Puntland

Puntland (, , or "Paese di Punt"), officially the Puntland State of Somalia (, ), is a Federal Member State in northeastern Somalia. Centred in the town of Garoowe in the Nugal province, its leaders declared the territory an autonomous state within Somalia in 1998.
Puntland is bordered by Somaliland to its west, the Gulf of Aden in the north, the Guardafui Channel in the northeast, the Somali Sea in the southeast, the central Galmudug region in the south, and Ethiopia in the southwest. There are several major geographical apexes in Puntland, including the Cape Guardafui which forms the tip of the Horn of Africa, Ras Hafun the easternmost place on the entire African continent, and the beginning of the Karkaar mountain range. It also has the northernmost major city in Somalia, Bosaso, located at a line of latitude higher than 11° north.
The name "Puntland" is derived from the Land of Punt mentioned in ancient Egyptian sources, although the exact location of the fabled territory is still a mystery. Many studies suggest that the Land of Punt was located in present-day Somalia, whereas others propose that it was situated elsewhere.
History.
Majeerteen Sultanates.
The Osman Mahamuud clan was among powerful clans in northeastern region.
Boqor Osman was one of the prominent Darood clan chiefs who ruled the ancient towns of Bosaso, Alula, Bargaal and Hafun and subsequently emerged as a powerful traditional elder who fully controlled areas under his rule.
The Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia) was founded in the mid-18th century. It rose to prominence the following century, under the reign of the resourceful Boqor (King) Osman Mahamuud. Centred in Aluula, it controlled much of northern and central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The polity maintained a robust trading network, entered into treaties with foreign powers, and exerted strong centralized authority on the domestic front.
The Majeerteen Sultanate was nearly destroyed in the mid-1800s by a power struggle between Boqor Osman and his ambitious cousin, Yusuf Ali Kenadid. After almost five years of battle, the young upstart was finally forced into exile in Yemen. A decade later, in the 1870s, Kenadid returned from the Arabian Peninsula with a band of Hadhrami musketeers and a group of devoted lieutenants. With their assistance, he managed to overpower the local clans and establish the Sultanate of Hobyo in 1878.
In late 1889, Boqor Osman entered into a treaty with Italy, making his realm an Italian protectorate. His rival Sultan Kenadid had signed a similar agreement vis-a-vis his own Sultanate the year before. Both rulers had signed the protectorate treaties to advance their own expansionist objectives, with Boqor Osman looking to use Italy's support in his ongoing power struggle with Kenadid over the Majeerteen Sultanate. Boqor Osman and Sultan Kenadid also hoped to exploit the conflicting interests among the European imperial powers that were then looking to control the Somali peninsula, so as to avoid direct occupation of their territories by force.
With the gradual extension into northern Somalia of European colonial rule, all three sultanates were annexed to Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland in the early 20th century.
Establishment of Puntland.
Following the outbreak of the Somali Civil War in 1991, a home-grown constitutional conference was held in Garoowe in 1998 over a period of three months. Attended by the area's political elite, traditional elders ("Issims"), members of the business community, intellectuals and other civil society representatives, the autonomous Puntland State of Somalia was established to deliver services to the population, offer security, facilitate trade, and interact with domestic and international partners. Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed served as the fledgling state's founding president.
As stipulated in Article 1 of the Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic, Puntland is a part of the Federal State of Somalia. As such, the region seeks the unity of Somalis and adheres to a federal system of government. Unlike the secessionist self-declared entity of Somaliland to its west, Puntland is not trying to obtain international recognition as a separate nation. However, both regions have one thing in common: they base their support upon clan elders and their organizational structure along lines based on clan relationships and kinship. However, a key difference was that Puntland was formed as a descendant-based entity unlike in Somaliland. The state was established as a "homeland" for the Harti community of Northern Somalia, whereby the Majeerten were deemed as the "chief architects" of the entity. Since its establishment in 1998, Puntland has also been in territorial disputes with Somaliland over the Sool, Sanaag and Ayn regions.
The legal structure of Puntland consists of the judiciary, legislative (House of Representatives) and the executive (the President and his nominated Council of Ministries) branches of government. Though relatively peaceful, the region briefly experienced political unrest in 2001 when then President of Puntland, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, one of the founding fathers of the Puntland State and its first president, wanted his term extended. Ahmed and Jama Ali Jama fought for control of the region, with Ahmed emerging victorious the following year. Ahmed served his second term as president until October 2004, when he was elected President of Somalia. He was succeeded in office by Mohamed Hashi, who served until January 2005 when he lost a re-election bid in parliament to General Mohamud Muse Hersi "Adde".
Politics.
General Adde Muse administration.
In March 2005, President Muse began an ambitious plan to build an airport in Puntland's commercial capital of Bosaso, a project which is now complete and referred to as Bender Qassim International Airport.
In April 2007, Muse held meetings with Sheikh Saud bin Saqr Al Qasimi, the crown prince and deputy ruler of Ras al-Khaimah in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), where the two leaders signed an agreement on a deal for setting up of a dedicated livestock quarantine facility to facilitate the import of livestock from Somalia to the UAE. In October 2008, Muse also signed a Dh170 million agreement with Dubai's Lootah Group to support the construction of an airport, seaport and free zone in the coastal city of Bosaso. Muse indicated that "I believe that when we finish all these projects our people will benefit by getting good health services, education and overall prosperity."
Farole administration.
In January 2009, Abdirahman Farole was elected the new president of Puntland. Upon assuming office, the Farole administration implemented a number of reforms, particularly in the security and judicial sectors. To bolster the region's justice system, numerous new prosecutors, judges and other court personnel as well as additional prison guards were hired and trained. In July 2010, the Puntland Council of Ministers unanimously approved a new anti-terrorism law to more efficiently handle terror suspects and their accomplices; a special court is also expected to be established within the region's existing criminal courts system to facilitate the task.
Fiscally, a transparent, budget-based public finance system was established, which has reportedly helped increase public confidence in government. In addition, a new regional constitution was drafted and later passed on 15 June 2009, which is believed to represent a significant step toward the eventual introduction of a multi-party political system to the region for the first time; such a system already exists in the adjacent Somaliland region.
More modest reforms were also put into motion in the social sector, particularly in the education and healthcare fields. The regional government has hired more healthcare workers and teachers, with major plans under way for school and hospital renovations. One of the most significant new reforms enacted by the incumbent Puntland administration is the launching in May 2009 of the Puntland Agency For Social Welfare (PASWE), the first organization of its kind in Somali history. The agency provides medical, educational and counselling support to vulnerable groups and individuals such as orphans, the disabled and the blind. PASWE is overseen by a Board of Directors, which consists of religious scholars ("ulema"), business people, intellectuals and traditional elders.
Democratization process.
On 15 June 2009, the Puntland government passed a new regional draft constitution, representing a significant step toward the eventual introduction of a multi-party political system to the region for the first time.
On 15 April 2012, the Puntland government opened a four-day constitutional convention officially inaugurating the new Constitution of Puntland. Overseen by the Puntland Electoral Commission (PEC), the constitution represented the final step in the extant regional democratization process and was scheduled to be followed by the formation of political parties.
On 12 September 2012, the Puntland Electoral Commission announced that the registration process for political parties in Puntland was now open. This came after the passing of the Political Association Law, the Referendum Act, the District Elections Law and the inauguration of the state constitution. They will also be challengers in the next elections, scheduled for January 2014.
On 14 November 2012, President Farole announced the launching of his new political party, Horseed. The association counts over 200 members and represents the incumbent Puntland government, including Vice President Abdisamad Ali Shire and the state Ministers. It is the first prospective party to register for an application with the Transitional Puntland Electoral Commission (TPEC). According to Farole, the general public will be eligible for membership in the organization once it is selected as an official political party. Five other political associations were established the following month, including the Development and Justice Party (Xisbiga Horumarinta iyo Cadaalada) or Horcad Party which was launched by an entrepreneur and businessman Omar Ismail Waberi along other members, the Union of the People of the Regions or UPR (Ururka Gobolada Umadaha Bahoobey or UGUB), Midnimo, Talowadaag (Consensus-building), and GAHAYR or Golaha Aqoonta iyo Horumarinta ee Asaaska Yoolka Runta (Council of Education and Development towards Founding the True Goal).
Dr. Abdiweli Mohamed Ali Gaas administration.
On 8 January 2014, former Prime Minister of Somalia Abdiweli Mohamed Ali was elected the 5th President of Puntland overcoming Dr. Farole by a single electoral vote. Abdihakim Abdullahi Haji Omar was concurrently elected Puntland's vice president.
Dani administration.
On 8 January 2019 the former Federal Minister for Planning and International Cooperation, Said Abdullahi Dani, was declared the new president. The election was closely contested, going to a third round of voting. Dani defeated former intelligence officer, Asad Osman Abdullahi. Dani got 35 votes, to Asad's 31 votes.
Dani addressed the lawmakers after being declared the winner. He said he would continue the policies of his predecessor, Abdiweli Gaas.
State flag.
On 22 December 2009, Puntland MPs introduced a new state flag at a parliamentary session in Garowe. With 38 of 41 legislators endorsing the motion, it also permitted the creation of a new state anthem.
Puntland's new regional flag consists of three colours: white, blue and green.
Administrative divisions.
Regions.
As stipulated in Article 3 of the Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic, Puntland consists of the following claimed regions:
Redistricting and border disputes.
In January 2009, the short-lived quasi-state of Maakhir was officially incorporated into Puntland.
Control of the western Sool, Sanaag and Cayn (SSC) provinces is disputed with the neighbouring country of Somaliland.
On 8 April 2013, the Puntland government announced the creation of a new region named Gardafuul. Carved out of the Bari region, it consists of three districts and has its capital at Aluula. Prior to naming this new region, the previous government of Puntland created three regions, all carved out of the existing regions: Karkaar was carved out of Bari, Haylaan out of Sanaag, and Ayn out of Togdheer region.
Geography.
Puntland is geographically situated in the northeastern portion of Somalia. It is bordered by Somaliland to its west, the Gulf of Aden in the north, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, the central Galmudug region of Somalia in the south, and Ethiopia in the southwest. Puntland occupies a total land area of or roughly one-fourth of Somalia's geographical area.
Climate.
The region is semi-arid, with a warm climate and average daily temperatures ranging from to . These climatic conditions favor pastoralism as the most effective use of land in most parts of the region. The most valuable grazing land includes the Hawd region in the high plateau to the west of the Mudug and Sool regions of Somalia, and into Ethiopia and the low Nugaal valley. Mild temperatures, by contrast, are experienced only along the high mountain ranges of Bari. In all other areas, Puntland is generally characterized by tropical desert heat.
Rainfall is sparse and variable, with no single area receiving more than of rain annually. Nomads primarily rely on wells as a source of water rather than surface water. There are four main seasons around which pastoral and agricultural life revolve, and these are dictated by shifts in the wind patterns. Puntland's seasons are:
Education.
Following the outbreak of the civil war in Somalia, numerous problems arose with regard to access to education in rural areas and along gender lines, quality of educational provisions, responsiveness of school curricula, educational standards and controls, management and planning capacity, and financing. To address these concerns, the Puntland government is in the process of developing an educational policy to guide the region's scholastic process as it embarks on the path of reconstruction and economic development. The latter includes a gender sensitive national education policy compliant with world standards, such as those outlined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). Examples of this and other educational measures at work are the government's enactment of legislation aimed at securing the educational interests of girls, promoting the growth of an Early Childhood Development (ECD) program designed to reach parents and care-givers in their homes as well as in the ECD centers for 0- to 5-year-old children, and introducing incentive packages to encourage teachers to work in remote rural areas.
Within the Puntland government, the Ministry of Education is responsible for developing and managing the region's educational needs. It is headed by the Minister Mohamud Bile Dubbe, under whom a Vice Minister and Director General help oversee a Post-Primary Education Division (PPED) and a Basic Education Directorate (BED), among other boards.
The educational system of Puntland comprises two years of Early Childhood Development (ECD), eight years of primary education (four years of lower primary and four years of upper primary) and four years of secondary education. Tertiary education comprises an average of four years, with the region currently counting seven major universities: Puntland State University in Garowe, Puntland State University in Galkayo, Bosaso College in Bosaso, East Somalia University in Qardho, Mogadishu University (Puntland branch) in Bosaso, Maakhir University in Badhan, Sanaag, and Nugaal University in Las Anod. East Africa University also has six branches in Puntland, with campuses in Bosaso, Erigavo, Galdogob, Galkayo, Garowe and Qardho. Thus, it is a 2-4-4-4 system. Puntland's Ministry of Education also recognizes non-formal education (NFE) and technical/vocational education and training (TVET) as integral parts of the region's educational system.
From 2005/2006 to 2006/2007, there was a significant increase in the number of schools in Puntland, up 137 institutions from just one year prior. During the same period, the number of classes in the region increased by 504, with 762 more teachers also offering their services. Total student enrollment increased by 27% over the previous year, with girls lagging only slightly behind boys in attendance in most regions. The highest class enrollment was observed in the northernmost Bari region, and the lowest was observed in the under-populated Ayn region. The distribution of classrooms was almost evenly split between urban and rural areas, with marginally more pupils attending and instructors teaching classes in urban areas.
Demographics and religion.
As of 2005, the population of Puntland is estimated at 2 million residents, 65% of whom are nomads. The region is primarily inhabited by people from the Somali ethnic group, with the Darod especially well-represented. There are also a number of Mehri residents.
Puntland's population growth rate is quite high due in part to an influx of people from southern Somalia and from neighboring Northeast African countries. Currently, 30% of the region's residents live in the fast-growing towns of Bosaso, Gardo, Galdogob, Garowe and Galkayo. Approximately 70% of the population is also below the age of 30.
The population density in Puntland is estimated at about .
As with the rest of Somalia, Islam is the main religion of the Puntland region with almost all residents being Muslims.
Transport.
Municipal bus services operate in Bosaso, Garowe, Las Anod, Galkayo and Qardho. Shuttle services between the region's major towns and adjacent hamlets are also available via different types of vehicles, such as 4 wheel drives and light goods vehicles (LGV). As of May 2015, over 70,000 vehicles are registered with the Puntland Ministry of Works and Transport.
Puntland is traversed by a north–south highway. It connects major cities in the northern part of Somalia, such as Garowe, Bosaso and Galkayo, with towns in the south. In 2012, the Puntland Highway Authority completed rehabilitation work on the central artery linking Garowe with Galkayo. The transportation body also started an upgrade and repair project in June 2012 on the large thoroughfare between the regional capital and Bosaso. Additionally, renovations began in October 2012 on the freeway linking Bosaso with Qardho. Plans are also in the works to construct new roads connecting littoral towns in the region to the main highway.
Bosaso has a major seaport, which was constructed during the mid-1980s for annual livestock shipments to the Middle East. In January 2012, a renovation project was launched, with KMC contracted to upgrade the harbor. The initiative's first phase saw the clean-up of unwanted materials from the dockyard and was completed within the month. The second phase involves the reconstruction of the port's adjoining seabed, with the objective of accommodating larger ships. In 2012, a team of engineers was also enlisted by the Puntland authorities to assess the ongoing renovations taking place at the Las Khorey port. According to the Minister of Ports, Said Mohamed Rage, the Puntland government intends to launch more such development projects in Las Khorey.
Local airlines offer flights to various domestic and international locations, such as Djibouti, Addis Ababa, Dubai and Jeddah; they also provide flights for the Hajj and Umrah pilgrimages. The most prominent airlines in Puntland are Jubba Airways, Osob Air and Daallo Airlines, which operate from Bender Qassim International Airport in Bosaso and Abdullahi Yusuf International Airport (formerly Galkayo Airport) in Galkayo, among other places. In late September 2013, a launching ceremony of a tender process for the Bosaso airport's renovations was held at the facility. The renovations will include the extension of the airport's gravel runway from 1,800 m to 2,650 m. The runway's width will also be widened from 30 m to 45 m, and feature 7.5 m gravel shoulders on both sides. According to Puntland Deputy Minister of Civil Aviation Abdiqani Gelle, the Puntland government plans to carry out similar upgrades at the Garowe International Airport in Garowe, the Abdullahi Yusuf International Airport in Galkayo, and the Qardho Airport in Qardho.
Military.
The Puntland Security Force (PSF) is the armed force of the autonomous Puntland region. Commanders and senior officials of the military are appointed by a qualified panel approved by the Council of Ministers. The Puntland security apparatus also has an independent military judiciary.
The PSF includes the Puntland Dervish Force (PDF), its official paramilitary division. It operates its own police force, which includes a Special Protection Unit.
The Puntland Intelligence Agency (PIA) is the intelligence bureau of Puntland's military. It was established in 2001 as the "Puntland Intelligence Service" during the rule of President Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, with help from the United States.
The Puntland Maritime Police Force (PMPF) is a locally recruited, professional maritime security force. It is primarily aimed at preventing, detecting and eradicating piracy, illegal fishing, and other illicit activity off of the coast of Somalia, and at generally safeguarding the nation's marine resources. In addition, the Force provides civic support, including repairing wells, rehabilitating hospitals and clinics, and refurbishing roads, airports and other infrastructure. It also offers skills training programs to local communities.
Economy.
Puntland has of coastline, which is abundant with fish and other natural marine resources. Additional economic products and activities of the region include livestock, frankincense, myrrh, gum arabic, manufacturing and agriculture. Agricultural products such as fruits are imported from the Sanaag region but mainly from Southern Somalia.
Food items and consumer goods imported via Berbera, Somaliland sell more cheaply compared to those imported via Bosaso. Therefore, in exchange live animals originating from Puntland are exported via Berbera. The key trading centres in Puntland are centred in Bosaso and Galkayo. However, other towns such as Qardho and Garowe act as second-grade market places.
Puntland has the lowest rate of poverty in Somalia, with 27%, compared to 50% in Somaliland and 57% in Mogadishu. Experts believe this is because of higher consumption and higher labour force participation. Households in Puntland consume a higher quantity per capita per item and more items per household. The lower rate of poverty does not appear to be driven by household size, as the average in Puntland is 5.2, compared to 5.7 in Somaliland and 4.5 in Mogadishu. Puntland is doing better in various important indicators of well-being. For instance, the literacy rate in Puntland is 64% compared to the national average of 55%. Additionally, households in Puntland also outperform the average in other educational outcomes such as enrolment and educational attainment. 70% of households in Puntland have access to improved water sources compared to the national average of 58%. Therefore, Puntland's higher performance on non-monetary indicators of well-being are inline with its lower rate of poverty.
In December 2011, a new commercial market opened in Bosaso's northern Dayaha ("Star") neighborhood, near the seaport. Approximately half a kilometer in size, it was designed to ensure easy vehicle access. The market is the result of careful planning between Puntland government officials and civil society representatives.
Bosaso is also home to Golis Telecom Somalia, the largest telecommunications operator in northeastern Somalia. Founded in 2002 with the objective of supplying the country with GSM mobile services, fixed line and internet services, it has an extensive network that covers all of the nation's major cities and more than 40 districts in both Puntland and Somaliland. Additionally, Netco has its headquarters in the city. Other telecommunication firms serving the region include Telcom and NationLink.
In April 2013, the Puntland Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources officially inaugurated a new fish market in Garowe. Constructed in conjunction with the UK authorities and the UNDP, it is part of a larger regional development plan which will see two other similar marketplaces launched within the year in Galkayo and Qardho.
In August 2014, in conjunction with the government of Djibouti and an international construction firm headquartered in China, the Puntland Transport and Seaports Ministry launched a project to establish new seaports in the regional state. The initiative is part of a broader campaign by the Puntland administration to focus on tapping into the region's commercial potential through various development projects.
Oil exploration.
In the 2000s, the Puntland government began official negotiations with foreign oil companies over exploration rights in the area. The provincial authorities in October 2005 granted Range Resources a majority stake in two sizable land-based mineral and hydrocarbon exploration licenses, in addition to offshore rights. The onshore Nugaal and Dharoor Valley blocks in question span over , respectively. Two years later, Range Resources obtained a 100% interest in the two blocks and concurrently farmed out 80% of that share to Canmex Minerals.
In January 2007, the Puntland administration, which was then led by President Mohamud Muse Hersi, signed the Puntland Product Sharing Agreement (PSA) with Range Resources Limited and the Canmex Minerals subsidiary Canmex Holdings (Bermuda) II Limited.
Following a change in leadership in 2009, the Puntland government, now led by President Abdirahman Mohamud Farole, sought to renegotiate the profit sharing agreement with Range Resources to ensure more favorable terms for the region. In 2012, the Puntland government gave the green light to the first official oil exploration project in Puntland and Somalia at large.
In 2017, Puntland ministers held a cabinet meeting where they approved an oil exploration deal with Chinese company CCECC, in return for constructing a road connecting Eyl and Garowe as well as renovations and refurbishments to the Abdullahi Yusuf Airport.
Media.
Puntland has its own television channel and studios. Puntland TV and Radio is the public broadcasting network of the autonomous Puntland region of Somalia. Its headquarters are at the regional capital of Garowe. The service also maintains an office in London. Founded in April 2013, Puntland TV and Radio broadcasts locally in Somali via terrestrial service. It also airs programs globally through satellite. Radio Puntland broadcasts internationally via shortwave, with its transmission reaching as far as Finland. Its standard programming includes general news, focusing on regional developments, sports and entertainment.
The private stations Eastern Television Network (ETN TV) and Somali Broadcasting Corporation (SBC TV) broadcast from Bosaso.
Established in 2004, Radio Garowe is a community radio station based in Garowe. The station broadcasts daily from Somalia at 89.8 FM, covering all the latest headlines in Somali news, politics, and society. It also broadcasts other special programming on Garowe Online, its online sister website.
LaasqorayNET is another privately owned website based in Badhan, Bosaso, Dubai and London. The website features articles written in Somali and English. In addition, the website hosts some audio, though the latter is not regularly updated.
Radio Gaalkacyo is the state radio station. Based in Galkayo, it was formerly known as Radio Free Somalia.
Horseed Media was established in 2002 by a group of Somali intellectuals in the Netherlands and Finland. The station broadcasts from Bosaso and has a listening audience of about 80,000 people, with a reach of . It also operates a website that counts over 10,000 daily visitors.
Based in Garowe, "Puntland Post" was established in 2001 by Somali expatriates in Denmark. Its website publishes daily domestic and international news reports and analysis in both Somali and English, with an emphasis on Puntland affairs.
Established in 2014, "Puntland Star" presents breaking news, stories and documentaries from Somalia and the rest of the world.
Other media organizations include Raxanreeb Online (RBC Radio). Launched in 2006, RBC presents Somali news to a global audience in both Somali and English. With direct sources based in Somalia, it covers local politics and society.


Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia)

The Golden Triangle is the area where the borders of Thailand, Laos, and Myanmar meet at the confluence of the Ruak and Mekong rivers. The name "Golden Triangle"—coined by the CIA—is commonly used more broadly to refer to an area of approximately that overlaps the mountains of the three adjacent countries.
Along with Afghanistan in the Golden Crescent, it has been one of the largest opium-producing areas of the world since the 1950s. Most of the world's heroin came from the Golden Triangle until the early 21st century when Afghanistan became the world's largest producer.
Origin.
As the Chinese Communist Party gained power, they ordered ten million addicts into compulsory treatment, had dealers executed, and opium-producing regions planted with new crops. Consequently, opium production shifted south of the Chinese border into the Golden Triangle region.
The Chinese troops of the Kuomintang (KMT) in Myanmar were, in effect, the forebears of the private narcotic armies operating in the Golden Triangle. Almost all the KMT opium was sent south to Thailand. Prior to the arrival of the KMT, the opium trade had already developed as a local opium economy under British colonial rule. The KMT-controlled territories made up Burma's major opium-producing region, and the shift in KMT policy allowed them to expand their control over the region's opium trade. Furthermore, Communist China's eradication of illicit opium cultivation in Yunnan by the early 1950s effectively handed the opium monopoly to the KMT army in the Shan states. The main consumers of the drug were the local ethnic Chinese and those across the border in Yunnan and the rest of Southeast Asia. The KMT coerced the local villagers for recruits, food and money, and exacted a heavy tax on the opium farmers. This forced the farmers to increase their production to make ends meet. One American missionary to the Lahu tribesmen of Kengtung State testified that the KMT tortured the Lahu for failing to comply with their regulations.
Annual production increased twenty-fold, from 30 tons at the time of Burmese independence to 600 tons in the mid-1950s.
Methamphetamine production and trafficking.
"The Golden Triangle, and specifically Shan State of Myanmar, is believed to be the largest methamphetamine producing area in the world (modest sized geographic area with highly concentrated production)." The growing signs of an intensification of methamphetamine manufacturing activity within and around the Golden Triangle, and a corresponding decrease in the number of production facilities dismantled in other parts of the region, suggests that methamphetamine manufacture in East and Southeast Asia is now consolidated into the lower Mekong region. Countries in East and Southeast Asia have collectively witnessed sustained increases in seizures of methamphetamine over the last decade, totaling over 140 tons in 2019 according to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, more than any other part of the world. In April and May 2020, Myanmar authorities reported Asia's largest ever drug operation in Shan State totaling what was believed to be 193 million methamphetamine tablets, hundreds of kg of crystal methamphetamine as well as some heroin, and over 162,000 litres and 35.5 tons of drug precursors as well as sophisticated production equipment and several staging and storage facilities.
History of drug production and trafficking.
Myanmar is the world's second largest producer of illicit opium, after Afghanistan and has been a significant cog in the transnational drug trade since World War II. According to the UNODC it is estimated that in 2005 there wеrе of opium cultivation in Myanmar.
The surrender of drug warlord Khun Sa's Mong Tai Army in January 1996 was hailed by Yangon as a major counter-narcotics success. Lack of government will and ability to take on major narcotrafficking groups and lack of serious commitment against money laundering continues to hinder the overall anti-drug effort. Most of the tribespeople growing the opium poppy in Myanmar and in the Thai highlands are living below the poverty line.
In 1996, the United States Embassy in Rangoon released a "Country Commercial Guide", which states "Exports of opiates alone appear to be worth about as much as all legal exports." It goes on to say that investments in infrastructure and hotels are coming from major opiate-growing and opiate-exporting organizations and from those with close ties to these organizations.
A four-year investigation concluded that Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) was "the main channel for laundering the revenues of heroin produced and exported under the control of the Myanmar Army." In a business deal signed with the French oil giant Total in 1992, and later joined by Unocal, MOGE received a payment of $15 million. "Despite the fact that MOGE has no assets besides the limited installments of its foreign partners and makes no profit, and that the Myanmar state never had the capacity to allocate any currency credit to MOGE, the Singapore bank accounts of this company have seen the transfer of hundreds of millions of US dollars," reports François Casanier. According to a confidential MOGE file reviewed by the investigators, funds exceeding $60 million and originating from Myanmar's most renowned drug lord, Khun Sa, were channeled through the company. "Drug money is irrigating every economic activity in Myanmar, and big foreign partners are also seen by the SLORC as big shields for money laundering." Banks in Rangoon offered money laundering for a 40% commission.
The main player in the country's drug market is the United Wa State Army, ethnic fighters who control areas along the country's eastern border with Thailand, part of the infamous Golden Triangle. The UWSA, an ally of Myanmar's ruling military junta, was once the militant arm of the Beijing-backed Burmese Communist Party.
Poppy cultivation in the country decreased more than 80 percent from 1998 to 2006 following an eradication campaign in the Golden Triangle. Officials with the United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime have confirmed that opium poppy farming has decreased since 2014, as synthetic drug production has expanded. A United Nations report also cites corruption, poverty and a lack of government control as typical causes for impoverished farmers to engage in drug production.
Opium and heroin base produced in northeastern Myanmar are transported by horse and donkey caravans to refineries along the Thailand–Burma border for conversion to heroin and heroin base. Most of the finished products are shipped across the border into various towns in North Thailand and down to Bangkok for further distribution to international markets.
In the past, major Triad-related Thai Chinese and Burmese Chinese traffickers in Bangkok have controlled much of the foreign sales and movement of Southeast Asian heroin from Thailand, but a combination of law enforcement pressure, publicity and a regional drought has significantly reduced their role. As a consequence, many less-predominant traffickers in Bangkok and other parts of Thailand now control smaller quantities of the heroin going to international markets.
Heroin from Southeast Asia is most frequently brought to the United States by couriers, typically Thai and U.S. nationals, travelling on commercial airlines. California and Hawaii are the primary U.S. entry points for Golden Triangle heroin, but small percentages of the drug are trafficked into New York City and Washington, D.C. While Southeast Asian groups have had success in trafficking heroin to the United States, they initially had difficulty arranging street level distribution. However, with the incarceration of Asian traffickers in American prisons during the 1970s, contacts between Asian and American prisoners developed. These contacts have allowed Southeast Asian traffickers access to gangs and organizations distributing heroin at the retail level.
The Golden Triangle is now one of the world's leading areas for the production of synthetic drugs and particularly methamphetamine as production has scaled up of Yaba tablets and crystalline methamphetamine, including for export to Australia, New Zealand, and across East and Southeast Asia. With respect to the accelerating synthetic drug production in the region, and specifically in Shan State, Myanmar, Sam Gor, also known as "The Company", is understood to be one of the main international crime syndicates responsible for this shift. Made up of members of five different triads and understood to be headed by Tse Chi Lop, a gangster born in Guangzhou, China, the Cantonese Chinese syndicate is primarily involved in drug trafficking, potentially earning up to $8 billion per year. Sam Gor is alleged to control 40% of the Asia-Pacific methamphetamine market, while also trafficking heroin and ketamine. The organization is active in a variety of countries in addition to Myanmar, including Thailand, Lao PDR, New Zealand, Australia, Japan, China and Taiwan.
The Chinese Muslim Panthay are the same ethnic group as the Muslims among the Chinese Chin Haw. Both are descendants of Chinese Hui Muslim immigrants from Yunnan province in China. They often work with each other in the Golden Triangle Drug Trade. Both Chinese Muslim and non-Muslim Jeen Haw and Panthay are known to be members of Triad secret societies, working with other Chinese groups in Thailand like the TeoChiew and Hakka and the 14K Triad. They engaged in the heroin trade. Ma Hseuh-fu, from Yunnan province, was one of the most prominent Jeen Haw heroin drug lords.
A Panthay from Burma, Ma Zhengwen, assisted the Han Chinese drug lord Khun Sa in selling his heroin in north Thailand. The Panthay monopolized opium trafficking in Burma. They also created secret drug routes to reach the international market with contacts to smuggle drugs from Burma via south China.


Law enforcement in Western Sahara

Law enforcement rights in Western Sahara, a disputed territory, is covered in the following articles:


Kwango River

The Cuango or Kwango () is a transboundary river of Angola and Democratic Republic of Congo. It is the largest left bank tributary of the Kasai River in the Congo River basin. It flows through Malanje town in Angola. The Kwango River basin has large resources of diamonds in the Chitamba-Lulo Kimberlite Cluster in Lunda Norte Province, discovered in the main river channel and on flats and terraces in its flood plains.
History.
The Rund Kingdom, which expanded to become the Lunda Empire, encompassed territory stretching from Kwango River to the Laupala. Its rulers pursued slavery trade. Lunda expansion in the valley promoted a common political and cultural heritage while also promoting slave trading, accounting for the low population densities between the Kwango and Kwilu rivers.
The Portuguese colonized the Kwango River valley and replaced the Kingdom of Kasanje. The Kwango River was subject to a Portuguese treaty signing in Lisbon on May 25, 1891 and the Declaration of March 24, 1894.
Cuango town, situated in Lunda Norte Province within the Cuango River valley, is considered to be “in the diamond heartland of northeastern Angola”, the richest diamond area in Angola. This town played an important role during the civil war as both Uniao Nacional para a Independencia Total de Angola (UNITA) and government forces attempted to seize and hold the city. UNITA surrendered the town to the government on 30 September 1997 as part of the Lusaka Protocol.
Geography.
The Cuango originates in the highlands of Alto Chicapa in the Angolan province of Lunda Sul, and flows south-north-west, crossing the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and joining the Kasai River near the town of Bandundo. Thereafter, it empties into the Congo River. Rising in the Lunda plateau, the river forms a deep valley.
It is long from its source to its confluence with Congo River, of which lies in Angola. The river drains a total catchment area of . Its right bank tributaries are the Wamba and Kwilu rivers.
The Cuango has a number of falls and rapids. Navigability is mostly achieved in the lower reaches of the river, spanning a length of from its mouth to the Kingushi rapids. Partial navigation is also possible in the middle stretches of the river between Kingushi and the Franz Josef waterfalls over a distance of about .
The lean season flow in the river occurs during August. The average annual discharge in the lower reaches of the river is /s
Culture.
The river valley is inhabited by the Yaka, the Suku, the Mbala, and the Pende tribal groups. Their crafting skills are seen in the form of mask carvings in geometric patterns of figurines, and other carved objects.
Economy.
While the river is used for fishing, the valley is developed to the extent of providing subsistence agriculture only. Of note historically is palm oil and rubber production.
The main economic activity and revenue to the Angolan State is derived by extraction of diamonds from the valley. The river basin has a rich source of diamonds in the Chitamba-Lulo Kimberlite Cluster in Lunda Norte Province, which was discovered in the main river channel and on flats and terraces in its flood plains. The provinces of Lunda Norte and Lund Sul in the river valley account for largest number of diamond mines in the valley and in Angola.
Prospecting permits have been awarded to BRC, extending to an area of between Tembo and Kasonga Lunda over the Kwango River stretch of about . Under the mining license held by Soiadale de Desenvolvimento Mineiro (SDM), the areas of production is on the Tazua and Ginge River diversions on the Cuango.


Turkish-occupied territories

Turkish-occupied territories may refer to:


Subdivisions of the Comoros

Autonomous islands.
The constitution gives Grande Comore, Anjouan and Mohéli the right to govern most of their own affairs with their own presidents, except the activities assigned to the Union of the Comoros like Foreign Policy, Defense, Nationality, Banking and others.


List of first-level administrative country subdivisions

This is a list of country subdivisions.


Istarski mih

The Istarski mih or Istrian mih is a bagpipe native to the regions of Istria and Kvarner, Croatia.
It consists of a bag made most often from goat skin and a double-chanter with two single reeds. This type of bagpipe is distinct in that it has no drones, but a double-chanter with finger-holes on both bores, allowing both a melody and changing harmony to be played. In this respect the "mih" more resembles the bagpipes of the Southwest Asia and North Africa than other European bagpipes. The instrument is not dodecaphonically tempered, it is a solistic instrument and it corresponds to the so-called Istrian scale. Due to its specific tone-hole placement, its sound is distinct and unusual even when compared to other instruments of the same "mih" family.
Unlike other Croatian bagpipe-like instruments that were forgotten and replaced with the accordion and violin in the 20th century, the art of playing istarski mih has not faced such rapid cultural decay. Ivan Matetić Ronjgov, a native Istrian composer, is credited with having revived the art of playing the "istarski mih" and the shawm-like instrument "sopile" in the 20th century. Nowadays, these instruments can be frequently seen and heard on many traditional music manifestations across Istria, with many young and perspective players performing and learning to play. Till the end of the second world war, the instrument was present also in the northern part of Ćićarija region, in Slovenia, but the tradition there hasn't been revived since. There are also some players and makers outside Istria, like Stjepan Večković, that contribute to the continuation of the instrument's tradition into the 21st century.


The Korea Society

The Korea Society was founded in 1957. The group is a private, non-partisan, non-profit organization formed under 501(c)(3) with a foundation of both corporate and independent members with the core mandate of ensuring understanding, cooperation, and awareness between the United States and Korea. The program receives funding from endowments, contributions, and grants. The Korea Society has its base in New York, where it works on forging alliances and outreach programs favoring progressive relationships between the US and Korea.
The Korea Society is associated with the work of General James Van Fleet, a commander of US forces involved in the final phase of the Korean War. The organization adopted its current name following an amalgamation of several groups in 1993 to form The Korea Society.
History.
In 1953, van Fleet left Korea after leading the UN, US, and South Korean forces as a commander in the US Eighth Army division. The general made inroads with his Korean counterparts and the bonds created through the war formed a strong desire to further the partnership. At his departure, Van Fleet said, "I shall come back. You have made me a part of you. I know you are a part of me. I shall not ask you to give me back my heart. I leave it with you."
Upon his return to the US, Van Fleet commenced a campaign to raise funds to facilitate reconstruction efforts and aid support for the people of Korea. Following his position during the war, Van Fleet occupied the position of chairman to the American-Korean Foundation (AFK) in the 1950s. Van Fleet was successful in facilitating a fund drive aimed at humanitarian efforts for the Korean people in need of aid. This success led to other aspirations in using his relationships and position to further cooperation between the United States and the people of Korea. In this effort, he sought the input of leaders such as Arthur Hays Sulzberger of The New York Times, Henry Luce of Time-Life, Spyros P. Skouras of 20th Century Fox, William Randolph Jr. Van Fleet also sought the involvement of William Zeckendorf, a real estate developer, Juilliard President, William Schuman, and Ben C. Lim, the first Korean Ambassador to the UN.
The Korea Society set up its first operation center at 420 Lexington Avenue with a vision of a non-sectarian, non-political, and non-profit agenda aimed at strengthening the existing United States and Republic of Korea alliance. The organization received its first boost and acknowledgment from President Eisenhower through a government endorsement. Since its inception in the 1950s, the organization has progressively followed subsequent alignments following bilateral relations between the US and Korea. The vision of Van Fleet is maintained through programs aimed at awarding and honoring Americans and Koreans engaged in outstanding programs and achievements. The award honorees granted over the years include Ban Ki-moon, Jimmy Carter, Chey Tae-won, Park Yong-man, Colin Powell, Chung Mong Koo, Lee Kun-hee, George W. Bush, and Kim Dae-Jung.


Van Province

Van Province (, , Armenian: Վանի մարզ) is a province in eastern Turkey, between Lake Van and the Iranian border. It is 19,069 km2 in area and had a population of 1,035,418 at the end of 2010. Its adjacent provinces are Bitlis to the west, Siirt to the southwest, Şırnak and Hakkâri to the south, and Ağrı to the north. The capital of the province is the city of Van. The province is considered part of Western Armenia by Armenians and was part of ancient province of Vaspurakan, the region is considered to be the cradle of Armenian civilization. Before Armenian Genocide, Van Province was part of six Armenian vilayets. Modern day majority of the province's population is Kurdish. The current Governor is Mehmet Emin Bilmez.
Demographics.
The province is mainly populated by Kurds and considered part of Turkish Kurdistan. The province had a significant Armenian population until the genocide in 1915.
In the 1881-1882 Ottoman census, Van Sanjak had a population of 113,964 of which was Armenian and Muslim. In the 1914 census, the sanjak had a population of 172,171 of which was Muslim and Armenian. The remaining population was Nestorian Assyrians at and Chaldean Assyrians at . In the first Turkish census in 1927, Kurdish was the most-spoken first language in Van Province (which included Hakkari Province until 1945) at while Turkish remained the second most-spoken first language at . Other languages enumerated included Hebrew at and Arabic at . In the same census, Muslims comprised of the population and the remaining being Jews. In the subsequent census in 1935, Kurdish stood at and Turkish at . Other smaller languages included Circassian at , Hebrew at , Arabic at . In regards to religion, Muslims remained the largest denomination at , Jews stood at and Christians at . In 1945, Kurdish stood at and Turkish at , while of the population was Muslim. In 1955, Kurdish and Turkish remained the two most spoken languages at and , respectively.
History.
This area was the heartland of Armenians, who lived in these areas from the time of Hayk in the 3rd millennium BCE right up to the late 19th century when the Ottoman Empire seized all the land from the natives. In the 9th century BC the Van area was the center of the Urartian kingdom. The area was a major Armenian population center. The region came under the control of the Armenian Orontids in the 7th century BC and later Persians in the mid-6th century BC. By the early 2nd century BC it was part of the Kingdom of Armenia. It became an important center during the reign of the Armenian king, Tigranes II, who founded the city of Tigranakert in the 1st century BC. With the Seljuq victory at the Battle of Malazgirt in 1071, just north of Lake Van, it became a part of the Seljuq Empire and later the Ottoman Empire during their century long wars with their neighboring Iranian Safavid arch rivals, in which Selim I managed to conquer the area over the latter. The area continued to be contested and was passed on between the Ottoman Empire and the Safavids (and their subsequent successors, the Afsharids and Qajars) for many centuries afterwards, all the way up to during the 19th century when it became the Van Vilayet.
In Turkey.
In 1927 the office of the Inspector General was created, which governed with martial law. The province was included in the first Inspectorate General ("Umumi Müfettişlik," UM) over which the Inspector General ruled. The UM span over the provinces of Hakkâri, Siirt, Van, Mardin, Bitlis, Sanlıurfa, Elaziğ and Diyarbakır. The Inspectorate General were dissolved in 1952 during the Government of the Democrat Party.
Between July 1987 and July 2000 Van Province was within the OHAL region, which was ruled by a Governor within a state of emergency.
Modern history.
According to the 2012 Metropolitan Municipalities Law (Law No. 6360), all Turkish provinces with a population more than 750 000, will have a metropolitan municipality and the districts within the metropolitan municipalities will be second level municipalities. The law also creates new districts within the provinces in addition to present districts.
Earthquakes.
In Van province occurred several earthquakes. In 1881 an earthquake occurred and caused the death of 95 people. In 1941, Van suffered a destructive 5.9 Mw earthquake. Two more earthquakes occurred in 2011 in which 644 people died and 2608 people were injured. In a 7.2 Mw earthquake on 23 October 2011, more than 500 people were killed. On 9 November 2011, a 5.6 Mw magnitude earthquake killed also several people and caused buildings to collapse.
Districts.
Van Province is divided into 14 districts.


Masfout

Masfout is a village that forms part of the eponymous exclave of Masfout in Ajman, one of the seven emirates forming the United Arab Emirates. It is surrounded by Ras Al Khaimah, the Dubai exclave of Hatta and Oman (Mahdha Wilayat of Al Buraimi Governorate). It is only accessible from Ajman itself by crossing territories of Sharjah, Ras Al Khaimah, and Oman.
At the census of 2017 the city had a population 8988 on an area of 86.59 km², which corresponds to a population density of 103.8 per km².
The village has a number of government facilities and municipal centres, including a dedicated courthouse built in 2017. The 13,500 square metre Waraqa Park surrounds the former house of the founder of Ajman, Sheikh Rashid bin Humaid Al Nuaimi.
In 2017 the Masfout Heights Resort Project was announced, intended as a mixed use hotel and tourism project. Digging water wells in the exclave was banned by the Ajman government as water depletion became an issue with over 80 unregulated wells sunk into the area's aquifers.
Masfout is home to UAE Division One football club Masfout CFC.
Masfout Fort is located on the craggy mountains above the village, restored in the 1940s by Sheikh Rashid bin Humaid. It was originally intended to protect against bandits heading to Oman. The village is also home to the 1815 Bin Sultan Mosque.
The nearby village forming the other densely inhabited part of the exclave is Sayh Mudayrah.
History.
Masfout was traditionally home to the Na'im tribe, who were originally in the main settled in Buraimi. They found themselves under threat in 1905 when the Bedouin Bani Qitab built a fort at Wadi Hatta and started to harass caravans passing through the pass to the Omani Batina coast.
Appealing to Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan of Abu Dhabi, and following a meeting of the Trucial Sheikhs in Dubai in April of that year, they gained Zayed's support (against the dynamic and ambitious Sheikh of Umm Al Quwain, Sheikh Rashid bin Ahmad Al Mualla, who supported the Bani Qitab) and eventually retained Masfout. The Na'im of Masfout were in almost constant conflict with their neighbours, the people of Hajarain, which later became a dependency of Dubai and more commonly known as Hatta.
In 1948, following a period of decline for the Na'im, Masfout was seized from its Na'im Sheikh, Saqr bin Sultan Al Hamouda, by Sheikh Rashid bin Humaid Al Nuaimi III of Ajman when Hamouda was unable to raise a force of men to oppose Rashid.
A period of uncertainty followed as the various Sheikhs of the region attempted to jostle for influence in order to sign petroleum concessions, with the Sultan in Muscat and the Saudis paying tribute in return for fealty which often turned out to be short-lived from both the Bani Qitab and the Na'im, as well as other tribes of the interior of the Trucial States.
These attempts to harness title to areas of the interior among the rulers and tribes eventually led to the Buraimi Dispute.
Masfout has been part of the Emirate of Ajman since.


Skardu

Skardu (, ; ) is a city located in Gilgit−Baltistan, Pakistan, and serves as the capital of the Skardu District. Skardu is situated at an elevation of nearly in the Skardu Valley, at the confluence of the Indus and Shigar Rivers. The city is an important gateway to the eight-thousanders of the nearby Karakoram mountain range. The Indus River running through the region separates the Karakoram from the Himalayas.
Etymology.
The name "Skardu" is believed to be derived from the Balti word meaning "a low land between two high places." The two referenced "high places" are Shigar city, and the high-altitude Satpara Lake
The first mention of Skardu dates to the first half of the 16th century. Mirza Haidar (1499–1551) described "Askardu" in the 16th-century text "Tarikh-i-Rashidi Baltistan" as one of the districts of the area. The first mention of Skardu in European literature was made by Frenchman François Bernier (1625–1688), who mentions the city by the name of "Eskerdou." After his mention, Skardu was quickly drawn into Asian maps produced in Europe, and was first mentioned as "Eskerdow" the map "Indiae orientalis nec non insularum adiacentium nova descriptio" by Dutch engraver Nicolaes Visscher II, published between 1680–1700.
Location.
The Skardu Valley, at the confluence of the Indus and Shigar Rivers, is wide by long. Active erosion in the nearby Karakoram Mountains has resulted in enormous deposits of sediment throughout the Skardu valley. Glaciers from the Indus and Shigar valleys broadened the Skardu valley between 3.2 million years ago up to the Holocene approximately 11,700 years ago.
History.
Early history.
The Skardu region was part of the cultural sphere of Buddhist Tibet since the founding of the Tibetan Empire under Songsten Gampo in the mid 7th-century CE. Tibetan tantric scriptures were found all over Baltistan until about the 9th century. Given the region's close proximity to Central Asia, Skardu remained in contact with tribes near Kashgar, in what is now China's westernmost province of Xinjiang.
Following the dissolution of Tibetan suzerainty over Baltistan around the 9th-10th century CE, Baltistan came under control of the local Maqpon Dynasty, a dynasty of Turkic extraction, which according to local tradition, is said to have been founded after a migrant from Kashmir named Ibrahim Shah married a local princess.
Maqpon period.
Around the year 1500, "Maqpon Bokha" was crowned ruler, and founded the city of Skardu as his capital. The Skardu Fort was established around this time. During his reign, King "Makpon Bokha" imported craftsmen to Skardu from Kashmir and Chilas to help develop the area's economy. While nearby Gilgit fell out of the orbit of Tibetan influence, Skardu's Baltistan region remained connected due to its close proximity to Ladakh, the region which Skardu and neighbouring Khaplu routinely fought against. Sikhs traditionally believe that Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, visited Skardu during his second "udasi" journey between 1510 and 1515.
Mughal period.
In the early 1500s, Sultan Said Khan of the Timurid "Yarkent" Khanate, based in what is now Xinjiang province of China, raided Skardu and Baltistan. Given the threat illustrated by the Sultan Said's invasion, Mughal attention was roused, prompting the 1586 conquest of Baltistan by the Mughal Emperor Akbar. The local Maqpon rulers pledged allegiance, and from that point onwards beginning with Ali Sher Khan Anchan, the kings of Skardu were mentioned as rulers of Little Tibet in the historiography of the Mughal Empire.
Mughal forces again incurred into the region during the reign of Shah Jahan in 1634-6 under the forces of Zafar Khan, in order to settle a dispute to Skardu's throne between Adam Khan, and his elder brother Abdul Khan. It was only after this point, during the rule of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, that Skardu's ruling family was firmly under Mughal control. The ability of the Mughal crown to fund expeditions to territories of marginal value, such as Baltistan, emphasises the wealth of the Mughal coffers.
Dogra rule.
In 1839, Dogra commander Zorawar Singh Kahluria defeated Balti forces in battles at Wanko Pass and Thano Kun plains, clearing his path for invasion of the Skardu valley. He seized Skardu Fort on behalf of the Dogra Kingdom based in Jammu. Singh's forces massacred a large number of the garrison's defenders, and publicly tortured Kahlon Rahim Khan of Chigtan in front of a crowd of local Baltis and their chiefs.
Dogra forces failed in their 1841 attempt to conquer Tibet. Following their defeat, Ladakhis rose in rebellion against Dogra rule. Baltis under the leadership of Raja Ahmed Shah soon also rose in rebellion against the Dogras, and so Maharaja Gulab Singh dispatched his commander Wazir Lakhpat to recapture Skardu. His forces were able to convince a guard to betray the garrison by leaving a gate unlocked, thereby allowing Dogra forces to recapture the fort and massacre its Balti defenders. The Raja of the Baltis was forced to pay an annual tribute to the Dogra Maharaja in Jammu, while the fort's provisions were provided for by the Balti Raja.
Following the Dogra victory, Muhammad Shah was crowned Raja of Skardu in return for his loyalty to the Jammu crown during the rebellion, and was able to exercise some power under Dogra administration. Military commanders held real governing power in the area until 1851 when Kedaru Thanedar was installed as a civilian administrator of Baltistan. During this time, Skardu and Kargil were governed as a single district. Ladakh would later be joined to the district, while Skardu would serve as the district's winter capital, with Leh as the summer capital, up until 1947.
Under the administration of Mehta Mangal between 1875 and 1885, Skardu's "Ranbirgarh" was built as his headquarters and residence. A cantonment, and various other government buildings were built in Skardu during this period. Sikhs from Punjab were also encouraged to migrate to Skardu in order to set up commercial enterprises during this period. The Sikh population prospered, and continued to grow - eventually also settling in nearby Shigar and Khaplu.
1947–48 Kashmir War.
After the Partition of British India, on 22 October 1947, Pakistan launched a tribal invasion of Kashmir by Pashtuns leading to the Maharaja Hari Singh acceding to India. The Gilgit Scouts, under the leadership of Major William Brown, mutinied on 1 November 1948, bringing the Gilgit Agency under the control of Pakistan. Major Aslam Khan took over the command of the Gilgit Scouts, organised a force of some 600 men from the rebels and local recruits, and launched attacks on the remaining parts of the State under Indian control. Skardu was an important target because Aslam Khan felt that Gilgit could be threatened from there. The Skardu garrison defended by a contingent of 6th Jammu and Kashmir Infantry under the command of Col. Sher Jung Thapa. The initial attack was repulsed, but the city fell into the rebel hands. After holding the garrison for 6 months and 3 days, Thapa and his forces surrendered on 14 August 1948, Pakistan's independence day.
Geography.
Topography.
Skardu's Airport is situated at an elevation of above sea level, though the mountain peaks surrounding Skardu reach elevations of . Upstream from Skardu are some of the largest glaciers in the world, including the Baltoro Glacier, Biafo Glacier, and Chogo Lungma Glacier. Some of the surrounding glaciers are surrounded by some of the world's tallest mountains, including K2, the world's second tallest mountain at , Gasherbrum at , and Masherbrum at . The Deosai National Park, the world's second highest alpine plain, is located upstream of Skardu as well. Downstream from Skardu is located the Nanga Parbat mountain at .
Geology.
Skardu is located along the Kohistan-Ladakh terrane, formed as a magmatic arch over a Tethyan subduction zone that was later accreted onto the Eurasian Plate. The region has low seismic activity compared to surrounding regions, suggesting that Skardu is located in a passive structural element of the Himalayan thrust. The stone in the Skardu region is Katzara schist, with a radiometric age of 37 to 105 million years.
Numerous complex granitic pegmatites and a few alpine-cleft metamorphic deposits are found in the Shigar Valley and its tributaries. Shigar Valley contains the Main Karokoram Thrust separating the metasediments (chlorite to amphibolite grade) on the Asian plate from the southern volcanoclastic rocks of the Kohistan-Ladakh island arc.
Climate.
Skardu features a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification "BSk"). The climate of Skardu during the summer is moderated by its mountain setting; the intense heat of lowland Pakistan does not reach it. The mountains block out the summer monsoon, and summer rainfall is thus quite low. However, these mountains result in very severe winter weather. During the April-to-October tourist season, temperatures vary between a maximum of and a minimum (in October) .
Temperatures can drop to below in the December-to-January midwinter period. The lowest recorded temperature was on 7 January 1995.
Tourism.
Skardu, along with Gilgit, is a major tourism, trekking and expedition hub in Gilgit–Baltistan. The mountainous terrain of the region, which includes four of the world's 14 Eight-thousander peaks, attracts tourists, trekkers and mountaineers from around the world. The main tourist season is from April to October; at other times of the year, the area can be cut off for extended periods by the snowy, freezing winter weather.
Mountains.
Accessible from Skardu by road, the nearby Askole and Hushe are the main gateways to the snow-covered peaks including K2, the Gasherbrums, Broad Peak, and the Trango Towers, and to the huge glaciers of Baltoro, Biafo and Trango. This makes Skardu the main tourist and mountaineering base in the area, which has led to the development of a reasonably extensive tourist infrastructure including shops and hotels. The popularity of the region results in high prices, especially during the main trekking season.
Deosai National Park.
Treks to the Deosai Plains, the second highest in the world at above sea level, after the Chang Tang in Tibet, either start from or end at Skardu. In the local Balti language, Deosai is called Byarsa "བྱིར་ས", meaning 'summer place'. With an area of approximately , the plains extend all the way to Ladakh and provides a habitat for snow leopards, ibex, Tibetan blue bears and wild horses.
Skardu Fort.
Skardu Fort or Kharphocho Fort lies on the eastern face of the Khardrong or Mindoq-Khar ("Castle of Queen Mindoq") hill above Skardu town. The fort dates from the 8th century CE and contains an old mosque probably dating back to the arrival of Islam in the 16th century CE. The fort provides a panoramic view of Skardu town, the Skardu valley and the Indus River. It was built by Maqpon dynasty rulers of Baltistan. It was a seven-storey building. Mostly local people say that Kharpoocho is made by a ghost as they were servants of the ruler of that time.
Kharphocho (Skardu) fort was built on a design similar to that of Leh Palace and the Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet. The name Kharpochhe means the great fort — "Khar" in Tibetan means castle or fort and "Chhe" means great.
Shigar Fort.
Located on the route to the world's second highest mountain, K-2 is Shigar Fort. It is also known as Fong-Khar, which in the local language means the "Palace on the Rock". The complex at Shigar comprises the 400-year-old fort/palace and two more recent buildings: the "Old House" and the "Garden House". The former palace of the Raja of Shigar has been transformed into a 20-room heritage guesthouse, with the grand audience hall serving as a museum of Balti culture and featuring select examples of fine wood-carvings, as well as other heritage objects.
Kachura Lakes.
There are two Kachura lakes — the less well-known (Upper) Kachura Lake and the more famous Shangrila Lake ("Lower Kachura Lake"). Shangrila Lake is home to the Shangrila Resort hotel complex (possibly the reason for the lake's alternative name), built in a Chinese style and another popular destination for tourists in Pakistan-administered Kashmir. The resort has a unique restaurant, set up inside the fuselage of an aircraft that crashed nearby. Kachura Lake is famous for its deep blue waters.
Satpara Lake.
Satpara Lake is Skardu Valley's main lake. In 2002, the Federal Government decided to build a dam on the Satpara Lake allocating $10 million to the project, in 2004. Progress has, however, been slow. Satpara Lake is from Skardu. Satpara Lake is one of the largest fresh water lakes in the countryside offering trout fishing and row boating. This lake is the source of Skardu's drinking water. The dam was mostly completed in 2011 and four powerhouse units are operational; the latest started operation in June 2013.
Transport.
Road.
The normal road route into Skardu is via the Karakorum Highway and a Skardu Road (S1) into the Skardu Valley from it. Roads once linked Skardu to Srinagar and Leh, though none are open for cross-LoC travel.
Skardu's weather can have adverse effects on transport in and out of the region, as Skardu is often snowbound during the winter months. Roads in and out of Skardu can be blocked for extended periods of time, sometimes leaving air travel as the only feasible alternative.
Air.
Skardu Airport is served by a daily direct flight from Islamabad. Air travel in winter is subject to disruption due to the unpredictable winter weather.
Infrastructure.
Satpara Dam.
The Satpara Dam development project on the Satpara Lake was inaugurated in 2003. It was expected to be completed in December 2006; now the development work will be completed in December 2013. It is south of Skardu city and is at an elevation of from mean sea level. The main source of water is melting ice of the Deosai plains during the summer season. Now Satpara Dam provides drinking water to the whole city of Skardu and agricultural water to major areas of Skardu, for example, Gayoul, Newrangha, Khlangranga, Shigari Khurd, etc.
It is a multipurpose project, which will produce 17.36 megawatts hydro generation, irrigate of land and provide 13 cusecs drinking water daily to Skardu city.


OKARMO Corner

OKARMO Corner is a monument showing the tripoint of Oklahoma, Arkansas and Missouri.


Caprivi Strip

The Caprivi Strip, also known simply as Caprivi, is a geographic salient protruding from the north-eastern corner of Namibia. It is surrounded by Botswana to the south and Angola and Zambia to the north. Namibia, Botswana and Zambia meet at a single point at the eastern tip of the Strip, which also comes within 100 m of Zimbabwe. The territory was acquired by the then German South West Africa in order to provide access to the Zambezi River and consequently a route to the east coast of the continent and German East Africa. The route was later found not to be navigable because about 40 miles east of the Caprivi Strip is Victoria Falls, the world's largest waterfall.
Within Namibia, the Strip is divided administratively between Kavango East and Zambezi regions. It is crossed by the Okavango River. The Cuando River forms part of its border with Botswana, and the Zambezi River forms a part of its border with Zambia. The width of the strip varies from about to . Its largest settlement is Katima Mulilo, located at the point where the Zambezi reaches the Strip.
Name.
When Namibia was a German colony, the Caprivi Strip was known in German as "Caprivizipfel". Before colonization, it was known as "Lyiyeyi" or "Diyeyi". During a short-lived secession attempt around the year 2000, it was given the name "Itenge". It is also sometimes called the "Okavango Strip" or "Zambezi".
Languages.
Inhabitants of the Caprivi Strip speak a number of African languages, mostly members of the Bantu language family, with speakers of Hukwe, a San language, in the northwest of the strip near the border with Angola. The Bantu languages include Yeyi (or 'Yei' or 'Yeeyi'), Mbukushu, Gciriku (or 'Dciriku'), Fwe, Totela, and Subiya. Perhaps a majority in the Caprivi Strip, especially in Katima Mulilo, speaks Lozi as a "lingua franca". Many also speak English and some Afrikaans.
Natural features.
The area is rich in natural wildlife and has mineral resources. Of particular interest to the government of Namibia is that it gives access to the Zambezi River and is thereby a potential trading route to Africa's East Coast. However, the vagaries of the river level, various rapids, the presence of the Victoria Falls downstream and continued political uncertainty in the region make this use of the Caprivi Strip unlikely, although it may be used for ecotourism in the future.
Within Namibia the Caprivi Strip provides significant habitat for the critically endangered African wild dog ("Lycaon pictus"). It is a corridor for African elephant moving from Botswana and Namibia into Angola, Zambia and Zimbabwe. National parks found in the Caprivi Strip are Bwabwata National Park, Mudumu National Park and Nkasa Rupara National Park. Local communities have organised themselves into communal area conservancies and community forests. People work closely with the Namibian Government to jointly manage natural resources through several programmes set up between the Namibian Government and various donor parties.
History.
Caprivi was named after German Chancellor Leo von Caprivi (in office 1890–1894), who negotiated the acquisition of the land in an 1890 exchange with the United Kingdom. Caprivi arranged for the Caprivi strip to be annexed to German South West Africa in order to give Germany access to the Zambezi River and a route to Africa's east coast, where the colony of German East Africa (now part of Tanzania) was situated. The transfer of territory was a part of the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty of 1890, in which Germany gave up its interest in Zanzibar in return for the Caprivi Strip and the island of Heligoland in the North Sea. The river later proved unnavigable and inaccessible to the Indian Ocean due to the Victoria Falls, a fact that was possibly already known to the British side during the negotiations. Remote and inaccessible during the rainy season, the Germans did not find use for Caprivi. After a mineral expedition in 1909 proved unsuccessful, Germany contemplated exchanging the strip for some other British territory, such as Walvis Bay. When that territory was transferred to Cape Colony by the British in 1910, Germany was stuck with Caprivi for the rest of its colonial history.
In 1976, the South African administration established the pseudo-independent Eastern Caprivi homeland with its own flag, national anthem, and coat of arms. It remained under direct "de facto" control of the South African government in Pretoria until 1980, when its administration was transferred to South Africa's administration in Windhoek.
In the late 20th century, the Caprivi Strip attracted attention when Namibia and Botswana took a long-standing dispute over its southern boundary to the International Court of Justice. The core of the territorial dispute concerned which channel of the Chobe River was the thalweg, the "bona fide" international boundary. This was important, as, depending on the decision, a large island (known as Kasikili or Sedudu, by Namibia and Botswana respectively) would fall into one or the other's national territory. The Botswana government considered the island as an integral part of the Chobe National Park, whereas the Namibian government, and many inhabitants of the eastern Caprivi Strip, held that not only was the island part of the original German–British agreement, but generations of inhabitants had used it for seasonal grazing, for reed-gathering, and as a burial site. In December 1999, the International Court of Justice ruled that the main channel, and hence the international boundary, lay to the north of the island, thus making the island part of Botswana.
Politics.
The Caprivi Strip is of politico-strategic military importance. During the Rhodesian Bush War (1964–1979), South West African People Organization's and Caprivi African National Union (CANU) liberation war against the South African occupation (1965–1994) and the Angolan Civil War (1975–2002), the Strip saw continual military action and multiple incursions by various armed forces using the Strip as a corridor to access other territories.
Caprivi conflict.
The Caprivi conflict involved an armed conflict in Namibia between the Caprivi Liberation Army (CLA), a rebel group aiming for the secession of the Caprivi Strip led by Mishake Muyongo, and the Namibian government. Its main eruption occurred on 2 August 1999 when the CLA launched an attack in Katima Mulilo, occupying the state-run radio station and attacking a police station, the Wenela border post, and an army base. Namibian armed forces quashed the attempt at secession within a few days.


Sugbuak

The Sugbuak (portmanteau of "Sugbu" and "buak") refers to the failed proposal to partition the island province of Cebu in the Philippines into four separate provinces in 2007. The issue, which had emerged before the 2007 general election, had been a polarizing issue in provincial politics, pitting the anti-partition camp of Cebu Governor Gwendolyn Garcia, Cebu City Mayor Tomas Osmeña and Cebu City Representative Antonio Cuenco, against that of "Sugbuak" proponents Representatives Antonio Yapha Jr., Clavel Asas-Martinez, and Simeon Kintanar—all of whom were last-term congressmen at the time.
Etymology.
The term "Sugbuak" is a portmanteau of the Cebuano words "Sugbo" (the endonym for Cebu) and "buak" ('split' or 'break') and roughly translates to "the splitting of Cebu" or "Broken Cebu". The more pro-partition term "Sugbuhi" is conversely a portmanteau of "Sugbo" and "buhi" ('life-giving'), roughly translating into "giving life to Cebu".
History.
The idea of a divided Cebu can be traced to 1967, when a proposal to split the island's lone congressional district into a new province failed. Gubernatorial candidates in that year's general election who supported the partition were defeated due to strong opposition from the Cebu electorate.
The actual "Sugbuak" began in February 2005, when Representatives Yapha, Asas-Martínez, and Kintanar filed three bills proposing that the fourth, second and third legislative districts of Cebu (which they held, respectively) be converted into three new provinces named Cebu del Norte/Cebu Boreal, Cebu del Sur/Cebu Austral and Cebu Occidental. The remaining three districts of Cebu, in addition to the two legislative districts of Cebu City, would constitute a fourth province (presumably called "Cebu Oriental", although no name for the fourth province was actually proposed). The three provinces, according to their respective bills, would have their capitals in Bogo, Argao and Toledo.
According to the congressmen, the motive for the "Sugbuak" is to bring the government "closer to the people" and to allow the new provinces to get an increased share in the Internal Revenue Allotment, as well as to hasten the development of the districts, which were said to have been "neglected" by the provincial government.
Opposition.
The filing of the bills triggered a massive campaign to keep Cebu united. The campaign led by Governor García claimed that the motive for the "Sugbuak" was more political than economic. An article published by "The Manila Times" claimed that the provinces would have become the "virtual fiefdoms" of Asas-Martínez, Kintanar and Yapha after the partition, an idea reinforced by the fact that all three congressmen were in their last terms as representatives of their respective districts. The Sangguniang Panlalawigan (provincial council) of Cebu passed a resolution supporting the "Sugbuak" with a vote of 8–7; García, however, vetoed the resolution.
García's call for a united Cebu met with strong support from local governments, business interests, civil society groups and even the Roman Catholic Church. In August 2005, the Archdiocese of Cebu conducted a survey in its 138 parishes to gauge the level of support for the "Sugbuak". 71 parishes, including those of proposed capitals Argao and Toledo City, confirmed the belief of Cardinal Ricardo Vidal, Archbishop of Cebu, that a majority of Cebuanos opposed the "Sugbuak".


Dodonian Zeus

Dodonian Zeus or Zeus of Dodonia may refer to either of two figures who were worshipped at Dodona, the oldest oracle of the ancient Greeks:
Dodona was an ancient oracle located in the region of Epirus in northwestern Greece (“Dodona”, Encyclopædia Britannica). The word Epirus means infinite Earth. The Greeks saw Eprius as a wilderness filled with barbarians ("Athens Greece Guide"). The ruins are located in Dramisos, near Tsacharovista (Ewegen). The name of the oracle is derived from Dodone, which is an oceanic nymph (Nicol, page 128). Dodone gets its name, according to commentaries originally by Epaphroditos, from Dodona, one of the Nymphai Okeanides.
It was created to honor the Greek God Zeus. At Dodona, Zeus was known as “Zeus Bouleus”. Which means Zeus the Counselor and “Zeus Naios” (also spelt as “Naos”). The translation of Naios means the god of spring. This was fitting because there was a spring located near the oracle. In addition, there was a sacred tree outside the temple, which was used by the priests. The priests, called Selloi, were known for sleeping on the ground and not washing their feet (Sacks, et al.). They interpreted the rustling of the leaves as divine messages from Zeus (Nicol, page 128). The priests would interpret the rustling leaves for a certain cost, and the outcome of this prediction improved with an increased fare (Ewegen). In Greek inscriptions found on the site, they mention Dione as well as Zeus Naios. Dione has been mentioned in several texts with regards to the oracle at Dodona. Dione as a name is the feminine form of Zeus ("DIONE."). In most texts Zeus’ wife is identified as the goddess Hera, however Dione has been mentioned as the mother of Zeus’ daughter Aphrodite. In other cases Dione is solely mention as the daughter of Oceanus, and some writers have said she is the mother of Dionysus ("Dione"). Therefore, it is thought that Dodona was built for both Dione as well as Zeus (Kristensen, William Brede, 1960). Furthermore, Dodona served as both a political center as well as a religious sanctuary, although it was second to the oracles of Apollo in Delphi.
Alongside Zeus, Titan Dione was worshiped at Dodona. In some older stories Diona, not Hera, is the mother of Aphrodite. Diona’s name is the feminine version of Zeus (Dios). She had three priestess at her shrine known as the Peleiades or Doves. The name came from Diona’s daughter Aphrodite who had a sacred dove. The Peleiades had the ability to read prophesy:
Perhaps there was something exceptional about the flight of the three pigeons from which the priestesses [of Dione at Dodona] were wont to make observations and to prophesy. It is further said that in the language of the Molossians and the Thesprotians, old women are called 'peliai' (doves) and old men 'pelioi.' And perhaps the much talked of Peleiades were not birds, but three old women who busied themselves about the temple.
The earliest mention of Dodona in Greek literature was in Homer's "Iliad", which describes the priests (Selloi) as having unwashed feet who slept on the ground. In addition, the poem indicates that Achilles prayed to the “High Zeus, Lord of Dodona”.Iliad, Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. Accessed 4 Apr. 2013.</ref>
The ancient Greek epic “Catalogues of Women Fragment 97” by Hesiod in the 8th or 7th century BCE, describes the Dodona:
There is a land Hellopia with much glebe and rich meadows, and rich in flocks and shambling kine. There dwell men who have many sheep and many oxen, and they are in number past telling, tribes of mortal men. And there upon its border is built a city, Dodona; and Zeus loved it and appointed it to be his oracle, reverenced by men . . . And they [the doves] lived in the hollow of an oak (phêgou). From them men of earth carry away all kinds of prophecy, whosoever fares to that spot and questions the deathless god, and comes bringing gifts with good omens." (Hesiod)
The oracle is also mentioned in Odyssey XIV. when Odysseus went to Dodona to hear from Zeus at the oak of the God (Nicol, page 135). Plato’s Phaedrus also mentions the oracle at Dodona (Jowett) as it says:
That the words of the oak in the holy place of Zeus at Dodona were the first prophetic utterances (Nicol, page 143).
The Greek historian mentioned the oracle at Dodona:
And after a time the Pelasgians consulted the Oracle at Dodona about the names, for this prophetic seat is accounted to be the most ancient of the Oracles which are among the Hellenes, and at that time it was the only one.
A fragment of Hediodic literature describes Dodona as a district of “corn fields, herds and flocks of shepherds… where Zeus dwells in the stem of an oak”. Herodotus notes he learned through a local legend that an Egyptian priestess who had been taken away by the Phoenicians founded the oracles. Therefore, the priestesses of the oracle are often referred to as doves to represent the Egyptian lost priestess ("Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 5 "Dinard" to "Dodsworth" " 372). According to Strabo the oak tree is thought to be the first plant created that could provide a food supply. Strabo notes that the same geographer believes that the doves “are observed for the purposes of augury, just as there were some seers who divined from ravens." A legend regarding Dodona depicts the ship sailed by Jason and the Argonauts (the Argo) had the “gift of prophecy” because it had a piece of the sacred oak from Dodona ("Ancient/ Classical History")
Sent to fetch the fleece, Jason called in the help of Argus, son of Phrixus; and Argus, by Athena's advice, built a ship of fifty oars named Argo after its builder; and at the prow Athena fitted in a speaking timber from the oak of Dodona. When the ship was built, and he inquired of the oracle, the god gave him leave to assemble the nobles of Greece and sail away.(Rhod)
Dodona rapidly expanded, early in the 4th century BCE: a temple was built to worship Zeus; and King Pyrrhus developed festivals and games to be held every four years during the 3rd century. Events included athletics and musical competitions. A wall was built to protect the sanctuary and holy tree. At the same time temples were built to honor Heracles and Diona. The last addition to Dodona was the theatre, which had remarkable features such as a stone floor and wood proscenium. In recent times, archaeologists have discovered ancient buildings dating to the 4th century BCE, during King Pyrrhus’ rule. In 219 BCE, the Aetolians invaded and ravaged the city and the oracle. Although King Philip V of Macedon assisted the Epirotes in rebuilding the oracle, leaving behind more extravagant temples and, in addition, a stadium. In 167 BCE, Epirus was conquered by the Romans. In 31 BCE, Emperor Augustus rebuilt the sanctuary, and it is documented as active until CE 391, during the rule of the Christian emperor Theodosius I, when the sacred tree was cut down and the oracle closed.


French-Canadian Brigade

The French-Canadian Brigade was an intended unit in the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War.
Although it was assigned a block of 3000 regimental numbers (2320301-2323300), only the first 119 were used. Recruiting took place in Military District 10 (M.D. 10)--primarily in Manitoba, which has a sizeable French-Canadian population--in early 1917. Approximately one-half of the recruits were born outside of Canada and represented six countries: France (18), United States of America (9), Belgium (6), Switzerland (5), England (1), Russia (1). Of those born in Canada, the majority came from Manitoba (29) and Quebec (24); two other provinces are represented: Saskatchewan (7) and Ontario (2). A number of the recruits were subsequently reassigned to the Canadian Forestry Corps.