Champion-Providence Mine

Champion-Providence Mine was a consolidation of two adjoining gold mines in Nevada City, California subsequent to the California Gold Rush. After it became the Champion Group following annexation of additional adjacent mining concerns, it became one of the two most productive mining groups in the Nevada City Mining District, alongside the North Star Mine, which eventually purchased it. The Champion-Providence Mine closed in 1920.
Champion Mine.
Early years.
The Champion mine is situated on Deer Creek, one mile west of Nevada City, at an altitude of . The property had an original area of .
The Champion property, located in 1851 as the New Years, was not opened as early as the adjoining Providence mine and in 1888 the inclined shaft had reached a depth of only 300' (180’ vertical) and only 350’ of drifts had been driven. In 1892 a consolidation with the adjoining Merrified and 8 other claims had been effected and the development work consisted of a 3000’ drain tunnel driven from Wolf Creek on the vein and intersecting the shaft at a depth of 600'; an inclined shaft on the vein 1000’ in depth and the ten levels had reached a maximum length of 1000’ north of the shaft. Although compelled to suspend operations at intervals during the period from 1892 to 1902, owing to the Providence-Champion legal war, the Champion shaft had been sunk to a depth of 2400’ on the vein and a new shaft on the Merrifield vein had reached a depth of 900 feet.
Holdings.
The course of the vein is north and south, dipping easterly with an inclination of 42 degrees. The vein is a large one, varying from in width and averaging from . The fissure is a contact between a syenite in the hanging wall and a slate in the foot. This is probably due to the size of the vein and its permanence in depth. The property of the company consisted of a consolidation of ten claims, as follows: Merrifield, Climax, New Years, New Years Extension, Miiller, Phillips, Ural Relocation, Bavaria, Merrifield Extension, and Mary Ann. Two parallel veins were included in the property, the more eastern being the Merrifield, and the western, or foot wall vein, the New Years. The Champion Mine holdings included the Merrifield and Ural, together with the Wyoming and other minor veins, comprising one of the most important vein systems of the Nevada City District.
The Merrifield vein which varies in strike from N. to N. 20° W. and had an average dip of 35° E., was one of the longest and most persistent veins in the Nevada City district. It could be traced from a point 3000’ south of the Providence shaft to the Mount Auburn mine, a total distance of 11,000 feet. South of the Providence shaft, the Merrifield vein at the surface occurred near and at the contact of the slates and granodiorite. North of the Providence shaft, the vein occurred wholly in the granodiorite. The fissures were the result of intense dynamic stresses which resulted in a movement of the granodiorite hanging wall upward a distance of 1200 ft. As a result of the intense movement, there was generally a zone of crushed and altered material reaching a maximum width of 30 ft. The Merrifield quartz veins occurring in this altered zone varied in width from one to ten feet; of the wider veins, from four to six feet was solid quartz. In some cases, the ore bodies occurred along parallel planes separated by a few feet of altered country rock, while in others they are lentieular in form. The ore was a milky white quartz carrying an average of 6% of sulphides, consisting of pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena and sphalerite. ‘Specimen ore’ rarely occurs.
The Ural vein, which lies parallel and 500' west of the Merrifield, follows the contact of the granodiorite and contact metamorphosed Calaveras formation. It can be traced from the Champion shaft, N. 15° W. for a distance of 3500’, to within a short distance of the ‘New’ Nevada City shaft. At this point the vein takes a sharp bend to the westward (N. 70° W.) following the contact and can be traced to the Coan mine a distance of 4000’, making a total length of 7500 ft. From the point mentioned, a branch vein continues northward for a distance of 1000’ into the granodiorite, but appears to die out before intersecting the northern extension of the Merrifield vein. The Ural vein has an average dip of 35° E. and was worked in crosscuts from the 600', 1200’ and 1800’ levels. On the 600' level a drift was driven south from the crosscut on the Merrifield vein. This drift shows that 400’ south of the crosscut the vein enters an altered diabase and then splits, the east branch continuing south and then east in the diabase, while the west branch taking first a westerly and then a southerly course, finally enters an unaltered black slate. In the Providence mine the main ore body lies north of the point where the vein enters the diabase and was about 150’ in length with an average width of from 24; to 3 feet. The vein carries a black gouge on the foot-wall and several feet of altered granodiorite on the hanging wall. The sulphides are pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena and zinc blende amounting to from 5 to 8 per cent, and an occurrence of telluride of silver and lead is reported. The physical and mineralogical characteristics of the Ural vein, as shown by the Champion workings, are similar to those in the Providence ground. The Wyoming vein, which lies in the footwall of the Ural vein, dips to the east and joins the latter in depth. It seems probable that this vein in its northern extension is the one that intersects the Ural vein in the vicinity of the ‘Old’ Nevada City shaft. The northern continuation of the Ural vein in the Nevada City (Gold Hill) property was extensively worked since 1879, and in 1914 most of the ore being produced was coming from this source. The vein averages about 2' in width, reaching at times a maximum of 12 feet. As in the case of the Ural vein in the Champion-Providence territory the lode in the Nevada City ground shows the characteristic evidence of intense movement and alteration. The sulphides, however, average only 2% per cent.
Operations.
The mine was worked through an incline shaft in length, with an inclination of about 42 degrees. Eight levels were turned from the shaft with a maximum extent north of , and south . A drain tunnel extending north from the shaft into the hill relieved the mine of the surface water.
Two shoots of ore were worked, one on the north and the other on the south of the shaft. That on the south was of high grade, while the north shoot was large, but contained low-grade ore. As depth was attained the north shoot pitched south more rapidly; crossing the shaft between the 6OO-foot and 900-foot levels. As the north, or low-grade shoot, approached the south shoot, an improvement in the grade of the former was noticeable, increasing as the shoots approached each other without any decrease in the grade and size of the rich shoot. The ore from the mine was of good grade, while the cost of mining was very small, varying from US$2.50 to $3 per ton. The ore was free milling, but at times very heavily mineralized. Ore of this character and quality ran from $150 to $200 per ton. Notwithstanding this heavy mineralization, the ore throughout yielded from 4 per cent to 5 per cent of sulphurets, with a total average value of $80 per ton, about $10 per ton being silver. The product was treated in the chlorination works belonging to the company.
The water from the mine was light, the largest pump being an plunger pump, which sufficed to keep clear of water the workings below the tunnel level. Ventilation was afforded by a regular system of winzes from level to level.
The ore was crushed in a fifteen-stamp mill. The weight of stamps was seven hundred and fifty pounds, dropping seven inches 90 times per minute, and crushing through No. 5 round-punched screens. The duty per stamp was one and two-thirds tons per day. No rockbreakers or self-feeders were used, but the introduction of the same was contemplated. Steel shoes and iron dies were used. The sulphurets were saved on six Frue concentrators. The chlorination plant owned by the mine was formerly the property of the Merrifield Company. It contained one roasting furnace inside measurement. It had a capacity of four tons per day; when sufficient sulphurets had accumulated, a run is made. The sulphurets of the Mountaineer Mine was usually treated in these works. The cost of treatment was $8 per ton. The mine was provided with water power throughout; three Pelton wheels were used: a for plunger, and an for hoisting. Power for the mill was obtained from a wheel. Altogether a total of 75 inches of power water was used under a head of feet.
In 1893, five men are employed in the chlorination works. Fifty-six men and boys were employed underground, plus three in the mill. Miners' wages underground were $3 per day.
Providence Mine.
Early years.
The Providence Mine was situated on the south bank of Deer Creek, west of Nevada City, at an altitude of .
The Providence Mine, located in 1858 as one of the earliest claims of the group, was first operated from 1861 to 1867. Owing to difficulties encountered in treating the concentrates the mine was not worked successfully until after the adoption of the chlorination process about 1870. In 1886 the shaft had reached a depth of 1100' and eleven drifts, the longest of which was 3600', had been driven on the Merrifield vein. A crosscut 547’ in length had also been run westward to the Ural vein from the 600’ level of the Providence shaft. After being worked at intervals by the owners and tributers the mine was closed in 1891, but was again reopened the following year. In 1894 apex litigation was instituted between the Providence and Champion and this was finally settled in 1902 by the purchase of the Providence property by the Champion company. The Providence had been developed to a. depth: of 1750’, and was credited with a production of $5,000,000 prior to its acquisition by the Champion.
Operations.
The property contained , with two veins worked. One vein was on the contact between the syenitic granite and slate formations, and the other lay entirely in the granite, to the east, and in the hanging wall. The two veins dipped east at an angle of 36° to 40°. The main shaft was upon the eastern or Providence vein, and the greater part of the work in the past was prosecuted on this vein. The incline shaft was in depth, ten levels being turned, and extending an average distance of on the vein. The Providence vein was a larger one, running from in size, and averaging over . Four shoots of ore were discovered on it, running from in length. These ore shoots all trended to the north. The work on this vein consisted of driving and opening ground on the and levels, and sinking the main shaft.
The western, or contact vein, was worked by means of a crosscut from the Providence vein on the level; this crosscut was about in length. The ore shoot on this vein was over in length, and was stoped out from the level to the surface. This ore was of high grade, the vein averaging , and being heavily mineralized. A crosscut was driven from the level of the Providence vein, which gave, when the vein was intersected, of "backs " on the contact vein.
A Burleigh compressor was added, and a National drill was used in this work. Safety Nitro No.2 powder was the explosive used. There was a forty-stamp mill on the mine, twenty stamps of which were overhauled and were in running order. The entire plant was operated with water power under a fall of at the mill and at the hoisting works. The plant was also provided with steam engines, used in case the water supply was temporarily shut off. A Dodd wheel was employed to run the compressor. Twenty-five men were employed in 1893; miners' wages were $3 per day.
Champion Group.
By 1919, the Champion Group included Providence, Home (Cadmus), Merrifield, Spanish, Wyoming and Nevada City mines. The owner was the North Star Mine Company at 22 William street, New York City. George B. Agnew, was president, Arthur De Wint Foote was manager, and his son, Arthur Burling Foote, was superintendent.
The Champion property consisted of a consolidation of a number of mines and claims, containing about and controlling along the Ural and Merrifield veins. The following claims composed the Champion group; the Bavaria, Bayard Taylor, Champion, Clima, Deer Creek (Cadmus) East Home, Home North, Home South, Mary Ann, Miller, Nevada (Merrifield), Nevada City Extension, New Years, New Years Extension, North Wyoming, Phillip, Providence, Schmidt (Nevada City), Soggs, Spanish, Ural (Cornish), Ural (relocation), West Providence, West Providence Extension, West Wyoming, Wyoming, Graves Placer mine, and Swartz Placer mine. The Providence, Champion, Nevada City, Wyoming and Home were the principal producing mines, and the combined production was variously reported to have been from $8,000,000 to $20,000,000.
The' Providence property was purchased by the Champion in 1902. In 1905, however, the Champion was again involved in litigation with the Home (Cadmus) mine, and this suit was also settled in the early part of 1907 by the purchase of the Home holdings by the Champion company. The Home and Cadmus claims lying west of the Providence were developed by short tunnels and shallow shafts until about 1896, when active work began, and in 1902 the Home shaft had reached a depth of 700’, and a 30-stamp mill had been installed.
The Nevada City or Gold Hill mine in which the Northern extension of the Ural vein had been extensively worked from 1880 to 1895 was included in the Champion holdings by purchase, after suffering from legal complications. Two incline shafts were sunk on the vein, one on the Schmidt claim near the southern end line 1000’ deep and the ‘new’ shaft on the Nevada City claim 1100’ northwest of the old shaft. From 1907 to 1911, the Champion mines experienced the usual vicissitudes of fortune that generally follow protracted litigation, when money is used for attorney fees,_rather than for systematic development work. In June, 1908, work was suspended, but a few months later tributers were working, and in 1909 the mine was bonded. Later the bond was forfeited, which led to more lawsuits. In 1911 the North Star Mines Company bonded the property, and after extensive exploration work the Champion group was purchased by the North Star Mines Company. The work so far accomplished by this company consists of unwatering the Champion shaft to the bottom or 2400' level; reopening and driving the 1000’ level 2500’ north on the Ural vein to the Nevada City ore shoot; driving the 2400’ drift north 3000'; crosscutting on the 1600' level connecting the Ural and Merrifield veins, and a drift which was driven a distance 2500’ north of the crosscut on the Merrified vein. Most of the ore being produced in 1914—15 was obtained from the ore bodies of the Nevada City mine.
Owing to the fragmentary records of the gold output of the different properties, it is impossible to accurately ascertain the total production of the consolidated properties, which had been variously estimated over the wide range of from $8,000,000 to $20,000,000. The latter figure is undoubtedly too large. From authentic records, the production of the Champion Company from 1893 to 1913, has been $2,864,528 from 508,910 tons of ore. This total, however, does not include the production of the Providence or Home mines prior to their purchase by the Champion. According to Lindgren the production of the Providence mine from the Ural and Merrifield veins prior to 1896 was estimated-at $5,000,000, but this figure was considered excessive. From the data available, it seems probable that the combined production of the Ural and Merrified veins has been between eight and nine million dollars.
Ore and mining conditions.
The veins in these properties were entirely different from those at Grass Valley, and different methods of timbering and mining were required. The veins were generally not less than thick, and dipped at an average angle of 35 to 40 degrees, so that less shoveling was necessary than at Grass Valley, and less waste had to be handled. There was no specimen ore. The concentrates averaged about 6% of the ore and carried about 30% of the value. The ground was heavy and cost of timbering was high. Modified square setting was used. The life of timbers was said to be not over a year and a half. Long working drifts had to be watched and the ground taken frequently, and caution was needed in the stopes. According to Weed, the developments at the Champion group up to 1917 had not been satisfactory, the average yield not paying for operation in 1916. By 1919, however, the superintendent expressed satisfaction at the grade of ore, and it was evident that conditions had improved greatly since stoping in the deeper levels of the Providence began.
Milling.
The stamp mill contained 40 stamps. Ore entering the mill from the tramway went over grizzlies. It then went to stamps which dropped 106 times per minute. Only outside amalgamation was used, and the pulp flowed over amalgamating plates to Frenier sand pumps, which sent it to hydraulic classifiers. The slime was sent to thickeners; the sand was concentrated in three double deck and two single deck Deister tables. The concentrate was de-watered, after which it was ground in a tube mill. The middling was sent to two Union Vanners. Tailing went from the tables to 7 sand vats. From the tube mill, the ground concentrate flowed over a amalgamating plate, fines going to cyanide and portion over 200 mesh returning to tube mill for regrinding.


Goniodiscaster foraminatus

Goniodiscaster foraminatus is a species of sea stars in the family Oreasteridae.


Evalljapyx furciger

Evalljapyx furciger is a species of forcepstail in the family Japygidae. It is found in Central America.


Downer State Forest

Downer State Forest, also known as Charles Downer State Forest, covers in Sharon, Vermont in Windsor County. The forest is managed by the Vermont Department of Forests, Parks, and Recreation. The forest was established in 1910 by a gift from Charles Downer to establish a forestry demonstration area.
Activities in the forest include hiking, mountain biking, cross-country skiing, snowshoeing, snowmobiling, horseback riding, hunting and wildlife viewing. It is also managed for timber resources.
The Vermont Association of Snow Travelers grooms the forest road as a snowmobile trail in the winter.
History.
The forest was established in 1910 by a gift from Charles Downer to create a forestry demonstration area. The forest features conifer plantations he planted. The state forest highway, Camp Downer, and fishing pond were built by the Civilian Conservation Corps.


Hydronectria kriegeriana


Symphyotrichum greatae

Symphyotrichum greatae (formerly "Aster greatae") is a species of aster known by the common name Greata's aster.
Endemic distribution.
"Symphyotrichum greatae" is endemic to the San Gabriel Mountains of Southern California, where it grows in damp areas in the canyons of the southern slopes above the Los Angeles Basin.
Description.
"Symphyotrichum greatae" is a colonizing perennial herb growing from a long rhizome. It produces upright to erect stems usually 50 to 120 centimeters tall, but known to approach two meters. The leaves are mostly oval in shape and pointed, the lowest ones up to 15 centimeters long. The leaves and parts of the stems are hairy.
The inflorescence is an open array of flower heads amidst leaflike bracts. The flower head contains many pale violet to nearly white ray florets and a center of yellow disc florets. The fruit is a hairy achene.


Acacia signata

Acacia signata is a tree or shrub belonging to the genus "Acacia" and the subgenus "Juliflorae" that is endemic to western Australia.
Description.
The slender, straggly, weeping tree or shrub typically grows to a height of . The pendulous or arching branchlets are often covered in a fine white powder. Like most species of "Acacia" it has phyllodes rather than true leaves. The evergreen phyllodes usually have a pendulous forn with a linear to linear-elliptic shape and are straight to slightly curved. The grey-green and coriaceous phyllodes have a length of and a width of and have numerous fine nerves numerous and a prominent yellow coloured pulvinus. It blooms from August to October producing yellow flowers. The inflorescences occur in groups of one to four flower-spikes with a cylindrical shape. The spikes have a length of and a diameter of . The coriaceous seed pods that form after flowering have a curved to linear shape and are raised over seeds. The pods have a length of up to and have a width of and are glabrous with a powdery white coating. The glossy dark brown seeds inside are arranged longitudinally and have a compressed subdiscoid shape with a length of .
Taxonomy.
The species was first formally described in 1863 by the botanist Ferdinand von Mueller as published in the work "Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae".
Distribution.
It is native to an area in the Mid West and north western Wheatbelt region of Western Australia where it is often situated on sandplains growing in sandy soils as a part of in heath, scrub and shrubland communities. It is found around Hamelin Pool in the north to around Cockleshell Gully in the south and as far east as Wubin but is not commonly occurring.


Billbergia magnifica

Billbergia magnifica is a species in the genus "Billbergia". This species is native to Brazil and Paraguay.


Lactuca raddeana

Lactuca raddeana is a species of wild lettuce native to Vietnam, eastern China, the Korean peninsula, the Russian Far East, Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, and Japan. A biennial or perennial, growing to 2m, it has a very wide range of variation in leaf shape, across a spectrum from undivided leaves to pinnatipartite leaves. It is edible but bitter.
Varieties.
A variety is currently accepted:


Paghman

Paghman (Persian/Pashto: پغمان) is a town in the hills near Afghanistan's capital of Kabul. It is the seat of the Paghman District (in the western part of Kabul Province) which has a population of about 120,000 (2002 official UNHCR est.), mainly Tajiks and Pashtuns. The gardens of Paghman is a major tourist attraction, and is why the city is also known as the garden capital of Afghanistan.
History.
20th century.
After King Amanullah Khan and Queen Soraya Tarzi's return from Europe in 1928, Amanullah brought in foreign experts to redesign Kabul. At that time, at the entrance of Paghman, they created a European-style monumental gate similar to but smaller than the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, France, called the Taq-e Zafar ( "Arch of Victory"). Originally a small village at the bottom of the Hindu Kush, Paghman turned into a holiday retreat with villas and chalets as well as the summer capital. Its wide avenues contained fir, poplar and nut trees which flew past the arch, villas and a golf course. It was a popular place for the wealthy and the aristocrats to visit.
The new royal gardens were opened to the public under the proviso—as a matter of reform—that western dress was adopted there, as in the royal residential areas of nearby Kabul. On September 1, 1928, King Amanullah convoked the Loya Jirga to Paghman to the puzzlement of many delegates, who found themselves at odds with the dress-code. On September 7, 1928, the Hazrat of Shor Bazaar—an influential political figure in Kabul—presented the king with a petition signed by some 400 religious leaders opposing many of Amanullah's reforms. This action led to the arrest of the Hazrat, the execution of some of his followers and finally the rebellion of 1929 led by Ameer Habibullah Kalakani , that overthrew the king.
The gardens eventually became a popular place for local and foreign tourists. Wealthy Kabulites owned summer homes there who employed servants and maids.
During the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s, Paghman was a major battleground and it suffered from bombardment from both the Soviet-backed government and the mujahideen rebels. Most buildings were destroyed and residents had fled. Little remained of the prosperous Gardens, save for the remains of the Arc de Triomphe style arch, which has had its top blown off.
21st century.
Following the formation of the Karzai administration, the Arch was reconstructed and was completed by May 2005. Other damaged parts of the former Gardens were also rebuilt. It once again became a popular touristic site, and is popular with residents of Kabul. There was further development in the 2010s.
In 2012, 1,000 families in the Paghman district received electricity. The power was distributed to families in the Pracha village of Pashaee valley after the installation of three 1,000 kilovolt transformers. The electricity was supplied to people from the Mahipar Dam in the Surobi district at the cost of 35 million AFN (US$622,443).
In 2014, a newly built palace, the Paghman Hill Castle, was opened to the public. The palace's surroundings also consists of thousands of newly planted trees as well as a Buzkashi field, a waterfall and other attractions. The palace's interior is decorated with traditional handmade Afghan carpets and other traditional material. It was planned to be used for major festivals.
Geography.
The Paghman area is greener compared to many other parts of the region, and also has fruit trees. It is located at the foot of the Hindu Kush mountain range. The Afghanodon salamander is endemic to Paghman.
The Kabul River, the only large river in the Kabul province, is fed by springs and snow-melt runoffs from Paghman. There is also a canal system, in need of repair, which extends from Paghman to Tapa.
There are several villages in the district, including Khaldari, Bektoot, Adam Khel Kala, Hatam Kala, Seeno Kala, Mullah Khel Kala, Muhabbat Khan Kala, Lachi Khel Kala, and Pajakk Tappa.
Economy.
Agriculture, labour work, animal husbandry and employment in Kabul are the major sources of income.
Notable natives.
The locality was traditionally the family seat of the Paghman saadat most noted for its famous descendant Idries Shah.
Prominent Paghman natives include some leaders of Loya Jirgas, tribal chiefs, a president, and one king.


Botryotrichum piluliferum

Botryotrichum piluliferum is a fungal species first identified in 1885 by Saccardo and Marchal. It was discovered to be the asexual state of a member of the ascomycete genus, "Chaetomium". The name "B. piluliferum" now applies to the fungus in all its states. "B. piluliferum" has been found worldwide in a wide range of habitats such as animal dung and vegetation. The colonies of this fungus start off white and grow rapidly to a brown colour. The conidia are smooth and white. "B. piluliferum" grows optimally at a temperature of 25-30 °C and a pH of 5.5.
History and taxonomy.
"B. piluliferum" was first described in Belgium from rabbit dung. The anamorph was discovered by Pier Andrea Saccardo and Marchal in 1885. The teleomorph, "Chaetomium piluliferum" was named by J. Daniels in 1961 from a culture of "B. piluliferum" on cellulose film. The culture produced underdeveloped perithecia typical of those seen in the genus "Chaetomium" but was not connected to any known species at the time. The culture also produced phialospores and dark hyphae that were characteristic of "B. piluliferum". Daniels described this as the teleomorph of "B. piluliferum" and named it "C. piluliferum".
A dried type specimen of the teleomorph was studied and found to be similar to "C. murorum", a species described by Corda in 1837. This fungus contained narrower ascospores, longer hairs of ascomata, and was absent of aleurioconidia and an anamorph. The conidiophores of "C. piluliferum" resemble that of "C. piluliferoides" which was discovered by Udagawa and Horie in 1975. "C. piluliferoides" produces aleurioconidia 5-7.5 μm in diameter and ascomata that are 200-240 x 120-145 μm containing short terminal hairs of 200-250 μm and spindle-shaped ascospores.
Hawksworth stated that understanding "C. piluliferum" could not be done using only the anamorph and expressed the need for further research on the "Botryotrichum" states which occur in three "Farrowia" and eight other "Chaetomium" species. "C. piluliferum" has the most complex conidiophores, (sub)hyaline aleurioconidia, and a thick wall. The others, such as "B. atrogriseum", discovered by van Beyma in 1928 and "B. peruvianum", discovered by Matsushima in 1975 have similar-sized aleurioconidia and are pigmented.
Growth and morphology.
The colonies of "B. piluliferum" are fast-growing. They can spread from 2.0-4.3 cm in diameter in one week when grown at . The colonies start off as white aerial mycelium which can become a yellowish-beige colour by the subsequent production of brown, rough-walled sterile setae. These brown setae are about 250 x 2-5 μm and bumpy or encrusted near their base. The conidiophores branch at right angles to the main axis. They are smooth, colourless, and produce conidia at their ends. The conidia are thick-walled, hyaline (white), smooth, and spherical. They are approximately 9-16 μm in diameter. "B. piluliferum" also contains branched hyaline conidiophores that produce aleurioconidia in clusters. The aleurioconidia are globose and typically 3.0-3.5 μm thick. The fungus can produce chains of phialoconidia as well. Ascomata in "B. piluliferum" are rare and reach maturity in four weeks at . They are black, with a globose to subglobose shape. The lateral and terminal hairs of the ascomata are 500-1500 μm long, 4-6 μm wide with an olive-brown colour and may contain tips with are rolled in a flat coil towards the center. The pale brown ascospores are ellipsoidal (or football-shaped) and contain one germ pore that is roughly 13-16 x 8-10.5 μm.
Mating behaviour of the fungus is unknown because single-spore cultures lose the ability to produce ascomata. The teleomorph "C. piluliferum" is made up of colonies containing brown hyphae with rough and bumpy hairs. "C. piluliferum" ascomata are superficial and spherical or obovate (oval-shaped with a narrow base, like a light bulb. They contain a small pore on the top called and ostiole that allow spores to pass through. The perithecia have brown or reddish walls and are covered with thick-walled, septate ascomatal hairs that are long, brown, with many bends and turns, often with tightly-coiled tips. The asci are obovate (light bulb-shaped) or broadly clavate (baseball bat-shaped), have a short stalk and contain 8 spores. Phialoconidia form from the apex towards the base in the form of droplets on clustered flask-shaped cells.
Physiology.
"B. piluliferum" has an optimal growth temperature range of , with its maximum growth temperature at . The fungus cannot tolerate acid. It can grow in alkaline pH greater than 8.8, however its optimal pH is 5.5. This allows for decomposition of starch, pectin and xylan. "B. piluliferum" produces mycotoxins that are metabolically similar to aflatoxin. A mycotoxin isolated from "B. piluliferum", sterigmatocystin, is involved in the synthesis pathway of aflatoxin. In comparison to other species like "Trichoderma aureoviride", that has been found to be very susceptible to parasites, "B. piluliferum" shows greater resistance to mycoparasites such as "Pythium oligandrum". "B. piluliferum" also produces the metabolite cochliodinol A.
Habitat and ecology.
"B. piluliferum" is found worldwide. It has been isolated and recorded in many countries such as Canada, the United States, The Netherlands, and South Africa. It has been found on deer and goat dung in Denmark and field mouse dung in England. The fungus is rarely found in soils, however, it can be found at depths of 80 cm below soil. It has been reported in mountainous regions, salt marshes, and cedar forests. It has also been isolated from stems of "Urtica dioica", hay, rhizospheres of groundnut, rice and wheat, paper products, and mouldy textiles, as well as in the seeds of chili pepper. "B. piluliferum" is a food source for "Pygmephorus mesembrinae" and "P. quadratus". When in vitro, it can be parasitized by "Pythium oligandrum".


Clypeaster cyclopilus

Clypeaster cyclopilus is a species of sea urchins of the Family Clypeasteridae. Their armour is covered with spines. Clypeaster cyclopilus was first scientifically described in 1941 by Hubert Lyman Clark.


Mears State Park

Charles Mears State Park is a public recreation area in the village of Pentwater, Oceana County, Michigan. The state park encompasses on the north side of the channel that connects Lake Michigan and Pentwater Lake.
History.
Mears State Park was among 13 parks established in 1920 following the creation of the Michigan State Parks Commission a year earlier. The park land, which was once owned by lumber baron Charles Mears, was donated to the state by his daughter Carrie Mears. The park originally comprised only 16 acres "strictly made up of lake sand." In 1921, the vegetation that held the sand in place was disturbed during a grading process, resulting in a loss of sand to the winds, much to the annoyance of neighboring dwellers. To cure the man-made problem, five tons of marsh hay were "evenly distributed and disked in." A toilet and fireplaces were also constructed.
Activities and amenities.
In addition to fishing, swimming, camping, and picnicking, the park offers a one-mile (1.6 km) hiking trail that ascends the Old Baldy sand dune.


Goodenia eatoniana

Goodenia eatoniana is a species of flowering plant in the family Goodeniaceae and is endemic to the extreme south-west of Western Australia. It is a perennial herb with lance-shaped leaves at the base of the plant, egg-shaped stem leaves, and racemes of blue flowers.
Description.
"Goodenia eatoniana" is a ascending, perennial herb or shrub that typically grows to a height of with glaucous, glabrous foliage. The leaves at the base of the plant are lance-shaped with the narrower end towards the base, long and up to wide, sometimes with teeth on the edges. Those on the stem are stem-clasping, egg-shaped and smaller. The flowers are arranged in racemes up to long on a peduncle long with leaf-like bracts long. The sepals are lance-shaped, about long, the corolla blue, long. The lower lobes of the corolla are long with wings wide. Flowering occurs from October to January and the fruit is a more or less spherical capsule about in diameter.
Taxonomy and naming.
"Goodenia eatoniana" was first formally described in 1874 by Ferdinand von Mueller in "Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae". In 1990, Roger Charles Carolin selected specimens probably collected by John Forrest near the Blackwood River as the lectotype. The specific epithet ("eatoniana") honours Henry Francis Eaton (1831–1912), a supporter of scientific activities in Victoria.
Distribution and habitat.
This goodenia grows in winter-wet flats and drainage lines in the Jarrah Forest, Swan Coastal Plain and Warren biogeographic regions in the extreme south-west of Western Australia.
Conservation status.
"Goodenia eatoniana" is classified as "not threatened" by the Government of Western Australia Department of Parks and Wildlife.


Eremophila abietina

Eremophila abietina, also known as spotted poverty bush, is a plant in the figwort family, Scrophulariaceae and is endemic to a few arid areas of Western Australia. It is a stiff, upright, compact and very sticky shrub with distinctive, dark bluish-green leaves and pale coloured flowers spotted purple.
Description.
"Eremophila abietina" is a stiff, woody, compact and very sticky shrub which usually grows to a height of and often a similar width. Its leaves are densely clustered, sticky due to the presence of resin, linear in shape, long, wide and hairy, although the hairs are often obscured by resin.
The flowers are borne singly in leaf axils on a flattened stalk long. The sepals overlap and are cream to reddish in colour, long, growing to long after flowering and remain on the shrub long after flowering. The tube formed by the petals is long and is bluish green to pale purple with the lobes spotted purple. Flowering occurs between June and October and is followed by fruit which are dry, oval or cone-shaped and have a distinct prolonged tip.
Taxonomy and naming.
The species was first formally described by Fritz Kraenzlin in 1925. The description was published in "Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information". The type specimen was collected from "Laverton; North Coolgardie" by Frederick Arthur Rodway. The specific epithet ("abietina") reflects the similarity of the foliage of this species with that of conifers in the genus "Abies".
In 2007 Robert Chinnock described two subspecies and the names have been accepted by the Australian Plant Census:
Distribution and habitat.
Spotted poverty bush occurs on gibber plains, calcareous flats and jasper outcrops in an area of the Great Victoria Desert near Laverton.
Ecology.
Some native bee species collect wax from "E. abietina" flower buds and other parts in order to make propolis, causing damage to the plant and sometimes leading to a stunting of its growth.
Use in horticulture.
Spotted poverty bush is sometimes a slow growing plant in the garden, but compensates by being long-lived. It grows best in well-drained soil in a sunny situation but tolerates partial shade. It will only tolerate light frosts but responds well to pruning when frost-damaged. The metallic colouring of the flowers and persistent sepals make this an attractive species. Propagation from seed and from cuttings is difficult and most garden plants are produced by grafting onto "Myoporum".
Conservation status.
"Eremophila abietina" is classified as "not threatened" by the Government of Western Australia Department of Parks and Wildlife.


Claustula fischeri


Eucalyptus triflora

Eucalyptus triflora, commonly known as Pigeon House ash or three-flowered ash, is a species of small tree that is endemic to a small area of New South Wales. It has smooth bark, lance-shaped or curved adult leaves, flower buds usually in groups of three, white flowers and urn-shaped fruit.
Description.
"Eucalyptus triflora" is a tree that typically grows to a height of and forms a lignotuber. It has smooth white to cream-coloured bark with insect scribbles, sometimes with rough dark grey bark on the base of older trees. Young plants and coppice regrowth have glossy green leaves that are paler on the lower surface, lance-shaped or curved, long and wide. Adult leaves are arranged alternately, the same shade of glossy green on both sides, lance-shaped or curved, long and wide, tapering to a petiole long. The flower buds are arranged in leaf axils usually in groups of three on an unbranched peduncle long, the individual buds sessile. Mature buds are oblong, long and wide with a rounded to conical operculum. Flowering occurs from December to March and the flowers are white. The fruit is a woody, urn-shaped to barrel-shaped capsule long and wide with the valves at or below rim level.
Taxonomy and naming.
Pigeon House ash was first formally described in 1907 by Joseph Maiden in his book "The Forest Flora of New South Wales" from specimens collected from the top of Pigeon House Mountain by Richard Hind Cambage. Maiden gave it the name "Eucalyptus virgata" var. "triflora". In 1934,William Blakely raised the variety to species status as "Eucalyptus triflora". The specific epithet ("triflora") is from Latin words meaning "three" and "flowered".
Distribution and habitt.
"Eucalyptus triflora" usually grows between sandstone boulders in higher areas, sometimes in heath, open forest or woodland. It is found in a few disjunct areas from near Nerriga to Pigeon House Mountain, in parts of the Deua National Park and near Yalwal.


Phascolopsis gouldii

Phascolopsis gouldii is a species of unsegmented benthic marine worm, also known as a peanut worm or star worm. It lives in burrows in muddy sand in shallow waters off North America.
Description.
"Phascolopsis gouldii" can reach thirty centimetres long and is a smooth slender cylindrical shape. The body is pinkish and divided into an anterior introvert and a posterior trunk. The introvert is about one quarter of the length of the body and can be retracted inside it by turning outside in. This is done by the contraction of two pairs of large introvert retractor muscles which extend from the body wall of the trunk to near the mouth which is at the tip of the introvert in the centre of the oral disc. This is surrounded by a ring of short tentacles that are used for feeding and in gas exchange. They are pink inside due to the presence of the pigment hemerythrin used in oxygen transport. The anus is on a small mound where the trunk and introvert join. The trunk is covered by a thick integument and is largely composed of bands of longitudinal muscles which can be seen through the cuticle. The anterior part of the trunk, into which the introvert retracts, is broader than the posterior part.
Distribution.
This peanut worm is found in shallow coastal waters on the eastern seaboard of the United States from Connecticut to Florida. and Canada. Particular locations where it has been found include Cobscook Bay, the Gulf of Maine, Minister's Island, Indian Point, Newfoundland and the St Lawrence estuary.
Biology.
"Phascolopsis gouldii" burrows in muddy sand. It can pull itself under the surface by pushing its introvert down and then retracting it. It is a deposit and filter feeder, collecting detritus with its tentacles for insertion into its mouth or for consumption after retraction of the introvert. It is able to feed with its introvert while its soft trunk remains in the safety of the burrow. It is dioecious but the sexes are similar. They release eggs and sperm simultaneously into the water and external fertilisation takes place.


Guzmania rhonhofiana

Guzmania rhonhofiana is a plant species in the genus "Guzmania". This species is native to Colombia and Ecuador.


Acer chaneyi

Acer chaneyi is an extinct maple species in the family Sapindaceae described from a number of fossil leaves and samaras. The species is known from Oligocene to Miocene sediments exposed in Alaska, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon and Washington in the U.S. It is one of several extinct species belonging to the living section "Rubra".
Taxonomy.
"Acer chaneyi" is known from leaf and samara specimens which were recovered from a number of different formations in Western North America. The oldest occurrence is from the possibly Early Oligocene Gumboot Mountain flora of Southern Washington state followed by the Late Oligocene Kukak Bay flora in Alaska. In the early Miocene "A. chaneyi" is known from the Alaskan Kanalku Bay flora, Oregon Collawash and Little Butte flora. The Middle Miocene locations include the Skolai Creek flora of Alaska, Grand Coulee and Latah floras of Washington, Mascall flora and Succor Creek floras in Oregon and the Latah and Clarkia flora in Idaho. Further Middle Miocene occurrences in Nevada are the Thurston Ranch flora, Deadman Creek flora, Pyramid flora, Purple Mountain flora, Eastgate flora, and Middlegate floras. Late Miocene occurrences in Oregon are the Weyerhauser flora, Hidden Lake flora, Austin flora, Tipton flora, Stinking Water flora, and Trout Creek floras. Late Miocene occurrences in Idaho are the Cartwright Ranch flora, Horseshoe Bend flora, Alkali Creek flora and Trapper Creek flora. Based on the identified fossil occurrences "A. chaneyi" has a temporal range of approximately 20 million years, the longest identified for any fossil species in Western North America. The species "Acer ferrignoi" is a possible descendant species that survived in the Oregon Cascades until 7 million years ago.
The nomenclatural history for "A. chaneyi" is fairly complex: a number of different names have been applied to the fossils of different locations. The species was reviewed by paleobotanists Jack A. Wolfe of the United States Geological Survey, Denver office and Toshimasa Tanai of Hokkaido University., in a 1987 paper in the "Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University". The oldest name suggested for the fossils was "Acer bendirei" which was coined by Leo Lesquereux in 1883. The fossils used for his description of the species however were a mix of several different plants, and the type specimens were later transferred to the genus "Platanus" as "P. bendirei". The next oldest name, "Acer gigas", is from 1902 and was coined by Frank Knowlton for a fossil samara from the John Day formation. The fossil is missing the base of the fruit and the attachment scar, which is diagnostic for "Acer": thus it was rejected by Wolfe and Tanai. Similarly they rejected "A. grahamensis", for which the type specimen is also missing the attachment scar. They settled on "A. chaneyi" as the oldest valid species description, coined by Knowlton in 1926.
Description.
Leaves of "Acer chaneyi" are simple in structure, with perfectly actinodromus vein structure and are widely ovate to orbiculate in shape. The leaves are deeply dissected, occasionally into three lobes but more typically into five. The upper lateral lobes are two thirds as long as the median lobe, and all the lateral lobes are elliptic in outline. The leaves have between five and eleven secondary veins which diverge from the basal region of the primary vein at angles ranging from 25° to 50°. The secondary veins arch towards the leaf margin in broadly convex to concave arches. The margins show large tooth-like serrations that are generally associated with smaller serrations on the basal side of the larger serrations. The samaras of "A. chaneyi" have moderately inflated nutlets and smoothly diverging veins which rarely anastomose. The overall shape of the nutlet is narrowly elliptic, with a rounded tip and approximate length of and a width of . The wing ranges in overall length from and has a width range of . The paired samaras of the species have a 10° to 40° attachment angle and have veins originating in the attachment scar of the samara that run the length of the wing.


Perophora japonica

Perophora japonica is a species of colonial sea squirt in the genus "Perophora", native to the North Indo-Pacific. It has spread to several other parts of the world including the south coast of Britain, France, the Netherlands and the west coast of the United States.
Description.
"Perophora japonica" is a colonial tunicate with a network of slender branching stolon on which small, rounded, translucent zooids some long occur at intervals. Younger regions of the colony are yellowish-green and the growing tips of the stolons may have star-shaped, bright yellow terminal zooids. These zooids are easily detached and can break off, float away and found new colonies.
Distribution and habitat.
"Perophora japonica" is native to Japan, Korea and Peter the Great Gulf in Russia. but has spread to other parts of the world. In 1999 it was first seen off the coasts of the United Kingdom near Plymouth where it was growing on hydroids, brown seaweed and on panels of material placed in the sea to investigate the settling of marine larvae. Two years later it was reported eighty miles further east in the Fleet, Dorset and in another two years it was present in Guernsey. It appeared in waters off the Netherlands and France at much the same date and here it was growing on "Sargassum muticum", species of "Fucus" and "Laminaria", sponges, solitary tunicates, shellfish and directly on the underside of pontoons. On the western coast of North America it has been found in Humboldt Bay and San Diego Bay, California. It is probable that it was dispersed as a fouling organism on the hull of ships or accidentally as a result of aquacultural operations.


Propionimicrobium lymphophilum

Propionimicrobium lymphophilum is a Gram-positive bacterium from the genus of Propionimicrobium which has been isolated from submaxillary tissue.


Hibbertia hypericoides

Hibbertia hypericoides, commonly known as yellow buttercups, is a small shrub species that is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It grows to between 0.2 and 1 metre high and has yellow flowers which appear between April and December in the species' native range.
The species, initially named as "Pleurandra hypericoides", was first formally described in 1817 by Swiss botanist Augustin Pyramus de Candolle in "Regni Vegetabilis Systema Naturale". It was subsequently placed in the genus "Hibbertia" by George Bentham in 1863.


Ganoderma zonatum

Ganoderma zonatum is a plant pathogen that infects the palm species causing butt rot. It is a fungus that infects the bottom of the plant also rotting the roots. It has been known to be in both natural and planted environments and in the majority of cases only in palms.
Symptoms and diagnosis.
Symptoms of "Ganoderma zonatum" are general decline in the health of the plant, wilting and discoloration of the leaves and slow growth. However this is noticeable in many different plant diseases and can not be used as a diagnosis tool. There are only two ways to fully identify "G. zonatum". One is the basidiocarp (or conk) forming on the plant with the other viewing the internal rotting of the palm on the inside once it has been cut down.
Life cycle.
The fungus is spread between the plants due to the spores produced in the basidiocarp. The spores land on the soil and germinate. The hyphae then grow over the plant roots and up into the woody trunk. The fungus damages the palm trunk closest to the soil first, expands in diameter and moves up the center of the trunk causing a cone like shape of infected trunk. When the basidiocarp emerges it is at the highest point when the fungus will internally grow.
Protection and control.
There is currently no method for the control of "G. zonatum" once it has been identified. However minimizing the amount of moisture can decrease the risk of a palm becoming infected by the fungus. In places where a palm has been infected with "G. zonatum", no other palm should be planted as the spores can survive in the soil.
Some other prevention methods are
Disposing of the wood.
After fungal infection, the wood above the butt area can be easily mulched with caution, but for the lower 4 - 6 feet (2 meters) extreme care should be taken to prevent the fungus from spreading. Dispose of the wood by wrapping it in plastic. Use sterile tools and gloves. Sterilize your tools before using them on other healthy palms.


Hymenogramme

Hymenogramme is a fungal genus in the family Polyporaceae. It is a monotypic genus, containing the single species Hymenogramme javensis. The generic name combines the Ancient Greek words ("membrane") and ("line" or "written character").


Eucalyptus pauciflora subsp. niphophila

Eucalyptus pauciflora" subsp. "niphophila, commonly known as snow gum, is a small tree or large shrub that is native to a few mountain peaks in eastern Australia. It has smooth bark, glossy green, lance-shaped to egg-shaped or elliptical leaves, flower buds in groups of between nine and fifteen, white flowers and cup-shaped, hemispherical or conical fruit. It differs from other subspecies of "E. pauciflora" in having more delicate, pedicellate flower buds and smaller leaves.
Description.
"Eucalyptus pauciflora" subsp. "niphophila" is a tree or shrub that typically grows to a height of and forms a lignotuber. The bark is smooth, grey, white or cream-coloured with patches of yellow and pink, and the branchlets are glaucous. Young plants and coppice regrowth have dull bluish green or glaucous, egg-shaped leaves that are long, wide and petiolate. Adult leaves are lance-shaped, egg-shaped or elliptical, long and wide on a petiole long. The flower buds are arranged in leaf axils in groups of between nine and fifteen on an unbranched peduncle long, the individual buds on pedicels up to long. Mature buds are oval to club-shaped, long and wide with a rounded to beaked operculum. Flowering has been recorded between December and February and the flowers are white. The fruit is a woody cup-shaped, conical or hemispherical capsule long and wide with the valves near rim level or below it. Subspecies "niphophila" differs from others in the species in having more delicate, pedicellate flower buds, small leaves and glaucous branchlets, buds and fruit.
Taxonomy and naming.
"Eucalyptus niphophila" was first formally described in 1929 by Joseph Maiden and William Blakely in Maiden's book "A Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus", from material collected near "Pretty Point" on Mount Kosciuszko. In 1973, Lawrie Johnson and Donald Blaxell reduced the species to a subspecies of "E. pauciflora" as "E. pauciflora" subsp. "niphophila". The epithet ("niphophila") is derived from ancient Greek meaning "snow-loving", referring to the alpine habitat of this eucalypt.
Distribution and habitat.
This subspecies occurs on the highest peaks suitable for tree growth in the Snowy Mountains, including in the Kosciuszko National Park, extending to Bimberi Peak in the Australian Capital Territory and the highest peaks in Victoria, including Mount Hotham, Mount Bogong, Mount Torbreck and Mount Wellington.


Bosistoa transversa

Bosistoa transversa, commonly known as the yellow satinheart, or three-leaved bosistoa, is a species of small to medium-sized rainforest tree that is endemic to eastern Australia. It has mostly pinnate leaves, usually with three leaflets and panicles of small white flowers.
Description.
"Bosistoa transversa" is a tree that typically grows to a height of and has a cylindrical, sometimes crooked trunk. The trunk has a diameter of and has mostly smooth dark brown bark with irregular horizontal ridges. The leaves are arranged in opposite pairs on thin brown or grey-brown branches and are pinnate, long on a petiole long. The leaves usually have three, sometimes up to seven glossy leaflets with prominent oil glands. The leaflets are oblong to elliptical, long and wide, the side leaflets on petiolules long, the end leaflet on a petiolule long. Appearing from January to March, the tiny white flowers are arranged in panicles long, on the ends of branches or in upper leaf axils. The five sepals are about long the five petals broadly elliptical and about long. Flowering occurs from December to May and is followed by pairs of small woody, oval follicles that ripen from May to July.
Taxonomy.
Yellow satinheart was first formally described in 1917 by Queensland botanists John Frederick Bailey and Cyril Tenison White and the description was published in the "Botany Bulletin" of the Department of Agriculture, Queensland. The generic name "Bosistoa" honours the name of Joseph Bosisto, a manufacturer of essential oils. The specific epithet "transversa" refers to the transversal ribbed carpels of the fruit.
Distribution and habitat.
"Bosistoa transversa" occurs from Mount Larcom in central-eastern Queensland, south to Mullumbimby in north eastern New South Wales. It is found in forest and subtropical rainforest from sea level to an altitude of .
Conservation status.
The yellow satinheart is classified as "vulnerable" under the Australian Government "Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999" and in New South Wales under the "Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016". The main threats to the species include clearing of rainforests, invasion of remaining rainforest areas by weeds, and grazing by livestock.


Ouachita National Forest

The Ouachita National Forest is a vast congressionally-designated National Forest that lies in the western portion of Arkansas and portions of extreme-eastern Oklahoma.
History.
The Ouachita National Forest is the oldest National Forest in the southern United States. The forest encompasses , including most of the scenic Ouachita Mountain Range. Six locations in the forest, comprising , have been congressionally-designated as wilderness areas.
"Ouachita" is the French spelling of the Indian word 'Washita', which means "good hunting grounds." The forest was known as Arkansas National Forest on its establishment on December 18, 1907; the name was changed to Ouachita National Forest on April 29, 1926.
Rich in history, the rugged and scenic Ouachita Mountains were explored by Europeans in 1541 by Hernando de Soto's party of Spaniards. French explorers followed, flavoring the region with names like Fourche La Fave River.
The area including the forest nearly became a national park during the 1920s, but a last-minute pocket veto by U.S. President Calvin Coolidge ended the effort. The bill had been pushed by U.S. Senator Joseph T. Robinson and U.S. Representative Otis Wingo, both Democrats, and State Representative Osro Cobb, then the only Republican in the Arkansas legislature. Cobb had been invited to meet with Coolidge before the proposal was killed because of opposition from the National Park Service and the United States Department of Agriculture, presumably because of the nearby location of Hot Springs National Park.
In a magazine article, Cobb describes the area that he had sought to protect for future generations, located approximately midway between Little Rock and Shreveport, Louisiana, as within relatively easy driving distance of 45 million Americans, many of whom could not afford long trips to the national parks in the western states. He compared flora and fauna in the Ouachita forest to those of the southern Alleghenies, a division of the Appalachian Mountains. Cobb continues:
A visitor standing upon one of the many majestic peaks in the area of the proposed park is thrilled by a panoramic view that cannot be had elsewhere in the South Central States. With cheeks flushed by the invigorating mountain breezes, the mountain climber is rewarded by an inspiring view of countless and nameless peaks, mountain groups, dense forests, and inviting valleys, all merging into the distant horizon. ... there are many mountain streams, now moving slowly in narrow but deep pools, then churning with savage ferocity down some water-worn precipice, leaving in its wake snow-white sprays ... Fed by crystal springs and like so much molten silver these streams flow their turbulent courses unappreciated and rarely visited. ...
Features.
The forest contains extensive woodlands of stunted Northern Red Oak, White Oak, post oak, and Blackjack Oak at elevations over and on steep, dry slopes. Much of these woodlands, being of little commercial value, were never logged and the extent of old growth forest within them may total nearly . There are also old-growth woodlands of Eastern Redcedar, Gum Bumelia, Winged Elm, and Yaupon along some streams. These vast unbroken reserves of old-growth forest make up the largest virgin forest in the United States, barring only the vast timber reserves in Alaska's Tongass Forest.
The Talimena Scenic Drive, which is Highway 1 in Oklahoma and Highway 88 in Arkansas, is a National Scenic Byway which meanders through the forest providing amazing vistas and excellent photo opportunities. The Scenic Drive passes through old-growth oak woodlands on Winding Stair and Rich Mountains.
Forest headquarters are located in Hot Springs, Arkansas.
Recreation.
The forest contains a number of hiking, mountain biking, and horseback riding trails. The most extensive hiking trail is the Ouachita National Recreation Trail, which traverses across the region. This is a well-maintained backpacking, hiking trail with overnight shelters in several portions of the trail. Mountain biking is also allowed for some sections of the trail.
Camp Clearfork was originally constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). Managed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA),it is on Clearfork Lake, about west of Hot Springs, Arkansas on U.S. 270. Reservations are required for camping, and may be made through the Womble USDA Office at (870) 867-2101. The campground has 6 dorm/cabins which can hold up to 10 people each; 3 staff cabins that hold 5-6 people each, a dining hall, a recreation hall, and accessible flush toilets and showers.
In the Oklahoma section of the forest the Winding Stair Mountain National Recreation Area and six other designated areas offer visitors a full range of activities with more than 150 campsites, a lake, and an equestrian camp.
Southeast of Idabel, the Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation manages the Red Slough Wildlife Management Area, a wetland area donated to the USFS by The Conservation Fund in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Hunting (no lead shot) and fishing are allowed there. The area is also a destination for birdwatchers from throughout the United States and the United Kingdom as well.
Canoeing and fishing are popular activities on the Mountain Fork River, Caddo River, Little Missouri River, and Ouachita River within the bounds of the forest. The Cossatot River, said to be the most difficult whitewater river between the Smoky and Rocky Mountains, also passes through the forest.
Rockhounds frequent a geologic belt several miles wide containing high concentrations of very pure quartz crystals. Visitors and rock collectors are free to pick up loose crystals within the belt for personal use and may dig for quartz with the permission of the district ranger.
Wilderness Areas.
A network of wilderness areas are found in the national forest, protecting the sections of the forest that have had the least amount of human intervention. These areas harbor some of the most rugged, scenic, and secluded places in all of Arkansas and the South.
The Black Fork Mountain Wilderness is located in both Arkansas and Oklahoma and contains significant old-growth forests. It protects beautiful, rugged vistas and clear mountain springs.
The Upper Kiamichi River Wilderness is located solely in Oklahoma.
The 14,290-acre (57.8 km2) Caney Creek Wilderness is located in the southwestern part of the forest in Arkansas. It is known for its rare appalachian mixed mesophytic forest biome and high levels of biodiversity, as well as rare reserves of moist-hardwood old growth forest.
The 11,141-acre (45.1 km2) Poteau Mountain Wilderness is located in the north-central range of the Ouachita mountains in Arkansas.
The 6,301-acre (25.5 km2) Dry Creek Wilderness is located in the north-central ranges of the Ouachita Mountains near Magazine Mountain. It is the state's second-smallest wilderness is known for scenic overlooks and high, secluded sandstone bluffs.
The 10,181-acre (41.2 km2) Flatside Wilderness is located in the extreme-eastern segment of the Ouachita National Forest, near Lake Maumelle and Little Rock. This rarely-visited wilderness is known for some of the highest and most panoramic views in Arkansas and winding, tumbling clear mountain streams and waterfalls.
Counties.
Ouachita National Forest is located in 13 counties in western and central Arkansas and 2 counties in southeastern Oklahoma. They are listed here in descending order of forestland within the county. Also given is their area as of September 30, 2007. Roughly 80% of the forest's area is in Arkansas, with the remaining 20% in Oklahoma. In Arkansas there are local ranger district offices located in Booneville, Danville, Glenwood, Jessieville, Mena, Mount Ida, Oden, Perryville, and Waldron. In Oklahoma they are located in Hodgen, Talihina, and north of Broken Bow. Even though the Ouachita National Forest is far from being the largest, its twelve ranger districts are the most of any in the National Forest system. The giant Tongass National Forest in Alaska is second with nine ranger district divisions.


Suillellus queletii

Suillellus queletii (formerly Boletus queletii), commonly known as the deceiving bolete, is an uncommon, edible mushroom in the genus "Suillellus".
Naming.
Originally described by Stephan Schulzer von Müggenburg in 1885 as a species of "Boletus", the fungus was transferred to "Suillellus" in 2014. The epithet "queletii" was given in honour of Lucien Quélet.
In 1796 Christiaan Hendrik Persoon described a type of bolete under the name "Boletus erythropus" and in the next 200 years the same name was widely used for a well-known species having red pores. But recently it was discovered that Persoon's mushroom had orange pores, that usage of the name "B. erythropus" was invalid, and now the red-pored species (after a separate change to the genus too) has to be called "Neoboletus luridiformis)". It is best not to use the ambiguous name "Boletus erythropus" any more, but according to Funga Nordica the fungus described by Persoon was actually "Suillellus queletii".
Description.
The cap is hemispherical, latter flattening out, appearing olive to reddish-brown, rarely also dark red. The flesh is yellow, turning blue when cut. The pores are initially yellow, soon become orange, and finally can be reddish. The stipe is smooth and golden yellow and the flesh has a slightly acrid taste.
The spore powder is olive and under the microscope the spores appear somewhat spindle-shaped and measure about 10-14 µm × 5-7 µm.
Distribution and habitat.
This mycorrhizal mushroom can be found in deciduous forest, at lower altitudes, under beech, oak or hazel.
It is uncommon in Europe and considered endangered in the Czech Republic. In Asia, it has been recorded in Taiwan.


Barathrites iris

Barathrites iris is a species of Ophidiiformes in the family Ophidiidae.


Neoventuria argentinensis


Lepidosperma asperatum

Lepidosperma asperatum is a sedge (in the family Cyperaceae) that is endemic to Western Australia. It was first described in 1941 by Georg Kükenthal as "Lepidosperma leptostachyum" var. "asperatum", but was elevated to species status in 2012 by Karen Wilson and Russell Barrett.
Distribution.
It is found in the IBRA regions of the
Avon Wheatbelt, the Geraldton Sandplains, the Jarrah Forest, the Mallee biogeographic region, and the Swan Coastal Plain.


Streptomyces olivaceus

Streptomyces olivaceus is a bacterium species from the genus of "Streptomyces" which has been isolated from soil. "Streptomyces olivaceus" produces granaticin, elloramycin, tetroazolemycin A and tetroazolemycin B. "Streptomyces olivaceus" can be used to produce vitamin B12.


Tahoe National Forest

Tahoe National Forest is a United States National Forest located in California, northwest of Lake Tahoe. It includes the peak of Sierra Buttes, near Sierra City, which has views of Mount Lassen and Mount Shasta. It is located in parts of six counties: Sierra, Placer, Nevada, Yuba, Plumas and El Dorado. The forest has a total area of 871,495 acres (1,361.71 sq mi or 3,526.82 km2). Its headquarters is in Nevada City, California. There are local ranger district offices in Camptonville, Foresthill, Sierraville and Truckee.
Tahoe National Forest has many natural and man-made resources for the enjoyment of its visitors, including hundreds of lakes and reservoirs (most notably Boca Reservoir), river canyons carving through granite bedrock, and many miles of trails including a portion of the Pacific Crest Trail. The National Wilderness Preservation System's Granite Chief Wilderness is close by to Tahoe City, where many trails branch out into the Wilderness.
The forest also serves as the water supply headwaters for the towns of Lincoln, Auburn and Rocklin. Reno, Nevada and Sparks, Nevada also receive their water from the Truckee River which runs through both cities on its way to its terminus at Pyramid Lake. It is also home to three wolverines.
Overview.
The Forest Reserves were established in 1893 to halt uncontrolled exploitation of its resources. In California, the Sierra Forest Reserve consisted of over . Tahoe was originally established as the Lake Tahoe Forest Reserve on April 13, 1899. The name was changed to Tahoe on October 3, 1905.
President Theodore Roosevelt supported the transfer of forest reserves from the U.S. Department of the Interior
to the Department of Agriculture's Forest Service in 1905, with Gifford Pinchot as Chief Forester. Thus began the United States National Forest System. In 1908, the Sierra National Forest was divided into five units and as time went on, more divisions, additions, and combinations were worked out so that presently, Tahoe is one of eight national forests along the Sierra Nevada Mountain Range. They are, from north to south, Plumas, Tahoe, Eldorado, Toiyabe, Stanislaus, Inyo, Sierra, and Sequoia.
The charter given by James Wilson, U.S. Secretary of Agriculture, states: The National Forests are for the purpose of preserving a perpetual supply of timber for home industries, preventing a destruction of forest cover which regulates the flow of streams, and protecting local residents from unfair competition in the use of forest and range. The timber, water, pasture and mineral resources of the national forests are for the use of the people.
Vegetation.
A 2002 report estimated nearly of old growth in the Forest. The old growth includes coast Douglas fir ("Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii"), Ponderosa pine ("Pinus ponderosa"), white fir ("Abies concolor"), sugar pine ("Pinus lambertiana"), California incense cedar ("Calocedrus decurrens"), California black oak ("Quercus kelloggii"), lodgepole pine ("Pinus contorta") and red fir ("Abies magnifica"). A number of species of invasive weeds have been recorded in the Forest, including thistles, knapweeds, mustards, toadflaxes, daisies, brooms, and aquatic.
Placer County Big Trees Grove.
Placer County Big Trees Grove is a giant sequoia grove located in the American River watershed of Tahoe National Forest. It is known as a "tiny" giant sequoia grove, and is the northernmost grove of giant sequoias. The grove contains six old growth giant sequoias, two of which are considered "giant" size.


Bulbophyllum algidum

Bulbophyllum algidum is a species of orchid in the genus "Bulbophyllum" discovered in former British New Guinea by the Wollaston Expedition of 1912–1913, led by Sandy Wollaston. The specimen was discovered at a high altitude, between 10,500 and 12,500 feet.


Wetthegan Wildlife Sanctuary

Wetthegan Wildlife Sanctuary () is a protected area in Myanmar's Magway Region with an area of at an elevation of . It was established in 1939.
The sanctuary's lake and surrounding marshland provide habitat for waterfowl and freshwater fish. It is located about west of the Irrawaddy River close to the city of Salin in Salin Township. It receives south-west monsoon rains of about per year from June to August. It is one of four protected wetlands in the country.
History.
The sanctuary was notified in September 1939 under the name of 'Weltigan Wild Life Sanctuary' with an area of foremost for the protection of waterfowl. It consisted of a lake and marshland. Local people were allowed to graze their cattle, collect grass, fruits and lotus leaves. Birds and fish were poached during the Japanese occupation of Burma. By the early 1950s, the area was partly rehabilitated.
Today, it is governed by the Township Forest Department and does not receive a budget for conservation activities.
Biodiversity.
Wetthegan Wildlife Sanctuary comprises a lake of about surrounded by marshes, where 22 aquatic plant species were recorded. These include "Typha", "Eichhornia", "Sesbania", "Nymphaea" and "Boottia" species. Medicinal plants comprise 80 species.
Birds recorded comprise 130 species, with ducks and waders predominating between November and February. Waterfowl include lesser whistling duck ("Dendrocygna javanica"), ferruginous pochard ("Aythya nyroca"), bar-headed goose ("Anser indicus") and pheasant-tailed jacana ("Hydrophasianus chirurgus"). Also recorded were hooded treepie ("Crypsirina cucullata"), Ayeyarwady bulbul ("Pycnonotus blanfordi"), common myna ("Acridotheres tristis"), white-throated babbler ("Argya gularis"), Asian palm swift ("Cypsiurus balasiensis").
Little grebe ("Tachybaptus ruficollis"), cinnamon bittern ("Ixobrychus cinnamomeus"), cattle egret ("Bubulcus ibis"), knob-billed duck ("Sarkidiornis melanotos"), cotton pygmy goose ("Nettapus coromandelianus"), Indian spot-billed duck ("Anas poecilorhyncha"), Western swamphen ("Porphyrio porphyrio"), black-winged stilt ("Himantopus himantopus") and little ringed plover ("Charadrius dubius") were also sighted.
Indian black turtle ("Melanochelys trijuga"), Indian flapshell turtle ("Lissemys punctata") and Asiatic softshell turtle ("Amyda cartilaginea") live in the lake.


Erythrocarpon microstomum


Copernicia berteroana

Copernicia berteroana (dyaré, yarey) is a palm which is endemic to Hispaniola; it is also reported from Curaçao and Venezuela, but it is probably naturalized there.
Description.
Like other members of this genus, "C. berteroana" is a fan palm. Trees are 4 to 5 metres tall with stems 20 centimetres in diameter. The fruit is black, 2 centimetres long and 1.8 cm in diameter. The leaves are used for thatch.
Habitat.
"Copernicia berteroana" is found in flat regions with low rainfall. In Haiti it is threatened by habitat destruction.


Erigeron vetensis

Erigeron vetensis is a North American species of flowering plant in the daisy family known by the common name early blue-top fleabane. It is native to the western United States (primarily in the Rocky Mountains of Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico but with an isolated population in Nebraska).
"Erigeron vetensis " grows in dry, open sites in openings in conifer forests. It is a perennial herb up to 50 centimeters (20 inches) tall. It generally produces only one flower head per stem. Each head contains 30–90; blue, purple, or white ray florets surrounding numerous yellow disc florets.


Pseuduvaria aurantiaca

Pseuduvaria aurantiaca is a species of plant in the family Annonaceae. It is endemic to New Guinea. Friedrich Anton Wilhelm Miquel, the Dutch botanist who first formally described the species using the basionym "Orophea aurantiaca", named it after its orange colored (, in Latin) fruit.
Description.
It is a tree that reaches 5 meters in height. Its branches have lenticels. Its leathery leaves are 14-19.5 by 5.5-7.5 centimeters and have pointed tips. The leaves are hairless when mature. The leaves have 12-18 pairs of secondary veins emanating from the central rib. Its petioles are 1.5-5 millimeters long with a groove on their upper side. Inflorescences are organized on slightly hairy peduncles 20-35 millimeters long. Each inflorescence consists of up to 10 flowers. Each flower is on a densely hairy pedicel 2-4 millimeters in length. The flowers are unisexual. Its flowers have 3 oval-shaped sepals, 0.8 by 1 millimeters, that have blunt tips. The outer surface of the sepals is densely hairy while the inside is smooth, and their margins have very fine hairs. Its 6 petals are arranged in two rows of 3. The outer petals are white or yellow-green and 2 by 2 millimeters. The outer petals are smooth on the inside and densely hairy on the outside. The inner petals have a 0.9 millimeter claw at their base and a 2-3.5 by 1.5-2 millimeter blade. The inner petals are smooth on their upper surface and densely hairy on their lower surface. Male flowers have up to 26 stamens that are 0.5-0.6 millimeters long. The gynoecium consists of 1-2 unfused carpels (monocarps). Fruit are attached to 30-40 millimeter peduncles by 8-9 millimeter pedicles. Mature monocarps are orange, hairy, wrinkly ellipsoids, 17-21 by 13-19 millimeters. Each monocarp has 6-8 wrinkly seeds, 8.5-13 by 6-8.5 millimeters.
Reproductive biology.
The pollen of "P. aurantiaca" is shed as permanent tetrads.


Paracoccidioides brasiliensis

Paracoccidioides brasiliensis is a dimorphic fungus and one of the two species that cause paracoccidioidomycosis (the other being "Paracoccidioides lutzii)." The fungus has been affiliated with the family Ajellomycetaceae (division Ascomycota) although a sexual state or teleomorph has not yet been found.
History.
"Paracoccidioides brasiliensis" was first discovered by Adolfo Lutz in 1908 in Brazil. Although Lutz did not suggest a name for the disease caused by this fungus, he made note of structures he called "pseudococcidica" together with mycelium in cultures grown at 25 °C. In 1912, Alfonse Splendore proposed the name "Zymonema brasiliense" and described the features of the fungus in culture. Finally in 1930, Floriano de Almeida created the genus "Paracoccidioides" to accommodate the species, noting its distinction from "Coccidioides immitis".
Physiology.
"Paracoccidioides brasiliensis" is a nonphotosynthetic eukaryote with a rigid cell wall and organelles very similar to those of higher eukaryotes. Being a dimorphic fungus, it has the ability to grow an oval yeast-like form at 37 °C and an elongated mycelial form produced at room temperature. The mycelial and yeast phases differ in their morphology, biochemistry, and ultrastructure. The yeast form contains large amounts of α-(1,3)-linked glucan. The chitin content of the mycelial form is greater than that of the yeast form, but the lipid content of both phases is comparable.
The yeast reproduces by asexual budding, where daughter cells are borne asynchronously at multiple, random positions across the cell surface. Buds begin by layers of cell wall increasing in optical density at a point that eventually gives rise to the daughter cell. Once the bud has expanded, a cleavage plane develops between the nascent cell and the mother cell. Following dehiscence, the bud scar disappears. In tissue, budding occurs inside the granulomatous center of the disease lesion, as visualized by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining of histologic sections. Nonbudding cells measure 5–15 µm in diameter, whereas those with multiple spherical buds measure from 10–20 µm in diameter. In electron microscopy, cells with multiple buds have been found to have peripherally located nuclei and cytoplasm surrounding a large central vacuole. In the tissue form of "P. brasiliensis", yeast cells are larger with thinner walls and a narrower bud base than those of the related dimorphic fungus, "Blastomycosis dermatitidis". The yeast-like form of "P. brasiliensis" contains multiple nuclei, a porous two-layered nuclear membrane, and a thick cell wall rich in fibers, whereas the mycelial phase has thinner cell walls with a thin, electron-dense outer layer.
Dimorphism.
The mycelial form of "P. brasiliensis" can be converted to the yeast form "in vitro" by growth on brain heart infusion agar or blood-glucose-cysteine agar when incubated for 10–20 days at 37 °C. Under these conditions, hyphal cells either die or convert to transitional forms measuring 6–30 µm in diameter, which ultimately detach or remain on the hyphal cells, yielding buds. New buds develop mesosomes and become multinucleated. In contrast, yeast-like cultures can be converted to the mycelial form by reducing the incubation temperature from 37 to 25 °C. Initially, nutritional requirements of both the yeast and mycelial phases of "P. brasiliensis" were thought to be identical; however, later studies demonstrated the yeast form to be auxotrophic, requiring exogenous sulfur-containing amino acids including cysteine and methionine for growth.
Ecology.
Although the habitat of "P. brasiliensis" remains unknown, it is commonly associated with soils in which coffee is cultivated. It has also been associated with the nine-banded armadillo, "Dasypus novemcinctus". The disease caused by "P. brasiliensis" is mostly geographically restricted to Latin American countries such as Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela, with the greatest number of cases seen in Brazil. The endemic areas are characterized by hot, humid summers, dry temperate winters, average annual temperatures between 17 and 23 °C, and annual rainfall between 500 and 800 mm. However, the precise ecology regularities of the fungus remain elusive, and "P. brasiliensis" has rarely been encountered in nature outside the human host. One such rare example of environmental isolation was reported in 1971 by Maria B.de Albornoz and colleagues who isolated "P. brasiliensis" from samples of rural soil collected in Paracotos in the state of Miranda, Venezuela. In "in vitro" studies, the fungus has been shown to grow when inoculated into soil and sterile horse or cow excrement. The mycelial phase has also been shown to survive longer than the yeast phase in acidic soil. Despite a sexual state not having been documented, molecular investigations suggest the existence of recombining populations of "P. brasiliensis", potentially by means of an undiscovered sexual state.
Epidemiology.
"P. brasiliensis" causes a disease known as paracoccidioidomycosis characterized by slow, progressive granulomatous changes in the head mucosa, notably the nose and sinuses or the skin. Uncommonly, the disease affects the lymphatic system, the central nervous system, the gastrointestinal tract, or the skeletal system. Due to the high proportion of cases affecting the oral mucosa, these tissues were originally thought to be the primary route of entry of fungus. However, strong evidence now indicates the respiratory tract is the chief point of entry and "P. brasiliensis" lung lesions occur in nearly a third of progressive cases. The disease is not contagious.
Paracoccidioidomycosis is more frequently seen in adult males than females. The hormone estrogen is thought to inhibit the transformation of the mycelial to the yeast form, as supported by "in vitro" experimental data, and this factor may account for the relative resistance of women to infection.
Detection and surveillance.
A number of serologic tests have been employed for the diagnosis of paracoccidioidomycosis. Double diffusion in agar gel and complement fixation test, are amongst the most commonly used tests in serodiagnosis. Culture extracts of the yeast or mycelia are exploited to produce effective, quick, and reproducible antigens. A study reported detection of 43 kD antigen in pooled sera of affected individuals, which might provide a basis for the development of a diagnostic test. Tests targeting the presence of serum antibodies to "P. brasiliensis" simultaneously detect both active and historical infections and cannot discriminate active infection. The evaluation of populations in endemic zones has shown roughly equal rates of seroconversion between men and women, suggesting equal rates of exposure, despite the strong male predominance shown by the clinical disease.
Clinical manifestations.
"P. brasiliensis" causes mucous membrane ulceration of the mouth and nose with spreading through the lymphatic system. A hypothesis for entry of the fungus to the body is through periodontal membrane. The route of infection is assumed to be inhalation following which the infective propagule gives rise to the distinctive multipolar budding yeast forms in the lung resembling a "ship's wheel" seen in histological sections. Both immunologically normal and compromised people are at risk for infection.
The lungs, lymph nodes, and mucous membrane of the mouth are the most frequently infected tissues. The pathological features of paracoccidioidomycosis are similar to those seen in coccidioidomycosis and blastomycosis. However, in the former, the lesions first appear in the lymphoid tissue and then extend to mucous membranes, producing localized to diffusive tissue necrosis of the lymph nodes. The typically extensive involvement of lymphoid tissue and the limited occurrence of the gastrointestinal tract, bone and prostate set the clinical picture of paracoccidioidomycosis apart from that of blastomycosis.


Pinus albicaulis

Pinus albicaulis, known by the common names whitebark pine, white bark pine, white pine, pitch pine, scrub pine, and creeping pine, is a conifer tree native to the mountains of the western United States and Canada, specifically subalpine areas of the Sierra Nevada, Cascade Range, Pacific Coast Ranges, and Rocky Mountains from Wyoming northwards. It shares the common name "creeping pine" with several other plants.
The whitebark pine is typically the highest-elevation pine tree found in these mountain ranges and often marks the tree line. Thus, it is often found as "krummholz", trees growing close to the ground that have been dwarfed by exposure. In more favorable conditions, the trees may grow to in height.
Identification.
Whitebark pine ("Pinus albicaulis") is a member of the white pine group, the "Pinus" subgenus "Strobus", and the section "Strobus"; like all members of this group, the leaves (needles) are in fascicles (bundles) of five with a deciduous sheath. This distinguishes whitebark pine and its relatives from the lodgepole pine ("Pinus contorta"), with two needles per fascicle, as well as the ponderosa pine ("Pinus ponderosa") and Jeffrey pine ("Pinus jeffreyi"), which both have three needles per fascicle; all three of these species also have a persistent sheath at the base of each fascicle.
Distinguishing whitebark pine ("Pinus albicaulis"), from the related limber pine ("Pinus flexilis"), also a member of the white pine group, is much more difficult, and usually requires seed or pollen cones. In "Pinus albicaulis", the seed-bearing female cones are long, dark purple when immature, and do not open on drying, but the scales easily break when they are removed by the Clark's nutcracker to harvest the seeds; rarely are there intact old cones in the litter beneath the trees. Its pollen cones are scarlet.
In "Pinus flexilis", the cones are long, green when immature, and open to release the seeds; the scales are not fragile. Their pollen cones are yellow, and there are usually intact old cones found beneath them.
Whitebark pine ("Pinus albicaulis") can also be hard to distinguish from the western white pine ("Pinus monticola") in the absence of cones. However, whitebark pine needles are entire (smooth when rubbed gently in either direction), whereas western white pine needles are finely serrated (feeling rough when rubbed gently from tip to base). Whitebark pine needles are also usually shorter, long, though still overlapping in size with the larger needles of the western white pine.
Ecology.
The whitebark pine is an important source of food for many granivorous birds and small mammals, including most importantly the Clark's nutcracker ("Nucifraga columbiana"), the major seed disperser of the pine. Clark's nutcrackers each cache about 30,000 to 100,000 seeds each year in small, widely scattered caches, usually under of soil or gravelly substrate. Nutcrackers retrieve these seed caches during times of food scarcity and to feed their young. Cache sites selected by nutcrackers are often favorable for germination of seeds and survival of seedlings. Those caches not retrieved by the time the snow melts contribute to forest regeneration. Consequently, whitebark pine often grows in clumps of several trees, originating from a single cache of two to 15 or more seeds.
Other animals also depend upon the whitebark pine. Douglas squirrels cut down and store whitebark pine cones in their middens. Grizzly bears and American black bears often raid squirrel middens for whitebark pine seeds, an important pre-hibernation food. Squirrels, northern flickers, and mountain bluebirds often nest in whitebark pines, and elk and blue grouse use whitebark pine communities as summer habitat.
Fallen needles under these trees serve as beds that are used by deer and wild sheep seeking shelter during stormy weather.
Threats.
The whitebark pine has been classified as endangered by the IUCN. Severe population decline in whitebark pine communities is attributed to various causes, most significantly infection with white pine blister rust, recent outbreaks of mountain pine beetles (2000–2014), disturbances in wildland fire ecology (including fire suppression), forest succession, and climate change. A study in the mid-2000s showed that whitebark pine had declined by 41 percent in the western Cascades due to two primary threats: blister rust and pine beetles. Whitebark deaths in North Cascades National Park doubled from 2006 to 2011.
White pine blister rust.
Many stands of "Pinus albicaulis" across the species' entire natural range are infected with white pine blister rust ("Cronartium ribicola"), a fungal disease introduced from Europe. In the northern Rocky Mountains of the United States, whitebark pine mortality in some areas exceeds 90 percent, where the disease infests nearly . "Cronartium ribicola" occurs in whitebark pine to the northern limits of the species in the coastal ranges of British Columbia and the Canadian Rocky Mountains. The blister rust has also devastated the commercially valuable western white pine in these areas and made serious inroads in limber pine ("Pinus flexilis") populations as well. Nearly 80 percent of whitebark pines in Mount Rainier National Park are infected with blister rust.
There is currently no effective method for controlling the spread and effects of blister rust. However, a small number of trees (fewer than 5%) in most populations harbor genetic resistance to blister rust. Restoration efforts undertaken by the U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, and National Park Service in the northern Rocky Mountains involve harvesting cones from potentially and known resistant whitebark pines, growing seedlings, and outplanting seedlings in suitable sites. In California, where the blister rust is far less severe, whitebark pine is still fairly common in the High Sierras.
Mountain pine beetle.
Unusually large outbreaks of mountain pine beetle ("Dendroctonus ponderosae"), a species of bark beetle native to western North America, have also contributed significantly to the widespread destruction of whitebark pine stands. The beetles both lay their eggs and introduce pathogenic fungi into their host trees, which include many other species of pine, and the combination of larval feeding and fungal colonization is typically sufficient to kill old or unhealthy trees. However, the beetles have recently expanded their attacks to younger, healthier trees as well as older trees, and climate change has been implicated as the primary culprit. Since 2000, the climate at high elevations has warmed enough for the beetles to reproduce within whitebark pine, often completing their life cycle within one year and enabling their populations to grow exponentially. Entire forest vistas, like that at Avalanche Ridge near Yellowstone National Park’s east gate, have become expanses of dead gray whitebarks. Scientists have attributed the recent warming trend to manmade global warming.
In 2007, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimated that beetles had killed whitebark pines across in the West, while in 2009, beetles were estimated to have killed trees on , the most since record-keeping began. The pine beetle upsurge has killed nearly 750,000 whitebark pines in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem alone.
Fire suppression.
Fire suppression has led to slow population declines over the last century by altering the health and composition dynamics of stands without the fire ecology balancing their habitat and suppressing insect-disease threats. In the absence of low-level wildfire cycles, whitebark pines in these stands are replaced by more shade-tolerant, fire-intolerant species such as subalpine fir ("Abies lasiocarpa") and Engelmann spruce ("Picea engelmannii"). In addition, senescent and blister rust-infected pine trees are not destroyed by natural periodic ground fires, further diminishing the whitebark pine forest's vitality and survival.
Protective efforts.
On July 18, 2011, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reported that the whitebark pine needed protection and that, without it, the tree would soon be extinct. However, the agency announced it would neither be able to list the tree as endangered nor protect the organism, as it lacked both the necessary staff and funding to do so. In June 2012, the Canadian federal government declared whitebark pine endangered in accordance with the Species at Risk Act. As such, it is the first federally listed endangered tree in western Canada.
In response to the ongoing decline of the tree throughout its range, the Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation was formed. Their mission is to raise awareness and promote conservation by sponsoring restoration projects, publishing a newsletter called "Nutcracker Notes", and hosting an annual science and management workshop for anyone interested in whitebark pine. This U.S. group collaborates closely with the Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation of Canada.
Uses.
Native Americans are known to eat the seeds from the cones of this tree.


Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and Fish Refuge

The Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and Fish Refuge is a , National Wildlife Refuge located in and along the Upper Mississippi River. It runs from Wabasha, Minnesota in the north to Rock Island, Illinois in the south.
In its northern portion, it is in the Driftless Area, a region of North America that remained free from ice during the last ice age. Certain parcels contained within the refuge were later transferred to the Driftless Area National Wildlife Refuge.
The refuge is an important element of the Mississippi Flyway. It has many wooded islands, sloughs, and hardwood forests. The wildlife found here include the canvasback duck, tundra swan, white-tailed deer, and muskrat. Recreational activities include boating, hunting, fishing, and swimming.
Refuge Headquarters are located in Winona, Minnesota, with district offices located in La Crosse, Wisconsin, Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, and Thomson, Illinois.
Geography.
The refuge is one of only two that spans portions of four states (the other is Silvio O. Conte National Fish and Wildlife Refuge). As of 30 September 2007 the area per state was: Wisconsin: , Iowa: , Minnesota: , Illinois: .
The following counties border on or have land within the Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and Fish Refuge. In each state, the counties are listed from north to south. The lakes and rivers within the refuge area of each county are also listed.


Agaricus benesii

Agaricus benesii is an agaric mushroom of the genus "Agaricus". This mushroom can be distinguished by a white cap that bruises pinkish-red when injured, a scaly lower stipe, and a conifer habitat. Similar to "Agaricus californicus" and "A. xanthodermus", the cap discolors brown in age. A distinguishing feature of "A. californicus" and "A. xanthodermus", however, is a thickened annulus at the margin, a phenolic odor, and a yellowing bruise, instead of red. In the case of Agaricus xanthodermus, it occurs quickly, though faintly to not at all in the case of "A. californicus". Another similar species, "Agaricus bernardii", also stains red and has white flesh, but differentiates on its larger bulk, a sheathing veil, briny odor, and different habitat, namely grass.
Description.
The cap is broad; it has a convex shape which, in age, becomes flat. The flesh is white, moderately thick, and firm. The odor is pungent, even though the mushroom has a mild taste. When injured, it turns a pinkish-red. The surface is white, dry, and innately fibrillose. At the margin, it is finely scaled, though it discolors into a brownish shade in age.
The stem is tall and thick. The stem extends to the enlarged base. At maturity, the stem is stuffed. The surface is white, and turns smooth at the apex, while it is finely scaled below. The partial veil is white, membranous, and two layered. The upper surface is striate, while the lower surface is composed of scaly patches, forming a small, superior annulus. The flesh is white, though it stains red quickly when injured.
The gills are initially unattached to the stem, packed close together, and are pinkish-brown; in age they become blackish-brown.
Spores are 5–6 by 3–4 µm, smooth, and elliptical. The spore print is a blackish-brown color.
Habitat.
Found under Monterey Cypress and pines, "Agaricus benesii" are often in small groups or by themselves. In addition, they fruit from mid to late winter.


Gooseberry Falls State Park

Gooseberry Falls State Park is a state park of Minnesota, United States, on the North Shore of Lake Superior. The park is located in Silver Creek Township, about 13 miles (21 km) northeast of Two Harbors, Minnesota in Lake County on scenic Minnesota Highway 61. The park surrounds the mouth of the Gooseberry River and includes Upper, Middle and Lower Gooseberry Falls.
History and facilities.
The Minnesota Legislature authorized preservation of the area around Gooseberry Falls in 1933, and the area was officially designated Gooseberry Falls State Park in 1937. The rustic style resources in Gooseberry Falls State Park were constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps between 1934 and 1941. The structures are notable for their stone construction, using red, blue, brown, and black basalt. The designs were supervised by the Minnesota Central Design Office of the National Park Service and construction was supervised by two Italian stonemasons. In 1996, the Joseph N. Alexander visitor center was built, providing space for interpretive displays, a cinema screening room, and a gift shop. The visitor center hosts public events including nature, wildlife, astronomy, and music programs.
This park provides 70 non-electric camping sites that are available year-round. There are 18 miles (29 km) of hiking trails, including of mountain bike trails. The trails connect to the Superior Hiking Trail. There are popular picnic and swimming spots on the trails.
Wildlife.
This park is home to the mammalian species of white-tailed deer, Canadian lynx, black bear, timber wolf, and marten. Fish that swim in the lakes are migratory salmon and trout. Bird watchers may see a variety of conifer-dependent birds, ravens, and herring gulls.


Brachyiulus bagnalli

Brachyiulus bagnalli is a species of millipede in the genus Brachyiulus. It is endemic to Bulgaria.