Cytosol

The cytosol, also known as intracellular fluid (ICF) or cytoplasmic matrix, or groundplasm, is the liquid found inside cells. It is separated into compartments by membranes. For example, the mitochondrial matrix separates the mitochondrion into many compartments.
In the eukaryotic cell, the cytosol is surrounded by the cell membrane and is part of the cytoplasm, which also comprises the mitochondria, plastids, and other organelles (but not their internal fluids and structures); the cell nucleus is separate. The cytosol is thus a liquid matrix around the organelles. In prokaryotes, most of the chemical reactions of metabolism take place in the cytosol, while a few take place in membranes or in the periplasmic space. In eukaryotes, while many metabolic pathways still occur in the cytosol, others take place within organelles.
The cytosol is a complex mixture of substances dissolved in water. Although water forms the large majority of the cytosol, its structure and properties within cells is not well understood. The concentrations of ions such as sodium and potassium in the cytosol are different to those in the extracellular fluid; these differences in ion levels are important in processes such as osmoregulation, cell signaling, and the generation of action potentials in excitable cells such as endocrine, nerve and muscle cells. The cytosol also contains large amounts of macromolecules, which can alter how molecules behave, through macromolecular crowding.
Although it was once thought to be a simple solution of molecules, the cytosol has multiple levels of organization. These include concentration gradients of small molecules such as calcium, large complexes of enzymes that act together and take part in metabolic pathways, and protein complexes such as proteasomes and carboxysomes that enclose and separate parts of the cytosol.
Definition.
The term "cytosol" was first introduced in 1965 by H. A. Lardy, and initially referred to the liquid that was produced by breaking cells apart and pelleting all the insoluble components by ultracentrifugation. Such a soluble cell extract is not identical to the soluble part of the cell cytoplasm and is usually called a cytoplasmic fraction.
The term "cytosol" is now used to refer to the liquid phase of the cytoplasm in an intact cell. This excludes any part of the cytoplasm that is contained within organelles. Due to the possibility of confusion between the use of the word "cytosol" to refer to both extracts of cells and the soluble part of the cytoplasm in intact cells, the phrase "aqueous cytoplasm" has been used to describe the liquid contents of the cytoplasm of living cells.
Prior to this, other terms, including hyaloplasm, were used for the cell fluid, not always synonymously, as its nature was not very clear (see protoplasm).
Properties and composition.
The proportion of cell volume that is cytosol varies: for example while this compartment forms the bulk of cell structure in bacteria, in plant cells the main compartment is the large central vacuole. The cytosol consists mostly of water, dissolved ions, small molecules, and large water-soluble molecules (such as proteins). The majority of these non-protein molecules have a molecular mass of less than 300 Da. This mixture of small molecules is extraordinarily complex, as the variety of molecules that are involved in metabolism (the metabolites) is immense. For example, up to 200,000 different small molecules might be made in plants, although not all these will be present in the same species, or in a single cell. Estimates of the number of metabolites in single cells such as "E. coli" and baker's yeast predict that under 1,000 are made.
Water.
Most of the cytosol is water, which makes up about 70% of the total volume of a typical cell. The pH of the intracellular fluid is 7.4. while human cytosolic pH ranges between 7.0–7.4, and is usually higher if a cell is growing. The viscosity of cytoplasm is roughly the same as pure water, although diffusion of small molecules through this liquid is about fourfold slower than in pure water, due mostly to collisions with the large numbers of macromolecules in the cytosol. Studies in the brine shrimp have examined how water affects cell functions; these saw that a 20% reduction in the amount of water in a cell inhibits metabolism, with metabolism decreasing progressively as the cell dries out and all metabolic activity halting when the water level reaches 70% below normal.
Although water is vital for life, the structure of this water in the cytosol is not well understood, mostly because methods such as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy only give information on the average structure of water, and cannot measure local variations at the microscopic scale. Even the structure of pure water is poorly understood, due to the ability of water to form structures such as water clusters through hydrogen bonds.
The classic view of water in cells is that about 5% of this water is strongly bound in by solutes or macromolecules as water of solvation, while the majority has the same structure as pure water. This water of solvation is not active in osmosis and may have different solvent properties, so that some dissolved molecules are excluded, while others become concentrated. However, others argue that the effects of the high concentrations of macromolecules in cells extend throughout the cytosol and that water in cells behaves very differently from the water in dilute solutions. These ideas include the proposal that cells contain zones of low and high-density water, which could have widespread effects on the structures and functions of the other parts of the cell. However, the use of advanced nuclear magnetic resonance methods to directly measure the mobility of water in living cells contradicts this idea, as it suggests that 85% of cell water acts like that pure water, while the remainder is less mobile and probably bound to macromolecules.
Ions.
The concentrations of the other ions in cytosol are quite different from those in extracellular fluid and the cytosol also contains much higher amounts of charged macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids than the outside of the cell structure.
In contrast to extracellular fluid, cytosol has a high concentration of potassium ions and a low concentration of sodium ions. This difference in ion concentrations is critical for osmoregulation, since if the ion levels were the same inside a cell as outside, water would enter constantly by osmosis - since the levels of macromolecules inside cells are higher than their levels outside. Instead, sodium ions are expelled and potassium ions taken up by the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, potassium ions then flow down their concentration gradient through potassium-selection ion channels, this loss of positive charge creates a negative membrane potential. To balance this potential difference, negative chloride ions also exit the cell, through selective chloride channels. The loss of sodium and chloride ions compensates for the osmotic effect of the higher concentration of organic molecules inside the cell.
Cells can deal with even larger osmotic changes by accumulating osmoprotectants such as betaines or trehalose in their cytosol. Some of these molecules can allow cells to survive being completely dried out and allow an organism to enter a state of suspended animation called cryptobiosis. In this state the cytosol and osmoprotectants become a glass-like solid that helps stabilize proteins and cell membranes from the damaging effects of desiccation.
The low concentration of calcium in the cytosol allows calcium ions to function as a second messenger in calcium signaling. Here, a signal such as a hormone or an action potential opens calcium channel so that calcium floods into the cytosol. This sudden increase in cytosolic calcium activates other signalling molecules, such as calmodulin and protein kinase C. Other ions such as chloride and potassium may also have signaling functions in the cytosol, but these are not well understood.
Macromolecules.
Protein molecules that do not bind to cell membranes or the cytoskeleton are dissolved in the cytosol. The amount of protein in cells is extremely high, and approaches 200 mg/ml, occupying about 20–30% of the volume of the cytosol. However, measuring precisely how much protein is dissolved in cytosol in intact cells is difficult, since some proteins appear to be weakly associated with membranes or organelles in whole cells and are released into solution upon cell lysis. Indeed, in experiments where the plasma membrane of cells were carefully disrupted using saponin, without damaging the other cell membranes, only about one quarter of cell protein was released. These cells were also able to synthesize proteins if given ATP and amino acids, implying that many of the enzymes in cytosol are bound to the cytoskeleton. However, the idea that the majority of the proteins in cells are tightly bound in a network called the microtrabecular lattice is now seen as unlikely.
In prokaryotes the cytosol contains the cell's genome, within a structure known as a nucleoid. This is an irregular mass of DNA and associated proteins that control the transcription and replication of the bacterial chromosome and plasmids. In eukaryotes the genome is held within the cell nucleus, which is separated from the cytosol by nuclear pores that block the free diffusion of any molecule larger than about 10 nanometres in diameter.
This high concentration of macromolecules in cytosol causes an effect called macromolecular crowding, which is when the effective concentration of other macromolecules is increased, since they have less volume to move in. This crowding effect can produce large changes in both the rates and the position of chemical equilibrium of reactions in the cytosol. It is particularly important in its ability to alter dissociation constants by favoring the association of macromolecules, such as when multiple proteins come together to form protein complexes, or when DNA-binding proteins bind to their targets in the genome.
Organization.
Although the components of the cytosol are not separated into regions by cell membranes, these components do not always mix randomly and several levels of organization can localize specific molecules to defined sites within the cytosol.
Concentration gradients.
Although small molecules diffuse rapidly in the cytosol, concentration gradients can still be produced within this compartment. A well-studied example of these are the "calcium sparks" that are produced for a short period in the region around an open calcium channel. These are about 2 micrometres in diameter and last for only a few milliseconds, although several sparks can merge to form larger gradients, called "calcium waves". Concentration gradients of other small molecules, such as oxygen and adenosine triphosphate may be produced in cells around clusters of mitochondria, although these are less well understood.
Protein complexes.
Proteins can associate to form protein complexes, these often contain a set of proteins with similar functions, such as enzymes that carry out several steps in the same metabolic pathway. This organization can allow substrate channeling, which is when the product of one enzyme is passed directly to the next enzyme in a pathway without being released into solution. Channeling can make a pathway more rapid and efficient than it would be if the enzymes were randomly distributed in the cytosol, and can also prevent the release of unstable reaction intermediates. Although a wide variety of metabolic pathways involve enzymes that are tightly bound to each other, others may involve more loosely associated complexes that are very difficult to study outside the cell. Consequently, the importance of these complexes for metabolism in general remains unclear.
Protein compartments.
Some protein complexes contain a large central cavity that is isolated from the remainder of the cytosol. One example of such an enclosed compartment is the proteasome. Here, a set of subunits form a hollow barrel containing proteases that degrade cytosolic proteins. Since these would be damaging if they mixed freely with the remainder of the cytosol, the barrel is capped by a set of regulatory proteins that recognize proteins with a signal directing them for degradation (a ubiquitin tag) and feed them into the proteolytic cavity.
Another large class of protein compartments are bacterial microcompartments, which are made of a protein shell that encapsulates various enzymes. These compartments are typically about 100–200 nanometres across and made of interlocking proteins. A well-understood example is the carboxysome, which contains enzymes involved in carbon fixation such as RuBisCO.
Biomolecular condensates.
Non-membrane bound organelles can form as biomolecular condensates, which arise by clustering, oligomerisation, or polymerisation of macromolecules to drive colloidal phase separation of the cytoplasm or nucleus.
Cytoskeletal sieving.
Although the cytoskeleton is not part of the cytosol, the presence of this network of filaments restricts the diffusion of large particles in the cell. For example, in several studies tracer particles larger than about 25 nanometres (about the size of a ribosome) were excluded from parts of the cytosol around the edges of the cell and next to the nucleus. These "excluding compartments" may contain a much denser meshwork of actin fibres than the remainder of the cytosol. These microdomains could influence the distribution of large structures such as ribosomes and organelles within the cytosol by excluding them from some areas and concentrating them in others.
Function.
The cytosol has no single function and is instead the site of multiple cell processes. Examples of these processes include signal transduction from the cell membrane to sites within the cell, such as the cell nucleus, or organelles. This compartment is also the site of many of the processes of cytokinesis, after the breakdown of the nuclear membrane in mitosis. Another major function of cytosol is to transport metabolites from their site of production to where they are used. This is relatively simple for water-soluble molecules, such as amino acids, which can diffuse rapidly through the cytosol. However, hydrophobic molecules, such as fatty acids or sterols, can be transported through the cytosol by specific binding proteins, which shuttle these molecules between cell membranes. Molecules taken into the cell by endocytosis or on their way to be secreted can also be transported through the cytosol inside vesicles, which are small spheres of lipids that are moved along the cytoskeleton by motor proteins.
The cytosol is the site of most metabolism in prokaryotes, and a large proportion of the metabolism of eukaryotes. For instance, in mammals about half of the proteins in the cell are localized to the cytosol. The most complete data are available in yeast, where metabolic reconstructions indicate that the majority of both metabolic processes and metabolites occur in the cytosol. Major metabolic pathways that occur in the cytosol in animals are protein biosynthesis, the pentose phosphate pathway, glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. The localization of pathways can be different in other organisms, for instance fatty acid synthesis occurs in chloroplasts in plants and in apicoplasts in apicomplexa.


Zonaria (gastropod)

Zonaria is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the family Cypraeidae, the cowries.
Species.
Species within the genus "Zonaria" include:
Extinct species.
Extinct species within the genus "Zonaria" include:
Fossils of species within this genus have been found in sediments of Europe, United States, Venezuela, India, Pakistan and Somalia from Paleocene to Quaternary (age range: 61.7 to 0.012 million years ago).


Passive acoustics

Passive acoustics is the action of listening for sounds, often at specific frequencies or for purposes of specific analyses.
As applied to underwater acoustics, also termed hydroacoustics or sonar, passive acoustics can be used to listen for underwater explosions, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, sounds produced by fish and other animals, vessel activity or aquatic detecting equipment (as in hydroacoustics to track fish).


Suboccipital venous plexus

The suboccipital venous plexus drains deoxygenated blood from the back of the head.
It communicates with the external vertebral venous plexuses. The external vertebral venous plexuses travel inferiorly from this suboccipital region to drain into the brachiocephalic vein. The occipital vein joins in the formation of the plexus deep to the musculature of the back and from here drains into the external jugular vein.
The plexus surrounds segments of the vertebral artery.


Heterodrilus flexuosus

Heterodrilus flexuosus is a species of clitellate oligochaete worm, first found in Belize, on the Caribbean side of Central America.


Trophoblast

Trophoblasts (from Greek 'trephein': to feed; and 'blastos': germinator) are cells that form the outer layer of a blastocyst. They are present four days post-fertilization in humans. They provide nutrients to the embryo and develop into a large part of the placenta. They form during the first stage of pregnancy and are the first cells to differentiate from the fertilized egg to become extraembryonic structures and do not directly contribute to the embryo. After gastrulation, the trophoblast is contiguous with the ectoderm of the embryo and is referred to as the trophectoderm. After the first differentiation, the cells in the human embryo lose their totipotency and are no longer totipotent stem cells because they cannot form a trophoblast. They are now pluripotent stem cells.
Structure.
The trophoblast proliferates and differentiates into two cell layers at approximately six days after fertilization for humans.
Function.
Trophoblasts are specialized cells of the placenta that play an important role in embryo implantation and interaction with the decidualized maternal uterus. The core of placental villi contain mesenchymal cells and placental blood vessels that are directly connected to the fetus’ circulation via the umbilical cord. This core is surrounded by two layers of trophoblasts, the cytotrophoblast and the syncytiotrophoblast. The cytotrophoblast is a layer of mono-nucleated cells that resides underneath the syncytiotrophoblast. The syncytiotrophoblast is composed of fused cytotrophoblasts which then form a layer that covers the placental surface. The syncytiotrophoblast is in direct contact with the maternal blood that reaches the placental surface. It then facilitates the exchange of nutrients, wastes and gases between the maternal and fetal systems.
In addition, cytotrophoblasts in the tips of villi can differentiate into another type of trophoblast called the extravillous trophoblast. Extravillous trophoblasts grow out from the placenta and penetrate into the decidualized uterus. This process is essential not only for physically attaching the placenta to the mother, but also for altering the vasculature in the uterus. This alteration allows an adequate blood supply to the growing fetus as pregnancy progresses. Some of these trophoblasts even replace the endothelial cells in the uterine spiral arteries as they remodel these vessels into wide bore conduits that are independent of maternal vasoconstriction. This ensures that the fetus receives a steady supply of blood, and the placenta is not subjected to fluctuations in oxygen that could cause it damage.
Clinical significance.
The invasion of a specific type of trophoblast (extravillous trophoblast) into the maternal uterus is a vital stage in the establishment of pregnancy. Failure of the trophoblast to invade sufficiently is important in the development of some cases of pre-eclampsia. Invasion of the trophoblast too deeply may cause conditions such as placenta accreta, placenta increta, or placenta percreta.
Gestational trophoblastic disease is a pregnancy-associated concept, forming from the villous and extravillous trophoblast cells in the placenta.
Choriocarcinoma are trophoblastic tumors that form in the uterus from villous cells.
Trophoblast stem cells (TSCs) are cells that can regenerate and they are similar to embryonic stem cells (ESCs) in the fact that they come from early on in the trophoblast lifetime. In the placenta, these stem cells are able to differentiate into any trophoblast cell because they are pluripotent.


Sphenoidal conchae

The sphenoidal conchae (sphenoidal turbinated processes) are two thin, curved plates, situated at the anterior and lower part of the body of the sphenoid. An aperture of variable size exists in the anterior wall of each, and through this the sphenoidal sinus opens into the nasal cavity.
Each is irregular in form, and tapers to a point behind, being broader and thinner in front.
Its upper surface is concave, and looks toward the cavity of the sinus; its under surface is convex, and forms part of the roof of the corresponding nasal cavity.
Each bone articulates in front with the ethmoid, laterally with the palatine; its pointed posterior extremity is placed above the vomer, and is received between the root of the pterygoid process laterally and the rostrum of the sphenoid medially.
A small portion of the sphenoidal concha sometimes enters into the formation of the medial wall of the orbit, between the lamina papyracea of the ethmoid in front, the orbital plate of the palatine below, and the frontal bone above.


Cry Wilderness

Cry Wilderness is a 1987 family adventure film directed by Jay Schlossberg-Cohen.
Plot.
Bigfoot (running away from those trying to kill him) befriends a young Californian boy named Paul whose park ranger father is tracking an escaped tiger.
Production.
"Cry Wilderness" was written by Philip Yordan with an estimated 100 writing credits in film since the 1940s, including 1945's "Dillinger", the 1955 film noir classic "The Big Combo", the 1962 film adaptation of "The Day of the Triffids", and the 1964 Anthony Mann epic "The Fall of the Roman Empire". In 1986, Yordan was hired by production company Visto International to make a Bigfoot movie, with the company having previously made a Sasquatch movie in 1978 that made a $4 million profit on a $150,000 budget. Writing the script became difficult for Yordan as he was told to cut out horror scenes and be restricted from adding any violence, profanity, or sex. These restrictions resulted in the script writer telling the distributor he would be writing a movie about nothing, to which the distributor acknowledged that is what they wanted.
Location shooting occurred at Mono Lake in Mono County, California and Devils Postpile National Monument in Madera County, California.
Reception.
The 1988 edition of The Motion Picture Guide gave the film zero stars, describing it as "an inane and poorly made feature", criticizing its acting while Eric Harwood for "Variety" called it one of the worst movies ever made.
Home media.
The film was re-released on DVD in 2014 by Vinegar Syndrome alongside the 1970s documentary film "In Search of Bigfoot".
Mystery Science Theater 3000.
In 2017, the film was the subject of parody by "Mystery Science Theater 3000", as the second episode of Season 11.


Common flexor tendon

The common flexor tendon is a tendon that attaches to the medial epicondyle of the humerus (lower part of the bone of the upper arm that is near the elbow joint).
It serves as the upper attachment point for the superficial muscles of the front of the forearm:


Robert Stack

Robert Stack (born Charles Langford Modini Stack, January 13, 1919 – May 14, 2003) was an American actor, sportsman, and television host. Known for his deep, commanding voice and presence, he appeared in over 40 feature films. He starred in the ABC-TV television series "The Untouchables" (1959–1963), for which he won the 1960 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performance by an Actor in a Series, and later hosted/narrated the true crime series "Unsolved Mysteries" (1987–2002). He was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role in the film "Written on the Wind" (1956).
Early life.
He was born Charles Langford Modini Stack in Los Angeles, California, but his first name, selected by his mother, was changed to Robert by his father. He spent his early childhood in Adria and Rome, becoming fluent in French and Italian at an early age, and did not learn English until returning to Los Angeles when he was seven.
His parents divorced when he was a year old, and he was raised by his mother, Mary Elizabeth (née Wood). His father, James Langford Stack, a wealthy advertising agency owner, later remarried his mother but died when Stack was 10.
He always spoke of his mother with the greatest respect and love. When he collaborated with Mark Evans on his autobiography, "Straight Shooting," he included a picture of himself and his mother that he captioned "Me and my best girl." His maternal grandfather, the opera singer Charles Wood, studied voice in Italy and performed there under the name "Carlo Modini." On the paternal side of his family, Stack had another opera-singer relative: the American baritone Richard Bonelli (born George Richard Bunn), who was his uncle.
Stack took some drama courses at the University of Southern California, where he played on the polo team. Clark Gable was a family friend.
By the time he was 20, Stack had achieved minor fame as a sportsman. He was an avid polo player and shooter. His brother and he won the International Outboard Motor Championships, in Venice, Italy, and at age 16 he became a member of the All-American Skeet Team. He set two world records in skeet shooting and became national champion. In 1971, he was inducted into the National Skeet Shooting Hall of Fame. He was a Republican.
The Piikani Nation of the Blackfoot Confederacy, which was known as the Peigan Nation before the 1990s, honored him by inducting him into their chieftainship in 1953 (July 2, 1953 Newspaper) as Chief Crow Flag. In 1962, Stack received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
Career.
Stack took drama courses at Bridgewater State University, a mid-size liberal arts school located 25 miles southeast of Boston. His deep voice and good looks attracted the attention of producers in Hollywood.
Universal.
When Stack visited the lot of Universal Studios at age 20, producer Joe Pasternak offered him an opportunity to enter the business. Recalled Stack, "He said, 'How'd you like to be in pictures? We'll make a test with Helen Parrish, a little love scene.' Helen Parrish was a beautiful girl. 'Gee, that sounds keen,' I told him. I got the part."
Stack's first film, which teamed him with Deanna Durbin, was "First Love" (1939), produced by Pasternak. This film was considered controversial at the time as he was the first actor to give Durbin an on-screen kiss.
Stack won critical acclaim for his next role, "The Mortal Storm" (1940) starring Margaret Sullavan and James Stewart, and directed by Frank Borzage at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. He played a young man who joins the Nazi party.
Back at Universal, Stack was in Pasternak's "A Little Bit of Heaven" (1940), starring Gloria Jean who was that studio's back-up for Deanna Durbin. Stack was reunited with Durbin in Pasternak's "Nice Girl?" (1941).
Stack then starred in a Western, "Badlands of Dakota" (1942), co-starring Richard Dix and Frances Farmer.
United Artists borrowed him to play a Polish Air Force pilot in "To Be or Not To Be" (1942), alongside Jack Benny and Carole Lombard. Stack admitted he was terrified going into this role, but he credited Lombard—who he'd known personally for several years—with giving him many tips on acting and with being his mentor. Lombard was killed in a plane crash shortly before the film was released.
Stack played another pilot in "Eagle Squadron" (1942), a huge hit. He then made a Western, "Men of Texas" (1942).
World War II.
During World War II, Stack served as an Aerial Gunnery Officer and gunnery instructor in the United States Navy.
Postwar career.
Stack resumed his career after the war with roles in such films as "Fighter Squadron" (1948) at Warners with Edmond O'Brien, playing a pilot; "A Date with Judy" (1948) at MGM, with Wallace Beery and Elizabeth Taylor.
Stack was in two films at Paramount: "Miss Tatlock's Millions" (1948) and "Mr. Music" (1950). He had an excellent role in "Bullfighter and the Lady" (1951), a passion project of Budd Boetticher for John Wayne's company. He later said this was the first time he liked himself on screen.
Stack supported Mickey Rooney in My Outlaw Brother (1951) and had the lead in the adventure epic "Bwana Devil" (1952), considered the first color, American 3-D feature film. It was released by United Artists who also put Stack in a Western, "War Paint" (1953). He continued making similar low budget action fare: "Conquest of Cochise" (1953) for Sam Katzman; "Sabre Jet" (1953), playing another pilot, this time in the Korean War; "The Iron Glove" (1954), a swashbuckler where Stack played Charles Wogan, for Katzman.
Return to "A" movies.
 Stack was back in "A" pictures when he appeared opposite John Wayne in "The High and the Mighty" (1954), playing the pilot of an airliner who comes apart under stress after the airliner encounters engine trouble. The film was a hit and Stack received good reviews. In 1954 he signed a seven-year contract with Fox.
Sam Fuller cast him in the lead of "House of Bamboo" (1955), shot in Japan for 20th Century Fox. He supported Jennifer Jones in "Good Morning, Miss Dove" (1955), also at Fox, and starred in "Great Day in the Morning" (1956) at RKO, directed by Jacques Tourneur.
"Written on the Wind".
Stack was then given an excellent part in "Written on the Wind" (1956), directed by Douglas Sirk and produced by Albert Zugsmith. Stack played another pilot, the son of a rich man who marries Lauren Bacall who falls for his best friend, played by Rock Hudson. The movie was a massive success and Stack was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor; Dorothy Malone, who played Stack's sister, was nominated for Best Supporting Actress. Malone won, but Stack lost, to Anthony Quinn. Stack felt that the primary reason he lost to Quinn was that 20th Century Fox, who had loaned him to Universal-International, organized block voting against him to prevent one of their contract players from winning an Academy Award while working at another studio.
Stack was reunited with Hudson, Malone, Zugsmith and Sirk on "The Tarnished Angels" (1957), once more playing a pilot. At Fox he was in "The Gift of Love" (1958) with Bacall.
Stack then was given a real star role, playing the title part in John Farrow's biopic, "John Paul Jones" (1959). Despite a large budget and an appearance by Bette Davis, it was not a success.
"The Untouchables".
Stack portrayed the crimefighting Eliot Ness in the ABC television drama series "The Untouchables" (1959–1963) produced by Desilu Productions, in association with Stack's Langford Productions. The show portrayed the ongoing battle between gangsters and a special squad of federal agents in prohibition-era Chicago. "No one thought it was going to be a series," Stack once said, "When you tell the same story every week, it seemed like a vendetta between Ness and the Italians."
The show won Stack the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series at the 12th Primetime Emmy Awards in 1960.
During the series' run, Stack starred in a disaster movie, "The Last Voyage" (1960), appearing opposite Malone. At Fox he was in "The Caretakers" (1963) with Joan Crawford and he appeared in a special on hunting, "The American Sportsman". He owned 25% of "The Untouchables" and "The Caretaker".
After "The Untouchables" Stack worked in Europe for "Is Paris Burning?" (1966), "The Peking Medallion" (1967), "Action Man" (1967) and later for "Story of a Woman" (1970). He did "Laura" (1967) on film.
"The Name of the Game".
Stack starred in a new drama series, rotating the lead with Tony Franciosa and Gene Barry in the lavish "The Name of the Game" (1968–1971). He played a former federal agent turned true-crime journalist, evoking memories of his role as Ness.
In 1971, he sued CBS for $25 million for appearing in the documentary "The Selling of the Pentagon".
1970s career.
Stack played a pilot in the TV movie "Murder on Flight 502" (1975) and was the lead in the series "Most Wanted" (1976), playing a tough, incorruptible police captain commanding an elite squad of special investigators, also evoking the Ness role. He later did a similar part in the series "Strike Force" (1981).
He made a film in France, "Second Wind" (1978).
Comedy actor and later career.
Stack parodied his own persona in the comedy "1941" (1979). His performance was well received and Stack became a comic actor, appearing in "Airplane!" (1980), "Big Trouble" (1986), "Plain Clothes" (1988), "Caddyshack II" (1988), "Joe Versus the Volcano" (1990), "Beavis and Butt-Head Do America" (1996), and "BASEketball" (1998). He also provided the voice for the character Ultra Magnus in "" (1986).
In a more serious vein he appeared in the action movie "Uncommon Valor" (1983), the television miniseries "George Washington" (1984) and "Hollywood Wives" (1985), and appeared in several episodes of the primetime soap opera "Falcon Crest" in 1986.
Stack's series "Strike Force" was scheduled opposite "Falcon Crest", where it quickly folded.
He began hosting "Unsolved Mysteries" in 1987. He thought very highly of the interactive nature of the show, saying that it created a "symbiotic" relationship between viewer and program, and that the hotline was a great crime-solving tool. "Unsolved Mysteries" aired from 1987 to 2002, first as specials in 1987 (Stack did not host all the specials, which were previously hosted by Raymond Burr and Karl Malden), then as a regular series on NBC (1988–1997), then on CBS (1997–1999) and finally on Lifetime (2001–2002). Stack served as the show's host during its entire original series run. Netflix revived the series in July 2020 with a six-episode run. Paying homage to the late host, a silhouette of Stack can be seen towards the end of the opening credits.
In 1991, Stack voiced the main police officer Lt. Littleboy (who is also the main protagonist and narrator) in "The Real Story of Baa Baa Black Sheep". For a brief period between 2001 and 2002, Stack voiced Stoat Muldoon, a character featured on the computer-animated television series "Butt-Ugly Martians" on Nickelodeon.
In 1996, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs, California, Walk of Stars was dedicated to him.
Personal life.
Stack was married to actress Rosemarie Bowe from 1956 until his death. They had two children, a son, Charles, and a daughter, Elizabeth.
Death.
Stack underwent radiation therapy for prostate cancer in October 2002 and died of heart failure on May 14, 2003.


Briareidae

Briareidae is a family of corals, a member of the phylum Cnidaria.
Genera.
Genera in this family include:


Caribisis

Caribisis is a genus of deep-sea bamboo coral in the family Isididae. It is monotypic with a single species, Caribisis simplex.


Mesachorutes

Mesachorutes is a genus of springtails in the family Hypogastruridae. There are at least two described species in "Mesachorutes".
Species.
These two species belong to the genus "Mesachorutes":


Argentinodictya

Argentinodictya is an extinct genus of bryozoans which existed in what is now Argentina during the Late Ordovician. It was described by Andrej Ernst and Marcelo Carrera in 2012, and the type and only species is Argentinodictya lenticulata.


Echinoderes obtuspinosus

Echinoderes obtuspinosus is a species of mud dragons first found in coastal and subtidal locations around the Korean Peninsula and in the East China Sea.


Dwarf snakehead

Dwarf snakehead is a term coined by aquarists to describe a group of "Channa" snakehead fishes growing to about maximum. They are found in freshwater habitats (often streams) in South and Southeast Asia, and southern China.
The following snakeheads belong to this group:
Some of these are borderline dwarf snakeheads, slightly surpassing in maximum length (e.g., "C. pulchra" has been called a dwarf snakehead, but may reach ). In contrast, the smallest dwarf snakehead species are less than .
Several of these only recently received their scientific name, but were already known among aquarists before. Examples of this are "C. andrao" (described 2013, previously known as "C." sp. "Lal Cheng" or "blue bleheri"), "C. pardalis" (described 2016, previously known as "C." sp. "true blue" or "galaxy blue"), "C. quinquefasciata" (described 2018, previously known as "C." sp. "five stripe"), "C. torsaensis" (described 2018, previously known as "C." sp. "cobalt blue"), and "C. brunnea" (described 2019, previously known as "C." sp. "chocolate bleheri"). A few dwarf snakeheads that are known from the aquarium trade remain undescribed, including:
Besides their commonality of being of small size, dwarf snakeheads generally are paternal mouthbrooders (confirmed in some species, suspected in others). An exception is the free-spawning "C. bleheri" where the eggs float to the surface and the parents take care of them (no mouthbrooding).
Although several dwarf snakeheads are very close relatives, overall the group is not monophyletic. For example, the dwarfs "C. burmanica" and "C. stewartii" are phylogenetically much closer to the large "C. barca" (up to ) than they are to the dwarfs "C. ornatipinnis", "C. pulchra" and "C. stiktos".


Internal carotid artery

The internal carotid artery (Latin: arteria carotis interna) is located in the inner side of the neck in contrast to the external carotid artery. In human anatomy, they arise from the common carotid arteries where these bifurcate into the internal and external carotid arteries at cervical vertebral level 3 or 4; the internal carotid artery supplies the brain including eyes, while the external carotid nourishes other portions of the head, such as the face, scalp, skull, and meninges.
Classification.
Terminologia Anatomica in 1998 subdivided the artery into four parts: "cervical", "petrous", "cavernous", and "cerebral". However, in clinical settings, the classification system of the internal carotid artery usually follows the 1996 recommendations by Bouthillier, describing seven anatomical segments of the internal carotid artery, each with a corresponding alphanumeric identifier—C1 cervical, C2 petrous, C3 lacerum, C4 cavernous, C5 clinoid, C6 ophthalmic, and C7 communicating. The Bouthillier nomenclature remains in widespread use by neurosurgeons, neuroradiologists and neurologists. The segments are subdivided based on anatomical and microsurgical landmarks and surrounding anatomy, more than angiographic appearance of the artery. An alternative embryologic classification system proposed by and colleagues is invaluable when it comes to explanation of many internal carotid artery variants. An older clinical classification, based on pioneering work by Fischer, is mainly of historical significance.
The segments of the internal carotid artery are as follows:
Course/Part.
The internal carotid artery is a terminal branch of the common carotid artery; it arises around the level of the fourth cervical vertebra when the common carotid bifurcates into this artery and its more superficial counterpart, the external carotid artery.
C1: Cervical segment.
The cervical segment, or C1, or cervical part of the internal carotid, extends from the carotid bifurcation until it enters the carotid canal in the skull anterior to the jugular foramen.
At its origin, the internal carotid artery is somewhat dilated. This part of the artery is known as the carotid sinus or the carotid bulb. The ascending portion of the cervical segment occurs distal to the bulb when the vessel walls are again parallel.
The internal carotid runs vertically upward in the carotid sheath and enters the skull through the carotid canal. During this part of its course, it lies in front of the transverse processes of the upper three cervical vertebrae.
It is relatively superficial at its start, where it is contained in the carotid triangle of the neck, and lies behind and medial to the external carotid, overlapped by the sternocleidomastoid muscle, and covered by the deep fascia, the platysma, and integument: it then passes beneath the parotid gland, being crossed by the hypoglossal nerve, the digastric muscle and the stylohyoid muscle, the occipital artery and the posterior auricular artery. Higher up, it is separated from the external carotid by the styloglossus and stylopharyngeus muscles, the tip of the styloid process and the stylohyoid ligament, the glossopharyngeal nerve and the pharyngeal branch of the vagus nerve. It is in relation, behind, with the longus capitis, the superior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic trunk, and the superior laryngeal nerve; laterally, with the internal jugular vein and vagus nerve, the nerve lying on a plane posterior to the artery; medially, with the pharynx, superior laryngeal nerve, and ascending pharyngeal artery. At the base of the skull the glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, and hypoglossal nerves lie between the artery and the internal jugular vein.
Unlike the external carotid artery, the internal carotid normally has no branches in the neck.
C2: Petrous segment.
The petrous segment, or C2, of the internal carotid, is that which is inside the petrous part of the temporal bone. This segment extends until the foramen lacerum. The petrous portion classically has three sections: an ascending, or vertical portion; the genu, or bend; and the horizontal portion.
When the internal carotid artery enters the canal in the petrous portion of the temporal bone, it first ascends a short distance and then curves anteriorly and medially. The artery lies at first in front of the cochlea and tympanic cavity; from the latter cavity it is separated by a thin, bony lamella, which is cribriform in the young subject, and often partly absorbed in old age. Farther forward it is separated from the trigeminal ganglion by a thin plate of bone, which forms the floor of the fossa for the ganglion and the roof of the horizontal portion of the canal. Frequently this bony plate is more or less deficient, and then the ganglion is separated from the artery by fibrous membrane. The artery is separated from the bony wall of the carotid canal by a prolongation of dura mater, and is surrounded by a number of small veins and by filaments of the carotid plexus, derived from the ascending branch of the superior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic trunk.
The named branches of the petrous segment of the internal carotid artery are:
C3: Lacerum segment.
The lacerum segment, or C3, is a short segment that begins above the foramen lacerum and ends at the petrolingual ligament, a reflection of periosteum between the lingula and petrous apex (or petrosal process) of the sphenoid bone. The lacerum portion is still considered 'extra-dural', as it is surrounded by periosteum and fibrocartilage along its course. It is erroneously stated in several anatomy text books that the internal carotid artery passes through the foramen lacerum. This at best has only ever been a partial truth in that it passes through the superior part of the foramen on its way to the cavernous sinus. As such it does not traverse the skull through it. The inferior part of the foramen is actually filled with fibrocartilage. The broad consensus is that the internal carotid artery should not be described as travelling through the foramen lacerum.
C4: Cavernous segment.
The cavernous segment, or C4, of the internal carotid artery begins at the petrolingual ligament and extends to the proximal dural ring, which is formed by the medial and inferior periosteum of the anterior clinoid process. The cavernous segment is surrounded by the cavernous sinus.
In this part of its course, the artery is situated between the layers of the dura mater forming the cavernous sinus, but covered by the lining membrane of the sinus. It at first ascends toward the posterior clinoid process, then passes forward by the side of the body of the sphenoid bone, again curves upward on the medial side of the anterior clinoid process, and perforates the dura mater forming the roof of the sinus. The curve in the cavernous segment is called the carotid siphon. This portion of the artery is surrounded by filaments of the sympathetic trunk and on its lateral side is the abducent nerve, or cranial nerve VI.
The named branches of the cavernous segment are:
The cavernous segment also gives rise to small capsular arteries that supply the wall of the cavernous sinus.
C5: Clinoid segment.
The clinoid segment, or C5, is another short segment of the internal carotid that begins after the artery exits the cavernous sinus at the proximal dural ring and extends distally to the distal dural ring, after which the carotid artery is considered "intra-dural" and has entered the subarachnoid space.
The clinoid segment normally has no named branches, though the ophthalmic artery may arise from the clinoid segment.
C6: Ophthalmic segment.
The ophthalmic segment, or C6, extends from the distal dural ring, which is continuous with the falx cerebri, to the origin of the posterior communicating artery. The ophthalmic segment courses roughly horizontally, parallel to the optic nerve, which runs superomedially to the carotid at this point.
The named branches of the ophthalmic segment are:
C7: Communicating segment.
The communicating segment, or terminal segment, or C7, of the internal carotid artery passes between the optic and oculomotor nerves to the anterior perforated substance at the medial extremity of the lateral cerebral fissure. Angiographically, this segment extends from the origin of the posterior communicating artery to the bifurcation of the internal carotid artery.
The named branches of the communicating segment are:
The internal carotid then divides to form the anterior cerebral artery and middle cerebral artery. The internal carotid artery can receive blood flow via an important collateral pathway supplying the brain, the cerebral arterial circle, which is more commonly known as the Circle of Willis.
Branches.
The following are the branches of the internal carotid artery, listed by segment:
Carotid plexus.
The sympathetic trunk forms a plexus of nerves around the artery known as the carotid plexus. The internal carotid nerve arises from the superior cervical ganglion, and forms this plexus, which follows the internal carotid into the skull.


Orchesella sphagneticola

Orchesella sphagneticola is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae.


Mazothairos

Mazothairos (from Mazo, derived from its location of Mazon Creek and θαιρός, "thairos", meaning 'hinge' in Greek) is an extinct genus of very large insect from the Carboniferous period. It was a member of the order Palaeodictyoptera. Although it is only known from very fragmentary remains it is estimated to have had a wingspan of about 56 centimeters (22 in), making it one of the largest-known insects, only being rivaled in size by the largest members of the order Meganisoptera, such as Meganeura and Meganeuropsis.
It is the largest known member of the order Palaeodictyoptera, a group of insects characterized by their distinctive beak-like mouthparts, which featured elongated sharp piercing stylets and possibly had a sucking pump-like organ that they would have used to pierce plant tissues and drink their liquids. They are also known for the pair of winglets on their prothorax in front of their first pair of wings, which gave them the epithet of "six-winged insects".
Although it is not known if "Mazothairos" had any of these characteristics itself as it is only known from a tergum and some peripheral parts it is safe to assume it had them based on its closest relatives.
The Holotype fossil of "Mazothairos" was found in the Mazon Creek fossil beds in modern-day Illinois, a lägerstatte formed approximately 309 million years ago during the Pennsylvanian epoch of the Carboniferous period. The formation was part of a river delta system and is believed to have had a tropical climate. The formation also preserved fossils of many other organisms, such as those of Illinois' state fossil "Tullimonstrum".


Renal capsule

The renal capsule is a tough fibrous layer surrounding the kidney and covered in a layer of perirenal fat known as the adipose capsule of kidney. The adipose capsule is sometimes included in the structure of the renal capsule. It provides some protection from trauma and damage. The renal capsule is surrounded by the renal fascia. Overlying the renal fascia and between this and the transverse fascia is a region of pararenal fat.
Structure.
The renal capsule surrounds the functional tissue of the kidney, and is itself surrounded by a fatty adipose capsule, fascia, and fat. From the inner part of the kidney to outside the kidney, the positioning of the capsule is:
Sometimes the adipose capsule of the kidney also known as the perirenal fat, is regarded as a part of the renal capsule.


Richard Brooks

Richard Brooks (May 18, 1912 – March 11, 1992) was an American screenwriter, film director, novelist and film producer. Nominated for eight Oscars in his career, he was best known for "Blackboard Jungle" (1955), "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof" (1958), "Elmer Gantry" (1960; for which he won the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay), "In Cold Blood" (1967) and "Looking for Mr. Goodbar" (1977).
Early life and career.
Brooks was born as Reuben Sax to Hyman and Esther Sax, Russian Jewish immigrants. Married teenagers when they immigrated to the United States in 1908, they found employment in Philadelphia's textile and clothing industry. Their only child, Reuben Sax, was born in 1912 in Philadelphia. He attended public schools Joseph Leidy Elementary, Mayer Sulzberger Junior High School and West Philadelphia High School, graduating from the latter in 1929.
Sax took classes at Temple University for two years, studying journalism and playing on the school's baseball team. He dropped out and left home when he discovered that his parents were going into debt to pay for his tuition. He rode freight trains around the East and Midwest for a period of time, eventually returning to Philadelphia to seek work as a newspaper reporter. At some point in the 1930s, during the Great Depression, Sax began using the name Richard Brooks professionally. He changed his name legally in 1943.
Brooks wrote sports for the "Philadelphia Record" and later joined the staff of the "Atlantic City Press-Union." He moved to New York to work for the "World-Telegram;" shortly afterward he took a job with radio station WNEW for a larger paycheck. As a newsman for the station, he reported and read stories on the air and provided commentary.
Brooks also began writing plays in 1938 and tried directing for Long Island's Mill Pond Theater in 1940. A falling out with his theater colleagues that summer led him to drive to Los Angeles on a whim, hoping to find work in the film industry. He also may have been trying to escape a marriage; a legal document indicates he was married at least part of the time he lived in New York.
He did not find film work but was hired by the NBC affiliate to write original stories and read them for a daily fifteen-minute broadcast called "Sidestreet Vignettes." His second marriage, in 1941, to Jeanne Kelly, an actress at Universal Studios, may have helped to open the door to writing for the studio. He contributed dialogue to a few films and wrote two screenplays for the popular actress Maria Montez, known as the "Queen of Technicolor." With no prospect of moving into more prestigious productions, he quit Universal and joined the Marine Corps in 1943 during World War II.
Brooks never served overseas during the war, instead working in the Marine Corps film unit at Quantico, Virginia, and at times at Camp Pendleton, California. In his two years in uniform he learned more about the basics of filmmaking, including writing and editing documentaries. He also found time to write a novel, "The Brick Foxhole," a searing portrait of stateside soldiers tainted by religious, racial and homophobic bigotry. In 1944 he divorced his wife, then known in films as Jean Brooks. Later he said he had been a self-centered husband and unsuitable for what she needed.
His book was published in 1945 to favorable reviews. It was adapted as the film "Crossfire" (1947), the first major Hollywood film to deal with anti-Semitism, receiving an Oscar nomination. The novel drew the attention of independent producer Mark Hellinger, who hired Brooks as a screenwriter after he left the Marines.
Working for Hellinger brought Brooks back to the film industry and led to a long friendship with actor Humphrey Bogart, a close friend of the producer. Brooks provided an uncredited screen story for "The Killers" (1946), which introduced actor Burt Lancaster. He wrote the scripts for two other Hellinger films, notably "Brute Force" (1947), also starring Lancaster. After Hellinger died suddenly in 1947, Brooks wrote screenplays for three Warner Brothers films, including "Key Largo" (1948), starring Bogart and wife Lauren Bacall and directed and co-written by John Huston, another Brooks mentor. He was the only co-writer Brooks ever had. Huston allowed Brooks to be on the "Key Largo" set during shooting, so that he could learn more about directing a Hollywood film.
Brooks wrote two more novels shortly after the war, "The Boiling Point" (1948) and "The Producer" (1951), a thinly disguised portrait of Mark Hellinger. It may also have contained autobiographical elements about Brooks. In 1946 he married again, to Harriette Levin, who had no apparent connection to the film industry. Their marriage lasted until 1957, when she sought a default divorce.
Writing and directing at MGM.
Success as a screenwriter with Hellinger and Warner Brothers led Brooks to a contract with MGM and the promise of a chance to direct. He wrote two screenplays for the studio before he was given the opportunity. His first film as writer and director, "Crisis" (1950), starred Cary Grant as a brain surgeon forced to save the life of a South American dictator, played by José Ferrer. His second film, "The Light Touch" (1951), an art-theft caper film starring Stewart Granger, was shot in Italy.
Brooks came into his own when he directed an original screenplay, "Deadline – U.S.A." (1952), for 20th Century-Fox, starring his friend Humphrey Bogart. Based on the closing of the "New York World", the film was part gangster picture, part newspaper drama. At its core was an issue Brooks cared about: the consolidation of the newspaper industry and its effect on the diversity of voices in the press. The film remains one of the more highly regarded dramas about American newspapers.
Brooks directed four more films before achieving an unqualified hit with "Blackboard Jungle" (1955) starring Glenn Ford. Based on a best-seller by Evan Hunter, the film was shocking for its time in its presentation of juvenile delinquency. It also offered a career-making supporting role for a young black actor, Sidney Poitier, and early roles for actors Vic Morrow, Jamie Farr and Paul Mazursky. Brooks chose to begin and end the film with the song "Rock Around the Clock", bringing rock 'n' roll to a major Hollywood production for the first time and sparking a No. 1 hit for Bill Haley and the Comets. "Blackboard Jungle" was nominated for an Oscar for its screenplay, and was MGM's top moneymaker that year.
In 1955, Brooks was one of four American auteur filmmakers named as "rebels" by the French magazine "Cahiers du Cinéma." Box-office success was what gave the writer/director more freedom at MGM, but Brooks also recognized that he would never have complete control of his films while under contract. He determined to avoid writing original screenplays and focused on adaptations of best-sellers or classic novels. He later noted that adapting a novel gave him a head start on developing the story structure required for a screenplay.
He spent the rest of the decade at MGM, where his most notable film was an adaptation of Tennessee Williams's sexually charged play "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof" (1958). A huge hit for MGM – it drew more money and a larger audience than any other film Brooks ever directed – the film revived the career of Elizabeth Taylor and made a star of Paul Newman. It brought Brooks his first Oscar nomination for directing and the first Best Picture nomination in his directorial career.
Independent writer-producer-director.
Brooks spent the last third of his film career working in relative independence. In 1958, he signed a non-exclusive, seven-year writer-director deal with Columbia Pictures that was to earn him over $1 million. He followed the success of "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof" with an independent production for United Artists of "Elmer Gantry" (1960), based on the novel by Sinclair Lewis. The story of a phony preacher, played by Burt Lancaster, and a sincere revivalist, played by Jean Simmons, was edgy for the time. As it had for "Blackboard Jungle" and "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof", controversy accompanied the film's release and helped bring people to theaters. The movie received five Academy Award nominations, including one for best picture, and won Oscars for Lancaster as lead actor, for Shirley Jones as supporting actress, and for Brooks' script.
Brooks adapted and directed another Tennessee Williams play, "Sweet Bird of Youth" (1962). Ed Begley won a Best Supporting Oscar for his role in the film. While popular and well-received critically, the MGM production did not duplicate the success of the previous Williams film. A dream project followed, an adaptation for Columbia Pictures of Joseph Conrad's "Lord Jim" (1965), but the lavish film proved to be a misfire at the box office and with most critics. Brooks had spent years writing the script and planning the most expensive project of his career. He had assembled a stellar cast led by Peter O'Toole, Eli Wallach, Jack Hawkins, Paul Lukas, and James Mason. While beautifully photographed in Hong Kong and Southeast Asia by Freddie Young and scored by Bronisław Kaper, "Lord Jim" did not find the audience that had made David Lean's epics "Lawrence of Arabia" and "Doctor Zhivago" such notable hits of the 1960s.

To recover professionally from the failure of "Lord Jim," Brooks surprised Hollywood by choosing to adapt a minor western novel about a wealthy husband who hires mercenaries to rescue his kidnapped wife from Mexican bandits. Brooks worked quickly and within a year released "The Professionals" (1966), which became Columbia's biggest hit that year. The slick crowd-pleaser starred Burt Lancaster, Lee Marvin, Robert Ryan and Woody Strode as "the professionals" with Jack Palance as the bandit leader and Claudia Cardinale as the kidnapped wife. The film received Oscar nominations for Brooks' screenplay and direction, and for Conrad Hall's cinematography. It has been lauded as one of the most entertaining westerns ever filmed.
Brooks landed the property of the decade when author Truman Capote selected him to adapt his best-selling book "In Cold Blood". Once again rejecting the methodical pace that had slowed him with other productions, Brooks worked quickly to adapt the "nonfiction novel," as Capote called it. As a reporter, Brooks also conducted his own research into the murders of four members of a Kansas farm family and the lives of the two drifters responsible for the crime. Brooks rejected Columbia's suggestion that he hire stars to play the killers and instead cast two relative unknowns, Scott Wilson and Robert Blake. He resisted the studio on another point, shooting the film in black and white rather than color because he thought it was a more frightening medium. He used locations where the events occurred, including the house where the family had been killed. "In Cold Blood" had a documentary style and was considered among the films of the mid-1960s that ushered in a more mature Hollywood style. Brooks received double Oscar nominations; cinematographer Conrad Hall and composer Quincy Jones also were nominated.
"The Professionals" and "In Cold Blood" marked the apex of Brooks' career. In the two decades that followed, he wrote and directed just six more films. Of note was "The Happy Ending" (1969). From his original screenplay about a woman dealing with disappointments in her marriage and her life, it was the kind of low-key personal film more likely to come from Europe than an American director. The film earned an Oscar nomination for star Jean Simmons. (Her own marriage to Brooks ended in divorce in 1980.)
"Bite the Bullet" (1975) was Brooks' return to the western. He based his original screenplay on the endurance horse races popular at the turn of the century. In 1977, he released another controversial film, an adaptation of Judith Rossner's 1975 novel "Looking for Mr. Goodbar." It starred Diane Keaton as a Catholic school teacher who searches for sexual satisfaction in singles bars. Brooks made the film on a tight budget, and its frank treatment of sex and its horrific storyline brought praise and condemnation and sold tickets. He ended his career with "Wrong Is Right" (1982), a satire about the news media and world unrest starring Sean Connery, and a gambling addiction film with Ryan O'Neal and Catherine Hicks in "Fever Pitch" (1985). Fever Pitch featured a story about a Los Angeles sportswriter who becomes a sports gambling addict. Brooks himself had been a sportswriter when a young man. Both movies were critical and commercial failures.
Brooks tried developing other projects in the last years of his life. He suffered from heart ailments and a stroke before dying at his home in 1992 at the age of 79.
Personal life.
For Brooks, "Elmer Gantry" was significant for personal as well as professional reasons. In 1960, he married the movie's leading actress, Jean Simmons, after her divorce from Stewart Granger. Brooks helped to raise Tracy, Simmons' daughter by Granger. The couple had another daughter, Kate, together in 1961. They separated in 1977 and were legally divorced in 1980. Previously, Brooks had been married for 11 years to Harriette Levin, a relationship that also ended in divorce.
Character.
No matter what the medium – newspapers, radio, novels, film – Brooks considered himself a storyteller. He believed his work should be and was truthful at its core. He also sought to use film as well as other media to say something he believed was important. While his films were easily categorized by genre and were most often based on another writer's story, his screenplays often became vehicles for a message he wanted to offer to audiences.
Brooks hated bigotry, which was a central theme of his novel "The Brick Foxhole", his co-written screenplay for "Storm Warning" (1951), and his first western, "The Last Hunt" (1956). Racial division and reconciliation was also at the heart of "Something of Value" (1957). He saw "Blackboard Jungle" as encouraging teachers to continue striving to help their students and as reassuring them that they can make a difference. Opposed to the death penalty, he used "In Cold Blood" to suggest that executing criminals solves nothing and only creates more violence.
While he worked in the studio system for most of the 1940s and 1950s, Brooks often clashed with studio policies about the look and feel of films and the stories they presented. He also chafed against the Production Code's limitations on subject matter and expression. His goal as a filmmaker was total control of a production, and he achieved that with most films after the success of "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof". The failure of "Lord Jim" threatened that independence. Brooks responded by becoming a fast and efficient filmmaker, operating with a tight budget and often forgoing a high up-front salary in exchange for a guarantee of control.
Brooks was developing a reputation as a hard-driving, difficult and perpetually angry man as early as his tenure with radio station WNEW in the late 1930s. He was not averse to quitting a job when in conflict with those in charge—as he did while directing at the Mill Pond Theater in 1940 and writing for Universal in 1943. At MGM he was known for almost daily eruptions of anger, often aimed at his crew and sometimes at his cast. That did not change even after he was the producer of his films, and he was known throughout the industry as a talented filmmaker yet a difficult man to deal with. Debbie Reynolds recounts that, while as a young and relatively inexperienced actress filming "The Catered Affair" (1956), Brooks hit her in the face and had to be pulled away from further assault by the assistant director. Later during filming, a heavy piece of equipment fell on his foot, breaking it, and the crew were noticeably slow in removing it which Reynolds attests to a general dislike of the director.
Brooks was much the same way in his personal life. He readily acknowledged that he was a trying husband and that his work was the most important activity in his life. He was not interested in Hollywood's social scene, preferring to entertain guests at his home with tennis and movies when he wasn't working on screenplays or other projects. Yet his wife Jean Simmons found him to be a humorous, stimulating husband and a loving father to their daughters. But from all accounts, he was a "tough as nails" father as well.
Death and legacy.
Brooks was one of the relatively few filmmakers whose careers bridged the transition from the classic studio system to the independent productions that marked the 1960s and beyond. He was also among the postwar writer-directors who made some of their best films as they struggled to break free of industry censorship. His legacy is that of a filmmaker who sought independence in a collaborative art and tried to bring his own vision to the screen.
Surrounded by family (Jean Simmons and daughters) and longtime friend actor Gene Kelly, Brooks died from congestive heart failure in 1992 at his house in Coldwater Canyon in Studio City, California. He was interred in the Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery in Culver City, California, a few steps away from the graves of his parents. On his vault was placed a plaque inscribed, "First comes the word. . .". The quote was chosen by his step-daughter, film editor Tracy Granger, as Brooks always identified most strongly as a writer.
Brooks expressed his concept when he reportedly said to his assembled cast and crew on the first day of shooting "Looking for Mr. Goodbar": "I'm sure that all of you have your own ideas about what kind of contribution you can make to this film, what you can do to improve it or make it better. Keep it to yourself. It's my fucking movie and I'm going to make it my way!"
For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Brooks has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6422 Hollywood Blvd, between N. Cahuenga Boulevard and Wilcox Avenue.
After his death, Brooks' papers were donated to the Margaret Herrick Library and his film collection was donated to the Academy Film Archive. The Academy Film Archive preserved "Lord Jim" in 2000 and various home movies made by Richard Brooks in 2009 and 2016.


Cymbastela lamellata

Cymbastela lamellata is a species of marine sponge in the family Axinellidae.
The sponge was first described in 1961 by Patricia Bergquist as "Axinella lamellata", However the name had already been used, and she renamed it in 1970 as "Axinella tricalciformis".
It is known from both the Chatham Islands and from waters around Tasmania, where it has been found at depths of 6-90 m. It is a sessile, filter feeder.


Centrochelys vulcanica

The Gran Canaria giant tortoise ("Centrochelys vulcanica") is an extinct species of cryptodire turtle in the family Testudinidae endemic to the island of Gran Canaria, in the Canary Islands.
Characteristics.
This is one of the two described species of giant tortoises that inhabited the Canary Islands from the Miocene to the upper Pleistocene. The other species is "C. burchardi", from the island of Tenerife.
"C. vulcanica" was described by López-Jurado & Mateo in 1993. It is believed that the ancestors of these two species of giant tortoises reached the Canary Islands from North Africa. The majority of "C. vulcanica" fossils are of eggs and nests ranging in age from the Miocene until Pliocene. Bones and shells are known from the Miocene to the Upper Pleistocene. The maximum shell length is up to 61 centimeters, make it slightly smaller than "C. burchardi", which had a shell length range of 65 to 94 cm.
Fossilized tortoise eggs have been found in the islands of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura; however, these eggs have not yet been properly described or named. The Fuerteventura fossils have been linked to "C. burchardi", but this identification is uncertain, and has been challenged.


Common iliac vein

In human anatomy, the common iliac veins are formed by the external iliac veins and internal iliac veins. The left and right common iliac veins come together in the abdomen at the level of the fifth lumbar vertebra, forming the inferior vena cava. They drain blood from the pelvis and lower limbs.
Both common iliac veins are accompanied along their course by common iliac arteries.
Structure.
The external iliac vein and internal iliac vein unite in front of the sacroiliac joint to form the common iliac veins. Both common iliac veins ascend to form the inferior vena cava behind the right common iliac artery at the level of the fifth lumbar vertebra.
The vena cava is to the right of the midline and therefore the left common iliac vein is longer than the right. The left common iliac vein occasionally travels upwards to the left of the aorta to the level of the kidney, where it receives the left renal vein and crosses in front of the aorta to join the inferior vena cava. The right common iliac vein is virtually vertical and lies behind and then lateral to its artery. Each common iliac vein receives iliolumbar veins, while the left also receives the median sacral vein which lies on the right of the corresponding artery.
Clinical significance.
Overlying arterial structures may cause compression of the upper part of the left common iliac vein.
Compression of the left common iliac vein against the fifth lumbar vertebral body by the right common iliac artery as the artery crosses in front of it traditionally happens in May–Thurner syndrome.
Continuous pulsation of the common iliac artery may trigger an inflammatory response within the common iliac vein. The resulting intraluminal elastin and collagen deposition can cause intimal fibrosis and the formation of venous spurs and webs. This can lead to narrowing of the vein and cause persistent unilateral leg swelling, contributing to venous thromboembolism.


Macrobiotidae

Macrobiotidae is a family of tardigrade. , it consists of the following genera:
The genera "Adorybiotus" and "Richtersius" were transferred from Macrobiotidae to a new family, Richtersiidae, in 2016.


Phragmophora

Phragmophora is an order of sagittoideans in the phylum Chaetognatha.


28S ribosomal RNA

28S ribosomal RNA is the structural ribosomal RNA (rRNA) for the large subunit (LSU) of eukaryotic cytoplasmic ribosomes, and thus one of the basic components of all eukaryotic cells. It has a size of 25S in plants and 28S in mammals, hence the alias of 25S–28S rRNA.
Combined with 5.8S rRNA to the 5' side, it is the eukaryotic nuclear homologue of the prokaryotic 23S and mitochondrial 16S ribosomal RNAs.
Use in phylogeny.
The genes coding for 28S rRNA are referred to as 28S rDNA. The comparison of the sequences from these genes are sometimes used in molecular analysis to construct phylogenetic trees, for example in protists, fungi, insects, tardigrades, and vertebrates.
Structure.
The 28S rRNA is typically 4000–5000 nt long.
Some eukaryotes cleave 28S rRNA into two parts before assembling both into the ribosome, a phenomenon termed the "hidden break".
Databases.
Several databases provide alignments and annotations of LSU rRNA sequences for comparative purposes:


WormBook

WormBook is an open access, comprehensive collection of original, peer-reviewed chapters covering topics related to the of the nematode worm "Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans)". WormBook also includes WormMethods, an up-to-date collection of methods and protocols for "C. elegans" researchers.
WormBook is the online text companion to WormBase, the "C. elegans" model organism database. Capitalizing on the World Wide Web, WormBook links in-text references (e.g. genes, alleles, proteins, literature citations) with primary biological databases such as WormBase and PubMed. "C. elegans" was the first multicellular organism to have its genome sequenced and is a model organism for studying developmental genetics and neurobiology.
Contents.
The content of WormBook is categorized into the sections listed below, each filled with a variety of relevant chapters. These sections include:


Splanchnocranium

The splanchnocranium (or visceral skeleton) is the portion of the cranium that is derived from pharyngeal arches. The splanchnocranium consists of cartilage and endochondral bone. In mammals, the splanchnocranium comprises the three ear ossicles (i.e., incus, malleus, and stapes), as well as the alisphenoid, the styloid process, the hyoid apparatus, and the thyroid cartilage.
In other tetrapods, such as amphibians and reptiles, homologous bones to those of mammals, such as the quadrate, articular, columella, and entoglossus are part of the splanchnocranium.


Cladorhiza caillieti

Cladorhiza caillieti is a carnivorous sponge of the family Cladorhizidae described in 2014 from specimens collected from the Juan de Fuca Ridge off the coast of Vancouver Island. It feeds on small crustaceans such as amphipods and copepods. "C. caillieti" is an elongate, bottlebrush-shaped sponge with filaments projecting from a main stem, and ranges from 7 to 9 cm in height. The specific epithet honors Dr. Gregor M. Cailliet of the Moss Landing Marine Laboratories.


Cruciate ligament

Cruciate ligaments (also cruciform ligaments) are pairs of ligaments arranged like a letter X. They occur in several joints of the body, such as the knee joint and the atlanto-axial joint. In a fashion similar to the cords in a toy Jacob's ladder, the crossed ligaments stabilize the joint while allowing a very large range of motion.
Knee.
Structure.
Cruciate ligaments occur in the knee of humans and other bipedal animals and the corresponding stifle of quadrupedal animals, and in the neck, fingers, and foot.
Clinical significance.
Rupture.
Rupture of the anterior cruciate ligament is one of the "most frequent acquired diseases of the stifle joint" in humans, dogs, and cats; direct trauma to the joint is relatively uncommon and age appears to be a major factor.
Cruciate ligament injuries are common in animals, and in 2005 a study estimated that $1.32 billion was spent in the United States in treating the cranial cruciate ligament of dogs.
Etymology.
In the first edition of the official Latin nomenclature ("Nomina Anatomica", renamed in 1998 as "Terminologia Anatomica"), the Latin expression "ligamenta cruciata" was used, similar to the expression "cruciate ligaments" currently in use in English. In classical Latin the verb "cruciare" is derived from "crux", meaning "cross". It became considered that cruciate was equivalent to "cross-shaped".


Nanchangosaurus

Nanchangosaurus is an extinct genus of aquatic reptiles native to the middle Triassic of China. It was named after the area in China, Nanchang, where it was found. It was about 3 ft (1 m) in length, and probably fed on fish or used its long jaws to probe for aquatic invertebrates. It resembled the ichthyosaurs in build, and may be related to them.
Anatomy.
"Nanchangosaurus" resembled a cross between an ichthyosaur and a crocodilian. It had a fusiform body, similar to a dolphin or an ichthyosaur, paddle-like limbs, with forelimbs being larger than hindlimbs, and a crocodilian-like tail for swimming through the water. It had bony scutes on its back, like an alligator, but had a long snout filled with teeth, like an ichthyosaur or a river dolphin.
Classification.
"Nanchangosaurus" is a member of the Hupehsuchia, a group that includes the very similar "Hupehsuchus". In fact, the two may be congeneric. A few differences between the two species are seen. "Hupehsuchus" had heavier armor and more divided ridge spines than the two. Other than "Hupehsuchus", little else is known about "Nanchangosaurus" relatives. They have sometimes been referred to as ancestors of the ichthyosaurs, because of their streamlined shape, long jaws, and paddle-like hands, as well as the discovery of polydactyly in the fins of "Hupehsuchus", just like the ichthyosaurs. However, a gap in the skulls suggests that they may be related to archosaurs, instead. Some people even put them in the Eosuchia, a group of early diapsid reptiles.


Ancistrocrania

Ancistrocrania is an extinct genus of brachiopods from the Upper Cretaceous of Europe and North-America. The name is derived from the Greek words αγκιστρο (agkistro) "fish hook" and κρανίον (kranion) skull.


Peripatopsis capensis

Peripatopsis capensis is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. The type locality is in South Africa.


Ametabolism

Ametabolism is a type of growth or life cycle in insects in which there is slight or no metamorphosis, only a gradual increase in size. It is present only in primitive wingless insects, e.g. order: Zygentoma (Silverfish).


Kiwi (bird)

Kiwi ( ) or kiwis are flightless birds endemic to New Zealand of the genus Apteryx and family Apterygidae . Approximately the size of a domestic chicken, kiwi are by far the smallest living ratites (which also include ostriches, emus, rheas, tinamous and cassowaries).
DNA sequence comparisons have yielded the surprising conclusion that kiwi are much more closely related to the extinct Malagasy elephant birds than to the moa with which they shared New Zealand. There are five recognised species, four of which are currently listed as vulnerable, and one of which is near-threatened. All species have been negatively affected by historic deforestation but currently the remaining large areas of their forest habitat are well protected in reserves and national parks. At present, the greatest threat to their survival is predation by invasive mammalian predators.
The kiwi's egg is one of the largest in proportion to body size (up to 20% of the female's weight) of any species of bird in the world. Other unique adaptations of kiwi, such as their hairlike feathers, short and stout legs, and using their nostrils at the end of their long beak to detect prey before they ever see it, have helped the bird to become internationally well-known.
The kiwi is recognised as an icon of New Zealand, and the association is so strong that the term "Kiwi" is used internationally as the colloquial demonym for New Zealanders.
Etymology.
The Māori language word "" is generally accepted to be "of imitative origin" from the call. However, some linguists derive the word from Proto-Nuclear Polynesian "*kiwi", which refers to "Numenius tahitiensis", the bristle-thighed curlew, a migratory bird that winters in the tropical Pacific islands. With its long decurved bill and brown body, the curlew resembles the kiwi. So when the first Polynesian settlers arrived, they may have applied the word kiwi to the new-found bird. The genus name "Apteryx" is derived from Ancient Greek "without wing": "a-", "without" or "not"; "pterux", "wing".
The name is usually uncapitalised, with the plural either the anglicised "kiwis" or, consistent with the Māori language, appearing as "kiwi" without an "‑s".
Taxonomy and systematics.
Although it was long presumed that the kiwi was closely related to the other New Zealand ratites, the moa, recent DNA studies have identified its closest relative as the extinct elephant bird of Madagascar, and among extant ratites, the kiwi is more closely related to the emu and the cassowaries than to the moa.
Research published in 2013 on an extinct genus, "Proapteryx", known from the Miocene deposits of the Saint Bathans Fauna, found that it was smaller and probably capable of flight, supporting the hypothesis that the ancestor of the kiwi reached New Zealand independently from moas, which were already large and flightless by the time kiwi appeared.
Species.
There are five known species of kiwi, as well as a number of subspecies.
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Description.
Their adaptation to a terrestrial life is extensive: like all the other ratites (ostrich, emu, rhea and cassowary), they have no keel on the sternum to anchor wing muscles. The vestigial wings are so small that they are invisible under the bristly, hair-like, two-branched feathers. While most adult birds have bones with hollow insides to minimise weight and make flight practicable, kiwi have marrow, like mammals and the young of other birds. With no constraints on weight due to flight requirements, brown kiwi females carry and lay a single egg that may weigh as much as . Like most other ratites, they have no uropygial gland (preen gland). Their bill is long, pliable and sensitive to touch, and their eyes have a reduced pecten. Their feathers lack barbules and aftershafts, and they have large vibrissae around the gape. They have 13 flight feathers, no tail and a small pygostyle. Their gizzard is weak and their caecum is long and narrow.
The eye of the kiwi is the smallest relative to body mass in all avian species resulting in the smallest visual field as well. The eye has small specialisations for a nocturnal lifestyle, but kiwi rely more heavily on their other senses (auditory, olfactory, and somatosensory system). The sight of the kiwi is so underdeveloped that blind specimens have been observed in nature, showing how little they rely on sight for survival and foraging. In an experiment, it was observed that one-third of a population of "A. rowi" in New Zealand under no environmental stress had ocular lesions in one or both eyes. The same experiment examined three specific specimens that showed complete blindness and found them to be in good physical standing outside of ocular abnormalities. A 2018 study revealed that the kiwi's closest relatives, the extinct elephant birds, also shared this trait despite their great size.
Unlike virtually every other palaeognath, which are generally small-brained by bird standards, kiwi have proportionally large encephalisation quotients. Hemisphere proportions are even similar to those of parrots and songbirds, though there is no evidence of similarly complex behaviour.
Behaviour and ecology.
Before the arrival of humans in the 13th century or earlier, New Zealand's only endemic mammals were , and the ecological niches that in other parts of the world were filled by creatures as diverse as horses, wolves and mice were taken up by birds (and, to a lesser extent, reptiles, insects and gastropods).
The kiwi's mostly nocturnal habits may be a result of habitat intrusion by predators, including humans. In areas of New Zealand where introduced predators have been removed, such as sanctuaries, kiwi are often seen in daylight. They prefer subtropical and temperate podocarp and beech forests, but they are being forced to adapt to different habitat, such as sub-alpine scrub, tussock grassland, and the mountains. Kiwi have a highly developed sense of smell, unusual in a bird, and are the only birds with nostrils at the end of their long beaks. Kiwi eat small invertebrates, seeds, grubs, and many varieties of worms. They also may eat fruit, small crayfish, eels and amphibians. Because their nostrils are located at the end of their long beaks, kiwi can locate insects and worms underground using their keen sense of smell, without actually seeing or feeling them. This sense of smell is due to a highly developed olfactory chamber and surrounding regions. It is a common belief that the kiwi relies solely on its sense of smell to catch prey but this has not been scientifically observed. Lab experiments have suggested that "A. australis" can rely on olfaction alone but is not consistent under natural conditions. Instead, the kiwi may rely on auditory and/or vibrotactile cues.
Once bonded, a male and female kiwi tend to live their entire lives as a monogamous couple. During the mating season, June to March, the pair call to each other at night, and meet in the nesting burrow every three days. These relationships may last for up to 20 years. They are unusual among other birds in that, along with some raptors, they have a functioning pair of ovaries. (In most birds and in platypuses, the right ovary never matures, so that only the left is functional.) Kiwi eggs can weigh up to one-quarter the weight of the female. Usually, only one egg is laid per season. The kiwi lays one of the largest eggs in proportion to its size of any bird in the world, so even though the kiwi is about the size of a domestic chicken, it is able to lay eggs that are about six times the size of a chicken's egg. The eggs are smooth in texture, and are ivory or greenish white. The male incubates the egg, except for the great spotted kiwi, "A. haastii", in which both parents are involved. The incubation period is 63–92 days. Producing the huge egg places significant physiological stress on the female; for the thirty days it takes to grow the fully developed egg, the female must eat three times her normal amount of food. Two to three days before the egg is laid there is little space left inside the female for her stomach and she is forced to fast.
Lice in the genus "Apterygon" and in the subgenus "Rallicola" ("Aptericola") are exclusively ectoparasites of kiwi species.
Status and conservation.
Nationwide studies show that only around 5–10% of kiwi chicks survive to adulthood without management. However, in areas under active pest management, survival rates for North Island brown kiwi can be far higher. For example, prior to a joint 1080 poison operation undertaken by DOC and the Animal Health Board in Tongariro Forest in 2006, 32 kiwi chicks were radio-tagged. 57% of the radio-tagged chicks survived to adulthood.
Efforts to protect kiwi have had some success, and in 2017 two species were downlisted from endangered to vulnerable by the IUCN.
Sanctuaries.
In 2000, the Department of Conservation set up five kiwi sanctuaries focused on developing methods to protect kiwi and to increase their numbers.
A number of other mainland conservation islands and fenced sanctuaries have significant populations of kiwi, including:
North island brown kiwi were introduced to the Cape Sanctuary in Hawke's Bay between 2008 and 2011, which in turn provided captive-raised chicks that were released back into Maungataniwha Native Forest.
Operation Nest Egg.
Operation Nest Egg is a programme run by the BNZ Save the Kiwi Trust—a partnership between the Bank of New Zealand, the Department of Conservation and the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society. Kiwi eggs and chicks are removed from the wild and hatched and/or raised in captivity until big enough to fend for themselves—usually when they weigh around 1200 grams (42 ounces). They are then returned to the wild. An Operation Nest Egg bird has a 65% chance of surviving to adulthood—compared to just 5% for wild-hatched and raised chicks. The tool is used on all kiwi species except little spotted kiwi.
1080 poison.
In 2004, anti-1080 activist Phillip Anderton posed for the New Zealand media with a kiwi he claimed had been poisoned. An investigation revealed that Anderton lied to journalists and the public. He had used a kiwi that had been caught in a possum trap. Extensive monitoring shows that kiwi are not at risk from the use of biodegradable 1080 poison.
Threats.
Introduced mammalian predators, namely stoats, dogs, ferrets, and cats, are the principal threats to kiwi. The biggest threat to kiwi chicks is stoats, while dogs are the biggest threat to adult kiwi. Stoats are responsible for approximately half of kiwi chick deaths in many areas through New Zealand. Young kiwi chicks are vulnerable to stoat predation until they reach about in weight, at which time they can usually defend themselves. Cats also to a lesser extent prey on kiwi chicks. These predators can cause large and abrupt declines in populations. In particular, dogs find the distinctive strong scent of kiwi irresistible and easy to track, such that they can catch and kill kiwi in seconds. Motor vehicle strike is a threat to all kiwi where roads cross through their habitat. Badly set possum traps often kill or maim kiwi.
Habitat destruction is another major threat to kiwi; restricted distribution and small size of some kiwi populations increases their vulnerability to inbreeding. Research has shown that the combined effect of predators and other mortality (accidents etc.) results in less than 5% of kiwi chicks surviving to adulthood.
Relationship to humans.
The Māori traditionally believed that kiwi were under the protection of Tane Mahuta, god of the forest. They were used as food and their feathers were used for kahu kiwi—ceremonial cloaks. Today, while kiwi feathers are still used, they are gathered from birds that die naturally, through road accidents, or predation, and from captive birds. Kiwi are no longer hunted and some Māori consider themselves the birds' guardians.
Scientific documentation.
In 1813, George Shaw named the genus "Apteryx" in his species description of the southern brown kiwi, which he called "the southern apteryx". Captain Andrew Barclay of the ship "Providence" provided Shaw with the specimen. Shaw's description was accompanied by two plates, engraved by Frederick Polydore Nodder; they were published in volume 24 of "The Naturalist's Miscellany".
Zoos.
In 1851, London Zoo became the first zoo to keep kiwi. The first captive breeding took place in 1945. As of 2007 only 13 zoos outside New Zealand hold kiwi. The Frankfurt Zoo has 12, the Berlin Zoo has seven, Walsrode Bird Park has one, the Avifauna Bird Park in the Netherlands has three, the San Diego Zoo has five, the San Diego Zoo Safari Park has one, the National Zoo in Washington, DC has eleven, the Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute has one, and the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium has three.
As a national symbol.
The kiwi as a symbol first appeared in the late 19th century in New Zealand regimental badges. It was later featured in the badges of the South Canterbury Battalion in 1886 and the Hastings Rifle Volunteers in 1887. Soon after, the kiwi appeared in many military badges; and in 1906, when Kiwi Shoe Polish was widely sold in the UK and the US, the symbol became more widely known.
During the First World War, the name "Kiwis" for New Zealand soldiers came into general use, and a giant kiwi (now known as the Bulford kiwi) was carved on the chalk hill above Sling Camp in England. Usage has become so widespread that all New Zealanders overseas and at home are now commonly referred to as "Kiwis".
The kiwi has since become the best-known national symbol for New Zealand, and the bird is prominent in the coat of arms, crests and badges of many New Zealand cities, clubs and organisations. At the national level, the red silhouette of a kiwi is in the centre of the roundel of the Royal New Zealand Air Force. The kiwi is featured in the logo of the New Zealand Rugby League, and the New Zealand national rugby league team are nicknamed the Kiwis.
A kiwi has featured on the reverse side of three New Zealand coins: the one florin (two-shilling) coin from 1933 to 1966, the twenty-cent coin from 1967 to 1990, and the one-dollar coin since 1991. In currency trading the New Zealand dollar is often referred to as "the kiwi".