first described by Robert Brown in 1816 and the name has been conserved.
Distribution.
Connaraceae is a tropical family, the most important genera of which, "Connarus" (approximately 80 species) and "Rourea" (40-70 species) have a pan-tropical distribution. Their habitat is generally lowland tropical rain forest and savanna.
Description.
Connaraceae are typically evergreen trees, shrubs or climbers. "Connarus" is represented by species in all three lifeforms, while "Rourea" species are climbers. Their leaves are pinnate, trifoliate or rarely entire, alternate, without stipules and with a pulvinus at the base of the petiole.
"Connarus guianensis" is economically important for its decorative wood, zebra wood.
Fossil record.
Fossil leaflet impression described as "Rourea miocaudata" from India shows close resemblance to leaflets of the extant "Rourea caudata", it has been recorded from the lower part of the Siwalik sediments (Dafla Formation, middle–upper Miocene) of Pinjoli area in West Kameng district, Arunachal Pradesh. Permineralized wood of a stem with the distinctive anatomy of a liana has been described with fossil fruits from a locality in the lower Miocene (19 mya) Cucaracha Formation, where the formation is exposed by the Culebra Cut of the Panama Canal. The anatomy of this fossil wood matches the genus Rourea. Fossil record of Connaraceae is sparse, reliable occurrences indicate that the family originated as early as the late Cretaceous-Paleocene and was widespread by the early Miocene.


Rumex nivalis

Rumex nivalis, commonly called snow dock, is a species of flowering plant in the knotweed family. It is endemic to Europe.
The plant was first discovered by Alexander Moritzi in 1836 in the Swiss Alps. It is most plentiful at 7000 feet above sea level.


Cornus glabrata

Cornus glabrata is a species of dogwood native to California and Oregon and known by the common names brown dogwood, smooth dogwood, and western cornel. This is a large shrub or thicket-forming bush with bright green leaves which turn red in fall. It bears plentiful clusters of fuzzy white flowers and bluish-white berries. This shrub is most often found near water, usually directly on the bank of a water source.


Fucus virsoides

Fucus virsoides is a species of brown alga endemic to the Adriatic Sea. The Bay of Kotor was defined as one of the southernmost limits of "Fucus virsoides."


Guilleminea

Guilleminea is a small genus of plants in the family Amaranthaceae. They are sometimes known as matweeds. These are prostrate, mat-forming perennial herbs growing from taproots. The best known species is perhaps "Guilleminea densa", the small matweed, which is present on most continents and is often a weed. The other species are native to the Americas. The genus was named after the French botanist Jean Baptiste Antoine Guillemin.
Species.
The genus contains eight species including:


Ipomoea hederacea

Ipomoea hederacea, the ivy-leaved morning glory, is a flowering plant in the bindweed family. The species is native to tropical parts of the Americas, and has more recently been introduced to North America. It now occurs there from Arizona to Florida and north to Ontario and North Dakota. Like most members of the family, it is a climbing vine with alternate leaves on twining stems. The flowers are blue to rose-purple with a white inner throat and emerge in summer and continue until late fall. The leaves are typically three-lobed, but sometimes may be five-lobed or entire. Flowers occur in clusters of one to three and are 2.5-4.5 cm long and wide. The sepals taper to long, recurved tips and measure 12–24 mm long. The species shares some features with the close relative "Ipomoea purpurea".
Ecology.
The morning glories are little used by white-tailed deer. The large seeds are taken infrequently by northern bobwhite and seed-eating songbirds. Flowers are used by some of the larger butterflies such as swallowtails and fritillaries and the ruby-throated hummingbird.
Most of the pollinations of "Ipomoea hederacea" are achieved by self-pollination, with a selfing rate of 93% observed in one population.
"Ipomoea hederacea" has been studied as a target of character displacement. When it co-occurs with "Ipomoea purpurea", natural selection favors individuals of "I. hederacea" with anthers that are more tightly clustered around the stigma. This is to presumably reduce pollinations of "I. hederacea" by "I. purpurea", which, should they occur, results in sterile seeds, wasting valuable resources of the parent plant and reducing fitness. This fitness reduction is not reciprocal, however, as "I. hederacea" pollen does not germinate on "I. purpurea" stigmas, thus giving the latter species a potential advantage competitively. This selective pressure leads the anthers to form a barrier over the stigma of "I. hederacea" to protect from pollen from other species making contact, but possibly increasing self-pollination, as well. When "I. hederacea" occurs by itself, however, no such selective pressure is evident and anther barriers are looser and less consistent.


Ribes menziesii

Ribes menziesii, the canyon gooseberry, is a species of currant found only in California and Oregon. There are five to six varieties of the species found across the low elevation mountains of California, especially the Coast Ranges, and the coastal canyons and foothills, into southern Oregon. It can be found in the chaparral plant community.
Description.
The canyon gooseberry, "Ribes menziesii", is an aromatic deciduous shrub with very prickly branches growing up to in height. It has somewhat rounded, hairy, glandular green leaves.
Its showy hanging flowers have sepals which are reflexed, or folded backwards along the length of the flower. The sepals are fuchsia or purple. The petals are white and extend forward to form a loose tube from which the stamens emerge.
The plant fruits purple gooseberries which are edible but are mainly seeds with little fruit, generally regarded as unpalatable. The plant's spines also make collecting fruit difficult.
Cultivation.
"Ribes menziesii" is cultivated as an ornamental plant for native plant and wildlife gardens, in areas of suitable climate, such as coastal California. It is valued for its attractive spring blooms.


Zinowiewia

Zinowiewia is a genus of plants in the family Celastraceae.
Species include:


Operculum (botany)

In botany, an operculum (plural opercula) is a cap-like structure in some flowering plants, mosses, and fungi.
Flowering plants.
In flowering plants, the operculum, also known as a calyptra, is the cap-like covering or "lid" of the flower or fruit that detaches at maturity. The operculum is formed by the fusion of sepals and/or petals and is usually shed as a single structure as the flower or fruit matures.
In eucalypts, (including "Eucalyptus" and "Corymbia" but not "Angophora") there may be two opercula - an outer operculum formed by the fusion of the united sepals and an inner operculum formed by the fusion of the sepals. In that case, the outer operculum is shed early in the development of the bud leaving a scar around the bud. In those species that lack an outer operculum, there is no bud scar. The inner operculum is shed just before flowering, when the stamens expand and shed their pollen.
In some species of monocotyledon, the operculum is an area of exine covering the pollen aperture.
In "Plantago", the capsule has an opening covered by an operculum. When the operculum falls, the seed is sticky and is easily carried by animals that come into contact with it.
Pitcher plants have an operculum above the pitcher that serves to keep out rainwater that would otherwise dilute the digestive juices in the pitcher.
Mosses.
The sporangium of mosses usually opens when its operculum or "lid" falls off, exposing a ring of teeth that control the release of spores.
Fungi.
There are two types of sexual spore-bearing asci of ascomycete fungi - those that have an operculum at the top of the ascus, and those that do not.


Acrosanthes

Acrosanthes is a genus of flowering plants in the family "Aizoaceae". It is native to Southern Africa.
Taxonomy.
It was first described by Ecklon and Zeyher in 1837.
Species.
There are 7 recognised species as of 2020:


Trichoneuron

Trichoneuron is a genus of ferns in the family Dryopteridaceae, subfamily Polybotryoideae, in the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I). The genus has a single species Trichoneuron microlepioides, native to Yunnan, China.


Blue woodruff

Blue woodruff is a common name for several plants and may refer to:


Cleistocactus samaipatanus

Cleistocactus samaipatanus is a species of flowering plant in the cactus family Cactaceae, native to Bolivia. Growing to tall, it has multiple long, narrow columnar green stems with pale gold spines. It grows vigorously with large, pinky-red flowers in summer.
In cultivation in the UK, this plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017).
However, as it does not tolerate temperatures below , it must be grown under glass, though it may be placed outside during the warm summer months.


Corrigiola litoralis

Corrigiola litoralis is a species of flowering plant known by the common name strapwort. It can be found as a native species in Europe and Africa, and has been introduced to Australia and North America. In Europe it is a plant of shingly pool margins where water levels fluctuate. In Africa it is found in a variety of habitats.


Barren strawberry

Barren strawberry is a common name for several plants which may refer to:


Solanum leiophyllum

Solanum leiophyllum is a species of plant in the family Solanaceae. It is endemic to Ecuador.


Collinsia childii

Collinsia childii is a species of flowering plant in the plantain family known by the common name Child's blue-eyed Mary.
It is endemic to California, where it grows in the mountains of the Sierra Nevada and the Southern Inner and Outer California Coast Range. It grows in woodland and shady forest habitats.
Description.
"Collinsia childii" is an annual herb producing an erect, branching stem up to about 35 centimeters tall coated in glandular hairs. The leaves are oblong, flat and sometimes slightly toothed.
The hairy gland-covered inflorescence bears flowers on erect pedicels, with several emerging from the leaf axils at interrupted nodes. Each flower has two upper lobes and three lower lobes and is pale lavender in color. The flower is under a centimeter long.


Acineta

Acineta, abbreviated as Acn in horticultural trade, is a small genus belonging to the orchid family (Orchidaceae). The name is derived from the Greek word 'akinetos' (immobile), referring to the rigid labellum (lip).
These epiphytic orchids occur in tropical mountainous forests from Mexico to western South America, at altitudes up to 2,000 m. They are sometimes lithophytic when found on steep embankments.
The large, leaves are parallel-nerved and resemble those of "Peristeria" and "Lycaste", while the structure of the flowers bears a closer resemblance to "Stanhopea".
The species produce a inflorescence, bearing racemes of many fragrant cup-shaped, pale yellow to reddish brown flowers. The sidelobes of the labellum (lip) come together in a central callus. The basal part of the lip () is at least as long as the sidelobes. The column is .
The column of these orchids bears two pollinia, except in "Acineta dalessandroi", which has four (making its classification in this genus doubtful). These orchids are insect pollinated by male bees in the genus "Eulaema" or "Eufriesia".
Some regard these as being among of the most splendid looking of all orchids.
For relatives of Acineta see Stanhopeinae.


Lecythidales

Lecythidales is a botanical name at the rank of order. The name was used by the Cronquist system for an order placed in subclass Dilleniidae. This order included only the family Lecythidaceae, which family now (in the APG II system) is placed in the order Ericales.


Piptophyllum welwitschii


Achnatherum thurberianum

Achnatherum thurberianum is a species of grass known by the common name Thurber's needlegrass. It is native to the western United States, where it occurs from Washington to California and east to Montana and Wyoming.
This is a tufted perennial grass with erect stems reaching about 75 centimeters in maximum height. The tuft of stems may be circular in shape as the stems in the center die first. The inflorescence is a narrow panicle up to 15 centimeters long by 2.5 wide. The spikelet has a sharp tip and a long, hairy awn which may exceed 5 to 10 centimeters in length.
This is a common grass in many plant communities in the Pacific Northwest and Great Basin in the US. It is a dominant species in many areas, and may grow alongside other common grasses such as bluebunch wheatgrass ("Pseudoroegneria spicata"), Idaho fescue ("Festuca idahoensis"), and needle-and-thread grass ("Hesperostipa comata"). It can be found in sagebrush and pinyon-juniper woodland. It is a climax species, occurring in undisturbed plant communities.
This grass provides food for livestock and wildlife. It is forage for cattle, sheep, and wild horses. Black-tailed jackrabbits often consume it. Juvenile pronghorn eat the grass when it is young. Many grazing animals avoid the grass when it matures, because the spikelets are sharp and hard. At this point the seeds are consumed by birds and small mammals. Some animals, such as the Sage Grouse, use the grass for cover.


Cardamine bulbifera

Cardamine bulbifera, known as coralroot, is a species of flowering plant in the family Brassicaceae. It is a perennial with upright, mostly unbranched, stems to tall, and leaves made up of between three and 13 leaflets. The flowers have petals that are long collected in corymbose few-flowered racemes and are generally light purple, pink or almost white. It is found in damp places.


Archontophoenix purpurea

Archontophoenix purpurea, the Mount Lewis king palm, is a palm native to Queensland, Australia. It is mainly found in the rainforest.


Boechera

Boechera (rockcress) is a genus of the family Brassicaceae. It was named after the Danish botanist Tyge W. Böcher (1909–1983), who was known for his research in alpine plants, including the mustards "Draba" and "Boechera holboellii". According to recent molecular-based studies, "Boechera" is closely related to the genus "Arabidopsis" which also includes the widely known model plant "Arabidopsis thaliana".
Until recently, members of this genus were included in the genus "Arabis", but have been separated from that genus based on recent genetic and cytological data. Unlike the genus "Arabis" (x=8) "Boechera" has a base chromosome number of x=7. Many taxa are triploid. "Boechera" is a primarily North American genus, most diverse in the western United States but its distribution range also includes Greenland and the Russian Far East. The genus is poorly known, and species within are difficult to separate morphologically though some clearly distinct species are known.
Most members of the genus are perennial plants with pubescent leaves with stellate trichomes, narrow curving fruits, and small white to purple flowers in elongated racemes. Relationships within the genus are unclear, and some eastern North American species, including "Boechera laevigata", may belong to a clade distinct from the rest of the genus.
A very interesting feature of many species of the genus is asexual reproduction, a process known as apomixis. Microsatellite data has revealed that some of the apomictic lineages are hybrids between two or more sexual parents.
Food source.
This plant is one of the main food sources for the butterfly "Pieris oleracea."


Diospyros dictyoneura

Diospyros dictyoneura is a tree in the family Ebenaceae. It grows up to tall. The fruits are ellipsoid, up to long. The specific epithet "" is from the Greek meaning "net of nerves", referring to the leaf veins. Habitat is lowland mixed dipterocarp forests. "D. dictyoneura" is found from Indochina to west Malesia. In order to grow, the diospyros dictyoneura requires access to the sun. Its leaves are deciduous, and it attracts bees and birds.
Uses.
Diospyros dictyoneura's fruits are edible to mammals and birds.


Monogramma (plant)

Monogramma is a genus of ferns belonging to the family Pteridaceae.
Its native range is Western Indian Ocean, Malesia.
Species:


Siphocampylus

Siphocampylus is a genus of flowering plants in the family Campanulaceae. There are approximately 221 species native to the Neotropical realm. Most grow in mountain habitat.
Species include:


Smith system

A system of taxonomy of the cryptogams, the Smith system was published in


Penicillus (alga)

Penicillus is a genus of algae in the family Udoteaceae. "Corallocephalus" is a known synonym.


British NVC community OV26

British NVC community OV26 ("Epilobium hirsutum" community) is one of the open habitat communities in the British National Vegetation Classification system. It is one of four tall-herb weed communities.
This community is found throughout lowland Britain.
There are five subcommunities.
Community composition.
The following constant species are found in this community:
There are no rare species associated with the community.
Distribution.
This community is found throughout lowland Britain. It occurs on moist, but not waterlogged soils, and is one of the transitional vegetation types around open water and alongside lowland streams; it is often found on damp verges and in ditches alongside roads and tracks.
Subcommunities.
There are five subcommunities:


Dicksonia antarctica

Dicksonia antarctica, the soft tree fern or man fern, is a species of evergreen tree fern native to eastern Australia, ranging from south-east Queensland, coastal New South Wales and Victoria to Tasmania.
Anatomy and biology.
These ferns can grow to in height, but more typically grow to about , and consist of an erect rhizome forming a trunk. They are very hairy at the base of the stipe (adjoining the trunk) and on the crown. The large, dark green, roughly-textured fronds spread in a canopy of in diameter. The shapes of the stems vary as some grow curved and there are multi-headed ones. The fronds are borne in flushes, with fertile and sterile fronds often in alternating layers.
The "trunk" of this fern is merely the decaying remains of earlier growth of the plant and forms a medium through which the roots grow. The trunk is usually solitary, without runners, but may produce offsets. They can be cut down and, if they are kept moist, the top portions can be replanted and will form new roots. The stump, however, will not regenerate since it is dead organic matter. In nature, the fibrous trunks are hosts for a range of epiphytic plants including other ferns and mosses.
The fern grows at 3.5 to 5 cm per year and produces spores at the age of about 20 years.
Reproduction.
Reproduction by this species is primarily from spores, but it can also be grown from plantlets occurring around the base of the rhizome.
In cultivation, it can also be grown as a "cutting", a method not to be encouraged unless the tree-fern is doomed to die in its present position. This involves sawing the trunk through, usually at ground level, and removing the fronds; the top part will form roots and regrow, but the base will die.
Habitat.
The fern grows on damp, sheltered woodland slopes and moist gullies, and they occasionally occur at high altitudes in cloud forests. "Dicksonia antarctica" is the most abundant tree fern in South Eastern Australia.
The plant can grow in acid, neutral and alkaline soils. It can grow in semi-shade. It strongly resents drought or dryness at the roots, and does best in moist soil.
Cultivation.
"Dicksonia antarctica" grows best in areas of rainfall of over 1,000 mm per year but in lower rainfall areas does well in moist gullies. It is tolerant of fire and re-shoots readily after re-location. It can provide habitat for epiphytes and also provides shelter for more delicate fern species to flourish underneath.
Plant in organic soils and ensure the fern is kept mulched and watered. "Dicksonia antarctica" generally requires a minimum rainfall of 500 mm (20 inches) per year. In dry climates, a drip irrigation or spray system applied overhead is the most effective method of watering.
It is best to leave old fronds on the plant in order to protect the trunk from cold and desiccation. Winter protection of the trunk is recommended during prolonged or severe cold weather.
This plant is particularly suited to garden planting and landscaping purposes. As an ornamental plant, it is hardy to about , succeeding outdoors in the milder areas of Britain where it thrives and often self-sows in Cornish and Scottish west coast gardens. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
Harvesting.
Large "Dicksonia antarctica" available for sale come from old growth Tasmanian forests, and may be hundreds of years old. The trunks are also available legally from local suppliers who licence collection of minor species from Forestry Tasmania, the State Government GBE who manage forestry.
Edibility.
The soft tree fern can be used as a food source, with the pith of the plant being eaten either cooked or raw. It is a good source of starch.
The 1889 book 'The Useful Native Plants of Australia records that "The pulp of the top of the trunk is full of starch, and is eaten by the aboriginals [sic.] both raw and roasted. The native blacks [sic.] of the colony used to split open about a foot and a-half of the top of the trunk, and take out the heart,
in substance resembling a Swedish turnip, and of the thickness of a man's arm. This they either roasted in the ashes, or ate as bread; but it is too bitter and astringent to suit an English palate. (Gunn)"


Phanerogamae


Diospyros plectosepala

Diospyros plectosepala is a tree in the family Ebenaceae. It grows up to tall. The fruits are oblong to ellipsoid, up to long. The specific epithet "" is from the Greek meaning "twisted sepal". Its habitat is forests from sea-level to altitude. "D. plectosepala" is endemic to Borneo and known only from Sarawak.


Zonotriche

Zonotriche is a genus of African plants in the grass family.


Schizoserideae

The Schizoserideae are a tribe of algae in the family Delesseriaceae.


Ceratocystis pluriannulata

Ceratocystis pluriannulata is a fungal plant pathogen.


Conospermum longifolium

Conospermum longifolium, commonly known as the long leaf smokebush, is a shrub of the family Proteaceae native to eastern Australia. Found between Ulladulla, Newcastle, New South Wales and the adjacent ranges. The habitat is drier eucalyptus woodlands or heathland.
Three sub-species are recognised:


Achyranthes bidentata

Achyranthes bidentata Blume (English common name: ox knee, Chinese: 牛膝 niu xi) is a species of flowering plant in the amaranth family, Amaranthaceae. It occurs in India, Nepal, China, and Japan. It is the source of the Chinese herbal medicine huái niú xī. In Nepal its root juice is used for toothache. Its seeds have been used as a substitute for cereal grains in famine years. The plant is used externally in the treatment of leech bites in Mizoram, India and a decoction as a diuretic.


Eucalyptus gracilis

Eucalyptus gracilis, commonly known as yorrell or white mallee, is a species of mallee or small tree endemic to Australia, where it is found in south-western New South Wales], Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia. It has smooth white bark, usually with rough, fibrous or flaky bark on the lower stems, linear to narrow lance-shaped adult leaves, flower buds in group of between seven and eleven and cup-shaped, cylindrical or barrel-shaped fruit.
Description.
"Eucalyptus gracilis" is an open to spreading, multi-stemmed mallee or tree that typically grows to a height of but sometimes to . It has smooth white, grey and coppery-cream bark, but usually rough, fibrous or flaky bark at the base of the stems. Young plants and coppice regrowth have linear to narrow lance-shaped leaves long and wide. Adult leaves are arranged alternately, the same glossy green on both sides, linear to narrow lance-shaped or curved, long and wide on a petiole long. The flower buds are arranged in groups of seven, nine or eleven on an unbranched peduncle long and square in cross-section, the individual buds on pedicels long. Mature buds are club-shaped, long and wide with a flattened to rounded operculum. It blooms between March and October producing creamy-white flowers. The fruit is a woody cup-shaped, cylindrical or barrel-shaped capsule long and wide with the valves enclosed.
Taxonomy and naming.
"Eucalyptus gracilis" was first formally described by the botanist Ferdinand von Mueller in 1855 in "Transactions and Proceedings of the Victorian Institute for the Advancement of Science", from specimens collected "in the desert on the Murray River". The species name is the Latin adjective "gracilis" "slender", likely referring to its branches and habit.
Common names include snap and rattle, red mallee, white mallee, yorrell, and kong mallee.
"Eucalyptus yilgarnensis" was formerly considered a subspecies of this species.
Distribution and habitat.
Yorrell grows on sand dunes and plains, crests of rises and along creek lines in the Eremaean and South West botanical regions of Western Australia where it grows in sandy-clay-loamy soils over limestone. It is found throughout most of southern and central South Australia where it grows in mallee shrubland in a range of soils, often over limestone. In Victoria it is confined to the north-west of the state, mostly in the Big Desert and Sunset Country, east to Manangatang. It also occurs in south western New South Wales where it is found in mallee shrubland on red aeolian sands south from Yathong and west from West Wyalong.
Cultivation.
"E. gracilis" is often cultivated in open areas, wider verges, in parks and reserves and as a shelter wind-break or for erosion control. It is also known to be good for honey production. Nectar-eating birds and insects use it for food and habitat. The yellow-tailed black cockatoo consumes the seeds of this species.


Alyce clover

Alyce clover is a common name for several plants in the genus "Alysicarpus" and may refer to:


Diacanthos

Diacanthos is a genus of green algae in the family Chlorellaceae.


Moringaceae


Megaloprotachne albescens


Typha grossheimii

Typha grossheimii is a plant species native to Iran, Iraq, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and the Republic of Georgia.


Chusquea elata

Chusquea elata is a species of grass in the family Poaceae. This bamboo is endemic to Ecuador.


Taraxacum mirabile

Taraxacum mirabile is a type of dandelion that grows between 800 and 1300 meters on salty soils (especially endemic in Lake Tuz) in northern and central Turkey.


Euphrasia cuneata

Euphrasia cuneata is a perennial herb or subshrub in the genus "Euphrasia", native to New Zealand. "E. cuneata" occurs from Taranaki in the North Island southwards, in low alpine to coastal areas.
The flowers are white with yellow on the lower petal.


Brucea macrocarpa

Brucea macrocarpa is a species of plant in the Simaroubaceae family. It is endemic to Kenya, and is being threatened by habitat loss.


Passiflora pinnatistipula

Passiflora pinnatistipula, commonly known as poro poro or gulupa (Colombia), is a climbing perennial that grows in the Cajamarca region of Peru and the departments of Cundinamarca and Boyaca in Colombia produce the purple variety; the yellow, "Hawaiiana" variety is mainly grown in the Valley of Cauca. It has also been cultivated in Australia, India, U.S. (Hawaii & Florida), Kenya, Java, Sumatra, Malaysia, Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Taiwan.
It is listed on the Ark of Taste with other San Marcos Andean Fruits that are in danger of extinction. It produces impressive flowers and yellow fruit with an oblong shape containing many small seeds. The flesh is reminiscent of an orange and is used for beverages, jams, sorbets and salad dressing.


Prescottiinae

Prescottiinae was a subtribe of orchids in the family Orchidaceae. It is now considered a synonym of Cranichidinae.


Phlegmariurus dentatus

Phlegmariurus dentatus is a species of plant in the family Lycopodiaceae, endemic to the Portuguese archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira. In the Azores, it appears in sloping areas, in different woods, in natural forests and sometimes on road sides, being less demanding in humidity than "Huperzia suberecta" (there are places in Terceira where the two species coexist). It is native to seven of the nine islands. In the archipelago of Madeira it only occurs on the island of Madeira.
References.
[[Category:Endemic flora of Portugal]


Ice-ice

Ice-ice is a disease condition of seaweed. Ice-ice is caused when changes in salinity, ocean temperature and light intensity cause stress to seaweeds, making them produce a "moist organic substance" that attracts bacteria in the water and induces the characteristic "whitening" and hardening of the seaweed's tissues. Bacteria involved include those in the "Vibrio-Aeromonas" and "Cytophaga-Flavobacteria" complexes. The bacteria lyse epidermal cells and chloroplasts, turning the seaweed tissue white. The disease is known from seaweeds including "Kappaphycus alvarezii" and "Eucheuma denticulatum", economically important sources of carrageenan. In countries where seaweed is harvested as a crop, ice-ice can wreak havoc on yields. Zamboanga, Philippines, had an outbreak of ice-ice in 2004, and Bali, Indonesia, experienced an outbreak in 2009. A rise in surface sea temperatures of 2–3 degrees Celsius can trigger ice-ice outbreaks.
Pathogens.
Analysis has been performed to determine the pathogens affecting the "Gracilaria verrucosa" and "Kappaphycus alvarezii" seaweeds. Morphologic and phenotypic characteristics (16s RNA analysis) showed that the isolates from diseased "Gracilaria" belong to various genera: "Vibrio, Chromobacterium, Flavobacterium, Pseudomonas", and "Achromobacter". They belong for the most part to the group of Gammaproteobacteria, already well known from disease-related study on seaweeds. For the seaweeds "K. alvarezii" a leading candidate bacterium has been identified: "Stenotrophomonas maltophilia". In most cases it seems these microorganisms are opportunistic pathogens. Some treatments have been investigated to cure these ice-ice infections, the green algae "Caulerpa racemosa" seems to inhibit the action of the most part of these pathogens.
Effects.
The deasease seems to affect the formation of micropropagule of the algae. The protoplasm content is higher in a healthy micropropagule than in the infected ones. Protoplasm indicates occurrence of severe chronic infections of the micropropagules (algae disease are characterized by reduced number of cell protoplasm ).


Elaeocarpus hookerianus

Elaeocarpus hookerianus, commonly known as pokaka (), is a native forest tree of New Zealand. A cold tolerant plant, "E. hookerianus" can be found from valley floors to mountainous areas.
Like many other New Zealand trees it has a distinctive juvenile form where its branches are interlaced and have tiny leaves.


Eremophila alternifolia

Eremophila alternifolia, commonly known as narrow-leaved poverty bush, is a plant in the figwort family, Scrophulariaceae, and is endemic to areas between the far west of New South Wales, the far south of the Northern Territory and the southern half of Western Australia. It is a variable shrub, with respect to its growth form, leaf shape and flower colour. Aboriginal Australians used the leaves to treat ailments such as colds and skin infections and pharmacological testing has shown that the leaves contain compounds that affect cardiac activity.
Description.
"Eremophila alternifolia" is a shrub with many branches and varying in height but mostly . The branches have many raised resin glands and raised leaf scars. The leaves are arranged alternately and are usually long, wide although other dimensions are common. The leaves vary in shape from almost cylinder-shaped to flattened and egg-shaped but have a small point on the end.
The flowers are purple, red, pink, white, cream, or yellow and appear on the plant from early winter to early autumn. The flowers are arranged singly in leaf axils on an s-shaped stalk which is usually long. There are 5 greenish-yellow or reddish, egg-shaped sepals, mostly long with the outer ones slightly smaller. The 5 petals are long and joined at their base to form a tube with the upper 4 lobes pointed and the lower one spreading. Flowering occurs from June to October and is followed by fruit which are cone-shaped, dry, woody, glabrous and long.
Taxonomy and naming.
The species was first formally described in 1810 by Robert Brown and the description was published in "Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae". The specific epithet ("alternifolia") is a botanical term meaning "having leaves that alternate on each side of a stem".
Other common names for this species are round-leaved poverty bush, scented poverty bush, emubush, native honeysuckle, honeysuckle and narrow-leaved fuchsia bush.
In 1870, George Bentham described two subspecies in "Flora Australiensis":
Distribution.
"Eremophila alternifolia" occurs in arid areas of Western Australia, South Australia, Northern Territory and the Barrier Range in New South Wales, in many different habitats with stony or red soil.
Conservation status.
In Western Australia this poverty bush is widespread and is classified as "not threatened" by the Government of Western Australia Department of Parks and Wildlife.
Uses.
Medicine.
Parts of this plant have been used as a traditional medicine. A small quantity was used in a preparation for treating colds and inflammation of the throat, an infusion of the leaves as a soporific, and other parts combined as a topical treatment. An indigenous name for the plant, Tarrtjan translated as "Goldfields", a region in the West where it is found. Compounds such as verbascoside present in the leaves of this species have been shown to have both antibacterial properties and the ability to dilate blood vessels.
Horticulture.
This eremophila is an attractive shrub which is covered with masses of flowers in season. As with other members of the genus, it is sold as a drought resistant garden plant that is appealing to birds. It is a common garden plant, growing best in dry climates but has grown in more humid areas. Most forms are moderately frost tolerant but require well-drained soil and full sun. It is most easily propagated from cuttings.
References.
[[Category:Taxa named by Robert Brown (botanist, born 1773)


Pleurophyllum speciosum

Pleurophyllum speciosum, also known as the giant emperor daisy or Campbell Island daisy, is a megaherb native to the Auckland and Campbell Islands of New Zealand. A false colour image is depicted on the lower left corner on the reverse of the current five dollar New Zealand banknote. The Campbell Island daisy was first described by Joseph Dalton Hooker in "Flora Antarctica" of 1844, after he had collected it during the Ross expedition.
Conservation status.
In both 2009 and 2012 it was deemed to be "At Risk - Naturally Uncommon" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System, and this New Zealand classification was reaffirmed in 2018 (due to its restricted range).


Aphanochaetaceae

Aphanochaetaceae is a family of algae in the order Chaetophorales.


Geranium cinereum

Geranium cinereum, the ashy cranesbill, is a species of flowering plant in the family Geraniaceae, native to the Pyrenees. Growing to tall and wide, it is a small, deciduous or semi-evergreen perennial usually grown for low ground cover, rockeries or underplanting larger subjects like roses. Leaves are deeply divided and grey-green - whence The Latin specific epithet "cinereum" “ash-grey”. It flowers in summer, with striking black-eyed flowers with black stamens.
The plant grows in full sunlight, and is hardy down to .
In cultivation in the UK the following cultivars in the Cinereum Group have been given a Royal Horticultural Society Award of Garden Merit:-


Eucalyptus depauperata

Eucalyptus depauperata is a species of mallee that is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It has spindly stems with smooth bark, linear to narrow elliptic adult leaves, flower buds in groups of seven, usually lemon-yellow flowers and conical to cup-shaped fruit. It is most common near Lake King.
Description.
"Eucalyptus depauperata" is a mallee with spindly stems that typically grows to a height of but can be as tall as , and forms a lignotuber. The bark is smooth and pale grey to salmon-brown in colour. Young plants and coppice regrowth have leaves that are linear to oblong, long and wide on a short petiole. The adult leaves are the same glossy green on both sides, linear to narrowly elliptic, long and wide on a petiole long. The flower buds are borne in leaf axils on a pendulous, flattened, unbranched peduncle long, the individual buds on a pedicel long. Mature buds are spindle-shaped, long and wide, with a blunt horn-shaped operculum that is two or three times as long as the floral cup. Flowering occurs from September to November and the flowers are lemon-yellow, or sometimes pink-red. The fruits are woody, pendulous, conical to cup-shaped capsules that are long and wide on a pedicel long and contain dark brown flattened-ovoid shaped seeds.
Taxonomy and naming.
"Eucalyptus depauperata" was first formally described by the botanists Lawrie Johnson and Ken Hill in 1992 in the journal "Telopea". The type specimen was collected by Hill in 1988 near Lake King. The specific epithet ("depauperata") is a mediaeval Latin word meaning "made poor", referring to the small habit, buds and fruits on this species.
This species is part of the "Eucalyptus" subgenus "Symphyomyrtus" in the section "Bisectae" and the subsection "Glandulosae". It is closely related to "E. eremophila", "E. incerata" and "E. tenera".
Distribution and habitat.
This mallee is found on sandplains and lateritic breakaways in the southern Wheatbelt and Goldfields-Esperance regions of Western Australia.
Its range extends from the southern wheatbelt, with large numbers around Lake King extending south-east to around Munglinup.
Conservation status.
"Eucalyptus depauperata" is classified as "not threatened" by the Western Australian Government Department of Parks and Wildlife.


Glottiphyllum nelii

Glottiphyllum nelii (not to be confused with the similarly named "Glottiphyllum neilii") is a species of succulent plant, of the family "Aizoaceae". It is indigenous to the arid Great Karoo region, South Africa.
Description.
The leaves are shiny, green and distichous (produced in two parallel ranks), with smooth, rounded tips.
This species often has lines of translucent cells, along the margins and keel of its leaves. This character can often be used to identify "G. nelii".
The seed capsule has 8 or fewer locules, high valves (over ), and a thick, angular, conical base. After it has dried, the capsule soon falls off from the plant.
It resembles its closest relative "Glottiphyllum oligocarpum", in its general form, but its leaves are glossy and do not have any waxy, white covering.
Distribution.
This species occurs in shaley-loamy soils - often in the shelter of bushes - in an east–west belt, north of the Swartberg Mountain range, in the Western Cape and Eastern Cape provinces, South Africa.


Centropogon rubiginosus

Centropogon rubiginosus is a species of plant in the family Campanulaceae.
Distribution and habitat.
"Centropogon rubiginosus" is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests. It is found in terrestrial environments.
Conservation.
"Centropogon rubiginosus" is threatened by habitat loss. This species is recorded to be an endangered species. The species is plentiful in the area that it grows in, but it is being threatened by fires that are man-made and the agriculture modernization.


Echium webbii

Echium webbii is a species of flowering plants of the family Boraginaceae. It is endemic to the Canary Islands, where it is restricted to the island of La Palma. The species was first described by Auguste-Henri de Coincy. The specific name "webbii" refers to botanist Philip Barker Webb.
The flowers are normally blue and produced in numerous spikes in early summer, but a hybrid is sometimes seen with white or pink flowers. It grows to average height , maximum height .
The plant is not very tolerant of cold, and in the wild is a shrub. It can be grown in gardens in mild areas, but requires good drainage.


Nepenthes sp. Misool

"Nepenthes" sp. Misool is an undescribed tropical pitcher plant found on the island of Misool in the Raja Ampat archipelago of Indonesia. It is similar to the extremely variable "N. neoguineensis".
"Nepenthes" sp. Misool is not currently threatened in the wild. In "Pitcher Plants of the Old World", Stewart McPherson writes:
Misool remains difficult and expensive to reach; during my observations, I hired a local fishing boat to travel to the island, and this trip alone required one metric ton of fuel!


Polygala multiflora

Polygala multiflora is a plant species in the milkwort family (Polygalaceae). It is native to Western Africa. It is an erect plant and is considered to be "probably " though it can grow up to tall. Its stems are puberlouous (covered with soft hairs) and its leaves are long and wide. The flowers it produces are blue or purple. It was first written about was part of the Encyclopédie méthodique Botanique in 1804 by Jean Louis Marie Poiret.


Hatiora

Hatiora is a small genus of epiphytic cacti which belongs to the tribe Rhipsalideae within the subfamily Cactoideae of the Cactaceae. Recent taxonomic studies have led to the three species formerly placed in subgenus "Rhipsalidopsis" being removed from the genus, including the well known and widely cultivated ornamental plants known as Easter cactus or Whitsun cactus (cultivars or hybrids of the former "Hatiora gaertneri").
Description.
All "Hatiora" species are found as epiphytes growing on trees or (rarely) lithophytes growing on rocks. They are found in the tropical rainforests of the Mata Atlântica in eastern Brazil. The plants are weakly succulent, growing more or less upright and becoming woody at the base when older. Spines are usually missing. The insect-pollinated flowers are borne terminally. They are small, with a diameter of about , actinomorphic (radially symmetrical), bell-shaped and always coloured (yellow, yellow-orange or pink). The fruit is a berry. By contrast with species of the genus "Schlumbergera", most of which have flattened stems, "Hatiora" species have stems with a circular cross-section.
Taxonomy.
Cacti belonging to the tribe Rhipsalideae are quite distinct in appearance and habit from other cacti, as they grow on trees or rocks as epiphytes or lithophytes. However, for a long time there has been confusion as to how the rhipsalid species should be divided into genera. In 1819, Haworth described the first discovered species of the modern genus "Hatiora" under the name "Rhipsalis salicornioides". In 1834, A.P. de Candolle recognized the distinctness of this species and transferred it to a new genus "Hariota", named after Thomas Hariot, a 16th-century botanist. Later a second species, "H. gaertneri", was initially named as "Epiphyllum russellianum" var. "gaertneri" ("Epiphyllum russellianum" is now "Schlumbergera russelliana") and then in 1889 as "Epiphyllum gaertneri". A third species, "H. rosea", was described in 1912 as "Rhipsalis rosea".
By 1923, many nomenclatural uncertainties and confusion had arisen over the name "Hariota". Nathaniel Britton and Joseph Rose created a new name "Hatiora" as a taxonomic anagram of "Hariota". Of the species known at the time, they placed "Hariota salicornioides" in "Hatiora" along with "H. cylindrica"; they had already placed "H. gaertneri" in "Schlumbergera" in 1913 and left it there; and they erected a new genus, "Rhipsalidopsis", for "H. rosea". Two further species which have been assigned to "Hatiora" were placed in various genera, including the original "Hariota" and "Rhipsalis". According to Anderson, the confusion among the Rhipsalideae was not clarified until work by Wilhelm Barthlott and Nigel Taylor in 1995, which placed six species in "Hatiora", divided between two subgenera.
Phylogenetic studies using DNA have led to a modification of the Barthlott and Taylor classification and the three species of "Hatiora" they placed in subgenus "Rhipsalidopsis" have been transferred out of the genus. There is agreement that "Hatiora epiphylloides" should be placed in "Schlumbergera" (as "Schlumbergera lutea"). There is disagreement over the other two species. Some sources also include them in a broadly defined "Schlumbergera", others place them as the only two species in the genus "Rhipsalidopsis". "Hatiora" and the most broadly circumscribed "Schlumbergera" both branch from the tip and have short segments (less than 7 cm long). "Hatiora" has stems that are round in cross-section and radially symmetrical (actinomorphic) flowers, whereas "Schlumbergera" has flattened or otherwise angular stems and its flowers may be radially symmetrical or radially unsymmetrical (zygomorphic).
Subgeneric classification and species.
In the taxonomic treatments of the genus by Barthlott & Taylor (1995) and Hunt (2006), "Hatiora" was divided into two subgenera with six accepted species, plus a hybrid created in cultivation. Subgenus "Rhipsalidopsis" has subsequently been removed from "Hatiora".


Eragrostis tremula

Eragrostis tremula is an annual grass that is native to tropical Africa, India and Myanmar. It is found in sandy soils and abandoned cultivation.
Description.
Ascending culms can grow up to 75 centimeters.
Uses.
It is used as fodder for cattle and eaten in times of food scarcity.


Clematis napaulensis

Clematis napaulensis is a species of flowering plant in the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae, native to China and the Indian subcontinent. The nodding cream-coloured flowers are up to across and scented. They are followed by handsome large fruit clusters. The plant will not survive harsh winter climates.


Acaena tesca

Acaena tesca is a species of low growing perennial plant restricted to the upper slopes of the mountains of central Otago and northern Southland in the South Island of New Zealand.
This plant spreads using subterranean stems and forms mats in suitable areas. Its habitat is among the high, bleak tussock grasslands of central South Island, growing between tussocks and around rock outcrops. It can be distinguished from its closest congeners by the glaucous leaves with red teeth and its spreading, mat-forming (rather than compact) habit. Flowering occurs in January with fruit being produced in February and March.
Conservation status.
In 2018, it was classified as "Not Threatened" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System.


Schlumbergera gaertneri

Schlumbergera gaertneri, formerly Hatiora gaertneri, is a species of epiphytic cactus which belongs to the tribe Rhipsalideae within the subfamily Cactoideae of the Cactaceae. Together with the hybrid with "S. rosea", Schlumbergera" × "graeseri, it is known as Easter cactus or Whitsun cactus and is a widely cultivated ornamental plant. It has received the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
Description.
"Schlumbergera gaertneri" is found in southeastern Brazil, in Paraná and Santa Catarina, at altitudes of .
As with other species of the genus, "S. gaertneri" grows on trees (epiphytic) or less often rocks (lithophytic) in sub-tropical rain forest. With maturity, it develops into a branching pendant leafless shrub with a woody base. The stems are made up of segments, most of which are flattened and which are the photosynthetic organs (cladodes) of the plant. Younger segments are dullish green, long and wide, with small notches on the margins. Structures characteristic of cacti, called areoles, form in these notches. Flowers form from areoles at the ends of the stems. These are scarlet in colour, long, radially symmetrical (actinomorphic), opening to a funnel shape with a maximum diameter of about . Red oblong fruits form after the flowers are fertilized.
Taxonomy.
Although cacti belonging to the tribe Rhipsalideae are quite distinct in appearance and habit from other cacti, as they grow on trees or rocks as epiphytes or lithophytes, for a long time there has been confusion as to how the species should be placed into genera. "Schlumbergera gaertneri" was first described in 1884 by Eduard von Regel as the variety "gaertneri" of "Epiphyllum russellianum" (now "Schlumbergera russelliana"). The name honours Joseph Gaertner. In 1889, William Watson elevated it to the full species "E. gaertneri" and in 1913, Nathaniel Britton and Josephy Rose transferred it to "Schlumbergera" as "S. gaertneri".
The relationship to "S. russelliana" was based on the appearance of the stems, made up of somewhat flattened segments with small teeth, and the radially symmetrical shape of the flowers. However, the deeper structure of the flower differs from other "Schlumbergera" species, which have a short floral tube at the base of the flower formed by fused petals, and stamens arranged in two distinct series, whereas "S. gaertneri" has separate petals and a single series of stamens. "S. gaertneri" was separated from "Schlumbergera" as "Rhipsalis gaertneri" by Friedrich Vaupel in 1925, after which it was successively transferred to "Epiphyllopsis" by Alwin Berger in 1929, "Rhipsalidopsis" by Reid Moran in 1953, and "Hatiora" by Wilhelm Barthlott in 1987. More recently, it has been restored to "Schlumbergera" as the result of molecular phylogenetic studies.
In horticultural sources, the Easter cactus continued to be referred to as "Schlumbergera gaertneri" (even when other sources placed it in "Hatiora"), and also as "Rhipsalidopsis gaertneri".
Cultivation.
Under the name Easter cactus or Whitsun cactus, "Schlumbergera gaertneri" is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant for its scarlet flowers. Its common names reflect the period in which it flowers in the Northern Hemisphere, namely late Spring. It has been artificially crossed with a pink-flowered species, "Schlumbergera rosea", to form the hybrid "S." × "graeseri", cultivars of which have flowers in a wider range of colours.
The Easter cactus is considered more difficult to grow than the Christmas or Thanksgiving cactus (other cultivars and hybrids of "Schlumbergera"). Recommendations for care include:


Porlieria

Porlieria is a genus of flowering plants in the caltrop family, Zygophyllaceae. Species within this genus are shrubs or small trees of dry subtropical regions. The generic name honours Spanish ambassador Don Antonio Porlier de Baxamar.


Epilobium leptophyllum

Epilobium leptophyllum is a species of flowering plant in the evening primrose family known by the common names bog willowherb and linear-leaved willowherb. It is native to much of eastern and northern North America, where it grows in moist areas, such as bogs. It is a perennial herb growing up to a meter tall and spreading with tiny stolons. The leaves are generally linear in shape but may be wider to nearly oval, and reach up to about 7.5 centimeters. The inflorescence is a raceme of small flowers with white to pink petals a few millimeters long. The fruit is a hairy, elongated capsule up to 8 centimeters in length.


Lam Tsuen wishing trees

The Lam Tsuen Wishing Trees () are a popular shrine in Hong Kong located near the Tin Hau Temple in Fong Ma Po Village, Lam Tsuen. The temple was built around 1768 or 1771, during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor in the Qing dynasty (1644-1912).
The two banyan trees are frequented by tourists and locals during the Lunar New Year. Previously, they burnt joss sticks, wrote their wishes on joss paper tied to an orange, then threw them up to hang in these trees. It was believed that if the paper successfully hung onto one of the tree branches, these wishes would come true.
This practice was discouraged by the authorities after 12February 2005, when one of the branches gave way and injured two people. Instead, wooden racks are set up in place for joss papers to be hung while a period of conservation is imposed to help these trees recover and flourish.
The Hong Kong Morris, a morris dancing team based in Hong Kong, dances at the Wishing Tree on 1May each year to celebrate the arrival of summer.
History.
Lam Tsuen has been a residential area since the Song Dynasty, which was about 700 years ago. The commencement of residence was believed to be in 1287 A.D. Tin Hau Temple, which the wishing trees locate aside, was built during the Qianlong period in the Qing Dynasty. It was used as the ‘highest administrative body’ in Lam Tsuen, responsible for policies and administration of the villages covered in Lam Tsuen. Luk Wo Tong was made a substitute of Tin Hau Temple in 1954 by the Lam Tsuen Valley Committee. Lam Tsuen wishing tree was an ordinary camphor tree where a tablet for enshrining and worshipping Pak Kung was placed. As years passed, the branches and leaves gradually withered and eventually it became a hollow tree. People started to believe that Lam Tsuen wishing tree was magical after a legend: a man whose son had had a slow learning progress made a wish to a hollow tree. After that, his son’s academic performance has shown drastic improvement. This was spread to other people and an influx of them flocking to make their wishes to the hollow tree occurred. That hollow tree therefore became renowned.
Ways of throwing wishes onto the tree.
There are four wishing trees in Lam Tsuen. Different trees symbolise various wishes. The first tree prays for career, academic and wealth. The second tree is for marriage and pregnancy. For the third tree, it states anything can be prayed. Yet, the fourth tree is believed to be most special. It is a fake 25-foot wishing tree made of plastic. This plastic fake wishing tree allows worshippers to throw their wishes to the tree, called “Bao Die” in Chinese. A traditional “ Bao Die “ includes an orange and it ties with a yellow paper. Worshippers can write their name, date of birth and wishes on the yellow paper and throw it to the wishing tree.
If you can successfully throw the “Bao die” and it hangs up on the tree or its branches, the myth said your wishes can come true. However, if it drops, the legend reckoned that your wishes are too greedy. But still, if the “wishes” drop, do not give up, try more and keep throwing until you make your wishes success.
Festival.
Lam Tsuen holds the Hong Kong Well-Wishing Festival found in 2011, is the local characteristic Chinese New Year celebration activity which attracts hundreds of thousands local citizens and tourists from all over the world to Lam Tsuen every year. Held every first and 15th of the first month in lunar calendar and locates in Village in Lam Tsuen in Tai Po, Lam Tsuen Wishing Tree Festival has become an activity in Chinese New Year. Various activities at the festival include throwing wishing placard, setting wishing lanterns to make wish, joining international float exhibition, shopping in food carnival and setting lantern light to celebrate new born babies. The festival is held by the collaboration with HKSAR government and Lam Tsuen. The reporters said that the festival attracted many local citizens and visitors to visit and enjoy a series of activities. Citizens can take the bus 64K and [[64P at [[MTR]] [[Tai Po Market station]] and alight at [[Fong Ma Po]]. Also, they can take Minibus 25K and get off at Lam Tsuen Wishing Trees. Taking taxi at MTR [[Tai Wo station]] can also arrive Lam Tsuen.
Accident.
[[File:HK LamTsuenWishingTree PasticTree 2010.JPG|thumb|The new plastic artificial tree]]
On 12 February 2005, the fourth day of the Chinese New Year, one of the branches was broken due to large amount of oranges and paper offerings were thrown onto the [[banyan tree]]. The accident has injured a man aged 62 and a four-year-old boy. Tree experts soon examined the structure and the condition of the wishing tree, concluding that all unhealthy branches would be removed, and wounds on the tree had been treated as to avoid infection. As a result, the throwing of “Bao Die” was quickly prohibited by the government after the incident, meanwhile reinforcing the wishing tradition by letting people hang the offerings on a wooden frame placed next to the original banyan tree. Due to the lack of attractiveness of the attraction, A new plastic tree from [[Guangzhou]] was purchased in late 2009, plastic mandarin oranges are now only allowed to be tied to the branches. The tradition was able to continue since then.
References.
[[Category:Lam Tsuen]]
[[Category:Tai Po District]]
[[Category:Religious buildings and structures in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Individual banyan trees]]
[[Category:Individual trees in China]]


Trebouxiales

The Trebouxiales are an order of green algae in the class Trebouxiophyceae. It is often found in Estonia.


Trichomanes

Trichomanes is a genus of ferns in the family Hymenophyllaceae, termed bristle ferns. The circumscription of the genus is disputed. All ferns in the genus are filmy ferns, with leaf tissue typically 2 cells thick. This thinness generally necessitates a permanently humid habitat, and makes the fronds somewhat translucent.
The name bristle fern refers to the small bristle that protrudes from the indusia of these ferns.
Taxonomy.
The genus "Trichomanes" was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. Its status, like other genera in the subfamily Trichomanoideae, remains disputed. The Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I) accepts the genus as one of eight in the subfamily Trichomanoideae, saying that there are about 60 species. , the "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World" listed about 70 species. Other sources, including "Plants of the World Online" , treated "Trichomanes" as the only genus in the subfamily Trichomanoideae, so that it included all the other genera, and had about 250 species.
Species.
, the "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World" accepted the following species:
Species formerly placed in this genus include:


Butomaceae


Henri Lucien Jumelle

Henri Lucien Jumelle (25 November 1866 in Dreux, Eure-et-Loir Department France – 6 December 1935 in Marseille, Bouches-du-Rhône Department, France) was a French botanist.
From 1887 to 1894, he worked as a plant physiologist at the Faculté des Sciences in Paris. Afterwards, he was a professor of botany at the Faculté des Sciences in Marseille (1894-1935). From 1898 to 1916, he was assistant director, then director of the "Musée colonial et du Jardin botanique" in Marseille.
He held a deep interest in applied botany, publishing numerous treatises on the agricultural aspects of various plants. During his career, he worked closely with botanist Joseph Alfred Perrier de la Bâthie, who sent him botanical material from Madagascar. As a taxonomist, he circumscribed many new species native to Madagascar.
From 1922 to 1935, he was a correspondent-member of the Académie des Sciences (botanical section).


Idiospermum

Idiospermum is a genus containing a single species of tree, Idiospermum australiense, found in Australian tropical rainforests. The species represents one of the earliest known lineages of flowering plants, dating back as far as 120 million years. It is found today only in the Daintree and Wet Tropics rainforests region of north-eastern Queensland. It is endemic to a very few locations in north-eastern Queensland (e.g. in Daintree National Park), in the very wet lowland parts of the forest, in groups of 10–100 trees together (rather than scattered individuals). Common names include ribbonwood and idiot fruit .
Description.
Ribbonwood trees grow naturally in their wet tropical rainforest habitats as evergreens up to about tall and about in diameter at breast height (DBH). The simple leaves grow singly, in pairs or in whorls of 3–4, each one measuring about long and wide. The flowers measure in diameter, with all floral organs spirally arranged . The tepals are initially creamy white when the flower opens, then turn red as the flower ages. The "fruits" have very distinctive features and do not fit within the definition of true fruits as such: all the protective layers decay while still on the parent tree and each one released is an extremely large ( diameter) naked plant embryo . This is one of the very largest embryos in flowering plants. It is very toxic, inducing symptoms (in cattle) similar to strychnine .
Reproductive organs.
Plants have both male and female sex organs, but half of the flowers of the ribbonwood do not produce any fertile female organs . Attracted by the scent and colour of the flower, small beetles and thrips are the main floral visitors ; they crawl in and lay their eggs within the center of the flower, which contains the flower's pollen. Within the flower some of the sticky pollen gets trapped on the insect's bodies, and if the next flower they visit is a receptive one, it will pollinate and produce the seeds.
While most modern flowering plants produce seeds which have one cotyledon (monocotyledons) or two (dicotyledons), the seedlings of the Ribbonwood have between two and five cotyledons. Also the ribbonwood can produce more than one shoot per seed (usually one per cotyledon). "I. australiense" is the only known species in which the flowers display a continuous spiral series of bracts, sepals, petals, stamens and finally staminodes.
Seeds and their dispersal ecology.
The seeds are currently mainly spread through gravity dispersal, the seeds rolling down the steep mountain slopes to find their new home. The seeds are so toxic that most animals cannot eat them without being severely poisoned; however it is known that the native musky rat-kangaroo does disperse and bury some of these seeds. It has been suggested that the seeds were formerly dispersed by the now-extinct "Diprotodon", on the basis that many Australian marsupials are adapted to cope with the toxins in Australian plants.
The plants have adapted a unique poison, a chemical called idiospermuline contained within the seed, to prevent animals eating them. Researchers discovered the poison affects transmission of messages between individual nerve cells, which may cause seizures. In small doses this chemical can be used to save lives.
Etymology.
The name "Idiospermum" derives from the Ancient Greek "idios" meaning individuality or peculiarity, and "spérma" meaning seed, referring to the unique characteristics of the fruits. The common name "idiot fruit" is a mistranslation of this.
Scientific recognition.
The first European-Australians to recognise the trees were timber cutters south of Cairns in the late 1800s. It was thought to have become extinct, but was later brought to the attention of the German botanist Ludwig Diels, who in 1902 described the species in the genus "Calycanthus" as "C. australiense", a remarkable disjunction for this otherwise North American genus. It was later believed to be extinct again, because when Diels finally returned to the location where this tree was found, the natural vegetation had been destroyed for a sugar cane farm.
In 1971, John Nicholas, a Daintree grazier, believing someone to be poisoning his cattle, called in the police. A government veterinarian, Doug Clague, discovered in the cows’ stomachs relatively intact Idiospermum seeds that had been swallowed whole. Curious about this seed’s ability to completely knock cattle dead—after first causing spasms and paralysing the nerves—he sent specimens off to the Queensland Herbarium, who told him that he had made the botanical discovery of the century.


Dryptodon (plant)

Dryptodon is a genus of mosses belonging to the family Grimmiaceae.
The genus has almost cosmopolitan distribution.
Species:


Camissonia pusilla

Camissonia pusilla is a species of evening primrose known by the common name little wiry suncup. It is native to the western United States from California to Idaho, where it grows in sagebrush and other habitat. It is a petite, hairy, glandular annual herb producing very slender erect stems up to about 22 centimeters in maximum height. The leaves linear with toothed edges and 1 to 3 centimeters long. The nodding inflorescence produces flowers with yellow petals 2 or 3 millimeters long and usually spotted with red near the bases. The fruit is a straight or coiling capsule up to 3 centimeters long.


Reinhardtieae


Dodecatheon alpinum

Dodecatheon alpinum is a perennial plant in the primrose family, Primulaceae, known by the common name alpine shooting star.
This wildflower is native to the Western United States, in California, Arizona, Nevada, Oregon, and Utah. The plant grows in wet areas in the mountains, such as in the Sierra Nevada and Transverse Ranges.
Description.
"Dodecatheon alpinum" is partially aquatic, sometimes growing along the edges of bogs and in shallow, slow rivulets. This is a thick-rooted perennial with narrow, straight leaves around the base.
It erects slim, tall stems which are dark in color and are topped with inflorescences of one or more showy flowers. Each flower nods with its mouth pointed to the ground when new, and becomes more erect with age. It has four reflexed sepals in shades of bright pink or lavender which lie back against the body of the flower. These may have bases of white or yellow which rim the corolla. From the corolla mouth protrude large black anthers and a thready stigma.
It flowers from June to August.


Pratylenchus thornei

Thorne's meadow nematode (Thorne's root-lesion nematode; "Pratylenchus thornei") is a plant pathogenic nematode.


Ceratozamia miqueliana

Ceratozamia miqueliana is a species of plant in the family Zamiaceae. It is endemic to Chiapas and Veracruz, Mexico. It is currently found in Coatzacoalcos and Santiago Tuxtla. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Coccoloba padiformis

Coccoloba padiformis is a plant species in the genus "Coccoloba". It is distributed in Mesoamerica and northern South America.


Phycopeltis

Phycopeltis is a genus of green algae in the family Trentepohliaceae.


Lithocarpus kochummenii

Lithocarpus kochummenii is a tree in the beech family Fagaceae. It is named for the botanist K. M. Kochummen.
Description.
"Lithocarpus kochummenii" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to with stilt roots measuring up high. The reddish brown bark is fissured or lenticellate. Its coriaceous leaves measure up to long. The flowers are solitary along the rachis. Its brown acorns are conical and measure up to across.
Distribution and habitat.
"Lithocarpus kochummenii" is endemic to Borneo. Its habitat is "kerangas", riverside or montane forests from to altitude.


Solanum arcanum

Solanum arcanum is a species of nightshade, commonly called the "wild tomato," endemic to Peru.
Description.
The wild tomato is a perennial herb, woody at the base, the herb being up to or more in diameter and up to 1m tall. Its stem is between in diameter at its base, often hollow, green, glabrous to variously pubescent with a mixture of simple uniseriate trichomes.
Its sympodial units are 2-foliate; internodes being between . Its leaves are interrupted imparipinnate, green to pale beneath, glabrous to sparsely short pubescent with a mixture of simple uniseriate trichomes, some populations lacking trichomes. The petiolule is between .
Inflorescences are between in size, simple, with 5–20 flowers, ebracteate or nearly all the nodes bracteate; peduncle between , glabrous and minutely glandular to densely velvety pubescent with intermixed longer patent trichomes like those of the stems. The pedicels are between , articulated at the middle or in the distal half. Buds are conical, straight, approximately half way exerted from the calyx. Flowers with the calyx tube are minute, the lobes lanceolate; corolla is between , pentagonal and yellow.
Ovary is globose, glabrous or with a few minute trichomes at the apex; the style being between ; stigma capitate and green. The fruit is between in diameter, globose and green with a dark green stripe around it that may change to purple at maturity. Seeds are obovate, narrowly winged at the apex and acute at the base, pale brown, pubescent with hair-like outgrowths of the tegument cell radial walls, which give the surface a silky appearance. Chromosome number: n=12.
Distribution.
It is found in coastal and inland Andean valleys in northern Peru (between ).


Hymenophyton flabellatum

Hymenophyton flabellatum is a species of the order Metzgeriales (liverworts), one of perhaps several species in the genus "Hymenophyton". It is a dendroid thalloid liverwort belongs to the family Hymenophytaceae and is commonly known as Fan liverwort. It is found in New Zealand, Chile, and common in wet forests of Australia and Tasmania. "Hymenophyton flabellatum" closely resembles with small filmy fern, "Hymenophyllum" and can be confused with the liverwort, "Symphyogyna hymenophyllum."
Description.
"Hymenophyton flabellatum" is plagiotropic, branched rhizome-like axes with aerial shoots divided into upright stalks. Palmate fronds or flabellate are olive green, with forking, 5-6 times and forked thallus wings spreading out horizontally. Segments are flat, slightly undulate at borders, 0.8 to 1.2mm in wide. Segments with obtuse apex are limited in growth. Growing apex contains 1-celled marginal slime papillae Lamina cells are 35-49µm in length, 23-30µm wide, 23-35µm thickness. Marginal cells are short of 18-23 µm in length and 33-35µm in width. 3 to 4 or 5 to 6 male branches per frond which are lateral on stalk or nerve bifurcation. Female scale has toothed margin. Hymenophyton species produce spores and disperse through a spirally thickened, elongate structure called elaters.
The central strand of "Hymenophyton flabellatum" contains long and axially elongated water conducting cells with pointed ends. The mature water conducting cells lack living contents and thickened wall of water conducting cells possess oblique slit shaped depression. Adjacent cells connected through small perforations within the depression.
Phytochemicals.
Apigenin 6,8-di-C-glycosides have been detected as characteristic chemical compounds in "Hymenophyton flabellatum." Pungent-tasting chemical compound 1-(2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl)-but-2(E)-en-1-one was isolated from ether extract of "Hymenophyton flabellatum. This chemical compound is responsible for the pungent taste of H. flabellatum upon chewing."
Insect relation.
"Hymenophyton flabellatum" is act as a larval host, provide home and food for "Sabatinca chalcophanes."
Distribution and Habitat.
"Hymenophyton flabellatum" commonly found in New Zealand, Australia, Tasmania, Chile in rain forest and wet forest. It grows on shaded wet soil, humus, and old logs in forest, and along rivers sides. Bush Blitz survey 2010 reported the prenece of "Hymenophyton flabellatum" in two locations, Seventeen Mile plain, Vale of Belvoir reserves, Tasmania. Additional report recorded the presence of this liverwort in Teepookana forest site in Tasmania, found on fallen portion of the old Huon pine tree.


Passiflora telesiphe

Passiflora telesiphe is a species of flowering plant in the family Passifloraceae. It is endemic to Ecuador.
This is a vine with slender branches. The three-lobed leaves are up to 8 by 11 centimeters. The upper surface of the leaf is dark green, sometimes mottled with white, and the underside is purple. The flowers are solitary or paired with purple-tinged white petals. The filaments are white or purplish and are up to 2.6 centimeters long. The fruit has not been observed. This species is a member of the subgenus "Decaloba".
This plant was first described to science in 1998. It was discovered in Ecuador during a 1993 observation of local butterfly fauna. A male telesiphe longwing ("Heliconius telesiphe") was noted hovering about a plant, and the eggs and pupae of the species were found on it. The new plant was then named after the butterfly.
So far this plant is known only from Zamora-Chinchipe Province. It is found in low Andean forest habitat at around 1700 meters in elevation.