Red mullet

The red mullets or surmullets are two species of goatfish, "Mullus barbatus" and "Mullus surmuletus", found in the Mediterranean Sea, east North Atlantic Ocean, and the Black Sea. Both "red mullet" and "surmullet" can also refer to the Mullidae in general.
Classification.
Though they can easily be distinguished—"M. surmuletus" has a striped first dorsal fin—their common names overlap in many of the languages of the region. In English, "M. surmuletus" is sometimes called the "striped" red mullet. Despite the English name "red mullet", these fishes of the goatfish family "Mullidae" are not closely related to many other species called "mullet", which are members of the grey mullet family "Mugilidae". The word "surmullet" comes from the French, and ultimately probably from a Germanic root "sor" 'reddish brown'.
Cultural impact.
They are both favored delicacies in the Mediterranean, and in antiquity were "one of the most famous and valued fish". They are very similar, and cooked in the same ways. "M. surmuletus" is perhaps somewhat more prized. The ancient Romans reared them in ponds where they were attended and caressed by their owners, and taught to come to be fed at the sound of the voice or bell of the keeper. Specimens were sometimes sold for their weight in silver. Pliny cites a case in which a large sum was paid for a single fish, and an extraordinary expenditure of time was lavished upon these slow-learning pets. Juvenal and other satirists descanted upon the height to which the pursuit of this luxury was carried as a type of extravagance. The statesman Titus Annius Milo, exiled to Marseille in 52 B.C., joked that he would have no regrets as long as he could eat the delicious red mullet of Marseille.


Guahiba gracile opossum

The Guahiba gracile opossum ("Cryptonanus guahybae") is a species of opossum in the family Didelphidae. It is endemic to southern Brazil, where it is known only from three islands, Guahiba, São Lourenço, and Taquara, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul. The poorly studied species is presumed to inhabit subtropical forests, and thus to be threatened by deforestation.


Nuclear DNA

Nuclear DNA (nDNA), or nuclear deoxyribonucleic acid, is the DNA contained within each cell nucleus of a eukaryotic organism. It encodes for the majority of the genome in eukaryotes, with mitochondrial DNA and plastid DNA coding for the rest. It adheres to Mendelian inheritance, with information coming from two parents, one male and one female—rather than matrilineally (through the mother) as in mitochondrial DNA.
Structure.
Nuclear DNA is a nucleic acid, a polymeric biomolecule or biopolymer, found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Its structure is a double helix, with two strands wound around each other, a structure first described by Francis Crick and James D. Watson (1953) using data collected by Rosalind Franklin. Each strand is a long polymer chain of repeating nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and an organic base. Nucleotides are distinguished by their bases: purines, large bases that include adenine and guanine; and pyrimidines, small bases that include thymine and cytosine. Chargaff's rules state that adenine always pairs with thymine, and guanine always with cytosine. The phosphate groups are held together by a phosphodiester bond and the bases are held together by hydrogen bonds.
Mitochondrial DNA.
Nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA differ in many ways, starting with location and structure. Nuclear DNA is located within the nucleus of eukaryote cells and usually has two copies per cell while mitochondrial DNA is located in the mitochondria and contains 100-1,000 copies per cell. The structure of nuclear DNA chromosomes is linear with open ends and includes 46 chromosomes containing 3 billion nucleotides. Mitochondrial DNA chromosomes usually have closed, circular structures, and contain for example 16,569 nucleotides in humans. Nuclear DNA is diploid, ordinarily inheriting the DNA from two parents, while mitochondrial DNA is haploid, coming only from the mother. The mutation rate for nuclear DNA is less than 0.3% while that of mitochondrial DNA is generally higher.
Forensics.
Nuclear DNA is known as the molecule of life and contains the genetic instructions for the development of all living organisms. It is found in almost every cell in the human body, with exceptions such as red blood cells. Everyone has a unique genetic blueprint, even identical twins. Forensic departments such as the Bureau of Criminal Apprehension (BCA) and Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) are able to use techniques involving nuclear DNA to compare samples in a case. Techniques used include polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which allows one to utilize very small amounts of DNA by making copies of targeted regions on the molecule, also known as short tandem repeats (STRs).
Cell division.
Like mitosis, meiosis is a form of eukaryotic cell division. Meiosis gives rise to four unique daughter cells, each of which has half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Because meiosis creates cells that are destined to become gametes (or reproductive cells), this reduction in chromosome number is critical — without it, the union of two gametes during fertilization would result in offspring with twice the normal number of chromosomes.
Meiosis creates new combinations of genetic material in each of the four daughter cells. These new combinations result from the exchange of DNA between paired chromosomes. Such an exchange means that the gametes produced through meiosis often exhibit considerable genetic variation.
Meiosis involves two rounds of nuclear division, not just one. Prior to undergoing meiosis, a cell goes through an interphase period in which it grows, replicates its chromosomes, and checks all of its systems to ensure that it is ready to divide.
Like mitosis, meiosis also has distinct stages called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. A key difference, however, is that during meiosis, each of these phases occurs twice — once during the first round of division, called meiosis I, and again during the second round of division, called meiosis II.
Replication.
Prior to cell division, the DNA material in the original cell must be duplicated so that after cell division, each new cell contains the full amount of DNA material. The process of DNA duplication is usually called replication. The replication is termed semiconservative since each new cell contains one strand of original DNA and one newly synthesized strand of DNA. The original polynucleotide strand of DNA serves as a template to guide the synthesis of the new complementary polynucleotide of DNA. The DNA single-strand template serves to guide the synthesis of a complementary strand of DNA.
DNA replication begins at a specific site in the DNA molecule called the origin of replication. The enzyme helicase unwinds and separates a portion of the DNA molecule after which single-strand binding proteins react with and stabilize the separated, single-stranded sections of the DNA molecule. The enzyme complex DNA polymerase engages the separated portion of the molecule and initiates the process of replication. DNA polymerase can only connect new DNA nucleotides to a pre-existing chain of nucleotides. Therefore, replication begins as an enzyme called primase assembles an RNA primer at the origin of replication. The RNA primer consists of a short sequence of RNA nucleotides, complementary to a small, initial section of the DNA strand being prepared for replication. DNA polymerase is then able to add DNA nucleotides to the RNA primer and thus begin the process of constructing a new complementary strand of DNA. Later the RNA primer is enzymatically removed and replaced with the appropriate sequence of DNA nucleotides. Because the two complementary strands of the DNA molecule are oriented in opposite directions and the DNA polymerase can only accommodate replication in one direction, two different mechanisms for copying the strands of DNA are employed. One strand is replicated continuously towards unwinding, separating the portion of the original DNA molecule; while the other strand is replicated discontinuously in the opposite direction with the formation of a series of short DNA segments called Okazaki fragments. Each Okazaki fragment requires a separate RNA primer. As the Okazaki fragments are synthesized, the RNA primers are replaced with DNA nucleotides and the fragments are bonded together in a continuous complementary strand.
DNA damage and repair.
Damage of nuclear DNA is a persistent problem arising from a variety of disruptive endogenous and exogenous sources. Eukaryotes have evolved a diverse set of DNA repair processes that remove nuclear DNA damages. These repair processes include base excision repair, nucleotide excision repair, homologous recombinational repair, non-homologous end joining and microhomology-mediated end joining. Such repair processes are essential for maintaining nuclear DNA stability. Failure of repair activity to keep up with the occurrence of damages has various negative consequences. Nuclear DNA damages, as well as the mutations and epigenetic alterations that such damages cause, are considered to be a major cause of cancer. Nuclear DNA damages are also implicated in aging and neurodegenerative diseases.
Mutation.
Nuclear DNA is subject to mutation. A major cause of mutation is inaccurate DNA replication, often by specialized DNA polymerases that synthesize past DNA damages in the template strand (error-prone trans-lesion synthesis). Mutations also arise by inaccurate DNA repair. The microhomology-mediated end joining pathway for repair of double-strand breaks is particularly prone to mutation. Mutations arising in the nuclear DNA of the germline are most often neutral or adaptively disadvantageous. However, the small proportion of mutations that prove to be advantageous provide the genetic variation upon which natural selection operates to generate new adaptations.


Bird park

Bird park may refer to:


Principle of Binominal Nomenclature


Chunerpeton

Chunerpeton tianyiensis is an extinct species of salamander from the Late Jurassic Daohugou Beds in Ningcheng County, Nei Mongol (Inner Mongolia), China. It is the only species classified under the genus Chunerpeton. It was a small animal measuring 18 cm in length.
It lived with other primitive salamanders, e.g. "Jeholotriton paradoxus" Wang 2000, "Liaoxitriton daohugouensis" Wang 2004, and "Pangerpeton sinensis" Wang & Evans 2006 of the same age.
The strata containing these fossil salamanders, the Daohugou Beds, is controversial in its age, ranging from Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous.


International Code of Zoological Nomenclature

The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) is a widely accepted convention in zoology that rules the formal scientific naming of organisms treated as animals. It is also informally known as the ICZN Code, for its publisher, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (which shares the acronym "ICZN"). The rules principally regulate:
Zoological nomenclature is independent of other systems of nomenclature, for example botanical nomenclature. This implies that animals can have the same generic names as plants.
The rules and recommendations have one fundamental aim: to provide the maximum universality and continuity in the naming of all animals, except where taxonomic judgment dictates otherwise. The code is meant to guide only the nomenclature of animals, while leaving zoologists freedom in classifying new taxa.
In other words, whether a species itself is or is not a recognized entity is a subjective decision, but what name should be applied to it is not. The code applies only to the latter. A new animal name published without adherence to the code may be deemed simply "unavailable" if it fails to meet certain criteria, or fall entirely out of the province of science (e.g., the "scientific name" for the Loch Ness Monster).
The rules in the code determine what names are valid for any taxon in the family group, genus group, and species group. It has additional (but more limited) provisions on names in higher ranks. The code recognizes no case law. Any dispute is decided first by applying the code directly, and not by reference to precedent.
The code is also retroactive or retrospective, which means that previous editions of the code, or previous other rules and conventions have no force any more today, and the nomenclatural acts published 'back in the old times' must be evaluated only under the present edition of the code. In cases of disputes concerning the interpretation, the usual procedure is to consult the French Code, lastly a case can be brought to the commission who has the right to publish a final decision.
Principles.
In regulating the names of animals it holds by six central principles, which were first set out (as principles) in the third edition of the code (1985):
Principle of binominal nomenclature.
This is the principle that the scientific name of a species, and not of a taxon at any other rank, is a combination of two names; the use of a trinomen for the name of a subspecies and of uninominal names for taxa above the species group is in accord with this principle.
This means that in the system of nomenclature for animals, the name of a species is composed of a combination of a generic name and a specific name; together they make a "binomen". No other rank can have a name composed of two names. Examples:
In botanical nomenclature, the equivalent for "binominal nomenclature" is "binary nomenclature" (or sometimes "binomial nomenclature").
Principle of priority.
This is the principle that the correct formal scientific name for an animal taxon, the "valid name", correct to use, is the oldest available name that applies to it.
It is the most important principle—the fundamental guiding precept that preserves zoological nomenclature stability. It was first formulated in 1842 by a committee appointed by the British Association to consider the rules of zoological nomenclature. Hugh Edwin Strickland wrote the committee's report.
Example:
There are approximately 2-3 million cases of this kind for which this principle is applied in zoology.
Principle of coordination.
The "principle of coordination" is that within the family group, genus group and species group, a name established for a taxon at any rank in the group is simultaneously established with the same author and date for taxa based on the same name-bearing type at other ranks in the corresponding group.
In other words, publishing a new zoological name automatically and simultaneously establishes all corresponding names in the relevant other ranks with the same type.
In the species-group, publishing a species name (the binomen) "Giraffa camelopardalis" Linnaeus, 1758 also establishes the subspecies name (the trinomen) "Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis" Linnaeus, 1758. The same applies to the name of a subspecies; this establishes the corresponding species name.
In the genus-group, similarly, publishing the name of a genus also establishes the corresponding name of a subgenus (or vice versa): genus "Giraffa" Linnaeus, 1758 and subgenus "Giraffa (Giraffa)" Linnaeus, 1758.
In the family-group, publication of the name of a family, subfamily, superfamily (or any other such rank) also establishes the names in all the other ranks in the family group (family Giraffidae, superfamily Giraffoidea, subfamily Giraffinae).
Author citations for such names (for example a subgenus) are the same as for the name actually published (for example a genus). It is immaterial if there is an actual taxon to which the automatically established name applies; if ever such a taxon is recognised, there is a name available for it.
Principle of the first reviser.
This is the principle that in cases of conflicts between simultaneously published divergent acts, the first subsequent author can decide which has precedence.
It supplements the "principle of priority", which states that the first published name takes precedence. The principle of the first reviser deals with situations that cannot be resolved by priority. These items may be two or more different names for the same taxon, two or more names with the same spelling used for different taxa, two or more different spellings of a particular name, etc. In such cases, the first subsequent author who deals with the matter and chooses and publishes the decision in the required manner is the first reviser, and is to be followed.
Example:
Linnæus 1758 established "Strix scandiaca" and "Strix noctua" (Aves), for which he gave different descriptions and referred to different types, but both taxa later turned out to refer to the same species, the snowy owl. The two names are subjective synonyms. Lönnberg 1931 acted as first reviser, cited both names and selected "Strix scandiaca" to have precedence.
Principle of homonymy.
This is the principle that the name of each taxon must be unique. Consequently, a name that is a junior homonym of another name must not be used as a valid name.
It means that any one animal name, in one particular spelling, may be used only once (within its group). This is usually the first-published name; any later name with the same spelling (a homonym) is barred from being used. The principles of priority and first reviser apply here. For family-group names the termination (which is rank-bound) is not taken into account.
Genera are homonyms only if exactly the same — a one-letter difference is enough to distinguish them.
Examples:
In species, there is a difference between primary and secondary homonyms. There can also be double homonyms (same genus and species). A slight difference in spelling is tolerated if Article 58 applies.
"Primary homonyms" are those with the same genus and same species in their original combination. The difference between a primary junior homonym and a subsequent use of a name is undefined, but it is commonly accepted that if the name referred to another species or form, and if there is in addition no evidence the author knew that the name was previously used, it is considered as a junior homonym.
Examples:
"Secondary homonyms" can be produced if taxa with the same specific name but different original genus are later classified in the same genus (Art. 57.3, 59).
A secondary synonym is only a temporary state, it is only effective in this classification. If another classification is applied, the secondary homonymy may not be produced, and the involved name can be used again (Art. 59.1). A name does not become unavailable or unusable if it was once in the course of history placed in such a genus where it produced a secondary homonymy with another name.
This is one of the rare cases where a zoological species does not have a stable specific name and a unique species-author-year combination, it can have two names at the same time.
Example:
Article 59.3 states that in exceptional cases, junior secondary homonyms replaced before 1961 by substitute names can become invalid, "...unless the substitute name is not in use," an exception of the exception. However, the ICZN Code does not give an example for such a case. It seems that this passage in the ICZN Code is widely ignored. It also does not define what the expression "is not in use" should mean.
Example:
"Double homonymy" (genus and species) is no homonymy: if the genera are homonyms and belong to different animal groups, the same specific names can be used in both groups.
Examples:
For "disambiguating" one genus-group name from its homonym, it is important to cite author and year. Citing the author alone is often not sufficient.
Examples:
The name "Ansa" can only be used for a lepidopteran taxon. If that name cannot be used (for example because an older name established prior to 1858 takes precedence), this does not mean that the 1868 name can be used for a hemipteran genus. The only option to use the 1868 name for the hemipteran taxon is to get the 1858 name officially suppressed by the commission.
In some cases, the same genus-group or species-group name was published in the same year by the same author. In these cases it is useful to cite the page where the name was established.
There are cases where two homonyms were established by the same author in the same year on the same page:
Animal, plant, and fungi nomenclature are entirely independent from each other. The most evident shortcoming of this situation (for their use in biodiversity informatics) is that the same generic name can be used simultaneously for animals and plants. For this kind of homonym the expression "hemihomonym" is sometimes used. Far more than 1000 such names are known.
Examples:
For names above the family level, the principle of homonymy does not apply.
Examples:
Homonyms occur relatively rarely in families (only if generic names are identical or very similar and adding an ending "-idae" produces identical results). Discovering such a homonymy usually produces the same problems as if there were no rules: conflicts between entirely independent and unconnected groups of taxonomists working in different animal groups. Very often the Commission must be asked to take a decision.
Examples:
Principle of typification.
This is the principle that each nominal taxon in the family group, genus group, or species group has—actually or potentially—a name-bearing type fixed that provides the objective standard of reference that determines what the name applies to.
This means that any named taxon has a name-bearing type, which allows the objective application of that name. Any family-group name must have a type genus, any genus-group name must have a type species, and any species-group name can (not must) have one or more type specimens (holotype, lectotype, neotype, syntypes, or others), usually deposited in a museum collection.
The type genus for a "family-group name" is simply the genus that provided the stem to which was added the ending "-idae" (for families). Example:
The type species for a "genus-group name" is more complicated and follows exactly defined provisions in articles 67–69.
Type species are very important, and no general zoological database has recorded the type species for all genera. Except in fishes and some minor groups, type species are rarely reliably recorded in online animal databases. In 60% of the cases the type species can be determined in the original publication.
The type species is always the original name of the taxon (and not the currently used combination).
Example:
Designation and fixation have different meanings. A designation is the proposal of the type species. It is not necessary to have spelled the name of the genus or species correctly with correct authors (articles 67.2.1, 67.6, 67.7), type species are always the correctly spelled name. If the designation is valid, the type species is fixed.
A designation can also be invalid and ineffective—for example—if the genus had already a previously fixed type species, or if a type species was proposed that was not originally included, or contradicted the description or figure for a genus for which no species had originally been included.
There are various possible modes of type species designation. This is their order of legal importance, with approximate proportions of occurrence and examples:
A "species-group name" can have a name-bearing type specimen, but this is not a requirement. In many cases species-group names have no type specimens, or they are lost. In those cases the application of the species-group name is usually based on common acceptance. If there is no common acceptance, there are provisions in the Code to fix a name-bearing type specimen that is binding for users of that name. Fixing such a name-bearing type should only be done if this is taxonomically necessary (articles 74.7.3, 75.2, 75.3).
Examples:
Structure.
The code divides names in the following manner:
The names above the family group are regulated only as to the requirements for publication; there is no restriction to the number of ranks and the use of names is not restricted by priority.
The names in the family, genus, and species groups are fully regulated by the provisions in the code. There is no limitation to the number of ranks allowed in the family group. The genus group has only two ranks: "genus" and "subgenus". The species group has only two ranks: "species" and "subspecies".
Gender agreement.
In the species group "gender agreement" applies. The name of a species, in two parts, a binomen, say, "Loxodonta africana", and of a subspecies, in three parts, a trinomen, say "Canis lupus albus", is in the form of a Latin phrase, and must be grammatically correct Latin. If the second part, the specific name (or the third part, the subspecific name) is adjectival in nature, its ending must agree in gender with the name of the genus. If it is a noun, or an arbitrary combination of letters, this does not apply.
If a species is moved, therefore, the spelling of an ending may need to change. If "Gryllus migratorius" is moved to the genus "Locusta", it becomes "Locusta migratoria". Confusion over Latin grammar has led to many incorrectly formed names appearing in print. An automated search may fail to find all the variant spellings of a given name (e.g., the spellings "atra" and "ater" may refer to the same species).
History.
Written nomenclatural rules in zoology were compiled in various countries since the late 1830s, such as Merton's Rules and Strickland's codes going back to 1843. At the first and second International Zoological Congresses (Paris 1889, Moscow 1892) zoologists saw the need to establish commonly accepted international rules for all disciplines and countries to replace conventions and unwritten rules that varied across disciplines, countries, and languages.
Compiling "International Rules on Zoological Nomenclature" was first proposed in 1895 in Leiden (3rd International Congress for Zoology) and officially published in three languages in 1905 (French, English, German; only French was official). From then on, amendments and modifications were subsequently passed by various zoological congresses (Boston 1907, Graz 1910, Monaco 1913, Budapest 1927, Padua 1930, Paris 1948, Copenhagen 1953, and London 1958). These were only published in English, and can only be found in the reports of these congresses or other official publications.
The 1905 rules became increasingly outdated. They soon sold out, and it became increasingly difficult to obtain to a complete set of the Rules with all amendments. In Copenhagen 1953 the French and English texts of the rules were declared of equivalent official force, and a declaration was approved to prepare a new compilation of the rules. In 1958, an Editorial Committee in London elaborated a completely new version of the nomenclatural rules, which were finally published as the first edition of the "ICZN Code" on 9 November 1961.
The second edition of the code (only weakly modified) came in 1963. The last zoological congress to deal with nomenclatural problems took place in Monte Carlo 1972, since by then the official zoological organs no longer derived power from zoological congresses. The third edition of the code came out in 1985. The present edition is the 4th edition, effective since 2000. These code editions were elaborated on by editorial committees appointed by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. The ICZN Commission takes its power from a general biological congress (IUBS, International Union of Biological Sciences). The editorial committee for the fourth edition was composed of seven persons. Such new editions of the ICZN Code are not democratically approved by those taxonomists who are forced to follow the code's provisions, neither do taxonomists have the right to vote for the members of the commission or the editorial committee.
As the commission may alter the code (by declarations and amendments) without issuing a new edition of the book, the current edition does not necessarily contain the actual provision that applies in a particular case. The Code consists of the original text of the fourth edition and Declaration 44. The code is published in an English and a French version; both versions are official and equivalent in force, meaning, and authority. This means that if something in the English code is unclear or its interpretation ambiguous, the French version is decisive, and if there is something unclear in the French code, the English version is decisive.
Commission.
The rules in the code apply to all users of zoological names. However, its provisions can be interpreted, waived, or modified in their application to a particular case when strict adherence would cause confusion. Such exceptions are not made by an individual scientist, no matter how well-respected within the field, but only by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, acting on behalf of all zoologists. The commission takes such action in response to proposals submitted to it.
The latest amendments enacted by the commission concern electronic publishing, which is now permitted for works published under an ISBN or ISSN after 2011 in a way that ensures registration with ZooBank as well as archival of multiple copies.
Local usage and name changes.
The ICZN is used by the scientific community worldwide. Changes are governed by guidelines in the code. Local changes, such as the changes proposed by the Turkish government, are not recognised by ICZN.
Citation.
The current (fourth edition) code is cited in scientific papers as ICZN (1999) and in reference lists as:-
ICZN 1999. International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Fourth Edition. The International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, London, UK. 306 pp.


Orchesella albofasciata

Orchesella albofasciata is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae.


Stephanie Tyler

Stephanie Joy Tyler , also known as Steph Tyler, is a British ornithologist, zoologist, naturalist, conservationist, and author from Monmouthshire. She is particularly known for her work on Dippers and the preservation of river habitats.
Career.
Tyler gained her PhD in Zoology at University of Cambridge, where she also met and married Lyndsay Tyler, a veterinarian. Tyler's doctoral thesis was on the free-range ponies in the New Forest. Following her marriage, Tyler moved with her family to Wiltshire where she conducted a study of the area's Grey Wagtails and became the most prolific female British bird ringer. The Tyler family moved first to the United Arab Emirates and then to Ethiopia in 1973.
In Ethiopia Tyler continued her work on bird ringing and made monthly contributions to the newsletter of the
Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society. Tyler also provided articles and illustrations for the conservation journal Agazen, which was used in around 2,000 schools in Ethiopia. The Tylers also led natural history tours of the area. Tyler also returned to her work on Wagtails funded by the British Ornithological Union and investigated ecological factors that affected the distribution of both local and migratory birds in Ethiopia.
From May 1976, Tyler, together with her husband and two children, were held captive for 8 months by rebels in Tigray. Despite considerable hardship, Tyler continued to make observations of local bird-life and has credited her ornithological skills with helping her family to cope with captivity. Her observations were published in the "Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club".
On her return to the UK, Tyler and her family moved to Monmouthshire where Tyler worked for Gwent Wildlife Trust and then the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds as the Conservation Officer for Wales. From the 1980s, Tyler was a committee member of Gwent Ornithological Society, regional representative for the British Trust for Ornithology, and joint plant recorder for Monmouthshire for the South East Wales Biodiversity Records Centre.
In the 1990s, Tyler spent five years in Botswana where she worked on nest card-filling for the new BirdLife Botswana.
Tyler was a Trustee of the Welsh Ornithological Society for eight years (2008–2015) and is currently the chair of the Monmouthshire Meadows Group.
Honours.
Tyler was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2021 New Year Honours for services to nature conservation in the UK and Africa.


Boloceroides

Boloceroides is a genus of sea anemones in the family Boloceroididae. It contains the following species:


High endothelial venules

High endothelial venules (HEV) are specialized post-capillary venous swellings characterized by plump endothelial cells as opposed to the usual thinner endothelial cells found in regular venules. HEVs enable lymphocytes circulating in the blood to directly enter a lymph node (by crossing through the HEV).
In humans, HEVs are found in all secondary lymphoid organs (with the exception of spleen, where blood exits through open arterioles and enters the red pulp), including hundreds of lymph nodes dispersed in the body, tonsils and adenoids in the pharynx, Peyer's patches (PIs) in the small intestine, appendix, and small aggregates of lymphoid tissue in the stomach and large intestine. In contrast to the endothelial cells from other vessels, the high endothelial cells of HEVs have a distinctive appearance, consisting of a cuboidal morphology and with various receptors to interact with leukocytes (express specialized ligands for lymphocytes and are able to support high levels of lymphocyte extravasation). HEVs enable naïve lymphocytes to move in and out of the lymph nodes from the circulatory system. HEV cells express addressins, which are specific adhesion molecules that attach to the L-selectins on lymphocytes and anchor them to the HEV wall in preparation for crossing the endothelium.
The endothelial cells of HEVs have a 'plump' appearance different from the flat morphology of endothelial cells that line other vessels, and are therefore called high endothelial cells by reference to their thickness. Another characteristic of HEVs, revealed by light-microscopic examination, is the presence of a large number of lymphocytes within their walls. This illustrates the function of HEVs in lymphocyte recruitment, and explains why these vessels were implicated in lymphocyte traffic from the time of their initial description.
The need for HEV.
In order for an adaptive immune response to occur T cells need to be activated. T cells become activated by recognising foreign antigens bound to antigen presenting cells (APC), in particular, dendritic cells. In order for naïve T cells to bind to their specific antigen, they need to experience physical contact with those cells. Since antigen levels are usually low, contact in blood circulation would be unlikely. Therefore, T cells need a region where they can go to sample foreign antigens that have entered the body. When an APC, such as a dendritic cell, binds a foreign antigen it becomes activated and moves into the lymph nodes (sites for antigen sampling by T cells) via afferent lymphatic vessels. Naïve T cells in the circulation regularly move through the lymph nodes via HEV in order to scan the APC for foreign antigens. When they encounter such an antigen, the cell becomes activated, resulting in the immune system mounting a response against the causative agent of the infection.
Depletion of CD11c+ dendritic cells in mouse significantly altered the phenotype of HEV. The normal phenotype of HEV is possibly maintained by DC-secreted lymphotoxin (TNF-beta).
Cell movement through HEV.
HEV cuboidal endothelial cells express the adhesion molecules GlyCAM-1 (in mucosal HEV this is MAdCAM-1), ICAM-1 and CD34. They also secrete the chemokine CCL21. Naïve T cells express CCR7 receptor and adhesion molecules L-selectin and LFA-1. As naïve T cells move through the circulation, they 'roll' over the endothelial cells in the vessel walls. The rolling mechanism helps the L-selectin molecules on the surface of naive T cells to weakly interact with GlyCAM-1 and CD34 molecules on HEV cells. The chemokine CCL21 then binds to its receptor CCR7 expressed on the T cell. This binding induces a conformational change in the LFA-1 molecule causing it to bind tightly to ICAM-1. This tight binding stops further movement of the T cell which can then move between HEV cells into the lymph node by a process termed 'diapedesis' (or extravasation).
Markers.
Despite intensive efforts, few HEV-specific markers have been described. The best HEV marker currently available is a carbohydrate epitope recognized by the monoclonal antibody (mAb) MECA-79, which stains all HEVs within lymphoid tissues and does not react with postcapillary venules or large vessels in spleen, thymus or nonlymphoid tissues. MECA-79 mAb inhibits lymphocyte emigration
through HEVs into lymph nodes "in vivo" and lymphocyte adhesion to lymph node and tonsil HEVs "in vitro". Although initially produced against mouse HEVs, the mAb shows a wide crossreactivity among species. The MECA-79 carbohydrate epitope decorates a family of HEV counter-receptors for L-selectin, both in mouse and human16. Another mAb, HECA-452, recognizing a carbohydrate epitope expressed on human HEVs but not on other vessels, has been described. Nevertheless, unlike MECA-79, this mAb is not HEV specific: HECA-452 recognizes a carbohydrate epitope related to the sialyl-Lewis x and sialyl-Lewis a oligosaccharides and, in addition to reacting with high endothelium, crossreacts with monocytic cells, dendritic cells and a subset of skin-homing memory lymphocytes.
Furthermore, two other HEV markers have been described in the mouse:
In chronic human inflammatory disease.
The vessels with HEV characteristics appear in human tissue in association with long-standing chronic inflammation. In rheumatoid arthritis, it has been observed that the level of sulfate incorporation as well as the 'plumpness' (or 'tallness') of the endothelium in areas of lymphocytic infiltration in the synovial membrane are closely related to the concentration of the lymphocytes in the perivascular infiltrates. Similarly, expression of MECA-79 and HECA-452 on these vessels is most pronounced in association with extensive lymphoid infiltrates. Therefore, the development of bona fide HEVs in the synovial membrane of patients with rheumatoid arthritis is likely to facilitate large-scale influx of lymphocytes, leading to amplification and maintenance of chronic inflammation. The development of HEVs after prolonged inflammatory stimulus is not restricted to diseased synovium, but can also occur in other tissues, particularly the gut and thyroid. During chronic inflammation of the gut in inflammatory bowel diseases (Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis) or the thyroid in autoimmune thyroiditis (Graves' disease and Hashimoto's thyroiditis), areas of dense lymphocytic infiltration contain vessels with plump endothelium expressing MECA-79 and HECA-452. These observations suggest that HEVs could play an important role in the pathogenesis of these diseases by mediating abnormal lymphocyte recruitment to the gut or the thyroid. MECA-79+ venules with plump endothelium have also been detected in other sites of chronic inflammation, including many cutaneous inflammatory lesions. The presence of MECA-79+ HEV-like vessels in many different human chronic inflammatory diseases indicates that L-selectin is likely to play a major role in lymphocyte emigration at chronic inflammatory sites.


Chickadee

The chickadees are a group of North American birds in the tit family included in the genus "Poecile". Species found in North America are referred to as chickadees, while other species in the genus are called tits.
They are small-sized birds overall, usually having the crown of the head and throat patch distinctly darker than the body. They are at least 6 to 14 centimeters (2.4 to 5.5 inches) in size.
Their name reputedly comes from the fact that their calls make a distinctive "chick-a-dee-dee-dee", though their normal call is actually fee-bee, and the famous chick-a-dee-dee-dee is an alarm call. The number of "dees" depends on the predator.
The Chickadee (specifically the black-capped chickadee "Poecile atricapillus", formerly "Parus atricapillus") is the official bird for the state of Massachusetts and Maine.
One holarctic species is referred to by a different name in each part of its range: grey-headed chickadee in North America and Siberian tit in Eurasia.


Tonsillar branch of the facial artery

The tonsillar branch of the facial artery ascends between the pterygoideus internus and styloglossus muscles, and then along the side of the pharynx, perforating the constrictor pharyngis superior, to ramify in the substance of the palatine tonsil and root of the tongue.


Inaria

Inaria is an Ediacaran fossil. It is found in the Chace Range in Australia, and the White Sea area in Russia.
It has radial symmetry and has been described as a tentacle-less cnidarian. The organism had a sac-like body that resembled a cluster of garlic or conical flask in shape, with a broad bulbous base embedded in the mud, and a tube extending above the sea floor. The body cavity of "Inaria" was a single chamber with the inner surface of the body wall forming deep invaginations that partitioned the cavernous stomach into several septa. In its deep environment it seems that it was the only species.
"Inaria" was found in lower shoreface muds.
Australia Post issued a 50 cent stamp featuring "Inaria" on 21 April 2005 in a series entitled Creatures of the slime.
One species known as "Inaria karli" was named by Jim Gehling in 1987. He published in "A Cnidarian of Actinian-Grade from the Ediacaran Pound Subgroup of South Australia". Alcheringa 12: 299-314.
See also.
List of Ediacaran genera
References.
"The Ediacaran genus Inaria : a taphonomic/morphodynamic analysis". Neues Jb. Geol. Paläont. Abh. 216: 1-34.


Picodynastornithes

Picodynastornithes is a clade that contains the orders Coraciiformes (rollers and kingfishers) and Piciformes (woodpeckers and toucans). This grouping also has current and historical support from molecular and morphological studies.


Orchesella balcanica

Orchesella balcanica is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae.


Tahr

Tahrs are large artiodactyl ungulates related to goats and sheep. There are three species, all native to Asia. Previously thought to be closely related to each other and placed in a single genus, "Hemitragus", genetic studies have since proven that they are not so closely related and they are now considered as members of three separate monotypic genera: "Hemitragus" is now reserved for the Himalayan tahr, "Nilgiritragus" for the Nilgiri tahr, and "Arabitragus" for the Arabian tahr.
Ranges.
While the Arabian tahr of Oman and the Nilgiri tahr of South India both have small ranges and are considered endangered, the Himalayan tahr remains relatively widespread in the Himalayas, and has been introduced to the Southern Alps of New Zealand, where it is hunted recreationally. Also, a population exists on Table Mountain in South Africa, descended from a pair of tahrs that escaped from a zoo in 1936, but most of these have been culled.
Behavior.
A routine of feeding during the morning followed by a long rest period, then feeding in the evening, constitutes the tahr's daily routine. Tahrs are not generally active or feed at night and can be found at the same location morning and evening.


Juliusz Zweibaum

Juliusz Zweibaum (1 May 1887 – 6 May 1956) was a Polish physician and specialist in histology. In 1926, he was among the first to begin studies using cell cultures in Poland. During the Second World War, he helped organize an underground medical school in the Warsaw Ghetto. He survived the holocaust and helped establish histology and embryology at the University of Warsaw.
Biography.
Zweibaum was born in a Jewish family in Warsaw and went to the Prague Junior High School and as an active participant in the 1905 school strike, he was expelled. He then studied at the Universities of Liège and Bologna and became a lecturer at the University of Modena from 1912 to 1916. He established the department of histology and embryology at the University of Warsaw in 1933. During World War II, he took part in the defense of Warsaw and was captured and imprisoned in Pawiak. He was released into the Warsaw Ghetto where he organized a sanitary preparation course against epidemics such as typhus which were feared by the Nazi administration. He was the dean of the underground medical school that operated in the Warsaw Ghetto on 84 Leszno Street which operated under difficult circumstances. The school had more than 500 students and was assisted by Professor Edward Loth and Associate Professor Bronisława Konopacka who provided material and was supported from the Aryan side of Warsaw by Professor Witold Orłowski. Students would risk their lives going to the school and many of the teachers were killed by German soldiers. Shortly after orders for terminating Jews in the Ghetto were issued, he escaped to the Aryan side and remained in hiding. After the war he headed the department of histology and embryology at the University of Warsaw where he worked until his death.
In 1957 he was awarded the Commander's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta. He died in Warsaw after prolonged suffering from Parkinson's disease and glaucoma and was buried in the Powązki Military Cemetery.


Joseph von Gerlach

Joseph von Gerlach (3 April 1820 – 17 December 1896) was a German professor of anatomy at the University of Erlangen. He was a native of Mainz, Rhineland-Palatinate. Gerlach was a pioneer of histological staining and anatomical micrography. In 1858 Gerlach introduced carmine mixed with gelatin as a histological stain.
Along with Camillo Golgi, he was a major proponent of the reticular theory that the brain's nervous system consisted of processes of contiguous cells fused to create a massive meshed network. Gerlach summed up his theory by stating:the finest divisions of the protoplasmic processes ultimately take part in the formation of the fine nerve fibre network which I consider to be an essential constituent of the gray matter of the spinal cord. The divisions are none other than the beginnings of this nerve fibre net. The cells of the gray matter are therefore doubly connected by means the nerve process which becomes the axis fibre and through the finest branches of the protoplasmic processes which become a part of the fine nerve fibre net of the gray matter. The reticular theory predominated until the 1890s when Ramon y Cajal brought forth his neuron doctrine of synaptic junctions, which in essence replaced the reticular theory.
Gerlach was one of the first physicians to use photomicrography for medical research. In 1863 he published a handbook titled "Die Photographie als Hilfsmittel mikroskopischer Forschung" (Engl. "Photography as a tool in microscopic science") in which he discusses the practical and technological aspects of microscopic photography.
The eponymous "Gerlach's valve" ("valvula processus vermiformis") is named after him. This anatomical structure is a fold of membrane sometimes found at the opening of the vermiform appendix. In his article "Ueber das Hautathmen" (Engl. "On skin respiration") he was the first to show that human skin uses oxygen from ambient air.


Echinulate


Zona pellucida

The zona pellucida (plural zonae pellucidae, also egg coat or pellucid zone) is a glycoprotein layer surrounding the plasma membrane of mammalian oocytes. It is a vital constitutive part of the oocyte. The zona pellucida first appears in unilaminar primary oocytes. It is secreted by both the oocyte and the ovarian follicles. The zona pellucida is surrounded by the corona radiata. The corona is composed of cells that care for the egg when it is emitted from the ovary.
This structure binds spermatozoa, and is required to initiate the acrosome reaction. In the mouse (the best characterised mammalian system), the zona glycoprotein, ZP3, is responsible for sperm binding, adhering to proteins on the sperm plasma membrane. ZP3 is then involved in the induction of the acrosome reaction, whereby a spermatozoon releases the contents of the acrosomal vesicle. The exact characterisation of what occurs in other species has become more complicated as further zona proteins have been identified.
In humans, five days after the fertilization, the blastocyst performs zona hatching; the zona pellucida degenerates and decomposes, to be replaced by the underlying layer of trophoblastic cells.
The zona pellucida is essential for oocyte growth and fertilization.
Structure.
The zona pellucida is a translucent matrix of glycoproteins that surrounds the mammalian oocyte, and its formation is critical to successful fertilization. In non-mammals it is called the vitelline membrane or vitelline envelope.
Function.
The thick membrane of the zona pellucida functions to only allow species-specific fertilization; to prevent polyspermy, and enable the acrosome reaction for the successful adhesion and penetration by the sperm cell. The major glycoproteins of the egg coat responsible, are known as sperm-binding proteins.
The four major sperm-binding proteins, or sperm-receptors, are ZP1, ZP2, ZP3, and ZP4. They bind to capacitated spermatozoa and induce the acrosome reaction. Successful fertilization depends on the ability of sperm to penetrate the extracellular matrix of the zona pellucida that surrounds the egg.
In the mouse:
Data with native human protein are not currently available.
Immunocontraception.
ZP module-containing glycoproteins ZP1, ZP2, ZP3 and ZP4 are targets for immunocontraception in mammals.
In non-mammals, the zona pellucida is called the vitelline membrane or envelope, and the vitelline envelope in insects, and plays an important role in preventing cross-breeding of different species, especially in species such as fish that fertilize outside of the body.
The zona pellucida is commonly used to control wildlife population problems by immunocontraception. When the zona pellucida of one animal species is injected into the bloodstream of another, it results in sterility of the second species due to immune response. This effect can be temporary or permanent, depending on the method used. In New Jersey, immunocontraception using porcine zona pellucida has been trialled for the control of deer.


Chrysaora pentastoma

Chrysaora pentastoma is a species of jellyfish from the family Pelagiidae. This small sea nettle has a strong sting and it is found in coastal waters of eastern South Australia.
Taxonomy.
"C. pentastoma" was described in 1810. Its original description is limited and in 2008 it was argued that it is insufficient for recognizing it, making the name a "nomen dubium". Instead the authors described three Southern Australian species in 2008: "C. kynthia", "C. southcotti" and "C. wurlerra". In 2010, this was disputed in a review of all "Chrysaora" species, which noted that "C. pentastoma" has a unique colour pattern that is described in its original description from 1810 and this is sufficient for recognizing it, making "C. southcotti" its junior synonym. "C. kynthia" from southwestern Australia and "C. wurlerra" from New South Wales were described in 2008 based mainly on colour, their tentacles and details of their gonad shape, but these can be variable in "Chrysaora". As a result, they were tentatively considered as "nomina dubia" in 2010 (however, "Chrysaora" of southwestern Australia and New South Wales were not assigned to other species). This view, with "C. pentastoma" as the only currently recognized species in Australia, is followed by the World Register of Marine Species.


Intestinal epithelium

The intestinal epithelium is the single cell layer that form the luminal surface (lining) of both the small and large intestine (colon) of the gastrointestinal tract. Composed of simple columnar epithelial cells, it serves two main functions: absorbing useful substances into the body and restricting the entry of harmful substances. As part of its protective role, the intestinal epithelium forms an important component of the intestinal mucosal barrier. Certain diseases and conditions are caused by functional defects in the intestinal epithelium. On the other hand, various diseases and conditions can lead to its dysfunction which, in turn, can lead to further complications.
Structure.
The intestinal epithelium is part of the intestinal mucosa layer. The epithelium is composed of a single layer of cells. The other two layers of the mucosa, the lamina propria and the muscularis mucosae, support and articulate the epithelial layer. To securely contain of the contents of the intestinal lumen, the cells of the epithelial layer are joined together by tight junctions thus forming a contiguous and relatively impermeable membrane.
Epithelial cells are continuously renewed every 4–5 days through a process of cell division, maturation, and migration. Renewal relies on proliferative cells (stem cells) that reside at the crypt (base) of the intestinal glands (epithelial invaginations into the underlying connective tissue). After being formed at the base, the new cells migrate upwards and out of the crypt, maturing along the way. Eventually, they undergo apoptosis and are shed off into the intestinal lumen. In this way, the lining of the intestine is constantly renewed while the number of cells making up the epithelial layer remains constant.
In the small intestine, the mucosal layer is specially adapted to provide a large surface area in order to maximize the absorption of nutrients. The expansion of the absorptive surface, 600 times beyond that of a simple cylindrical tube, is achieved by three anatomical features:
The brush border on the apical surface of the epithelial cells is covered with glycocalyx, which is composed of oligosaccharides attached to membrane glycoproteins and glycolipids.
Cell types.
Seven different cell types are produced by the stem cells that reside at the base of the crypts. Each type matures according to its specific differentiation program as it migrates up and out of the crypt. Many of the genes necessary for differentiation into the different epithelial cell types have been identified and characterized (see this table). The cell types produced are: enterocytes, Goblet cells, enteroendocrine cells, Paneth cells, microfold cells, cup cells and tuft cells. Their functions are listed here:
Throughout the digestive tract, the distribution of the different types of epithelial cells varies according to the function of that region.
Structural components of cellular junctions.
Important for the barrier function of intestinal epithelium, its cells are joined securely together by four types of junctions (cell junctions), which can be identified at the ultrastructural level:
Gap junctions.
Gap junctions bring the adjacent cells within 2 nanometers of each other. They are formed by several homologous proteins encoded by the connexin gene family coming together to form a multiprotein complex. The molecular structure of this complex is in the form of a hexamer. The complex, which is embedded in the cell walls of the two joined cells, forms a gap or channel in the middle of the six proteins. This channel allows various molecules, ions and electrical impulses to pass between the two cells.
Desmosomes.
These complexes, consisting of transmembrane adhesion proteins of the cadherin family, link adjacent cells together through their cytoskeletons. Desmosomes leave a gap of 30 nanometers between cells.
Adherens junctions.
Adherens junctions, also called zonula adherens, are multiprotein complexes formed by proteins of the catenin and cadherin families. They are located in the membrane at the contact points between the cells. They are formed by interactions between intracellular adapter proteins, transmembrane proteins and the actin cytoskeletons of the cells . Besides their role in linking adjacent cells, these complexes are important for regulating epithelial migration, cell polarity, and the formation of other cell junction complexes.
Tight junctions.
Tight junctions, also called zonula occludens, are the most important components of the intestinal epithelium for its barrier function. These complexes, formed primarily of members of the claudin and the occludin families, consist of about 35 different proteins, form a ring shaped continuous ribbon around the cells, and are located near the borders of the lateral and apical membranes.
The extracellular domains of the transmembrane proteins in adjacent cells cross connect to form a tight seal. These interactions include those between proteins in the same membrane ("cis") and proteins in adjacent cells ("trans"). In addition, interactions can be homophilic (between identical proteins) or heterophilic (between different proteins).
Similar to adherens junctions, the intracellular domains of tight junctions interact with different scaffold proteins, adapter proteins and signaling complexes to regulate cytoskeletal linking, cell polarity, cell signaling and vesical trafficking.
Tight junctions provide a narrow but modifiable seal between adjacent cells in the epithelial layer and thereby provide selective paracellular transport of solutes. While previously thought to be static structures, tight junctions are now known to be dynamic and can change the size of the opening between cells and thereby adapt to the different states of development, physiologies and pathologies. They function as a selective and semipermeable paracellular barrier between apical and basolateral compartments of the epithelial layer. They function to facilitate the passage of small ions and water-soluble solutes through the paracellular space while preventing the passage of luminal antigens, microorganisms and their toxins.
Physiology.
The intestinal epithelium has a complex anatomical structure which facilitates motility and coordinated digestive, absorptive, immunological and neuroendocrine functions.
The mucus secreted by goblet cells acts as a lubricant and protects the epithelial cell layer against irritation from mucosal contents.
Traditionally, crypt cells were considered primarily as secretory cells while enterocytes are considered principally absorptive. However, recent studies have challenged this classical functional partitioning and have shown that both the surface and crypt cells can perform both secretory and absorptive functions and that, in fact, these functions can occur simultaneously.
Nutrient uptake.
Overlaying the brush border of the apical surface of the enterocytes is the glycocalyx, which is a loose network composed of the oligosaccharide side chains of integral membrane hydrolases and other enzymes essential for the digestion of proteins and carbohydrates. These glycoproteins, glycolipids, and enzymes catalyze the final digestive stages of luminal carbohydrates and proteins. The monosaccharides and amino acids thus produced are subsequently transported across the intestinal epithelium and eventually into the bloodstream.
The absorption of electrolytes and water is one of the most important functions of the digestive tract. Water absorption is passive and isotonic - depending on the speed and direction of solute flow. Other factors influencing fluid absorption are osmolarity and the specific intestinal region. Regulated selective permeability is performed through two major routes: the transcellular (transepithelial) route and the paracellular route.
Transcellular permeability.
This consists of specific transport of solutes across the epithelial cells. It is predominantly regulated by the activities of specialised transporters that translocate specific electrolytes, amino acids, sugars, short chain fatty acids and other molecules into or out of the cell.
Paracellular permeability.
Paracellular permeability depends on transport through the spaces that exist between epithelial cells. It is regulated by cellular junctions that are localized in the laminal membranes of the cells. This is the main route of passive flow of water and solutes across the intestinal epithelium. Regulation depends on the intercellular tight junctions which have the most influence on paracellular transport. Studies using the electron microscope showed that the electrical resistance of epithelial layers depends on the complexity and number of filaments within the tight junction transmembrane protein complexes. Also, the plasma membrane resistance and variable transmembrane conductance of the epithelial cells can also modulate paracellular pathway function.
Functions.
The barrier formed by the intestinal epithelium separates the external environment (the contents of the intestinal lumen) from the body and is the most extensive and important mucosal surface of body.
The intestinal epithelium serves several crucial functions, exhibiting both innate and adaptive immune features. It closely monitors its intracellular and extracellular environment, communicates messages to neighbouring cells and rapidly initiates active defensive and repair measures, if necessary. On the one hand, it acts as a barrier, preventing the entry of harmful substances such as foreign antigens, toxins and microorganisms. On the other hand, it acts as a selective filter which facilitates the uptake of dietary nutrients, electrolytes, water and various other beneficial substances from the intestinal lumen.
When barrier integrity is lost, intestinal permeability increases and uncontrolled passage of harmful substances can occur. This can lead to, depending on the genetic predisposition of the individual, the development of inflammation, infection, allergies, autoimmune diseases or cancer - within the intestine itself or other organs.
Although they primarily function as part of the digestive system, enterocytes of the intestinal epithelium also express toll-like receptors and nucleotide oligomerization domain proteins that recognize diverse types of microbes and contribute to immune system function. Thus the intestinal epithelium not only serves as a physical barrier separating the intestinal lumen from the body proper but also carries out pathogen recognition functions as part of the intrinsic immune system.
Importance for human health.
Loss of integrity of the intestinal epithelium plays a key pathogenic role in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Changes in the composition of the intestinal microbiota are an important environmental factor in the development of IBD. Detrimental changes in the intestinal microbiota induce an inappropriate (uncontrolled) immune response that results in damage to the intestinal epithelium. Breaches in this critical barrier (the intestinal epithelium) allow further infiltration of microbiota that, in turn, elicit further immune responses. IBD is a multifactorial disease that is nonetheless driven in part by an exaggerated immune response to gut microbiota that causes defects in epithelial barrier function.


Pseudoceros

Pseudoceros is a genus of the flatworms Platyhelminthes.
Description.
Easily recognized features within the genus include a ruffled pharynx, branched intestines, and tentacles on the leading edge.  The tentacles may act as chemoreceptors and may also have primitive eyes, simple light-sensitive cells, on them. The Polyclad worms are acoelomates and bilaterally symmetrical.
Color is the main identifier within the family Pseudocerotidae to separate it into genera, as it can be difficult to distinguish internal reproductive anatomy between genera. Because of the similarities in body plan and structure, it is assumed that chemical cues are how these organisms can recognize their own species and differentiate between others.
The intense coloring and patterning on these flatworms could be used to camouflage with their surroundings, confuse and elude predators, to communicate with other members of the species, or as aposematism to warn predators of their deadly toxins. The cells and the pigments they contain that are responsible for this coloring have not been well-studied, but one common theory is that they may be ommochrome pigments, although no discoveries have been made to prove this.
Distribution.
"Pseudoceros" are generally found in tropical and subtropical waters. They are populous in the Indo-Pacific region and have been found as far north as Puget Sound, where "Pseudoceros canadensis" has been identified, but mostly tend to stay in warmer waters.
Reproduction.
"Pseudoceros" are simultaneous hermaphrodites and reproduce sexually via random hypodermic insemination through the body tissue. These organisms participate in penis fencing, which is a behavior where the flatworms use their extended penises to stab and inseminate the other, while avoiding becoming inseminated themselves. After successful fertilization, these flatworms are known to lay egg masses on the benthos. Numbers of eggs, egg size, and developmental time vary between species.
"Pseudoceros" "indicus" will display parental care in the form of brooding activity. "Pseudoceros" will hatch into Muller's larvae and undergo indirect development and metamorphosis before becoming an adult organism.
History & taxonomy.
Historically, studying flatworms has been a time and labor-intensive job, generally done through live drawings of specimens, preservation of hard parts (which led to the loss of important information pertaining to the soft parts), and very detailed anatomical studies based on serial sections. More recent technological advances have allowed for scientists to combine photomicrography with molecular analyses to more easily study these organisms.
There is currently no consensus on what the best method of identification for "Pseudoceros" is. The two main theories are that species can be identified solely based on their color patterns and that species should be identified based on their reproductive organs instead of coloration. Because of this, identification methods vary within the biological community.
In concordance with the theory that species should be identified based on color patterns, a new method for preserving "Pseudoceros" samples was developed in 1995 by Cannon and Newman. This method utilizes FCA-PGPP, or Formaldehyde Calcium Acetate-Propylene Glycol, Propylene Phenoxetol, as the fixative. The worms are placed onto filter paper which is placed on top of a frozen layer of the fixative, and this preserves color accurately.
As of 2000, there are 13 genera in the family Pseudocerotidae that comprise an estimated at least 500 species, of which the genus "Pseudoceros" made up about 75% until the genus "Pseudobiceros" was separated.
Species.
Currently described species:
and "incertae sedis" species


Giant Runt

The Giant Runt is a breed of pigeon developed by selective breeding primarily as a utility and exhibition breed. American Giant Runts, along with other varieties of the domestic pigeon, are all descendants from the rock pigeon ("Columbia livia").
The breed is known for its large size and suitability for squab production.
Origin.
The Giant Runt was developed by crossing the original Runt with several other varieties. The American Giant Runt was the result of US breeders seeking a wider, more compact bird denoting power and body mass. A related breed is the American Giant Rumbler which is a further development. Both varieties are recognized in the United States.


Standard Event System

 The "Standard Event System" (SES) to Study Vertebrate Embryos was developed in 2009 to establish a common language in comparative embryology. Homologous developmental characters are defined therein and should be recognisable in all vertebrate embryos. The SES includes a protocol on how to describe and depict vertebrate embryonic characters. The SES was initially developed for external developmental characters of organogenesis, particularly for turtle embryos. However, it is expandable both taxonomically and in regard to anatomical or molecular characters. This article should act as an overview on the species staged with SES and document the expansions of this system. New entries need to be validated based on the citation of scientific publications. The guideline on how to establish new SES-characters and to describe species can be found in the original paper of Werneburg (2009).
SES-characters are used to reconstruct ancestral developmental sequences in evolution such as that of the last common ancestor of placental mammals. Also the plasticity of developmental characters can be documented and analysed.
SES-staged species.
Overview on the vertebrate species staged with SES.
SES-characters.
New SES-characters are continuously described in new publications. Currently, characters of organogenesis are described for Vertebrata (V), Gnathostomata (G), Tetrapoda (T), Amniota (A), Sauropsida (S), Squamata (SQ), Mammalia (M), and Monotremata (MO). In total, 166 SES-characters are currently defined.


Ashetscolex

Ashetscolex is a genus of lower Ordovician palaeoscolecid.


Hubert Lynes

Rear Admiral Hubert Lynes, (27 November 1874 – 10 November 1942) was a British admiral whose First World War service was notable for his direction of the Zeebrugge and Ostend raids designed to neutralise the German-held port of Bruges, which was used as a raiding base against the British coastline by Imperial German Navy surface and submarine raiders. Throughout his service life and during retirement, Lynes was a noted and experienced ornithologist who contributed to numerous books on the subject and was in his lifetime considered the leading expert on African birds.
Naval career.
Born in 1874, Hubert Lynes was given to a career at sea from a young age. He was educated at Stubbington House School, an establishment with strong connections to the navy, and enlisted in the Royal Navy aged 13 in 1888. He rose through the ranks and was a lieutenant when in July 1902 he was appointed in command of the gunboat . In 1905 he was promoted to captain and placed in command of the small in the Mediterranean. He commanded her until 1908, when he returned to England for a period ashore before taking command of the screw sloop on the China Station in 1910. Remaining on "Cadmus" until 1912, he was again returned to a shore station, where he remained until the outbreak of the First World War.
An experienced naval officer, Lynes was given command of the brand-new cruiser , which completed construction in early 1915 and served in the Atlantic for the next year. In 1916 whilst hunting German U-boats, "Penelope" was torpedoed and badly damaged by , forcing extensive repairs. This freed Lynes for a new post, that of second in command to Admiral Roger Keyes, a dynamic officer who was in charge of the "Allied Naval and Marine Forces" a department of the Admiralty which planned and conducted raids and commando-style operations on German-held territory.
Zeebrugge and Ostend.
The culmination of Keyes and Lynes' work in this office was the Zeebrugge Raid of April 1918 and the subsidiary raids at Ostend in April and May. The plan in these operations was to sink obsolete nineteenth century cruisers in the canals linking Zeebrugge and Ostend with the vital naval base at Bruges, thus bottling up the German force in the base and preventing its use by the U-boat fleet during their war on Allied commerce ("Handelskrieg"). The operations suffered heavy casualties amongst the attacking sailors and marines but did succeed in sinking the blockships and partially obstructing the canal, although the full effect of these attacks had been subject to debate ever since.
At the war's end, Lynes was present at the surrender of the German High Seas Fleet at Scapa Flow as Captain of the new and powerful battleship . His war decorations included investiture as a Companion of the Order of the Bath and as a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George as well as being made a Commander of the Legion d'honneur and the Order of Leopold (Belgium) and awarded the Croix de Guerre. In 1919, Lynes accepted retirement and left the sea, settling in the countryside with the rank of rear admiral.
Ornithology.
A highly experienced ornithologist, Lynes developed a boyhood interest in nature into a scientific study of birdlife during his time in the navy. Whilst in the Mediterranean during the first years of the twentieth century, Lynes made extensive notes on migratory patterns of European and African birds and made the first of twelve expeditions he would make to Africa to study its native birdlife. These observations were published in ornithological magazines "The Ibis" and "British Birds" and he was elected a member of the British Ornithologists' Union. He would continue to contribute to these journals throughout his life.
In 1910 whilst on home duty, Lynes participated in an expedition to the Pyrenees and whilst stationed in China made numerous observations of the birds of the region. These notes and collections were however all lost in the torpedoing of the "Penelope" in 1916. Upon retirement, Lynes travelled to the Darfur region of the Sudan, and made extensive observations of Bird life there, compiling a study which was published in 1930 in "The Ibis" as "Review of the genus Cisticola". This work was well received and Lynes was awarded the Godman-Salvin Medal for his contributions to the study of African ornithology. In the same year he served as Vice-President of the British Ornithiologists' Union and was made a correspondence member of the American Ornithologists' Union. He had also been made a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and the Zoological Society of London.
In 1936 he made a further study of birds in Egypt, but two years later he contracted shingles in Sudan and was forced to return home with his health ruined. He never again travelled and entered a long convalescence from which he never fully recovered. At the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Lynes was posted as senior naval officer in North Wales, a light administrative post given his ill health, and one which he was nevertheless unable to sustain, retiring again in 1941. He continued writing on birds of the Sudan right up until his death, in November 1942 aged 68 at a naval hospital. He was buried under a Commonwealth War Graves Commission headstone in St. Seiriol Churchyard, Holyhead. His health had never recovered from his illness in Africa. He never married and lived his entire life with his maiden sister, who cared for him when not at sea.


Aphodiites

Aphodiites is a genus of fossil beetles from the Lias (Lower Jurassic) of Schambelen, (Aargau, Switzerland), and the oldest fossil in the superfamily Scarabaeoidea. Its affinities are not clear; it was originally placed in the Aphodiinae (Scarabaeidae), but its diagnostic characters are shared by beetles such as "Glaresis" (Glaresidae).


Skin appendage

Skin appendages (or adnexa) are skin-associated structures that serve a particular function including sensation, contractility, lubrication and heat loss. In humans, some of the more common skin appendages are hairs (sensation, heat loss, filter for breathing, protection), arrector pilli (smooth muscles that pull hairs straight), sebaceous glands (secrete sebum onto hair follicle, which oils the hair), sweat glands (can secrete sweat with strong odour (apocrine) or with a faint odour (merocrine or eccrine)), and nails (protection).
Skin appendages are derived from the skin, and are usually adjacent to it.
Types of appendages include hair, glands, and nails.


Cinachyra

Cinachyra is a genus of sponge belonging to the family Tetillidae.
Species.
There are four species recognized in the genus:


Inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle

The Inferior pharyngeal constrictor, the thickest of the three constrictors, arises from the sides of the cricoid and thyroid cartilage. Similarly to the superior and middle pharyngeal constrictor muscles, it is innervated by the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X), specifically, by branches from the pharyngeal plexus and by neuronal branches from the recurrent laryngeal nerve.
Origin and insertion.
The muscle is composed of two parts. The first (and more superior) arising from the thyroid cartilage (thyropharyngeal part) and the second arising from the cricoid cartilage (cricopharyngeal part).
From these origins the fibers spread backward and medialward to be inserted with the muscle of the opposite side into the fibrous pharyngeal raphe in the posterior median line of the pharynx.
The inferior fibers are horizontal and continuous with the circular fibers of the esophagus; the rest ascend, increasing in obliquity, and overlap the Constrictor medius. The cricopharyngeal muscle is synonymous with the upper esophageal sphincter (UES), which controls the opening of the cervical esophagus, and is sometimes referred to as the cricopharyngeal inlet.
Action.
As soon as the bolus of food is received in the pharynx, the elevator muscles relax, the pharynx descends, and the constrictors contract upon the bolus, and convey it downward into the esophagus. During deglutition, they contract and cause peristaltic movement in the pharynx.
Role in human disease.
Uncoordinated contraction, and/or Cricopharyngeal Spasm and/or impaired relaxation of this muscle are currently considered the main factors in development of a Zenker's diverticulum. Zenker's diverticulum develops between the two bellies of the inferior constrictor (Thyropharyngeal and Cricopharyngeal) in a small gap called Killian's dehiscence. A diverticulum can form where a balloon of mucosa becomes trapped outside the pharyngeal boundaries. Food or other materials may reside here, which may lead to infection.
Motor incoordination of the cricopharyngeus can cause difficulty swallowing.
In extreme cases this can be related to Retrograde Cricopharyngeus Dysfunction (R-CPD) which causes the inability to burp, this is in part due to the muscle not being able to relax. Botox or a Cricopharyngeal myotomy are used to treat the condition.


Clionaidae

Clionaidae is a family of demosponges which are found worldwide. This family is known for parasitically boring holes in calcareous material such as mollusc shells and corals, using both chemical and mechanical processes.
Genera.
Genera within this family include:


Pseudostygarctus

Pseudoastygarctus is a genus of tardigrades in the family Stygarctidae. The genus was first described and named by McKirdy, Schmidt & McGinty-Bayly in 1976.
Species.
The genus includes five species:


Onychomicrodictyon

Onychomicrodictyon is a genus of Toyonian net-like small shelly fossil that probably belonged to a lobopodian resembling "Onychodictyon" or "Microdictyon"; the plates have a honeycomb structure with nodal flanges and an apical spinose extension.


Peronidella

Peronidella is an extinct genus of Calcareous sponges found in marine sedimentary rocks dated between the Devonian and the Cretaceous periods.
These sponges had cylindrically shaped walls, with a typical diameter of 2 cm, with a small platform at the top, showing the position of the Osculum.
Many species, such as "Peronidella furcata", were colonial; however, several solitary species are known.
These sponges are relatively abundant in European chalks


Proximal tubule

The proximal tubule is the segment of the nephron in kidneys which begins from the renal pole of the Bowman's capsule to the beginning of loop of Henle. It can be further classified into the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and the proximal straight tubule (PST).
Structure.
The most distinctive characteristic of the proximal tubule is its luminal brush border.
Brush border cell.
The luminal surface of the epithelial cells of this segment of the nephron is covered with densely packed microvilli forming a border readily visible under the light microscope giving the brush border cell its name. The microvilli greatly increase the luminal surface area of the cells, presumably facilitating their reabsorptive function as well as putative flow sensing within the lumen.
The cytoplasm of the cells is densely packed with mitochondria, which are largely found in the basal region within the infoldings of the basal plasma membrane. The high quantity of mitochondria gives the cells an acidophilic appearance. The mitochondria are needed in order to supply the energy for the active transport of sodium ions out of the cells to create a concentration gradient which allows more sodium ions to enter the cell from the luminal side. Water passively follows the sodium out of the cell along its concentration gradient.
Cuboidal epithelial cells lining the proximal tubule have extensive lateral interdigitations between neighboring cells, which lend an appearance of having no discrete cell margins when viewed with a light microscope.
Agonal resorption of the proximal tubular contents after interruption of circulation in the capillaries surrounding the tubule often leads to disturbance of the cellular morphology of the proximal tubule cells, including the ejection of cell nuclei into the tubule lumen.
This has led some observers to describe the lumen of proximal tubules as occluded or "dirty-looking", in contrast to the "clean" appearance of distal tubules, which have quite different properties.
Divisions.
The proximal tubule as a part of the nephron can be divided into two sections, "pars convoluta" and "pars recta". Differences in cell outlines exist between these segments, and therefore presumably in function too.
Regarding ultrastructure, it can be divided into three segments, "oS1, S2, and S3":
Proximal convoluted tubule (pars convoluta).
The pars convoluta (Latin "convoluted part") is the initial "convoluted portion".
In relation to the morphology of the kidney as a whole, the convoluted segments of the proximal tubules are confined entirely to the renal cortex.
Some investigators on the basis of particular functional differences have divided the convoluted part into two segments designated "S1" and "S2".
Proximal straight tubule (pars recta).
The pars recta (Latin "straight part") is the following "straight (descending) portion.
Straight segments descend into the outer medulla. They terminate at a remarkably uniform level and it is their line of termination that establishes the boundary between the inner and outer stripes of the outer zone of the renal medulla.
As a logical extension of the nomenclature described above, this segment is sometimes designated as "S3".
Functions.
Absorption.
The proximal tubule efficiently regulates the pH of the filtrate by exchanging hydrogen ions in the interstitium for bicarbonate ions in the filtrate; it is also responsible for secreting organic acids, such as creatinine and other bases, into the filtrate.
Fluid in the filtrate entering the proximal convoluted tubule is reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries. This is driven by sodium transport from the lumen into the blood by the Na+/K+ ATPase in the basolateral membrane of the epithelial cells.
Sodium reabsorption is primarily driven by this P-type ATPase. 60-70% of the filtered sodium load is reabsorbed in the proximal tubule through active transport, solvent drag, and paracellular electrodiffusion. Active transport is mainly through the sodium/hydrogen antiporter NHE3. Paracellular transport increases transport efficiency, as determined by oxygen consumed per unit of Na+ reabsorbed, thus playing a part in maintaining renal oxygen homeostasis.
Secretion.
Many types of medications are secreted in the proximal tubule. "Further reading: Table of medication secreted in kidney"
Most of the ammonium that is excreted in the urine is formed in the proximal tubule via the breakdown of glutamine to alpha-ketoglutarate. This takes place in two steps, each of which generates an ammonium anion: the conversion of glutamine to glutamate and the conversion of glutamate to alpha-ketoglutarate. The alpha-ketoglutarate generated in this process is then further broken down to form two bicarbonate anions, which are pumped out of the basolateral portion of the tubule cell by co-transport with sodium ions.
Clinical significance.
Proximal tubular epithelial cells (PTECs) have a pivotal role in kidney disease. Two mammalian cell lines are commonly used as models of the proximal tubule: porcine LLC-PK1 cells and marsupial OK cells.
Cancer.
Most renal cell carcinoma, the most common form of kidney cancer, arises from the convoluted tubules.
Other.
Acute tubular necrosis occurs when PTECs are directly damaged by toxins such as antibiotics (e.g., gentamicin), pigments (e.g., myoglobin) and sepsis (e.g., mediated by lipopolysaccharide from gram-negative bacteria). Renal tubular acidosis (proximal type) (Fanconi syndrome) occurs when the PTECs are unable to properly reabsorb glomerular filtrate so that there is increased loss of bicarbonate, glucose, amino acids, and phosphate.
PTECs also participate in the progression of tubulointerstitial injury due to glomerulonephritis, ischemia, interstitial nephritis, vascular injury, and diabetic nephropathy. In these situations, PTECs may be directly affected by protein (e.g., proteinuria in glomerulonephritis), glucose (in diabetes mellitus), or cytokines (e.g., interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factors). There are several ways in which PTECs may respond: producing cytokines, chemokines, and collagen; undergoing epithelial mesenchymal trans-differentiation; necrosis or apoptosis.


Superior sagittal sinus

The superior sagittal sinus (also known as the superior longitudinal sinus), within the human head, is an unpaired area along the attached margin of the falx cerebri. It allows blood to drain from the lateral aspects of anterior cerebral hemispheres to the confluence of sinuses. Cerebrospinal fluid drains through arachnoid granulations into the superior sagittal sinus and is returned to venous circulation.
Structure.
Commencing at the foramen cecum, through which it receives emissary veins from the nasal cavity, it runs from anterior to posterior, grooving the inner surface of the frontal, the adjacent margins of the two parietal lobes, and the superior division of the cruciate eminence of the occipital lobe. Near the internal occipital protuberance, it drains into the confluence of sinuses and deviates to either side (usually the right). At this point it is continued as the corresponding transverse sinus. The superior sagittal sinus is usually divided into three parts: anterior (foramen cecum to bregma), middle (bregma to lambda), posterior (lambda to confluence).
It is triangular in section, narrow in front, and gradually increases in size as it passes backward.
Its inner surface presents the openings of the superior cerebral veins, which run, for the most part, obliquely forward, and open chiefly at the back part of the sinus, their orifices being concealed by fibrous folds; numerous fibrous bands (chordae Willisii) extend transversely across the inferior angle of the sinus; and, lastly, small openings communicate with irregularly shaped venous spaces (venous lacunae) in the dura mater near the sinus.
There are usually three lacunae on either side of the sinus: a small frontal, a large parietal, and an occipital, intermediate in size between the other two.
Most of the cerebral veins from the outer surface of the hemisphere open into these lacunæ, and numerous arachnoid granulations (Pacchionian bodies) project into them from below.
The superior sagittal sinus receives the superior cerebral veins, veins from the diploë and dura mater, and, near the posterior extremity of the sagittal suture, veins from the pericranium, which pass through the parietal foramina.
Function.
Cerebrospinal fluid drains through arachnoid granulations into the superior sagittal sinus and is returned to venous circulation.


Lateral pterygoid muscle

The lateral pterygoid or external pterygoid is a muscle of mastication with two heads. It lies superiorly to the medial pterygoid.
Origin and insertion.
The upper/superior head originates on the infratemporal surface and infratemporal crest of the greater wing of the sphenoid bone and inserts onto the articular disc and fibrous capsule of the temporomandibular joint.
The lower/inferior head originates on the lateral surface of the lateral pterygoid plate and inserts onto the neck of condyloid process of the mandible; upper/superior head
Innervation.
The mandibular branch of the fifth cranial nerve, the trigeminal nerve, specifically the lateral pterygoid nerve, innervates the lateral pterygoid muscle.
Function.
The primary function of the lateral pterygoid muscle is to pull the head of the condyle out of the mandibular fossa along the articular eminence to protrude the mandible. A concerted effort of the lateral pterygoid muscles helps in lowering the mandible and opening the jaw, whereas unilateral action of a lateral pterygoid produces contralateral excursion (a form of mastication), usually performed in concert with the medial pterygoids.
Unlike the other three muscles of mastication, the lateral pterygoid is the only muscle of mastication that assists in depressing the mandible (opening the jaw). At the beginning of this action it is assisted by the digastric, mylohyoid and geniohyoid muscles.


Aeolosoma hemprichi

Aeolosoma hemprichi is an aquatic annelid and the smallest known species of the family Aeolosomatidae. It is usually found in freshwater environments in various parts of the world.


Exovasa

Exovasa is an extinct genus of sea sponge in the family Guadalupiidae, that existed during the Permian Period in what is now Texas, United States. It was named by Robert M. Finks in 2010, and the type species is "Exovasa cystauletoides".


Leptogorgia

Leptogorgia is a genus of soft coral in the family Gorgoniidae. The genus has a widespread distribution with members being found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean from Western Europe to South Africa, the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic coasts of North and South America, the Antilles and the Pacific coast of America. Species are found in both shallow and deep waters.
"Leptogorgia" is a slow growing sea whip and are easily damaged. They are easily damaged by storms and fishing agriculture.
An as yet unnamed species of "Leptogorgia" was discovered off the coast of Sonoma County, California in November 2014, near the Gulf of the Farallones and Cordell Bank National Marine Sanctuaries.
Species.
The World Register of Marine Species lists the following species:


Schizoporellidae

The Schizoporellidae is a family within the bryozoan order Cheilostomatida. Colonies are encrusting on shells and rocks or upright bilaminar branches or sheets. The zooidal orifice has a narrow V-shaped sinus.


Thueringoedischiidae

Thueringoedischiidae is an extinct family of long-horned Orthoptera. There are at least three genera and three described species in Thueringoedischiidae.
Genera.
These three genera belong to the family Thueringoedischiidae:


Scandaroon pigeon

The Scandaroon is a breed of fancy pigeon developed over many years of selective breeding. Scandaroons, along with other varieties of domesticated pigeons, are all descendants from the rock pigeon ("Columba livia").
The breed is also known as a Nuremberg Bagdad.


Urogenital sinus

The urogenital sinus is a part of the human body only present in the development of the urinary and reproductive organs. It is the ventral part of the cloaca, formed after the cloaca separates from the anal canal during the fourth to seventh weeks of development.
In males, the UG sinus is divided into three regions: upper, pelvic, and phallic. The upper part gives rise to the urinary bladder and the pelvic part gives rise to the prostatic and membranous parts of the urethra. ,the prostate and the bulbourethral gland (Cowper's). The phallic portion gives rise to the spongy(bulbar) part of the urethra and the urethral glands (Littre's). Note that the penile part of the urethra originates from urogenital fold
In females, the pelvic part of the UG sinus gives rise to the sinovaginal bulbs, structures that will eventually form the inferior two thirds of the vagina. This process begins when the lower tip of the paramesonephric ducts, the structures that will eventually form the uterus and vaginal fornices, come in contact with the UG sinus. Shortly afterwards, the sinovaginal bulbs form as two solid evaginations of the UG sinus. Cells in these bulbs divide to form a solid vaginal plate, which extends and then canalizes (hollows) to form the inferior portion of the vagina. The female urogenital sinus also gives rise to the urethra and vestibule of the vagina.
Clinical significance.
A urogenital sinus anomaly is also a rare birth defect in women where the urethra and vagina both open into a common channel.
A persistent cloaca is a disorder where the rectum, vagina, and urinary tract meet and fuse, creating a cloaca, a single common channel.
Other animals.
In most mammals (excluding primates and species that have a cloaca), the urogenital sinus refers to the sinus in which the openings to the female's urethra and vagina are found. The urogenital sinus of non-primates is homologous to the vulval vestibule of primates.
References.
http://www.embryology.ch/anglais/ugenital/genitinterne04.html
https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/Development_of_the_reproductive_system


Acanthopolymastia bathamae

Acanthopolymastia bathamae is a species of sea sponge belonging to the family Polymastiidae. It is only known from the Papanui Submarine Canyon off Dunedin, South Island, New Zealand.
This is a small, cream-coloured hemispherical sponge up to 8 mm in diameter. Its texture is soft and velvety with a single central papilla up to 7 mm in height.


Lumbriculus mukoensis

Lumbriculus mukoensis was described by Yamaguchi in 1953 from specimens collected at Muko in Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan. It is distinguished from other "Lumbriculus" by the posterior location of the genital elements (starting in segment XI), and by its smaller body size.


Laevipilina antarctica

Laevipilina antarctica is a species of monoplacophoran, a superficially limpet-like marine mollusk. It is found in the Weddell Sea and the Lazarev Sea of Antarctica.
Evolution.
In 2006, a molecular study on "Laevipilina antarctica" suggested that extant Monoplacophora and Polyplacophora form a well-supported clade with the researched "Neopilina" closest to the chitons. The two classes in this new clade, with the proposed name Serialia, all show a variable number of serially repeated gills and eight sets of dorsoventral pedal retractor muscles.


Zygaspis maraisi

Zygaspis maraisi is a worm lizard species in the family Amphisbaenidae. It is endemic to Mozambique.


Geodia alba

Geodia alba is a species of sponge in the family Geodiidae. The species is found in the waters of Indonesia and was first described by Oswald Kieschnick in 1896 as "Synops alba".


Cathartornis

Cathartornis is an ancient bird of the Teratornithidae family. It lived somewhere between 23 million years (Miocene Epoch) and 10,000 years (Pleistocene Epoch) ago. The only evidence of the bird's existence is a few bones. Its remains were documented in 1910.


English Short-faced Tumbler

The English Short-faced Tumbler is a breed of fancy pigeon developed over many years of selective breeding. English Short-faced Tumblers along with other varieties of domesticated pigeons are all descendants from the rock pigeon ("Columba livia"). The English Short-faced Tumbler is one of the oldest breeds referred to in John Moore's book Columbarium: or, The pigeon-house; being an introduction to a natural history of tame pigeons, giving an account of the several species known in England, with the method of breeding them, their distempers and cures (London: J. Wilford, 1735).


William Shear

William Albert Shear (born 1942) is Trinkle Professor Emeritus at Hampden-Sydney College, Virginia. He is a spider and myriapod expert who has published more than 200 scientific articles primarily on harvestman and millipede taxonomy.
He was born in Coudersport, Pennsylvania, completed his undergraduate work at College of Wooster, masters at the University of New Mexico, and PhD at the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University under the supervision of Herbert Walter Levi.
While at Harvard, Shear completed a revision of the millipede family Cleidogonidae and reclassification of the order Chordeumatida. He is an expert in Paleozoic arthropods, and has published several papers on fossil millipedes, centipedes, and spiders. A number of species are named after him, including "Hypochilus sheari" Platnick, 1987 and "Brachoria sheari" Marek, 2010.
Shear is a lifetime appointee as Senior Scientific Associate at the Virginia Museum of Natural History and is a research associate at the American Museum of Natural History and Museum of Comparative Zoology.
He lives in Farmville, Virginia, and is an avid iris gardener and Godan (fifth degree black belt) in Shōrin-ryū Shōrinkan traditional Okinawan karate.


Lepidocyrtus lignorum

Lepidocyrtus lignorum is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae. It is found in Europe.


Arturia compacta

Arturia compacta is a species of calcareous sponge in the family Clathrinidae found in Mauritius. This species is very likely to be synonymous with "Arthuria canariensis", differing only in its larger and thicker triactines. However, the type and only known specimen is lost.
References.
World Register of Marine Species entry


Articulina

Articulina is an extant suborder of bryozoans in the order Cyclostomatida.
Families in this suborder include: