Chilean hawk

The Chilean hawk ("Accipiter chilensis") is a bird of prey species belonging to the typical hawks. It breeds in Andes forests from central Chile and western Argentina south to Tierra del Fuego, from sea level to 2,700 m altitude (though birds are rarely observed above 1,000 m). Some winter apparently in the lowlands of NW Argentina.
It is sometimes considered to be a subspecies of its northern relative the bicolored hawk ("A. bicolor"), including by the American Ornithological Society and sometimes a distinct species. The two show differences in habitat preference and have allopatric distributions. But the situation is complicated by the subspecies "pileatus", which is intermediate in plumage between "bicolor" and "chilensis", and has been variously assigned to either species by those that consider them distinct.
Description.
The male is 37 to 38 cm long, while the larger female measures 41 to 42 cm. The adults have black upperparts, and an ash-grey chest and abdomen with dark barring. The throat has longitudinal dark stripes and the undertail is white. The uppertail is brown with 5 or 6 dark bands. The legs are greenish yellow, and the eyes are yellow. The sexes have similar plumage.
Young birds have browner upperparts with cream fringes to the feathers. The paler chest and abdomen have longitudinal stripes. The paler uppertail makes the banding more obvious.
Birds are only vocal during the breeding season. While engaging in reproductive activity, its calls do not seem to differ from those of the bicoloured hawk. This has at least two rather high-pitched scolding vocalizations: a barking row of "keh" or "kow", and a woodpecker-like faster and accelerating staccato of "kek" calls. These are given near the nest and might announce intruders such as the scientists coming to study the birds. A series of higher-pitched "kie", given by a definite Chilean hawk under similar circumstances, might replace one of the above, or it might be a distinct type of call. Pairmates address each other with a squealing "waaah", and a soft clear whistle is apparently used by parents to communicate something to the young.
Distribution.
In Argentina, it is found north to Neuquén Province at about 36° latitude. The northern limit of the breeding range in Chile is not well known. In significant numbers, the Chilean hawk probably only occurs north to O'Higgins Region, though it at least occasionally breeds in Valparaíso Region, and perhaps also in Coquimbo Region and Fray Jorge National Park from where there are a few sightings. The southern limit is generally accepted to be at about 55° latitude in Tierra del Fuego.
Their movement patterns are not well resolved. Generally it seems to be sedentary, but there is a seasonal influx of Chilean hawks to NW Argentina. Perhaps they follow the swarms of migrant passerines or even Chilean pigeons ("Columba araucana"). It has been recorded as breeding in Magallanes Province but migrating away afterwards. Young birds seem to be quite prone to vagrancy: there is one certain and one possible record from Tafí del Valle and Oasis de Pica, respectively; both locations are hundreds of kilometers north even of the suspected breeding range.
Ecology.
The Chilean hawk is specifically found in temperate forest. Far more rarely, it is also found in sclerophyllous forest, parkland and mixed forest and open habitat. Top hunt, it also visits open areas like shrubland, grassland or agricultural land to hunt. It is rarely if ever seen in heavily human-modified habitat however, and the few individuals that have been encountered in city parks and gardens are probably not resident birds. As it seems, it requires not much less than 200 hectares of native forest to breed.
Typically, forest inhabited by this bird is dominated by "Araucaria" and southern beech ("Nothofagus"). Particular species that have been recorded are coihue ("N. dombeyi"), hualle ("N. obliqua") and lenga ("N. pumilio"). It probably tolerates some logging, as long as the native character of the forest is not altered. Secondary growth with abundant mature trees remaining and dense undergrowth, e.g. of South American mountain bamboo ("Chusquea"), as caused by limited logging activity, may even be prime breeding habitat, although too little is known to be certain. When enough native forest is present, plantations, e.g. of introduced pines, are also utilized.
During the day, it likes to perch on branches in its territory, moving between favorite areas of forest in low flight. Areas with strong human activity like settlements are approached cautiously; it is generally not a bird that announces its presence. Pairs split outside the breeding season; it is not studied whether they are monogamous only during the breeding season or for several seasons. It seldom soars unrelated to reproductive activity. Males do aerobatic displays in courtship, such as a double loop resembling an upright "8".
The louse "Colpocephalum turbinatum" was found on a museum specimen of the Chilean hawk, but whether it actually parasitizes these birds or had simply crossed over from some other specimen is not known.
Food and feeding.
It is not well known how this carnivore catches its prey, but as it seems it is optimized for pursuit of small and maneuvrable birds throughout all levels of the forest. It is also able to seize large insects in mid-air. Both active searching for prey and sitting in ambush to wait what might come along has been observed. During the breeding season, pairs may cooperate in hunting; their different sizes ensures that they do not compete for prey much.
The Chilean hawk's food is almost exclusively birds (97.8% of all prey remains in one study), in particular a diverse selection of forest passerines. More than 30 bird species are documented to be eaten by this hawk at least occasionally. Rodents of at least 4 species and every now and then an occasional insect or squamate round off its diet.
The Chilean hawk hunts forest passerines quite indiscriminately of species, habitat or habits provided they have the right size, though it has a preference for species that live closer to the forest floor. Depending on availability, favorite prey species include thorn-tailed rayadito ("Aphrastura spinicauda") black-chinned siskin ("Carduelis barbata"), white-crested elaenia ("Elaenia albiceps"), Austral thrush ("Turdus falcklandii") and fire-eyed diucon ("Xolmis pyrope"). It has been claimed that the Chilean pigeon ("Columba araucana") constitutes important prey, but this seems only to be correct at certain times or places, if at all.
Reproduction.
This hawk breeds in the austral summer. Pairs apparently form from mid-late October on. Incubating birds have been observed in December, and chicks are seen from about New Year's Eve to February, after which the families disperse again. A 1937 nest and a 1945 egg description of the Chilean hawk appear to be based on a misidentification; the nest at least was probably of the chimango caracara ("Milvago chimango").
The oval platform nest measures about 50–80 by 50–60 cm and is some 25 cm high when freshly built. Some nests are more than twice as high; these might have been used in several years. It is built from strongly intertwined dry twigs and sticks. It is placed on forked branches in the upper part of a tree, close to the main trunk or a main vertical branch, some 16–20 m above ground. At least locally, full-grown coihue trees ("Nothofagus dombeyi") seem to be much preferred for nesting. Nests are sometimes reused in successive seasons, but more often a new nest is constructed in a different tree every season.
The clutch is probably two, sometimes three and rarely one, as usual for Accipitridae. The eggs are dull light bluish to off-white all over and are shaped like a chicken's egg. The eggshell's inside has a slightly more pronounced bluish tinge. Incubation lasts probably about 3 weeks. The parents defend their nesting grounds against other birds of prey, such as the red-backed hawk ("Buteo polyosoma"), and the golden eagle ("Aquila chrysaetos"); during approaches by such potentially dangerous species, the nestlings will tuck away their heads. It seems that 2 or 3 young are raised on a regular basis, unlike in many other Accipitridae where only the strongest nestling survives.
Status.
Because of its forest habitat and secretive behaviour, the Chilean hawk is one of the least-studied raptors in the Patagonian temperate forest. It is considered relatively common in the Cape Horn region, e.g. in Ñuble National Reserve, population densities as high as 4 birds per square km have been recorded. Elsewhere, it is far less often seen and usually quite rare. Attempts to assess its population density are hampered by the fact that it requires a certain amount of prime habitat to settle in a locale at all. Thus, much otherwise suitable land might be under-utilized by these birds, and subpopulations have an extremely patchy distribution.
It is listed as a rare or insufficiently known species in Chile and legally protected under the Hunting Law. In Argentina it is not listed as threatened. On a global scale, it is a rare bird, though not under immediate threat. Populations may decline due to increasing habitat loss from extensive fires, logging pressures, and hunting. It is not evaluated by the IUCN, as they do not consider it specifically distinct, but is included on the CITES Appendix II as part of the blanket listing of Falconiformes.


Brown cacholote

The brown cacholote ("Pseudoseisura lophotes") is a species of bird in the family Furnariidae.
It is mainly found in northern Argentina, western Paraguay and Uruguay; also in southeastern Bolivia and Rio Grande do Sul.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forest, subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest, and heavily degraded former forest.


Purple sandpiper

The purple sandpiper ("Calidris maritima") is a small shorebird. The genus name is from Ancient Greek "kalidris" or "skalidris", a term used by Aristotle for some grey-coloured waterside birds. The specific "maritima" is from Latin and means "of the sea", from "mare", "sea".
Description.
Adults have short yellow legs and a medium thin dark bill with a yellow base. The body is dark on top with a slight purplish gloss and mainly white underneath. The breast is smeared with grey and the rump is black. They measure in length and across the wings, and weight is from .
Breeding.
Their breeding habitat is the northern tundra on Arctic islands in Canada and coastal areas in Greenland and northwestern Europe. They nest on the ground either elevated on rocks or in lower damp location. The males makes several scrapes; the female chooses one and lays 3 or 4 eggs. The male takes the major responsibility for incubation and tends the chicks. The young feed themselves.
An apparent case of hybridization between this species and the dunlin has been reported from England.
Range and migration.
In Britain, these birds occur in winter in good numbers principally along the east and south coasts, where they favour rocky shorelines adjacent to the sea. It is much rarer as a breeding bird, found only in a localised area of the Cairngorms National Park, where 1–3 pairs have bred since the 1970s. Records of breeding by this species in the UK are monitored and archived by the Rare Breeding Birds Panel.
They are late migrants and move to rocky, ice-free Atlantic coasts in winter. Most go no further south than North Carolina and northern Portugal. They are fairly gregarious, forming small flocks, often with Ruddy Turnstones. This species is tame and approachable.
Feeding.
These birds forage on rocky coasts, picking up food by sight. They mainly eat arthropods and molluscs, also some plant material. One of the main staples are those of the "Coelopa" genera ("C. frigida"). These insects are known commonly as "seaweed flies" because they feed, mate, and create a habitat out of beached seaweed which is common near the Purple Sandpiper's habitat.
Status.
The purple sandpiper is one of the species to which the "Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds" (AEWA) applies.


Phaeoxantha wimmeri

Phaeoxantha wimmeri is a brown coloured species of tiger beetle in the subfamily Cicindelinae that was described by Mandl in 1958, and is endemic to Santa Cruz, Bolivia.


Royal gramma

The royal gramma ("Gramma loreto"), also known as the fairy basslet, is a species of fish in the family Grammatidae native to reef environments of the tropical western Atlantic Ocean. They are commonly kept in aquariums.
Appearance.
The fish can be a light purple to a deep violet starting at the head which fades mid-body to a golden yellow at the tail. The royal gramma will also have a small black spot on the front of the dorsal fin and a black line that streaks through the eye. It resembles the false gramma ("Pictichromis paccagnellae"), with the two main differences between the two being the false gramma has clear fins and does not fade, but rather has a distinct change in color. The royal gramma is relatively small, averaging slightly over 8 cm (3 inches) and has been tank bred. The largest royal gramma was measured at 8 cm (3.1 in).
Diet.
The royal gramma is a planktivore, eating mostly zooplankton and crustaceans. The royal gramma is also a cleaner fish. It removes the ectoparasites (a parasite that lives on the skin of a fish) from other fish and learns to eat dead food, such as crustaceans and fish flesh. They prefer to pick their food from the middle of the water column.
Range.
Their natural range covers the Bahamas, Venezuela, Antilles, Bermuda, and through the waters surrounding Central America and the northern part of South America. The Royal Gramma tends to swim more towards the bottom with the depth range between 1 and 20 m (3 and 60 ft).
In the aquarium.
Due to their relatively peaceful nature, diet, and small size, the royal gramma is considered an ideal inhabitant for most reef aquaria containing coral and other invertebrates. Notwithstanding this general statement, they can become aggressive towards tank-mates when kept in smaller nano reef tanks. They stake out territories throughout rocks and crevices and choose favorite hiding places. They are generally peaceful fish, but are very protective of their territories and are known for chasing out other small fish. They tend to stay in one area of the tank and, when startled, will dart back into their holes. They will vigorously guard their hiding places and, when threatened, will open their mouths wide in a threatening gesture to ward off the intruders. The royal gramma tends to orient itself to be parallel with the surface to which it is closest, resulting in the fish swimming straight up and down or sometimes upside down beneath ledges. This behavior is not to be mistaken for illness.
The minimum suggested tank size is 30 gallons and the tank should not receive sharp lighting. The ideal water temperature should range between 72 and 78 °F and the water pH should be between 8.1 and 8.4, with specific gravity of 1.020-1.025. They are often kept in reef aquaria and are generally kept singly or in pairs. However, small groups can be kept as long as the tank is large enough and has enough cracks and crevices for each fish to have its own territory. The royal gramma should not be kept with its own kind unless in a formed male-female pair. It should also not be kept with larger, aggressive fish that will eat them. They are, however, resistant to most diseases and make very good beginner fish. It will also accept frozen and meaty foods, such as brine shrimp and mysis shrimp in the wild. The royal gramma is very easy to feed; but rotating their foods is said to keep them from becoming picky. Captive royal gramma will also eat flake and pellet foods.
Breeding.
Although pairs are difficult to find because the difference between male and female is not visible, they are very easy to breed. With males usually being larger than females, the male will build the nest among rocks using pieces of algae. The male will then lead the female to the nest, where she will deposit 20-100 eggs in the nest. During the breeding period, this behavior is repeated almost every day for a month or longer. The eggs are about 1 mm (0.04 in) and are equipped with small protuberances over the surface with tiny threads extending from them. These threads hold onto the algae of the nest and keep the eggs in place. The eggs will hatch in five to seven days, normally in the evening, and can feed on rotifers until they are large enough to consume newly hatched brine shrimp.
In popular culture.
Because the royal gramma is generally a peaceful fish, it gets along with many other types of fish. A royal gramma fish named Gurgle was voiced by (Austin Pendleton) who also appeared in the 2003 Disney/Pixar animated film "Finding Nemo" and the 2016 sequel "Finding Dory".


Oreolalax granulosus

Oreolalax granulosus is a species of amphibian in the family Megophryidae.
Being restricted to the vicinity of its type locality in Jingdong County in southern Yunnan, where it occurs in Ailaoshan National Nature Reserve. It is endemic to China.
Its natural habitats are subtropical moist montane forests and rivers.
It is threatened by habitat loss.
Male "Oreolalax granulosus" grow to about in snout-vent length and females to about . Tadpoles are in length.


Cesonia elegans

Cesonia elegans is a spider species in the genus of "Cesonia" found on St. Vincent, Dominica.


Calamaria griswoldi

Calamaria griswoldi, known commonly as the dwarf reed snake or the lined reed snake, is a species of snake in the family Colubridae.
Etymology.
The specific name, "griswoldi", is in honor of American ornithologist John Augustus Griswold Jr. (1912–1991), who collected the holotype.
Geographic range.
"C. griswoldi" is found in Malaysia.
Description.
"C. griswoldi" is a small species. Maximum total length (including tail) is .
Reproduction.
"C. griswoldi" is oviparous.


Pristobaeus namosi

Pristobaeus namosi is a jumping spider species in the genus "Pristobaeus". It was first identified in 1996 in Fiji. The species was initially placed in the genus "Palpelius" but was renamed "Pristobaeus namosi" when "Palpelius" was accepted as the junior synonym for "Pristobaeus" in 2015.


Xiphocaris elongata

Xiphocaris elongata, the yellow-nose shrimp, "yellow rhino shrimp", "salpiche" or "piquine", is a species of freshwater shrimp native to the Caribbean. A hardy species, this shrimp is tolerant of a wide range of water conditions and can even survive in brackish and saltwater. Despite it being widely encountered across the Caribbean this species is still virtually unavailable to hobbyists in Europe and North America. It is rated least concern by the IUCN.


Porcupine river stingray

The porcupine river stingray ("Potamotrygon histrix", sometimes incorrectly modified to "Potamotrygon hystrix") is a species of river stingray in the family Potamotrygonidae, the type of the "Potamotrygon" genus. It is found in the basins of the Paraná and Paraguay River basins in South America. Most chemical weathering of minerals seems to take place in the upland drainage basins rather than on the floodplains, and most major solutes display conservative mixing in the river-floodplain system. The population in the Rio Negro basin was described as a separated species, "P. wallacei", in 2016.
Appearance.
Almost circular in shape, it grows up to in disc width and in weight. The upper surface is covered with denticles (sharp tooth-like scales). The coloration is light brownish with mottled patterns on the dorso, and pink on the ventral side. As with all stingrays, the mouth and gill openings are on the underside, and the eyes and gills exits are on the dorsal side.
Sting.
Like other stingrays, the fish of this genus have venomous barbs at the base of their tails, and are dangerous to humans. The sting is replaced at roughly six-month intervals. It is an almost flat, barbed structure that can reach in length, and is covered with a toxic mucus, making any attack a very painful one.
The natives of South America are said to fear the stingray more than the piranha. However, they are not aggressive fish and not dangerous unless stepped on or otherwise threatened.
Aquarium.
Freshwater stingrays of the genus "Potamotrygon" are sometimes kept as exotic aquarium fish; though freshwater stingray of other genera do appear in the trade, most are from this genus. They are best kept with a deep, sandy substrate, in which they bury themselves, often with only their eyes visible. They are not territorial with other animals and can be kept in groups, provided a large enough aquarium is provided. They are carnivorous bottom-feeders and require strong filtration as they are rather sensitive to water conditions (any spike in NO2 levels can kill them with no warning). Juvenile stingrays are unable to survive in waters that contain salinity over 20.6%.
Like many species of stingrays, "P. histrix" has been bred in captivity, but they require a large tank. The male should be smaller than the female, as it is rather aggressive, biting the female during the mating process.
Males can be determined by the presence of claspers as in other chondrichthyans.


Pseudochazara cingovskii

Pseudochazara cingovskii, the Macedonian grayling, is a species of butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is found only in the North Macedonian village of Pletvar. The males are a little smaller than the females.
It is a cool pale grey brown, the upperside bands being particularly noticeable. Its habitat is scattered with white limestone rocks and when at rest on the white limestone, it is very difficult to notice it due to its very pale underside. The Macedonian Grayling is facing endangerment due to marble quarrying occurring in its habitat. This endemic species is the most threatened butterfly species in Europe, and active conservation efforts are vital for sustaining a healthy population size.
Flight period.
The species is univoltine and is on wing from late June to July depending on altitude.
Food plants.
Larvae have been reared on grasses.


Aplastodiscus sibilatus

Aplastodiscus sibilatus is a species of frog in the family Hylidae. It is endemic to northeastern Brazil and is known from central-eastern Bahia and Alagoas. The specific name "sibilatus" is derived from the Latin "sibilus" meaning "whistle", in allusion to the characteristic call of the species.
Description.
Adult males measure in snout–vent length. The overall appearance is slender. The head is slightly longer than it is wide. The snout is obtuse in lateral view and slightly tapering in dorsal view. The tympanum is distinct, but its upper edge is covered by the well-developed supratympanic fold. The fingers and the toes bear adhesive discs at their tips and have well-developed webbing. Dorsal surfaces are green with numerous black dots and few white dots posteriorly, without forming a clear pattern. The gular region and chest are bluish-green. The belly is white.
Habitat and conservation.
"Aplastodiscus sibilatus" occurs in coastal Restinga forest and in little-disturbed primary Atlantic forest at elevations of about above sea level. Males call from bromeliads. Breeding takes place in the slow backwaters of fast-flowing streams. This species is probably threatened by habitat loss caused by agricultural development, logging, and infrastructure development. It is not known to occur in protected areas.


Cyrtodactylus montanus

Cyrtodactylus montanus is a species of gecko endemic to India.


Anthonomus elutus

Anthonomus elutus is a weevil native to Central America. It was first found on a wetland nightshade ("Solanum tampicense") in Monterrico, Departamento Santa Rosa, Guatemala in February 2006.
"A. elutus" is being investigated for use a potential biocontrol agent in Florida, which is suffering from an invasion on "S. tampicense" in wetland habitats. Tests conducted in Gainesville indicated that the weevil was highly specific to "S. tampicense".


Chinese sillago

The Chinese sillago ("Sillago sinica") is a species of recently described inshore marine fish in the smelt whiting family Sillaginidae. The species is known only to inhabit the coastal waters of China, primarily in estuarine tidal flats. The Chinese sillago was described in 2011 based on morphological and DNA barcode analysis of several specimens. Several detailed anatomic features distinguish it from other sillaginids, with "Sillago parvisquamis" its closest relative based on phylogenetic analysis. Nothing is known of the ecology or importance to fisheries of the Chinese sillago.
Taxonomy and phylogeny.
The Chinese sillago is one of 31 currently recognised species in the genus "Sillago", itself one of 3 genera of smelt whiting in the family Sillaginidae. The Sillaginidae are percoid fishes in the order Perciformes.
The Chinese sillago was first described by a group of 6 authors in 2011 based on several type specimens collected from various parts of the East China Sea. The designated holotype is from near Wenzhou in the Zhejiang Province. The species specific epithet arises from the Latin word for China.
The authors used the mitochondrial DNA cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene as a DNA barcode to further justify the assignment of a new species of "Sillago". In doing so they also analysed the species position relative to several sillaginids with an overlapping geographic distribution. The results clearly indicated "S. sinica" was sufficiently genetically distant from other species to be considered a new species. "S. parvisquamis" is the closest species genetically which correlates with the similar overall morphology of these two species. The authors also demonstrated that the COI gene is a viable method of phylogenetically analysing the Sillaginide.
Description.
The Chinese sillago is similar in external appearance to many other members of the genus "Sillago", which have a slightly compressed, elongate body tapering toward the terminal mouth. The dorsal fin is in two parts, the first made of feeble spines and the second of soft rays headed by a single feeble spine. The first dorsal fin has either 10 or 11 dorsal spines, a feature unique among "Sillago" which otherwise have 11 dorsal spines. The second dorsal fin has a single spine followed by 20-22 soft rays, while the anal fin has 2 spines and 21 to 23 soft rays. There are 37 to 39 vertebrae, while the otolith morphology is also distinctive. The body is covered in small ctenoid scales, with the anterior scales larger than the posterior. The pectoral and ventral fin bases both lack scales. The maximum known size of the species is 17.5 cm.
The Chinese sillago grades from a yellowish brown above to a silvery grey on its underside. A weak lateral stripe may be present. The dorsal fins are yellow to hyaline with small dark spots on the first dorsal fin and 3 to 4 rows of dusky spots on the membranes. The remaining fins are yellowish, with the caudal fin becoming dusky and having dark margins.
Distribution and biology.
The Chinese sillago is only known from one study which collected all material from the East China Sea, Bohai Sea and Yellow Sea within China. The species is presumed to inhabit tidal flats in estuarine areas. Other areas of the species biology and ecology are unknown, with further study required. The relative importance to fisheries is also unknown, although sillaginids in general are of importance in Chinese waters.


Streamer-tailed tyrant

The streamer-tailed tyrant ("Gubernetes yetapa") is a species of bird in the family Tyrannidae, the only one in the genus Gubernetes.
It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay.
Its natural habitats are dry savanna and subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland.


Carabus deyrollei

Carabus deyrollei is a species of ground beetle from Carabinae subfamily that is endemic to Spain.


Arctic lemming

The Arctic lemming ("Dicrostonyx torquatus") is a species of rodents in the family Cricetidae.
Although generally classified as a "least concern" species, the Novaya Zemlya subspecies "(Dicrostonyx torquatus ungulatus)" is considered a vulnerable species under Russian nature conservation legislation (included in Red Book of Russian Federation since 1998).
Biology.
It is found only in the Arctic biomes in the Russian Federation, and it is the commonest mammal on Severnaya Zemlya. Specimens were once found in England, but they are now extirpated. For the most part, lemmings of the genus "Lemmus" can coexist with those of genus "Dicrostonyx". Arctic lemmings migrate when population density becomes too great, and they resort to swimming in search of a new habitat. The disappearance of lemmings and the lemming cycles in the Arctic have shown that they are the causes of fluctuations in local breeding among geese and waders. Recovery of lemmings after years of low density is associated with a period of successful breeding and maintenance of their young in the snow.
The diet of the Arctic lemming has been studied, and it has been found to consist of 86% dicotyledons, 14% monocotyledons, and less than 1% mosses. The diet of a family of lemmings consists mostly of Saliceae. Poaceae are also in their diet.
They are a well studied example of a cyclic predator−prey relationship. Terns in the Arctic target lemmings that move in groups; after attacks, lemmings seek shelter in holes or elsewhere out of the terns' territory to avoid additional attacks.
Environment.
During the winter, Arctic lemmings make nests in order to help maintain thermoregulation, maintaining their young, and aids in their survival against predators. One of their predators is the Arctic Fox and they would find that it difficult to hunt lemmings on account of the fact that they would burrow themselves deep within the snow. The fox would then have to dig through the snow in order to reach them. Unfortunately, when snow is scarce and there isn't much for the lemmings to make a nest or burrow in, there would be periodic disappearances of lemmings because of hunting by other predators and their inability to protect themselves.


Nebria sajanica

Nebria sajanica is a species of ground beetle in the Nebriinae subfamily that can be found in Buryat Republic and Eastern Sayans. The name comes from the Sayan region where it lives. The species is common in Eastern Siberia and Tunkinsky District of Turan.


Salmo marmoratus

Salmo marmoratus, the marble trout, is a species of freshwater fish in the family Salmonidae. It is characterized by a distinctive marbled color pattern and high growth capacity. The marble trout is found in only a handful of drainages and rivers of the Adriatic basin in (going from north to south) Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro, while in Albania, the species is considered most likely extirpated.
Distribution.
In Italy, marble trout inhabits left tributaries of the upper northwestern reaches of the Po River, and Italian northeastern sub-Alpine region's direct Adriatic watersheds, namely the Adige, the Brenta, the Piave, the Tagliamento, and the Livenza; in shared Slovenia and Italy drainage of the Soča with Natisone; in shared Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia drainage of the Neretva river, and in shared Montenegro and Albania drainage of the Morača with Zeta river, and the tributary Cem (Cijevna). While once present in the Drin river basin in Albania, with White Drin in Kosovo and Black Drin in North Macedonia and Albania (as well as the Zalli i Bulqizes and the Okshtuni tributaries), and the Aoos river basin in Albania and Greece (as well as the Sarantaporos and the Drino tributaries), the fish is almost certainly extirpated there.
Appearance, biology, and ecology.
The marble trout has a long, cylindrical body, slightly compressed laterally, with a large head (22–25% of the body length), which is why it is also known as "glavatica" ("glava" = head) in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The most obvious characteristic of the marble trout is its marble pattern. The intensity of colour varies considerably upon the surroundings. Some marble trout have red spots that merge with the rest of the pigment, always only along the lateral line.
Its typical size is 30–70 cm. The largest specimen in Slovenia was a 117-cm, 24-kg female (found dead), largest living specimen caught was 120 cm and 22.5 kg. Individuals weighing up to 30 kg have been reported. The largest specimens were found in Bosnia and Herzegovina, inhabiting the Neretva River from below town of Konjic downstream to town of Čapljina, mostly in canyon section from town of Jablanica to city of Mostar, and later after construction of Jablanica Dam on the Neretva River in Jablaničko Lake. Trout become sexually mature at the age 3+ years (males) and 4+ years (females), and they spawn during November and December.
The marble trout is piscivorous, feed mainly on smaller fish and benthic invertebrates.
Its natural habitat is rivers with a summer temperature of . It suffers numerous threats to its existence throughout its range, these include hybridisation with foreign trout species stocked for angling, water extraction, and pollution. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, its main threats are habitat loss (habitat destruction) due to construction of five large dams on the Neretva Rriver and plans for construction of several new dams on the upper course of the Neretva, water pollution, overfishing (sportfishing, food, including poaching), and hybridisation with introduced species of trout.
All eight remaining genetically pure marble trout populations were found in remote streams of the River Soča basin. From these populations the Tolmin Angler's Society launched a reintroduction programme.
Marmorated trout.
Adding to the confusion of salmonid taxonomy, other trout have marble patterns beside "S. marmoratus". One is trout from the river Otra, Norway. A certain percentage of brown trout ("Salmo trutta") from that river have a marble pattern. In all other aspects, these trout are identical to the nonmarble brown trout from the same river. This is an example of intrapopulational polymorphism.


Castnius asteropoides

Castnius asteropoides is a moth in the Castniidae family. It is endemic to Peru.


Ichthyophis asplenius

Ichthyophis asplenius is a species of amphibian in the family Ichthyophiidae found in Malaysia and possibly Thailand. It is also known as broad-striped caecilian, Boven Mahakkam caecilian and Malayan caecilian. It is only known with certainty from Mahakam River and Matang Hunting Reserve
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, rivers, intermittent rivers, plantations, rural gardens, heavily degraded former forest, irrigated land, and seasonally flooded agricultural land.


Coleophora kizildashi

Coleophora kizildashi is a moth of the family Coleophoridae which is endemic to Armenia.


Nebria chitralensis

Nebria chitralensis is a species of ground beetle in the Nebriinae subfamily that is endemic to Pakistan.


White-bellied sea eagle

The white-bellied sea eagle ("Haliaeetus leucogaster"), also known as the white-breasted sea eagle, is a large diurnal bird of prey in the family Accipitridae. Originally described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788, it is closely related to Sanford's sea eagle of the Solomon Islands, and the two are considered a superspecies. A distinctive bird, the adult white-bellied sea eagle has a white head, breast, under-wing coverts and tail. The upper parts are grey and the black under-wing flight feathers contrast with the white coverts. The tail is short and wedge-shaped as in all "Haliaeetus" species. Like many raptors, the female is slightly larger than the male, and can measure up to long with a wingspan of up to , and weigh . Immature birds have brown plumage, which is gradually replaced by white until the age of five or six years. The call is a loud goose-like honking.
Resident from India and Sri Lanka through Southeast Asia to Australia on coasts and major waterways, the white-bellied sea eagle breeds and hunts near water, and fish form around half of its diet. Opportunistic, it consumes carrion and a wide variety of animals. Although rated as "Least Concern" globally, it has declined in parts of southeast Asia such as Thailand, and southeastern Australia. It is ranked as "Threatened" in Victoria and "Vulnerable" in South Australia and Tasmania. Human disturbance to its habitat is the main threat, both from direct human activity near nests which impacts on breeding success, and from removal of suitable trees for nesting. The white-bellied sea eagle is revered by indigenous people in many parts of Australia, and is the subject of various folk tales throughout its range.
Taxonomy.
The white-bellied sea eagle was first described by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788, although John Latham had made notes on the species in 1781, from a specimen obtained in February 1780 at Princes Island off the westernmost cape of Java during Captain Cook's last voyage. Its specific name is derived from the Ancient Greek "leuko-" 'white', and "gaster" 'belly'. Its closest relative is the little-known Sanford's sea eagle of the Solomon Islands. These form a superspecies, and as is usual in other sea eagle superspecies, one (the white-bellied sea eagle) has a white head, as opposed to the other species' dark head. The bill and eyes are dark, and the talons are dark yellow as in all Southern Hemisphere sea eagles. Both these species have at least some dark colouration in their tails, though this may not always be clearly visible in the white-bellied sea eagle. The nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome b gene of the two sea eagles were among those analysed in a 1996 study. Although they differ greatly in appearance and ecology, their genetic divergence of 0.3% indicates that the ancestors of the two forms might have diverged as recently as 150,000 years ago. The study authors conclude that although the genetic divergence is more consistent with subspecies, the distinctness in appearance and behaviour warrants the two being retained as separate species. Mitochondrial sequence of the cytochrome b locus differs very slightly from that of Sanford's sea eagle suggesting a relatively recent divergence after New Guinea-based white-bellied sea eagles colonised the Solomon Islands.
The white-bellied sea eagle's affinities beyond the Sanford's sea eagle are a little less clear; molecular data indicate that it is one of four species of tropical sea eagle (along with the African fish eagle and the Madagascar fish eagle), while allozyme data indicate it might have a closer relationship with the sea eagles of the northern hemisphere. A further molecular study published in 2005 showed the white-bellied and Sanford's sea eagles to be basal to the four fish eagles (the two mentioned above plus the two hitherto untested species of the genus "Ichthyophaga").
As well as white-bellied sea eagle and white-breasted sea eagle, other recorded names include white-bellied fish-hawk, white-eagle, and grey-backed sea eagle.
Description.
The white-bellied sea eagle has a white head, rump and underparts, and dark or slate-grey back and wings. In flight, the black flight feathers on the wings are easily seen when the bird is viewed from below. The large, hooked bill is a leaden blue-grey with a darker tip, and the irides are dark brown. The cere is also lead grey. The legs and feet are yellow or grey, with long black talons (claws). Unlike those of eagles of the genus "Aquila", the legs are not feathered. The sexes are similar. Males are long and weigh . Females are slightly larger, at and . The wingspan ranges from . A 2004 study on 37 birds from Australia and Papua New Guinea (3 °S to 50 °S) found that birds could be sexed reliably on size, and that birds from latitudes further south were larger than those from the north. There is no seasonal variation in plumage. The moulting pattern of the white-bellied sea eagle is poorly known. It appears to take longer than a year to complete, and can be interrupted and later resumed from the point of interruption.
The wings are modified when gliding so that they rise from the body at an angle, but are closer to horizontal further along the wingspan. In silhouette, the comparatively long neck, head and beak stick out from the front almost as far as the tail does behind. For active flight, the white-bellied sea eagle alternates strong deep wing-beats with short periods of gliding.
A young white-bellied sea eagle in its first year is predominantly brown, with pale cream-streaked plumage on their head, neck, nape and rump areas. The plumage becomes more infiltrated with white until it acquires the complete adult plumage by the fourth or fifth year. The species breeds from around six years of age onwards. The lifespan is thought to be around 30 years.
The loud goose-like honking call is a familiar sound, particularly during the breeding season; pairs often honk in unison, and often carry on for some time when perched. The male's call is higher-pitched and more rapid than that of the female. Australian naturalist David Fleay observed that the call is among the loudest and furthest-carrying of all Australian bird calls, in stark contrast to the relatively quiet calls of the wedge-tailed eagle.
Adult white-bellied sea eagles are unmistakable and unlikely to be confused with any other bird. Immature birds can be confused with wedge-tailed eagles. However, the plumage of the latter is darker, the tail longer, and the legs feathered. They might also be confused with the black-breasted buzzard ("Hamirostra melanosternon"), but this species is much smaller, has white patches on the wings, and has a more undulating flight. In India, the Egyptian vulture has white plumage, but is smaller and has a whiter back and wings. The white tail of the white-bellied sea eagle in flight distinguishes it from other species of large eagles. In the Philippines, it can be confused with the Philippine eagle, which can be distinguished by its crest; immature white-bellied sea eagles resemble immature grey-headed fish eagles, but can be identified by their more wholly dark brown underparts and flight feathers, and wedge-shaped tail.
Distribution and habitat.
The white-bellied sea eagle is found regularly from Mumbai (sometimes north to Gujarat, and in the past in the Lakshadweep Islands) eastwards in India, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka in southern Asia, through all of coastal Southeast Asia including Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Indochina, the main and offshore islands of the Philippines, and southern China including Hong Kong, Hainan and Fuzhou, eastwards through New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago, and Australia. In the northern Solomons it is restricted to Nissan Island, and replaced elsewhere by Sanford's sea eagle. In Victoria, where it is otherwise scarce, it is locally more common at Corner Inlet and Gippsland Lakes. Similarly in South Australia, it is most abundant along the north coast of Kangaroo Island. The range extends to the islands of Bass Strait and Tasmania, and it is thought able to move between the islands and the mainland. There is one unconfirmed record from Lord Howe Island and several from New Zealand.
They are a common sight in coastal areas, but may also be seen well inland (It is reportedly seen at the Panna Tiger Reserve in central India, nearly away from the sea shore) The white-bellied sea eagle is generally sedentary and territorial, although it may travel long distances. They have been reported travelling upriver to hunt for flying foxes ("Pteropus"). Populations in inland Australia move around as inland bodies of water appear and then dry up. In one instance, a pair came to breed at Lake Albacutya in northwestern Victoria after the lake had been empty for 30 years. The species is easily disturbed by humans, especially when nesting, and may desert nesting sites as a result. It is found in greater numbers in areas with little or no human impact or interference.
Behaviour.
The white-bellied sea eagle is generally territorial; some birds form permanent pairs that inhabit territories throughout the year, while others are nomadic. The species is monogamous, with pairs remaining together until one bird dies, after which the surviving bird quickly seeks a new mate. This can lead to some nest sites being continuously occupied for many years (one site in Mallacoota was occupied for over fifty years). Immature birds are generally dispersive, with many moving over away from the area they were raised. One juvenile raised in Cowell, South Australia was reported away at Fraser Island in Queensland. A study of the species in Jervis Bay showed increases in the numbers of immature and subadult birds in autumn, although it was unclear whether these were locally fledged or (as was considered more likely) an influx of young birds born and raised elsewhere in Australia. Birds are often seen perched high in a tree, or soaring over waterways and adjacent land. They are most commonly encountered singly or in pairs. Small groups of white-bellied sea eagles sometimes gather if there is a plentiful source of food such as a carcass or fish offal on a ship. Much of the white-bellied sea eagle's behaviour, particularly breeding, remains poorly known.
Breeding.
The breeding season varies according to location—it has been recorded in the dry season in the Trans-Fly region and Central Province of Papua New Guinea, and from June to August in Australia. A pair of white-bellied sea eagles performs skilful displays of flying before copulation: diving, gliding and chasing each other while calling loudly. They may mirror each other, flying apart and copying each other swooping and swerving. A talon-grappling display has been recorded where the pair will fly high before one flips upside down and tries to grapple the other's talons with its own. If successful, the two then plunge cartwheeling before separating as they approach the ground. This behaviour has also been recorded as an aggressive display against a wedge-tailed eagle.
The white-bellied sea eagle usually chooses tall trees or man-made pylons to nest in. Often, locations are sought where there is a tall dead tree or high branch with good visibility which can be used as a perch to survey the surrounding area, which is generally a low-lying locale near water with some forest cover. The perch becomes covered in faeces and pellets and animal remains litter the immediate surrounding area. The nest is a large deep bowl constructed of sticks and branches, and lined with such materials as grass or seaweed. Yearly renovations result in nests getting gradually bigger. Nests are generally sited in the forks of large trees overlooking bodies of water. Old nests of wedge-tailed eagles or whistling kites have been renovated and used. Cliffs are also suitable nesting sites, and on islands nests are sometimes built directly on the ground. A breeding pair, with the male being more active, spends three to six weeks building or renovating the nest before laying eggs. Normally a clutch of two dull, white, oval eggs are laid. Measuring 73×55 mm, they are incubated over six weeks before hatching. The young are semi-altricial, and covered in white down when they emerge from the egg. Initially, the male brings food and the female feeds the chicks, but both parents feed the chicks as they grow larger. Although two eggs are laid, it is unusual for two young to be reared successfully to fledging (leaving the nest). One egg may be infertile, or the second chick may die in the nest. If the first clutch is lost, the parents may attempt a second brood. Nestlings have been recorded fledging when 70 to 80 days old, and remaining around the parents' territory for up to six months or until the following breeding season.
Feeding.
The white-bellied sea eagle is an opportunistic carnivore and consumes a wide variety of animal prey, including carrion. It often catches a fish by flying low over the water and grasping it in its talons. It prepares for the strike by holding its feet far forward (almost under its chin) and then strikes backwards while simultaneously beating its wings to lift upwards. Generally only one foot is used to seize prey. The white-bellied sea eagle may also dive at a 45-degree angle from its perch and briefly submerge to catch fish near the water surface. While hunting over water on sunny days, it often flies directly into the sun or at right angles to it, seemingly to avoid casting shadows over the water and hence alerting potential prey.
The white-bellied sea eagle hunts mainly aquatic animals, such as fish, turtles and sea snakes, but it takes birds, such as little penguins, Eurasian coots and shearwaters, and mammals (including flying foxes) as well. In the Bismarck Archipelago it has been reported feeding on two species of possum, the northern common cuscus and common spotted cuscus. It is a skilled hunter, and will attack prey up to the size of a swan. They also feed on carrion such as dead sheep, birds and fish found along the waterline, as well as raiding fishing nets and following cane harvesters.
They harass smaller raptors such as swamp harriers, whistling kites, brahminy kites and ospreys, forcing them to drop any food that they are carrying. Other birds victimised include silver and Pacific gulls, cormorants and Australasian gannets. There is one record of a white-bellied sea eagle seizing a gannet when unsuccessful in obtaining its prey. They may even steal food from their own species, including their mates. The white-bellied sea eagle attacks these birds by striking them with outstretched talons from above or by flying upside down underneath the smaller predator and snatching the prey, all the while screeching shrilly. Southern fur seals have also been targeted for their fish.
White-bellied sea eagles feed alone, in pairs, or in family groups. A pair may cooperate to hunt. Prey can be eaten while the bird is flying or when it lands on a raised platform such as its nest. The white-bellied sea eagle skins the victim as it eats it. It is exceptionally efficient at digesting its food, and disgorges only tiny pellets of fragmented bone, fur and feathers.
A 2006 study of inland bodies of water around Canberra where wedge-tailed eagles and white-bellied sea eagles share territories showed little overlap in the range of prey taken. Wedge-tailed eagles took rabbits, various macropods, terrestrial birds such as cockatoos and parrots, and various passerines including magpies and starlings. White-bellied sea eagles caught fish, water-dwelling reptiles such as the eastern long-necked turtle and Australian water dragon, and waterbirds such as ducks, grebes and coots. Both species preyed on the maned duck. Rabbits constituted only a small fraction of the white-bellied sea eagle's diet. Despite nesting near each other, the two species seldom interacted, as the wedge-tailed eagles hunted away from water and the white-bellied sea eagles foraged along the lake shores. However, conflict with wedge-tailed eagles over nesting sites in remnant trees has been recorded in Tasmania.
Conservation status.
The white-bellied sea eagle is listed as being of "Least Concern" by the IUCN. There are an estimated 10 thousand to 100 thousand individuals, although there seems to be a decline in numbers. They have become rare in Thailand and some other parts of southeast Asia. They are relatively abundant in Hong Kong, where the population increased from 39 to 57 birds between 2002 and 2009. A field study on Kangaroo Island in South Australia showed that nesting pairs in areas of high human disturbance (as defined by clearing of landscape and high human activity) had lower breeding success rates. In the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia, nests have been vacated as human activities have encroached on the eagles' territories. Elsewhere, the clearing of trees suitable for nesting has seen it largely disappear locally, such as the removal of stands of "Casuarina equisetifolia" in Visakhapatnam district in Andhra Pradesh in India. In India, nest densities of about one per 4.32 km of coastline have been noted in Sindhudurg and one per 3.57 km (45 nests along 161 km) in Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. They also nest on Netrani Island, where about a 100 birds were noted in 1875 (then known as Pigeon Island) by Allan Octavian Hume who noted that this was perhaps the largest breeding colony of the species. In 2000, the disturbance to the island from torpedo-firing exercises conducted by the Indian navy was noted as a threat. Nearly 100 nests have been noted in 2004 on this island.
DDT was a widely used pesticide in agriculture that was found to have significant adverse effects on wildlife, particularly egg thinning and subsequent breakage in birds of prey. A review of DDT's impact on Australian raptors between 1947 and 1993 found that the average egg-shell thickness had decreased by 6%. This average level of thinning was not thought likely to result in significantly more breakage overall, however individual clutches that had been even thinner might have broken. The white-bellied sea eagle was one of the more affected species, probably due to its feeding in areas heavily treated with pesticide such as swamps. DDT use peaked in 1973, but was no longer approved after 1987 and its use had effectively ceased by 1989.
Australia.
The white-bellied sea eagle is listed under the "marine" and "migratory" categories which give it protected status under Australia's federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. As a mainly coastal species, it is vulnerable to habitat destruction in Australia's increasingly populated and urbanised coastal areas, particularly in the south and east of the country, where it appears to have declined in numbers. However, there may have been an increase in population inland, secondary to the creation of reservoirs, dams and weirs, and the spread of the introduced common carp ("Cyprinus carpio"). However, it is rare along the Murray River where it was once common. It is also listed as "Threatened" under Victoria's Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988), with possibly fewer than 100 breeding pairs remaining in the state. On the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria, the white-bellied sea eagle is listed as "vulnerable".
There are fewer than 1000 adult birds in Tasmania, where the species is listed as "Vulnerable" under Schedule 3.1 of the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995. In Tasmania it is threatened by nest disturbance, loss of suitable nesting habitat, shooting, poisoning, trapping, and collision with power lines and wind turbines, as well as entanglement and environmental pollution. Estuaries are a favoured habitat, and these are often subject to environmental disturbance. white-bellied sea eagles have been observed to increase their hunting ranges to include salmon fish farms, but the effect of this on breeding success is unknown.
Cultural significance.
The white-bellied sea eagle was important to different tribes of indigenous people across Australia. The guardian animal of the Wreck Bay aboriginal community, it is also the official emblem of the Booderee National Park and Botanic Gardens in the Jervis Bay Territory. The community considered localities around Booderee National Park to be connected with it. A local Sydney name was "gulbi", and the bird was the totem of Colebee, the late 18th century indigenous leader of the Cadigal people. The white-bellied sea eagle is important to the Mak Mak people of the floodplains to the southwest of Darwin in the northern Territory, who recognised its connection with "good country". It is their totem and integrally connected to their land. The term "Mak Mak" is their name for both the species and themselves. The Umbrawarra Gorge Nature Park was a Dreaming site of the bird, in this area known as "Kuna-ngarrk-ngarrk". It was similarly symbolic to the Tasmanian indigenous people—"Nairanaa" was one name used there.
Known as "Manulab" to the people of Nissan Island, the white-bellied sea eagle is considered special and killing it is forbidden. Its calls at night are said to foretell danger, and seeing a group of calling eagles flying overhead is a sign that someone has died. Local Malay folk tales tell of the white-bellied sea eagle screaming to warn the shellfish of the turning of tides, and a local name "burung hamba siput" translates as "slave of the shellfish". Called "Kaulo" in the recently extinct Aka-Bo language, the white-bellied sea eagle was held to be the ancestor of all birds in one Andaman Islands folk tale. On the Maharashtra coast, their name is "kakan" and its call is said to indicate the presence of fish in the sea. They sometimes nest on coconut trees. Owners of the trees destroy the nest to avoid attacks when harvesting the coconuts.
The white-bellied sea eagle is featured on the $10,000 Singapore note, which was introduced into circulation on 1 February 1980. It is the emblem of the Malaysian state of Selangor. Malay magnate Loke Wan Tho had a tower built for the sole purpose of observing a white-bellied sea eagle nest in the palace gardens of Istana Bukit Serene in Johor Bahru. Taken in February 1949, the resulting photographs appeared in "The Illustrated London News" in 1954. The bird is the emblem of the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles rugby league team, chosen at the club's inception in 1947. From 2010, a nesting pair of white-bellied sea eagles have had their attempts at raising chicks filmed live on "EagleCam", with footage on display at the nearby Birds Australia Discovery Centre in Sydney Olympic Park, New South Wales. After raising one brood, however, their nest collapsed in February 2011. The story attracted statewide attention.


Vernal hanging parrot

The vernal hanging parrot ("Loriculus vernalis") is a small parrot which is a resident breeder in the Indian subcontinent and some other areas of Southeast Asia. It undergoes local movements, driven mainly by the availability of the fruit, seeds, buds and blossoms that make up its diet. They frequent the banyan tree for the fruit and plantain trees for the nectar from the flowers.
This is a small, mainly green hanging parrot, only 14 cm long with a short tail. The adult male has a red rump and bill, and blue throat patch. The female has a green patch. Vernal hanging parrot is a bird of dry jungle and cultivation. It nests in holes in trees, laying 2-4 white eggs. Immature birds have a duller rump, and lack the throat patch. Vernal hanging parrot is less gregarious than some of its relatives, and is usually in small groups outside the breeding season. Its flight is swift and direct, and the call is a raucous chattering.
In Sri Lanka, it is replaced by the very similar endemic Sri Lanka hanging parrot, ("L. beryllinus").
Breeding.
Vernal hanging parrots nest in tree cavities. The nests are lined with fragments of leaves. There are usually three eggs in a clutch. The eggs are white in color. The female incubates the eggs for 20 days and the chicks leave the nest about 33 days from hatching.


Small-billed tinamou

The small-billed tinamou ("Crypturellus parvirostris") is a type of Tinamou commonly found in dry savanna in Amazonian South America.
Description.
The small-billed tinamou is approximately in length. Its upperparts are dark brown, with grey to brownish under parts and head. Its bill and legs are red.
Taxonomy.
The small-billed tinamou is a monotypic species. All tinamou are from the family Tinamidae, and in the larger scheme are also ratites. Unlike other ratites, tinamous can fly, although in general, they are not strong fliers. All ratites evolved from prehistoric flying birds, and tinamous are the closest living relative of these birds.
Etymology.
"Crypturellus" is formed from three Latin or Greek words. "kruptos" meaning covered or hidden, "oura" meaning tail, and "ellus" meaning diminutive. Therefore, "Crypturellus" means small hidden tail.
Behavior.
Like other tinamous, the small-billed eats fruit off the ground or low-lying bushes. They also eat small amounts of invertebrates, flower buds, tender leaves, seeds, and roots. The male incubates the eggs which may come from as many as 4 different females, and then will raise them until they are ready to be on their own, usually 2–3 weeks. The nest is located on the ground in dense brush or between raised root buttresses.
Domestication.
The small billed tinamou has been considered an ideal candidate for domestication as the birds can raise 3-4 broods per year and are resistant to diseases that affect chickens
Range and habitat.
The small-billed tinamou prefers dry savanna, but will also reside in lowland shrubland. Its range is Amazonian South America; Brazil except for the southeastern portion, northeastern Peru, eastern Bolivia, Paraguay, and northeastern Argentina.
Conservation.
The IUCN classifies this tinamou as Least Concern, with an occurrence range of .


Apteronotus galvisi

Apteronotus galvisi is a species of ghost knifefish that was first described in a 2007 scientific paper. It is endemic to Colombia. It has a mostly brown body, with some areas of yellow or white.
Named in honor of Germán Galvis Vergara (Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Bogotá).


Anisolabella

Anisolabella is a genus of earwigs in the subfamily Anisolabidinae. It was cited by Srivastava in "Part 2" of the book "Fauna of India".
Species.
The genus includes the following species:


Mburuvicha

Mburuvicha is a monotypic genus of Argentinian jumping spiders containing the single species, Mburuvicha galianoae. It was first described by C. L. Scioscia in 1993, and is only found in Argentina. The name is derived from the Guaraní word "Mburuvicha", meaning "chief". The species name honors arachnologist María Elena Galiano.


Holcocera luxuriae

Holcocera luxuriae is a moth in the family Blastobasidae which is endemic to Costa Rica.


Ecnomiohyla rabborum

Ecnomiohyla rabborum, commonly known as Rabbs' fringe-limbed treefrog, is a critically endangered species of frog in the family Hylidae; mounting evidence suggests that "E. rabborum" is probably extinct. They were relatively large frogs that inhabited the forest canopies of central Panama. Like other members of the genus "Ecnomiohyla", they were capable of gliding by spreading their enormous and fully webbed hands and feet during descent. The males of the species were highly territorial and would guard water-filled tree holes used for breeding. They were also the ones responsible for guarding and caring for the young, including providing food. They were the only known species of frog where the tadpoles derived nutrition by feeding on the skin cells of their fathers.
The species was discovered in 2005 and formally described in 2008 by a team of herpetologists led by Joseph R. Mendelson III. It was named in honor of the conservationists and herpetologists George B. Rabb and Mary S. Rabb. It was officially listed as Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) by 2009. It is believed that the species became extinct in the wild mainly because of an epidemic of "Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis" in its native range. Despite the efforts of several conservation teams, captive breeding programs all failed. The last known female of the species died in 2009. She was survived by two other individuals, both males. On February 17, 2012, one of the two was euthanized at Zoo Atlanta in Georgia due to failing health. The last known surviving member of the species, an adult male named Toughie, resided at the Atlanta Botanical Garden until his death September 26, 2016.
Description.
"Ecnomiohyla rabborum" was a relatively large frog. The snout-vent length (SVL) of males averaged between , while in females it was between . The head was wider than the body and flattened at the top. The snout was moderately long with nostrils protruding from the sides near the tip. Viewed from the top, the snout was more or less elliptical in shape. The canthal ridge was concave (curves outward) and had thick and rounded edges. The loreal regions were similarly concave. The tympana was smaller in diameter than the eyes and slightly inclined. Smooth glandular structures (known as the supratympanic fold) extended over the tympana from the eyes to the edges of the lower jaw. The tongue was round, and the species possessed narrowly spaced ovoid groups of pre-vomerine teeth.
The arms were short and stout with very large hands. There were no skin folds on the wrists, though a scalloped fringe of skin was present from the elbows to just below the discs on the fourth fingers. The fingers were all relatively short with large flattened discs on the tips. The discs on the second, third, and fourth fingers were about the same diameter as the tympana. Small protrusions known as tubercles were present on the underside of the hands. On the first finger, the tubercles on the tipmost joints were elliptical in shape. On the second and third fingers, the tubercles below the finger joints (subarticular tubercles) were smaller than that on the fourth fingers. There were no tubercles on the palms of the hands though elongated flat tubercles were present behind the bases of the inner fingers (the "thumbs"). Numerous small and round tubercles were also present in between the joints of the fingers. The fingers were more or less fully webbed.
The hind limbs were slender and of moderate length. Like the hands, the feet were very large. When resting, the heels of the legs barely overlapped each other. If stretched forward up the length of the body, the tibiotarsal articulation (the "ankle") would reach beyond the eyes. Like the arms, a fringe of scalloped skin also extended from the heel to the base of the foot on each leg, continuing as a low ridge to the base of the disc of the fifth toe. The toes, like the fingers, possessed flattened discs at the tips, though they were slightly smaller in diameter. The tubercles on the tipmost joints of the fifth toes were larger than all of the other subarticular tubercles on the toes. Interspersed between them were numerous small and conical tubercles. The toes were also fully webbed.
The skin of "E. rabborum" was granular in texture and predominantly a mottled brown. The upper surfaces of the limbs was also mottled brown while the rear surfaces of the thighs were a pale yellow. The chin and upper chest was distinctively brown, though the rest of the underside of the body was mostly white speckled with irregular brown spots. The eyelids and upper surfaces of the limbs and back were studded with green flecks, the appearance and positions of which could be changed by the animal voluntarily (metachrosis). The irises of the eyes was uniformly reddish brown.
During the breeding season, adult males of the species were characterized by greatly enlarged upper arms (humerus) with a bony ridge covered by skin and black keratinized spines. Spines were also present on the upper surface of the area just before the thumbs. These spines were likely used during amplexus.
Taxonomy.
"Ecnomiohyla rabborum" is classified under the genus "Ecnomiohyla" of the treefrog subfamily Hylinae, family Hylidae. It was first described in 2008 by a team of herpetologists consisting of Joseph R. Mendelson III, Jay M. Savage, Edgardo Griffith, Heidi Ross, Brian Kubicki, and Ronald Gagliardo. During its discovery in 2005, it was initially misidentified by the team as "Ecnomiohyla fimbrimembra", but Kubicki recognized it as a new species. The type specimens were raised in captivity. They were obtained from tadpoles collected by Griffith and Ross from an area near El Valle de Antón, Coclé, Panama on July 15, 2005.
The generic name "Ecnomiohyla" comes from Greek "ecnomios" ("marvelous" or "unusual") and Hylas, the companion of Hercules. The specific name is in honor of the conservationists and herpetologists George B. Rabb and Mary S. Rabb.
Distribution.
"Ecnomiohyla rabborum" was known only from the cloud forests of the Pacific-facing slopes of the mountains above the town of El Valle de Antón in central Panama, between the provinces of Coclé and Panamá. Its range had an area of less than at altitudes of . However, it has not been observed in the area since 2007.
Ecology and biology.
"Ecnomiohyla rabborum", like other members of the genus, lived in the forest canopy. They were nocturnal and fed on insects. When threatened, they were capable of gliding through the air by leaping from their perch and fully stretching their massive webbed hands and feet. They could also steer the direction of their descent. In observations, they were known to glide for a distance of .
The males of the species were highly territorial, defending water-filled tree holes used for breeding. The advertising calls of "E. rabborum" males consisted of "warm up" owl-like calls of three to five notes immediately followed by a single "grrrrrck", which some called a barking sound. The calling bouts happened only at night and lasted for about one to two minutes, with the intervals longer at the beginning and gradually becoming shorter. Aside from attracting females, the calls may also have served to warn off competing males. Mating occurred throughout the year, though the calls seem to have intensified two to three days before or after a full moon and during the peak mating season from mid-March to May.
Females laid their eggs inside the water-filled tree holes, attached to the wood or bark just above the waterline. After laying their eggs, the females left while the males remained to guard them. Males may have mated more than once, and a single tree hole could contain an egg clutch of 60 to 200 eggs. The eggs would hatch into large tadpoles with dorsoventrally flattened bodies and short, blunt snouts. The eyes were situated on top and directed towards the sides. They were not visible when the tadpole was viewed from below. The nostrils were situated about two thirds of the way between the eyes and snout. The mouth was small and located at the bottom of the tip of the snout. Small papillae were present along the sides of the upper lip and along the entire margin of the lower lip. The beaks were robust and with small serrations. The spiracle opened on the middle of the left side of the body. The tail was slender with fins that did not extend to the body. The tadpoles were predominantly pale brown in color. At the time when the legs first appeared, they had a snout to vent length of roughly . The tadpoles were so large and numerous that at times, there appeared to be more tadpoles than water in the tree holes.
"E. rabborum" was remarkable in that the males appeared to provide nutrition to the tadpoles directly. During the day, the males backed into the tadpole-filled water of the tree holes and remained in that half-submerged state until night. During this time, the tadpoles swam around them, rasping small pieces of skin from their fathers' backs and eating them. This was the first observed instance of any frog species doing this, though it was similar to the way some female caecilians feed their young.
Conservation.
At the time of its collection, the herpetologists who later described "Ecnomiohyla rabborum" were already aware of the encroaching threat of the chytrid fungus "Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis" (colloquially referred to by biologists as "Bd") in Panama. The fungus causes an infectious amphibian disease called chytridiomycosis, which has been linked to the massive decline and extinction of amphibian species in certain parts of the world; including the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand. Infected amphibians can display a wide variety of symptoms, usually including lethargic and abnormal behavior, convulsions, peeling skin, ulcers, and hemorrhaging; eventually resulting in death. The origin of the disease is unknown, but there is speculation that it may have been introduced throughout the world via importation of the African clawed frog ("Xenopus laevis").
In 2006, in the hopes of saving the species, the then undescribed specimens of "E. rabborum" that teams of herpetologists collected were sent to captive breeding facilities in the El Valle Amphibian Conservation Centre (EVACC), Zoo Atlanta, and the Atlanta Botanical Garden. However, these efforts ultimately proved to be futile. The frogs thrived in these facilities but never mated. The last female died in 2009 in the Atlanta Botanical Garden.
In an essay regarding the rapid extinctions of amphibians happening around the world, Joseph R. Mendelson III, the Curator of Herpetology in Zoo Atlanta and one of the scientists who first described "E. rabborum", stated that herpetologists in the last 20 years are becoming "forensic taxonomists". Species are now being described just before or even after they have already gone extinct. On the situation of "E. rabborum", he comments:
Two males in Zoo Atlanta and Atlanta Botanical Garden survived until February 17, 2012, when one of them had to be euthanized to prevent suffering after a decline in health and to preserve valuable genetic material. Though the frog could have been allowed to die naturally, amphibians decompose rapidly. If it had died during the night when no personnel were present, it could have proven impossible to extract genetic material. The Deputy Director of the Zoo, Dwight Lawson commented:
The last known observation of the frog in the wild was that of a single male heard calling (but not seen) in 2007. At the time of its last survey in 2009, the IUCN classified "E. rabborum" as Critically Endangered. More recent estimates deem the species effectively extinct in the wild. A single adult male named Toughie at the Atlanta Botanical Garden was the last known survivor of the species until his death.
References.
"Rabbs' Fringe-limbed Treefrog Declared Extinct." Rabbs' Fringe-limbed Treefrog Declared Extinct. RiVista, n.d. Web. 22 Nov. 2016. <http://www.reptilesmagazine.com/Rabbs-Fringe-limbed-Treefrog-Declared-Extinct-trending/>.


Philodryas baroni

Philodryas baroni, common name Baron's green racer, is a species of venomous snake in the family Colubridae. The species is endemic to South America.
Etymology.
The Latin specific name, "baroni", honors Manuel Barón Morlat, who collected the first specimens.
Description.
"Philodryas baroni" can reach a total length (including tail) of about . The males are smaller than the females. The length of the tail is about 30% of the total body length. This species is the longest known in the genus "Philodryas". The head is small and elongated, with an extension of the rostral scale, forming a small flexible nasal protuberance more developed in males. The coloration of the body is rather variable. Usually it is green, but there are found specimens tending to blue or brown. The pattern can be uniform or with black longitudinal stripes on the back and on the sides, on the anterior third of the body. The ventral area under the black lateral lines can be white or yellowish-white, sometimes with shades of green or blue.
Behavior.
"Philodryas baroni" is a strictly arboreal snake, with an intense activity during the day. It is generally non-aggressive. If it is frightened, it emits a foul-smelling substance from the cloaca.
Diet.
"P. baroni" feeds on small mice, small lizards, and amphibians.
Venom.
"P. baroni" is opisthoglyphous, i.e., equipped with rear fangs. It is venomous and should be treated with caution. A recent characterization of the venom of this species has shown that it has proteolytic activity, being able to inhibit platelet aggregation induced by collagen and thrombin formation. An intradermal injection in mice results in hemorrhage. When injected by the intramuscular route, it induces local effects such as hemorrhage, myonecrosis, edema and leukocyte infiltration, with a minimum hemorrhagic dose of 13.9 μg. Therefore, "P. baroni" must be considered dangerous to the human.
Geographic range.
"P. baroni" can be found in Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay.
Habitat.
"P. baroni" lives in forests and savannah woodlands.
Reproduction.
"P. baroni" is oviparous.


Nebria pazi

Nebria pazi is a species of ground beetle in the Nebriinae subfamily that can be found in Bejar and Gredos mountains of Spain.


Red-mantled rosefinch

The red-mantled rosefinch ("Carpodacus rhodochlamys") is a species of finch in the family Fringillidae.
It is found in Afghanistan, China, India, Iran, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Russia, and Tajikistan.
Its natural habitats are temperate forest and boreal shrubland.


Ancylosis cinnamomeifascia

Ancylosis cinnamomeifascia is a species of snout moth in the genus "Ancylosis". It was described by Rothschild in 1915, and is known from Algeria.


List of cartilaginous fish of Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka is a tropical island situated close to the southern tip of India. The diversity of fish fauna within the inland waterways and around the island is very high considering the small size of the island.
Class Chondrichthyes - Cartilage fishes.
Among the marine fishes, sharks and batoids (rays and skates) form a considerable diversity. A preliminary checklist of sharks around Sri Lanka was compiled by marine biologist, ornithologist, astronomer and well known diver Rex I. De Silva in 1985. It is cited as the first most comprehensive catalogue to Sri Lankan cartilage fishes. On 2016 May, he published the "Illustrated Guide of Sharks of Sri Lanka". According to De Silva, there are 60 sharks species and 30 rays and skates found around the coast of Sri Lanka.
Sharks are a group of fish characterized by a cartilaginous skeleton, five to seven gill slits on the sides of the head, and pectoral fins that are not fused to the head. Modern sharks are classified within the clade Selachimorpha (or Selachii) and are the sister group to the rays.
The following list of shark species recorded from the territorial waters of Sri Lanka.
Order Carcharhiniformes - ground sharks.
Family Sphyrnidae - hammerhead sharks.
Batoidea is a superorder of cartilaginous fish commonly known as batoids or rays, but it also includes the skates and sawfishes. Approximately 560 species are described in thirteen families. Batoids are in the fish subclass Elasmobranchii along with sharks, as they are closely related. Rays are distinguished by their flattened bodies, enlarged pectoral fins that are fused to the head, and gill slits that are placed on their ventral surfaces.
The following list of rays and skates species recorded from the territorial waters of Sri Lanka.
References.
De Silva, R. I. 2015. The Sharks of Sri Lanka. Colombo. Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka. https://sites.google.com/site/booksharksofsrilanka/home/
Ebert, D.A., De Silva, R.I. and Goonewardene, M. First Record of a Dwarf False Catshark (Carcharhiniformes" Pseudotriakidae) from Sri Lanka. LORIS 27 (5 and 6) pp. 63-64.


Athyma reta

Athyma reta, the Malay staff sergeant, is a nymphalid butterfly found in tropical and subtropical Asia. The species was first described by Frederic Moore in 1858.


Crested agouti

The crested agouti (Dasyprocta cristata) is a species of rodent in the family Dasyproctidae. It is endemic to Guyana and Suriname. Its taxonomic status is uncertain and it may be synonymous with "Dasyprocta leporina", leading the IUCN to rate it as Data Deficient.


Zonites anaphiensis

Zonites anaphiensis is a species of air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Zonitidae. The species is endemic to the island of Anafi in Greece.


Parribacus antarcticus

Parribacus antarcticus is a species of slipper lobster. Its common names include "sculptured mitten lobster" and "sculptured slipper lobster" in English, and ' and ' in Hawaiian.
Description.
 "Parribacus antarcticus" can reach a length of about 20 cm in males, but usually they are between 12 and 15 cm.. They are yellowish, mottled with brown and black patches, while rostrum and orbital margin are purplish. They have quite flattened bodies, with dorsal surface covered with tubercles and short hairs. The lateral margin shows large teeth banded with yellow, orange and light purple. In the abdominal somites the transverse groove is wide, with just a few hairs or tubercles. The small eyes are situated inside not closed orbits on the anterior margin of the carapace.
This species is nocturnal and in the daytime it usually hides in crevices or underside of large slabs or ledges, frequently in small groups. It can swim backwards very quickly by using the tails. This slipper lobster eats a variety of molluscs, small shrimps, crabs and sea urchins.
Distribution.
"P. antarcticus" is distributed along the western coast the Atlantic Ocean from Florida to northern Brazil, along the southern coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean, and in Hawaii and Polynesia in the South Pacific Ocean.
Habitat.
These slipper lobsters are bottom dwellers. Their habitat are the shallow water of lagoons and coral or stone marine reefs, preferably with a sandy bottom, at a depth of 0 – 20 m.


Talavera aequipes

Talavera aequipes is a small jumping spider that is found in Eurasia. It is very hard to distinguish from several very similar species, but is the most frequent of these spiders in Central Europe. It is small enough to reside comfortably in snail shells of down to 5 mm length during winter, where they also lay their eggs. Sometimes it shares a larger shell with "Pellenes tripunctatus", where "T. aequipes" lives deep inside, and "P. tripunctatus" is found in the larger opening.
Appearance.
Males only reach a body size of two mm, females up to . The body is covered with brown to yellowish hairs, with striped legs. The female has yellow palps, the male has a yellow mask.
Distribution.
The species is widely distributed in Europe, but is also found up to Eastern Siberia. It lives mostly on dry meadows.
Name.
The species name is Latin for "equal feet".
Subspecies.
The subspecies "Talavera aequipes ludio" (Simon, 1871) occurs only on Corsica. Earlier synonyms are:


Trengganua sibylla

Trengganua sibylla is a cicada species from Southeast Asia. The species is recorded from Terengganu, Jelebu and Temengor Forest Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia. "Trengganua sibylla" typically sings around high noon.


Fauna of Pakistan

Pakistan's native fauna reflect its varied climatic zones.
Distribution.
For explanation on habitats, see Habitats of flora and fauna and Forestry in Pakistan.
Northern highlands and plains.
The northern highlands include lower elevation areas of Potohar and Pakistan Administered Kashmir regions and higher elevation areas embracing the foothills of Himalayan, Karakorum and Hindukush mountain ranges. Some of the wildlife species found on northern mountainous areas and Pothohar Plateau include the non-threatened mammal species of bharal, Eurasian lynx, Himalayan goral, Indian leopard, Marco Polo sheep, marmot (in Deosai National Park) and yellow-throated marten and birds species of chukar partridge, Eurasian eagle-owl, Himalayan monal and Himalayan snowcock and amphibian species of Himalayan toad and Muree Hills frog. The threatened ones include Asiatic black bear, Himalayan brown bear, Indian wolf, Kashmir gray langur, Kashmir red deer, markhor, rhesus macaque, Siberian ibex, smooth-coated otter and white-bellied musk deer, bird species of cheer pheasant, peregrine falcon, western tragopan and reptile species of mugger crocodile.
Indus plains and deserts of Sindh.
River Indus and its numerous eastern tributaries of Chenab form many fluvial landforms that occupy most of Indus plains in Punjab and western Sindh. Some of the non-threatened mammal species of the Indus plains and the deserts of Sindh include the nilgai, red fox and wild boar, bird species of Alexandrine parakeet, barn owl, black kite, myna, hoopoe, Indian peafowl, red-vented bulbul, rock pigeon, shelduck and shikra, reptile species of Indian cobra, Indian star tortoise, Sindh krait and yellow monitor and amphibian species of Indus Valley bullfrog and Indus Valley toad. Some of the threatened mammal species include the axis deer, blackbuck, hog deer, Indian rhinoceros, Punjab urial and Sindh ibex, bird species of white-backed vulture and reptile species of black pond turtle and gharial. Grey partridge is one of the few birds that can be found in the Cholistan desert. The Tharparkar desert supports a fair population of the chinkara. The Asiatic wild ass migrates from the Indian part of the Great Rann of Kutch to the part in Pakistan in search of food.
Extinct.
The Asiatic lion used to occur in this region. In 1810, a lion was killed near Kot Diji.
Western highlands, plains and deserts.
Western region of Pakistan, most of which is enveloped in Balochistan province, has a complex geography. Some of the mammal species include the caracal, Balochistan leopard, Balochistan forest dormouse, Blanford's fox, dromedary camel, goitered gazelle, Indian crested porcupine, long-eared hedgehog, markhor, ratel and striped hyena, bird species of bearded vulture, houbara bustard and merlin, reptile species of leopard gecko and saw-scaled viper and amphibian species of Balochistan toad.
Wetlands, coastal regions and marine life.
There are a number of protected wetlands (under Ramsar Convention) across Pakistan. The wetlands are a habitat for migratory birds such as Dalmatian pelicans and demoiselle crane as well as predatory species of osprey, common kingfisher, fishing cat and leopard cat near the coastline. Chashma and Taunsa Barrage Dolphin Sanctuary protects the threatened species of Indus river dolphins which live in freshwater. The coastline of Pakistan is 1,050 km long and consists of a variety of habitat types, supporting a wide range of animals, of which over 1000 are fish species in the reefs of its continental shelf. West coast of Great Rann of Kutch, east to the Indus River Delta and below Tharparkar desert, is one of the few places where greater flamingos come to breed. It is also a habitat for endangered species of lesser florican. The Indus River Delta provide nesting grounds for common snakehead, giant snakehead, Indus baril and many species of catfish like rita. The hilsa swims up from the Arabian Sea to spawn in freshwater. Species that are important to people as food, such as the golden mahseer and large freshwater shrimp ("Macrobrachium" species), are part of the abundant aquatic life. Along the shores of Astola and Ormara beaches of Balochistan and Hawk'e Bay and Sandspit beaches of Sindh are nesting sites for five endangered species of sea turtles: green sea, loggerhead, hawksbill, olive ridley and leatherback. Sea snakes such as yellow-bellied sea snake are also found in the pelagic zone of the sea. The wetlands of Pakistan are also a home to the endangered species of gharial and mugger crocodile who prefer freshwater habitat.


Asiatic short-tailed shrew

The Asiatic short-tailed shrew ("Blarinella quadraticauda") is one of three species of shrew in the genus Blarinella. It is in the family Soricidae and is endemic to China.


List of amphibians and reptiles of the Grenadines

This is a list of amphibians and reptiles found in the Grenadines, a chain of over 600 small islands located in the Caribbean Lesser Antilles. Politically, the northern two-thirds of the Grenadines are part of the nation Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; the remainder is part of Grenada.
Amphibians.
There are two species of amphibian in the Grenadines, one of which was introduced.
Reptiles.
Including marine turtles and introduced species, there are 19 reptile species reported in the Grenadines.


Leptostreptus caudiculatus

Leptostreptus caudiculatus, is a species of round-backed millipede in the family Harpagophoridae. It is native to India (madras) and Sri Lanka (Rambodde, Pundaluoya, Balangoda).


Coleophora incultella

Coleophora incultella is a moth of the family Coleophoridae that is endemic to Algeria.


Hippocamelus

Hippocamelus is a genus of Cervidae, the deer family. It comprises two extant Andean and two fossil species. The living members are commonly known as the huemul (from the Mapuche language), and the taruca.
Both species have a stocky, thick, and short-legged body. They live at high altitudes in the summer, then move down the mountains in the fall and spend the winter in sheltered forested valleys. Areas with fresh water are preferred. They are herbivores that feed primarily on herbaceous plants and shrubs as well as sedges, lichens, and grasses found between the rocks on high peaks. They are active during daytime and have a lifespan of about ten years.
Extant species.
The huemul ("Hippocamelus bisulcus"), also known as the South Andean deer, is found in Chile and Argentina. Huemuls live in groups of varying size, typically of two or three individuals, but sometimes as many as eleven. In the past, groups of over a hundred deer were reported. Groups are made up of a female and her young, while males are often alone.
Huemul occur in several national parks in Chile and neighbouring parts of Argentina and have been on the Endangered list since 1996. They are endangered primarily due to human impacts such as deforestation, habitat fragmentation by roads, introduction of non-native mammals such as farm animals, and poaching. They are in a classic "extinction spiral" marked by increasingly small, isolated populations.
The huemul is, along with the condor, the national animal of Chile.
The taruca ("Hippocamelus antisensis"), is found in Peru, as well as parts of Bolivia, and in treeless Puna grasslands. They live at high altitudes, from 2,500 to 5,200 meters above sea level. Social habits include grazing in flexible groups of up to thirty animals consisting of one or two males and several females.
Taxonomy and evolution.
In 2008, a genetic study indicated that the huemul and taruca may not be closely related, and that the taruca should therefore be placed in a separate genus. This has yet to be confirmed by other studies.
Fossils belonging to the now extinct species "Hippocamelus sulcatus" have been identified from Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina. This species inhabited lowland plains habitats, rather than mountains, and lived between 1.5 and 0.5 million years ago, during the mid to late Pleistocene. Its exact relationship to the living species is unclear. A second fossil species, †"Hippocamelus percultus", is known from the Bolivian Andes, and lived around 40,000 to 20,000 years ago; it may be a direct ancestor of the living taruca.
Conservation.
Both species are threatened according to the IUCN. The south Andean deer is endangered and the taruca is vulnerable.


Bittacus carpenteri

Bittacus carpenteri is a species of hanging fly in the Order Mecoptera. Its native range is the Sichuan Province of China. The specific epithet honors Professor Frank M. Carpenter.


Phrynopus tautzorum

Phrynopus tautzorum is a species of frog in the family Craugastoridae. It is endemic to Peru and only known from its type locality near Maraypata, in the Ambo Province, Huánuco Region, at asl. It lives in the puna grassland ecoregion. Individuals have found under stones on moist underground. Livestock farming occurred at the type locality, but its impact on this species is unknown.


Macropholidus montanuccii

Macropholidus montanuccii is a species of lizard in the family Gymnophthalmidae. It is endemic to Peru.


Aplatissa

Aplatissa is a genus of moths of the family Hepialidae. There are two described species, both endemic to Brazil.


Cercosaura hypnoides

Cercosaura hypnoides is a species of lizard in the family Gymnophthalmidae. It is endemic to Colombia.


Magellanic diving petrel

The Magellanic diving-petrel ("Pelecanoides magellani") is a species of diving petrel, one of five very similar, small, auk-like petrels found exclusively in the southern oceans. It is one of the smaller species of diving-petrels, though size differences are seemingly indistinguishable between species unless seen up close. It is probably the least known of all five species.
Taxonomy and systematics.
The genus name of the diving-petrels is "Pelecanoides", which means "pelican-resembling", which refers to their distensible throat pouches they use to store prey. The specific name of the Magellanic diving-petrel, "magellani", which honors Ferdinand Magellan, who discovered the Straits of Magellan that the birds are native to. This species has no subspecies, rendering it monotypic. According to HBW, this species is more closely related to the South Georgian and Peruvian diving-petrels. The diving-petrels bear strong resemblances to the smaller auk species (i.e. the Dovekie or Little Auk), though they are completely unrelated. This likeness is a prime example of convergent evolution, since the two have similar niches in their ecosystem, therefore they have evolved similar traits.
Description.
This short, compact petrel ranges from 19-22 cm (7.4-8.7 in) in length, and weighs anywhere between 5-6 oz (males are typically heavier than females). The head of "P. magellani" is black, bordered by a contrasting white that leads into a distinctive white crescent extending up towards the back of the neck . The rest of the body follows a strong penguin-like black above, white below scheme, with some white streaks around the sides of the nape and on the scapulars. They also have some blackish-grey mottling on the flank region and sometimes on the sides of the breast. The upperwing is mostly black, with white edges on the secondaries; the underwing coverts are white (with some fragments of black on the "arm"), while the underside of the flight feathers are light grey. The tail feathers (rectrices) are mostly black above (but may appear brown in some lighting) with nearly invisible white tips, and mainly white to a very light grey below. The bill is mostly black, as well as the upward-facing nostrils (which are unique only to the diving-petrels), the legs and feet are a light slate-blue to light blue with black-brownish webs, and black claws, and the eyes are a very dark brown color. It only overlaps with the Peruvian diving-petrel, "P. garnotii", but the two are distinguishable by the visible white crescent of the Magellanic vs. the nearly all-black head of the Peruvian.
Behavior and ecology.
Feeding.
Being the most elusive of the "Pelecanoides" species, not much is known about the ecology of the Magellanic diving-petrel. Like all diving-petrel species, "P. magellani" is a strong swimmer capable of performing dives of over 10 ft to pursue prey, staying submerged anywhere from 10 seconds to potentially over a minute. The birds usual dive from the surface, though are capable of dropping a few feet from the air into the ocean. They move through the water by propelling themselves with their wings and steering with their tails and feet. The prey of "P. magellani" is shown to consist of small crustaceans, aquatic invertebrates like copepods, amphipods, and plankton, and perhaps small fish could be in their diet as well. They likely carry food back to their chicks via their gular pouches then regurgitating food through them.
Breeding.
Breeding habits of the Magellanic diving-petrel are little known. It is known that eggs are laid from November to December, and fledglings have been spotted in March. Like its congeners, "P. magellani" nests in burrows in dense colonies on coastal islands. They lay one egg and are most likely monogamous like other Procellariiformes. Both parents take shifts between incubation and going out to sea to feed during the incubation period, and both take turns feeding their chick, which will reach sexual maturity anywhere from 2-3 years of age. After raising their offspring, the adults go into what is called post-nuptial moult, where they shed old feathers to grow fresh feathers, most notably their flight feathers. During this time, for all "Pelecanoides" species, they become flightless until their feathers have been fully replaced.
Distribution and habitat.
"P. magellani" breeds on vegetated slopes on coastal and nearshore islands, typically in fjords and channels, in southern Chile, Argentina, and Tierra del Fuego and forages in offshore and inshore waters in the area.
Status and conservation.
The Magellanic diving-petrel is considered as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. Their population is estimated anywhere from 6,700-330,000 individuals; they are under no immediate threat, but are presumed to be affected by invasive species (i.e. rats or mice) and human activity, namely periodic guano harvests, could be a threat. However, the species is not well-known, and extensive research is required to evaluate current population trends and new threats.


Physalaemus albonotatus

Physalaemus albonotatus (common name: menwig frog) is a species of frog in the family Leptodactylidae. It is found in Brazil (Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul states), Paraguay, and Chacoan Argentina and Bolivia.
Habitat.
"Physalaemus albonotatus" occurs on the ground near semi-permanent or temporary water bodies or flooded grasslands, its breeding habitat; it also breeds in temperate ponds and roadside ditches. It adapts very well to human disturbance and is in no way threatened.
Reproduction.
A study in Bodoquena (in the Mato Grosso do Sul state of southwestern Brazil) found "Physalaemus albonotatus" to be a continuous breeder, breeding throughout the wet season. Males called for females from the margins of ponds and flooded area, hiding in vegetation or in small depressions such as footprints. Mean clutch size was about 1500 eggs. Females were similar in size to males; females had a mean snout–vent length of (range 26–34 mm) and mean body mass of 2.2 g. The same measurements were (range 27–32 mm) and 2.4 g for males. Ovaries made about 27% of female body mass; fecundity increased with the female body size.


Pelophylax fukienensis

Pelophylax fukienensis is a species of frog in the family Ranidae. It is found in Fujian (formerly romanized as "Fukien", hence the name), Zhejiang, and Jiangxi provinces of China as well as in Taiwan.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, swamps, freshwater marshes, rural gardens, heavily degraded former forest, water storage areas, ponds, irrigated land, seasonally flooded agricultural land, and canals and ditches. It is not considered threatened by the IUCN, though the Taiwanese populations have strongly declined.
"Pelophylax fukienensis" is a medium to large-sized frog, with males reaching and females length.