Macrolepiota procera

Macrolepiota procera, the parasol mushroom, is a basidiomycete fungus with a large, prominent fruiting body resembling a parasol. It is a fairly common species on well-drained soils. It is found solitary or in groups and fairy rings in pastures and occasionally in woodland. Globally, it is widespread in temperate regions.
Taxonomy.
The fungus was first described in 1772 by Italian naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, who named it "Agaricus procerus". Rolf Singer transferred it to the genus "Macrolepiota" in 1948.
Description.
The height and cap diameter of a mature specimen may both reach 30 - 40 (50) cm. The stipe is relatively thin and reaches full height before the cap has expanded. The stipe is very fibrous in texture which renders it inedible. The surface is characteristically wrapped in a snakeskin-like pattern of scaly growths (therefore, known in some parts of Europe as the "snake's hat" or "snake's sponge"). The immature cap is compact and egg-shaped, with the cap margin around the stipe, sealing a chamber inside the cap. As it matures, the margin breaks off, leaving a fleshy, movable ring around the stipe. At full maturity, the cap is more or less flat, with a chocolate-brown umbo in the centre that is leathery to touch. Dark and cap-coloured flakes remain on the upper surface of the cap and can be removed easily. The gills are crowded, free, and white with a pale pink tinge sometimes present. The spore print is white. It has a pleasant nutty smell. When sliced, the white flesh may turn a pale pink.
Uses.
"Macrolepiota procera" is a choice edible mushroom. It is very sought-after and popular in Europe, due in part to its large size, seasonal frequency, and versatility in the kitchen. In the UK, it may be found from July through to November.
The parasol mushroom is difficult to mistake for any other, especially in regions like Europe where the poisonous look-alike "Chlorophyllum molybdites" is rare. The spores and lamellae of "C. molybdites" are notably greener in appearance. Nevertheless, as with picking any fungus for consumption, caution should be exercised at all times.
"Macrolepiota procera" is also edible raw, though its close lookalikes in the genus Chlorophyllum are toxic raw.
These mushrooms are popularly sauteed in melted butter. In central and eastern European countries this mushroom is usually prepared similarly to a cutlet. It is usually run through egg and breadcrumbs and then fried in a pan with some oil or butter. A savory Slovak recipe is to bake caps stuffed with ground pork, oregano, and garlic. Italians and Austrians also serve the young, still spherical caps stuffed with seasoned minced beef, baked in the same manner as stuffed peppers.
Similar species.
Smaller but similar in appearance is the common shaggy parasol ("Chlorophyllum rhacodes".) Its edibility is suspect as it causes mild sickness in some people, especially when eaten raw. One must learn to distinguish the two as their geographical ranges overlap.
Differences from the parasol mushroom include its smaller dimensions, pungent (fruity) and reddening flesh when cut, lack of patterns on its stipe, and very shaggy cap surface.
"Macrolepiota mastoidea", a European species, is yet another very large edible mushroom. Its dimensions are generally smaller than that of "M. procera" and the markings on its stipe less obvious. It is also much rarer.
Species of "Agaricus" have brown spores and the gills of mature specimens are never white.
There are a few poisonous species which can be mistaken for "M. procera".


Margaretbarromyces

Margaretbarromyces is an extinct monotypic genus of pleosporale fungus of uncertain family placement. At present it contains the single species Margaretbarromyces dictyosporus.
The genus is solely known from the Eocene aged, Appian Way deposits on Vancouver Island. "Margaretbarromyces" is one of only three known fossil fungus species found on Vancouver Island and the most recent to be described from the Appian Way strata. The agaricomycete "Quatsinoporites cranhamii" was described from a Cretaceous fossil and "Appianoporites vancouverensis", from the same deposits as "Margaretbarromyces" were jointly described in a 2004 research paper.
History and classification.
The genus "Margaretbarromyces" is known only from the single holotype, a complete ascoma like fungus fruiting body. The specimen, AW 400 Htop 0-12, is currently residing in the paleobotanical collections housed by the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. The specimen was collected south of the Campbell River on the eastern shore of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. The fungus specimen was preserved in a calcareous nodule recovered from a silty mudstone matrix. The nodules formed in a shallow marine environment along with abundant plant material.
It was first studied by a group of researchers consisting of Randal Mindell, Randolph Currah and Ruth Stockey, from the University of Alberta and Graham Beard of the Vancouver Island Paleontology Museum, Qualicum Beach, British Columbia. Mindell and colleagues published their 2007 type description in the journal "Mycological Research" volume 111. The generic epithet "Margaretbarromyces" was coined from a recognition of Margaret Barr for here research on the loculoascomycete fungi and "myces" to reflect that it is a fungus. The specific epithet "dictyosporus" was coined to reflect the condition of the ascospores.
When first described "Margaretbarromyces dictyosporus" was the most recent fungus species to be described from Vancouver Island. "Cryptodidymosphaerites princetonensis" and "Palaeoserenomyces allenbyensis" were the first fossil fungi to be described from British Columbia, known only from the Early Eocene Allenby Formation near Princeton, B.C.. "Quatsinoporites cranhamii" a Cretaceous age agaricomycete from the western coast of Vancouver Island and "Appianoporites vancouverensis", also from the Appian Way site, were described in the same 2004 paper. With is publication three years later, "Margaretbarromyces" was the fifth fossil fungus described from British Columbia.
Description.
The holotype of "Margaretbarromyces" is a lone ascoma like fruiting body 390 μm in diameter by 420 μm in height in bark of an unidentified seed plant, which was transported by water before preservation in a calcareous nodule. The ascoma is composed of high branching and complex anastomosed hyphae. The interior chamber of the ascoma, filled with calcite, preserves several asci and a number of ascospores. Though the asci are faint the groupings of ascospores are well preserved showing the placement of the asci to be basal. Each ascospore is between 55 and 90 μm and dictyosporous. The specimen was studied by cutting the calcareous nodule into slices with a rock saw and using the cellulose acetate peel technique to create slides that were examined under stereo microscope.
With its distinct basal asci placement and dictyosporous ascospores, combined with the ascoma growing within existing tissues, "Margaretbarromyces" distinct from known genera. Though several other fungal orders have some similar characters the particular grouping found in "Margaretbarromyces" is closest to members of the Pleosporales. Placement at the family level is uncertain due to the fluctuating nature of the family descriptions.


Horama plumipes

Horama plumipes is a moth of the subfamily Arctiinae. It was described by Dru Drury in 1773. It is found in southern Texas, Mexico, Honduras, Belize, Guatemala and Nicaragua.
Description.
Upperside: Antennae black, but whitish at the tips; being thickest in the middle. Head black, with a white spot in front between the antennæ. Neck black, with three white spots on it. Thorax black, with several white spots thereon. Abdomen black, with several narrow white rings. Wings dark brown, immaculate.
Underside: Palpi white. Tongue spiral. Breast black, spotted with white on its sides. Abdomen black, having one broad white ring on it, and several narrow ones. Legs long and black. Thighs white. Hinder legs furnished with tufts of hairs of a black colour, placed in such manner as to resemble the shaft of an arrow; the legs, above and below these tufts, being white. Wings coloured as on the upperside. Wingspan nearly inches (45 mm).


Soil-borne wheat mosaic virus

Soil-borne wheat mosaic virus (SBWMV) is a rod-shaped plant pathogen that can cause severe stunting and mosaic in susceptible wheat, barley and rye cultivars. The disease has often been misdiagnosed as a nutritional problem, but this has actually allowed in part for the fortuitous visual selection by breeding programs of resistant genotypes. "Soil-borne wheat mosaic virus" is part of the genus "Furovirus". Members of this genus are characterized by rigid rod-shaped particles and positive sense RNA genomes consisting of two molecules that are packaged into separate particles that code for either replication, mobility, structure or defense against the host. The virus is spread by a fungal-like protist, "Polymyxa graminis", whose asexual secondary and sexual primary cycles help the virus spread. The disease produces secondary symptoms from the root cell infection. The disease is a serious contributor to loss in crop yield.
Hosts and symptoms.
The primary host for "Soil-borne wheat mosaic virus" is the wheat plant, "Triticum aestivum", although the virus can also affect rye, barley, and triticale. Symptoms of the disease are primarily found on the leaves. These symptoms include chlorotic leaf mottling or leaf mosaic, rosetting, stunting, streaking, and blotching of leaves. The mosaic and mottling symptoms may range from mild green to yellow, and leaves may sometimes also have dashes, parallel streaks, reddish streaking, and necrosis at the tips. Symptoms usually occur around the same time each year. This time is usually early spring, although in warmer climates it is possible that symptoms can emerge in late fall or early winter. Diseased fields are often uneven in appearance of symptoms especially in low wet areas. This is because the drainage pattern of water on the field is used by the virus to infect plants.
Disease cycle.
"Soil-borne wheat mosaic virus" uses the fungal-like protist "Polymyxa graminis", an endoparasitic slime mold as a vector. "P. graminis" produces resting spores that contain the viral RNA and movement protein for up to 30 years. Dormant resting spores can germinate and produce an infection from the virus containing zoospore. The zoospores need water to reach the host so saturated soil conditions maximize dissemination. When the zoospore reaches the host plant, it encysts on the surface of a cortical root cell and develops a spear like bag which when mature will punch through the adjoining zoospore and host walls. Along with the bag, the zoospore contents as well as the virus particles are emptied into the host cortical cell. How the virus is attached to or carried by the zoospore and how the virus is transferred from the zoospore to the plant root is not fully understood although the actual virus and movement protein but not capsid protein have been found within "P. graminis sporosori". After the cortical root cell puncture, one of two types of plasmodia of "P. graminis" may form inside. These plasmodia differentiate to give rise to either secondary zoospores (part of the asexual secondary cycle) or resting spores, the sexual primary cycle. The infection of the root cells causes substantial stunting and mosaic meaning a local infection on the root with secondary symptoms of stunting and mosaic formation.The virus itself contains two types of particles. The longer particle contains RNA 1, which is approximately 7100 nucleotides long and encodes three proteins. Two of these, measuring 150 kDa and 209 kDa, allow virus replication. The other protein is 37 kDa and allows cell-to-cell movement protein. The 150 kDa and 209 kDa proteins are translated directly from the message sense viral RNA, whereas the 37 kDa protein is expressed via a subgenomic mRNA. The shorter particle contains RNA 2 (approximately 3600 nucleotides), which also encodes three different proteins. The first is the 19 kDa coat or capsid protein (CP). Sometimes, the coat protein UGA termination codon is suppressed allowing translation of an 84 kDa CP-readthrough protein, which is believed to be required for virus transmission by its protist vector "P. graminis". The third protein is a 19 kDa cysteine-rich protein that is expressed via a subgenomic mRNA and may function as a suppressor of post-transcriptional gene silencing countering the host resistance to the virus. Optimal temperatures for "P. graminis" vary depending on where they are found: example in India varies in comparison to Belgium, Canada, Japan. and France () and an optimal temperature for transmission of in New York state. Since no significant transmission occurs at , fall or spring in temperate climates are believed to be the times of the year the infections occur.
Environment.
The disease needs an environment that is conducive for infection by the swimming zoospores of the virus’ vector, "P. graminis". In dryer environments, infected plants occur in lower lying, wet regions of the field, and in humid climates or climates with more moisture, patches of infection are able to occur anywhere in the field. While the disease is able to proliferate in overall dryer environments as long as there is some moisture, there is still a more optimal environment for the proliferation of the disease. The disease favors an environment with cool weather and temperatures near , and in the US, Soil-borne wheat mosaic occurs mostly throughout eastern and central areas of the country.
Management.
Cultivar resistance to the virus is the most practical strategy to control the disease. Evidence shows it is likely that the resistance prevents the systemic movement to the foliage from the roots, although this resistance will not prevent any replication or movement of cells to roots. Examples of resistant wheat cultivars include the Hawk and Newton cultivars. However, information on the resistance mechanism is still lacking. While there are two important aspects to Soil-borne wheat mosaic, the virus and the vector, resistance is directed more towards the virus rather than the vector. This is because the roots of susceptible cultivars and resistant cultivars can both still be colonized by "Polymyxa graminis". Resistance in the wheat line "Triticum aestivum" can be formed by crossing wheat with a wild diploid ancestor of wheat, "Aegilops tauschii". Other cultivars of resistance exist. Most cultivars are resistant to the common strains of the virus. While cultivar resistance is currently the most effective form of resistance, there are a few other ways to help manage the disease. Chemical control in soil fumigants provide control against the vector "P. graminis", but these fumigants are not feasible economically in use of small grains. The sanitation of machinery is important to avoid the introduction of the virus into new areas by soil transport, and sanitation is a more economical option for the management of disease. ELISA and RealTime PCR can be used to confirm diagnosis of infected plants.
Importance.
"Soil-borne wheat mosaic virus" is currently distributed over most of the eastern and central United States. Since the first European report in 1960, the virus has rapidly spread on the European continent and is abundant in France, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom. In the initial period of "Soil-borne wheat mosaic virus" research, host genotypes susceptible to rosette stunting were common and yield losses were recorded at over 50%. Today, while close monitoring for rosette phenotype has decreased the yield losses, plants still exhibit the mosaic phenotype leading to possible significant yield loss. Due to the fact that the viral symptoms are short lived and mimic nutritional deficiencies, the virus’s economic significance is often overlooked. The virus contributes to lower kernel weight, tiller number, and test weight leading to lower grain yield leading to a loss in profit.


Pecluvirus

Pecluvirus is a genus of viruses, in the family "Virgaviridae". Cereal crops and graminaceous weeds serve as natural hosts. There are two species in this genus. Diseases associated with this genus include: (SBWMV): green and yellow mosaic. The name of the genus is derived from "Peanut clump virus": "Peanut clump virus", giving rise to Pecluvirus.
Taxonomy.
The following two species are assigned to the genus:
Structure.
Viruses in the genus "Pecluvirus" are non-enveloped, with elongated rod-shaped geometries, and helical symmetry. The diameter is around 21 nm, with a length of 245 nm. Genomes are linear and segmented, segments are about 5.9 and 4.8kb in length.
Life cycle.
Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by penetration into the host cell. Replication follows the positive stranded RNA virus replication model. Positive stranded RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription. Translation takes place by leaky scanning, and suppression of termination. The virus exits the host cell by tripartite non-tubule guided viral movement. Cereal crops and graminaceous weeds serve as the natural host. The virus is transmitted via a vector (fungus). Transmission routes are vector and seed borne.


Saccharomycopsidaceae

The Saccharomycopsidaceae are a family of yeasts in the order Saccharomycetales. According to the 2007 Outline of Ascomycota, the family contains three genera, although the placement of the genus "Ambrosiozyma" is uncertain. Species in this poorly known family have a widespread distribution.


Candida oleophila

Candida oleophila is a species of yeast in the genus "Candida".


Cucumispora dikerogammari

The microsporidian Cucumispora dikerogammari is a parasitic fungal species that infects the invasive amphipod "Dikerogammarus villosus". The first recorded evidence of "Cucumispora dikerogammari" was, as cited by Ovcharenko and Vita, in Germany, circa 1895, by Dr. L. Pfeiffer in the Dnieper Estuary. The Dnieper Estuary and lower parts of the Danube River are considered to be the parasite’s native range. As its host, "D. villosus", began to invade novel habitats, "C. dikerogammari" followed, and has now expanded its range to be found in many of the main bodies of water in Central and Western Europe. At this time, only limited research has been conducted regarding the ecological implications of "C. dikerogammari" spreading beyond its native range. However, there is evidence to suggest that "C. dikerogammari" may cause imbalance to the male/female sex ratio of its host "D. villosus".
Classification.
Toward the broader end of its classification, "C. dikerogammari" falls within the phylum Microspora. Characteristics of phylum Microspora include a relictual mitochondrial structure and a complex life cycle involving both horizontal and vertical transmission. These characteristics suggest a host organism is necessary to sustain life and allow for reproduction of Microsporidia. The parasite was originally classified as "Nosema dikerogammari". Through phenotypic, molecular, phylogenic, and host compatibility experiments, evidence has led to the reclassification of "Nosema dikerogammari" within the novel genus "Cucumispora". Characteristics that define both genus "Cucumispora" and "Nosema" are diplokaryotic development and disporoblastic sporogony. Ovcharenko instated the novel genus "Cucumispora" to describe the presence a specific anterior structure to aid in attachment to a susceptible host, specific arrangements of isofilar polar filaments, substantial diplokaryon, and vacuole structure. These traits are unique to "Cucumispora", and serve to differentiate it from "Nosema".
Host.
Several microsporidian parasites are known to infect "Dikerogammarus villosus". "C. dikerogammari" reduces the survival rate in its hosts during the later stages of infection, leading them to reproduce earlier.


Pecoramyces

Pecoramyces is a genus of anaerobic fungus within phylum Neocallimastigomycota. The genus contains a single species Pecoramyces ruminantium"."


Saccharomycodes

Saccharomycodes is a genus of yeasts.
They are helobiallly reproducing yeasts.


Nitrosocaldus yellowstonii


Clostridium pasteurianum

Clostridium pasteurianum (previously known as "Clostridium pastorianum") is a bacterium discovered in 1890 by the Russian microbiologist Sergei Winogradsky. It was the first free living (non-symbiotic) micro-organism discovered that could fix free nitrogen from the air.
"Clostridium pasteurianum" is a producer of carboxylic acids. It has the ability to convert carbohydrates to butyrate, acetate, carbon dioxide, and molecular hydrogen through fermentation. Similar to "Clostridium acetobutylicum", "Clostridium pasteurianum" also has the ability to switch from acid to solvent production under certain growth conditions, Several efforts have been made to document its growth conditions; however, it is still unclear whether the growth parameters which have been shown to produce favorable solvent production in "C. acetobutylicum" played a significant role in the regulation of metabolism in "C. pasteurianum" in a similar fashion.
"C. pasteurianum" is a mesophile.
Taxonomy.
Initially named "Clostridium pastorianum" by Winogradsky, its name was later changed to the current spelling.
Morphology.
"C. pasteurianum" is a large, Gram-positive, spore-forming bacillus. It is a soil bacterium, and an obligate anaerobe.


Qubevirus

Qubevirus is a genus of positive-strand RNA viruses, in the family "Fiersviridae". Enterobacteria serve as natural hosts. There are two species in this genus. In 2020, the genus was renamed from "Allolevivirus" to its current name.
Structure.
Viruses in "Qubevirus" are non-enveloped, with icosahedral and spherical geometries, and T=3 symmetry. The diameter is around 26 nm.
Genome.
Qubeviruses have a positive-sense, single-stranded RNA genome. The genome is linear and non-segmented and around 4kb in length. The genome codes for four proteins, which are the coat, replicase, maturation, and lysis protein.
Life cycle.
Entry into the host cell is achieved by adsorption into the host cell. Replication follows the positive-strand RNA virus replication model. Positive-strand RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription. Translation takes place by suppression of termination. The virus exits the host cell by bacteria lysis. Enterobacteria serve as the natural host.
Taxonomy.
The genus "Qubevirus" has the following two species:


Ascobotryozyma

Ascobotryozyma is a genus of fungi within the Saccharomycetales order. The relationship of this taxon to other taxa within the order is unknown ("incertae sedis"), and it has not yet been placed with certainty into any family.


Serpula (fungus)

Serpula is a genus of fungi in the family Serpulaceae.
Taxonomy and evolution.
The term was originally defined by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon as a section of the genus "Merulius" in 1801. British botanist Samuel Frederick Gray raised it to genus status in his 1821 work "The Natural Arrangement of British Plants". The name is derived from the Latin verb "serpěre" "to creep". Synonyms include Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link's 1809 "Xylophagous", Christian Hendrik Persoon's 1825 "Xylomyzon", Narcisse Théophile Patouillard's 1874 "Gyrophora", and Patouillard's 1897 "Gyrophana".
"Serpula" forms a clade with at least two other closely related genera, "Austropaxillus" and "Gymnopaxillus", the three composing the family Serpulaceae. It is thought that the common ancestor was saprotrophic,and that ancestor to the latter two genera became mycorrhizal. Using molecular clock analysis, the split between "Austropaxillus" and "Serpula" has been estimated to have occurred about 34.9 mya, roughly coinciding with the separation of South America and Australia from Antarctica.
The number of species is uncertain – the two species "S. lacrymans" and "S. himantioides" have been considered to be a single species, or the latter species has possibly five cryptic species within its complex.
Description.
The members of the genus "Serpula" form flat brown fruit bodies that cover the surface they are growing on (known as the substrate). The hymenophore, or spore-forming surface, generally has a wrinkled appearance.
Ecology.
The species grow on, and digest, mainly coniferous wood, causing a process known as brown rot. One species, dry rot ("S. lacrymans"), is a highly destructive agent of houses. Damp structural timber is an ideal substrate for the germination of "Serpula" spores. The fungal hyphae penetrate the wood and release enzymes that break down structural polysaccharides such as cellulose. There may be no external indications that the fungus is present until the rot is far advanced and fruit bodies are formed. The strand mycelium of "Serpula", which can be up to 8 mm thick, are invasive and can spread over non-nutritive surfaces to find new food sources, even spreading through pores in stone, brickwork, and cement. After its initial growth period, the fungus can produce the water it needs and can continue growth into dry timber, eventually degrading it to powder—hence the term "dry rot". "S. lacrymans" is the most serious cause of building timber decay in the UK and northern Europe.
Species.
The "Dictionary of the Fungi" (10th edition, 2008), suggests that the genus contains two species. , the nomenclatural database Index Fungorum indicates 11 species:


Actinophrys


Ascoideaceae

The Ascoideaceae are a family of yeasts in the order Saccharomycetales. A monotypic taxon, it contains the single genus "Ascoidea". Species in the family have a widespread distribution, and typically grow in beetle galleries in dead wood.


Ezekiel Adebiyi

Ezekiel Adebiyi is a Nigerian bioinformatics professor and research scientist. He is the current president of Nigerian Society of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology. He is also the current vice-president of African Society for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology. In 2010, he was made a professor at Covenant University, an elevation that made him the first bioinformatics professor in West Africa.
Early life and education.
Adebiyi was born on 28 July 1970 in Ibadan, Nigeria, although he is a native of Boluwaduro area of Osun State. He had his secondary school at United Community Secondary School, Ilorin. Between 1987 and 1991, he studied Mathematics at University of Ilorin graduating as the best graduating student. He also completed his master's degree from the same institution in 1995. His doctorate thesis was on "Pattern Discovery in Biology and Strings Sorting: Theory and Experimentation", which he concluded in 2002 at University of Tübingen.
Academic career and research interests.
Adebiyi began his lecturing career immediately after graduation at University of Ilorin. In 2003, he withdrew from the school to become a visiting scientist at several research centers including San Diego Supercomputer Center, University of Montpellier and German Cancer Research Center. He continued with professional research before joining Covenant University Computer science department in 2008. He was promoted to the professorial cadre in 2010.
Between 2007 and 2011, Adebiyi was the vice president of African Society for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology. After his tenure, he became the secretary of the professional body. He is also the president of Nigeria Society of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology (NISBCB).


Mycobacterium septicum

Mycobacterium septicum is a species of "Mycobacterium".


Acidovorax wohlfahrtii

Acidovorax wohlfahrtii is a bacterium from the genus "Acidovorax" and the family Comamonadaceae.


Zooflagellate

In some older systems of classification, Zoomastigophora is a phylum (more commonly known as zooflagellates) within the kingdom Protista. Organisms within this group have a spherical, elongated body with a single central nucleus. They are single-celled, heterotrophic eukaryotes and may form symbiotic relationships with other organisms, including Trichomonas. Some species are parasitic, causing diseases such as the African Sleeping Sickness, caused by the zooflagellate "Trypanosoma brucei". Zooflagellates have one or more flagella but do not have plastids or cell walls.
A few are mutualistic, such as those that live in the guts of termites and aid the bacteria present in breaking down wood.


Intrasporangiaceae

Intrasporangiaceae is an Actinomycete family that is paraphyletic with respect to the families Dermatophilaceae and Dermacoccaceae, i.e. the families Dermatophilaceae and Dermacoccaceae are nested within the clade Intrasporangiaceae. The family is named after the type genus "Intrasporangium". The type species of "Intrasporangium" ("I. calvum") was originally thought to form endospores; however, the mycelium of this strain may bear intercalary vesicles that were originally identified as spores. No members of Intrasporangiaceae are known to form spores.
Phylogeny.
The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) and National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)
and the phylogeny is based on 16S rRNA-based LTP release 106 by The All-Species Living Tree Project
Notes:
♠ Strains found at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) but not listed in the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN)


Mycobacterium canetti

Mycobacterium canettii, a novel pathogenic taxon of the "Mycobacterium tuberculosis" complex (MTBC), was first reported in 1969 by the French microbiologist Georges Canetti, for whom the organism has been named. It formed smooth and shiny colonies, which is highly exceptional for the MTBC. It was described in detail in 1997 on the isolation of a new strain from a 2-year-old Somali patient with lymphadenitis. It did not differ from "Mycobacterium tuberculosis" in the biochemical tests and in its 16S rRNA sequence. It had shorter generation time than clinical isolates of "M. tuberculosis" and presented a unique, characteristic phenolic glycolipid and lipo-oligosaccharide. In 1998, Pfyffer described abdominal lymphatic TB in a 56-year-old Swiss man with HIV infection who lived in Kenya. Tuberculosis caused by "M. canettii" appears to be an emerging disease in the Horn of Africa. A history of a stay to the region should induce the clinician to consider this organism promptly even if the clinical features of TB caused by "M. canettii" are not specific. The natural reservoir, host range, and mode of transmission of the organism are still unknown.


Circumscriptional name

In biological classification, circumscriptional names are taxon names that are not ruled by ICZN and are defined by the particular set of members included. Circumscriptional names are used mainly for taxa above family-group level (e. g. order or class), but can be also used for taxa of any ranks, as well as for rank-less taxa.
Non-typified names other than those of the genus- or species-group constitute the majority of generally accepted names of taxa higher than superfamily. The ICZN regulates names of taxa up to family group rank (i. e. superfamily). There are no generally accepted rules of naming higher taxa (orders, classes, phyla, etc.). Under the approach of circumscription-based (circumscriptional) nomenclatures, a circumscriptional name is associated with a certain circumscription of a taxon without regard of its rank or position.
Some authors advocate introducing a mandatory standardized typified nomenclature of higher taxa. They suggest all names of higher taxa to be derived in the same manner as family-group names, i.e. by modifying names of type genera with endings to reflect the rank. There is no consensus on what such higher rank endings should be. A number of established practices exist as to the use of typified names of higher taxa, depending on animal group.


Fibrocyte

A fibrocyte is an inactive mesenchymal cell, that is, a cell showing minimal cytoplasm, limited amounts of rough endoplasmic reticulum and lacks biochemical evidence of protein synthesis.
The term "fibrocyte" contrasts with the term "fibroblast". Fibroblasts are activated connective tissue cells characterized by synthesis of proteins of the fibrous matrix, particularly the collagens. When tissue is injured, the predominant mesenchymal cells, the fibroblast, have been believed to be derived from the fibrocyte or possibly from smooth muscle cells lining vessels and glands. Commonly, fibroblasts express smooth muscle actin, a form of actin first found in smooth muscle cells and not found in resting fibrocytes. Fibroblasts expressing this form of actin are usually called "myo-fibroblasts."
Recently, the term "fibrocyte" has also been applied to a bloodborne cell able to leave the blood, enter tissue and become a fibroblast. As part of the more general topic of stem cell biology, a number of studies have suggested that the blood contains marrow derived cells that can differentiate into fibroblasts. These cells have been reported to express the hematopoietic cell surface markers CD34+, CD45+, as well as collagen. These cells can migrate to wound sites, suggesting a role in wound healing. There are several studies suggesting that fibrocytes mediate wound healing and fibrotic tissue repair.


Mycobacterium vanbaalenii

Mycobacterium vanbaalenii is a rapidly growing mycobacterium that can use polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. It was first isolated from petroleum-contaminated estuarine sediments and has been shown by 16S rRNA gene sequencing to be closely related to "Mycobacterium aurum" and "Mycobacterium vaccae". "M. vanbaalenii" has potential use in the bioremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated environmental sites. Etymology: vanbaalenii of Van Baalen, in memory of Dr Chase Van Baalen, late Professor at The University of Texas Marine Science Institute, Port Aransas Marine Laboratory, Port Aransas, TX, USA.
Description.
Microscopy
Colony characteristics
Physiology


Cutibacterium acnes

Cutibacterium acnes (formerly Propionibacterium acnes) is the relatively slow-growing, typically aerotolerant anaerobic, Gram-positive bacterium (rod) linked to the skin condition of acne; it can also cause chronic blepharitis and endophthalmitis, the latter particularly following intraocular surgery. Its genome has been sequenced and a study has shown several genes can generate enzymes for degrading skin and proteins that may be immunogenic (activating the immune system).
The species is largely commensal and part of the skin flora present on most healthy adult humans' skin. It is usually just barely detectable on the skin of healthy preadolescents. It lives, among other things, primarily on fatty acids in sebum secreted by sebaceous glands in the follicles. It may also be found throughout the gastrointestinal tract.
Originally identified as "Bacillus acnes", it was later named "Propionibacterium acnes" for its ability to generate propionic acid. In 2016, "P. acnes" was taxonomically reclassified as a result of biochemical and genomic studies. In terms of both phylogenetic tree structure and DNA G + C content, the cutaneous species was distinguishable from other species that had been previously categorized as "P. acnes". As part of restructuring, the novel genus "Cutibacterium" was created for the cutaneous species, including those formerly identified as "Propionibacterium acnes", "Propionibacterium avidum", and "Propionibacterium granulosum". Characterization of phylotypes of "C. acnes" is an active field of research.
Role in diseases.
Acne vulgaris.
"C. acnes" bacteria predominantly live deep within follicles and pores, although they are also found on the surface of healthy skin. In these follicles, "C. acnes" bacteria use sebum, cellular debris and metabolic byproducts from the surrounding skin tissue as their primary sources of energy and nutrients. Elevated production of sebum by hyperactive sebaceous glands (sebaceous hyperplasia) or blockage of the follicle can cause "C. acnes" bacteria to grow and multiply.
"C. acnes" bacteria secrete many proteins, including several digestive enzymes. These enzymes are involved in the digestion of sebum and the acquisition of other nutrients. They can also destabilize the layers of cells that form the walls of the follicle. The cellular damage, metabolic byproducts and bacterial debris produced by the rapid growth of "C. acnes" in follicles can trigger inflammation. This inflammation can lead to the symptoms associated with some common skin disorders, such as folliculitis and acne vulgaris. Acne vulgaris is the disease most commonly associated with "C. acnes" infection.
"Staphylococcus" "epidermidis".
The damage caused by "C. acnes" and the associated inflammation make the affected tissue more susceptible to colonization by opportunistic bacteria, such as "Staphylococcus aureus". Preliminary research shows healthy pores are only colonized by "C. acnes", while unhealthy ones universally include the nonpore-resident "Staphylococcus epidermidis", amongst other bacterial contaminants. Whether this is a root causality, just opportunistic and a side effect, or a more complex pathological duality between "C. acnes" and this particular "Staphylococcus" species is not known.
Corneal ulcer.
"C. acnes" has also been found in corneal ulcers, and is a common cause of chronic endophthalmitis following cataract surgery.
Disk herniation.
"C. acnes" has been found in herniated discs. The propionic acid which it secretes creates micro-fractures of the surrounding bone. These micro-fractures are sensitive and it has been found that antibiotics have been helpful in resolving this type of low back pain.
Sarcoidosis.
"C. acnes" can be found in bronchoalveolar lavage of approximately 70% of patients with sarcoidosis and is associated with disease activity, but it can be also found in 23% of controls. The subspecies of "C. acnes" that cause these infections of otherwise sterile tissues (prior to medical procedures), however, are the same subspecies found on the skin of individuals who do not have acne-prone skin, so are likely local contaminants. Moderate to severe acne vulgaris appears to be more often associated with virulent strains.
Opportunistic diseases.
"C. acnes" is often considered an opportunistic pathogen, causing a range of postoperative and device-related infections e.g., surgical infections, post-neurosurgical infections, infected joint prostheses (especially shoulder), neurosurgical shunt infections and endocarditis in patients with prosthetic heart valves (predominantely men). "C. acnes" may play a role in other conditions, including SAPHO (synovitis, acne, pustulosis, hyperostosis, osteitis) syndrome, sarcoidosis and sciatica. It is also suspected a main bacterial source of neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease brains. It is a common contaminant in blood and cerebrospinal fluid cultures.
Antimicrobial susceptibility.
"C. acnes" bacteria are susceptible to a wide range of antimicrobial molecules, from both pharmaceutical and natural sources. The antibiotics most frequently used to treat acne vulgaris are erythromycin, clindamycin, doxycycline, and minocycline. Several other families of antibiotics are also active against "C. acnes" bacteria, including quinolones, cephalosporins, pleuromutilins, penicillins, and sulfonamides.
Antibiotic-resistance.
The emergence of antibiotic-resistant "C. acnes" bacteria represents a growing problem worldwide. The problem is especially pronounced in North America and Europe. The antibiotic families that "C. acnes" are most likely to acquire resistance to are the macrolides (e.g., erythromycin and azithromycin), lincosamides (e.g., clindamycin) and tetracyclines (e.g., doxycycline and minocycline).
However, "C. acnes" bacteria are susceptible to many types of antimicrobial chemicals found in over-the-counter antibacterial products, including benzoyl peroxide, triclosan, chloroxylenol, and chlorhexidine gluconate.
Several naturally occurring molecules and compounds are toxic to "C. acnes" bacteria. Some essential oils such as rosemary, tea tree oil, clove oil, and citrus oils contain antibacterial chemicals. Natural honey has also been shown to have some antibacterial properties that may be active against "C. acnes".
The elements silver, sulfur, and copper have also been demonstrated to be toxic towards many bacteria, including "C. acnes".
Photosensitivity.
"C. acnes" glows orange when exposed to blacklight, possibly due to the presence of endogenous porphyrins. It is also killed by ultraviolet light. "C. acnes" is especially sensitive to light in the 405–420 nanometer (near the ultraviolet) range due to an endogenic porphyrin–coporphyrin III. A total irradiance of 320 Joules/cm2 inactivates this species "in vitro". Its photosensitivity can be enhanced by pretreatment with aminolevulinic acid, which boosts production of this chemical, although this causes significant side effects in humans, and in practice was not significantly better than the light treatment alone.
Other habitats.
"C. acnes" has been found to be an endophyte of plants. Notably, grapevine appears to host an endophytic population of "C. acnes" that is closely related to the human-associated strains. The two lines diverged roughly 7,000 years ago, at about the same time when grapevine agriculture may have been established. This "C. acnes" subtype was dubbed "Zappae" in honour of the eccentric composer Frank Zappa, to highlight its unexpected and unconventional habitat.


Endolepiotula

Endolepiotula is a fungal genus in the family Agaricaceae. This is a monotypic genus, containing the single secotioid species Endolepiotula ruizlealii. This fungus was found in Mendoza Province, Argentina, growing in sandy soil in somewhat dry environment after rainfall.


Clostridium piliforme

Clostridium piliforme is an anaerobic, motile, gram-negative bacterium.


Luteimonas aquatica

Luteimonas aquatica is a species of yellow-pigmented bacteria. It is Gram-negative, rod-shaped and non-spore-forming, with type strain RIB1-20(T) (=BCRC 17731(T) =LMG 24212(T)).


Hebeloma sinapizans

Hebeloma sinapizans, commonly known as the rough-stalked hebeloma or the bitter poisonpie, is a species of mushroom in the family Hymenogastraceae. It has a strong radish-like smell, and a prominent bulbous stem base. It is larger than the similar and more common "H. crustuliniforme", a relative that is also poisonous. "H. sinapizans" is found in Europe and North America.
Taxonomy.
First described as "Hypophyllum sinapizans" by Jean-Jacques Paulet in 1793, it was transferred to the genus "Hebeloma" by Claude Casimir Gillet in 1878. It is commonly known as the "rough-stalked Hebeloma".
Description.
The fruit body has a cap that is initially convex before flattening out in age, reaching a diameter of . The cap may have a shallow umbo. The cap surface ranges from moist to sticky, and it is smooth with a margin that is first curled inward and expanding to become curled upward in maturity; the cap color is whitish-tan to cinnamon-tan, sometimes with pinkish- or reddish-brown tints. The flesh is whitish, thick, and has a radish-like odor and taste. Gills have an adnate attachment to the stipe, and they have a notch just before the point of attachment; the gill edges have tiny fringes or serrations. They are first whitish before turning to yellowish-brown to pale brown after the spores mature. The stipe measures long by thick, and is roughly equal in width throughout its length. "Hebeloma sinapizans" mushrooms are poisonous.
Fruit bodies produce a pale brown spore print. Spores are elliptical with a rough surface texture, and measure 10–14 by 6–8 µm.
Habitat and distribution.
The fungus fruits on the ground in groups or fairy rings in deciduous and coniferous forests.


Abnidovirineae


Chytridiomycetes

Chytridiomycetes () is a class of fungi. Members are found in soil, fresh water, and saline estuaries. They are first known from the Rhynie chert. It has recently been redefined to exclude the taxa Neocallimastigomycota and Monoblepharidomycetes, which are now a phylum and a sister-class respectively.
Chytridiomycetes is the major class of the phylum Chytridiomycota, which contains a number of parasitic species. At least two species in this class are known to infect a number of amphibian species.
Phylogeny.
Based on the work of "The Mycota: A Comprehensive Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic and Applied Research", Powell and Letcher 2015 and Karpov et al. 2014.


Acaulospora rehmii

Acaulospora rehmii is a species of fungus in the family Acaulosporaceae. It forms arbuscular mycorrhiza and vesicles in roots. Isolated from the soil of a cultivated field in Colombia, the fungus was described as new to science in 1987.


Microbacteriaceae

The Microbacteriaceae are a family of bacteria of the order Actinomycetales. They are Gram-positive soil organisms.
Phylogeny.
The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) and National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)
and the phylogeny is based on 16S rRNA-based LTP release 106 by The All-Species Living Tree Project
Notes:
♠ Strains found at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) but not listed in the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN)


Idioplasm


Candidatus Saccharibacteria


SABIO-Reaction Kinetics Database

SABIO-RK (System for the Analysis of Biochemical Pathways - Reaction Kinetics) is a web-accessible database storing information about biochemical reactions and their kinetic properties.
SABIO-RK comprises a reaction-oriented representation of quantitative information on reaction dynamics based on a given selected publication.
This comprises all available kinetic parameters together with their corresponding rate equations,
as well as kinetic law and parameter types and experimental and environmental conditions under which the kinetic data were determined.
Additionally, SABIO-RK contains information about the underlying biochemical reactions and pathways including their reaction participants,
cellular location and detailed information about the enzymes catalysing the reactions.
SABIO-RK Database Content.
The data stored in SABIO-RK in a comprehensive manner is mainly extracted manually from literature. This includes reactions, their participants (substrates, products), modifiers (inhibitors, activators, cofactors), catalyst details (e.g. EC enzyme classification, protein complex composition, wild type / mutant information), kinetic parameters together with corresponding rate equation, biological sources (organism, tissue, cellular location), environmental conditions (pH, temperature, buffer) and reference details. Data are adapted, normalized and annotated to controlled vocabularies, ontologies and external data sources including KEGG, UniProt, ChEBI, PubChem, NCBI, Reactome, BRENDA, MetaCyc, BioModels, and PubMed.
As of September 2019 SABIO-RK contains more than 60.000 curated single entries extracted from more than 6.000 publications.
Several tools, databases and workflows in Systems Biology make use of SABIO-RK biochemical reaction data by integration into their framework including
SYCAMORE,
MeMo-RK,
CellDesigner,
PeroxisomeDB,
Taverna workflows
or tools like KineticsWizard software for data capture and analysis.
Additionally, SABIO-RK is part of MIRIAM registry, a set of guidelines for the annotation and curation of computational models
SABIO-RK Database Access.
The usage of SABIO-RK is free of charge. Commercial users need a license.
SABIO-RK offers several ways for data access:
Result data sets can be exported in different formats including SBML, BioPAX/SBPAX, and table format.


Aldosterone escape

In physiology, aldosterone escape is a term that has been used to refer to two distinct phenomena involving aldosterone that are exactly opposite each other:
In patients with hyperaldosteronism, chronic exposure to excess aldosterone does not cause edema as might be expected. Aldosterone initially results in an increase in Na+ reabsorption in these patients through stimulation of ENaC channels in principal cells of the renal collecting tubules. Increased ENaC channels situated in the apical membranes of the principal cells allow for more Na+ reabsorption, which may cause a transient increase in fluid reabsorption as well. However, within a few days, Na+ reabsorption returns to normal as evidenced by normal urinary Na+ levels in these patients.
The proposed mechanism for this phenomenon does not include a reduced sensitivity of mineralocorticoid receptors to aldosterone, because low serum potassium is often seen in these patients, which is the direct result of aldosterone-induced expression of ENaC channels. Furthermore, electrolyte homeostasis is maintained in these patients, which excludes the possibility that other Na+ transporters elsewhere in the kidney are being shut down. If, in fact, other transporters such as the Na+-H+ antiporter in the proximal tubule or the Na+/K+/2Cl− symporter in the thick ascending loop of Henle were being blocked, other electrolyte disturbances would be expected, such as seen during use of diuretics.
Instead, experiments isolating the perfusion pressures seen by glomerular capillaries from heightened systemic pressures due to hyperaldosteronism have shown that Na+ excretion remains minimal until the kidney is exposed to heightened perfusion pressures. These experiments brought about the proposition that initially high perfusion pressures due to increased Na+ and water reabsorption in a hyperaldosterone state actually causes "backflow" of Na+ and water into the tubules.
Normally Na+ and water are reabsorbed from the tubules and dumped into the interstitium. From there, Starling forces dictate the gradient for movement of water and Na+ into the peritubular capillaries. Because hydrostatic pressures in the tubules, interstitium and peritubular capillaries are normally equivalent, oncotic pressures govern flow.
Typically, oncotic pressures are higher in the peritubular capillaries, because protein composition in the interstitium is nominal; therefore, Na+ and water leave the interstitial space and enter the capillaries. When hydrostatic pressures are raised in the peritubular capillaries such as seen in hyperaldosteronism, Starling forces begin to favor "backflow" of Na+ and water from the interstitium into the tubules—thus, increasing Na+ excretion. This is the proposed mechanism of "mineralocorticoid escape" for how patients with increased levels of aldosterone are able to maintain Na+ balance and avoid an edematous state.


Calostoma fuhreri

Calostoma fuhreri is a species of gasteroid fungus in the family Sclerodermataceae. Found in Australia, the original specimens were collected by mycologist Bruce Fuhrer, for whom the species is named. Fruit bodies grow to tall, and comprise a pseudostipe that is long by thick that supports a roughly spherical peridium (spore sac). Atop the peridium is an irregular stoma (opening) that is red on the inside. Inside the peridium is a white gleba that consists of spores, basidia, and broken hyphae. The spores are oblong to elliptical, hyaline (translucent), and typically measure 20–26 by 9–11 µm.


Zehra Sayers

Zehra Sayers (born 25 September 1953) is a Turkish-British structural biologist. She has previously served as President of the Sabancı University and chaired the advisory committee for Synchrotron-Light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East (SESAME). She was awarded the AAAS Award for Science Diplomacy in 2019. She holds Turkish and British citizenship.
Early life and education.
Sayers was born in Turkey. She studied physics at Boğaziçi University in Istanbul. For her postgraduate studies Sayers moved to the United Kingdom. In 1978 she earned a doctorate for research done at King's College London GKT School of Medical Education, the degree was awarded by the University of London. She worked as a postdoctoral researcher in the Open University and the Wallenberg Laboratory, Uppsala University. In 1986 she was the first woman staff scientist to be appointed to the European Molecular Biology Laboratory. Sayers was a pioneer in the use of synchrotron radiation to study cytoskeletal proteins and chromatin. Whilst working in Germany she was appointed to Associate Professor. She received her qualification for professorship with a thesis from the German University of Hamburg in 1996.
Research and career.
In 1998 Sayers returned to Turkey, and was a founding faculty member of Sabancı University. She was elected Director of the Foundation Development Program in 2010 and President in 2018. Her research has considered recombinant protein production, and has considered the structure of chromatin fibres and filamentous proteins. She looks to identify the relationship between structure and function in macromolecules. At Sabancı University, Sayers has revolutionised undergraduate teaching, developing an interdisciplinary, liberal arts, curriculum for science teaching in Turkey.
Sayers became involved with the Synchrotron-Light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East (SESAME) project since 2000. The light source was inaugurated in 2017 by Abdullah II of Jordan. She believes that synchrotron light sources are an effective way to integrate scientists from different disciplines and nationalities. During her time as Chair of the Advisory Committee she oversaw the training of hundreds of young scientists to use the synchrotron radiation. She held her position as Chair of the Advisory Committee of SESAME from 2002 to 2018. Sayers has worked as an advisor for the Turkish Accelerator Center Project. She spoke about the international collaborations that are part of SESAME at TEDxCERN in 2013.
She was awarded the EuroScience Rammal Award in 2017, which recognised her contributions to building the scientific programme of SESAME. In 2019 Sayers became the first Turkish national to win the AAAS Award for Science Diplomacy. Later that year she was named as one of the BBC 100 Women in 2019.
Selected publications.
Her publications include;


Serpula himantioides

Serpula himantioides is a species of fungus that causes damage to timber referred to as dry rot. It is a basidiomycete in the order Boletales. It has been found on all continents except for Antarctica. Recent molecular work demonstrates that "S. himantioides" is a species complex including multiple cryptic lineages.
Taxonomy.
The fungus was first described in 1818 by Elias Magnus Fries as "Merulius himantioides". Petter Karsten transferred it to the genus "Serpula" in 1884.
Host and symptoms.
"Serpula himantioides" is a fungal pathogen within the division Basidiomycota. It produces thin, resupinate (inverted), membranous fan-like basidiocarps that are brownish in color and appear as distinctive fruiting bodies on the exterior of the host. "S. himantioides" prefers the moist wood of coniferous hosts such as fir, larch, spruce, and pine. It is the causal agent of butt rot disease, the symptoms of which include rotting the heartwood at base of tree, as well as damage to the tap root and cores of lateral roots, but standing trees show no signs of infection. It also a common cause of timber rotting in buildings, which has made this pathogen difficult to differentiate from "S. lacrymans" because of their similarities. This disease often goes unnoticed initially due to a lack of any above ground symptoms of disease. Signs of the pathogen include basidiospores, and fungal masses that are generally dark brown and membranous in the center but become thin white mycelium towards edges of the mass. The brown cubical rot caused by "S. himantioides" resembles the rots of "Phaeolus schweinitzii" and "S. lacrymans".
Importance.
"Serpula himantiodes" is a pre-harvest pathogen that exerts economic impact on lumber supply. It is considered the wild sister species of "S. lacrymans", the pathogen that causes dry rot in wooden building structures. "S. himantioides" is studied most frequently in the context of its relation to "S. lacrymans."
Disease cycle.
"Serpula himantioides" has a heterothallic tetrapolar mating system. This means it requires the growth and conjugation of two mating types, determined by the expression of one or more alleles of two unlinked mating loci, for sexual reproduction.
Environment.
"Serpula himantioides" is commonly found in the wild, while "S. lacrymans" is rarely found in the wild and is generally found on lumber in buildings and construction.


Clostridium kluyveri

Clostridium kluyveri (CLOKL) is an anaerobic, motile, gram-positive bacterium. It is named after the Dutch microbiologist Albert Kluyver.


Cellular adaptation

In cell biology and pathophysiology, cellular adaptation refers to changes made by a cell in response to adverse or varying environmental changes.[1] The adaptation may be physiologic (normal) or pathologic (abnormal). Four types of morphological adaptations include atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, and metaplasia.
Atrophy.
Atrophy is a decrease in cell size. If enough cells in an organ undergo atrophy the entire organ will decrease in size. Thymus atrophy during early human development (childhood) is an example of physiologic atrophy. Skeletal muscle atrophy is a common pathologic adaptation to skeletal muscle disuse (commonly called "disuse atrophy"). Tissue and organs especially susceptible to atrophy include skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, secondary sex organs, and the brain.
Hypertrophy.
Hypertrophy is an increase in cell size and volume. If enough cells of an organ hypertrophy the whole organ will increase in size. Hypertrophy may involve an increase in intracellular protein as well as cytosol (intracellular fluid) and other cytoplasmic components. For example, adipocytes (fat cells) may expand in size by depositing more lipid within cytoplasmic vesicles. Thus in human adults, increases in body fat tissue occurs mostly by increases in the size of adipocytes, not by increases in the number of adipocytes. Hypertrophy may be caused by mechanical signals (e.g., stretch) or trophic signals (e.g., growth factors). An example of physiologic hypertrophy is in skeletal muscle with sustained weight bearing exercise. An example of pathologic hypertrophy is in cardiac muscle as a result of hypertension.
Hyperplasia.
Hyperplasia is an increase in the number of cells. It is the result of increased cell mitosis or division (also referred to as cell proliferation). The two types of physiologic hyperplasia are compensatory and hormonal. Compensatory hyperplasia permits tissue and organ regeneration. It is common in epithelial cells of the epidermis and intestine, liver hepatocytes, bone marrow cells, and fibroblasts. It occurs to a lesser extent in bone, cartilage, and smooth muscle cells. Hormonal hyperplasia occurs mainly in organs that depend on estrogen. For example, the estrogen-dependent uterine cells undergo hyperplasia and hypertrophy following pregnancy. Pathologic hyperplasia is an abnormal increase in cell division. A common pathologic hyperplasia in women occurs in the endometrium and is called endometriosis.
Metaplasia.
Metaplasia occurs when a cell of a certain type is replaced by another cell type, which may be less differentiated. It is a reversible process thought to be caused by stem cell reprogramming. Stem cells are found in epithelia and embryonic mesenchyme of connective tissue. A prominent example of metaplasia involves the changes associated with the respiratory tract in response to inhalation of irritants, such as smog or smoke. The bronchial cells convert from mucus-secreting, ciliated, columnar epithelium to non-ciliated, squamous epithelium incapable of secreting mucus. These transformed cells may become dysplastic or cancerous if the stimulus (e.g., cigarette smoking) is not removed. The most common example of metaplasia is Barrett's esophagus, when the non-keratinizing squamous epithelium of the esophagus undergoes metaplasia to become mucinous columnar cells, ultimately protecting the esophagus from acid reflux originating in the stomach. If stress persists, metaplasia can progress to dysplasia and eventually carcinoma; Barrett's esophagus, for example, can eventually progress to adenocarcinoma.
Dysplasia.
Dysplasia refers to abnormal changes in cellular shape, size, and/or organization. Dysplasia is not considered a true adaptation; rather, it is thought to be related to hyperplasia and is sometimes called "atypical hyperplasia". Tissues prone to dysplasia include cervical and respiratory epithelium, where it is strongly associated with the development of cancer; it may also be involved in the development of breast cancer. Although dysplasia is reversible, if stress persists, then dysplasia progresses to irreversible carcinoma.


Chroogomphus ochraceus


Candidatus Accumulibacter phosphatis

"Candidatus" Accumulibacter phosphatis (CAP) is an unclassified type of Betaproteobacteria that is a common bacterial community member of sewage treatment and wastewater treatment plants performing enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) and is a polyphosphate-accumulating organism. The role of CAP in EBPR was elucidated using culture-independent approaches such as 16S rRNA clone banks that showed the Betaproteobacteria dominated lab-scale EBPR reactors. Further work using clone banks and fluorescence "in situ" hybridization identified a group of bacteria, closely related to "Rhodocyclus" as the dominant member of lab-scale communities.
Phylogeny.
Currently, no cultured isolates of CAP exist, so the phylogeny of CAP strains is based purely of molecular biology techniques. To date, the polyphosphate kinase ("ppk1") and the PHA synthase ("phaC") genes have been used to characterise CAP populations at a higher resolution that 16S rRNA. The "ppk1" phylogeny is more frequently used and groups CAP into two major divisions: type I and type II. Each of these types has a number of clades that are given a letter designation, e.g. IA, IIA, IIB, IIC. An environmental survey of wastewater treatment plants and natural waterways in California and Wisconsin in the USA revealed at least five CAP I (IA .. IE) clades and seven CAP II (IIA .. IIG) clades.
Metabolism.
CAP has yet to be cultured, but the ability to enrich lab-scale EBPR communities with up to 80% CAP has enabled research into its metabolism using meta-omic approaches. EBPR is generally associated with three stages: anaerobic, aerobic, and settling. For CAP to dominate in EBPR reactors, they must be able to thrive under these conditions. During the anaerobic phase, CAP can take up volatile fatty acids and store these simple carbon sources intracellularly as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). At the same time, intracellular polyphosphate is degraded to form ATP, releasing phosphate into the medium. During the subsequent aerobic phase, PHAs are used for energy production and phosphate is taken up from the medium to form polyphosphate. Genomic reconstruction from an EBPR reactor enriched with CAP IIA revealed it to contain two different types of phosphate transporters, the high-affinity Pst and low-affinity Pit transporters, as well as using the Embden-Meyerhof (EM) glycogen degradation pathway. Furthermore, the CAP IIA genome contains nitrogen and CO2 fixation genes, which indicate CAP has adapted to environments limited in carbon and nitrogen. A discrepancy between the genomic data and reactor performance data was the lack of a functional respiratory nitrate reductase gene. Previous work had shown CAP could use nitrate as the terminal electron acceptor, but the genomic data indicate the periplasmic nitrate reductase gene could not function in the electron transport chain, as it lacked the necessary quinol reductase subunit. To resolve these issues, lab-scale EBPR reactors enriched with CAP IA and CAP IIA were tested for their nitrate-reduction capabilities. CAP IA was able to couple nitrate reduction to phosphate uptake, while the genomically characterised CAP IIA could not.


Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans

Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans ("Bsal") is a pathogenic chytrid fungus that infects amphibian species. Although salamanders and newts seem to be the most susceptible, some anuran species are also affected. "Bsal" has emerged recently and poses a major threat to species in Europe and North America.
It was described in 2013 based on a strain collected from skin tissue of fire salamanders "Salamandra salamandra". The pathogen, unidentified up to then, had devastated fire salamander populations in the Netherlands. Molecular phylogenetics confirmed it as related to the well known chytrid "B. dendrobatidis". Like this species, it causes chytridiomycosis, which is manifested in skin lesions and is lethal for the salamanders. Damage to the epidermal layer can be extensive and may result in osmoregulatory issues or sepsis.
Another study estimated that this species had diverged from "B. dendrobatidis" in the Late Cretaceous or early Paleogene. While initial susceptibility testing showed frogs and caecilians seemed to be resistant to "Bsal" infection, it was lethal to many European and some North American salamanders. East Asian salamanders were susceptible but able to tolerate infections. The fungus was also detected in a more-than-150-year-old museum specimen of the Japanese sword-tailed newt. This suggests it had originally emerged and co-evolved with salamanders in East Asia, forming its natural reservoir, and was introduced to Europe rather recently through the trade of species such as the fire belly newts as pets. The asian origin hypothesis for "Bsal" is supported by additional studies which have found "Bsal" in wild urodela populations in Asia and in animals of asian origin being transported via the pet trade. Since the pathogens initial discovery, it has been found in several additional areas across Europe in both wild and captive populations. One study was able to detect "Bsal" in 7 of 11 captive urodele collections.
The description of this pathogen and its aggressiveness raised concern in the scientific community and the public, fearing that it might be a rising threat to Western hemisphere salamanders. On January 12, 2016, the U.S. government issued a directive that prohibited the importation of salamanders in order to reduce the threat posed by "B. salamandrivorans".
Etymology.
"Batrachochytrium" is derived from the Greek words "batrachos", "frog", and "chytra", "earthen pot" (describing the structure that contains unreleased zoospores); "salamandrivorans" is from the Greek "salamandra", "salamander", and Latin "vorans", "eating", which refers to extensive skin destruction and rapid death in infected salamanders.
Susceptible Species.
The most comprehensive "Bsal" species susceptibility performed to date has been by Martel et al 2014. Their experiments demonstrated "Bsal" susceptibility followed a phylogenetic trend with many Salamandridae species being lethally susceptible. Recent work has demonstrated that some lungless species, specifically those in the Spelerpini tribe might also be clinically susceptible to "Bsal"
Tolerant
"Salamandrella keyserlingii"
"Siren intermedia"
Susceptible
"Cynops cyanurus"
"Cynops pyrrhogaster"
"Paramesotriton deloustali"
Lethal
"Hydromantes strinatii"
"Salamandrina perspicillata"
"Salamandra salamandra"
"Pleurodeles waltl"
"Tylototriton wenxianensis"
"Notophthalmus viridescens"
"Taricha granulosa"
"Euproctus platycephalus"
"Lissotriton italicus"
"Ichthyosaura alpestris"
"Triturus cristatus"
"Neurergus crocatus"
"Eurycea wilderae"
"Pseudotriton ruber"
Information Sources.
More information on "Bsal" and other diseases impacting amphibian populations, including "Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis" and Ranavirus can be found at the Southeast Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation disease task team web-page.


Heterokont

Heterokonts are a group of protists (formally referred to as Heterokonta, Heterokontae or Heterokontophyta). The group is a major line of eukaryotes. Most are algae, ranging from the giant multicellular kelp to the unicellular diatoms, which are a primary component of plankton. Other notable members of the Stramenopiles include the (generally) parasitic oomycetes, including "Phytophthora" of Great Famine of Ireland infamy and "Pythium", which causes seed rot and damping off.
The name "heterokont" refers to the type of motile life cycle stage, in which the flagellated cells possess two differently arranged flagella (see zoospore).
History.
In 1899, Alexander Luther created "Heterokontae" for some algae with unequal flagella, today called Xanthophyceae. Later, some authors (e.g., Copeland, 1956) would include other groups in Heterokonta, expanding its sense. The term continues to be applied in different ways, leading to Heterokontophyta being applied also to the phylum Ochrophyta. The term 'Stramenopile' was introduced in 1989 by Patterson to overcome ambiguities that had (and continue to be) developed with the use of the term 'heterokont'. Consequently, heterokonts may be referred to as stramenopiles.
The term 'heterokont' first emerged in the context of 19th century phycology. Over time, the scope of application has changed; especially when in the 1970's as ultrastructural studies revealed greater diversity among the algae with chromoplasts (= chlorophylls a and c) than had previously been recognized. At the same time, a protistological perspective was replacing the 19th century one based on the division of unicellular eukaryotes along inappropriate botanical/zoological lines. One consequence was that an array of heterotrophic organisms, many of which had not been previously considered as 'heterokonts' were seen as being related to the 'core heterokonts' (i.e. those having anterior flagella with stiff hairs). Newly recognized relatives included the parasitic opalines, proteromonads, and actinophryid heliozoa. They joined other heterotrophic protists, such as bicosoecids, labyrinthulids, and oomycete fungi, that were included by some as heterokonts and excluded by others. Rather than continue to use a name whose meaning had changed over time and was hence ambiguous, the name 'stramenopile' was introduced to refer to the clade of protists that had tripartite stiff (usually flagellar) hairs and all their descendents. Molecular studies confirm that the genes that code for the proteins of these hairs are exclusive to stramenopiles. As the concept of 'Stramenopile' is based on a presumed apomorphy, it is stable and robust even when its composition changes. There is a widespread presumption, as here, that the terms 'stramenopile' and 'heterokont' are synonyms. They are not because they are defined differently and despite compositional overlap, most applications of the names imply differing compositions.
Morphology.
Motile cells.
Many heterokonts are unicellular flagellates, and most others produce flagellated cells at some point in their lifecycles, for instance as gametes or zoospores. The name heterokont now refers to the characteristic form of these cells, which typically have two unequal flagella. The anterior flagellum is covered with one or two rows of lateral hairs or mastigonemes, which are tripartite (i.e. with a flexible basal insertion, a stiff hollow component, and tipped with fine delicate hairs ), while the posterior flagellum is smooth, and usually shorter, or sometimes reduced to a basal body. The flagella are inserted subapically or laterally, and are usually supported by four microtubule roots in a distinctive pattern. Opalines have many rows of flagella that do not have flagellar hairs. They are closely related to endosymbiotic proteromonad flagellates some of which have tripartite hairs extending from the body surface.
Mastigonemes are manufactured from glycoproteins in the endoplasmic reticulum before being transported to the anterior flagellar surface. When the hairy flagellum beats, the stiff mastigonemes are forced backwards and this creates a retrograde current, pulling the cell through the water or bringing in food.
The term mastigonemes refers to various types of flagellar hairs, but those of stramenopiles have a distinctive structure. It was treated as the evolutionary innovation that defined the stramenopiles, and although not initially so, it is increasingly treated as the defining characteristic of the heterokonts. Mastigonemes have been lost in a few heterkont lines, most notably the diatoms, opalines, and actinphryid heliozoa.
Chloroplasts.
Many heterokonts are algae with chloroplasts surrounded by four membranes, which are counted from the outermost to the innermost membrane. The first membrane is continuous with the host's chloroplast endoplasmic reticulum, or cER. The second membrane presents a barrier between the lumen of the cER and the primary endosymbiont or chloroplast, which represents the next two membranes, within which the thylakoid membranes are found. This arrangement of membranes has led to the hypothesis that heterokont chloroplasts were obtained from the reduction of a symbiotic red algal eukaryote, which had arisen by evolutionary divergence from the monophyletic primary endosymbiotic ancestor that is thought to have given rise to all eukaryotic photoautotrophs. The chloroplasts characteristically contain chlorophyll a and chlorophyll c, and usually the accessory pigment fucoxanthin, giving them a golden-brown or brownish-green colour. Because of this colour, they are referred to as 'chromoplasts' distinguishing them from chlorophyll B containing plastids of green algae, their descendants the higher plants, and euglenids.
Most basal heterokonts are colorless. This suggests that they diverged before the acquisition of chloroplasts within the group. However, fucoxanthin-containing chloroplasts are also found among the haptophytes. This led to hypotheses that all organisms with chlorophyll a/c containing chloroplasts have a common phylogenetic history with cryptomonads, and should be taxonomically grouped as the Chromista. Molecular studies do not confirm that the stramenopiles, haptophytes, and cryptomonads are sister taxa. The current consensus is that the ancestral stramenopiles / heterokonts were heterotrophic and acquired chloroplats after their defining feature (the tripartite hairs) appeared.
Classification.
As noted above, classification varies considerably. Originally, the heterokont algae was used only for Xanthophytes. The concept morphed to include more lineages and considered by some as part of the kingdom Plantae and later, by others, as within the Protista. An example is:
In this scheme, the Chrysophyceae is conceived of a very extensive group (Chrysophyte "sensu lato") that was paraphyletic - as the diatoms and brown algae evolved from within the chrysophytes. Over time, various lineages have been given their own classes and often divisions. Recent systems often treat these as classes within a single division, called the Heterokontophyta, Chromophyta, or Ochrophyta. This is not universal, however; Round "et al." treat the diatoms as a division.
The discovery that oomycetes and hyphochytrids are related to these algae, rather than fungi, as previously thought, has led many authors to include these two groups among the heterokonts. Should it turn out that they evolved from colored ancestors, the heterokont group would be paraphyletic in their absence. Once again, however, usage varies. David J. Patterson named this extended group the stramenopiles, characterized by the presence of tripartite mastigonemes, mitochondria with tubular cristae, and open mitosis. He used the stramenopiles as a prototype for a classification without Linnaean rank. Their composition has been essentially stable, but their use within ranked systems varies.
Thomas Cavalier-Smith treats the heterokonts as identical in composition with the stramenopiles; this is the definition followed here. He has proposed placing them in a separate kingdom, the Chromalveolata, together with the haptophytes, cryptomonads, and alveolates. This is one of the most common revisions to the five-kingdom system, but has not been adopted, because Chromalveolata is not a monophyletic group. A few treat the Chromalveolata as identical in composition with the heterokonts, or list them as a kingdom Stramenopila.
Some sources divide the heterokonts into the autotrophic Ochrophyta and heterotrophic Bigyra and Pseudofungi. However, some modifications to these classifications have been suggested.
The name Heterokonta can be confused with the (much older) name Heterokontae, which is generally equivalent to the Xanthophyceae, a limited subset of the Heterokonta.
The simplified classification of the group according to Adl "et al." (2012), in which heterokonts (using the term Stramenopiles) are part of a larger clade that embraces Alveolates and Rhizaria, is:
Eukaryota
Phylogeny.
Based on the following works of Ruggiero et al. 2015 & Silar 2016.


Blow (Kesha song)

"Blow" is a song by American singer and songwriter Kesha from her first extended play (EP), "Cannibal" (2010). The song was released on February 8, 2011. It was written by Kesha, along with Klas Åhlund, Lukasz Gottwald, Allan Grigg, Benjamin Levin and Max Martin, with production done by Dr. Luke, Max Martin, Benny Blanco and Kool Kojak. According to Kesha the song's lyrics are representative of herself and her fans. "Blow" is dominantly an electro and dance-pop song and is described as a party anthem as it portrays a simple message of having a desire to have a good time at a club.
Critical reception of "Blow" has been generally positive, with most critics praising the song's hook, opening, and party anthem vibe, though some found the chorus uninspiring and ordinary. Kesha's vocal work throughout the song was met with mixed reaction: some critics felt that she was both sassy and brash, while other critics felt that her personality was missing from the song. Commercially, "Blow" reached the top ten in the "Billboard" Hot 100 in the United States and Australia, becoming her sixth consecutive top-ten hit in both countries as a solo artist. The song also reached the top ten in New Zealand, and the top 20 in Canadian Hot 100 in Canada.
The song's accompanying music video was directed by Chris Marrs Piliero and was released February 25, 2011. The video co-stars actor James Van Der Beek, who plays Kesha's nemesis. Piliero and Kesha came up with the video's concept and is intended to be simplistic, a video that is cool and random. Reception of the video by critics were positive, with the mid-video dialogue scene's humor being highlighted.
Writing and composition.
"Blow" was written by Kesha alongside Klas Åhlund, Lukasz Gottwald, Alan Grigg, Benjamin Levin and Max Martin. It was supposed to be a song for Britney Spears, but her team rejected. Production of the song was completed by Dr. Luke, Max Martin, Benny Blanco and Kool Kojak. According to Kesha the line "We’re taking over" is representative of herself and her fans, which she explained during an interview with "Beatweek Magazine", "I love that I say ‘we’re taking over’ in it because my fans and me have started a cult. We’re misfits of society but we’ve banded together and we’re starting a revolution. We are taking over. So get used to it."
"Blow" is an electro and dance-pop song that uses a synth infused beat as a backing. The song opens with laughing followed by a command to dance. As the chorus of the song starts in, Kesha's vocals change into an auto-tuned "stuttering" as she repeats "This place about to blow" four times over an electro beat. During the song's bridge, Kesha's vocals change pace into a rap-sing style as she tells her listeners to "Go insane, go insane / Throw some glitter / Make it rain on 'em / Let me see them Hanes." Kesha uses layered vocals that are enhanced in some parts with the use of Auto-Tune. Lyrically, "Blow" portrays a simple message, described as a party-anthem, the song speaks of having a desire to have a good time at the club. According to Robert Cospey from Digital Spy, the track is of similar character to Benny Benassi's track, "Satisfaction" (2002).
The song is performed in the key of B minor with a tempo of 120 beats per minute.
Reception.
Critical response.
While reviewing "Cannibal", Sal Cinquemani from "Slant Magazine" positively wrote that "Blow" was an undeniable "stuttery club track". Daniel Brockman from "The Phoenix" wrote that the song was a "club banger" and that Kesha portrayed a bratty and cultural irritant attitude throughout the song referencing to the line, "We are taking over — get used to it!" Brockman commented that the song "sends a shiver down your spine" further complimenting the production of Dr. Luke. Jocelyn Vena from MTV News wrote that the song featured common Kesha elements citing her carpe diem attitude and grinding beats but noted that the lyrics also portrayed a darker side of Kesha, referring to the line, "We get what we want/ We do what you don't." Vena also wrote that the song contained a "scream-along party-anthem chorus". Scott Shetler from AOL Radio felt that Kesha's lyrical delivery was both sassy and brash. In a separate review from AOL Radio, the song was ranked at position nine on the website's list of "10 Best Songs of 2011". The review concluded that Kesha's strongest songwriting skills pertained to party anthems. The review compared the song to previous singles, "Tik Tok" and "We R Who We R".
Robert Copsey from Digital Spy gave the single five out of a possible five stars. Cospey felt that the song was representative of Kesha, writing the track "sums up everything [Kesha] – for all her scrubbiness, Auto-Tuning and boozy antics – is all about." The song's chorus was praised in the review with Cospey writing that the song contained a "hooky, robotic and all-round stonkingly huge chorus." Cospey concluded his review on the song writing that "Blow" was the "Jägermeister of pop singles: sweet, potent and guaranteed to leave you buzzing for hours after." "The A.V. Club" editors Steven Hyden and Genevieve Koski were positive of the song, giving it a B and a B+, respectively, with Hyden complimenting its "top-notch bubblegum production" while noting that it was more "safe" than many of Kesha's other hits. Koski, on the other hand, said that, due to the song's "big, bold, and bumping production," it allowed her to overlook Kesha's usual "trashiness."
Chart performance.
"Blow" was originally released exclusively to the iTunes Store as part of a "Countdown to "Cannibal"" promotion, and thus originally entered the "Billboard" Hot 100 on the issue date titled December 4, 2010, reaching position 97 and dropping off the chart the following week. After being released as a single, the song re-entered the chart on the issue date titled February 12, 2011, reaching a new peak of 96. The following week the song jumped 30 positions reaching position 66. The song continued to steadily ascend the charts eventually reaching a peak of seven on the week of March 19, 2011. On the song's peak week it sold 164,000 digital copies and was listed at position six on "Billboards" Hot Digital Songs. Charting within the top ten, the song became Kesha's sixth straight top ten single as a solo artist. On "Billboard's" Pop chart, the song reached a peak of number three. In June 2011, "Blow" surpassed 2,000,000 digital copies in the United States. With the song passing two million in sales it became her sixth consecutive single to sell more than two million copies. As of December 2018, the song has been certified 4× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for selling 4,000,000 copies in the United States alone.
In Canada, "Blow" entered the Canadian Hot 100 on the issue date February 5, 2011, at 100. The following week the song jumped 31 positions to attain position 69. On its third week "Blow" once again rose this time to position 54. The song continued to steadily ascend the chart eventually reaching a peak of 12. In New Zealand, "Blow" entered the charts at position 20 where it became that week's highest debut. The following week it rose nine positions attaining position 11. On the song's third week on the chart "Blow" reached its peak at number eight. The song became her second straight top ten hit and her fourth overall. It has since been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ) for sales of 7,500 units. On February 27, 2011, "Blow" entered the Australian chart at position 24. On the issue date of March 13, 2011, the song reached position 13, where it held the spot for two weeks. The following week the song reached its peak at position 10, becoming her sixth straight top ten single, but her first to miss the top five. It has since been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for sales of 70,000 units. In the United Kingdom, "Blow" entered the charts on the week of April 2, 2011, at position 80, later peaking at number 32.
Music video.
The music video for "Blow" was directed by Chris Marrs Piliero. The video was released on February 25, 2011. Kesha wanted the video to be "different, a video that was cool and random". The director, Piliero, came up with the idea for the video's mythological aspect saying, "I had this idea running in my head with just the idea of unicorns, If I massacred unicorns, they could bleed rainbows. I'm a fan of violence and I'm always trying to find a way to make it OK." While being interviewed Piliero spoke of the collaboration with Kesha, explaining her point of view on the video, "Before we started filming, we had quite a few talks. She was adamant you can't back away from the crazy; everything about the idea she loved and she enforced the fact that she wanted to embrace every aspect of it and really go for it, On set, she was having fun. She was like, 'I want to lick a unicorn.' It was rad working with her because there definitely wasn't a sense of her feeling awkward about stuff or detached; no ego. It felt like we had worked together before."
Opening with the disclaimer "No mythological creatures were harmed in the making of this video", Kesha appears sitting next to two unicorns pouring champagne while having a conversation on how she was elected to the parliament of Uzbekistan, "So I grabbed the bear by the throat and I looked him right in the eyes, and I said, 'Bear, you have till the count of zero to put some pants on and apologize to the president.'" The music begins and Kesha makes eyes at James Van Der Beek. After the eye contact Kesha grabs one of the unicorns and kisses him then removes her bra and throws it across the room, Van Der Beek then does the same with his bra, puzzling Kesha as to why he was wearing a bra. The music fades in the background as the two then make their way to the center of the dance floor and exchange words ("Well, well, well. If it isn’t James Van Der Douche.", "I don't appreciate you slander-Beeking my name, Ke dollar sign ha.") before engaging in a gun fight. They begin shooting lasers at one another, killing multiple unicorns. Van Der Beek gets hit in the shoulder and falls. As Kesha steps on his arm to stop him from reaching for his gun, he begs for a truce before she goes in for the kill. At the end of the video, it is revealed that Van Der Beek's head has been mounted on a wall over a plaque reading, "James Van Der Dead", as she sits with two unicorns laughing at their trophy. She then frowns at the camera and it switches to Van Der Beek's head one more time before the screen goes black.
Willa Paskin from "New York Magazine" opened her review of the video writing, "Maybe it’s exhaustion, maybe it’s acquiescence, maybe it's just time, but Ke$ha and her whole glam-wasted shtick are starting to charm us." Paskin felt that Kesha had a great "functioning sense of humor" writing that she "enjoyed her new video". Peter Gaston from "Spin", referring to Kesha, wrote that he was able to "continually find something massively entertaining about this tartlet" and wrote that the video was "provocative". "Rolling Stone"'s Matthew Perpetua wrote "You know you're in for a great video when the very first thing you see is a disclaimer reading "No mythological creatures were harmed in the making of this video." Perpetua wrote that "Blow" had it all, from unicorns to James Van der Beek and laser gun battles. Becky Bain of Idolator said the video included "the best mid-video dialogue scene in all of music video history."
Promotion.
"Blow" was performed on television for the first time on April 22, 2011, for the Nickelodeon show "Victorious" episode "Ice Cream for Ke$ha." The storyline for the episode saw the show's stars competing in a contest to win a private concert by Kesha. In order to win the contest the cast had to spell out Kesha's name through letters found at the bottom of ice cream containers. Kesha's younger brother, Louie also guest starred in the episode. "Blow" was performed live on May 22, 2011, at the 2011 "Billboard" Music Awards. The performance was opened with "Animal" as Kesha sang suspended over the stage in a structure shaped like a diamond. Midway through the performance she dropped backwards into her crowd of background dancers then transitioned into "Blow". The performance featured glitter cannons and the dancers wore orange unicorn heads. IT was also used in an advertisement for the then-upcoming season of on MTV.
American rapper B.o.B is featured on an official remix of "Blow" that was released to iTunes on May 17, 2011. B.o.B opens the track with a minute-long rapped verse about himself then adds to the song's dominant party theme, rapping: "Night starts out at the ATM / It probably won’t end til 8 am." Following this verse Kesha proclaims "We are taking over", before the track resumes as it normally would without B.o.B's addition. Scott Shetler from PopCrush criticized the remix for not technically being a remix, rather being just the original song with added verses. Shetler wrote "the term 'remix' makes us imagine all the ways the song could be creatively re-arranged. And a fun song like ‘Blow,’ with its brash lyrics and skittering beat, holds endless remix possibilities. But this version doesn’t substantially improve the original." He went on to give the song three and a half stars out of a possible five.
Credits and personnel.
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Cannibal, Dynamite Cop Music/Where Da Kasz at BMI.


Ascoseiraceae


Spbetavirus

Spbetavirus (formerly Spbetalikevirus and sometimes "SPbeta-like viruses") is a genus of viruses in the order Caudovirales, in the family Siphoviridae. Bacteria serve as natural hosts. There is only one species in this genus: "Bacillus virus SPbeta".
Structure.
Spbetaviruses are nonenveloped, with a head and tail. The head is about 81 nm in diameter. The tail is long, but fairly rigid, at about 355 nm long, 10 nm wide. It has six club-shaped terminal fibers and no collar.
Genome.
Genomes are linear, around 134kb in length. Bacillus phage SPbeta has been fully sequenced. It has about 134k nucleotides, with 185 proteins. The complete genome is available here
Life cycle.
Viral replication is cytoplasmic. The virus attaches to the host cell's adhesion receptors using its terminal fiber, and degrades the cell wall using viral exolysin enough to eject the viral DNA into the host cytoplasm via long flexible tail ejection system. Replication follows the replicative transposition model. DNA-templated transcription is the method of transcription. Once the viral genes have been replicated, the procapsid is assembled and packed. The tail is then assembled and the mature virions are released via lysis. Bacteria serve as the natural host. Transmission routes are passive diffusion.
History.
According to ICTV's ninth report, the genus Spbetalikevirus was first accepted under the name "SPbeta-like viruses", assigned to family "Siphoviridae", order "Caudovirales". The genus was renamed to Spbetalikevirus in 2012. The genus was renamed "Spbetalikevirus" in 2015.


Synurales


Tiamatvirinae


Mycobacterium sphagni

Mycobacterium sphagni is a species of "Mycobacterium".


Sphaerobacterales


Pezizaceae

The Pezizaceae (commonly referred to as cup fungi) are a family of fungi in the Ascomycota which produce mushrooms that tends to grow in the shape of a "cup". Spores are formed on the inner surface of the fruit body (mushroom). The cup shape typically serves to focus raindrops into splashing spores out of the cup. Additionally, the curvature enables wind currents to blow the spores out in a different manner than in most agarics and boletes.
Cup fungi grow in peculiar shapes, frequently resembling cups or saucers. For example, the orange peel fungus ("Aleuria aurantia") resembles a discarded orange rind. They may be vividly colored, like the scarlet cup ("Sarcoscypha coccinea"), which is often one of the first signs of spring where it grows. According to one 2008 estimate, the family contains 31 genera and 230 species.
Subtaxa.
Pezizaceae includes the following:


Chlorarachniophyte

The chlorarachniophytes are a small group of exclusively marine algae widely distributed in tropical and temperate waters. They are typically mixotrophic, ingesting bacteria and smaller protists as well as conducting photosynthesis. Normally they have the form of small amoebae, with branching cytoplasmic extensions that capture prey and connect the cells together, forming a net. They may also form flagellate zoospores, which characteristically have a single subapical flagellum that spirals backwards around the cell body, and walled coccoid cells.
The chloroplasts were presumably acquired by ingesting some green alga. They are surrounded by four membranes, the outermost of which is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum, and contain a small nucleomorph between the middle two, which is a remnant of the alga's nucleus. This contains a small amount of DNA and divides without forming a mitotic spindle. The origin of the chloroplasts from green algae is supported by their pigmentation, which includes chlorophylls "a" and "b", and by genetic similarities. The only other group of algae that contain nucleomorphs are the cryptomonads, but their chloroplasts seem to be derived from a red alga.
The chlorarachniophytes only include five genera, which show some variation in their life-cycles and may lack one or two of the stages described above. Genetic studies place them among the Cercozoa, a diverse group of amoeboid and amoeboid-like protozoa.
The chlorarachniophytes were placed before in the order Rhizochloridales, class Xanthophyceae (e.g., Smith, 1938), as algae, or in order Rhizochloridea, class Xanthomonadina (e.g., Deflandre, 1956), as protozoa.
So far sexual reproduction has only been reported in two species; Chlorarachnion reptans and Cryptochlora perforans.
Phylogeny.
Based on the work of Hirakawa et al. 2011.


Salmacisia

Salmacisia is a fungal genus in the family Tilletiaceae. It is a monotypic genus, containing the single species Salmacisia buchloëana, first described as "Tilletia buchloëana" in 1889, and renamed in 2008. Plants infected by the fungus undergo a phenomenon known as "parasitically induced hermaphroditism", whereby ovary development is induced in otherwise male plants. Because of the pistil-inducing effects of the fungus, the authors have named the species pistil smut; it is the only species in the order Tilletiales known to have hermaphroditic effects.
Taxonomy and history.
In 1889 American mycologist William Ashbrook Kellerman and his student Walter T. Swingle discovered a species of smut that was able to change the sex of its host; the host plant, in this case buffalograss ("Buchloë dactyloides"), produced ovaries in flowers of plants that were otherwise male. They named the fungus "Tilletia buchloëana", a generic placement they considered apt because of the characteristics of the fungal teliospores. Both Kellerman and Swingle, and later Norton in 1896, were unable to induce teliospores to germinate in vitro. Reinvestigation of the species in 2005 highlighted both the uniqueness of the species and the need for a taxonomic rearrangement, resulting in the description of the new genus "Salmacisia". The genus name is derived from Salmacis, who, according to Greek mythology, transformed the boy Hermaphroditus into an individual with both male and female sexual characteristics.
Description.
"Salmacisia" species are defined as those with fruiting structures (technically known as sori) that originate only in the ovaries of infected plants, where clumps of dirty-brown agglutinated spores are formed. The spores are covered with surface ornamentations (spines or reticulations), and arise from cells of spore-creating mycelia, frequently encased in a translucent jelly-like sheath. The spores germinate by means of continuous promycelium (the germ tube of the spore) that bear primary basidiospores that can be have either one nucleus, which conjugate, or two nuclei, giving rise to secondary basidiospores.
The morphological characteristics of "Salmacisia" are indistinguishable from species of "Tilletia", they may be distinguished from this genus and other genera of the Tilletiaceae family by differences in their ribosomal DNA sequences.
Effect on host.
The sex organs in the induced hermaphroditic flowers become sterile as a result of infection, a process known as "parasitic castration". Ovaries become sterile because they become replaced with teliospores and form "smut balls", making the ovary unable to set seed. The anthers, however, do not show outward signs of teliospore production, but are still effectively sterile because they tend to be small and immature. Consequently, both male and female reproductive organs within induced hermaphroditic flowers of buffalograss become parasitically castrated, but for different reasons. Infection does not kill the host plants (under greenhouse conditions), rather, the plant and fungus coexist, and infected plants sometimes begin to lose symptoms of infection after three years.


Candida viswanathii

Candida viswanathii is a species of yeast in the genus "Candida". It is named after the noted Indian pulmonologist, Raman Viswanthan.


Psiloboletinus

Psiloboletinus is a fungal genus in the family Suillaceae. This is a monotypic genus, containing the single species Psiloboletinus lariceti, first described by mycologist Rolf Singer in 1938 as a species of "Phylloporus". Alexander H. Smith disagreed with Singer's generic concept, concluding "No matter what disposition of the type species of "Psiloboletinus" is eventually made, it is evident that there are no clearly distinctive characters on which to recognize the genus on the basis of Singer's descriptions."


Rhodactina himalayensis

Rhodactina himalayensis is a species of secotioid fungus in the family Boletaceae, and the type species of genus "Rhodactina". Originally described from Uttar Pradesh in 1989, it is also found in Dipterocarpaceae-dominated forests in Chang Mai, northern Thailand. It grows in association with roots of "Shorea robusta".