Taxonomy of Banksia integrifolia

The taxonomy of "Banksia integrifolia" has a long and complex history, the result of confusion caused by the species' great variability, and similarities with some closely related species. The existence of hybrids between "B. integrifolia" and related species as well as early attempts to classify the species based on dried specimen material have also contributed to the confusion.
The species is divided into three subspecies: "B. i." subsp. "compar", "B. i." subsp. "integrifolia", and "B. i." subsp. "monticola". Recent molecular studies support this division.
Until recently, "B. integrifolia"s taxonomic placement within the genus was largely settled, with the species placed in "Banksia" subg. "Banksia" sect. "Banksia" ser. "Salicinae". DNA analyses have now cast doubt upon this arrangement and the publication of a new arrangement based on phylogenetic considerations has been foreshadowed.
Background.
"Banksia integrifolia", commonly known as the Coast Banksia, is one of the most widely distributed "Banksia" species. It occurs between Victoria and Central Queensland in a broad range of habitats, from coastal dunes to mountains. It is highly variable in form, but is most often encountered as a tree up to 25 metres (82 ft) in height. Its leaves have dark green upper surfaces and white undersides, a contrast that can be striking on windy days.
A hardy and versatile Australian native plant, "B. integrifolia" is widely planted in domestic gardens. Within its natural distribution it is a popular choice in parks, streetscapes, bush revegetation and stabilisation of dunes. Its hardiness has prompted research into its suitability for use as a rootstock in the cut flower trade, but has also caused concerns about its potential to become a weed outside of its natural habitat.
Discovery.
The first botanical collection of "B. integrifolia" was made by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Daniel Solander, naturalists on the "Endeavour" during Lieutenant (later Captain) James Cook's first voyage to the Pacific Ocean. Cook landed on Australian soil for the first time on 29 April 1770, at a place that he later named Botany Bay in recognition of "the great quantity of plants Mr Banks and Dr Solander found in this place". Over the next seven weeks, Banks and Solander collected thousands of plant specimens, including the first specimens of a new genus that would later be named "Banksia" in Banks' honour.
Every specimen collected during the "Endeavour" voyage was sketched by Banks' botanical illustrator Sydney Parkinson. On the "Endeavour" return to England in July 1771, Banks' specimens became part of his London herbarium, and artists were employed to paint watercolours from Parkinson's sketches. Banks had plans to publish his entire collection as "Banks' Florilegium", but for various reasons the project was never completed, and it would be ten years before any of the "Banksia" species were formally published.
Early taxonomic history.
The genus "Banksia" was eventually described by Carolus Linnaeus the Younger in his April 1782 publication "Supplementum Plantarum". Linnaeus described four "Banksia" species, distinguishing them by their leaf shape, and naming them accordingly. Thus the species with entire leaf margins was given the specific name "integrifolia", from the Latin "integer", meaning "entire", and "folium", meaning "leaf". The full name of the species is therefore ""Banksia integrifolia" L.f."
Then followed by two centuries of variations to the taxonomic limits of "B. integrifolia". The first sign of confusion was in 1788, when Joseph Gaertner published "B. spicata". Gaertner did not specify his type material for the taxon, but contemporary material labelled as such clearly belongs to what is now known as "B. i." subsp. "integrifolia". In 1810, Robert Brown relegated the name to synonymy with "B. integrifolia", and it remained so until 1981 when Alex George refined it to a synonym of the autonym "B. i." var. "integrifolia".
In 1800, Antonio José Cavanilles published a number of new "Banksia" species based on specimens collected at Port Jackson, New South Wales in 1797 by Luis Née, botanist to the Alejandro Malaspina expedition. These included "B. oblongifolia", "B. oleifolia" and "B. glauca". The last two of these were declared synonyms of "B. integrifolia" by Robert Brown in 1810, and refined to synonyms of "B. i." subsp. "integrifolia" by George in 1999. The first was ascribed to "B. i." var. "oblongifolia" by Karel Domin in 1930, but this was overturned by George in 1981, and "B. oblongifolia" remains a current species name.
In 1810, Robert Brown described 31 known species of "Banksia" in his "Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen". He split the genus into two subgenera, placing "B. integrifolia" in subgenus "Banksia verae", the "True Banksias". New species described by Brown included "B. compar", which is now considered a subspecies of "B. integrifolia", and "B. paludosa", a close relative of "B. integrifolia" which was for a time considered a variety of it.
By the time Carl Meissner published his 1856 arrangement of the genus, there were 58 described "Banksia" species. Meissner divided Brown's "Banksia verae", which had been renamed "Eubanksia" by Stephan Endlicher in 1847, into four series based on leaf properties. He placed "B. integrifolia" in series "Salicinae", and further divided it into three varieties: "B. i." var. "minor" for specimens with small, entire leaves; "B. i." var. "major" for specimens with larger, somewhat dentate leaves; and "B. integrifola" var "dentata" for specimens with very large dentate leaves. However, the second of these varieties was based upon a specimen of "B. integrifolia" with juvenile leaves, and the last was "B. robur". All three were overturned by George in 1981.
In 1870, George Bentham published a thorough revision of the "Banksia" in his landmark publication "Flora Australiensis". In Bentham's arrangement, Meissner's four series were replaced by four sections based on leaf, style and pollen-presenter characters. "B. integrifolia" was placed in section "Eubanksia" along with "B. marginata" and "B. dentata". The number of recognised "Banksia" species was reduced from 60 to 46, with "B. compar" declared a synonym of "B. integrifolia", and "B. paludosa" relegated to a variety of "B. integrifolia". The former taxon is now considered a subspecies of "B. integrifolia", but "B. paludosa" has since been reinstated as a species and remains a current species name.
In 1891, Otto Kuntze, in his "Revisio Generum Plantarum", rejected the generic name "Banksia" L.f., on the grounds that the name "Banksia" had previously been published in 1776 as "Banksia" J.R.Forst & G.Forst, referring to the genus now known as "Pimelea". Kuntze proposed "Sirmuellera" as an alternative, referring to this species as "Sirmuellera integrifolia". For the same reason, James Britten transferred the species to the genus "Isostylis" as "Isostylis integrifolia" in 1905. These applications of the principle of priority were largely ignored, and "Banksia" L.f. was formally conserved and "Sirmuellera" rejected in 1940.
20th century.
In 1913, Frederick Bailey promoted Brown's "B. compar", which had been declared a synonym of "B. integrifolia" by Bentham in 1870, to variety rank as "B. i." var. "compar". This would be the first infraspecific taxon of "B. integrifolia" to achieve widespread acceptance. The variety was promoted to subspecies rank by Kevin Thiele in 1994, and "B. i." subsp. "compar" remains a current taxon to date. Under modern botanical nomenclature rules, the publication of subspecies "B. i." subsp. "compar" automatically created the autonym "B. i." subsp. "integrifolia", to encompass the type material.
The most recent classical taxonomic treatment of "Banksia" first appeared in Alex George's 1981 monograph "The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)". In addition to revising the existing nomenclature, George published a number of new species and subspecies, including a new variety of "B. integrifolia", namely "B. i." var. "aquilonia". This was promoted to subspecific rank by Thiele in 1994, and in 1996 George promoted it to specific rank as "Banksia aquilonia".
A third subspecific taxon of "B. integrifolia" has its roots in Gwen Harden's 1991 publication "Flora of New South Wales". Harden recognised a new subspecies of "B. integrifolia", but did not give it a name, referring to it only as ""B. i." subsp. A". Three years later, Thiele confirmed the subspecific rank of this taxon, naming it "B. i." subsp. "monticola".
In 1996, Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published a new arrangement for "Banksia" after cladistic analyses yielded a cladogram significantly different from George's arrangement. Thiele and Ladiges' arrangement retained "B. integrifolia" in series "Salicinae", but divided the series into two subseries: "B." subser. "Integrifoliae" and "B." subser. "Acclives". The seven members of subseries "Integrifoliae" all appear to be closely related, and natural hybrids have been recorded between members where they co-occur. This arrangement stood until 1999, when George effectively reverted to his 1981 arrangement in his monograph for the "Flora of Australia" series. He argued that there was insufficient evidence for the division, and that ""B. dentata" is clearly allied to "B. integrifolia", not to the very distinctive "B. robur"".
George's arrangement.
Until recently, the accepted taxonomic arrangement for "Banksia" was that published in George's 1999 monograph for the "Flora of Australia" series. In this arrangement, "B. integrifolia" is placed in "Banksia" subg. "Banksia" because its inflorescences take the form of "Banksia" characteristic flower spikes; "Banksia" sect. "Banksia" because of its straight styles; and "Banksia" ser. "Salicinae" because of its cylindrical inflorescences .
"B. integrifolia"s placement within George's taxonomic arrangement of "Banksia" may be summarised as follows:
21st century.
Since 1998, Austin Mast has been publishing results of ongoing cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for the subtribe Banksiinae, which comprises "Banksia" and "Dryandra". His inferred phylogeny is very greatly different from George's arrangement, and provides compelling evidence for the paraphyly of "Banksia" with respect to "Dryandra". Early in 2007, Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement of "Banksia" by transferring "Dryandra" into it, and publishing "B." subg. "Spathulatae" for the species having spoon-shaped cotyledons. They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of "Dryandra" was complete; in the meantime, if Mast and Thiele's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement, then "B. integrifolia" is placed in "B." subg. "Spathulatae".
Subspecies and hybrids.
"B. integrifolia" is a highly variable species. Some of this variation can be attributed to environmental factors, but much appears to be genetic: George writes that it "gives the impression that it is actively speciating to fill the many ecological niches through its range". Three subspecies are currently recognised: "B. i." subsp. "integrifolia", "B. i." subsp. "compar", and "B. i." subsp. "monticola". More recent work by Evans has supported this classification, with "monticola" more closely allied with the nominate subspecies than with "compar".
Hybrids have been reported between "B. integrifolia" and other members of series Salicinae, specifically "B. paludosa" and "B. marginata", but no hybrid names have been formally published to date.


Brunellia racemifera

Brunellia racemifera is a species of plant in the Brunelliaceae family. It is endemic to Colombia.


Atlantic goldenrod

Atlantic goldenrod is a common name for several plants and may refer to:


Notelaea ovata

Notelaea ovata is a shrub in the olive family, found in eastern Australia. Growing up to a metre high, found mostly in coastal districts north from Narooma. This plant was first mentioned in the scientific literature in 1810, in the "Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae", authored by Scottish botanist, Robert Brown. One of the many plants listed with a type as "(J.) v.v.". Brown collected samples at Port Jackson in the early years of the 19th century.


Basket willow

Basket willow is a common name for several plants and may refer to:


Eragrostis leptostachya

Eragrostis leptostachya is a species of grass known as the paddock lovegrass. Found in eastern Australia, it may be seen growing in eucalyptus woodland or pasture. The grass may grow up to tall. As "Poa leptostachya", it was one of the many plants first published by Robert Brown with the type known as "(J.) v.v." Appearing in his "Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen" in 1810.


Corispermum pallasii

Corispermum pallasii, common name Pallas bugseed, is a plant apparently native to Siberia but naturalized in Europe, Canada, and the Great Lakes Region of the United States. It is a branched herb growing on sand dunes and other sandy soils.
This plant is named after botanist and zoologist Peter Simon Pallas and was published by Stevens as "Corispermum pallasii" in Mém. Soc. Imp. Naturalistes Moscou. 5: 336. 1817.
Subspecies:


Solanum tepuiense

Solanum tepuiense is a plant species native to Venezuela. It is known from one collection, from a low-elevation sandstone flat-topped mountain named Sororopán-Tepuí, near the Gran Sabana Region in the State of Bolívar in the eastern part of the country.
"Solanum tepuiense" is a shrub up to 2.5 m tall. Leaves are elliptic, thick and leathery, green and shiny on the upper surface, a few small hairs on the underside; blade up to 14 cm long. Inflorescences are opposite the leaves, each with 10-14 flowers. Flowers are white, about 20 mm in diameter. Fruit is a dry berry about 1.5 cm in diameter. Seeds are reddish-brown, flattened and kidney-shaped.


Eriogonum brachyanthum

Eriogonum brachyanthum is a species of wild buckwheat known by the common name shortflower buckwheat. It is native to eastern California and western Nevada, particularly the Mojave Desert region, where it is common to abundant, and even sometimes weedy. It is also known from southern Oregon. The plant grows in sandy habitat, such as desert flats and sagebrush. It is an annual herb reaching 30 to 40 centimeters tall. The woolly leaves are oval or rounded and are located about the base of the stem. The top of the stem is occupied by a branching inflorescence bearing many widely spaced clusters of flowers. Each individual flower is about a millimeter wide and light yellow in color.


Hebe epacridea

Hebe epacridea is a plant of the family Plantaginaceae, which is endemic to altitudes above 3,000 feet from the Marlborough Region to Otago region on the South Island of New Zealand. It is a low-growing, evergreen shrub, reaching 10 cm in height, with thick, closely placed, recurved green leaves that are 5–7 mm long. Flowers are white.


Cyanea koolauensis

Cyanea koolauensis (formerly "Rollandia angustifolia") is a rare species of flowering plant in the bellflower family known by the common names Palolo Valley rollandia and narrowleaf rollandia. It is native to Oahu, where it is known only from the Koʻolau Mountains. It is a federally listed endangered species. Like other "Cyanea" it is known as haha in Hawaiian.
This Hawaiian lobelioid is a shrub reaching 1 to 1.5 meters in height. It bears dark red flowers.
As of 2009 the plant was known from 10 small, scattered populations along the peaks of the Koʻolau Range, for a total of approximately 160 individual plants. Only one of these populations contains over 50 plants. Most of these populations are located on land used for military training operations. Threats to the species include trampling and fires associated with military activity, trampling by hikers, damage to the habitat caused by feral pigs, flooding, trail maintenance, and exotic plants such as Koster's curse ("Clidemia hirta") and moho ("Heliocarpus popayanensis").


Burmeistera anderssonii

Burmeistera anderssonii is a species of plant in the family Campanulaceae. It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Nepenthes angasanensis

Nepenthes angasanensis is a tropical pitcher plant species endemic to Sumatra, where it grows at an altitude of to above sea level. The status of this taxon is controversial as it is similar in morphology to "N. mikei" and "N. tobaica". It has even been suggested that the taxon might represent a natural hybrid between "N. densiflora" and "N. tobaica".
The specific epithet refers to Mount Puncak Angasan, from which the type specimen was collected. No forms or varieties of "N. angasanensis" have been described.
Taxonomy.
In 2001, Charles Clarke performed a cladistic analysis of the "Nepenthes" species of Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia using 70 morphological characteristics of each taxon. The following is a portion of the resultant cladogram, showing part of "Clade 6". The sister pair of "N. angasanensis" and "N. mikei" has 79% support.
Natural hybrids.
The following natural hybrids involving "N. angasanensis" have been recorded.


Aphanorrhegma

Aphanorrhegma is a genus of moss in the family Funariaceae. It contains the single species Aphanorrhegma serratum distributed in eastern North America.


Grabowskia sodiroi

Grabowskia sodiroi is a species of plant in the family Solanaceae. It is endemic to Ecuador.


Humiriastrum

Humiriastrum is a genus of flowering plants in the family Humiriaceae. There are about 16 species distributed in Central and South America.
Species include:


Cereus ayisyen

Cereus ayisyen is a species of cactus from Haiti. It was originally named "Cereus haitiensis", but that name is invalid as it had already been used for another species. The specific epithet "ayisyen" means "Haitian" in Haitian Creole.


Andersonglossum virginianum

Andersonglossum virginianum, known as wild comfrey, is a flowering plant in the borage family native to North America. It is also sometimes called blue houndstongue.
Formerly placed in the genus "Cynoglossum", it was transferred to the genus "Andersonglossum" in 2015.
Distribution.
"Andersonglossum virginianum" is native to the Eastern United States and across Canada. It densely populates the central and southeastern parts of the U.S. and is often found in open uplands, such as in southern New England, from New York to Illinois, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and from the south to Florida. A closely related species, "Andersonglossum boreale" is disappearing from the southern part of its range in the United States.
Habitat and ecology.
Studies indicate that some parts of the life cycle of "A. virginianum" are dependent on humidity, low temperature, and low competition. Therefore, a forest is a good place in which this species can be found.
Flowering and seedling require increased light and a richer soil.
This is often achieved by random fires. This has not been researched but it can be said because other understory herbs require the same conditions. However, if there is too much light, then woody species may develop destroying the habitat and there is possibility for smaller herbs to take place.
"Andersonglossum virginianum" has adapted a unique ability to survive fire because, as mentioned above, it requires fire to eliminate competition and increase light to help nurture itself. This also has not been proven by research but history suggests that there may be a possibility that this species is adapted to occasional fires. This can be said due to the frequent fires the forest has gone through in which this species is found.
Description.
"Andersonglossum virginianum" is an erect, unbranched perennial with rough fine hair on its leaves and stem. Their leaves are simple, entire, and have an alternate pattern. The leaves are denser at the lower end of the stem and they get smaller going up the stem. It has two to six racemes. The flowers have five deep lobes that are connected to a superior ovary which in turn is connected to the style. The flowers have rounded, light blue corollas that overlap each other. The corollas alternate with stamen with anthers.
Unlike "C. virginianum", "C. virginianum" var. "boreale" has petioles on its cauline leaves and its corolla lobes are not rounded and do not overlap. It, in general, is a smaller plant.
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids, hepatoxins capable of affecting grazing animals and humans, are synthesized by many borages including "Andersonglossum officinale". Presumably this provides some protection against generalist herbivores. Botanists suspect that "C. virginianum" may also contain some of these alkaloids.
Reproduction.
"Andersonglossum virginianum" forms from a taproot every spring around May. Plants that do not flower grow more leaves in a rosette. However, the flowering plants grow from the center of the rosette. It is a monoecious plant which is self-compatible. It flowers from May to June and produces fruits from July to August. The flowers produce four grayish brown seeds that adhere to animals.
Medicinal uses.
Herbalists from the nineteenth-century have suggested that "C. virginianum" may possibly be a replacement or a substitute for "Symphytum officinale" (also known as Comfrey or Old West Comfrey.) For a long time, "C. virginianum" has been used to help treat wounds and to flush out any internal digestive disorders and respiratory infections. It also acts as a sedative medication.
Because of one of the active substances in the plant, large doses of it should not be taken because it can cause liver problems.


Thuja plicata

Thuja plicata, commonly called western red cedar or Pacific red cedar, giant arborvitae or western arborvitae, or just cedar, giant cedar, or shinglewood, is a species of "Thuja", an evergreen coniferous tree in the cypress family Cupressaceae, native to western North America. It is not a true cedar of the genus "Cedrus".
Distribution.
"Thuja plicata" is among the most widespread trees in the Pacific Northwest. It is associated with Douglas-fir and western hemlock in most places where it grows. It is found at the elevation range of sea level to a maximum of above sea level at Crater Lake in Oregon. In addition to growing in lush forests and mountainsides, western redcedar is also a riparian tree, growing in many forested swamps and streambanks in its range. The tree is shade-tolerant and able to reproduce under dense shade.
It has been introduced to other temperate zones, including western Europe, Australia (at least as far north as Sydney), New Zealand, the eastern United States (at least as far north as Central New York), and higher elevations of Hawaii.
The species is naturalized in Britain.
Description.
"Thuja plicata" is a large to very large tree, ranging up to tall and in trunk diameter. Trees growing in the open may have a crown that reaches the ground, whereas trees densely spaced together will exhibit a crown only at the top, where light can reach the leaves. It is long-lived; some individuals can live well over a thousand years, with the oldest verified being 1460 years.
The foliage forms flat sprays with scale-like leaves in opposite pairs, with successive pairs at 90 degrees to each other. The foliage sprays are green above and green marked with whitish stomatal bands below; they are strongly aromatic, with a scent reminiscent of pineapple when crushed. The individual leaves are long and broad on most foliage sprays, but up to long on strong-growing lead shoots.
The cones are slender, long, and broad, with 8 to 12 (rarely 14) thin, overlapping scales. They are green to yellow-green, ripening brown in fall about six months after pollination, and open at maturity to shed the seeds. The seeds are long and broad, with a narrow papery wing down each side. The pollen cones are long, red or purple at first, and shed yellow pollen in spring.
Taxonomy and name.
"Thuja plicata" is one of two "Thuja" species native to North America, the other being "Thuja occidentalis". The species name "plicata" derives from the Latin word and means "folded in plaits" or "braided," a reference to the pattern of its small leaves.
Most authorities, both in Canada and the United States cite the English name in two words as western redcedar, or occasionally hyphenated as western red-cedar, to indicate it is not a true cedar ("Cedrus"), but it is also cited as western red cedar in some popular works. In the American horticultural trade, it is also known as the giant arborvitae, by comparison with arborvitae for its close relative "Thuja occidentalis". Other names include giant redcedar, Pacific redcedar, shinglewood, British Columbia cedar, canoe cedar, and red cedar. "Arborvitae" comes from the Latin for "tree of life"; coincidentally, Native Americans of the West coast also address the species as "long life maker".
One endonymous name for the tree is the Halkomelem word , from the roots , meaning "scratch" or "line", and , "bark"; the former root may be in reference to both the lined or "folded/braided" appearance of the bark and the tree's ubiquity in carving and other forms of woodwork.
Ecology.
Use by Wildlife.
Western redcedar foliage, especially that of saplings, is an important food source year-round for browsing ungulates such as Roosevelt elk and black-tailed deer, especially during the winter months when little else is available. The seeds are eaten by birds and rodents.
Western redcedar provides cover for bears, raccoons, skunks, and other animals which nest inside trunk cavities. It is used as a nest tree by cavity nesting bird species such as yellow-bellied sapsuckers, hairy woodpeckers, tree swallows, chestnut-backed chickadees, and Vaux's swifts.
"Thuja plicata" is a host to several destructive insect species such as the western cedar borer, cedar bark beetle, gall midge, and conifer seedling weevils.
Forest Succession.
Western redcedar appears in all stages of forest succession, but as it is one of the most shade-tolerant species in the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Northwest it is considered to be a climax species along with western hemlock. It will readily establish and grow in the shade of other, less shade-tolerant species such as red alder, black cottonwood, or Douglas-fir, and prevent seedlings of those species from establishing themselves in its shade.
Fire Ecology.
It is considered to have low to moderate fire resistance, as its thin bark, shallow roots, low dense branching habit, and flammable foliage confer little protection. Smaller trees are commonly killed by fire, but larger specimens often survive due to their size if they are not completely girdled. The intervals between fires within western redcedar stands tend to be very long, from 50 up to 350 years or more.
Pathology.
Western redcedar shows susceptibility of varying degrees to the following soil pathogens: "Armillaria ostoyae, Fomitopsis pinicola, Heterobasidion annosum, Phaeolus schweinitzii, Phellinus weirii, Rhizinia undulata," and "Postia sericeomollis."
While western redcedar is a host to "P. weirii," the fungus which causes the disease laminated root rot, redcedar is rated as resistant while other conifers are rated as highly susceptible or susceptible. Instead of laminated root rot, "P. weirri" in western redcedar expresses as a butt rot that can extend 2–3 m up the boles of living trees with the most extreme cases reaching 10 m. While the heart rot caused by the redcedar form of "P. weirii" does not kill the tree outright, it does severely weaken the lower portion of the bole which makes the tree highly susceptible to stem breakage.
"P. sericeomollis" is responsible for brown cubical butt and pocket rot of cedar. It is the second-most common cause of decay in western redcedar following "P. weirii". Rather than forming a single column of decay in the heartwood, though, "P. sericeomollis" tends to cause rings or pockets of decay in the lower bole.
In addition to "P. weirii," western redcedar is also less susceptible to "H. annosum" and "A. ostoyae" than other conifer species. Studies have found that western redcedar produces a phytochemical called thujaplicin which has been credited with granting the species its natural resistance to fungal attacks. Because of these natural defenses, it has been suggested that western redcedar may serve as a suitable alternative to other conifers when regenerating a site affected by these pathogens.
Notable specimens.
The largest living specimen is the Cheewhat Giant, in Pacific Rim National Park Reserve on Vancouver Island, at . The tallest known individual is the Willaby Creek Tree south of Lake Quinault, in height.
The "Quinault Lake Redcedar" was the largest known western redcedar in the world, with a wood volume of . Located near the northwest shore of Lake Quinault north of Aberdeen, Washington, about from the Pacific Ocean, it was one-third the volume of the largest known tree, a giant sequoia named "General Sherman". The Quinault Lake Redcedar was tall with a diameter of at breast height. The "Quinault Lake Red Cedar" was destroyed by a series of storms in 2014 and 2016 and is now only a glorified stump. The fifth known largest was the Kalaloch Cedar in the Olympic National Park, at , until it was destroyed by storm in March 2014.
A redcedar over tall, in diameter, and over 700 years old stood in Cathedral Grove on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, before it was set on fire and destroyed by vandals in 1972. That tree now lies in "Giant's Grave", a self-dug 'grave' created by the force of its own impact.
Uses.
Timber.
The soft red-brown timber has a tight, straight grain and few knots. It is valued for its distinct appearance, aroma, and its high natural resistance to decay, being extensively used for outdoor construction in the form of posts, decking, shingles, and siding. It is commonly used for the framing and longwood in lightweight sail boats and kayaks. In larger boats it is often used in sandwich construction between two layers of epoxy resin and/or fibreglass or similar products. Due to its light weight – dried – it is about 30% lighter than common boat building woods, such as mahogany. For its weight it is quite strong but can be brittle. It glues well with epoxy resin or resorcinol adhesive.
The wood typically used as an insect-repelling closet lining and to make cedar chests is a different species, Juniperus virginiana (also known as red cedar).
Its light weight, strength, and dark, warm sound make it a popular choice for guitar soundboards, particularly among European guitar builders such as Lowden and Furch.
Cultivation.
Like its relative "Thuja occidentalis" and many other conifer species, "Thuja plicata" is grown as an ornamental tree, and for screens and hedges, throughout the world in gardens and parks. A wide variety of forms, sizes, and colours is available.
The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:
Other uses.
It is also widely used throughout Europe and America for making beehive components.
Its bark has been studied for applications in polyeurethane.
Chemistry.
The heartwood of western red cedar contains different chemical substances, such as plicatic acid, thujaplicatin methyl ether, hinokitiol and other thujaplicins, β-thujaplicinol, thujic acid, methyl thujate, 1,4-cineole and γ-eudesmol. Plicatic acid is believed to be the main irritant and contact allergen responsible for provoking allergic reactions and asthma exaggeration and leading to occupational asthma in woodworkers that are exposed to western red cedar wood dust. Thujaplicins serve as natural fungicides, and thereby prevent the wood from rotting. This effect lasts around a century even after the tree is felled. However, thujaplicins are only found in older trees. Saplings do not produce the chemical, causing them to often develop rot at an early stage, causing some trees to grow with a somewhat hollow trunk, as the tree moves to heal itself as it grows. Due to their fungicidal and anti-browning properties, thujaplicins are used in agriculture for fungal diseases and to prevent post-harvest decay. Thujaplicins, as other tropolones, are potent chelating agents and bind divalent metal ions. Basic and animal studies have shown that thujaplicins may have other biological properties, including antibacterial, antiviral and antioxidant activities, however reliable evidence on their effectiveness is still lacking.
Essential oil.
The essential oil of western red cedar leaves contains natural compounds, such as α-thujone, β-thujone, fenchone, sabinene, terpinen-4-ol and beyerene, which have also been isolated from different other essential oils. Some of these substances are aroma compounds and are used in perfumery. Thujones are GABAA receptor competitive antagonists however because of their high toxicity and convulsive activity they do not have any pharmacological use.
Role in indigenous societies.
Western red cedar has an extensive history of use by Native Americans of coastal Oregon to southeast Alaska. Some northwest coast tribes refer to themselves as "people of the redcedar" because of their extensive dependence on the tree for basic materials. The wood has been used for constructing housing and totem poles, and crafted into many objects, including masks, utensils, boxes, boards, instruments, canoes, vessels, houses, and ceremonial objects. Western Red Cedar is also associated with a long tradition of curing and cooking fish over the open fire. Roots and bark are used for baskets, bowls, ropes, clothing, blankets, and rings.
History.
A huge number of archaeological finds point to the continuous use of redcedar wood in native societies. Woodworking tools dating between 8000 and 5000 years ago, such as carved antlers, were discovered in shell middens at the Glenrose site, near Vancouver, British Columbia. In Yuquot, on the west coast of Vancouver Island, tools dating 4000 to 3000 years old have been found. The Musqueam site, also near Vancouver, yielded bark baskets woven in five different styles, along with ropes and ships dated to 3000 years ago. At Pitt River, adzes and baskets were dated around 2900 years aol. Wooden artifacts 1000 years old were unearthed on the east coast of Vancouver Island.
Red cedar was used extensively wherever it was found along the northwest coast (British Columbia, Washington state, Parts of Alaska). Evidence of this use is found in CMTs (Culturally Modified Trees) that are found throughout the coast. When First Nations people removed the bark from cedars, it left a scar - which is considered a CMT. Other types of harvest (for planks, tinder, and other uses) leave different types of evidence of cultural modification.
A legend amongst the Coast Salish peoples describes the origins of the western redcedar. In this legend, there was a generous man who gave the people whatever they needed. When the Great Spirit saw this, he declared that when the generous man died, a great redcedar tree will grow where he is buried, and that the cedar will be useful to all the people, providing its roots for baskets, bark for clothing, and wood for shelter.
Tools.
The wood was worked primarily with the adze, which was preferred over all other tools, even ones introduced by colonizers. Alexander Walker, an ensign on the fur trade ship "Captain Cook", reported that the indigenous peoples used an elbow adze, which they valued over tools brought by the Europeans, such as the saw or the axe, going so far as to modify traded tools back into an adze. Tools were generally made from stone, bone, obsidian, or a harder wood such as hemlock. A variety of hand mauls, wedges, chisels, and knives are also used.
Excavations done at Ozette, Washington turned up iron tools nearly 800 years old, far before European contact. When James Cook passed the area, he observed that almost all tools were made of iron. There has been speculation on the origin of these iron tools. Some theories include shipwrecks from East Asia or possible contact with iron-using cultures from Siberia, as hinted in the more advanced woodworking found in northern tribes such as the Tlingit.
Wood.
Harvesting redcedars required some ceremony and included propitiation of the tree's spirits as well as those of the surrounding trees. In particular, many people specifically requested the tree and its brethren not to fall or drop heavy branches on the harvester, a situation which is mentioned in a number of different stories of people who were not sufficiently careful. Some professional loggers of Native American descent have mentioned that they offer quiet or silent propitiations to trees which they fell, following in this tradition.
Felling of large trees such as redcedar before the introduction of steel tools was a complex and time-consuming art. Typically the bark was removed around the base of the tree above the buttresses. Then some amount of cutting and splitting with stone adzes and mauls would be done, creating a wide triangular cut. The area above and below the cut would be covered with a mixture of wet moss and clay as a firebreak. Then the cut would be packed with tinder and small kindling and slowly burned. The process of cutting and burning would alternate until the tree was mostly penetrated through, and then careful tending of the fire would fell the tree in the best direction for handling. This process could take many days. Constant rotation of workers was involved to keep the fires burning through night and day, often in a remote and forbidding location.
Once the tree was felled, the work had only just begun, as it then had to be stripped and dragged down to shore. If the tree was to become canoes, then it would often be divided into sections and worked into rough canoe shapes before transport. If it were to be used for a totem pole or building materials, it would be towed in the round to the village. Many trees are still felled in this traditional manner for use as totem poles and canoes, particularly by artists who feel that using modern tools is detrimental to the traditional spirit of the art. Non-traditionalists simply buy redcedar logs or lumber at mills or lumber yards, a practice that is commonly followed by most working in smaller sizes such as for masks and staves.
Because felling required such an extraordinary amount of work, if only planks for housing were needed, these would be split from the living tree. The bark was stripped and saved, and two cuts were made at the ends of the planking. Then wedges would be pounded in along the sides and the planks slowly split off the side of the tree. Trees which have been so harvested are still visible in some places in the rainforest, with obvious chunks taken off of their sides. Such trees usually continue to grow perfectly well, since redcedar wood is resistant to decay. Planks are straightened by a variety of methods, including weighing them down with stones, lashing them together with rope, or forcing them between a line of stakes.
Redcedar wood is used to make huge monoxyla canoes in which the men went out to high sea to harpoon whales and conduct trade. One of those canoes, a craft dug out about a century ago, was bought in 1901 by Captain John Voss, an adventurer. He gave her the name of Tilikum ("Relative" in Chinook jargon), rigged her, and led her in a hectic three-year voyage from British Columbia to London.
Redcedar branches are very flexible and have good tensile strength. They were stripped and used as strong cords for fishing line, rope cores, twine, and other purposes where bark cord was not strong enough or might fray. Both the branches and bark rope have been replaced by modern fiber and nylon cordage among the aboriginal northwest coast peoples, though the bark is still in use for the other purposes mentioned above.
Bark.
At the right time of year, the bark is easily removed from live trees in long strips. It is harvested for use in making mats, rope and cordage, basketry, rain hats, clothing, and other soft goods. The harvesting of bark must be done with care, as stripping too much bark will kill the tree. To prevent this, the harvester usually only harvests from trees which have not been stripped before. After harvesting, the tree is not used for bark again, although it may later be felled for wood. Stripping bark is usually started with a series of cuts at the base of the tree above any buttresses, after which the bark is peeled upwards. To remove bark high up, a pair of platforms strung on rope around the tree are used and the harvester climbs by alternating between them for support. Since redcedars lose their lower branches as all tall trees do in the rainforest, the harvester may climb or more into the tree by this method. The harvested bark is folded and carried in backpacks. It can be stored for quite some time as mold does not grow on it, and is moistened before unfolding and working. It is then split lengthwise into the required width and woven or twisted into shape. Bark harvesting was mostly done by women, despite the danger of climbing 10 meters in the air, because they were the primary makers of bark goods.
Today bark rope making is a lost art in many communities, although it is still practiced for decoration or art in a few places. Other uses of bark are still common for artistic or practical purposes. In recent years there has been a revival of cedar weaving in some communities, and along with it, new forms of cedar bark products. For example, in some recent weddings cedar roses are used to decorate the tables.
Legal status.
Western red cedar is export-restricted in the United States under the Export Administration Regulations.
Health and safety.
Western red cedar is highly allergenic and woodworkers or loggers who work with it may have adverse reactions, including the development of occupational asthma, exacerbation of existing asthma, reduction of lung function, and eye irritation. Approximately 5% of workers are allergic to western red cedar. The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set a permissible exposure limit for red cedar dust of 2.5 mg/m3 as a time-weighted average over 8 hours.


Ilex conocarpa

Ilex conocarpa is a species in the genus "Ilex" of the family Aquifoliaceae. It is native to Brazil, typically in Cerrado vegetation.


Amauropelta fluminalis

Amauropelta fluminalis, synonym Thelypteris fluminalis, is a species of fern in the family Thelypteridaceae. It is native to Colombia and Ecuador. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and rivers. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Aubrieta deltoidea

Aubrieta deltoidea is a species of flowering plant in the mustard family. Common names include lilacbush, purple rock cress and rainbow rock cress. It should be grown in zones 4a to 9b.
It is native to southeastern Europe, but is grown worldwide as an ornamental plant and it grows wild in some areas as a garden escapee. This is a small herbaceous perennial forming carpets of green spoon-shaped to oval-shaped leaves, some of which are lobed. The showy inflorescence bears small flowers with four lavender to deep pink petals. The fruit is an inflated, hairy silique up to two centimeters long.
Cultivation.
"A. deltoidea" is cultivated as groundcover, in the rock garden, or in crevices in the wall, producing masses of brightly coloured flowers in spring. Cultivated varieties, sometimes listed under the hybrid name "A." × "cultorum", are available in lavender, rose and lilac, but are often offered as a seed mixture. The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-


Avicennioideae


Aspasia (plant)

Aspasia, abbreviated as Asp. in the horticultural trade, is a genus of 7 species of orchids occurring from southern Mexico to southern Brazil. The genus is closely related to "Miltonia" and "Brassia". "Aspasia" species have few medium size flowers of exquisite colors which are occasionally cultivated or used to produce artificial hybrids.
Distribution.
"Aspasia" exist in four different areas of Central and South America. Some species are exclusively epiphytic on thick stems of the trees a low height, others live on branches where they get more light and a few occasionally appear as lithophytes.
Two species inhabit primarily Central America the most common is "Aspasia epidendroides", that ranges from Mexico to Colombia from sea level to 1,100 meters of altitude but much more common up to 400 meters; and the other is "Aspasia principissa", which exists from Colombia to Costa Rica, from sea level to 600 of altitude but often up to 150 meters. Exclusively from Colombia is "Aspasia omissa", that is a species recently described whose full range is not yet determined. "Aspasia psittacina", endemic in Ecuador, can be found from sea level to 750 of altitude but is much more common up to 300 meters. "Aspasia variegata" is common in all Amazonian region, from 200 to 1300 meters in Bolivia.
The last area occupied is the Brazilian southeast and south, reaching Bolivia and Paraguay, from 200 to 750 meters, by "Aspasia lunata"; and "Aspasia silvana" exclusively at Brazilian Serra do Mar mountains, from Rio de Janeiro to Bahia. These two, as "Miltonia" do, form large colonies, however, being not particularly common species, they are just occasionally found, mostly on areas of transition between shady forest and open areas both in rain forests and cloud montane forests.
"Aspasia lunata" is primarily epiphyte on thick stems but often is found living over rock grooves covered by fallen leaves and humid forests where they never are exposed to straight sunlight. "Aspasia variegata" is found in open forests both in dry and flooded lands, then often on branches of the trees hanging over the waters.
Description.
"Aspasia" is a genus of comparatively robust plants intermediate of "Brassia" and "Miltonia", to which it is morphologically closer although can be distinguished because its flowers show the labellum partially fused to the column up to the middle then abruptly folded down in a square angle. They are characterized for often showing am elongated rhizome, with thicker roots than "Miltonia", with more elliptical or elongated and highly laterally flattened pseudobulbs, protected by some foliar sheaths shorter than the leaves, and one or two apical leaves. These are articulated, basally conduplicate, ligulate sometimes with acute apex, thin and narrow, very malleable, light green colored. The inflorescence is erect or arching, shorter than the leaves and bares one to nine flowers sometimes showy, which open in quick sequence holding at least three of four opened at the same time. The inflorescence shoots among the foliar sheaths on the pseudobulbs bases.
The flowers vary according to the species. The petals from more elliptical to more acute, in some species wider than the sepals, in others narrower or similar in size and shape, from flat to concave. The labellum is fused to the inferior half of the column, seeming to emerge from there and thereafter becoming much wider; the blade varies from slightly to clearly three lobed, flat or reflected, fleshier on the center where they have calli or salient veins. The column is elongated, with or without small inferior auricles and presents a large apical anther with two hard yellow pollinia, stipe and viscidium.
Their flowers last for about ten days, however, as not all open at the same time it is common to have a plant blooming during a whole month. Pollination has not been observed and seems to be uncommon for few plants bearing fruits have been seen in nature, however, their floral morphology indicates the possibility of Euglossini bees pollinators. When "Aspasia" species are used to produce artificial hybrids, the characteristic that seems to predominate is the low number of resulting flowers by inflorescence, prevailing even over the so floriferous "Oncidium".
Despite being easy to grow "Aspasia" species tent to be subject to spots on their thin leaves generally caused by fungi proliferation. They should never be exposed to full sunlight. They are not highly sensitive to temperature but as it varies according to their origin, "A. lunata" being the one that grows cooler and "A. principissa" the warmer grower all under intermediate or warm temperatures, when possible it is better to try to reproduce the temperature on their habitats. Also for watering it is important to verify the necessities of each species as they come from different environments. Despite they show a resting period after blooming, "Aspasia" always need to be watered, more abundantly during active growth. They need at least 75% of humidity and good ventilation all the time. Moderate weekly fertilizing with a balanced formula is beneficial during active growth. They may be potted in a compost of half-chopped Sphagnum, vegetable fiber, and some medium-sized lumps of charcoal, or mounted on plaques of vegetable fiber, however, if mounted, they will need more frequent waterings.
Taxonomic notes.
The genus "Aspasia" was proposed by John Lindley in 1833 when he described its type species, "Aspasia epidendroides". The name of the genus is a reference to Aspasia of Miletus a friend of Pericles. Its original description is very brief and mentions the plant was native in Panama and West Colombia. Three years later he described two species more: "Aspasia lunata" and "A. variegata".
Since its first species was described, sixteen names have been submitted to "Aspasia", from these, seven are generally accepted as good species, two species remain unclear, six are considered synonyms of the accepted ones, and only one has been moved to another genus: "A. pusilla" was submitted to the genus "Cischweinfia", of which it is the type species.
Being well defined from the start, "Aspasia" has hardly been a genus subject to disputes. Its only synonym is the genus "Trophianthus", proposed in 1844 by Michael Scheidweiler to "Aspasia lunata", because of its slight differences from the other successive flowering species, however, this genus was never largely accepted by taxonomists. Provided it was, today it would include also "A. silvana". "Aspasia lunata" was also described again in 1855, by Reichenbach, under the genus "Miltonia" as "M. odorata". Although having initially accepted the genus, Reichenbach decided all "Aspasia" would be better placed under the genus "Odontoglossum" and, in 1864, he proposed this transfer. The idea apparently was not welcome and in 1878 Reichenbach was again accepting "Aspasia" as a good genus because at the time he transferred "Odontoglossum psittacinum", a plant re received from Ecuador and described two years earlier, to "Aspasia".
"Aspasia principissa" was described by Reichenbach based on a plant he received from Panama, in 1864, but, in 1949, Paul Hamilton Allen, considering it very close to "Aspasia epidendroides", proposed it to be classified just as a variety of the later, however his classification was not widely accepted. In 2004, Eric A. Christenson, claiming that a new species of "Aspasia" from Colombia was long confused with "A. principissa" described it as "A. omissa".
In 1978, Guido Pasbt illustrated a plant in "Orchidaceae Brasilienses" under the name "Milpasia Leslie-Garay". Later this species was found again in Bahia, Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro States of Brazil and it became clear it was not a hybrid but a true species, in 1989, Fábio de Barros described with its current name, "Aspasia silvana".
Two species, "Aspasia lyrata" and "A. biberiana", have not been seen again since their original collections and are not positively identified. Both have been described to Brazil. The first, originally described as "Epidendrum lyratum", in 1831, was observed by José Maria da Conceição Velloso in Rio de Janeiro. It shows more elongated pseudobulbs of rounder section, and its inflorescence is longer than the leaves with one small flower at the apex. Some taxonomists suppose it might be a natural hybrid, maybe of "A. lunata" with "Miltonia regnellii", or not an "Aspasia" at all. Provided it really is an "Aspasia", then it was the first to be described. The other species, "Aspasia biberiana", was described by Reichenbach to Pará State, in Amazon forest; it has solitary green flowers. No known "Aspasia" from that area fits this description; apparently no taxonomist has checked the original description lately, therefore, more research is needed to positively identify this species. It is possible it was not really from Brazil and is a synonym of "A. principissa".
Molecular analysis show that "Aspasia" most closely related important genera are "Miltonia" and "Brassia", which are included in one of the eight clades that form the subtribus Oncidiinae of tribus Cymbidieae.
Species.
The species that exist on the Southeast of Brazil are the only two "Aspasia" to have a flat labellum. They can be easily separated from each other for "A. silvana" is a larger plant with longer rhizome and pseudobulbs that have an elongated base making them much taller than the ones of "A. lunata". The flowers of "A. silvana" are three times larger than the ones of "A. lunata". Both species, like "Miltonia spectabilis" to which the slightly resemble, have just one flower, hardly ever two, per inflorescence. Both bloom from middle to the end of spring.
All the other "Aspasia" species bloom in quick succession. "Aspasia variegata" is similar to "A. epidendroides" but the plant is much smaller. The pseudobulbs of "A. epidendroides" are more than two times larger and much flatter, more elliptic, And A. variegata normally shows a flatter labellum with short purple stripes while A. "epidendroides" has more large stains close to its center. "A. variegata" blooms between the start of summer and middle fall and presents nice fragrance in the morning.
"Aspasia epidendroides", "A. omissa" and "A. principissa" are similar but the latter is less robust and with larger flowers than "A. epidendroides". Other less noticeable differences include: "A. epidendroides" has broad transverse markings on the lateral sepals, the column with an elliptic depression below the stigma and the apical half of the labellum is porrect while "A. principissa" has narrow longitudinal stripes on the lateral sepals, the column with a narrow linear groove below the stigma and the apical half of the labellum is not porrect. When Christenson described "A. omissa", he claimed this differences were in fact the ones between "A. epidendroides" and "A. omissa" and that the real "A. principissa" is a plant with larger and more green flowers and general paler colors.
"Aspasia psittacina" is the only species found in Ecuador. It is vegetatively close to "A. epidendroides", with large elliptic and highly flat pseudobulbs, it shows the same colors of the later, but has narrower flowers with the labellum proportionally much smaller.


Dendropanax colombianus

Dendropanax colombianus is a tree native to the highlands of the Andean region of Colombia belonging to the family Araliaceae. Common names include mano de oso (bear paw), higuerón, and amarillo (yellow).
"Dendropanax colombianus" grows up to 20 meters (~60 ft.) in height, with alternating palmatilobulated (hand-shaped) leaves. The leaves have reddish backs with long petioles. It is often confused with "Oreopanax floribundum" due to morphologic similarities.
Habitat.
The range of this plant is restricted, growing in the Andes at altitudes of 3000-3300m. It is often closely associated with the Encenillo tree ("Weinmannia tomentosa").
"Dendropanax colombianus" is an important habitat for many bird species, and promotes the settlement of other important plants such as Cedro tree ("Cedrela montana") and Chuwacá tree ("Prunus buxifolia"), which the subsequent reforestation in the sub-páramo. Due to the high value of its wood it is a target of the timber industry.


Viktor Ferdinand Brotherus

Viktor Ferdinand Brotherus (28 October 1849 – 9 February 1929), Finnish botanist who studied the mosses (Bryophyta), best known for authoring the treatment of 'Musci' in Engler and Prantl's "Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien".
Personal life.
Brotherus was born in Skarpans in Sund, Åland while Finland was under Russian rule. He had 13 brothers and sisters of whom six died young. He took his Candidate of Philosophy degree in 1870 at Imperial Alexander University (later University of Helsinki) and began medical studies but gave them up after getting blood poisoning and became a teacher. He married Aline Mathilde Sandman (born 1853), daughter of Jonas Sandman, a Justice in the Court of Appeal, in 1879 at the age of thirty, and had four children. She died in 1894 and he did not remarry. He taught natural history and mathematics at the Swedish girls' school in Vaasa City from 1878 to 1917, carrying on his career as a botanist in parallel. At his funeral, his grand-nephew describes:
"Foreign guests arrived to his funeral, he was praised in the funeral orations, last respects were read from distant lands. The staff of the school was astonished. They had no idea that he was also something else but their dear old junior lecturer [original in Finnish]."
Biological works.
His earliest major work was on the moss flora of the Kola Peninsula (Brotherus and T. Saelan. 1890. Musci Lapponiae Kolaensis. "Acta Societas pro Flora et Flora Fennica" 6: 1-100.) His other major European work was "Die Laubmoose Fennoskandias" (1923). He also studied, through collections sent to him by botanists abroad, the mosses of Turkmenistan, Africa, Australia, Brazil, and New Guinea, among others, and was known as an authority on extra-European mosses. His work on the Musci of "Die Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien" covered Archidiales, Andreaeales, and Bryales, and continued to the second edition. By invitation of Heinrich von Handel-Mazzetti, he authored the section on Chinese mosses in the "Symbolae Sinicae". His collaborations and correspondence with other bryologists of the day were extensive. In particular, he was well acquainted with Max Fleischer, and used Fleischer's new 'natural' system of moss classification, which was outlined in the latter's "Die Musci der Flora von Buitenzorg," in his own systematic description of the mosses in "Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien". Brotherus's unique achievement was his synthesis of moss taxonomy for the world-wide distribution, and his mastery of the identification and classification of the estimated 20 000 species of mosses then known to him.
Miscellaneous.
Brotherus's personal herbarium (comprising 120 000 moss specimens), in particular the extra-European collections, was purchased by the University of Helsinki herbarium (H) and is maintained as a separate collection (H-BR). Exsiccati are deposited in major herbaria around the world (e.g. B, BM, FH, K, L, P). The standard botanical abbreviation of his name is Broth. The journal "Bryobrothera", published by the Finnish Bryological Society, is named in his honor. Numerous genera and species of mosses, e.g. "Brothera", "Brotherella", "Brotherobryum", are named for him. Members of his family (see Brotherus) are still resident in Finland today.


Begonia cavaleriei

Begonia cavaleriei is a species of plant in the family Begoniaceae. It is endemic to China.


Laurencia

Laurencia is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to .
Description.
"Laurencia" species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, whorled or radial branch arrangement.
Species.
AlgaeBase, a database with detailed information on species of "Laurencia", includes 145 taxonomically accepted species , and differentiates these from a further ~375 entries of uncertain taxonomic status; it further delineates homotypic or heterotypic synonyms.
Commonly observed species of "Laurencia" include the shallow subtidal "Laurencia nidifica" (Hawaii), "Laurencia pacifica" (California), and "Laurencia thyrsifera" (New Zealand). Species seen in the British Isles include "Laurencia hybrida", "Laurencia obtusa", "Laurencia osmunda", "Laurencia pinnatifida", "Laurencia pyramidalis", and "Laurencia truncata".
The World Register of Marine Species lists the following species as accepted:
Uses.
"Laurencia nidifica" is used as a condiment in Hawaii due to its peppery taste.


Gliricidia sepium

Gliricidia sepium, often simply referred to as its genus name "Gliricidia", is a medium size leguminous tree belonging to the family Fabaceae. Common names include quickstick, "mata ratón"; "cacao de nance", "cachanance"; "balo" in Panama; "piñon Cubano" in the Dominican Republic; "madreado" in Honduras; "kakawate" in the Philippines; or "madre de cacao" in the Philippines and Guatemala; "madero negro" in Nicaragua; "undirmari" in Marathi and "wetahiriya" in Sinhala). It is an important multi-purpose legume tree, with a native range from Mexico to Colombia, but now widely introduced to other tropical zones.
Description.
"Gliricidia sepium" is a medium-sized tree that grows high. The bark is smooth, and its color can range from a whitish gray to deep red-brown.
The flowers are located on the end of branches that have no leaves. These flowers have a bright pink to lilac color that is tinged with white. A pale yellow spot is usually at the flower's base.
The tree's fruit is a pod about long. It is green when unripe and becomes yellow-brown when it reaches maturity. The pod produces four to ten round brown seeds.
"G. sepium" is native to tropical dry forests in Mexico and Central America. In addition to its native range it is cultivated in many tropical and subtropical regions, including the Caribbean, northern parts of South America, central Africa, parts of India, parts of Myanmar and Southeast Asia.
The tree grows well in acidic soils with a pH of 4.5-6.2. The tree is found on volcanic soils in its native range in Central America and Mexico. However, it can also grow on sandy, clay, and limestone soils.
Uses.
"G. sepium" was spread from its native range throughout the tropics to shade plantation crops such as coffee. Today it is used for many other purposes including live fencing, fodder, firewood, green manure, intercropping, and rat poison. Its use expanded following the widespread defoliation of Leucaena by psyllid in the 1980s. In the charsutri method of paddy cultivation, leaves of glyricidia are incorporated in soil during ploughing.
Fodder.
"G. sepium" is used as cut and carry forage for cattle, sheep, and goats. Its high protein content allows it to complement low-quality tropical forages. "G. sepium" can tolerate repeated cutting, every 2 to 4 months depending on the climate. Cutting "G. sepium" causes it to retain its leaves during the dry season when many forage crops have lost their leaves. In some cases it is the only source of feed during the dry season.
Intercropping.
"G. sepium" trees are used for intercropping in part because they fix nitrogen in the soil and tolerate low soil fertility, so when they are interplanted with crops they can boost crop yields significantly, without the need of chemical fertilizers.
"G. Sepium" tolerates being cut back to crop height, and can even be coppiced, year after year. When the trees are cut back, they enter a temporary dormant state during which their root systems do not compete for nutrients needed by the crops, so the crops can establish themselves.
These properties also enable G. Sepium to be used as green manure.
Soil stabilization.
"G. sepium" is a fast-growing ruderal species that takes advantage of slash and burn practices in its native range. Because it is easily propagated and grows quickly, it is also planted to prevent topsoil erosion in the initial stages of reforesting denuded areas, and as an intermediate step to be taken before introducing species that take longer to grow.
Shade trees.
The common name "madre de cacao" (literally "mother of cacao" in Spanish) used in Central America and the Philippines is in reference to its traditional use as shade trees for cocoa tree plantations.
Other.
"G. sepium" is widely used in the form of poles for live fencing in Cuba and India. This is one of the best plants used for traditional live fencing to protect agriculture and fruit bearing plantations from animals such as goats, cow, and buffalo. As a Caribbean native, "G. sepium" has traditionally been used for live fencing in Cuba.
As in India, during the recent past one could see many living fences around mango and cashew orchards and agricultural properties in Goa, Maharashtra and Karnataka, erected with "G. sepium" and tied with bamboo rafters.
"G. sepium" is also used for its insect repellent properties. Farmers in Latin America often wash their livestock with a paste made of crushed "G. sepium" leaves to ward off torsalos (botflies). In the Philippines, the extract obtained from its leaves is made into anti-mange dog shampoo.
Limitations.
"G. sepium" seems to be toxic to non-ruminants. The generic name "Gliricidia" means "mouse killer" in reference to the traditional use of its toxic seeds and bark as rodenticides.
Some palatability challenges have been reported; animals seem to refuse the leaves on the basis of smell, but this depends on management and geography.
Another limitation is frost intolerance and the lack of adaptation to a cool season: it is a tropical plant.
In terms of cultivation, it requires the presence of pollinators, and it needs a dry season to germinate.
Further, it has invasive potential: its swift propagation has caused it to be considered a weed in Jamaica.
Until now "G. sepium" has remained free of serious diseases; only a number of insect problems are reported in exotic environments, but there are issues with defoliation under humid conditions.
Names in other Languages.
In Indonesian "Gliricidia sepium" is known as "gamal," which is an acronym for "Ganjang Malaysia" (Down with Malaysia.)


Dacrydium cornwalliana

Dacrydium cornwalliana is a species of conifer in the family Podocarpaceae. It is found in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.


Clubroot

Clubroot is a common disease of cabbages, broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, radishes, turnips, stocks, wallflowers and other plants of the family Brassicaceae (Cruciferae). It is caused by "Plasmodiophora brassicae", which was once considered a slime mold but is now put in the group Phytomyxea. It is the first phytomyxean for which the genome has been sequenced. It has as many as thirteen races. Gall formation or distortion takes place on latent roots and gives the shape of a club or spindle. In the cabbage such attacks on the roots cause undeveloped heads or a failure to head at all, followed often by decline in vigor or by death. It is an important disease, affecting an estimated 10% of the total cultured area worldwide.
Historical reports of clubroot date back to the 13th century in Europe. In the late 19th century, a severe epidemic of clubroot destroyed large proportions of the cabbage crop in St. Petersburg. The Russian scientist Mikhail Woronin eventually identified the cause of clubroot as a "plasmodiophorous organism" in 1875, and gave it the name "Plasmodiophora brassicae".
In 18th, 19th and early 20th century Britain clubroot was sometimes called "finger and toe", "fingers and toes", "anbury", or "ambury", these last two also meaning a soft tumor on a horse.
The potential of cultural practices to reduce crop losses due to clubroot is limited, and chemical treatments to control the disease are either banned due to environmental regulations or are not cost effective. Breeding of resistant cultivars therefore is a promising alternative.
In cabbages.
"Cabbage clubroot" is a disease of Brassicaceae (mustard family or cabbage family) caused by the soil-borne Plasmodiophora brassicae. The disease first appears scattered in fields, but in successive seasons it will infect the entire field, reducing the yield significantly and sometimes resulting in no yield at all. Symptoms appear as yellowing, wilting, stunting, and galls on the roots. It is transmitted by contaminated transplants, animals, surface water runoff, contaminated equipment, and irrigation water. The pathogen can survive in a field for years as resting spores without a host present and will infect the next crop planted if it is a susceptible host. This pathogen prefers a wet climate and a pH around 5.7, so proper irrigation and the addition of compounds that raise the pH can be used to control this disease. Other control methods include sanitation to prevent transmission, chemical control, and resistant varieties.
Hosts and symptoms.
Cabbage Clubroot affects cabbage, Chinese cabbage, and Brussels sprouts most severely, but it has a range of hosts that it affects less severely like kohlrabi, kale, cauliflower, collards, broccoli, rutabaga, sea kale, turnips, and radishes.
Developing plants may not show any symptoms but as the plants get older they will start to show symptoms of chlorosis or yellowing, wilting during hot days, and exhibit stunted growth. Below ground, the roots experience cell proliferation due to increased auxin or growth hormone production from the plant as well as the pathogen. This causes the formation of galls that can grow big enough to restrict the xylem tissue inhibiting efficient water uptake by the plant. Galls appear like clubs or spindles on the roots. Eventually the roots will rot and the plant will die.
Disease cycle.
In the spring, resting spores in the soil germinate and produce zoospores. These zoospores swim through the moist soil and enter host plants through wounds or root hairs. A plasmodium is formed from the division of many amoeba-like cells. This plasmodium eventually divides and forms secondary zoospores that are once again released into the soil.
The secondary infection by the zoospores can infect the first host or surrounding hosts. These secondary zoospores can be transmitted to other fields through farm machinery or water erosion. They form a secondary plasmodium that affects plant hormones to cause swelling in root cells. These cells eventually turn into galls or “clubs”. The secondary plasmodium forms the overwintering resting spores which get released into the soil as the “clubs” rot and disintegrate. These resting spores can live in the soil for up to 20 years while they wait for a root tip to come in close proximity for them to infect.
Environment.
Clubroot is a disease that prefers warmer temperatures and moist conditions. Ideal conditions for the proliferation of this disease would be a soil temperature between 20–24 °C and a pH less than 6.5; therefore, this disease tends to be prominent in lower fields where water tends to collect.
Management.
Clubroot is very hard to control. The primary step for management and long-term control is exclusion of the disease. Good sanitation practice is important with regard to the use of tools and machinery in order to prevent the introduction of the pathogen to a disease-free field. It is not uncommon for an inattentive farmer or gardener to unknowingly carry in the pathogen after being previously exposed to it at a different time. One should avoid purchasing infected transplants of cabbage so as to prohibit the infestation of "P. brassicae". Soil type is also an important factor in the development and spread of cabbage clubroot; the use of sand will allow for the plants to grow in well-drained soil, thereby eliminating the possibility of the pathogen to proliferate in a hospitable environment.
Although it is difficult to eradicate the pathogen once it is introduced to a field, there are several methods for its control. Keeping the soil at a slightly basic pH of 7.1–7.2 by the addition of agricultural lime as well as the integration of crop rotation will reduce the occurrence of cabbage clubroot in already infected fields. Fumigation using metam sodium in a field containing diseased cabbages is yet another way to decrease the buildup of the pathogen. Control and management practices on already infected fields help to reduce the overall impact that "P. brassicae" has on a field of cabbage and other cruciferous plants, but it is extremely difficult to rid an individual plant of the disease once it is already infected.
Importance.
Clubroot can be a reoccurring problem for years because it is easily spread from plant to plant. "P. brassicae" is able to infect 300 species of cruciferous plants, making this disease a recurring problem even with crop rotation. This wide host range allows the pathogen to continue its infection cycle in the absence of cabbages. Additionally, cabbage clubroot may be a stubborn disease due to its ability to form a microbial cyst as an overwintering structure. These cysts may last many years in the soil until it comes into contact with a suitable host, making it difficult to entirely avoid the introduction of the disease. Those growing cabbage need to be aware of the possibility of "Plasmodiophora" infestation by simply growing in particular fields that may have had cabbage clubroot previously.
Canola infestation in Alberta.
In 2003 clubroot was identified in Alberta, Canada, as an outbreak in canola crops in the central area of the province mainly isolated to the Edmonton area. Clubroot is a soilborne disease caused by the biotrophic protist "Plasmodiophora brassica". The infection causes the formation of large galls on the roots which look like clubs. These formations impede nutrient and water uptake and can cause plant death, wiping out important money generating canola crops. Initially 12 commercial fields of canola were identified, but that number grew to over 400 by 2008.
In 2007, Alberta declared "P.brassicae" a pest via the foundation legislation in hopes to help contain spread of the disease.
The Pathotype 3, is the predominant source for Alberta outbreaks. Studies showed that out of the 13 strains of "P. brassicae", the most virulent form is dominant in Alberta.
Studies have shown that infestation numbers are highest at common field entrances and decline as you move further into the field, away from the entrance. From these results, it was concluded that infested soil on farm machinery was increasing spread of the pathogen. Some natural field to field spread is starting to be seen
Liming has been an effective control measure to curb clubroot since the 19th century. This method does not eradicate clubroot but it will slow its development by creating unfavorable conditions. In addition, calcium and magnesium can be added to the nutrition profile of the soil to help control clubroot. To get efficient results the field soil, [pH] must be kept above 7.5. This takes massive applications to field soil in order to treat all of the soil where spores of clubroot are found. Combining lime with one other treatment has shown most effective.
Several strains of canola have been tried, including European winter canola cv. Mendel (Brassica napus L.), as a clubroot-resistant crop. It has been found that few cultivators exist. Specific genotypes do exist, of the Mendel strain, which could be a solution for canola crops in the Canadian prairies.
Crop rotation with non-host crops is another method to help prevent clubroot. The half life of P. Brassicae is 3.6 years. Unfortunately, long rotations of approximately 20 years are required in order to be effective. This is very difficult with typical canola rotations not being more than three years. Canola crop brings in high revenue to farmers. This would also require complete removal of Cruciferae crops, such as wild radish and mustard.
Some fungicide has been found to help with clubroot but it is very pricey and would take huge amounts to saturate the soil. The best way to prevent contamination between fields is to clean agricultural equipment and vehicles which have come in contact with club root before moving to a new field. All contaminated soil, equipment and tools must not be moved to clean, disease-free fields. The best preventative method is field monitoring. Throughout the season, plants should be monitored for early symptoms of club root. More research is being conducted for early detection of club root in fall soils.


Crassula ausensis

Crassula ausensis is a species of succulent in the genus "Crassula" found in Namibia. "Crassula ausensis subsp. giessii" and "Crassula ausensis subsp. titanopsis" are varieties of the species.
Description.
These plants can grow around 1.4 inches and have a flower stock of 3.2 inches. The leaves have pink, turquoise and brown markings and generally are considered one of the more beautiful Crassula. It blooms in blooms in late fall with white flowers.
"Crassula ausensis" subsp. "titanopsis".
"Crassula ausensis subsp. titanopsis" is a variety of the species found in southwest Namibia. It usually smaller than "Crassula ausensis", being around 4 inches across. It blooms small white flowers in late fall to early winter.


Lissopimpla excelsa

Lissopimpla excelsa, commonly known as the orchid dupe wasp, is a Wasp of the family Ichneumonidae native to Australia. Although also found in New Zealand, where it is known as the dusky-winged ichneumonid, it has probably been introduced there. Although another source cites that it maybe native to NZ.It pollinates all five Australian members of the orchid genus "Cryptostylis" . The male wasp mistakes the flower parts for a female wasp and attempts to copulate with it. Although the different species can occur together, they appear to inhibit cross-fertilisation and no hybrids are found in nature. This discovery was made by Australian naturalist Edith Coleman in 1928. The term "pseudocopulation" has since been coined to describe the phenomenon. The mimicking of flowers to resemble female wasp parts has since been recorded in other orchid genera.
Although termed pseudocopulation, vigorous copulation does occur, and the male wasp ejaculates enough so that the emissions are visible to the naked eye on the flower parts. A 2008 field study showed these to contain wasp sperm. The flowers of "Cryptostylis" orchids and female wasp body parts are very similar in colour when viewed under a hymenopteran visual system, despite looking unlike to human eyes. Although the colours that ichneumon wasps see are unknown, bees and wasps have similar perception with green, blue and ultraviolet wavelengths. The "Cryptostylis" flowers have no smell detectable to humans, but have been shown to have an odour which attracts the wasp. Psuedocopulation with the orchid "Cryptostylis subulata"  occurs in New Zealand.
The orchid dupe wasp was first described by Italian entomologist Achille Costa in 1864 as "Pimpla excelsa", before being placed in (and becoming the type species of) the new genus "Lissopimpla" in 1889 by Joseph Kriechbaumer, who called it "Lissopimpla octo-guttata" Kriechb. It was also known for many years as "Lissopimpla semipunctata", however Costa's name has priority and hence is the correct name. The head, mesosoma, legs and apical segments of the metasoma are red-brown, the first four segment of the metasoma are black with paired large white spots, and the wings are a dark smoky brown except at the apex of the fore wings. Like all members of its family, "L. excelsa" is parasitic. One species it preys upon is the noctuid moth pest species "Helicoverpa armigera".


Makinoella

Makinoella is a genus of green algae in the family Oocystaceae.


Echeveria multicaulis

Echeveria multicaulis (also known as copper leaf and copper rose) is a species of plant native to Mexico. It is a member of the genus "Echeveria".
Etymology.
"Echeveria" is named for Atanasio Echeverría y Godoy, a botanical illustrator who contributed to "Flora Mexicana".
"Multicaulis" literally translates to 'many-stemmed', a reference to its growth habit.


Pseudoscourfieldia

Pseudoscourfieldia is a genus of green algae in the family Pycnococcaceae.


Kaliphora

Kaliphora madagascarensis is a species of evergreen shrub or small tree. It is endemic to Madagascar, where it inhabits subhumid woodlands and forests in eastern Madagascar, in the provinces of Antananarivo, Antsiranana, Fianarantsoa, and Mahajanga.
"Kaliphora madagascarensis" is the sole species of the genus Kaliphora. Some recent classification systems, including the APG IV, classify the genus as part of family Montiniaceae; other systems, including that of Armen Takhtajan, classify "Kaliphora" in its own family, Kaliphoraceae.


Tabernaemontana parviflora

Tabernaemontana parviflora is a taxonomic synonym that may refer to:


Hamatocaulis

Hamatocaulis is a genus of mosses belonging to the family Amblystegiaceae.
The genus was first described by Lars Hedenäs in 1989.
The genus has cosmopolitan distribution.
Species:


WRKY protein domain

The WRKY domain is found in the WRKY transcription factor family, a class of transcription factors. The WRKY domain is found almost exclusively in plants although WRKY genes appear present in some diplomonads, social amoebae and other amoebozoa, and fungi incertae sedis. They appear absent in other non-plant species. WRKY transcription factors have been a significant area of plant research for the past 20 years. The WRKY DNA-binding domain recognizes the W-box (T)TGAC(C/T) (and variants of this sequence) cis-regulatory element.
Structure.
WRKY transcription factors contain either one or two WRKY protein domains. The WRKY protein domain is 60 to 70 amino acids long type of DNA binding domain. The domain is characterized by a highly conserved core WRKYGQK motif and a zinc finger region. The cysteine and histidine zinc finger domain occurs as a CX4-5CX22-23HXH or CX7CX23HXC type, where X can be any amino acid. The zinc finger binds a Zn+2 ion, which is required for protein function. While the WRKYGQK is highly conserved in most WRKY domains, variation in the core sequence has been documented. A frequently occurring variant of the core sequence is WRKYGKK, which is present in most plant species.
The structure of the WRKY protein domain was first determined in 2005 using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and later by crystallography. The WRKY protein domain is a globular shape composed of five anti-parallel β-strands. The core WRKYGQK motif is found on the second β-strand. Eighteen amino acids are highly conserved in the WRKY protein domain, including the core motif, zinc-finger binding cysteines and histidines, and a triad forming a DWK salt bridge. The triad consist of a conserved tryptophan (W) of the core motif, along with an aspartic acid (D) four amino acids upstream and a lysine (K) 29 amino acids downstream of it, stabilizing the entire domain. Five amino acids on the third β-strand (PRSYY) are also well conserved in the WRKY domain. Importantly, the WRKY genes contain a conserved intron in the WRKY domain, which occurs at the location encoding for the PR of the PRSYY amino acid sequence, thus explaining the conservation of this motif.
WRKY-DNA Interaction.
The WRKY domain forms a unique wedge-shaped structure that enters perpendicularly in the major groove of the DNA strand. WRKY protein domains interact with the (T/A)TGAC(T/A) cis-element, also called the W-box. Recent evidence suggests that the GAC core of the W-box is the primary target of the WRKY domain and flanking sequences help dictate DNA interaction with very specific WRKY proteins. The RKYGQK residues of the core motif and additional arginine and lysine residues of the WRKY domain are responsible for interaction with the phosphate backbone of seven consecutive DNA base pairs, including the GAC core. Changing the tryptophan, tyrosine, or either lysine of the WRKYGQK motif to alanine completely abolishes DNA-binding, indicating these amino acids are essential for recognizing the W-box element. While not essential, altering the WRKYGQK motif arginine, glycine or glutamine to alanine reduces DNA-binding to the W-box. Overall, these complex WRKY protein domain-DNA interactions results in gene activation necessary for numerous aspects of plant development and defense.


Ipomoea platensis

Ipomoea platensis is a flowering plant species in the bindweed family (Convolvulaceae). It belongs to the morning glory genus, "Ipomoea". It was first described by J. B. Ker Gawler in 1818. Native to southeastern South America, it is a popular pot plant.


Selaginella tortipila

Selaginella tortipila is a species of clubmoss in the family Selaginellaceae. It is referred to by the common names twistedhair spikemoss or kinky-hair spike-moss, and is a member of an early diverging group of plants. It is native to the Southeastern United States where it is found in a small area in the Southern Appalachian Mountains and Piedmont. It is found on granite or sandstone rock outcrop communities, often at high elevation.
"Selaginella tortipila" is a rather distinct species of spikemoss, and likely has no close relatives in the North American flora. It has been placed in the "Bryodesma" group, along with "Selaginella rupestris.


Anagallis tenella

Anagallis tenella, known in Britain as the bog pimpernel, is a low growing perennial plant found in a variety of damp habitats from calcareous dune slacks to boggy and peaty heaths in Eurasia. In the United Kingdom it is mostly restricted to the western half of the country, although it was more common in the east before land drainage and intensification of farming in that area.
Traditionally included in the family Primulaceae, the genus "Anagallis" was considered to be better placed within the related family Myrsinaceae. In the APG III system, Primulaceae is expanded to include Myrsinacae, thus "Anagallis" is now in Primulaceae again.
In England this plant is a component of the Purple moor grass and rush pastures BAP habitat.


Eucalyptus brachycalyx

Eucalyptus brachycalyx, commonly known as gilja or Chindoo mallee, is a small tree or a mallee that is endemic to southern Australia.
Description.
"Eucalyptus brachycalyx" is a tree that typically grows to a height of or a mallee to and forms a lignotuber. It has grey or grey-brown rough, shortly fibrous bark that is persistent on the trunk and larger branches. The upper bark is smooth, white to grey or pinkish above. Young plants and coppice regrowth have stems that are square in cross-section and leaves that are arranged in opposite pairs near the ends of the branches, then alternate, lance-shaped, long, wide and have a petiole. Adult leaves are narrow lance-shaped, long, wide on a petiole long and the same glossy green on both sides. The flower buds are arranged in groups of seven, nine or eleven on a peduncle long, the individual flowers sessile or on a pedicel up to long. The mature flower buds are green or yellow to reddish brown, oval, oblong or pear-shaped, long and wide with a rounded to conical operculum. Flowering occurs between January and April or between October and December and the flowers are white. The fruit is a woody, cup-shaped, conical, hemispherical or barrel-shaped capsule long, wide with the valves level with the rim or slightly longer.
Taxonomy.
"Eucalyptus brachycalyx" was first formally described by the botanist William Blakely and the description was published in his book "Key Eucalypts". The specific epithet ("brachycalyx") is from the Greek "brachys" meaning "short" and "calyx" meaning "cup" or "calyx", referring to the small buds.
Distribution.
Gilja is found on sand dunes and limestone plains along the south coast in the Goldfields-Esperance region extending from the Fitzgerald River National Park in the west to the South Australian border. In South Australia it is found along the southern coast from the eastern edge of the Nullarbor Plain extending through the Eyre Peninsula, Yorke Peninsula and Fleurieu Peninsula along the south coast extending north into the Flinders Ranges and Gawler Range.


List of Nepenthes clades

The taxonomy of "Nepenthes" has been revised several times during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Nineteenth century.
The first subgeneric division of the "Nepenthes" was made by Joseph Dalton Hooker in his 1873 monograph, "Nepenthaceae". Hooker distinguished "N. pervillei" from all other taxa based on its seeds, which lack the appendages typical of most "Nepenthes". He placed it in the monotypic section "Anourosperma". All other species were subsumed in the second section, "Eunepenthes".
A second attempt to establish a natural subdivision within the genus was made in 1895 by Günther Beck von Mannagetta und Lerchenau in "Die Gattung "Nepenthes"". Beck kept the two sections created by Hooker, but divided "Eunepenthes" into three subgroups: "Apruinosae", "Pruinosae", and "Retiferae".
Twentieth century.
"Nepenthes" taxonomy was once again revised in 1908 by John Muirhead Macfarlane in his own monograph. Oddly, Macfarlane did not name the groups he distinguished. His revision is generally not considered to be a natural division of the genus.
In 1928, B. H. Danser published his seminal monograph, "The Nepenthaceae of the Netherlands Indies", in which he divided "Nepenthes" into six clades, based on observations of herbarium material. The clades were: the "Vulgatae", "Montanae", "Nobiles", "Regiae", "Insignes" and "Urceolatae". "Regiae" appears to reflect the relationships of its members quite well, although the same cannot be said for the other clades. Despite this, Danser's classification was undoubtedly a great improvement on previous attempts.
Danser classified "Nepenthes" as follows:
Vulgatae
Montanae
Nobiles
Regiae
Insignes
Urceolatae
The taxonomic work of Danser (1928) was revised by Hermann Harms in 1936. Harms divided "Nepenthes" into three subgenera: "Anourosperma" Hook.f. (1873), "Eunepenthes" Hook.f. (1873) and "Mesonepenthes" Harms (1936) (Latin: "meso": middle; "middle" "Nepenthes"). The "Nepenthes" species found in the subgenera "Anourosperma" and "Mesonepenthes" differ from those in the "Vulgatae", where Danser had placed them. Harms placed the great majority of "Nepenthes" species in the "Eunepenthes"; "Anourosperma" was a monotypic subgenus, while "Mesonepenthes" contained only three species. He also created an additional clade, the "Distillatoriae" (after "N. distillatoria").


Hedyosmum mexicanum

Hedyosmum mexicanum is a species of plant in the family Chloranthaceae. It is found in Guatemala and Mexico. It is threatened by habitat loss.
Description.
"Hedyosmum mexicanum" is known as a dioecious variable plant containing adventitious roots and brittle twigs. It generally blooms as a shrub at approximately 2 meters in height. When it reaches its full tree size it could range from 8 to 12 meters or more. It contains opposite leaves with welded petioles. The male portion of the plant comprises a subsessile stamen, coupled with bilocular anther along with a short appendix at the apex. Furthermore, its female counterpart, the flower is assorted in panicles which contain trilobal perianth, embellished with the unilocular and inferior ovary. The style of the plant tends to be either very small or not present at all.
Habitat.
The plant can generally be found around the northern parts of South American Colombia. They are as well found in abundance from Mexico to Panama. These plants are generally located in wet mountain forest and in pine forest.
Cultivation.
"Hedyosmum mexicanum" is a plant found in high moist tropic areas around the elevation of 1,100 - 2,900 meters. They typically flower and bear fruit year round where January to May are the peak fruit production. The fruits produces are edible and are sweet in flavor. The fruits can be bright green to yellowish, or white when mature in color measuring about 2–3 cm long and 2 cm thick. The fruits are categorize as drupes that contain brown or black seeds.
Threats.
According to IUCN Red List, "Hedyosmum mexicanum" is in a vulnerable (VU) state. Major threats include agriculture and aquaculture from annual and perennial non-timber crops, and livestock farming. Locally, the tree is logged and harvested for wood.
Uses.
A good source of lumber. Some people use the leaves for tea, to replace the intake of coffee.
Common names.
Plantanillo, Mazoro, Palo de agua, Te azeteca, Té de monte, Té maya, Coter, Piñuela, Vara blanca, Vara de agua.


Boniodendron

Boniodendron is a genus of plant in the family Sapindaceae. It contains the following species (but this list may be incomplete):


American wisteria


Cryptantha roosiorum

Cryptantha roosiorum is a species of flowering plant in the borage family known by the common name bristlecone cryptantha.
It is endemic to Inyo County, California, where it is known from only a few occurrences in the northern Inyo Mountains.
It is a small, mat-forming perennial herb just a few centimeters high which grows from a woody caudex rooted in rocky soils. The leaves are up to about a centimeter long, oval to spoon-shaped, and hairy to bristly. The inflorescence is a dense cluster of tiny white flowers with five-lobed white corollas with yellow appendages.


List of Douglas-fir diseases

This article is a list of diseases of Douglas-fir ("Pseudotsuga menziezii").


La Push, Washington

La Push is a small unincorporated community situated at the mouth of the Quillayute River in Clallam County, Washington, United States. La Push is the largest community within the Quileute Indian Reservation, which is home to the federally recognized Quileute tribe. La Push is known for its whale-watching and natural environment.
Geography.
The name La Push is from French "La Bouche", meaning "The Mouth" of the Quillayute River, adapted into Chinook Jargon. Two beaches are nearby: Rialto Beach to the north of the river mouth and La Push Beach to the south.
La Push has the westernmost ZIP Code in the contiguous United States, 98350.
Climate.
La Push has a very wet oceanic climate. The climate is moderated and strongly influenced by the Pacific Ocean, which renders mild winters for a northerly latitude. Located to the west of the Olympic Mountains, La Push and the surrounding coastline absorb considerable rainfall dropped along the mountain front. The warmest month is August and the coolest month is December.
History.
La Push, 14 miles from Forks, is home to the Quileute Tribe. Tribal members traditionally built cedar canoes for a variety of uses; they ranged in size from two-man to ocean-going freight vessels capable of carrying three tons. The Quileute ranked second only to the Makah as whalers, and first among all the tribes as seal hunters. They bred special woolly-haired dogs, and spun and wove their hair into prized warm blankets. According to the stories, the Quileutes' only kin, the Chimakum, were separated from them by a great flood that swept them to the Quimper Peninsula on the other side of the North Olympic Peninsula. There they were attacked and destroyed in the 1860s by Chief Seattle and the Suquamish Tribe.
The first treaty with European Americans occurred in 1855, when the Quileutes signed a treaty with representatives of Territorial Governor Isaac Stevens. A treaty a year later would have moved them to a reservation in Taholah, but the Quileute territory was so remote that it was not enforced. In February 1889, an executive order by President Grover Cleveland established a one-mile square reservation at La Push. At the time the town had 252 inhabitants. Later in 1889, arsonists destroyed La Push while villagers were picking hops in Puyallup.
Work began in 2017 to relocate the village to higher ground. The plan was to reduce damage from tsunamis and flooding that might result from a higher sea level caused by climate change. The plan required modification of the boundaries of the Olympic National Park. The first building that was moved was the elementary school.
Tourism.
Today, La Push has oceanfront resorts, a seafood company, fish hatchery, and a revamped marina. Since the early 21st century, the tribe has grown more interested in tourism. La Push is a village of the Quileute Tribe that displays a slower, more relaxed way of life. All of the businesses are owned by the tribe. The Quileute Tribe has revived many of its traditional skills and crafts, which are taught at school along with the unique language. It is an isolate language, unrelated to any root language in the world, and one of only five in the world without nasal sounds.
The popular Quileute Days take place July 17–19 in La Push. The tribal celebration of cultural heritage and modern lifestyle includes a fireworks display, a traditional salmon bake, dancing and songs, a softball tournament, and other field sports, a slow-pitch tournament, a horseshoe tournament, arts and craft display, and food concessions.
The Pacific Northwest National Scenic Trail passes through La Push on the way to its western terminus at Cape Alava.


Paludella

Paludella is a genus of mosses belonging to the family Meesiaceae.
The genus was first described by Jakob Friedrich Ehrhart.
The species of this genus are found in Northern Hemisphere.
Species:


Fragilidium

Fragilidium is a genus of dinoflagellates belonging to the family Pyrocystaceae.
Species:


Kaliphoraceae


Eucalyptus argutifolia

Eucalyptus argutifolia, commonly known as Wabling Hill mallee or Yanchep mallee, is a mallee that is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It is a rare species with smooth bark, lance-shaped adult leaves, flower buds arranged in groups of seven or nine, white flowers and cylindrical to conical cup-shaped fruit.
Description.
"Eucalyptus argutifolia" is a mallee that grows to a height of about with smooth grey or pale copper-coloured bark. Leaves on young plants and on coppice regrowth are egg-shaped to more or less round, long, wide, glossy green and have a petiole. Adult leaves are lance-shaped, long and wide on a petiole long. The adult leaves are the same glossy green on both sides. Leaves intermediate between juvenile and adult are also usually present. The flower buds are arranged in groups of seven or nine on a thick peduncle long, the individual buds on a pedicel up to long or absent. Mature buds are oval, long and wide with a rounded operculum and about the same width as the floral cup. The flowers are white and appear in the autumn (March to April in areas where they occur naturally) and are followed by fruit that are cylindrical to conical or cup-shaped, long and wide.
Taxonomy.
"Eucalyptus argutifolia" was first formally described in 1992 by Peter Grayling and Ian Brooker from a specimen that was collected at Parrot Ridge near Yanchep in 1987. The description was published in the journal "Nuytsia". The specific epithet ("argutifolia") is derived from the Latin words "argutus" meaning "clear", "bright" or "sharp" and "folium" meaning "leaf", referring to the shiny adult leaves of this species.
It is placed in the "Eucalyptus" sub-genus Symphyomyrtus, section Dumaria, series Rufispermae.
Distribution and habitat.
Wabling Hill mallee occurs naturally on Wabling Hill and Parrot Ridge to the north of Yanchep and to the south of Seabird on shallow soils of limestone ridges, on slopes and in gullies.
Conservation.
This eucalypt is classified as "vulnerable" under the Australian Government "Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999" and as "Threatened Flora (Declared Rare Flora — Extant)" by the Department of Environment and Conservation (Western Australia). The main threats to the species include mining activities, inappropriate fire regimes, grazing and weed invasion.