Troponin I

Troponin I is a cardiac and skeletal muscle protein family. It is a part of the troponin protein complex, where it binds to actin in thin myofilaments to hold the actin-tropomyosin complex in place. Troponin I prevents myosin from binding to actin in relaxed muscle. When calcium binds to the troponin C, it causes conformational changes which lead to dislocation of troponin I. Afterwards, tropomyosin leaves the binding site for myosin on actin leading to contraction of muscle. The letter "I" is given due to its inhibitory character. It is a useful marker in the laboratory diagnosis of heart attack. It occurs in different plasma concentration but the same circumstances as troponin T - either test can be performed for confirmation of cardiac muscle damage and laboratories usually offer one test or the other.
Three paralogs with unique tissue-specific expression patterns are expressed in humans, listed below with their locations and OMIM accessions:
cTnI.
Cardiac troponin I, often denoted as cTnI, is presented in cardiac muscle tissue by a single isoform with a molecular weight of 23.9 kDa. It consists of 209 amino acid residues. The theoretical pI of cTnI is 9.05. cTnI differs from other troponins due to its N-terminal extension of 26 amino acids. This extension contains two serines, residues 23 and 24, which are phosphorylated by protein kinase A in response to beta-adrenergic stimulation and important in increasing the inotropic response. Phosphorylation of cTnI changes the conformation of the protein and modifies its interaction with other troponins as well as the interaction with anti-TnI antibodies. These changes alter the myofilament response to calcium, and are of interest in targeting heart failure. Multiple reaction monitoring of human cTnI has revealed that there are 14 phosphorylation sites and the pattern of phosphorylation observed these sites is changed in response to disease. cTnI has been shown to be phosphorylated by protein kinase A, protein kinase C, protein kinase G, and p21-activated kinase 3.
A significant part of cTnI released into the patient's blood stream is phosphorylated. For more than 15 years cTnI has been known as a reliable marker of cardiac muscle tissue injury. It is considered to be more sensitive and significantly more specific in diagnosis of the myocardial infarction than the "golden marker" of last decades – CK-MB, as well as total creatine kinase, myoglobin and lactate dehydrogenase isoenzymes.
Troponin I is not entirely specific for myocardial damage secondary to infarction. Other causes of raised Troponin I include chronic kidney failure, heart failure, subarachnoid haemorrhage and pulmonary embolus.
In veterinary medicine, increased cTnI has been noted from myocardial damage after ionophore toxicity in cattle.


Intermaxillary segment

The intermaxillary segment in an embryo is a mass of tissue formed by the merging of tissues in the vicinity of the nose. It is essential for human survival. It is primordial, since in the further development of the embryo this particular mass no longer appears, but parts of it remain in "the intermaxillary portion of the upper jaw, the portion of the upper lip, and the primary palate".
More precisely, the rounded lateral angles of the medial process constitute the globular processes. It is also known as the "Intermaxillary segment". It gives rise to the premaxilla.


V.V. Argost


Clathrina primordialis

Clathrina primordialis is a species of calcareous sponge from Croatia.


Ulmaridae

The Ulmaridae are a family of jellyfish.
Genera.
Formerly, the genus "Phacellophora" was also included in this family, but is now placed in the family Phacellophoridae.


Colius

Colius is a genus of mousebirds in the family Coliidae. The four species are widely distributed in Africa. Two other African mousebirds are placed in the genus "Urocolius".
The genus "Colius" was introduced by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 with the white-backed mousebird ("Colius colius") as the type species.
The genus contains the following four species:
A fossil species, "Colius hendeyi", was described from Early Pliocene remains found at Langebaanweg in South Africa.
Some Miocene taxa from France were previously assigned to "Colius". Of these, only the Middle Miocene ""Colius" palustris" might plausibly belong there, but it is more often separated in "Necrornis". In younger lineages like Passeriformes, extant genera (e.g. "Menura" and "Orthonyx") were around by then, though it must be remembered that simply because two taxa are of same taxonomic rank they do not need to be of the same age. All that can be said is that while it cannot be ruled out that the modern genus "Colius" was around in Miocene Europe, it more likely evolved later, and probably in sub-Saharan Africa.
""Colius" archiaci", ""C." consobrinus" and ""C." paludicola" on the other hand are 3 taxa described from fragmentary remains found at Saint-Gérand-le-Puy. Their taxonomic history is convoluted, being initially described as woodpeckers and variously merged and split. Today it is believed that they might all belong to a species in the modern genus "Urocolius", or at least 2 into a prehistoric genus "Limnatornis".


Deep fascia

Deep fascia (or investing fascia) is a fascia, a layer of dense connective tissue that can surround individual muscles and groups of muscles to separate into fascial compartments.
This fibrous connective tissue interpenetrates and surrounds the muscles, bones, nerves, and blood vessels of the body. It provides connection and communication in the form of aponeuroses, ligaments, tendons, retinacula, joint capsules, and septa. The deep fasciae envelop all bone (periosteum and endosteum); cartilage (perichondrium), and blood vessels (tunica externa) and become specialized in muscles (epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium) and nerves (epineurium, perineurium, and endoneurium). The high density of collagen fibers gives the deep fascia its strength and integrity. The amount of elastin fiber determines how much extensibility and resilience it will have.
Examples.
Examples include:
Fascial dynamics.
Deep fascia is less extensible than superficial fascia. It is essentially avascular, but is richly innervated with sensory receptors that report the presence of pain (nociceptors); change in movement (proprioceptors); change in pressure and vibration (mechanoreceptors); change in the chemical milieu (chemoreceptors); and fluctuation in temperature (thermoreceptors). Deep fascia is able to respond to sensory input by contracting; by relaxing; or by adding, reducing, or changing its composition through the process of fascial remodeling.
Fascia may be able to contract due to the activity of myofibroblasts which may play a role in wound healing.
The deep fascia can also relax. By monitoring changes in muscular tension, joint position, rate of movement, pressure, and vibration, mechanoreceptors in the deep fascia are capable of initiating relaxation. Deep fascia can relax rapidly in response to sudden muscular overload or rapid movements. Golgi tendon organs operate as a feedback mechanism by causing myofascial relaxation before muscle force becomes so great that tendons might be torn. Pacinian corpuscles sense changes in pressure and vibration to monitor the rate of acceleration of movement. They will initiate a sudden relaxatory response if movement happens too fast. Deep fascia can also relax slowly as some mechanoreceptors respond to changes over longer timescales. Unlike the Golgi tendon organs, Golgi receptors report joint position independent of muscle contraction. This helps the body to know where the bones are at any given moment. Ruffini endings respond to regular stretching and to slow sustained pressure. In addition to initiating fascial relaxation, they contribute to full-body relaxation by inhibiting sympathetic activity which slows down heart rate and respiration.
When contraction persists, fascia will respond with the addition of new material. Fibroblasts secrete collagen and other proteins into the extracellular matrix where they bind to existing proteins, making the composition thicker and less extensible. Although this potentiates the tensile strength of the fascia, it can unfortunately restrict the very structures it aims to protect. The pathologies resulting from fascial restrictions range from a mild decrease in joint range of motion to severe fascial binding of muscles, nerves and blood vessels, as in compartment syndrome of the leg. However, if fascial contraction can be interrupted long enough, a reverse form of fascial remodeling occurs. The fascia will normalize its composition and tone and the extra material that was generated by prolonged contraction will be ingested by macrophages within the extracellular matrix.
Like mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors in deep fascia also have the ability to promote fascial relaxation. We tend to think of relaxation as a good thing, however fascia needs to maintain some degree of tension. This is especially true of ligaments. To maintain joint integrity, they need to provide adequate tension between bony surfaces. If a ligament is too lax, injury becomes more likely. Certain chemicals, including hormones, can influence the composition of the ligaments. An example of this is seen in the menstrual cycle, where hormones are secreted to create changes in the uterine and pelvic floor fascia. The hormones are not site-specific, however, and chemoreceptors in other ligaments of the body can be receptive to them as well. The ligaments of the knee may be one of the areas where this happens, as a significant association between the ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle and an increased likelihood for an anterior cruciate ligament injury has been demonstrated.
It has been suggested that manipulation of the fascia by acupuncture needles is responsible for the physical sensation of qi flowing along meridians in the body, even though there is no physically verifiable anatomical or histological basis for the existence of acupuncture points or meridians.


Altenburg Trumpeter

The Altenburger Trumpeter is a breed of fancy pigeon developed over many years of selective breeding. Altenburger Trumpeters along with other breeds of domesticated pigeons are all descendants from the rock pigeon ("Columba livia"). There are several breeds of trumpeter pigeons which are known for their vocal cooing which sounds similar to laughter or trumpeting. The breeds with this ability are collectively known as "voice" pigeons.


Lyracystis

Lyracystis radiata is a Cambrian eocrinoid echinoderm known from the Burgess Shale. It is related to "Gogia"


Marcusodictyon

Marcusodictyon is a genus of problematic fossils. It has been considered the oldest bryozoan
in several publications. Taylor (1984) revised the systematics of the genus and removed it from Bryozoa. The fossil constitutes a phosphatic network of low ridges that enclose polygons about 0.3–1.2 mm wide that are generally 6-sided but can be 4-, 5- or 7-sided. The internal microstructure of "Marcusodictyon" is composed of
laminae parallel to external surfaces of ridges (Taylor 1984). "Marcusodictyon" occurs on late Cambrian and Tremadocian lingulate brachiopods of Baltica (Vinn 2015).


Hydra oligactis

Hydra oligactis, also known as the brown hydra, is a species of hydra found widely dispersed in the northern temperate zone. It is a common organism found in still waters from early Spring to late Autumn.
It is commonly found attached to the stems of water plants, the undersides of leaves, submerged twigs and on the surface of stones. When disturbed it retracts to a small brown blob which is easily overlooked. Gently sweeping through a clean weedy pond and allowing the collected water and leaves to stand in a jar will often reveal Hydra emerging after only a few minutes.
When in feeding mode, the fully extended tentacles are very long and may exceed in length. In this condition the tentacles are very difficult to see with the naked eye and are often only revealed when a prey animal such as Daphnia is caught. The relative length of the tentacles compared to the body is characteristic of the species and serves to differentiate it from any other brown Hydra of cool temperate waters.
When a cold sensitive strain of "H. oligactis" is subjected to temperature stress, it undergoes a shift from asexual budding to sexual reproduction. This shift involves an upreglation of genes involved in gametogenesis, cellular senescence, apoptosis and DNA repair, and a downregulation of genes involved in stem cell maintenance.
"Hydra oligactis" is preyed upon by the flatworm "Microstomum lineare", which incorporates "Hydra" stenoteles into its own epidermis.


Euphrosinidae

The Euphrosinidae are a family of polychaete worms. The name is from Greek "Euphrosyne", meaning merriment; she was one of the three Graces.
Clade
Species.
"Euphrosinidae" contains the following genera and species:


Atergia villosa

Atergia villosa is a species of sea sponge belonging to the family Polymastiidae. It is found in rocky deep-sea habitats around the Chatham Islands, New Zealand.
This is a round, yellow, velvety-soft sponge up to 3 cm across. It is usually found attached to a scallop shell.


Monopeltis luandae

Monopeltis luandae is a species of amphisbaenian in the family Amphisbaenidae. The species is endemic to Angola.
Habitat.
The preferred natural habitat of "M. luandae" is savanna, at altitudes of .
Description.
"M. luandae" may attain a snout-to-vent length (SVL) of . Dorsally, it is speckled with dark pigment.
Reproduction.
The mode of reproduction of "M. luandae" is unknown.


Heterocyathus

Heterocyathus is a genus of coral of the family Caryophylliidae.
Ecology.
'Mobility of this genus is facultative which means they have the capacity to move around but not always will they exhibit it. Heterocyathus could have zooxanthellae in shallow water, however, they may live on without symbiotic algae at deeper depths. The Heterocyathus species is sometimes hermatypic or a hard coral primarily responsible for reef-building. In the case of Heterocyathus, reefs are made as the species produces layers of calcium carbonate beneath their bodies. They show epifaunal characteristics and hence are seen in deeper areas of water. They are microcarnivores feeding on tiny organisms. A species of hermit crabs, Diogenidae Heteropsammia, allows for the Heterocyathus the ability to roam around the seafloor.
Symbiotic Relationships.
Heterocyathus has both a mutualism and parasitism relationship with another organism called the Albian scleractinian- sipunculan (commonly known as a type of worm). The coral benefits since the worm offers nutrients and food, meanwhile the worm benefits since the coral is a form of protection or shelter. However, if the shell of the coral outgrows the worm, the worm benefits by gaining total protection, thus making a parasitism relationship


Orchesella fishmani

Orchesella fishmani is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae.


John Edmund Sharrock Moore

John Edmund Sharrock Moore ARCS (10 May 1870 – 15 January 1947) was an English biologist, best known for being co-publisher of the term meiosis and leading two expeditions to Tanganyika.
Personal life.
Born at Swinshaw near Loveclough, Rossendale, Lancashire, he was the son of Henry (1794-1869) and Mary Elizabeth Moore (née Margerison, died 1927). His father was a cotton manufacturer and the first Mayor or Burnley (elected 1862). After 1878 Henry Moore became a colliery agent and moved the family to Southampton and then to Chiswick before 1891. His father became a sculptor, as did his sister Esther Mary Moore who exhibited at the Royal Academy of Arts.
Moore studied at Tonbridge School, Kent for a year and then Royal College of Science in South Kensington.
In 1904 he married Heloise Salvin, second daughter of the naturalist Osbert Salvin. Moore frequently used the name Salvin-Moore after his marriage. They had one child Osbert John S Moore born 25 June 1905.
He retired in 1908 after the death of his father. In 1911 he was living with his wife and son in Chiswick with four of his sisters.
During the 1920s he moved to Tresco, Isles of Scilly where his wife died on 4 Nov 1927. He lived there at least between 1929 - 1941. After a long retirement he died of heart failure and arteriosclerosis in West Cornwall Hospital, Penzance on 15 January 1947.
Although he is often cited as John Edward Sharrock Moore, he used several versions of his name. For example he is listed as John Edmund Shorrock Moore-Salvin in Who's Was Who (UK), a name he adopted after the death of his wife.
Scientific career.
In 1892 he created the biological term ‘synapsis’. Later in 1905 he would co-publisher the term ‘meiosis’ in collaboration with John Bretland Farmer. His scientific interests lay in the new and rapidly developing field of cytology. Between 1892 and 1905 he worked in the Huxley Laboratory at the Royal College of Science on several projects within this field. He was supervised and generally mentored by George Bond Howes. He frequently worked alone, but collaborated with Farmer on meiosis and with both Farmer and Charles Edward Walker on cancer cytology.
During this time he made three extended visits overseas to further his research. The first was between 16 October 1893 and 9 June 1894 to the Marine Biological Station in Naples, using facilities hired by the British Association and in part supported by a Marshall scholarship.
The other two were when he led the First and Second Tanganyika Expeditions (1895-1897 and 1899-1900). The objective was to survey the fauna of lakes, especially Lake Tanganyika and he recorded the outcome of the two expeditions in many publications. During the second expedition he was the first to reach the snowline of the Rwenzori Mountains, 'the Snows of the Mountains of the Moon', attaining 14,900 feet and proved the existence of permanent glaciers.
In 1900 he was appointed as a Demonstrator in Zoology at the Royal College of Science. He became an acting Professor of Zoology there from 1903 to 1905 while Howe was in poor health. In 1906 he was appointed the Professor of Experimental and Pathological Cytology and Director of the Cancer Research Laboratories at the University of Liverpool, retiring in 1908. Walker moved with him to Liverpool as Assistant Director. The Mrs Sutton Timmis Memorial Fund initially supported their work on cancer. In 1908 Moore ceased all scientific activity.
Awards and memberships.
He was the first to be awarded the Huxley Gold Medal for Research, in 1900 by Royal College of Science. He was a Fellow of the Royal Geographic Society from 1901, the Linnean Society (1903 - 1909) and the Zoological Society of London. He was a member of the Alpine Club, and became a member of the Authors' Club from 1944.
Publications.
He was the author or co-author of 71 communications and publications including:


Norg (Power Rangers Operation Overdrive)


Sphenoparietal sinus

The cavernous sinus receives the superior ophthalmic vein through the superior orbital fissure, some of the cerebral veins, and also the small sphenoparietal sinus, which courses along the under surface of the small wing of the sphenoid.


Schizoporella

Schizoporella is a genus of bryozoans in the family Schizoporellidae.


Pituicyte

Pituicytes are glial cells of the posterior pituitary. Their main role is to assist in the storage and release of neurohypophysial hormones.
Structure.
Pituicytes are located in the pars nervosa of the posterior pituitary interspersed with unmyelinated axons and Herring bodies. They generally stain dark purple with an H&E stain, and are among the easiest structures to identify in the region. Pituicytes have an irregular and branched shape which resembles that of another type of glial cell: the astrocyte. Like astrocytes, their cytoplasm presents specific intermediate filaments made up of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP).
Function.
Pituicytes are similar to astrocytes, another type of glial cell. Their main role is to assist in the storage and release of hormones of the posterior pituitary. Pituicytes surround axonal endings and regulate hormone secretion by releasing their processes from these endings.
Clinical significance.
Pituicytomas are rare tumors that arise from pituicytes. They may be mistaken for the much more common pituitary adenoma, as well as craniopharyngioma and meningioma. Symptoms from the mass effect of the tumor usually include vision disorders, and less often headaches, hypopituitarism (decreased function of the pituitary gland), fatigue, and decreased libido.


Productida

Productida is an extinct order of brachiopods in the extinct class Strophomenata.
Taxonomy.
Following the Treatise


Alcyonidium (bryozoan)

Alcyonidium is a genus of bryozoans in the order Ctenostomata.
Species.
The following species are included in the genus by the World Register of Marine Species:-


Megadyptes

Megadyptes ("large diver") is a genus of penguin which consists of two species, yellow-eyed penguin ("Megadyptes antipodes") and the extinct Waitaha penguin ("Megadyptes waitaha").
The Waitaha penguin was discovered through an ancient DNA study assessing variability in genetics, recognizing that the origin of megadyptes were subantarctic aids in understanding why antipodes are actually vulnerable to warm temperatures.
Climate change, specifically sea surface temperature is causing a large impact on the survival of the Megadyptes, an influential factor for both adult birds and fledglings. Through a population model it was discovered that about 33% of variation in population numbers could be linked to the increasing sea surface temperature.
Penguins feathers purpose are to create a barrier to better tolerate wind and water. These certain penguins are known for their feathers and often many of them end up in rehabilitation centers in New Zealand animal hospitals to help rehabilitate their feather waterproofing as most are dependent on waterproof plumage for survival (Setiawan, 2009). Due to the stress of their environment and the populated areas, more yellow-eyed penguins are losing their feathers and unable to produce more which would help their endangerment level decrease.


Acrotheloidea

Acrotheloidea is a superfamily of Discinid brachiopods, alternatively ascribed to the lingulids—for a discussion of discinid taxonomy, see Discinida.
The story goes that there's an evolutionary transition from Eoobolus through Pustulobolus and Bostfordia to Acrotretids.
Acrotheloids have an apical foramen.


Annulus (mycology)

An annulus is the ring-like or collar-like structure sometimes found on the stipe of some species of mushrooms. The annulus represents the remaining part of the partial veil, after it has ruptured to expose the gills or other spore-producing surface. An annulus may be thick and membranous, or it may be cobweb-like. An annulus may be persistent and be a noticeable feature of a mature mushroom, or it may disappear soon after the emergence of the mushroom, perhaps leaving a few remnants on the stipe as an "annular zone".
The position, shape, or other description of the annulus of a mushroom may be used in the identification and classification of mushrooms.


Pontine arteries

The pontine arteries are a number of small vessels which come off at right angles from either side of the basilar artery and supply the pons and adjacent parts of the brain.


Wigeon

The wigeons or widgeons are a group of birds, dabbling ducks currently classified in the genus "Mareca" along with two other species. There are three extant species of wigeon, in addition to one recently extinct species.
Biology.
There are three extant species: the Eurasian wigeon ("Mareca penelope"), the American wigeon ("M. americana") and the Chiloé wigeon ("M. sibilatrix"). A fourth species, the Amsterdam wigeon ("Mareca marecula"), became extinct in the 19th century. The wigeons' closest relatives, forming with them the genus "Mareca", are the gadwall and the falcated duck.
All three wigeons are similarly shaped, with a steep forehead and bulbous rear to the head. Males have a distinctive breeding plumage, in their eclipse plumage they resemble females, which are similar in appearance year-round. All three wigeon species hybridise in captivity while American and Eurasian wigeons hybridise in the wild. An American wigeon × mallard hybrid has also been recorded.
The American wigeon was formerly called the "baldpate" by ornithologists, and some people still use that name, especially hunters.
The diet of the wigeon consists mainly of grass leaves (~80%), other food types eaten are seeds (~10%) and roots and stems (~5%).
External links.
Photographs of hybrid wigeons can be seen here and here.


Mesojassoides

Mesojassoides is a genus of extinct leaf hopper from the Late Cretaceous, approximately 70 - 66 million years ago, Fox Hills Formation. The genus contains a single species Mesojassoides gigantea, described from a fore wing found in 1932 by C.H. Dane and W. G. Pierce in Adams County, Colorado. Described by Paul W. Oman in 1937, the genus was named for the similarity in vein structure between the holotype and the modern genus "Jassus". The holotype specimen, National Museum of Natural History #75521, is long and nearly complete, missing the clavus and a small section of the costal margin. The specimen indicates "M. gigantea" was similar in size to the largest modern leaf hopper species.


Procercoid

Procercoid is the first larval stage of some tapeworms, which usually develops inside the body cavity of copepods. Flatworm in this stage is not enclosed in a protective cyst, but is infectious. Procercoids resemble their adult forms in pathways of energy metabolism. They are basically anaerobic, lacking complete Krebs Cycle, and rely on glycolysis.


Baillarge Bay

Baillarge Bay is an Arctic waterway in the Qikiqtaaluk Region, Nunavut, Canada. It is the second waterway to press eastward from Admiralty Inlet into Baffin Island. The southern point of its mouth is named Ship Point.
Geography.
Characterized by open sea, coastal cliffs, and rocky marine shore habitat, the elevation rises up to above sea level.
Fauna.
The uninhabited bay is a Canadian Important Bird Area (#NU067) stretching up the coastline to Elwin Inlet. It is also an International Biological Program site (Region 9, #7-7) and Key Migratory Bird Terrestrial Habitat site (NU Site 19).
A sizeable population of northern fulmars are found here. Caribou, polar bears, and walruses, as well as harp seals, ringed seals, and white whales frequent the area.


Spaced Out Bunny

Spaced Out Bunny is a Warner Bros. cartoon starring Bugs Bunny and Marvin the Martian. The cartoon was part of the television special "Bugs Bunny's Bustin' Out All Over" on CBS, which aired May 21, 1980.
"Spaced Out Bunny" is one of four Bugs Bunny cartoons produced during 1979-1980, the first new shorts since 1964's "False Hare". "Spaced Out Bunny" would also be the last Warner Brothers-released short to have Mel Blanc voicing Bugs.
Plot.
While walking in a forest, Bugs Bunny wonders aloud how everyone is out to get everyone else; this is illustrated by hostile behavior as Bugs' interacts with, among other things, a rock and a butterfly. He then sees a carrot on a line and begins to eat it, unaware that it is a trap set by Marvin the Martian.
Marvin's purpose for capturing Bugs (with what Marvin explains is an "ACME Super Rack and Pinion Tranquilizer Carrot") is to provide a playmate for Hugo the Abominable Snowman (from 1961's "The Abominable Snow Rabbit"). After Bugs awakens and realizes where he is, Marvin explains his rationale before turning Hugo loose on Bugs ("Oh no, not again!" cries Bugs, remembering his previous encounter with Hugo). The rest of the cartoon plays similar to the premise of "Snow Rabbit", including Hugo's intention to "hug him and stroke him and cuddle him and call him George." Bugs regains the upper hand on his captors by suggesting to Hugo that he needs a robot; Marvin attempts to make a getaway but Hugo reaches into the spaceship and repeats his lines. When an agitated Marvin demands that Hugo cease his behavior and states that he is not a robot, an angry Hugo spanks him.
Bugs then whispers in Hugo's ear, suggesting something that he would be good at. The scene cuts to Hugo's wrist, where he proudly displays his new "Mickey Martian" wristwatch. Bugs then climbs into the spacecraft and gets Hugo to practice his Frisbee toss by hurling the ship toward the Earth.


Hyolithida

The Hyolithida are lophophorates, one of the two orders of hyolithid, the other being the Orthothecida. Most of our knowledge of the hyolithids comes from studies on the Hyolithida. Both orders had an operculum that was not hinged to the conch. However, the Hyolithida are distinct from the Orthothecida in lacking additional paired, curved, whiskerlike appendages. The Hyolithida were probably bottom feeders living in shallow water, and had tentacules.


Rugiloricus cauliculus

Rugiloricus cauliculus is a species of marine animal of the phylum Loricifera and the family Pliciloricidae. The species was described by Higgins & Kristensen in 1986, however other sources such as OBIS indicate that discovery of the species occurred on 19 November 1983.
Distribution.
This species is noted for the coast of Atlantic Ocean of North Carolina, United States.


Maynard Jack Ramsay

Dr. Maynard Jack "Doc" Ramsay (November 22, 1914 – March 20, 2005) was an American entomologist noted for his efforts to track and eradicate exotic parasites carried in flowers, fruits and other cargoes arriving from overseas. He was listed in American Men of Science and Who's Who in America.
During his 36 years in government service, he often was called upon to provide his beetle expertise to the Smithsonian Institution and entomological organizations in the United States and elsewhere. He once provided entomological advice to writer John Steinbeck and found himself quoted on the subject of killer bees in the opening of Arthur Herzog's best-selling novel "The Swarm".
Work.
Ramsay was widely known for his research on a potato cyst eelworm — the parasitic golden nematode ("Globodera rostochiensis"). The worm was discovered in 1941 in potato fields on Long Island, New York, the only state where it has established a foothold. Around 1946, the worm was found on a lily of the valley plants imported from the Netherlands. Ramsay helped trace the worm to infested flower fields in Germany that had been converted for potato cultivation during World War II. Inspectors from the Department of Agriculture began testing cargoes of lilies in Hamburg, which initially slowed the golden nematode's spread from across the Atlantic. The Golden Nematode Act was enacted on June 15, 1948, to combat the worm. As of 2003, the golden nematode is one of 22 federally regulated organisms in the United States. According to Society of Nematologists, "he played an instrumental role in reducing the spread of "Globodera rostochiensis" in the United States."
He also studied Dutch elm disease, termite infestations in Puerto Rico, and Mexican bean beetles in New York State, and helped develop methods for estimating losses from the parasites. He later trained inspectors from Japan, El Salvador, Jordan, and Indonesia in an effort to identify infested crops before they reached American shores. When those crops were found, agriculture officials usually ordered the cargoes dumped at sea and the ships fumigated. Raymond F. Bednar, a former director of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) in New York, recalled that Ramsay "always saw the new pest coming down the pike."
Life.
Ramsay was born and raised in Buffalo by his mother Lillian Maynard and father William "Dowie" Ramsay, a conductor and brakeman for the Nickel Plate Road. Ramsay studied under Albert R. Shadle and graduated from the University at Buffalo with a Bachelor of Science degree in Biology. Continuing his education at Cornell University, Ramsay graduated with a Master of Science degree in Mammalogy.
While living in Staten Island, Ramsay was awarded a Ph.D. in Entomology from Cornell in 1941, and gained employment with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Ramsay was one of the first few Ph.D. holders in service to the Department, and thus, colleagues bestowed him with the nickname "Doc". Encouraged by Shadle, "Doc" Ramsay then married Alberta June Wentworth, a beautician and owner of Alberta's Beauty Shop, from Canisteo.
From 1950 to 1956, he served as a port entomologist, and then in 1967 was appointed to APHIS. He retired in 1977. Dr. Ramsay was also a former president of the Insecticide Society of Washington.
Alberta Ramsay died in 2003. Two years later, Maynard Ramsay died of pneumonia on March 20, 2005, in a Silver Spring nursing home. The couple resided in Bowie, Maryland.


Sex organ

A sex organ (or reproductive organ) is any part of an animal or plant that is involved in sexual reproduction. The reproductive organs together constitute the reproductive system. In animals, the testis in the male, and the ovary in the female, are called the "primary sex organs". All others are called "secondary sex organs", divided between the external sex organs—the genitals or genitalia, visible at birth in both sexes—and the internal sex organs.
Mosses, ferns, and some similar plants have gametangia for reproductive organs, which are part of the gametophyte. The flowers of flowering plants produce pollen and egg cells, but the sex organs themselves are inside the gametophytes within the pollen and the ovule. Coniferous plants likewise produce their sexually reproductive structures within the gametophytes contained within the cones and pollen. The cones and pollen are not themselves sexual organs.
Terminology.
The "primary sex organs" are the gonads, a pair of sex organs, which diverge into testes following male development or into ovaries following female development. As primary sex organs, gonads generate reproductive gametes containing inheritable DNA. They also produce most of the primary hormones that affect sexual development, and regulate other sexual organs and sexually differentiated behaviors.
"Secondary sex organs" are the rest of the reproductive system, whether internal or external. The Latin term "genitalia", sometimes anglicized as "genitals", is used to describe the externally visible sex organs: in male mammals, the penis and scrotum; and in female mammals, the vulva and its organs.
In general zoology, given the great variety in organs, physiologies, and behaviors involved in copulation, male genitalia are more strictly defined as "all male structures that are inserted in the female or that hold her near her gonopore during sperm transfer"; female genitalia are defined as "those parts of the female reproductive tract that make direct contact with male genitalia or male products (sperm, spermatophores) during or immediately after copulation".
Mammals.
External and internal organs.
The visible portion of the mammalian genitals for males consists of the scrotum and penis; for females, it consists of the vulva (labia, clitoris, etc.) and vagina.
In placental mammals, females have two genital orifices, the vagina and urethra, while males have only one, the urethra. Male and female genitals have many nerve endings, resulting in pleasurable and highly sensitive touch. In most human societies, particularly in conservative ones, exposure of the genitals is considered a public indecency.
In mammals, sex organs include:
Development.
In typical prenatal development, sex organs originate from a common primordium during early gestation and differentiate into male or female sexes. The SRY gene, usually located on the Y chromosome and encoding the testis determining factor, determines the direction of this differentiation. The absence of it allows the gonads to continue to develop into ovaries.
Thereafter, the development of the internal, and external reproductive organs is determined by hormones produced by certain fetal gonads (ovaries or testes) and the cells' response to them. The initial appearance of the fetal genitalia looks basically feminine: a pair of "urogenital folds" with a small protuberance in the middle, and the urethra behind the protuberance. If the fetus has testes, and if the testes produce testosterone, and if the cells of the genitals respond to the testosterone, the outer urogenital folds swell and fuse in the midline to produce the scrotum; the protuberance grows larger and straighter to form the penis; the inner urogenital swellings grow, wrap around the penis, and fuse in the midline to form the penile urethra.
Each sex organ in one sex has a homologous counterpart in the other one. See a list of homologues of the human reproductive system. In a larger perspective, the whole process of sexual differentiation also includes development of secondary sexual characteristics such as patterns of pubic and facial hair and female breasts that emerge at puberty. Furthermore, differences in brain structure arise, affecting, but not absolutely determining, behavior.
Intersex encompasses the development of genitalia somewhere between typical male and female genitalia. In humans societies, once a child is born, parents may be given the authority to decide whether or not to modify the child's genitalia, and if so what sex to assign the child. Some scenaria have medical staff choose, either by the parents' or their own authority. If it is decided that the genitalia should be modified, and the result is incongruent with the child's future gender identity, the child may begin to show symptoms of gender dysphoria, which can lead them to a life of discomfort until they are able to remedy the issue. Modifying the genitalia of intersex children is broadly considered to be a violation of the child's human rights.
Because of the strong sexual selection affecting the structure and function of genitalia, they form an organ system that evolves rapidly. A great variety of genital form and function may therefore be found among animals.
Other animals.
In many other animals a single posterior orifice, called the cloaca, serves as the only opening for the reproductive, digestive, and urinary tracts (if present). All amphibians, birds, reptiles, some fish, and a few mammals (monotremes, tenrecs, golden moles, and marsupial moles) have this orifice, from which they excrete both urine and feces in addition to serving reproductive functions. Excretory systems with analogous purpose in certain invertebrates are also sometimes referred to as cloacae.
Insects.
The organs concerned with insect mating and the deposition of eggs are known collectively as the external genitalia, although they may be largely internal; their components are very diverse in form.
Slugs and snails.
The reproductive system of gastropods (slugs and snails) varies greatly from one group to another.
Planaria.
Planaria are flat worms widely used in biological research. There are sexual and asexual planaria. Sexual planaria are hermaphrodites, possessing both testicles and ovaries. Each planarian transports its excretion to the other planarian, giving and receiving sperm.
Plants.
The life cycle of land plants involves alternation of generations between a sporophyte and a haploid gametophyte. The gametophyte produces sperm or egg cells by mitosis. The sporophyte produces spores by meiosis which in turn develop into gametophytes. Any sex organs that are produced by the plant will develop on the gametophyte. The seed plants, which include conifers and flowering plants have small gametophytes that develop inside the pollen grains (male) and the ovule (female).
Flowering plants.
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves the union of the male and female germ cells, sperm and egg cells respectively. Pollen is produced in stamens, and is carried to the pistil, which has the ovary at its base where fertilization can take place. Within each pollen grain is a male gametophyte which consists of only three cells. In most flowering plants the female gametophyte within the ovule consists of only seven cells. Thus there are no sex organs as such.


Somatic embryogenesis

Somatic embryogenesis is an artificial process in which a plant or embryo is derived from a single somatic cell. Somatic embryos are formed from plant cells that are not normally involved in the development of embryos, i.e. ordinary plant tissue. No endosperm or seed coat is formed around a somatic embryo.
Cells derived from competent source tissue are cultured to form an undifferentiated mass of cells called a callus. Plant growth regulators in the tissue culture medium can be manipulated to induce callus formation and subsequently changed to induce embryos to form the callus. The ratio of different plant growth regulators required to induce callus or embryo formation varies with the type of plant. Somatic embryos are mainly produced "in vitro" and for laboratory purposes, using either solid or liquid nutrient media which contain plant growth regulators (PGR’s). The main PGRs used are auxins but can contain cytokinin in a smaller amount. Shoots and roots are monopolar while somatic embryos are bipolar, allowing them to form a whole plant without culturing on multiple media types. Somatic embryogenesis has served as a model to understand the physiological and biochemical events that occur during plant developmental processes as well as a component to biotechnological advancement. The first documentation of somatic embryogenesis was by Steward et al. in 1958 and Reinert in 1959 with carrot cell suspension cultures.
Direct and indirect embryogenesis.
Somatic embryogenesis has been described to occur in two ways: directly or indirectly.
Direct embryogenesis.
occurs when embryos are started directly from explant tissue creating an identical clone.
Indirect embryogenesis.
occurs when explants produced undifferentiated, or partially differentiated, cells (often referred to as callus) which then is maintained or differentiated into plant tissues such as leaf, stem, or roots. 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), 6-Benzylaminopurine (BAP) and Gibberellic acid (GA) has been used for development of indirect somatic embryos in strawberry ("Fragaria ananassa")
Plant regeneration by somatic embryogenesis.
Plant regeneration via somatic embryogenesis occurs in five steps: initiation of embryogenic cultures, proliferation of embryogenic cultures, prematuration of somatic embryos, maturation of somatic embryos and plant development on nonspecific media.
Initiation and proliferation occur on a medium rich in auxin, which induces differentiation of localized meristematic cells. The auxin typically used is 2,4-D. Once transferred to a medium with low or no auxin, these cells can then develop into mature embryos. Germination of the somatic embryo can only occur when it is mature enough to have functional root and shoot apices
Factors influencing.
Factors and mechanisms controlling cell differentiation in somatic embryos are relatively ambiguous. Certain compounds excreted by plant tissue cultures and found in culture media have been shown necessary to coordinate cell division and morphological changes. These compounds have been identified by Chung et al. as various polysaccharides, amino acids, growth regulators, vitamins, low molecular weight compounds and polypeptides. Several signaling molecules known to influence or control the formation of somatic embryos have been found and include extracellular proteins, arabinogalactan proteins and lipochitooligosaccharides. Temperature and lighting can also affect the maturation of the somatic embryo.
Applications.
Applications of this process include: clonal propagation of genetically uniform plant material; elimination of viruses; provision of source tissue for genetic transformation; generation of whole plants from single cells called protoplasts; development of synthetic seed technology.
Uses of somatic embryogenesis.
Forestry related example.
The development of somatic embryogenesis procedures has given rise to research on seed storage proteins (SSPs) of woody plants for tree species of commercial importance, i.e., mainly gymnosperms, including white spruce. In this area of study, SSPs are used as markers to determine the embryogenic potential and competency of the embryogenic system to produce a somatic embryo biochemically similar to its zygotic counterpart (Flinn et al. 1991, Beardmore et al. 1997).
Grossnickle et al. (1992) compared interior spruce seedlings with emblings during nursery development and through a stock quality assessment program immediately before field outplanting. Seedling shoot height, root collar diameter, and dry weight increased at a greater rate in seedlings than in emblings during the first half of the first growing season, but thereafter shoot growth was similar among all plants. By the end of the growing season, seedlings were 70% taller than emblings, had greater root collar diameter, and greater shoot dry weight. Root dry weight increased more rapidly in seedlings than in emblings during the early growing season
During fall acclimation, the pattern of increasing dormancy release index and increasing tolerance to freezing was similar in both seedlings and emblings. Root growth capacity decreased then increased during fall acclimation, with the increase being greater in seedlings.
Assessment of stock quality just prior to planting showed that: emblings had greater water use efficiency with decreasing predawn shoot water potential compared with seedlings; seedlings and emblings had similar water movement capability at both high and low root temperatures; net photosynthesis and needle conductance at low root temperatures were greater in seedlings than in emblings; and seedlings had greater root growth than emblings at 22 °C root, but root growth among all plants was low at 7.5 °C root temperature.
Growth and survival of interior spruce 313B Styroblock seedlings and emblings after outplanting on a reforestation site were determined by Grossnickle and Major (1992). For both seedlings and emblings, osmotic potential at saturation (ψsat) and turgor loss point (ψtip) increased from a low of -1.82 and -2.22 MPa, respectively, just prior to planting to a seasonal high of -1.09 and -1.21 MPa, respectively, during active shoot elongation. Thereafter, seedlings and emblings (ψsat) and (ψtip) declined to -2.00 and -2.45 MPa, respectively, at the end of the growing season, which coincided with the steady decline in site temperatures and a cessation of height growth. In general, seedlings and emblings had similar ψsat and ψtip values through the growing season, and also had similar shifts in seasonal patterns of maximum modulus of elasticity, sympalstic fraction, and relative water content at turgor loss point.
Grossnickle and Major (1992) found that year-old and current-year needles of both seedlings and emblings had a similar decline in needle conductance with increasing vapour pressure deficit. Response surface models of current-year needles net photosynthesis (Pn) response to vapour pressure deficit (VPD) and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) showed that emblings had 15% greater Pn at VPD of less than 3.0 kPa and PAR greater than 1000 μmol m−2s−1. Year-old and current-year needles of seedlings and emblings showed similar patterns of water use efficiency.
Rates of shoot growth in seedlings and emblings through the growing season were also similar to one another. Seedlings had larger shoot systems both at the time of planting and at the end of the growing season. Seedlings also had greater root development than emblings through the growing season, but root:shoot ratios for the 2 stock types were similar at the end of the growing season, when the survival rates for seedlings and emblings were 96% and 99%, respectively.
Tracking and fate maps.
Understanding the formation of a somatic embryo through establishment of morphological and molecular markers is important for construction of a fate map. The fate map is the foundation in which to build further research and experimentation. Two methods exist to construct a fate map: synchronous cell-division and time-lapse tracking. The latter typically works more consistently because of cell-cycle-altering chemicals and centrifuging involved in synchronous cell-division.
Angiosperms.
Embryo development in angiosperms is divided into several steps. The zygote is divided asymmetrically forming a small apical cell and large basal cell. The organizational pattern is formed in the globular stage and the embryo then transitions to the cotyledonary stage. Embryo development differs in monocots and dicots. Dicots pass through the globular, heart-shaped, and torpedo stages while monocots pass through globular, scutellar, and coleoptilar stages.
Many culture systems induce and maintain somatic embryogenesis by continuous exposure to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. Abscisic acid has been reported to induce somatic embryogenesis in seedlings. After callus formation, culturing on a low auxin or hormone free media will promote somatic embryo growth and root formation. In monocots, embryogenic capability is usually restricted to tissues with embryogenic or meristematic origin. Somatic cells of monocots differentiate quickly and then lose mitotic and morphogenic capability. Differences of auxin sensitivity in embryogenic callus growth between different genotypes of the same species show how variable auxin responses can be.
Carrot "Daucus carota" was the first and most understood species with regard to developmental pathways and molecular mechanisms. Time-lapse tracking by Toonen et al. (1994) showed that morphology of competent cells can vary based on shape and cytoplasm density. Five types of cells were identified from embryonic suspension: spherical cytoplasm-rich, spherical vacuolated, oval vacuolated, elongated vacuolated, and irregular shaped cells. Each type of cell multiplied with certain geometric symmetry. They developed into symmetrical, asymmetrical, and aberrantly-shaped cell clusters that eventually formed embryos at different frequencies. This indicates that organized growth polarity do not always exist in somatic embryogenesis.
Gymnosperms.
Embryo development in gymnosperms occurs in three phases. Proembryogeny includes all stages prior to suspensor elongation. Early embryogeny includes all stages after suspensor elongation but before root meristem development. Late embryogeny includes development of root and shoot meristems.
Time-lapse tracking in Norway Spruce "Picea abies" revealed that neither single cytoplasmic-rich cells nor vacuolated cells developed into embryos. Proembryogenic masses (PEMs), an intermediate between unorganized cells and an embryo composed of cytoplasmic-rich cells next to a vacuolated cell, are stimulated with auxin and cytokinin. Gradual removal of auxin and cytokinin and introduction of abscisic acid (ABA) will allow an embryo to form. Using somatic embryogenesis has been considered for mass production of vegetatively propagated conifer clones and cryopreservation of germplasm. However, the use of this technology for reforestation and tree breeding of conifers is in its infancy.


Euphyllia baliensis

Euphyllia baliensis, commonly known as bubble coral, is a species of large-polyped stony coral belonging to the family Euphylliidae.
Description.
It is best distinguished from other members of the genus "Euphyllia" by its "comparatively very small corallites (averaging 3 mm diameter) and much shorter, thinner, lightly calcified branches."
Distribution & habitat.
It can be found at depths of 27 to 37 meters off the central eastern coast of Bali, Indonesia. The species has not been reported from any other locality.


Inguinal ligament

The inguinal ligament (), also known as Poupart's ligament or groin ligament, is a band running from the pubic tubercle to the anterior superior iliac spine. It forms the base of the inguinal canal through which an indirect inguinal hernia may develop.
Structure.
The inguinal ligament runs from the anterior superior iliac crest of the ilium to the pubic tubercle of the pubic bone. It is formed by the external abdominal oblique aponeurosis and is continuous with the fascia lata of the thigh.
There is some dispute over the attachments.
Structures that pass deep to the inguinal ligament include:
Function.
The ligament serves to contain soft tissues as they course anteriorly from the trunk to the lower extremity. This structure demarcates the superior border of the femoral triangle. It demarcates the inferior border of the inguinal triangle.
The midpoint of the inguinal ligament, halfway between the anterior superior iliac spine and pubic tubercle, is the landmark for the femoral nerve.
The mid-inguinal point, halfway between the anterior superior iliac spine and the pubic symphysis, is the landmark for the femoral artery.
The external iliac arteries pass the inguinal ligament posteriorly and inferiorly.
History.
It is also referred to as Poupart's ligament, because François Poupart gave it relevance in relation to hernial repair, calling it "the suspender of the abdomen" (). It is sometimes termed the Fallopian ligament. Colles' ligament is the reflex ligament and not the inguinal ligament.


Transverse sinuses

The transverse sinuses (left and right lateral sinuses), within the human head, are two areas beneath the brain which allow blood to drain from the back of the head. They run laterally in a groove along the interior surface of the occipital bone. They drain from the confluence of sinuses (by the internal occipital protuberance) to the sigmoid sinuses, which ultimately connect to the internal jugular vein. "See diagram (at right)": labeled under the brain as "" (for Latin: "sinus transversus").
The transverse sinuses are of large size and begin at the internal occipital protuberance; one, generally the right, being the direct continuation of the superior sagittal sinus, the other of the straight sinus.
Each transverse sinus passes lateral and forward, describing a slight curve with its convexity upward, to the base of the petrous portion of the temporal bone, and lies, in this part of its course, in the attached margin of the tentorium cerebelli; it then leaves the tentorium and curves downward and medialward (an area sometimes referred to as the sigmoid sinus) to reach the jugular foramen, where it ends in the internal jugular vein.
In its course it rests upon the squama of the occipital, the mastoid angle of the parietal, the mastoid part of the temporal, and, just before its termination, the jugular process of the occipital; the portion which occupies the groove on the mastoid part of the temporal is sometimes termed the sigmoid sinus.
The transverse sinuses are frequently of unequal size, with the one formed by the superior sagittal sinus being the larger; they increase in size as they proceed, from back to center.
On transverse section, the horizontal portion exhibits a prismatic form, the curved portion has a semicylindrical form.
They receive the blood from the superior petrosal sinuses at the base of the petrous portion of the temporal bone; they communicate with the veins of the pericranium by means of the mastoid and condyloid emissary veins; and they receive some of the inferior cerebral and inferior cerebellar veins, and some veins from the diploë.
The petrosquamous sinus, when present, runs backward along the junction of the squama and petrous portion of the temporal, and opens into the transverse sinus.


Neanuroidea

Neanuroidea is a superfamily of springtails in the order Poduromorpha. There are at least 3 families and more than 730 described species in Neanuroidea.
Families.
These three families belong to the superfamily Neanuroidea:


Gyracanthides

Gyracanthides is an extinct genus of large acanthodian fish.


Guido Poppe

Guido T. Poppe (born 11 September 1954) is a Belgian malacologist, shell dealer and author of more than 20 books and publications about shells, mainly about the families Volutidae and Trochidae.
Biography.
The son of an enthusiastic sports fisherman, Guido became fascinated at a young age by marine life during yearly holidays in Brittany, France. His first diving experiences were in these cold waters in 1968.
He developed a career as a professional freelance conchologist. This allowed him to dive in many parts of the world, in European waters and in many tropical seas from Baja California to Queensland, Australia. In 2003 he moved from Belgium to the Philippines. Most of his dives are now concentrated in the Philippines. After more than 6,000 dives, he has compiled an extensive collection of photographs of seashells and marine life.
His interest in conchology gradually brought him fame in this field, mainly through publishing books on the subject.
He was the vice-president of the "Société Belge de Malacologie" (Belgian Malacological Society) for eight years.
Scientific work.
He discovered more than 1000 new species of Mollusca and described more than 230 of these, mainly in the families Volutidae and Trochidae and on the Philippine malacofauna. The World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) has already listed 311 marine species named by Poppe (alone or together with others such as SheilaTagaro, Henk Dekker, Yoshihiro Goto or Salisbury) in its database. More than 40 species have been named after him by scientists from all over the world either with the epithet "poppei", "guidopoppei" or "guidoi".
In July 2004 Guido Poppe created together with his son Philippe Poppe (1977–) the journal, "Visaya", specialising in the taxonomy of Mollusca. He named the calliostoma topsnail "Calliostoma philippei", another sea snail "Calliotropis philippei" and "Bayerotrochus philpoppei" after his son. Guido Poppe named the topsnail "Calliostoma mariae" after his mother Maria Peyskens.
Bibliography.
In 1999 with Klaus Groh, he started the prestigious series "A Conchological Iconography", which today is one of the biggest compilations of its time. The following volumes have already appeared:
Poppe also wrote dozens of popular articles in journals and magazines such as "Hawaiian Shell News", "Of Sea and Shore", "Malacologia", "Apex", "Novapex", "Musorstom", "Informations", "Gloria Maris", "Visaya" etc.
Scientific collections.
As a collector he built major conchological collections, which are now housed in prestigious museums all over the world:


Epiperipatus broadwayi

Epiperipatus broadwayi is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatidae family. The type locality is in Tobago.


Angarella

Angarella is an early palaeozoic genus of problematic fossils, long held to belong to the molluscs based on supposed similarities in its musculature to that of hyoliths (now known to be brachiopod relatives) and mobergellids, but now considered to represent a brachiopod based on its calcitic mineralogy and paired symmetrical valves.
Its dorsal valve is low and conical, whereas its ventral is flat and follows the contours of the substrate, indicating a cementing habit.
The dorsal valve bears a series of symmetrical muscle impressions, forming a ring concentric with the edge of the shell. The ventral valve has a pair of internal depressions.


Central Flyway

The Central Flyway is a bird migration route that generally follows the Great Plains in the United States and Canada. The main endpoints of the flyway include the Canadian Prairies and the region surrounding the Gulf of Mexico; the migration route tends to narrow considerably in the Platte River and Missouri River valleys of central and eastern Nebraska, which accounts for the high number of bird species found there. Some birds even use this flyway to migrate from the Arctic Ocean to Patagonia. Routes used by birds are typically established because no mountains or large hills block the flyway over its entire extent. Good sources of water, food, and cover exist over its entire length.
The other primary migration routes for North American birds includes the Atlantic, Mississippi and Pacific Flyways. The Central Flyway merges with the Mississippi Flyway between Missouri and the Gulf of Mexico.
The Central Flyway Council is composed of representatives from agencies responsible for migratory bird management in 10 states, two Canadian provinces and the Northwest Territories. Member states and provinces in the council are: Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, North Dakota, Alberta and Saskatchewan.


Esprit Requien

Esprit Requien (6 May 1788, Avignon – 30 May 1851, Bonifacio, Corse-du-Sud) was a French naturalist, who made contributions in the fields of conchology, paleontology and especially botany.
From the age of 18, he was associated with the botanical garden in the city of Avignon. He performed extensive studies of flora native to Corsica and in the environs of Mont Ventoux. During his lifetime, he amassed an herbarium of 300,000 specimens.
In the fields of conchology and palaeontology, he conducted collecting expeditions to the Pyrenees, Catalonia and Italy. The natural history museum, Musée Requien, in Avignon is named in his honor.
He is the taxonomic authority of a monotypic plant genus "Helxine", now treated as a synonym of Soleirolia, in the nettle family Urticaceae. The genera "Requienella" (author Jean-Henri Fabre) and "Requienia" (author Augustin Pyramus de Candolle) are named after him, as are plants with the specific and subspecific epithets of "requienii".
The World Register of Marine Species lists 57 marine species names by Requien, most of which have become synonyms.


Tarpon Springs Sponge Boats MPS

The following buildings were added to the National Register of Historic Places as part of the Tarpon Springs Sponge Boats "Multiple Property Submission" (or "MPS").


Inferior sagittal sinus

The inferior sagittal sinus (also known as inferior longitudinal sinus), within the human head, is an area beneath the brain which allows blood to drain outwards posteriorly from the center of the head. It drains (from the center of the brain) to the straight sinus (at the back of the head), which connects to the transverse sinuses. "See diagram (at right)": labeled in the brain as "" (for Latin: "sinus sagittalis inferior").
The inferior sagittal sinus courses along the inferior border of the falx cerebri, superior to the corpus callosum.
It receives blood from the deep and medial aspects of the cerebral hemispheres and drains into the straight sinus.


Coenobium (morphology)


Development of the urinary system

</noinclude>The development of the urinary system begins during prenatal development, and relates to the development of the urogenital system – both the organs of the urinary system and the sex organs of the reproductive system. The development continues as a part of sexual differentiation.
The urinary and reproductive organs are developed from the intermediate mesoderm. The permanent organs of the adult are preceded by a set of structures which are purely embryonic, and which with the exception of the ducts disappear almost entirely before birth. These embryonic structures are on either side; the pronephros, the mesonephros and the metanephros of the kidney, and the Wolffian and Müllerian ducts of the sex organ. The pronephros disappears very early; the structural elements of the mesonephros mostly degenerate, but the gonad is developed in their place, with which the Wolffian duct remains as the duct in males, and the Müllerian as that of the female. Some of the tubules of the mesonephros form part of the permanent kidney.
Pronephros and Wolffian duct.
Wolffian duct.
In the outer part of the intermediate mesoderm, immediately under the ectoderm, in the region from the fifth cervical segment to the third thoracic segment, a series of short evaginations from each segment grows dorsally and extends caudally, fusing successively from before backward to form the pronephric duct. This continues to grow caudally until it opens into the ventral part of the cloaca; beyond the pronephros it is termed the Wolffian duct. Thus, the Wolffian duct is what remains of the pronephric duct after the atrophy of the pronephros.
Pronephros.
The original evaginations form a series of transverse tubules each of which communicates by means of a funnel-shaped ciliated opening with the abdominal cavity, and in the course of each duct a glomerulus also is developed. A secondary glomerulus is formed ventral to each of these, and the complete group constitutes the pronephros. In humans, the pronephros is just rudimentary, and undergoes rapid atrophy and disappears.
Wolffian duct.
Mesonephros.
On the medial side of the Wolffian duct, from the sixth cervical to the third lumbar segments, a series of tubules, the Wolffian tubules, develops. They increase in number by outgrowths from the original tubules. They change from solid masses of cells to instead become hollowed in the center. One end grows toward and finally opens into the Wolffian duct, the other dilates and is invaginated by a tuft of capillary bloodvessels to form a glomerulus. The tubules collectively constitute the mesonephros.
The mesonephros persists and form the permanent kidneys in fish and amphibians, but in reptiles, birds, and mammals, it atrophies and for the most part disappears rapidly as the permanent kidney (metanephros) develops beginning during the sixth or seventh week, so that by the beginning of the fifth month only the ducts and a few of the tubules of the mesonephros remain.
Development in male.
In the male the Wolffian duct persists, and forms for example the epididymis, the ductus deferens, the ejaculatory duct, seminal vesicle and efferent ducts.
In the female, on the other hand, the Wolffian bodies and ducts atrophy, leaving behind only remnants in the adult, involving e.g. the development of the suspensory ligament of the ovary.
Müllerian duct.
Shortly after the formation of the Wolffian ducts a second pair of ducts is developed; these are the Müllerian ducts. Each arises on the lateral aspect of the corresponding Wolffian duct as a tubular invagination of the cells lining the abdominal cavity. The orifice of the invagination remains open, and undergoes enlargement and modification to form the abdominal ostium of the fallopian tube. The ducts pass backward lateral to the Wolffian ducts, but toward the posterior end of the embryo they cross to the medial side of these ducts, and thus come to lie side by side between and behind the latter—the four ducts forming what is termed the "common genital cord", to distinguish it from the "genital cords of the germinal epithelium" seen later in this article. The Müllerian ducts end in an epithelial elevation, the Müllerian eminence, on the ventral part of the cloaca between the orifices of the Wolffian ducts. At a later stage the eminence opens in the middle, connecting the Müllerian ducts with the cloaca.
Atrophy in males.
In the male the Müllerian ducts atrophy, but traces of their anterior ends are represented by the appendices testis (hydatids of Morgagni of the male), while their terminal fused portions form the utriculus in the floor of the prostatic urethra.
Development in females.
In the female the Müllerian ducts persist and undergo further development. The portions which lie in the "genital cord" fuse to form the uterus and vagina. This fusion of the Müllerian ducts begins in the third month, and the septum formed by their fused medial walls disappears from below upward.
The parts outside this cord remain separate, and each forms the corresponding Fallopian tube. The ostium of the fallopian tube remains from the anterior extremity of the original tubular invagination from the abdominal cavity.
About the fifth month a ring-like constriction marks the position of the cervix of the uterus, and after the sixth month the walls of the uterus begin to thicken. For a time the vagina is represented by a solid rod of epithelial cells. A ring-like outgrowth of this epithelium occurs at the lower end of the uterus and marks the future vaginal fornix. At about the fifth or sixth month the lumen of the vagina is produced by the breaking down of the central cells of the epithelium. The hymen represents the remains of the Müllerian eminence.
Metanephros and definitive kidney.
The metanephros is the definite, permanent, but yet immature kidney. It arises from two directions. On one hand, the precursor of the ureter buds from the Wolffian duct, while on the other hand, the precursor of the renal tubules develop from the metanephrogenic blastema. The ureteric bud subsequently grows into the latter mass, forming the parts of the nephron. Other changes include e.g. the translocation of the ureteric opening directly into the cloaca.
Ureteric bud.
The rudiments of the permanent kidneys make their appearance about the end of the first or the beginning of the second month. Each kidney originates as a ureteric bud from the caudal end of the Wolffian duct, which, in turn, originates from intermediate mesoderm. The ureteric bud starts close to where the Wolffian duct opens into the cloaca, and grows dorsalward and rostralward along the posterior abdominal wall, where its blind extremity expands and subsequently divides into several buds, which form the rudiments of the renal pelvis and renal calyces; by continued growth and subdivision it gives rise to the collecting duct system of the kidney. The other, more superficial, portion of the diverticulum, on the other hand, becomes the ureter.
Metanephrogenic blastema.
The renal corpuscles and renal tubules, in contrast, are developed from the metanephrogenic blastema instead of from the ureteric bud. The metanephrogenic blastema is moulded over the growing end of the latter, and becomes a part of the metanephros in this way. The renal tubules of the metanephros, unlike those of the pronephros and mesonephros, do not open into the Wolffian duct. Instead, the tubules rapidly elongate to form the parts of the nephron: the proximal tubules, the loops of Henle and the distal convoluted tubules. These last join and establish communications with the collecting duct system derived from the ultimate ramifications of the ureteric bud. In the other end, the renal tubules give rise to Bowman's capsules and glomeruli.
Other changes.
The mesoderm around the tubules becomes condensed to form the connective tissue of the kidney. The ureter opens at first into the hind-end of the Wolffian duct; after the sixth week it separates from the Wolffian duct, and opens independently into the part of the cloaca which ultimately becomes the urinary bladder. The renal tubules become arranged into renal pyramids, and the lobulated condition of the kidneys exists for some time after birth, while traces of it may be found even in the adult. The kidney of the ox and many other animals, on the other hand, remains lobulated throughout life.
Urinary bladder.
The urinary bladder is formed partly from the endodermal cloaca and partly from the ends of the Wolffian ducts. In other words, the allantois takes no share in its formation.
After the separation of the rectum from the dorsal part of the cloaca, the ventral part becomes the primary urogenital sinus. The urogenital sinus, in turn, divides into the superficial definitive urogenital sinus and the deeper anterior vesico-urethral portion.
Definitive urogenital sinus.
The definitive urogenital sinus consists of a caudal phallic portion and an intermediate narrow channel, the pelvic portion.
Vesico-urethral portion.
The vesico-urethral portion is the deepest, continuous with the allantois. It absorbs the ends of the Wolffian ducts and the associated ends of the renal diverticula, and these give rise to the trigone of urinary bladder and part of the prostatic urethra. The remainder of the vesico-urethral portion forms the body of the bladder and part of the prostatic urethra; its apex is prolonged to the umbilicus as a narrow canal, the urachus, which later is obliterated and becomes the median umbilical ligament of the adult.
Sex organs.
Until about the ninth week of gestational age, the sex organs of males and females look the same, and follow a common development. This includes the development of a genital tubercle and a membrane dorsally to it, covering the developing urogenital opening, and the development of labioscrotal folds.
Even after differentiation can be seen between the sexes, some stages are common, e.g. the disappearing of the membrane. On the other hand, sex-dependent development include further protrusion of the genital tubercle in the male to form the penis. Furthermore, the labioscrotal folds evolve into the scrotum in males, while they evolve into labia in females.
Diagram of internal differentiation.
A.—Diagram of the primitive urogenital organs in the embryo previous to sexual distinction.
B.—Diagram of the female type of sexual organs.
C.—Diagram of the male type of sexual organs.


Logperch

Logperches are a group of fish in the genus "Percina" of the family Percidae.
There are 11 species of logperch, native to eastern parts of the US and Canada. The fish inhabit clear, gravelly streams and lakes, reaching a maximum size of about and a maximum age of about 3 years. "Percina caprodes" is the most widespread of the species; some of the species with more restricted distribution are threatened in various ways. Due to their small size, the fish are not normally harvested for food. Habitat alteration and inappropriate land use practices are the most common population stressors.
The logperch is commonly found as a baby and around in length, it has features like small black dots on the surface, elongated front fins, and a long skinny body.


Friedrich Wilhelm Kopsch

Friedrich Wilhelm Theodor Kopsch (4 March 1868 in Saarbrücken - 24 January 1955 in Berlin) was a German anatomist born in Saarbrücken.
Life.
He studied under Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer (1836-1921) at the University of Berlin, obtaining his medical doctorate in 1892 with a thesis on the ciliary body and iris of the reptilian eye. In 1898 he received his habilitation in Berlin, and in 1935 was appointed full professor of histology, embryology and anatomy at the institute of Hermann Stieve (1886-1952).
Kopsch published numerous works on comparative anatomy and embryology, and with August Rauber (1841-1917) was co-author of the "Lehrbuch und Atlas der Anatomie des Menschen". After Rauber's death, he was its sole author.


Terminal cisternae

Terminal cisternae are enlarged areas of the sarcoplasmic reticulum surrounding the transverse tubules.
Function.
Terminal cisternae are discrete regions within the muscle cell. They store calcium (increasing the capacity of the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium) and release it when an action potential courses down the transverse tubules, eliciting muscle contraction. Because terminal cisternae ensure rapid calcium delivery, they are well developed in muscles that contract quickly, such as fast twitch skeletal muscle. Terminal cisternae then go on to release calcium, which binds to troponin. This releases tropomyosin, exposing active sites of the thin filament, actin.
There are several mechanisms directly linked to the terminal cisternae which facilitate excitation-contraction coupling. When excitation of the membrane arrives at the T-tubule nearest the muscle fiber, a dihydropyridine (DHP) channel is activated. This is similar to a voltage-gated calcium channel, but is not actually an ionotropic channel. Instead, it serves to activate ryanodine, which will let calcium ions pass into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and triggers calcium release to the muscle fiber itself.
A T-tubule surrounded by two terminal cisternae is referred to as a "triad" in physiology. The terminal cisternae, along with the transverse tubules, are the mechanisms of transduction from a nervous impulse to an actual muscle contraction.


Phyllodesmium kabiranum

Phyllodesmium kabiranum is a species of sea slug, an aeolid nudibranch, a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Facelinidae.
Distribution.
The type locality for "Phyllodesmium kabiranum" is Ishigaki, Okinawa, Japan. It has also been reported from the Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia.
Description.
This is a large species of "Phyllodesmium" which has been reported to grow to 75 mm in length.
This species contains zooxanthellae.
Ecology.
The food species for "Phyllodesmium kabiranum" is a xeniid soft coral.


Sphenoidal lingula

Along the posterior part of the lateral margin of the carotid groove of the sphenoid bone, in the angle between the body and great wing, is a ridge of bone, called the lingula.


Mary Anne Whitby

Mary Anne Theresa Whitby (1783–1850), née Symonds, was an English writer, landowner, and artist. She became an authority on the cultivation of silkworms, and in the 1830s reintroduced sericulture to the United Kingdom. During the 1840s, she corresponded extensively with Charles Darwin about silkworms, conducting breeding experiments to help develop his theories of natural selection.
Early life.
Mary Anne Theresa Symonds was born in 1783, the daughter of the Royal Navy officer Captain Thomas Symonds. Her elder brother William later became Surveyor of the Navy. Around the turn of the century she married Captain John Whitby, with whom she had one daughter. Whitby was flag captain for Admiral Sir William Cornwallis. After Cornwallis was removed from command of the Channel Fleet in early 1806, Whitby and his family were invited to live on his Newlands estate at Milford on Sea. John died shortly afterwards, on 6 April 1806, but Mary remained as a companion for Cornwallis during his retirement – he was prone to depression, and as he had spent much of his life at sea, he had few close friends in society and had never married. On his death in July 1819 she was bequeathed almost all of Cornwallis's estate. A small additional bequest went to William Symonds, Mary's brother, who used it to launch a successful career in naval architecture.
Whitby later acquired the Milford Baddesley estate, bringing together a large amount of the holdings in the area. She remained living on the estate for the rest of her life. In 1827 her daughter Theresa married the Hon. Frederick Richard West, the Member of Parliament for Denbigh and a cousin of the Earl De la Warr. Their children took Cornwallis as a middle name; the most notable of these was William Cornwallis-West, who also became a Member of Parliament.
Sericulture.
In 1835, Whitby was travelling in Italy when she encountered stories of an English businessman who had made substantial profits from silkworms on a mulberry plantation near Milan. She resolved to try the same project in England, hoping that as well as turning a profit it would be able to reintroduce the industry to the country and provide employment for poor women. Early attempts had been made to introduce mulberries and silkworms by James I of England in the early seventeenth century, but while the trees had survived the silkworms had not thrived.
It took her a decade to develop economically viable silk production – the major problem proved to be processing the raw silk, rather than rearing the silkworms – but she persevered, and in 1844 produced twenty yards of damask, which she presented to Queen Victoria.
Work with Darwin.
In 1846, Whitby read a paper on the breeding of silkworms at a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in Southampton. Here she met Charles Darwin, who later asked her to perform a series of experiments on heritability in silkworms, looking at whether characteristics such as silklessness were passed down between generations of worms – "for in a work which I intend some few years hence to publish on variation, there will be hardly any facts in the insect world". He also asked her for advice on a series of other questions, including the flight of domesticated moths and the behaviour of different breeds of caterpillars.
She provided him with a set of specimens of moths, noting their sexual dimorphism, and promised to carry out some more detailed investigations; her selective breeding experiments over the next two years persuaded Darwin that characteristics in the larval stage were inherited, a result which he later published in "The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication" (1868).


Paris type

Paris type is a pattern of mycorrhizal infection which is coil-like in morphology.


Tasmanian nativehen

The Tasmanian native hen ("Tribonyx mortierii") (alternate spellings: Tasmanian native-hen or Tasmanian nativehen is a flightless rail and one of twelve species of birds endemic to the Australian island of Tasmania. Although many flightless birds have a history of extinction at the hands of humans, the Tasmanian native hen has actually benefited from the introduction of European-style agricultural practices in Tasmania.
Nomenclature.
Originally described in 1840 as "Tribonyx mortierii" — the "mortierii" being in honour of Barthélemy Charles Joseph Dumortier — this species goes by various names. Perhaps the majority of academic and dictionary sources use Tasmanian native hen, while some specialist sources use Tasmanian nativehen. Other names include narkie, waterhen and turbo chook.
Description.
The Tasmanian native hen is a stocky flightless bird between in length. The upperparts are olive brown with a white patch on the flank. The underparts are darker with a bluish grey tinge. The short tail is close to black and mostly held erect. The legs are thick and powerful, with a grey scaly appearance and sharp claws. The eyes are bright red. The bill has a small frontal shield and is a greenish yellow colour.
The juvenile bird is similar in appearance to the adult, but the colours are more subdued on the body and the underparts have fine white spots. The bill is greenish yellow and the eyes are bright red. Male birds generally have longer bills and legs, though there is enough overlap that the sexes are indistinguishable, even in the hand.
Habitat and distribution.
The Tasmanian native hen is a sedentary species, living around open grassy areas close to water. It is widespread in Tasmania apart from the west and south west regions. It is not found on King or Flinders Islands in Bass Strait, though Michael Sharland does record it as being on Flinders Island. A population introduced to Maria Island is now well established. It is generally common and easily seen around bodies of water that have grassy verges.
Fossil records indicate that the Tasmanian native hen was found on the Australian mainland until around 4700 years ago. Suggested reasons for its extinction there have included the introduction of the dingo, or an extremely dry period.
Behaviour and social organisation.
The Tasmanian native hen's social organisation has been extensively studied. Tasmanian native hens live in groups of between two and five, plus the young birds from the previous breeding season, which tend to stay with the group and contribute to the care of the young until they move off to establish their own territories after approximately one year. The sedentary nature of the species means that groups hold sharply defined territories of up to , and repel transgression into their territory vigorously with calls and displays. Fights can also occur, where birds will jump, peck and kick at each other violently, sometimes drawing blood and pulling feathers.
The breeding structure may be monogamous or polygamous, usually polyandrous. Each group contains a single breeding female who will mate with all the males of the group. The unusual social structure based on groups who stay together is not known to occur in many other species; the high ratio of male chicks to female chicks hatched is thought to be a possible explanation for this.
The Tasmanian native hen has 14 separate calls, ranging from low grunts to high pitched alarm calls as well as a see-sawing duet performed in unison, rising to a crescendo of harsh screeching notes, It also calls at night.
Although flightless, this bird is capable of running quickly and has been recorded running at speeds up to . It uses its wings when running fast to help it to balance.
Breeding.
The breeding season begins in the period from July to September, depending upon rainfall and the availability of food. Birds will usually breed once per year, however in good years, with high availability of food, two broods may be produced. The nest is a rough, flattened grass mattress, among taller grasses and is usually built close to water, or on damp ground. With a clutch size of five to eight, the oval eggs measure around and are a dull yellow or buff to brown with some spotting of reddish brown and lavender. As well as the primary nest, nursery nests are constructed with the purpose of roosting with chicks at night and as hiding places in case of predators. Chicks are covered in a dark brown fluffy down.
Diet.
The diet of the Tasmanian native hen is mostly made up of grass shoots and the leaves of low herbs which it grazes during daylight hours. Birds will also eat insects, seeds and orchard fruit. The species has a reputation among farmers as an agricultural pest. The damage to agriculture was extensively studied in the 1960s by M Ridpath and G Meldrum, who found that although there is some damage to crops, rabbits were responsible for more damage. Many beliefs held by farmers about damage to crops were found to be unlikely, with damage probably caused by other species.
The Tasmanian native hen is a secondary grazer, meaning that it depends on other species to keep grass swards low and with fresh shoots. Before European settlement in Tasmania, the cleared spaces required for feeding would probably have been provided by Indigenous burning of grasslands to provide feeding grounds for mammals, which would be hunted for food. The expansion of these cleared grassy areas, and the introduction of rabbits, has provided greater food sources and consequently greater numbers of the species within its range.
Conservation status and threats.
The Tasmanian native hen is currently classified as a species of least concern by the IUCN. Although there is a healthy population size and no significant falls have been measured, there is concern about the possible arrival of the red fox in Tasmania and the possible impact that it will have on this and other species.
As of 15 August 2007, the Tasmanian native hen was listed as protected under Tasmanian legislation. Prior to this the Tasmanian native hen was one of only four native birds that had no legal protection outside national parks and other reserves in the state of Tasmania—the last of Tasmania's 12 endemic bird species with this dubious status. The three remaining unprotected native species are the forest raven, the great cormorant, and the little pied cormorant. All other native Tasmanian birds are listed as protected under the state's Nature Conservation Act 2002.


Tendon cell

Vertebrates.
Tendon cells, or tenocytes, are elongated fibroblast type cells. The cytoplasm is stretched between the collagen fibres of the tendon. They have a central cell nucleus with a prominent nucleolus. Tendon cells have a well-developed rough endoplasmic reticulum and they are responsible for synthesis and turnover of tendon fibres and ground substance.
Invertebrates.
Tendon cells form a connecting epithelial layer between the muscle and shell in molluscs. In gastropods, for example, the retractor muscles connect to the shell via tendon cells. Muscle cells are attached to the collagenous myo-tendon space via hemidesmosomes. The myo-tendon space is then attached to the base of the tendon cells via basal hemidesmosomes, while apical hemidesmosomes, which sit atop microvilli, attach the tendon cells to a thin layer of collagen. This is in turn attached to the shell via organic fibres which insert into the shell. Molluscan tendon cells appear columnar and contain a large basal cell nucleus. The cytoplasm is filled with granular endoplasmic reticulum and sparse golgi. Dense bundles of microfilaments run the length of the cell connecting the basal to the apical hemidesmosomes.


Cape Liddon

Cape Liddon is an uninhabited headland on Devon Island in the Qikiqtaaluk Region of Nunavut, Canada. It is located on the southwestern coast of the island at Radstock Bay.
Geography.
The habitat is characterized by open sea, rocky marine shores, and Silurian limestone coastal cliffs that rise to an elevation of above sea level . It is in size.
Fauna.
The cape is a Canadian Important Bird Area (#NU059), an International Biological Program site (Region 9, #2-15) and a Key Migratory Bird Terrestrial Habitat Site. Notable bird species include black guillemot and northern fulmar.


Nodocapitus barryi

Nodocapitus barryi is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. It is found in Queensland and New South Wales, Australia.


Cornulariidae

Cornulariidae is a family of soft corals in the suborder Stolonifera.
Genera.
The World Register of Marine Species includes the following two genera in the family:


Deep auricular artery

The deep auricular artery often arises in common with the anterior tympanic artery.
It ascends in the substance of the parotid gland, behind the temporomandibular articulation, pierces the cartilaginous or bony wall of the external acoustic meatus, and supplies its cuticular lining and the outer surface of the tympanic membrane.
It gives a branch to the temporomandibular joint.


Stenostomidae

Stenostomidae is a family of freshwater catenulid flatworms. It is the most species-rich family of catenulids, with about 70 species described, most of them in the Neotropics.
Catenulids of the family Stenostomidae are characterized by the brain divided into four clearly separated lobes, two anterior and two posterior, which lie near the mouth. The preoral zone contains a group of sensor cells with ciliated pits organized in long precerebral series.


Lymph heart

A lymph heart is an organ which pumps lymph in lungfishes, amphibians, reptiles, and flightless birds back into the circulatory system. In some amphibian species, lymph hearts are in pairs, and may number as many as 200 in one animal the size of a worm, while salamanders have as many as 23 pairs of lymph hearts.
In frogs.
The lymphatic system of a frog consists of lymph, lymph vessels, lymph heart, lymph spaces and spleen. Some mast cells can also be found in the lymphatics of the tongue of some of the frog species.
Lymphatics and lymph.
As lymph is a filtrate of blood, it closely resembles the plasma in its water content. Lymph also contains a small amount of metabolic waste and a much smaller amount of protein than that of blood. Lymph vessels carry the lymph and, in the frog, open into the four lymph hearts. These lymph hearts are located on the dorsal side of frog's body. The front pair is situated below the shoulder blades. The posterior pair is on either side of a long, rod-like bone called a urostyle, formed by the fusion of the last few vertebrae. The anterior pair opens into the subclavian vein and the posterior pair into the femoral vein. The pair near the third vertebra pumps lymph into the jugular vein. The other pair at the end of the vertebral column pump lymph into the iliac vein in the legs.
Mast cells in the lymphatics of the tongue.
"Rana catesbiana" and "Rana nigromaculata" have mast cells in the lymphatics of the tongue. These are round and in the monocellular layer of the lymphatic walls either in close adhesion or in contact with the cytoplasmic process.
Mechanism of the lymph hearts.
The lymph hearts rhythmically and slowly pump to drive the lymph into the veins. It is possible to see the lymph hearts beat by looking on the dorsal surface on either side of the urostyle. In the toad, the normal lymph heart rate is about 50 beats per minute. Thus the lymph emerging out of blood ultimately merges into the blood. It returns the proteins back to blood.
Lymph heart size and pump rate.
These hearts vary in size from microscopic in lungfish to an estimated 20-liter capacity in some of the largest dinosaurs. In frogs and turtles they pump at rates higher than the blood heart and the volumes pumped are quite remarkable. In toads and frogs, this volume can amount to about 1/50 the output of blood from the heart. In amphibians, lymph hearts lie at vein junctions. Frogs and salamanders have 10 to 20 lymph hearts, while caecilians have more than 100. Conversely, reptiles have single pair of lymph hearts in the pelvic area. In flightless (ratite) birds, the lymph heart function is less clear and the two almond-sized hearts located near the spinal column close to the hip joint are thought to be involved in inflating and deflating the phallus with lymph, which is of a significant size in both sexes of emus and ostriches.


Orchesella bifasciata

Orchesella bifasciata is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae.


Denis Robert Pack-Beresford

Denis Robert Pack-Beresford (1864–1942) was an Irish entomologist and arachnologist.
Life.
Denis Robert Pack-Beresford was born on 23 March 1864, the son of Denis Pack-Beresford of Fenagh House, Bagnalstown, Co. Carlow, and Annette Brown. He was the eldest son of nine children. His father served as MP for Carlow from 1862 to 1868. Pack-Beresford attended Rugby School, and then Christ Church, Oxford, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts in 1887.
Pack-Beresford married Alice Harriet Cromie Lyle (c.1869 – 2 June 1918) in 1891, with which he had one adopted daughter, Vera. Aside from his interest in zoology, Pack-Beresford became the estate owner at Fenagh House in 1881, and went on to serve as the High Sheriff of Carlow, the Deputy Lieutenant, and Justice of the Peace. He was appointed an OBE in 1918. He died on 6 March 1942, and his estate passed to his nephew Commander Denis John Pack-Beresford. During the First World War Denis R. Pack-Beresford served on the committee of the Order of St John and British Red Cross Society as part of the civilian war effort.
Zoological work.
Although Pack-Beresford is noted as being interested in natural history since childhood, he did not publish on the subject until 1898. He is most notable for his contributions to the field of arachnology and the study of woodlice and wasps in Ireland and Britain. He was a member of the Royal Irish Academy (RIA) sitting on its council, and the Royal Dublin Society (RDS) acting as hon. secretary and vice-president during his life. It was through his association with the RIA that he took part in its surveys of Lambay and Clare Island. He was encouraged in his study of woodlice by R.F. Scharff, and G.H. Carpenter to work on spiders.
Due to failing eyesight, Pack-Beresford had to give up his work towards the end of his life, as it relied heavily on the use of microscopes. His zoological collections are now housed in the Natural History Museum, Dublin and his papers are held by the Royal Irish Academy.