Cooksonia

Cooksonia is an extinct grouping of primitive land plants. The earliest "Cooksonia" date from the middle of the Silurian (the Wenlock epoch); the group continued to be an important component of the flora until the end of the Early Devonian, a total time span of . While "Cooksonia" fossils are distributed globally, most type specimens come from Britain, where they were first discovered in 1937. "Cooksonia" includes the oldest known plant to have a stem with vascular tissue and is thus a transitional form between the primitive non-vascular bryophytes and the vascular plants.
Description.
Only the sporophyte phase of "Cooksonia" is currently known (i.e. the phase which produces spores rather than gametes). Individuals were small, a few centimetres tall, and had a simple structure. They lacked leaves, flowers and roots—although it has been speculated that they grew from a rhizome that has not been preserved. They had a simple stalk that branched dichotomously a few times. Each branch ended in a sporangium or spore-bearing capsule. In his original description of the genus, Lang described the sporangia as flattened, "with terminal sporangia that are short and wide", and in the species "Cooksonia pertoni" "considerably wider than high". A 2010 review of the genus by Gonez and Gerrienne produced a tighter definition, which requires the sporangia to be more-or-less trumpet-shaped (as in the illustration), with a 'lid' or operculum which disintegrates to release the spores.
Specimens of one species of "Cooksonia" have a dark stripe in the centre of their stalks, which has been interpreted as the earliest remains of water-carrying tissue. Other "Cooksonia" species lacked such conducting tissue.
"Cooksonia" specimens occur in a range of sizes, and vary in stem width from about 0.03 mm to 3 mm. Specimens of different sizes were probably different species, not fragments of larger organisms: fossils occur in consistent size groupings, and sporangia and spore details are different in organisms of different sizes. The organisms probably exhibited determinate growth (i.e. stems did not grow further after producing sporangia).
Some "Cooksonia" species bore stomata, which had a role in gas exchange; this was probably to assist in transpiration-driven transport of dissolved materials in the xylem, rather than primarily in photosynthesis, as suggested by their concentration at the tips of the axes. These clusterings of stomata are typically associated with a bulging in the axis at the neck of the sporangium, which may have contained photosynthetic tissue, reminiscent of some mosses.
As the genus is circumscribed by Gonez and Gerrienne, there are six possible species. "C. pertoni", "C. paranensis" and "C. banksii" are all relatively similar with flat-topped, trumpet-shaped sporangia; stems are somewhat narrower in "C. paranensis" than in "C. pertoni". Only one specimen of "C. bohemica" is known. It has stouter, more branched stems; the original shape of the sporangia is unclear because of poor preservation. "C. hemisphaerica", described from the same locality as "C. pertoni", differs in having sporangia of which the tops, at least as preserved, are hemispherical rather than flat. "C. cambrensis" also has spherical sporangia, but without the gradual widening at the base characteristic of the other species. Preservation of the sporangia is again poor. "C. barrandei" was described in 2018.
Physiology.
While reconstructions traditionally depict "Cooksonia" as a green and red, photosynthesising, self-sufficient stem, it is likely that at least some fossils instead preserve a sporophyte generation which was dependent on a gametophyte for its nutrition – a relationship that occurs in modern mosses and liverworts. However, no fossil evidence of a gametophyte of "Cooksonia" has been discovered to date.
The widths of "Cooksonia" fossils span an order of magnitude. Study of smaller "Cooksonia" fossils showed that once the tissue required to support the axes, protect them from desiccation, and transport water had been accounted for, no room remained for photosynthetic tissue, and the sporophyte may therefore have been dependent on the gametophyte. Further, the axis thickness is what would be expected if its sole role was to support a sporangium. It appears that, originally at least, the role of the axes in smaller species was solely to ensure continued spore dispersal, even if the axis desiccated. The potential self-sufficiency of the larger axes may represent the evolution of an independent sporophyte generation.
In 2018, the sporophyte of a new species, "Cooksonia barrandei", was described, from about 432 million years ago. It is the oldest-known megafossil of land plants, . It was sufficiently robust to pass Boyce's test for possible self-sufficiency. Together with evidence that, unlike modern mosses and liverworts, hornwort sporophytes do have a degree of nutritional independence through photosynthesis, "C. barrandei" suggests that independent gametophyte and sporophyte generations could have been ancestral in land plants, rather than evolving later.
Taxonomy.
The first "Cooksonia" species were described by William Henry Lang in 1937 and named in honor of Isabel Cookson, with whom he had collaborated and who collected specimens of "Cooksonia pertoni" in Perton Quarry, Wales, in 1934. There were originally two species, "Cooksonia pertoni" and "C. hemisphaerica". The genus was defined as having narrow leafless stems (axes), which branched dichotomously, with terminal sporangia that were "short and wide". There was a central vascular cylinder consisting of annular tracheids (water-conducting cells with thickened walls). Six other species were later added to the genus: "C. crassiparietilis", "C. caledonica", "C. cambrensis", "C. bohemica", "C. paranensis" and "C. banksii". A review in 2010 concluded that the delineation of the genus was inaccurate and that some species needed to be removed; in particular those in which sporangia were not more-or-less trumpet-shaped. As amended by Gonez and Gerrienne, "Cooksonia" has the following species:
Seven further species are considered doubtful because of the poor preservation of the specimens, but are left in the genus:
Four species are excluded from the genus by Gonez and Gerrienne. Species that have been transferred or removed are:
"C. caledonica" and the less well-preserved "C. crassiparietilis" have sporangia which are composed of two 'valves', splitting to release their spores along a line opposite to where they are attached to the stem (i.e. distally).
Phylogeny.
For some years, it was suspected that "Cooksonia" and its species were poorly characterized. Thus four different kinds of spore, probably representing four different species, were found in sporangia originally identified as "C. pertoni".
A 2010 study of the genus produced the consensus cladogram shown below (some branches have been collapsed to reduce the size of the diagram). This was based on data from an earlier study (by Kenrick and Crane), supplemented by further information on "Cooksonia" species resulting from the authors' own research.
An more recent phylogeny by Hao & Xue 2013
This confirms that the genus "Cooksonia" sensu Lang (1937) is polyphyletic. A core group of five species are placed together, unresolved between the euphyllophytes and the lycophytes. The poorly preserved "C. hemisphaerica" is placed as the most basal tracheophyte. Two other species, "C. crassiparietilis" and "C. caledonica", are placed in the stem group of the lycophytes. These two species have been removed from "Cooksonia" sensu Gonez & Gerrienne ("C. caledonica" has since been placed in a new genus "Aberlemnia"). Both have sporangia which, although borne terminally rather than laterally, have a mechanism for releasing spores similar to those of the zosterophylls.
A second cladistic analysis was carried out using only the three best preserved and thus best known species, "C. pertoni", "C. paranensis", and "C. caledonica". The position of "C. caledonica" was confirmed, but "C. pertoni" and "C. paranensis" now formed a single clade more clearly related to the lycophytes than the euphyllophytes.
Cooksonioids.
"Cooksonia" and similar genera have been placed in a group called "cooksonioids". Originally the term was used for a group of plants fitting the general description of "Cooksonia" (i.e. simple plants with naked axes showing dichotomous branching and terminal sporangia), but with uncertain evidence of vascular tissue. Boyce restricted the group to forms with axes usually less than 1 mm in diameter, and hence possibly not capable of independent growth. In addition to "Cooksonia", he included genera such as "Salopella", "Tarrantia" and "Tortilicaulis". Hue and Xao regarded cooksonioids as a group within the rhyniophytes with radially symmetrical sporangia of roughly the same height and width, and included "Cooksonia pertoni", "C. paranensis" and "C. hemisphaerica", but not "C. crassiparietilis" and "Aberlemnia caledonica", as they had bilaterally symmetrical sporangia.


Ozothamnus ferrugineus

Ozothamnus ferrugineus, the tree everlasting, is a shrub or small tree, native to the states of New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania in Australia. It grows to between 2 and 5 metres in height.


Dioscorea acuminata

Dioscorea acuminata is a herbaceous vine in the family "Dioscoreaceae", which is listed as an endangered species by the IUCN Red List. It is indigenous to the central plateau of Madagascar where it occurs on rocky substrate in a grassland-woodland mosaic habitat. There is confusion as to whether the tuber is harvested for consumption by humans as field researchers likely misidentified "Dioscorea maciba" as this species. However, the IUCN Red List also has an entry for "D. maciba" which does not cite that species as being consumed by humans.


Xanthophyllum tardicrescens

Xanthophyllum tardicrescens is a tree in the family Polygalaceae. The specific epithet "" is from the Latin meaning "slowly growing", referring to the twigs.
Description.
"Xanthophyllum tardicrescens" grows up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The flowers are white, drying yellowish orange. The round fruits are yellowish green.
Distribution and habitat.
"Xanthophyllum tardicrescens" is endemic to Borneo. Its habitat is mixed dipterocarp forest.


Alsophila foersteri

Alsophila foersteri, synonym Cyathea foersteri, is a species of tree fern native to eastern New Guinea, where it grows in scrub in forest margins and mossy forest at an altitude of 1600–2800 m. The trunk is erect and up to 10 m tall. Fronds may be bi- or tripinnate and 2–2.5 m long. Usually around nine or ten live fronds are present in the crown at once. The stipe is covered in pale scales. Sori occur near the fertile pinnule midvein and are protected by firm, thin indusia.
"A. foersteri" appears to be closely related to "Alsophila archboldii". It differs from that species in its frond shape, with the lower pinnae being reduced, and in its short stipes. "Alsophila nigrolineata" is thought to be even more similar and further study is needed to determine whether these two taxa represent the same species or not.


Lithocarpus confragosus

Lithocarpus confragosus is a tree in the beech family Fagaceae. The specific epithet "" is from the Latin meaning "uneven", referring to the cupule wall surface.
Description.
"Lithocarpus confragosus" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The brownish bark is smooth, scaly or lenticellate. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its brown acorns are ovoid to roundish and measure up to across.
Distribution and habitat.
"Lithocarpus confragosus" grows naturally in Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo. Its habitat is hill dipterocarp forests up to altitude.


Psychopsiella

Psychopsiella is a monotypic genus in the orchid family found only in the state of Rio de Janeiro in Brazil and near Caracas in Venezuela. It grows as an epiphyte in evergreen montane forests at elevations of .
Description.
"Psychopsiella limminghei" is an epiphytic herb with a short rhizome, usually of a length within between pseudobulbs. It has a creeping habit of growth, with both pseudobulbs and leaves pressed against the substrate. Its pseudobulbs, long and wide, are elliptic, flattened, and irregularly ribbed, often with one or two bracts. Each pseudobulb carries one ovate-elliptic leaf long and wide. Leaves are pale green, splotched with maroon, with a rough surface and asymmetric base. The inflorescence emerges erect from the base of the pseudobulb, usually carrying one flower at a time; up to four additional flowers can be produced successively. Flowers are comparatively large and can be up to across. The sepals are obovate-spathulate, long and wide, and the tips are apiculate; the dorsal sepal is sometimes cupped. The petals are oblong, with a length of and a width of , and may be truncate or apiculate. Regarding structure, the lip is strongly tri-lobed, long and wide. The side lobes are oblong, curving up with a narrow waist, and middle lobe is much larger than the side lobes, with a distinct narrow isthmus. The callus is lobulate, with three ridges running down the lip. These ridges are apparently covered with oil, and the middle ridge is higher and longer than the others. A pair of lacerate wings on the erect column is centered on the stigmatic cavity, and the anther cap almost completely protects the pollinia. In terms of color, the sepals and petals are similar, covered almost completely with red-brown splotches or barring. The side-lobes and lip show more of the base yellow hue, covered in small orange-brown spots. The lip callus is minutely dotted with dark red, and the anther shows no spotting.
Taxonomy and naming.
"Psychopsiella limminghei" was first formally described in 1855 by John Lindley from a specimen reportedly collected in Venezuela by the Dutch consul in Caracas, R. van Lansberg, who sent it to Edward Morren in England, who himself passed the type plant to Lindley. The description was published in "Folia Orchidacea". It is suspected that a mistake was made about the origin of the material near Caracas and that the true range of the species is limited to Brazil. "P. limminghei" was first described in "Oncidium" and later assigned to section "Glanduligera", but after DNA sequencing showed that "Oncidium" was largely polyphyletic, sect. "Glanduligera" was elevated to the genus "Psychopsis". Later, Lückel and Braem transferred "P. limminghei" to its own genus based on its similar but smaller leaf and flower structure.
Pollination.
As the former sectional name of "P. limminghei" implies, the species carries large glands on the lip callus and base of the column, which may be involved in oil secretion. Several genera of bees (e.g. "Centris") collect oil and mix it with pollen; this is then fed to their larvae.
Cultivation.
Because of its creeping rhizome and pseudobulbs, as well as leaves that are flattened against the substrate, this species should be mounted on a piece of wood or a branch; pot culture is difficult or nearly impossible, as the growths will quickly extend out of the pot. If grown on a mount, humidity must be high and the plants need to be watered at least once a day in the summer. Sphagnum moss may be wrapped around the roots to hold moisture. During extremely hot, dry weather, mounted plants may need several mistings each day. If not mounted, plants may grow in shallow pots or baskets filled with an open, fast-draining medium. The roots must dry rapidly after watering, so it is essential that the medium has perfect drainage. Repotting or dividing should be performed only near the beginning of the growth season when new roots are starting to develop, allowing the plant to become established in the shortest possible time with the least amount of stress.
During the summer, "P. limminghei" should have intermediate to warm conditions (not higher than in the daytime and down to at night); 70% or higher humidity is desirable. Cultivated plants should be watered often while actively growing, but drainage should be excellent and conditions around the roots should never be stale or soggy. During the winter months, water should be slightly reduced. Fertilizer should be applied weekly at half- or quarter-strength when plants are actively growing. Some prefer to use a balanced fertilizer throughout the year, but others use a high-nitrogen fertilizer from spring through mid-summer, then switch to one with high phosphate content in late summer and autumn. As mentioned earlier, "P. limminghei" has a moderate rest period during the winter, with temperatures averaging highs of and lows of . Though watering may be lowered, plants should not be dry for more than a week, especially if they are mounted. Fertilizer should be reduced or eliminated until heavier watering is resumed in the spring.


Cypripedium calceolus

Cypripedium calceolus is a lady's-slipper orchid, and the type species of the genus "Cypripedium". It is native to Europe and Asia.
Taxonomy.
"Cypripedium" comes from the Greek Κυπρισ πεδιον ("Kupris pedion"), meaning Venus' foot (a reference to the Roman goddess Venus). "calceolus" is Latin for a small shoe.
"Cypripedium calceolus" sensu stricto ("in the strict sense") does not occur in North America. The closely related "Cypripedium parviflorum" and "C. pubescens" are often still referred to as subspecies or varieties of "C. calceolus".
Description.
This is the largest orchid species in Europe, growing to 60 cm tall with flowers as wide as 9 cm. Before it flowers, it is distinguished from other orchids by the large size and width of its ovate leaves (as big as 18 cm long, 9 cm wide), which like other orchids exhibit parallel venation. Each shoot has up to four leaves and a small number (1-2) of flowers, which have long often twisted petals varying from red-brown to black (rarely green) and a slipper-shaped yellow labellum, within which red dots are visible. It is a long-lived perennial and spreads using horizontal stems (rhizomes).
"Cypripedium calceolus" can be confused, when not flowering, with "Allium ursinum", "Convallaria majalis" or several species of "Epipactis" orchid. It closely resembles other species of "Cypripedium" orchid native to the United States (see taxonomy, below).
Chromosome number has been given as 2n=20 but also 2n=22
Distribution and habitat.
It has a widespread distribution from Europe east through Asia from Spain to the Pacific, including almost every country in Europe plus Russia (European Russia, Siberia, and the Russian Far East), northeastern China (Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Nei Mongol), Mongolia, Korea and Rebun Island in Japan.
It is typically found in open woodland on moist calcareous soils. In continental Europe it is also found growing in the decomposed humus of semi-shaded woodland cover on limestone. It has declined over much of the European part of its range, and as a result is legally protected in a number of countries. Its upper elevation limit is 2100m. According to growing instructions provided by Phytesia, it cannot survive waterlogging or direct midday sun.
Ecology.
"Cypripedium calceolus" is frequently associated with stands of hazel trees.
It is pollinated by a number of different insect species, including at least seven species of miner bee in the genera "Andrena" and "Colletes", as well as at least two species of "Lasioglossum" (furrow bees). Plants are very vulnerable to herbivory by slugs and snails.
"Cypripedium calceolus" is known to primarily associate with mycorrhizal fungi in the genus "Tulasnellaceae". Specific relationships with mycorrhizal fungi are key to orchids' ability to access soil nutrients. Other suggested mycorrhizal partners include "Alternaria" sp., "Ceratorhiza" sp., "Chaetomium" sp., "Cylindrocarpon" sp., "Epicoccum purpureum", "Epulorhiza" sp., "Moniliopsis" sp., "Mycelium radicis atrovirens", "Phoma" sp. and "Rhizoctonia subtilis" sp.
Conservation.
Although the global conservation status of "Cypripedium calceolus" is least concern according to the IUCN Red List, in many countries (including the UK and Denmark) it has become rare and is afforded legal protection. "C. calceolus" is common in Poland and Austria but in Greece it has become extinct.
In Britain, it was formerly a reasonably widespread plant across northern England, particularly the limestone area of the Yorkshire Dales. By the late 20th century it had declined to just a single plant in one location in the dales. While the virtual extinction of the lady's-slipper orchid from its historical range in Britain is often blamed on uprooting by gardeners and botanists, it is also the case that its preferred habitat shrank markedly with human clearance of woodland from the limestone landscape, and the grazing of sheep will have finished it off. It became a protected species in the UK in 1975 under the Conservation of Wild Creatures and Wild Plants Act, but a reintroduction programme for the lady's-slipper orchid is in place, and has led to a population of hundreds of plants as of 2003.
With the help of Dutch plant breeder and wholesaler Anthura, who made the Genus and this species commercially available in garden centers, this species is successfully reintroduced in several locations in Switzerland at the request of the Swiss Orchid Foundation. Seeds from the Swiss population were used by Anthura resulting in three thousand viable plants available for the reintroduction. The locations are kept secret, but are monitored regularly.
Other laboratories and breeders have also developed the technique to mass-produce "C. calceolus", so plants are commercially available, unlike many orchid species.
In popular culture.
"Cypripedium calceolus" has appeared on postage stamps in a huge number of countries including Austria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Grenadines, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Madagascar, Moldova, Mozambique, Norway, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, Sweden, Uganda, Ukraine and the United Kingdom.
The Norwegian municipality of Snåsa has a "Cypripedium calceolus" in its coat-of-arms.
In Pavel Ivanovich Melnikov's "In the Forests", a "znakharka" (Russian wise woman) calls this Adam's head, Adam's grass, and Cuckoo's slippers and says it is good for every ill including driving away evil spirits.


Polyphlebium tenuissimum

Polyphlebium tenuissimum, synonym Trichomanes tenuissimum, is a species of fern in the family Hymenophyllaceae. It is endemic to Ecuador. In 2006, in a taxonomic revision of the family Hymenophyllaceae, Ebihara et al. assigned this species to the genus "Polyphlebium" rather than "Trichomanes". However the combination does not appear to have been formally published; hence the "comb. ined." ("combinatio inedita") in the "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World".


Microcoelia

Microcoelia is a genus of orchids native to sub-Saharan Africa as well as to Madagascar and other islands of the Indian Ocean.


Encephalartos cupidus

Encephalartos cupidus is a species of cycad that is found in the Limpopo Province, South Africa at elevations of 700 up to 1,500.
Description.
It is an acaulic plant, with a partially underground stem, without branches, 15–40 cm tall and 20–30 cm in diameter; secondary stems can originate from shoots that arise at the base of the main stem.
The pinnate leaves, arranged in a crown at the apex of the stem, up to 100 cm long, are composed of lanceolate leaflets, with margins equipped with small spines and arranged on the rachis at an angle of 50-100 °.
It is a dioecious species, endowed with solitary male cones, fusiform, pedunculated, of apple green color, 18–30 cm long and with a diameter of 5–8 cm, with broad and rhombic microsporophylls, and female, ovoid cones, in solitary genus but rarely in pairs, 20–30 cm long and with a diameter of 15–20 cm, with macrosporophylls with a warty surface.
The seeds have an ovoid shape, are 25–35 mm long, have a width of 15–20 mm and are covered with an apricot-colored sarcotesta.


Lonicera alpigena

Lonicera alpigena L., known as alpine honeysuckle, is a species of honeysuckle native to mountain forests of Central and Southern Europe. It is sometimes cultivated as an ornamental plant outside its native range. It is a deciduous shrub up to 2 m high, and in late summer, bears conspicuous brilliant red inedible fruits superficially resembling cherries. "L. glehnii" F. Schmidt, which is native to Sakhalin, Kurile Islands, Hokkaido and Honshu, is sometimes considered as a geographically disjunct subspecies of alpine honeysuckle, "L. alpigena" L. subsp. "glehnii" (F. Schmidt) H. Hara.


Gilmania

Gilmania luteola (called golden carpet or goldencarpet) is a rare annual plant in the Buckwheat family (Polygonaceae).
It is found only on barren alkaline slopes in Death Valley California, especially near Artist's Palette.
The plant grows in mats very low to the ground. There are only five known occurrences as of 2013. It grows only in very wet years, which rarely occur in the region.
The yellow flowers are quite small, and the plant has greenish-yellowish foliage. It is the only species in the monotypic genus Gilmania.


Hiraea

Hiraea is a genus in the Malpighiaceae, a family of about 75 genera of flowering plants in the order Malpighiales. "Hiraea" comprises over 55 species of woody vines and shrubs found in diverse habitats, except very dry vegetation types, in the New World tropics and subtropics from western Mexico to Paraguay and adjacent Argentina and southeastern Brazil; it also occurs in the Lesser Antilles in Grenada and St. Lucia.
"Hiraea faginea" and "H. fagifolia" are among the most widespread species. "Hiraea perplexa" W. R. Anderson of Ecuador is included in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.


Campanula exigua

Campanula exigua, the chaparral bellflower, rock harebell, or Rattan campanula, is an annual flowering plant in the bellflower family Campanulaceae.
Distribution.
The plant is endemic to Mount Diablo, in the northern Diablo Range within Contra Costa County, in the East Bay region of northern California.
As its common name suggests, chaparral bellflower is a member of the chaparral ecosystem, growing primarily in serpentine soils at elevations of . It grows amongst other Mount Diablo and regional endemic plants, all dependent on natural fire ecology conditions.
Description.
"Campanula exigua" sends up several long stems filled with milky sap and bearing sparse, tiny leaves.
At the end of each stem grows a bell-shaped bright blue-violet flower. The bloom period is May and June.


Mitella nuda

Mitella nuda, the naked bishop's cap or naked miterwort, is a plant in the genus "Mitella".
It has a single leaf, serrate but not deeply lobed, rising in single stalks from the ground. The leaf color is light green. Tiny white hairs arise perpendicular to the leaf surface. These are especially large and noticeable on the leaf top, but occur on the bottom also.
The naked bishop's cap provides low ground cover and grows to be 1/4 inch to 1½ inches tall, not counting inflorescence.


Diospyros siamang

Diospyros siamang is a small tree in the family Ebenaceae. Inflorescences are about long and bear several flowers. The fruits are urn-shaped, up to long. The tree is named after its Sumatran name. Habitat is peat swamp forests. "D. siamang" is found in Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo.


Rhizanthes

Rhizanthes is a genus of four species of parasitic flowering plants in the family Rafflesiaceae. They are without leaves, stems, roots, or photosynthetic tissue, and grow within the roots of a few species of "Tetrastigma" vines. The genus is limited to the tropical forests of Southeast Asia. The flowers of "Rhizanthes" are very large, they vary from 14 to 43 cm in diameter. At least one species of "Rhizanthes", "Rh. lowii", is endothermic.
Names.
The Latin name derives from the compound of the Ancient Greek words ῥίζα (pronounced "rhíza"), meaning 'root', with the word ἄνθος ("anthos") meaning 'flower'.
'Malay' vernacular names used for "Rhizanthes zippelii" according to Betty Molesworth Allen in 1967 were "bunga pakma" and "bunga padma", presumably, with the taxonomic changes, those names could actually refer to any species except "Rh. zippelii". The word "bunga" means flower; both names are shared by plants in the related genus "Rafflesia".
Description.
The flowers of "Rhizanthes" are very large, they vary from 14 to 43 cm in diameter. The flower is scentless when it first opens, but the odour soon grows fetid and rank, smelling of rotting carrion.
At least one species of "Rhizanthes", "Rh. lowii", is endothermic. It not only produces its own heat, but has the rare ability to regulate its own temperature.
Similar genera.
The only plants remotely similar to "Rhizanthes" are those in the genus "Rafflesia", but the similarly giant and foul-smelling flowers of "Rafflesia" always have five perianth-lobes. "Rhizanthes", on the other hand, have many more -there are generally 14 to 18 of such lobes, the number can vary. These lobes are furthermore different by ending in a long hanging strips, with its flesh colour and texture, the flower thus looking like a big, fat, dead octopus on its head.
Taxonomy.
In the newest revision of the genus, Hans Bänziger and Bertel Hansen recognised the following species in 2000:
The first species to be discovered was "Rh. zippelii", which was first described as "Brugmansia zippelii" in Java by Carl Ludwig Blume in 1828. The name "Brugmansia" had earlier been used to house the plants known as angel trumpets, but as this name had sunk into synonymy with "Datura", this was generally ignored at the time. The genus was first proposed to be renamed by Barthélemy Charles Joseph Dumortier in 1829 when he also first created the family Rafflesiaceae, but this publication seems not to have been widely known. In 1841 Ludwig Reichenbach proposed to move the species to "Mycetanthe", but he was similarly ignored. "Brugmansia lowii" was the second species to be named, described by Odoardo Beccari in 1868. "B. bakhuizenii" was the third species, named by Emil Johann Lambert Heinricher after his 1903/04 trip to the island for a taxon with a different flower colour on Java.
At least Reichenbach was remembered. In 1930 Bénédict Pierre Georges Hochreutiner moved two of the known taxa to his genus "Mycetanthe". In 1934 Hermann Harms pointed out that Dumortier's name had priority, but he only moved "M. lowii" to "Rhizanthes", not the type species of the genus "Brugmansia". This was rectified by Édouard Spach the same year.
In the 1963 (English version of the) "Flora of Java" C. A. Backer and R. C. Bakhuizen van den Brink reduced "B. bakhuizenii" to a synonym of "Rh. zippelii". They recognised two forms -somewhat confusingly, perhaps over-modestly, leaving them nameless. The form with which "bakhuizenii" was synonymised to was found in the most number of places, the original Blume form had only been seen a handful of times. In 1988 Willem Meijer and J. F. Veldkamp explained that the difference in flower colour was the result of the normal change in flower colour that the occurred during anthesis – the whitish flower of the Blume form was simply a flower on its first day of opening, and thus found it unjustified to recognise the two forms.
The difference between the two species "Rh. zippelii" and "Rh. lowii" had always been unclear -the plants had only been collected a limited number of times, and "Rh. lowii" has been synonymised with the older species at least twice by different workers (Hooker in 1873, Bänziger in 1995), but this had been generally ignored by most people. In order to find a morphological basis for separating the taxa Meijer and Veldkamp used the shapes of the 'ramenta' – minute stalked outgrowths found on the inside of the perigone tube, having found these useful in differentiating the related "Rafflesia". Bänziger and Hansen were unsure of how applicable this was, finding the characters were inconsistent and did not clearly separate all of the specimens into geographically distinct groups, resolving to use a large group of morphological traits and the larger number of specimens which had since been collected to clear this up. They found that the ramenta were indeed mixed between specimens, but that they could roughly be split into four groups, although some of these 'groups' were only based on a handful of specimens. A number of characteristics were ambiguous, mixed or had ranges which overlapped with other groups, making them inadequate for differentiating taxa. Notwithstanding this, however, they decided to recognised their groups at a species level, reasoning that regardless the phylogeny, it would be potentially more advantageous to recognise them as four rare endemics for environmental, financial and political reasons, giving spunky names to their new taxa: "Rh. deceptor" and "Rh. infanticida".
Distribution.
According to Bänziger and Hansen's new circumscription, specimens collected on Java belong to the species "Rhizanthes zippelii", while specimens collected on Borneo belong to "Rh. lowii". Those collected on Sumatra may belong to either "Rh. deceptor" or "Rh. infanticida", and those collected in southern Thailand or western Malaysia belong to "Rh. infanticida".
Ecology.
This strange plant is a holoparasite of the roots of the jungle lianas in the genus "Tetrastigma", a plants related to the grape vine. In the Sundanese language the host vine "Tetrastigma papillosum" is known as "susuan", thus the name for "Rhizanthes zippelii" is "perut susuan", the 'belly of "susuan"'. "Rhizanthes zippelii" appears to prefer to grow in the densest thickets in tropical rainforest on steep slopes, which is one reason it is little seen.


Biophytum

Biophytum is a genus of about 50 species of annual and perennial herbaceous plants in the family Oxalidaceae. It is found in tropical and subtropical areas worldwide. The annual "Biophytum sensitivum" is a traditional medicine in Nepal. "Biophytum petersianum" (also known as "Biophytum umbraculum") is a medicinal plant in Mali.
Species include:


Gypsophila spinosa

Gypsophila spinosa is a plant species in the genus "Gypsophila".


Lycophyta


Potamogeton

Potamogeton is a genus of aquatic, mostly freshwater, plants of the family Potamogetonaceae. Most are known by the common name pondweed, although many unrelated plants may be called pondweed, such as Canadian pondweed ("Elodea canadensis"). The genus name means "river neighbor", originating from the Greek "potamos" (river) and "geiton" (neighbor).
Morphology.
"Potamogeton" species range from large (stems of 6 m or more) to very small (less than 10 cm). Height is strongly influenced by environmental conditions, particularly water depth. All species are technically perennial, but some species disintegrate in autumn to a large number of asexually produced resting buds called turions, which serve both as a means of overwintering and dispersal. Turions may be borne on the rhizome, on the stem, or on stolons from the rhizome. Most species, however, persist by perennial creeping rhizomes. In some cases the turions are the only means to differentiate species.
The leaves are alternate, which contrasts with the closely related genus "Groenlandia", where the leaves are opposite or whorled. In many species, all the leaves are submerged, and in these cases, they are typically thin and translucent. Some species, especially in ponds and very slow-moving waters, have floating leaves which tend to be opaque with a leathery texture. Leaf shape has been found to be highly plastic, with variability due to changes in light, water chemistry, planting depth, sediment conditions, temperature, photo period, waves, and seasonality. All "Potamogeton" have a delicate membranous sheathing scale, the stipule, at the leaf axil. This may be wholly attached, partly attached, or free of the leaf, and it may have inrolled margins or appear as a tube. The morphology of the stipule is an important character for species identification. The stems have small scales.
The flowers, which are often overlooked, are greenish-brown and are composed of four rounded segments borne in a spike. They are 2-4 merous, with superior ovaries and anthers that turn outward. The fruits are spheroidal and green to brown, usually 1–3 mm in diameter, with a noticeable 'beak'. Their pollen is inaperturate, monad, apolar and spherical.
Most fine-leaved pondweeds are diploid, with 2n = 26 (such as "P. pusillus" or "P. trichoides") or less commonly 28 ("P. compressus", "P. acutifolius"). Broad-leaved taxa are mainly tetraploid, with 2n = 52 (e.g. "P. alpinus", "P. praelongus"), but a few species are diploid (e.g. "P. coloratus" or octaploid (2n = 104)(e.g. "P. illinoensis").
Taxonomy.
"Potamogeton" is a genus of freshwater aquatic plants in the Potamogetonaceae. Molecular analysis has identified "Groenlandia" as the sister group to "Potamogeton," although the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group also lists "Zannichellia," "Althenia" and "Pseudoalthenia" as closely related genera. Some researchers have used molecular analysis and pollen grain shape to argue for the placement of "Stuckenia" at the genus level, but others have argued there is not enough difference to justify the change, and have kept "Stuckenia" as a subgenus of "Potamogeton."
The genus is generally divided into two groups: broad-leaved and linear-leaved. The broad-leaved group includes such species as "P. natans", "P. perfoliatus" and "P. alpinus". The linear-leaved group includes such species as "P. rutilus", "P. compressus" and "P. berchtoldii". Series "Batrachoseris" historically contained only one species, "Potamogeton crispus," however more recent research has also added "P. maackianus" and "P. robbinsii" into this grouping. These general divisions have been supported by molecular analysis, except that "P. crispus" clusters with broad-leaved species in section "Potamogeton".
In a detailed review of the genus, Wiegleb and Kaplan recognised 69 species, but the variability of many species means that there is disagreement regarding the exact number of species. Currently, the number of accepted names is 94. Hybridisation provides an added complexity to the taxonomy.
Distribution.
"Potamogeton" species are found worldwide in many aquatic ecosystems. However, the greatest diversity of species occurs in the northern hemisphere, especially in North America, which is thought to be where the genus originated. Molecular evidence suggests that several independent colonizations of the southern hemisphere have occurred. However, due to their self-propagation from turions, "Potamogeton" populations show very low infrapopulation diversity, especially when living in deep, shaded or turbulent water where colonies do not expend energy on flowers. This has made it very difficult to use genetic data to find patterns of geographical differentiation.
Hybrids.
"Potamogeton" species hybridise freely. At least 27 hybrids have been observed in the British Isles alone, and more than 50 worldwide, of which 36 have been confirmed using genetic techniques. The majority of these are sterile, but many are long-lived and may occur in the absence of one or even both parents. Most hybrids have been described between broad-leaved species, but this probably reflects the relative scarcity of characters among fine-leaved taxa, so that hybrids are much more difficult to identify. Use of genetic markers suggests that hybrid taxa are also reasonably frequent among fine-leaved species. At least one species, "P. obtusifolius", is thought to have arisen via hybridisation.
Taxonomic history.
Several species of European pondweeds, including "P. natans", "P. lucens" and "P. crispus", were included in Linnaeus's "Species Plantarum" in 1753. Much of the European "Potamogeton" flora was subsequently named during the late 18th and early 19th century. As botanists ventured further afield, pondweeds began to be collected and named from other parts of the world. The North America flora was largely named by the start of the 20th century.
Alfred Fryer became interested in "Potamogeton" in the 1880s, and was a recognised authority on the genus. The first parts of his work "The Potamogetons (Pond Weeds) of the British Isles" were published in 1898. His death intervened, and the work was completed by Arthur Bennett (1843-1929), who named a large number of specimens sent to him from around the world. Robert Morgan (1863-1900) illustrated Fryer's contribution to the monograph, his colour plates drawing praise from later critics.
In 1916, Johan Hagström published "Critical researches on the Potamogetons" from detailed measurements of dozens of vegetative, anatomical and reproductive characteristics such as fruit beak, peduncle rigidity and leaf apex across hundreds of specimens. It was a pioneering work that preceded the development of cladistics by more than 30 years, and his clustering of groups into broad-leaf and linear-leaf is still considered the framework for all subsequent classification systems of "Potamogeton." Hagström's work was developed further by Merritt Fernald (1873-1950) who created a detailed phylogeny for the linear-leaved species, and by Eugene Ogden who did so for the broad-leaved species.
New species continue to be described from less well-studied areas such as Asia and Africa, and it is possible that molecular analysis may reveal hitherto unknown cryptic species.
List of "Potamogeton" species.
The following list is based on the latest listing of valid "Potamogeton" taxa held on The Plant List.
Ecology.
Reproduction of pondweeds occurs both vegetatively and by seed, though studies suggest that in some species or situations reproduction by seed is rare. The fruits may be produced in large quantities from midsumer onwards, and are ingested by waterfowl. Germination experiments have shown that the seeds are viable after passing through the digestive tracts of birds and this mechanism is probably the only natural mechanism for long-distance dispersal between isolated water bodies. Vegetative propagation occurs by a variety of mechanisms including turions, and via growth and fragmentation of rhizomes and shoots. Vegetative reproduction is evidently an effective means of ensuring local persistence, as sterile hybrids have been recorded at some sites for over 100 years.
Although they occur in a range of environments, most species prefer standing or slow-flowing waters with some calcium and fairly low nutrient levels. In general the fine-leaved species are more tolerant of human impacts such as eutrophication. They are important as food and habitat for animals including insect larvae, water snails, ducks and other waterfowl, and aquatic mammals such as beavers.
Most species are not weedy, but a few can become troublesome, such as curly-leaf pondweed ("Potamogeton crispus").
In relation to the ecosystem as a whole, "Potamogeton "is often a common habitat for insects. For example, "C. annularius" and other insects from the "Chironomus "genera have been found to inhabit and mate around certain species of "Potamogeton". The closeness to a fresh water source as well as cover from predators allows "C. annularius" to thrive.


Allophylus rhomboidalis

Allophylus rhomboidalis is a species of plant in the family Sapindaceae. It is found in French Polynesia and Pitcairn.


Sloanea tomentosa

Sloanea tomentosa is a species of plant in the Elaeocarpaceae family. It is found in Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Thailand.


Eucalyptus latens

Eucalyptus latens, commonly known as narrow-leaved red mallee, is a species of mallee that is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It has smooth grey and coppery bark, linear to narrow lance-shaped adult leaves, flower buds in groups of seven to eleven or more, creamy white flowers and small barrel-shaped to shortened spherical fruit.
Description.
"Eucalyptus latens" is a mallee that typically grows to a height of and forms a lignotuber. It has smooth, grey to coppery bark. Young plants and coppice regrowth have narrow elliptic to oblong leaves that are long and wide. Adult leaves are the same glossy green on both sides, linear to narrow lance-shaped, long and wide on a petiole long. The flower buds are arranged in leaf axils in groups of seven, nine or eleven on an unbranched peduncle long, the individual buds on pedicels long. Mature buds are oval to spindle-shaped, long and wide with a conical operculum long. Flowering occurs between January and March and the flowers are creamy white. The fruit is a woody, barrel-shaped to shortened spherical capsule long and wide with the valves about level with the rim.
Taxonomy and naming.
"Eucalyptus latens" was first formally described in 1998 by Ian Brooker from a specimen he collected near North Bannister and the description was published in the journal "Nuytsia" The specific epithet ("latens") is a Latin word meaning "hidden" or "secret", in reference to the type population being "hidden" in the jarrah forest.
Distribution and habitat.
Narrow-leaved red mallee is found in woodland near North Bannister, Highbury, Kulin and near Boyagin Rock in the southern Wheatbelt region of Western Australia, growing in sandy-clay soils over laterite.
Conservation status.
This eucalypt is classified as "not threatened" by the Western Australian Government Department of Parks and Wildlife.


Heterodera medicaginis

Heterodera medicaginis (Alfalfa cyst nematode) is a plant pathogenic nematode which is cited as an invasive species. It is closely allied to "Heterodera daverti", "H. glycines" and "H. sonchophila" in the H. schachtii-group. The only known host plant of this obligate parasite is the important crop alfalfa or lucerne, "Medicago sativa".
Description.
The female alfalfa cyst nematode is white and shaped like a lemon with a body length of 0.4 to 1.2 mm and a width of 0.2 to 0.9 mm. The male is vermiform with a body length of 1.2 to 1.4 mm and a width of about 0.028 mm. The eggs are reniform, measuring 0.12 by 0.05 mm and the first two instar larvae are vermiform. The second instar larvae are mobile in damp soil and search down to a depth of 30 centimetres for suitable roots to invade. Here they develop further and become sedentary, burying their heads in cells and feeding on the cell sap. The central part of their bodies swells, and after moulting they develop into bottle-shaped third instar larvae and after moulting again, lemon-shaped fourth instar larvae. The swollen larvae break out of the root cortex. At this stage they differentiate into males and females. The males become mobile and migrate through the soil searching for females with which to mate. The females remain attached to the root tissues by their heads, continue feeding and start laying eggs. These are held within the bodies of the females which later die and turn into brown cysts with hard cuticles. These eventually become detached from the roots. The eggs develop into larvae inside the cyst and some second instar larvae emerge into the soil to start a new cycle of development. Most of the larvae lie in a state of anabiosis within the cysts where they can remain dormant for several years and still be viable.
Economic significance.
The alfalfa cyst nematode causes a decrease in yield of herbage and seeds. The main criterion is the population density of larvae in spring. A 5-10% threshold of harmfulness occurs when there are 330 to 890 larvae per 100 cubic centimetres of soil. Control measures preventing yield losses include crop rotation and the use of tolerant varieties. Other factors affecting the harm done include the date of sowing, the density of seeding, the use of cover crops and the weather.


Pleiospilos bolusii

Pleiospilos bolusii, the mimicry plant, is a species of flowering plant in the family Aizoaceae, native to the Eastern Cape of South Africa, where it grows at an altitude of . The species epithet "bolusii" honours Harry Bolus, a 19th-century South African botanist.
It is a small, stemless succulent perennial growing to tall by wide, with two or four opposite grey-green leaves, quite thick, fused at the base, almost triangular, with entire margins. The leaves are longer and more angular than those of the closely related "P. nelii", but in both cases the shape and texture of the leaves resemble a pile of split pebbles, possibly to deter predators. The yellow, many-petaled, daisy-like flowers emerge from the center of the leaves, and are in diameter - large in relation to the overall size of the plant. The flowers are often coconut-scented. The flowering period extends from August to September.
The plant is one of several species cultivated for their rocklike appearance, which are sometimes collectively called mesembs. With a minimum temperature of , in temperate regions it is grown under glass. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Picochlorum oklahomensis

Picochlorum oklahomensis is a species of coccoid chlorophyte algae, the type species of its genus. It is broadly halotolerant, small, asexual and lacks chlorophyll b.


Treubariaceae

Treubariaceae is a family of green algae in the order Sphaeropleales.


Lepidosperma angustatum

Lepidosperma angustatum is a sedge of the family Cyperaceae that is native to Western Australia.
The rhizomatous sedge typically grows to a height of and to about wide.
In Western Australia it is found along the coast on steep slopes as two separate populations in the Peel and Great Southern regions where it grows in sandy-clay-loam soils over or around granite.


Aponogetonaceae


Hollisteria

Hollisteria is a genus of plants in the family Polygonaceae with a single species, Hollisteria lanata. It is endemic to California. It is known by the common name false spikeflower.
The genus was named for California rancher William Welles Hollister.


Allionia

Allionia, commonly known as windmills or trailing four o'clock, is a genus of two plant species widespread in the Western Hemisphere. Both species are unusual in their blooms, which consist of three separate flowers appearing to be a single flower.
The plants are finely pubescent annuals or short-lived perennials, with trailing, recumbent stems up to one metre in length, often threading through other vegetation. The leaves range from oval to oblong, under 4 cm long. The inflorescences are axillary, consisting of three flowers with petals varying in color from red to purple, symmetrically arranged and superficially appearing to be a single flower 3–15 mm across. The individual flowers are bisexual and bilaterally symmetric with a distinct oblique funnel. The 5–7 stamens may be somewhat exserted, along with the style. The boat-shaped anthocarps are morphologically distinct from those of other members of their family. These fruits have five ribs and two rows of inward pointing teeth on the concave side.
Molecular evidence supports "Allionia" as sister to the least inclusive clade containing both "Boerhavia" and "Cyphomeris."
The range of "Allionia incarnata" includes North America, the West Indies, Central America, and South America, while "Allionia choisyi" is more restricted in North America, occurring only in Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, and Texas. The two species can only be reliably distinguished by characteristics of their fruits, and even those may be found intergraded where the species' ranges overlap. Carl Linnaeus named the genus after Italian botanist Carlo Allioni (1725–1804).


Blechnaceae

Blechnaceae is a family of ferns in the order Polypodiales, with a cosmopolitan distribution. Its status as a family and the number of genera included have both varied considerably. In the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I), the family has 24 genera, and excludes genera placed in the separate family Onocleaceae. The family is divided into three subfamilies, including Blechnoideae s.s. Alternatively, the entire family may be treated as the subfamily Blechnoideae s.l. of a very broadly defined family Aspleniaceae, and include genera others place in Onocleaceae.
Description.
Most are ground dwelling, some are climbers, such as "Stenochlaena". A characteristic feature of many species is that the young opening fronds are usually tinged with red.
Taxonomy.
The family was created by Newman in 1844. In 2014, Christenhusz and Chase submerged it as subfamily Blechnoideae within the family Aspleniaceae and included Onocleaceae in it. The PPG I classification of 2016 restored it to family status.
Blechnaceae is a member of the eupolypods II clade (now the suborder Aspleniineae), in the order Polypodiales. It is related to other families in the clade as in the following cladogram:
Subdivisions.
The number of genera accepted within Blechnaceae (or Blechnoideae when treated as a subfamily) has varied between authors. Christenhusz and Chase (2014), treating the group as a subfamily, describe the situation as follows: "Blechnoideae comprise three major clades, one corresponding to "Onoclea" "sensu lato", a second corresponding to "Woodwardia", sister to all other species that can be treated as the single genus "Blechnum". However, the subclade sister to the rest of "Blechnum" "sensu lato" contains the vining taxa "Stenochlaena", "Salpichlaena" and a few non-vining "Blechnum" species with long-creeping rhizomes, which may have to be accepted at the generic level pending further studies. "Brainea", "Doodia", "Pteridoblechnum" and "Sadleria" belong to "Blechnum" sensu lato."
Perrie et al. (2014) retained the family rank and excluded "Onoclea" as a separate family, Onocleaceae, sister to Blechnaceae. They identified three major clades within the remaining Blechnaceae, which they labelled "Woodwardia", super-"Stenochlaena" and super-"Blechnum", with the latter two as sister groups. They did not consider "Blechnum" as monophyletic and recommended revision of intergeneric boundaries, resulting in seven genera.
Gasper et al. (2016), independently of Christenhusz and Chase, examined the deeper relationships of the
Blechnaceae, retaining its family status and excluding Onocleaceae, and allocated the three major clades of Perrie et al. (2014) to subfamilies: Woodwardioideae, Stenochlaenoideae and Blechnoideae. Their approach to the polyphyletic nature of "Blechnum" was to create a series of monophyletic segregate genera, resulting in 24 genera in total. The relationship between the three subfamilies was found to be as follows:
The approximate relationship between some of the taxa used in the classifications of Christenhusz and Chase (2014) and PPG I (2016) is shown in the table below.
Subfamilies and genera.
In 2016, the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group followed Gasper et al. (2016) in accepting 24 genera, grouped into three subfamilies with approximately 265 species, most of which are placed in the subfamily Blechnoideae.
Subfamily Woodwardioideae
Subfamily Stenochlaenoideae
Subfamily Blechnoideae


Chionanthus porcatus

Chionanthus porcatus grows as a tree up to tall, with a trunk diameter of up to . The bark is white or dark grey. The flowers are greenish yellow or white. Fruit is black, ellipsoid, up to long. The specific epithet "porcatus" is from the Latin meaning "ridged", referring to the fruit. Habitat is forests from sea-level to altitude. "C. porcatus" is endemic to Borneo.


Phymatochilum

Phymatochilum brasiliense is an orchid species, inhabitant of Serra do Mar mountains in Brazilian southeast and northeast, which vegetatively resembles "Oncidium" species, however, is more closely related to the genus "Miltonia". It is the only species of the genus Phymatochilum.
Distribution and habit.
"Phymatochilum brasiliense" is a comparatively large sympodial epiphyte species which inhabits high areas of the Atlantic Forest of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais and Pernambuco States of Brazil, particularly in the warmer areas around Serra do Mar chain of mountains, where it is somewhat rare. It grows under the shadow of trees, however, mostly near the jungles well ventilated clearances where it can get brighter light, between 600 and 1,300 meters of altitude in dryer areas. It ordinarily grows over the trees where the shade is not intense, on thick branches.
Description.
"Phymatochilum brasiliense" presents a large number of robust, long and simple or slightly branched roots shooting from a highly short and robust rhizome which gives birth to aggregated pseudobulbs. The pseudobulbs are erect, smooth and light green when young and later minutely wrinkled and brownish green, very robust and large, which may vary form slightly fusiform to the most common rounded shape although clearly flattened that bears one leaf only At the base the pseudobulbs are protected by four large distichous, carinated, imbricating and subequitant bracts, the longest of them the same length of the pseudobulb. The leaf is erect, slightly concave and curved, leathery and thick, rigid despite somewhat flexible, meaning it will not break when it is slightly curved; at the base it is folded; green on the face, presenting numerous nervures, paler and brownish on the back where it shows a salient medium nerve. The inflorescence is basal, slender, pale green with subtle minute purple dots, highly alternately branched and large, sometimes bearing hundreds of flowers placed at regular distances.
The flowers have a rounded but slightly triangular ovary; their segments are wide opened with yellow green sepals and petals, transversally stained or striped of brown; and white labellum with a yellow warted callus close to the base surrounded by brown orange stains. The sepals and petals are linear, elongated and highly acute, curved at the apexes, the petals slightly shorter and wider that the sepals and the sepals more twisted than the petals. The labellum is slightly convex, shorter than the other segments, almost flat, three lobed, the lateral ones are rounded forming two auricles and the intermediate is triangular, highly pointed and spotless. The column is curved with two large often laciniated wings lateral to the stigma and a terminal anther. "Phymatochilum brasiliense" blooms between from the end of summer to middle autumn and its sweet fragrant flowers last for about two weeks. There is no reference about their pollinators.
Although closely related to "Miltonia", "Phymatochilum brasiliense" does not have many morphologic characteristics in common with them: It presents much more robust pseudobulbs and leaves, which also are of different color and shapes. The rhizome is shorter; the psudobulbs closer to each other, much fleshier and more fibrous, almost rounded, darker. The leaves are much wider, leathery, thicker, darker and clearly veined, in all with an aspect that reminds the one of "Maxillaria setigera". The inflorescence is branched, almost three times taller than the leaves, bearing more than a hundred small "Oncidium" type flowers.
"Phymatochilum brasiliense" is not hard to grow. Their roots are somewhat sensitive excessive humidity therefore it is important they are potted in a well-drained substrate and placed in a warm and well ventilated location at the greenhouse. As they show a rest period after blooming, it is beneficial to reduce watering while they are not in active growth period, and resume abundant watering again during active growth. Moderate weekly fertilizing with a balanced formula is beneficial during active growth. They may be potted in a compost of vegetable fiber and some medium-sized lumps of charcoal. As they usually inhabit sunny areas they enjoy a good amount of light, although never full sunlight, therefore the best place for them is the sunnier in the greenhouse, the same where the "Cattleya" are.
Taxonomic notes.
For some unknown reason there is a number of original descriptions by John Lindley, of plants received from Loddiges, that record Mexico, instead of Brazil, as the country of origin of the plants. It is not known if this information came from Loddiges, whether they were later confusions at the herbarium or either if it was a mistake on transport records. Some of these mistakes, particularly when occurred with less noticeable plants as "Pabstiella crenata" are still been solved. Some of these descriptions yet have to be cleared. The description of "Phymatochilum brasiliense" was one of these mistakes. This species is not recorded in Mexico or Central America after this early records. Anyway, in 1847, Lindley received two different plants one from Loddiges and another from reverend Clowes, from Liverpool, an orchid enthusiast Lindley homaged when describing "Miltonia clowesii", and the following year he described it under the genus "Oncidium" as "O. phymatochilum", choosing this name in reference to the warted labellum of its flowers.
"Phymatochilum brasiliense", whose flowers are very similar to the ones of "Oncidium" was in fact considered a member of this genus until 2001 when, based on the results of their molecular analysis, it was moved by Norris Williams and Mark Chase to the genus "Miltonia". On the transfer publication they claim that, despite the morphologic differences, the relationship is very close and, supposedly, they did not want to propose a new genus to subordinate one species only. As this species shows a morphology that is closer to "Oncidium" species than to "Miltonia", because of its small yellowish flowers and highly branched inflorescence, this result and following transfer was a great surprise to most taxonomists. Therefore, in 2005, Eric Christenson suggested a new genus and the name "Phymatochilum brasiliense" for it. There is no consensus about the name to be generally accepted as yet.
Molecular analysis shows that "Phymatochilum" most closely related genus is "Miltonia" and then "Aspasia", "Brassia" and "Ada", which are the most important genera included in this that is one of the eight clades that form the subtribus Oncidiinae of tribus Cymbidieae.


Lonicera flava

Lonicera flava (commonly known as yellow honeysuckle) is a species of honeysuckle native to the eastern United States. The yellow-orange flowers are slightly fragrant.


Cyanea hardyi

Cyanea hardyi, known in Hawaiian as hāhā, is a species of flowering plant in the bellflower family, Campanulaceae. This Hawaiian lobelioid is endemic to southern Kauai. It inhabits forested valleys up to an elevation of .


Craniolaria

Craniolaria is a genus of flowering plants in the family Martyniaceae.
There are 3 species:


Phanerophlebia (plant)

Phanerophlebia is a genus of ferns in the family Dryopteridaceae, subfamily Dryopteridoideae, according to the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I).
Taxonomy.
"Phanerophlebia" was first described by Carl Presl in 1836.
Species.
, the "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World" and "Plants of the World Online" recognized the following species:


Callitroideae


Gahnia melanocarpa

Gahnia melanocarpa, known as the black fruit saw-sedge, is a tussock forming perennial plant in eastern Australia. Often found in the wetter forests or in rainforest margins, it is common on the coast but also seen in the tablelands.
Overview.
"Gahnia melanocarpa" grows to two metres high. The leaf edges are sharp and can easily cut human skin. The strap-like leaves are around 10 mm wide.
The flowers grow in spikes from the centre of the plant and appear in spring and summer. They are followed by shiny dark brown to black nuts, which measure 2.5 to 3.5 mm long and 1.5 to 2 mm in diameter. The specific epithet "melanocarpa" translates from the Greek meaning "black fruit".
The species first appeared in scientific literature in "Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae" in 1810, authored by Robert Brown.


Nepenthes vogelii

Nepenthes vogelii is a tropical pitcher plant endemic to Borneo. It is thought to be most closely related to "N. fusca".
Botanical history.
The first known collection of "N. vogelii" was made in 1961 on Mount Api in Gunung Mulu National Park by forest botanist J. A. R. Anderson. The material, labelled as "N. fusca", was deposited at the Sarawak Forestry Department herbarium. In 1969, botanist Shigeo Kurata examined this specimen and noted that it did not fall within the known variation exhibited by "N. fusca".
"Nepenthes vogelii" was formally described in 2002 by Andre Schuiteman and Eduard Ferdinand de Vogel. The description was published in the botanical journal "Blumea" and is based on a single cultivated specimen, "A.Vogel, A.Schuiteman & T.Roelfsema 981037" (SAR). This specimen was collected as a seedling in the Kelabit Highlands of Sarawak in 1997 and subsequently raised to maturity by Art Vogel, botanist and former conservatory manager of the Hortus Botanicus Leiden. "Nepenthes vogelii" is named in his honour.
Some time prior to its description, "N. vogelii" entered cultivation through Ch'ien Lee's Malesiana Tropicals plant nursery under the name ""Nepenthes" spec. 4".
Few specimens of this species are deposited in herbaria, likely due to its epiphytic growth habit, which makes it hard to find without the aid of binoculars.
Description.
Rosette and lower pitchers are cylindrical throughout and have a small horizontal mouth. Unusually, they lack ventral wings. The lid is broadly triangular and lacks appendages. Pitchers are yellowish with dark speckles and a striped peristome.
Upper pitchers are generally infundibular, although their shape may vary from narrowly funnel-shaped to distinctly bulbous in the upper portion. This bulbous portion corresponds to the upper waxy zone of the inner surface.
Ecology.
Despite only being recorded from several scattered localities, "N. vogelii" appears to be more widespread in Borneo than previously thought. Initially believed to be endemic to northern Sarawak, it is now known from southern Sabah and West Kalimantan. The species has an altitudinal distribution of 1000 to 1500 m above sea level.
"Nepenthes vogelii" typically occurs as an epiphyte in submontane or tall lower montane forest. The type specimen was found growing terrestrially among moss in wet "kerangas" forest. The plant was sympatric with "N. stenophylla" and "N. veitchii". Despite this, no natural hybrids involving "N. vogelii" have been recorded.
On Mount Mulu, "N. vogelii" occurs in a narrow altitudinal band (1200 to 1500 m) where its distribution does not overlap with those of the likewise epiphytic "N. fusca" and "N. hurrelliana", which grow below 1200 m and above 1500 m, respectively.
Related species.
"Nepenthes vogelii" belongs to the loosely defined ""N. maxima" complex", which also includes, among other species, "N. boschiana", "N. chaniana", "N. epiphytica", "N. eymae", "N. faizaliana", "N. fusca", "N. klossii", "N. maxima", "N. platychila", and "N. stenophylla".
"Nepenthes vogelii" is thought to be most closely related to "N. fusca". It differs from that species in having much smaller pitchers and lacking appendages on the underside of the lid. In addition, the lid of "N. vogelii" is broadly triangular as opposed to the narrowly triangular lid of "N. fusca". The colour of the pitchers—light cream with dark speckles—is also distinctive. These features also distinguish it from "N. burbidgeae" and "N. stenophylla".
"Nepenthes vogelii" shows close affinities to "N. platychila". However, unlike the lower pitchers of "N. vogelii", those of "N. platychila" bear wings and have a relatively wide peristome.


Nitraria billardierei

Nitraria billardierei, commonly known as nitre bush or dillon bush, is a perennial shrub native to Australia. It is often found in saline areas or other areas which have been disturbed. This species produces flowers predominantly in spring, with small ovoid or oblong fruit (drupe) that are purple, red or golden. The fruit are edible, said to taste like salty grapes. They were eaten, sometimes whole, including the stone, by indigenous Australians such as the Wemba-Wemba. Fruit can also be made into jam or dried and stored.
It is a broad and low shrub, up to high and 4 m wide.
Nitre bush is found across all mainland states of Australia. The plant's spread and germination in areas of heavy clay soil is assisted by the fruit's consumption by emus.


Balsam apple

Balsam apple may refer to:


Meliosma vernicosa

Meliosma vernicosa is a tropical tree in the family Sabiaceae. It is a canopy tree of the cloud forest that reaches 20 to 25 meters tall. It prefers elevations of 1500 to 1700 meters. It is found in Costa Rica.


Coat of arms of Antioquia Department

The coat of arms of Antioquia, in its current form, dates back to August 23, 1812 when it was officially adopted by the Chamber of the Senate of Antioquia by means of "Decree 21 of 1812", replacing the Great State Seal of Antioquia that was sanctioned by State President José María Montoya Duque on September 2, 1811. Following the incorporation of Antioquia to the United Provinces of New Granada and subsequently to the Granadine Confederation and the United States of Colombia, the Sovereign State of Antioquia adopted the coat of arms of Colombia as its state arms. Antioquia reverted to the original coat of arms in 1912 for the occasion of the centenary of the independence of Antioquia and it has been in official use ever since.
Coat of arms.
The coat of arms as is seen today follows the blazon ordered in 1812:
The rulers wanted not only to record the autonomy of the New State, but they wanted to symbolize its wealth and virtue with the golden hill, its triumphs and victories with the palm, its abundance with the plantain tree, its freedom with the phrygian cap, and the whole Antioquian race with the matron.
Although the coat of arms was adopted and blazoned in 1812, the coat of arms would only take form until 1912 when it was officially recreated for the occasion of the centenary of the independence of Antioquia by orders of the historian José María Mesa Jaramillo and executed by Daniel Mesa, and curiously enough, the model used to draw the matron who is supposed to represent the Antioquian population, was a Mexican actress named Virginia Fábregas. The coat of arms is currently used as a symbol of the state and is displayed at departmental buildings and offices, issued in official documentation, cast into a medal awarded by the department, and used in conjunction with the civilian flag of Antioquia to form the Governor's flag.
Great State Seal.
Amidst the unfolding events of the Colombian Declaration of Independence in 1811, the then Province of Antioquia declared its independence from the Spanish Crown on July 29, 1811 becoming a free and independent state. In recognition of this, the President of Antioquia José María Montoya Duque adopted by special decree the issued accord of the Supreme Legislative Power, the Great Seal of Antioquia on September 2, 1811 for its use as the seal and insignia of the state, as well as its use in the uniforms of its Representatives and those of the Royal Finance Court.
Blazon of the Great Seal.
Oval argent, marshalled quarterly: I an oak eradicated trunked sable, a crow proper trussed atop the oak, II a tower Or, masoned sable and ajouré azure, III two arms armoured Or their forearms pilewise, hands naked, IV a lion rampant tenné. On base argent, a garland of six fern branches gathered at the middle by a ribbon in bow Or, atop inscribed are the initials R.Z.C.B.Y.C. The whole flanked by a branch of coffee fructed and a branch palm both proper, in a circle void inscribed with "Fe Pvblica Del Estado Lybre E Yndependyente De Antioquya" (Castilian: "Public Faith of the Free And Independent State of Antioquia").
The design of the Great Seal was purposefully design to represent the whole territory of Antioquia; The marshalling of the escutcheon is composed with charges from the coats of arms of the cities of Santa Fe de Antioquia, Medellín, Marinilla and Rionegro in that order. The base's initials stand for the cities not subject to departmental capitulation of Remedios, Zaragoza, Cáceres, San Bartolomé, Yolombó and Cancán (now Amalfi).
Arms borrowed.
Shortly after its independence, Colombia experimented with various forms of governments from confederation to federation to dictatorship to finally a republic. During this time of transition, Antioquia, along with the other subdivision entities, used the coat of arms of Colombia as its state insignia and arms. To differentiate each state, an addition around the coat of arms was added; it consisted of an oval band in gules surrounding the coat of arms with the name of the country at the time on top, and at the bottom, separated by a star in argent at each side, the legend: "Estado Soberano de Antioquia" ().
These arms were also utilized as emblems in the flags that Antioquia used during this period as no formal banner had been adopted by the department until 1962.
Decoration.
The Department of Antioquia's highest civilian decoration is the Shield of Antioquia (Spanish: "Escudo de Antioquia"), a medal bearing the coat of arms of Antioquia in a ribbon with the colours of the flag of Antioquia. The medal comes in two categories: gold and silver, and it can be awarded by decree to individuals, corporations or institutions.


Dacrydium beccarii

Dacrydium beccarii is a species of conifer in the family Podocarpaceae. It is found in Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, and Solomon Islands.


Johann Hedwig

Johann Hedwig (8 December 1730 – 18 February 1799), also styled as Johannes Hedwig, was a German botanist notable for his studies of mosses. He is sometimes called the "father of bryology". He is known for his particular observations of sexual reproduction in the cryptogams. Many of his writings were in Latin, and his name is rendered in Latin as Ioannis Hedwig or Ioanne Hedwig.
Early life.
Hedwig was born in Brașov, Transylvania, on December 8, 1730. As the son of a shoemaker, he grew up in poverty. It was in his childhood he became fascinated with mosses. He went on to study medicine at the University of Leipzig, and received his medical degree in 1759.
Career.
After receiving his degree, Hedwig worked as a physician for the next twenty years. When he was not granted a license to practice in Transylvania with his Leipzig degree, he worked as a general practitioner in Chemnitz. It was during this time when he first pursued botany as a hobby. He would routinely collect samples in the morning before work, then study his accumulation in the evening. He also was gifted a microscope and a small library, courtesy of Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber.
Hedwig was very skilled at both microscopy and biological illustration. He was able to identify and illustrate moss antheridia, archegonia and male gametes. He directly observed the germination of spores and formation of the protonema. He was less successful with other sporophytes, being unable to determine the life cycles of ferns or fungi, but he did make useful observations on the algae "Chara" and "Spirogyra" and he made it clear that he was not the first to get new plants from sowing the spores of mosses, David Meese having done it before him.
In 1781, he moved to Leipzig, where he worked as a doctor at the city hospital. It was here that he published his first major work, the two volume "Fundamentum historiae naturalis muscorum frondosorum" in 1782. In 1786, he was hired as an associate professor of medicine at the University of Leipzig. In 1789, he became a professor of botany and director of the botanical garden at the school. In April 1788, he was invited to be a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1790, he became a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1792, he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences Leopoldina.
His chief work, "Species muscorum frondosorum", was published posthumously in 1801. It describes nearly all the moss species then known, and is the starting point for nomenclature of all mosses, except for the "Sphagnum" group.
Legacy.
Hedwig was the father of the botanist Romanus Adolf Hedwig. He was also the father-in-law of Christian Daniel Beck and grandfather of .
Today, Hedwig is commemorated both by the moss genus "Hedwigia" as well as the peer-reviewed journal "Nova Hedwigia". In appreciation of Hedwig's achievements, the International Association of Bryologists awards the Hedwig Medal to scientists for extraordinary contributions in the field of Bryology.
Hedwig's personal herbarium was auctioned off in 1810, but it was largely acquired by the Botanical Garden of Geneva, where the collection is still located today.


Calyptridium parryi

Calyptridium parryi, synonym Cistanthe parryi, is a species of flowering plant in the family Montiaceae. It is known by the common name Parry's pussypaws. It is native to the southwestern United States and Baja California. It is a small annual herb producing spreading stems up to about 11 centimeters long. There is a basal rosette of small, thick, spoon-shaped leaves no more than about 3 centimeters long, with many along the stems as well. The inflorescence is a cluster a few centimeters wide, with each bearing three white petals surrounded by a few thin sepals. The fruit is a capsule less than a centimeter wide.


British NVC community MG9

British NVC community MG9 (Holcus lanatus - Deschampsia cespitosa grasslands) is one of the mesotrophic grassland communities in the British National Vegetation Classification system. It is one of three communities associated with poorly drained permanent pastures.
It is a widespread community throughout the British lowlands. There are two subcommunities.
Community composition.
The following constant species are found in this community:
No rare species are associated with this community.
Distribution.
This community is widespread in lowlands throughout Britain.
Subcommunities.
There are two subcommunities:


Distimake tuberosus

Distimake tuberosus, also known as Spanish arborvine or wood rose, is a vine in the family Convolvulaceae. It is native to the Americas, from Florida and Texas to Brazil, although considered by the USDA as introduced to the United States. It is an invasive species in a number of islands in the Indian and Pacific Ocean, such as New Caledonia.


Brunnera

Brunnera is a genus of flowering plants in the family Boraginaceae. They are rhizomatous perennials, native to the woodlands of Eastern Europe and North West Asia. They have hairy leaves and sprays of blue flowers in spring. Numerous cultivars are available, which are valued as groundcover in dappled shade. Some possess variegated foliage. The best known species is "Brunnera macrophylla", known as Siberian bugloss.
It thrives in shade but also likes morning sunshine as long as it is in consistently moist, rich, organic soil. It does not tolerate dry conditions. It is often used in woodland gardens along streams of ponds and in naturalized areas as a specimen plant or clumped together as a border. Clumps slowly spread by creeping rhizomes to form thick ground covers.
"Bugloss comes from Greek meaning ox tongue in probably reference to the roughness and shape of the leaves." It is a herbaceous perennial that grows in a Zone 3 to 8. In 2012 "Brunnera macrophylla" 'Jack Frost' was named perennial plant of the year by the Perennial Plant Association (PPA). Based on the (USDA) Hardiness zone it is hardy in zones 3 to 8.


Gratiola peruviana

Gratiola peruviana, commonly known as austral brooklime, is a small perennial herb in the family Plantaginaceae. The species is native to South America and Australasia. It grows to between 10 and 30 centimetres high and has pink or white tubular flowers with red-purple stripes inside. These are followed by ovoid capsules that are up to 7mm long. The stem-clasping ovate leaves are arranged in opposite pairs and have shallowly toothed edges.
It occurs in the vicinity of waterbodies in shallow water, mud or dried areas.
In South America, the species is native to Peru, Brazil, Chile and Argentina. In Australasia, it occurs in New Zealand and the Australian states of South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland. The name has been misapplied to "Gratiola pubescens" in Western Australia.


Cryptantha flavoculata

Cryptantha flavoculata is a species of flowering plant in the borage family known by the common name roughseed cryptantha. It is native to the western United States from California to Montana, where it is common in many types of habitat. It is a perennial herb growing an unbranching stem up to about 35 centimeters tall from a woody caudex. It is coated in soft bristly hairs. The densely hairy to bristly leaves vary in shape and may reach 11 centimeters long. The inflorescence is a cylindrical cluster or rounded head of flowers which elongates as the fruits develop from the bottom up. Each tubular flower is about a centimeter long topped with a five-lobed white corolla with yellow appendages at the center.


Hoodia triebneri

Hoodia triebneri is a species of plant in the family Apocynaceae. It is endemic to Namibia. Its natural habitat is rocky areas, especially underneath "Acacia" trees and below ridges.
Description.
"Hoodia triebneri" is shrub-like, growing up to 0.3 meters tall and half a meter wide. It has about ten to thirty erect, slender stems with strong spines. Flowers are very small, 1 to 1.5 centimeters in diameter and nearly black or dark maroon in color. The flowers grow in clusters of 4 to 10 each and are foul-smelling.


Eucalyptus erythrocorys

Eucalyptus erythrocorys, commonly known as illyarrie, red-capped gum or helmet nut gum, is a species of tree or mallee from Western Australia. It has smooth bark, sickle-shaped to curved adult leaves, characteristically large flower buds in groups of three with a bright red operculum, bright yellow to yellowish green flowers and sculptured, bell-shaped fruit.
Description.
"Eucalyptus erythrocorys" is a small tree or a mallee, with an open spreading habit and typically grows to a height of and a width of . The bark is smooth with a creamy colour but can have a few rough brown coloured patches where it persists on the trunk instead of being shed. The smooth bark sheds in short ribbons or small polygonal flakes. Young plants and coppice regrowth have hairy stems, broadly lance-shaped to egg-shaped or heart-shaped leaves long and wide. The adult leaves are arranged in opposite pairs, sickle-shaped, lance-shaped or curved, and wide on a flattened or channelled petiole long. They are thick, the same glossy green colour on both sides.
The flower buds are arranged in leaf axils in groups of three on a peduncle long, the individual buds on a pedicel long. Mature buds are oval, long and wide with a flattened, bright red operculum that has four lobes. The flowers are bright yellow to greenish and appear between February and April and have the stamens arranged in four bundles. The fruit is a woody, broadly bell-shaped capsule long and wide. Sometimes the fruit are so numerous that they weight the tree down, giving it a weeping habit.
Taxonomy.
"Eucalyptus erythrocorys" was first formally described by Ferdinand von Mueller in 1860 in "Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae". The type specimen was collected by Augustus Frederick Oldfield in 1858 from along the Murchison River and is cited as "Ad flumen Murchison et sinum squalorum versus in planitibus petraeis".
The species is a member of the sub-genus "Eudesmia", a group that has stamens in four bundles each at the corner of the squarish flower. It is in a sub-group that includes "E. pleurocarpa".
The species name "erythrocorys" is taken from the Greek words "erythro" meaning "red" and "korys" meaning "helmet" in reference to the bright red operculum. The common name "Illyarrie", is the Noongar peoples' name for the plant.
Distribution.
The species has a limited distribution north of Perth where it is found on undulating limestone ridges and outcrops growing in sandy alkaline soils near Dongara as well as north of Kalbarri National Park. It is also found on sandy plains, particularly the Geraldton Sandplains between Shark Bay and Jurien.
Conservation status.
Illyarie is classified as "not threatened" by the Western Australian Government Department of Parks and Wildlife.
Cultivation.
The plant is sold commercially in seed form or as tube stock and is a popular species throughout Australia. The seeds germinate readily.
It can become untidy but is easily kept in shape with a light pruning. The colourful flowers make it appealing to nectar loving birds. The trees are known to shed limbs as a result of the weight of the fruit they carry. It is reasonably fast growing and both drought and smog resistant but can be frost tender. It prefers a position in full sun, in well-drained soils and can be grown in containers and in coastal locations. The flowers are used in wreaths.


Ammobium

Ammobium is genus of perennial Asteraceae species described as a genus in 1824 by Robert Brown, with the type species being "Ammobium alatum".
"Ammobium" is native to eastern Australia.


Cherry mottle leaf virus

Cherry mottle leaf virus (CMLV) is a plant pathogenic virus causing leaf rot. It is closely related to the peach mosaic virus.
Host and Symptoms.
Cherry mottle leaf virus (CMLV) has a wide range of hosts. It infects the genus Prunus including cherry ("Prunus avium") and peach ("P. persica") trees. More specifically, CMLV infects both sweet and bitter/wild type ("P. emarginata") cherry trees. The most common propagation host is the "Chenopodium quinoa" and the most common infected trees in the field are Bing and Napoleon trees. CMLV can be transmitted by budding and grafting with infected budwood from infected bitter cherry trees or symptomless peach trees. It is important to note that not all diseased hosts show symptoms which can make diagnoses challenging. When symptoms are observed, they are mostly found on the leaves themselves. Leaves can be mottled with yellow and green chlorotic patterns between the veins. Other leaf symptoms include leaf distortion, and puckering of the younger leaves. The fruit that are produced can be small, flavorless and ripen later in the season. In general, affected trees may appear stunted.
Management.
It is common to treat CMLV by using virus free budwood in certified nursery stocks. It is important to remove all bitter cherry trees in the orchard and any trees that show symptoms. This is a cultural practice that includes removing all fallen infected leaves from the ground which will prevent any future disease spread within the cycle. Other non chemical management practices include planting verified virus free stocks and avoiding grafting or budding with infected wood. Removing wild type cherry trees that are either surrounding or inside of the orchard is another great option. Typically, no chemical management practices are recommended.
Environment.
The environment impacts the spread of CMLV. This virus can be transmitted by a bud mite known as "Eriophyes inaequalis." The seasons affect disease development as premature dropping of the leaves is common in the fall and the green/yellow mottling is less noticeable later in the growing season. In general, warmer temperatures suppress disease development. In terms of placement, bitter trees located at foothills in California are at higher risk of infection.


Rostellum

The rostellum is a projecting part of the column in Orchidaceae flowers, and separates the male androecium from the female gynoecium, commonly preventing self-fertilisation. In many orchids, such as "Orchis mascula", the pollinia or pollen masses, are connected by stipes down to adhesive discs attached to the rostellum which forms cups keeping the discs or balls sticky.
In "Catasetum" flowers the rostellum projects forward at each side as an "antenna", and the pollen masses are connected by a bent stalk or pedicel to a sticky disc kept moist at the back of the flower. When an insect touches an "antenna", this releases the bent pedicel which springs straight and fires the pollinium, sticky disc first, at the insect. Charles Darwin described in "Fertilisation of Orchids" how he "touched the antennæ of C. callosum whilst holding the flower at about a yard's distance from the window, and the pollinium hit the pane of glass, and adhered to the smooth vertical surface by its adhesive disc."


Miscanthus sacchariflorus

Miscanthus sacchariflorus, the Amur silvergrass, is a grass native to temperate Northeast Asia.
Culms are erect, – in height and – in diameter.


Mamiella

Mamiella is a genus of green algae in the family Mamiellaceae.


Psammochloa villosa


Dactylorhiza lapponica

Dactylorhiza lapponica, the Lapland marsh-orchid, is an orchid found in Scandinavia, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, France, Italy and the Czech Republic.
Three subspecies are recognized:
It was originally published and described by Lars Levi Laestadius and Carl Johan Hartman as "Orchis angustifolia" var. "lapponica" in Handb. Skand. Fl., edition 4 on page 281 in 1843, but it was then re-published as "Dactylorhiza lapponica" in Nom. Nov. Gen. Dactylorhiza Vol.5 in 1962.
The plant has been studied for In vitro seed germination.


Delissea rhytidosperma

Delissea rhytidosperma, is known by the common names Kauai delissea, Kauai leechleaf delissea, and leechleaf delissea. It is a rare species of flowering plant in the bellflower family, that is endemic to Hawaii where it is known only from the island of Kauai. It is critically endangered or extinct in the wild.
Some populations that were formerly included in the species "D. rhytidosperma" are now called "Delissea kauaiensis". It is a federally listed endangered species.
Description.
"Delissea rhytidosperma", a Hawaiian lobelioid, is a shrub which grows up to tall. The leaves have lance-shaped or nearly oval blades up to 19 centimeters long. The tubular flowers have greenish or purplish petals and distinctive hairs next to the anthers.
The plant's natural habitat is rocky cliffsides in moist forests dominated by "Acacia koa". This habitat has been destroyed and degraded by the action of feral pigs, goats, and mule deer, and by exotic plant species. Germination and establishment are further limited by non-native rodents, snails, and grasses.


Osyris quadripartita

Osyris quadripartita is commonly known as wild tea plant.


Diplacus mephiticus

Diplacus mephiticus is a species of monkeyflower known by the common names skunky monkeyflower and foul odor monkeyflower. It was formerly known as "Mimulus mephiticus".
It has been reclassified as Mimulus nanus" (now "Diplacus") var. "mephiticus.
Distribution.
The species is native to the Sierra Nevada and western Great Basin of California and Nevada.
Description.
"Mimulus nanus" var. "mephiticus" is a diminutive summer annual growing to a height of 15 cm (usually much smaller, especially at high elevation).
The oppositely arranged leaves are linear or lance-shaped and up to 3 centimeters in length. The leaves emit an unpleasant scent when crushed, the characteristic that earned the plant its name.
The trumpet-shaped flower may be up to 2 centimeters long and has an upper lip with two lobes and a lower lip with three. The flower is magenta or yellow, and populations occasionally have plants with both colors. The lower lip of the flower is marked with purplish lines and spots.


Buxus

Buxus is a genus of about 70 species in the family Buxaceae. Common names include box or boxwood.
The boxes are native to western and southern Europe, southwest, southern and eastern Asia, Africa, Madagascar, northernmost South America, Central America, Mexico and the Caribbean, with the majority of species being tropical or subtropical; only the European and some Asian species are frost-tolerant. Centres of diversity occur in Cuba (about 30 species), China (17 species) and Madagascar (9 species).
They are slow-growing evergreen shrubs and small trees, growing to 2–12 m (rarely 15 m) tall. The leaves are opposite, rounded to lanceolate, and leathery; they are small in most species, typically 1.5–5 cm long and 0.3–2.5 cm broad, but up to 11 cm long and 5 cm broad in "B. macrocarpa". The flowers are small and yellow-green, monoecious with both sexes present on a plant. The fruit is a small capsule 0.5–1.5 cm long (to 3 cm in "B. macrocarpa"), containing several small seeds.
The genus splits into three genetically distinct sections, each section in a different region, with the Eurasian species in one section, the African (except northwest Africa) and Madagascan species in the second, and the American species in the third. The African and American sections are genetically closer to each other than to the Eurasian section.
Uses.
Cultivation.
Box plants are commonly grown as hedges and for topiary.
In Britain and mainland Europe, box is subject to damage from caterpillars of
"Cydalima perspectalis" which can devastate a box hedge within a short time. This is a recently introduced species first noticed in Europe in 2007 and in the UK in 2008 but spreading. There were 3 UK reports of infestation in 2011, 20 in 2014 and 150 in the first half of 2015.
Wood carving.
Owing to its fine grain it is a good wood for fine wood carving, although this is limited by the small sizes available. It is also resistant to splitting and chipping, and thus useful for decorative or storage boxes. Formerly, it was used for wooden combs. As a timber or wood for carving it is "boxwood" in all varieties of English.
Owing to the relatively high density of the wood, boxwood is often used for chess pieces, unstained boxwood for the white pieces and stained ('ebonized') boxwood for the black pieces, in lieu of ebony.
The extremely fine endgrain of box makes it suitable for woodblock printing and woodcut blocks, for which it was the usual material in Europe. In the 16th century, boxwood was used to create intricate decorative carvings, including intricate rosary prayer beads. As of 2016, the largest collection of these carvings is at the Art Gallery of Ontario in Toronto.
High quality wooden spoons have usually been carved from box, with beech being the usual cheaper substitute.
Boxwood was once called dudgeon, and was used for the handles of dirks, and daggers, with the result that such a knife was known as a dudgeon. Although one "in high dudgeon" is indignant and enraged, and while the image of a dagger held high, ready to plunge into an enemy, has a certain appeal, lexicographers have no real evidence as to the origin of the phrase.
Musical instruments.
Due to its high density, resistance to chipping, and relatively low cost, boxwood has been used to make parts for various stringed instruments since antiquity. It is mostly used to make tailpieces, chin rests and tuning pegs, but may be used for a variety of other parts as well. Other woods used for this purpose are rosewood and ebony.
Boxwood was a common material for the manufacture of recorders in the eighteenth century, and a large number of mid- to high-end instruments made today are produced from one or other species of boxwood. Boxwood was once a popular wood for other woodwind instruments, and was among the traditional woods for Great Highland bagpipes before tastes turned to imported dense tropical woods such as cocuswood, ebony, and African blackwood.
Historical.
General Thomas F. Meagher decorated the hats of the men of the Irish Brigade with boxwood during the American Civil War, as he could find no shamrock.


Hugonia

Hugonia is a genus of plant in the family Linaceae. The genus was named by Linnaeus after Augustus Johann von Hugo (1686-1760) of Hannover.
Species include:


Ilex jauaensis

Ilex jauaensis is a species of plant in the family Aquifoliaceae. It is endemic to Venezuela.


Phyllospadix serrulatus

Phyllospadix serrulatus is a species of aquatic plant in the Zosteraceae family. It is referred to by the common name toothed surfgrass, and is found along the shorelines of British Columbia and southern Alaska. It grows in salt marshes in the intertidal zone.
"Phyllospadix serrulatus" is a grass-like herb with leaves up to 60 cm long, with teeth along the margins toward the tip.


Birdeye speedwell

Birdeye speedwell or bird's eye speedwell is a common name for several plants and may refer to:


Protea grandiceps

Protea grandiceps, commonly known as rooisuikerbos, suikerbos or red sugarbush, is a flowering shrub that belongs to the "Protea" genus and is native to parts south western parts of South Africa.
The shrub was listed as an+ near threatened species in 2006 according to the South African National Biodiversity Institute.
Description.
The shrub is round and grows high and blooms from September to January.
Fire destroys the plant but the seeds survive. The seed is stored in a cap and spread by the wind. The plant is unisexual. Pollination occurs through the action of birds. The tree's national number is 89.2.
Taxonomy.
The species was first formally described by the botanist Leopold Trattinnick, the specific epithet means "large head" and is derived from the Latin words "grandis" meaning "great" or "large" and "ceps" meaning "head" in reference to the flower-heads.
Distribution.
The plant is endemic to South Africa and is found in the Cape Peninsula, Hottentots-Holland Mountains, Riviersonderend Mountains, Langeberg, Outeniqua Mountains, Winterhoek Mountains and Kamanassie Mountains where it is commonly situated on stony crevices on dry upper mountain slopes at altitudes of . It is spread over a total area of around composed of fragmented populations.


Pseudorhipsalis amazonica

Pseudorhipsalis amazonica is a species of "Pseudorhipsalis" found in Costa Rica, Panama, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela
Description.
"Pseudorhipsalis amazonica" grows richly branched, with bent to pendulous shoots. The initially upright main shoots are at the base up to 60 centimeters long stalk-like, twisting or two- to three-edged. The upper, leaf-like, flattened part is lanceolate, thornless and has a distinct central rib. It becomes up to 60 (rarely 80) centimeters long and 4 to 7 (rarely 3 to 8.5) centimeters wide. The edges are slightly notched. The side shoots appear from the upper parts of the main shoots, are up to 60 centimeters long and have a stalk-like base up to 4 centimeters long. The areoles are inconspicuous.
The protruding, narrow cylindrical flowers are carmine red. They are 25 to 50 millimeters long and have a flower tube up to 27 millimeters long. The outer bracts are blue, purple or magenta. The inner bracts are light blue, light magenta or white. The egg-shaped, whitish to yellowish fruits are smooth or slightly angular and are up to 15 millimeters long.
Distribution.
This species is abundant in Ecuador and Peru and common in Panama. It is rare in Costa Rica, where the subpopulation occurs mostly in scattered individual plants. Only five or six collections are known from Costa Rica. In Costa Rica it occurs in the Diriá National Park. It can also be found in various protected areas in Ecuador. In some parts of its range, protection is provided due to the emergence of guerrilla warfare and the presence of drug producers, limiting the expansion of tourism, agro-industrial activities, and urban development.