Balnibarbi (trilobite)

Balnibarbi is an extinct genus of trilobites in the family Olenidae. They are known from fossils excavated in Norway. They lived during the early part of the Arenig stage of the Ordovician Period, a faunal stage that occurred about 479 to 472 million years ago.
The genus is ancestral to, and co-existed sympatrically with, the better-known "Cloacaspis".
It was named for the fictional country of Balnibarbi featured in "Gulliver's Travels", a place "populated by eccentric natural philosophers."
Species include:


Hebron-Ben Nevis oil field

Hebron Oil Field, located off the coast of Newfoundland, is the fourth field to come on to production in the Jeanne d'Arc Basin. Discovered in 1981 and put online in 2017, the Hebron field is estimated to contain over 700 million barrels of producible hydrocarbons. The field is contained within a fault-bounded Mesozoic rift basin called the Jeanne d'Arc Basin.
Location.
The Hebron Oil Field is located off the coast of eastern Canada in Newfoundland in the Grand Banks. It resides 350 kilometers southeast of St. John in the Jeanne d'Arc Basin which covers roughly 8000 square kilometers. It is part of a larger oil field structure consisting of the Hibernia, White Rose, and Terra Nova oil fields. The main oil rig sits at 92 meters of water.
Tectonic overview of the Jeanne d'Arc Basin.
The Hebron Oil field formed as result of the early Mesozoic break up Pangea. Prior to break up the northern part of Africa was connected to what is now Newfoundland. At the break up a passive rift margin formed due to the creation of the Atlantic Ocean. Three major phases of Mesozoic Rifting phases occurred that affected the formation of the Hebron Oil field and Jeanne d'Arc Basin.
Tethys phase.
The Tehtys phase occurred in the late Triassic and continued in the Early Jurassic. During this time the Jeanne d'Arc Basin was formed due to rifting forming half grabens as major crustal detachment occurred. This phase is most important phase in the construction of the Jeanne d'Arc Basin as it gave it its size.
North Atlantic phase.
The North Atlantic phase occurred in the late Jurassic to early Cretaceous. The basin formed in the Tethys phase experienced faulting with a North to South trend. The southern boundary of the Jeanne d'Arc Basin was formed by the reactivation of the Egret Fault. The central ridge of the basin was formed along the Voyager Fault. After this period of faulting the Avalon Uplift, a series of rift basins, occurred that allowed for uplift and erosion to occur within the basin. During this time the Atlantic Ocean continued to expand along the Newfoundland Transform Fault Zone. During the early Cretaceous in the Kimmeridgian the source rock, called the Egret Source Rock, was deposited in the basin which provided the basin oil fields a source for their oil, mainly the Hebron.
Labrador phase.
The Labrador phase occurred from the middle to late Cretaceous. This rifting phase began with northwest to southwest trending faults fragmenting the basin. One of the major faults formed was the Trans Basin Fault Zone which formed some of the traps to the adjacent oil fields. The major event happening at the end of this period was the deposition of the Ben Nevis formation which forms the main reservoir for the Hebron Oil Field.
The Tethys, North Atlantic, and Labrador Phases were all followed by periods of tectonic subsidence and post rift thermal subsidence. At the end of the rifting phase, a passive rift margin phase occurred allowing for new depositional areas within the basin.
Stratigraphy.
The Hebron Oil Field was deposited from the Triassic to the Late Cretaceous. Sediments continued to be deposited after the Cretaceous to create the surface structure of the field. Five major periods of deposition are what created the field and its residing structures.
Triassic to Middle Jurassic.
This period begins with the Mesozoic break up of Pangea and the beginning of the basin formation in the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. In the Late Triassic sediments begin to be deposited in what is now the Jeanne d'Arc Basin during a series of Mesozoic rifting events. During the lower Jurassic period, a marine environment existed in the area allowing for the deposition of interbedded carbonates and evaporates.
Oxfordian - Middle Kimmeridgian.
During this upper Jurassic period, the deposition of oolitc limestones, shales and carbonated cemented sandstones were deposited in the basin. The deposition of these sandstones creates ideal seismic reflectors to aid in the understanding of formations deep within the Jeanne d'Arc Basin. In the middle Kimmeridgian the deposition of the Egret source rock occurred. This source rock is composed of marls and organic rich laminated shales. After the deposition a period of uplift and erosion occurred due to the further expansion and rifting of the Atlantic Ocean that forms an unconformity at the top if the middle Kimmeridgian deposits.
Middle Kimmeridgian to Valanginian.
This period began with the deposition of the Jeanne d'Arc Sandstone formation which provides a minor reservoir to the Hebron field. Sandstones were deposited from the southwest of the Grand Banks. This deposition also led to the creation of the Hibernia sandstone reservoir that is also produced in the Hebron Oil field. However, it expresses poor reservoir quality.
Hauterivian to Upper Barremian.
This period began with minor uplift resulting in erosion after the Hibernia sandstone was deposited. After the uplift and erosion period, overlaying sandstanes, shales and limestones were deposited into the Hebron field. Subsidence and faulting continued to occur in the basin during this time.
Middle Cretaceous.
The main reservoir for the Hebron Oil field was deposited. The Ben Nevis Sandstone contains roughly 80% of the producible hydrocarbons for Hebron. It was formed in a marine shore face environment and is 80 to 120 meters thick. The deep part of the Ben Nevis contains good quality sands, carbonate cemented sandstones and has good reservoir properties. It has a porosity ranging from 16% to 30% and a permeability of 360 millidarcies. The shallow section contains silty, bioturbated sands with poor reservoir quality.
Reservoir and trapping characteristics.
The Hebron field is separated into three distinct fault blocks: The Hebron Fault Block, The West Ben Nevis Fault Block and the Ben Nevis Fault Block. Reservoir reside in each of these due to the deposition of the Egret Source Rock in the middle Kimmeridgian. The Hebron Fault block, also called "pool one", contains the majority of the producible hydrocarbons for the field in the Ben Nevis Sandstone formation. It contains heavy oil but has good porosity and permeability. The other two fault blocks or pools are located at deeper depths and express poor reservoir quality. They are still produced but prove to be engineering challenges when it comes to extraction methods.
Trapping mechanism.
During the late Cretaceous major faulting occurred due to the continued rifting of the Atlantic Ocean at the Newfoundland Transform Fault Zone. The lower reservoirs, Hibernia and Jeanne d'Arc formations, are trapped along the up dips of Anticlines and faulted tilted blocks. The main reservoir, the Ben Nevis, is trapped due to a stratagraphic trap occurring above the sandstone and trapped on the sides due to the Egret Fault.
Production history and the Hebron rig.
Originally discovered in 1981 as a part of the Jeanne d'Arc Basin exploration, the Hebron field is the fourth production field to be put online in the basin. Construction of the rig began in 2012 and completed in 2017. The field is estimated to have over 700 million barrels of recoverable hydrocarbons. The Hebron rig is rated to produce an average of 150,000 barrels a day for at least 30 years. This is the second largest field in the Jeanne d'Arc Basin and contains relatively heavy oil between 18 and 25 API.


Infiernillo (volcanic group)

Infiernillo is a volcanic field in Argentina. The field is located northwest of Malargue, at the Rio Salado. The volcanic field, part of the Southern Volcanic Zone, has formed three individual vents with associated lava flows.
Formation.
Volcanic activity in the Andes and the region between the Andes and the Atlantic Ocean is caused by the subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the South America plate. While the main volcanic arc is formed by the dehydration of the descending slab of oceanic lithosphere, the origin of volcanism beneath the main volcanic arc is unclear. One of these volcanic structures is the Payenia volcanic field between 34°30′–38°S southern latitude; it was probably formed by magmas generated by asthenosphere overriding a steepening subducting Nazca plate. This province, with a surface area of , includes Payún Matrú and Llancanelo volcanic field.
The basement in the area is formed from Jurassic-Cretaceous sedimentary rocks and Tertiary volcanic rocks. Activity is controlled by tectonic extension west of the Andes and has sent lava flows which reach the Rio Salado. The Infiernillo is part of a transitory region of the Southern Volcanic Zone between the northern and central segment thereof.
There are three vents named Hoyo Colorado, La Hoyada and Loma Negra. The first vent erupted 6890 ± 40 BCE as found by radiocarbon dating, while ages of 69,000 ± 50,000 and 34,000 ± 70,000 have been obtained on the other two centres, respectively. The oldest age in the field is 0.83 ± 0.11 mya; other dates found are less than 100,000-200,000 years old. These other volcanoes are located around Niña Encantada lake and include Mesillas and Lagunita.
Hoyada volcano is a crater with a diameter of . It is surrounded by tephra falls and forms a long lava flow which after splits into two branches. The presence of levees in the flow indicates that the flow rate diminished during the eruption. Lagunitas volcano conversely is a high stratovolcano-like cone that generated a blocky lava flow long. This lava flow also dammed an ephemeral stream, creating a lake. The Loma Negra cone is older than the Lagunitas one considering that the Lagunitas lava flow is deflected by the Loma Negra cone and lava. The Loma Negra cone formed a lava flow long. A phreatic explosion at its margins formed the Nina Encantada lake. Hoyo Colorado is a cone which generated a complex lava field damming the Salado river. Hoyo Colorado has erupted approximately twice as much rock as the other three centres.
The first three cones all erupted basaltic andesite containing hornblende and matrix olivine and plagioclase. Hoyo Colorado is much more olivine-rich and contains amphibole. Major element analyses indicate similarity to the Planchon-Peteroa volcanic centre at the same latitude. The rare-earth element contents are transitional between Planchon-Peteroa and Patagonia alkali basalt signatures.


Dinailurictis

Dinailurictis is an extinct prehistoric carnivore nimravid belonging to the subfamily Nimravinae. It lived during late Oligocene in Europe.
It is believed that "Dinailurictis" is probably a synonym of "Quercylurus major", and "Quercylurus" is a synonym of "Nimravus intermedius major". So it means that "Dinailurictis" and "Quercylurus" may have looked like "Nimravus", but all species of "Nimravus" were no larger than a large lynx and "Quercylurus" was about 1 m high and its weight was 300 kg, also "Quercylurus major" is older than "Dinailurictis". This shows that "Quercylurus" might be ancestral to "Dinailurictis".
If "Dinailurictis" was a synonym of "Quercylurus", it might have a sleek body like caracal but its back was longer and feet of this nimravid probably were more dog-like than cat-like with partially retractable claws. "Dinailurictis" and "Quercylurus" probably hunted small mammals and birds. Its technique of hunting was ambushing them like modern cats rather than chasing them down. There is only one known species of this rare nimravid - "Dinailurictis bonali".


Galulatherium

Galulatherium is a genus of probable gondwanathere from the Late Cretaceous (Turonian-Campanian) Galula Formation of Tanzania. It is known solely from the type specimen TNM 02067 (Tanzanian National Museums specimen 02067) a fragmentary fossil dentary (lower jaw). The short, deep bone is about long, but the back part is broken off. It contains a large, forward-inclined incisor with a root that extends deep into the jaw, separated by a diastema (gap) from five cheekteeth. Very little remains of the teeth, but enough to determine that they are hypsodont (high-crowned). The third cheektooth is the largest and the roots of the teeth are curved. First described in 2003, TNM 02067 has been tentatively identified as a sudamericid—an extinct family of high-crowned gondwanathere mammals otherwise known from South America, Madagascar, India, and Antarctica. If truly a gondwanathere, it would be the only African member of the group and may be the oldest. The describers could not exclude other possibilities, such as that the jaw represents some mammalian group known only from younger, Cenozoic times (less than 66 million years ago). In 2019 the fossil was CT scanned, which revealed additional details of the specimen.
Discovery and context.
"Galulatherium" was discovered in 2002 in the locality TZ-07 in the Mbeya Region of southwestern Tanzania, which has also yielded remains of various other vertebrates, including birds and other saurischian dinosaurs. The discovery was reported in a 2003 paper by David Krause and colleagues. TZ-07 lies in the "Red Sandstone Unit" (RSU), an informal, poorly defined rock unit. Age estimates for the RSU have ranged from middle Jurassic to Miocene, but according to Krause and colleagues, part of this discrepancy is the result of confusion between two superficially similar rock units that outcrop nearby; the older one, where TZ-07 is located, is undoubtedly Mesozoic and the younger is Cenozoic. Based on the presence of non-avian dinosaurs and osteoglossomorph fishes, Krause and colleagues assigned TZ-07 to the Cretaceous (146–66 million years ago). In 2007, Nancy Stevens and colleagues identified the unit that produced TNM 02067 as likely belonging to the middle part of the Cretaceous (around Aptian to Cenomanian). TNM 02067 is significant as one of the very few mammals from the Cretaceous of the southern continents (Gondwana).
Description.
TNM 02067 is a damaged, partial left dentary (lower jaw bone). It preserves much of the body of the bone, which is short and deep, but is broken along a vertical fracture behind the toothrow. There is another fracture in the front part of the jaw. The bone is 19.5 mm (0.77 in) long and 11.4 mm (0.45 in) deep. All the teeth are incomplete or absent, and lack both enamel and cementum, but what remains indicates that there was a large incisor at the front and five cheekteeth further back, separated by a diastema (gap) of about 2.5 mm (0.098 in). On the labial (outer) surface of the dentary, there is one large mental foramen (opening). The mandibular symphysis, where the two halves of the lower jaw meet, is poorly preserved, but there is nothing to suggest that the left and right dentaries were fused. The lower margin of the bone is convex at the front, but concave further back, so that the depth of the dentary is 8.3 mm (0.33 in) below the diastema, but only 7.0 mm (0.28 in) below the third cheektooth. The origin of the coronoid process, a projection at the back of the dentary, lies far to the front.
The large incisor is inclined forward, and its root—the only part of the tooth that is preserved—forms an angle of about 55° with the horizontal. At the tip of the alveolus, where the tooth projects out of the bone, it is 3.0 mm (0.12 in) high and 2.1 mm broad. The root extends through the dentary to a position below the third cheektooth. Only the roots of the first and second cheekteeth are preserved. Both are about 1.5 mm in diameter, but the first tooth may have been slightly smaller than the second. The third tooth, the largest of the cheekteeth, has the root slightly curved backward. This root is deeply anchored in the dentary, extending down through about three-fourths of the bone. The crown is preserved in the form of a stump of dentine, 2.3 mm (0.091 in) long and 1.9 mm (0.075 in) broad, that extends high above the dentary, indicating that the tooth was hypsodont (high-crowned). High dentine stumps also remain of the fourth and fifth cheekteeth. The fourth is about as large as the first and second and the fifth is smaller, with a diameter of about 1.0 mm (0.039 in). The fourth cheektooth also has a long, curved root, which extends more than halfway through the dentary, and that of the fifth tooth is even smaller and shorter. The orientation of the roots and teeth indicates that all the teeth were single-rooted.
Identity.
The dentary superficially resembles that of various other mammalian groups with enlarged incisors, such as rodents, lagomorphs, hyraxes, wombats, the aye-aye, and the extinct apatemyids, tillodonts, and taeniodonts—all of which are known only from the Cenozoic, less than 66 million years ago. Krause and colleagues could not exclude the possibility that TNM 02067 represents an early member of such a group or an otherwise unknown major group of mammals. However, only two groups of Mesozoic mammals resemble TNM 02067: gondwanatheres; and multituberculates in the superfamilies Djadochtatherioidea and Taeniolabidoidea. Djadochtatherioids and taeniolabidoids occur in the late Cretaceous through Paleogene of the northern continents (Laurasia), and gondwanatheres, an enigmatic group of uncertain evolutionary affinities, are known from the late Cretaceous through Paleogene of Gondwana, with forms such as "Gondwanatherium", "Sudamerica" (both from Argentina), "Lavanify" (Madagascar), and "Bharattherium" (India).
No multituberculates are known to have had hypsodont teeth, none has more than two molariform (molar-like) teeth in a single toothrow, and most have large, blade-like teeth. However, the form of the remains of TNM 02067's third cheektooth suggests it was not such a blade-like tooth and that at least the last three cheekteeth were likely molariform. In these respects, TNM 02067 does resemble gondwanatheres in the family Sudamericidae, and Krause and colleagues tentatively identified it as representing that family, primarily on the basis of its hypsodont teeth. Krause and colleagues compared the dentary in detail to that of "Sudamerica", the only other gondwanathere for which a substantial fragment of the jaw was known. "Sudamerica" has only four, not five, cheekteeth (all of which are molariform), a higher, narrower incisor with a root that extends further through the dentary, and a shorter diastema; in all these respects, TNM 02067 is more primitive. In addition, the mental foramen of the TNM 02067 is located lower and the cheekteeth vary more in size.
If truly a gondwanathere, "Galulatherium" extends the known geographic range of the group to another part of Gondwana, the African mainland. The uncertain age of locality TZ-07 renders a precise assessment of the significance of TNM 02067 difficult. It may well be older than the oldest previously known gondwanathere, the Campanian "Gondwanatherium". It also has implications for the hypothesis that Africa was isolated from the rest of Gondwana from an early date—as early as the early Cretaceous—and consequently had a fauna distinct from the rest of Gondwana for much of the Cretaceous, as it may be closely related to the sudamericids of South America, India, Madagascar, and Antarctica, a highly derived group.


Calbuco Archipelago

Calbuco Archipelago is located in the Reloncaví Sound, Llanquihue Province, Los Lagos Region, Chile.
The archipelago is composed of 14 islands.
List of islands.
The islands are:
The last three islands, Tabon, Mayelhue and Lin, are by low tide only one island.


Alfred Nehring

Alfred Nehring (29 January 1845, in Gandersheim – 29 September 1904 in Berlin-Charlottenburg) was a German zoologist and paleontologist.
He studied philology and natural sciences in Göttingen and Halle, afterwards teaching classes in Wesel (1867) and Wolfenbüttel (1871). From 1881 he was a professor at the "Landwirtschaftlichen Hochschule" (agricultural university) in Berlin.
Nehring's scientific investigations involved modern and prehistoric vertebrates, being particularly interested in the history and morphology of domesticated animals (horses, dogs, etc.). In his studies of the guinea pig, he asserted "Cavia cutleri" to be the direct ancestor of the domesticated guinea pig.
Selected writings.
Nehring also made contributions to Reiss & Stübel's "Das Totenfeld von Ancon in Peru" (translated into English as "The necropolis of Ancon in Peru; a contribution to our knowledge of the culture and industries of the empire of the Incas", etc.)


Floral Formation

The Floral Formation is a geologic formation in Saskatchewan. It preserves fossils.


Yate (volcano)

Yate Volcano is a large, glaciated stratovolcano located in the southern Andes, in the Los Lagos Region of Chile, south of the Reloncaví Estuary. Yate lies on the major regional Liquiñe-Ofqui Fault Zone, and is located 10 km north-east of the smaller Hornopiren volcano. The last known eruption occurred in 1090 CE. There are no historical records of recent volcanic activity, but there is strategic evidence of smaller eruptions sometime in the Holocene.
1965 Landslide and Tsunami.
On February 19, 1965 a non-eruptive landslide of ice and rock caused by unusually heavy summer rains slid rapidly into a narrow gully, descended around 1500 meters in elevation, and crashed into Lake Cabrera below. This triggered a tsunami that thundered across the lake and swept through the lakeside community of Lago Cabrera just moments later. There was virtually no warning and the community was caught by surprise. The entire village was destroyed, killing twenty-seven people. It is considered the worst volcano-related loss of life in Chile since the Villarrica eruptions of 1948–1949. The debris field left behind by the tsunami is still visible today, and the people of nearby Hornopirén commemorate the tragedy every year with a pilgrimage to the site and the memorial chapel.
Future Dangers.
With a warming climate, increased rain and increasing glacial meltwater may accelerate edifice collapse. This has potential implications for more landslide hazards in the area of the volcano, and tsunami risks in the lake area.


Descabezado Grande

Descabezado Grande (also "Cerro Azul" or "Quizapu") is a stratovolcano located in the Maule Region of central Chile. It is capped by a ice-filled caldera and named for its flat-topped form, as "descabezado" means "headless" in Spanish. A smaller crater about wide is found in the northeast part of the caldera, and it has active fumaroles.
The volcano is composed of andesite and rhyodacite lava flows along with pyroclastic flow deposits. It has a basal diameter of about 10 by 12 kilometres (6 mi × 8 mi) and a total volume of about . Along with Cerro Azul, to the south, it lies at the center of a 20-by-30-kilometre (12 mi × 20 mi) volcanic field.


Anta Mantay

Anta Mantay (Quechua "anta" copper, "mantay" to spread out, also spelled "Antamantay") is a mountain in the Andes of Peru which reaches an altitude of approximately . It is located in the Lima Region, Canta Province, Huaros District. Anta Machay lies northwest and west of a lake named Tuqtuqucha ("broody hen's lake", also named "Mellizas de Tactococha" or "Mellizas de Tuctococha").


Colobodectes

Colobodectes is an extinct genus of dicynodont therapsid from the Tapinocephalus Assemblage Zone in the Abrahamskraal Formation (Beaufort Group), South Africa.


Dun Mountain-Maitai Terrane

The Dun Mountain-Maitai Terrane comprises the Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt (also called the Mineral Belt), Maitai Group and Patuki Mélange. The Dun Mountain Ophiolite is an ophiolite of Permian age located in New Zealand's South Island. Prehistorically this ophiolite was quarried by Māori for both metasomatized argillite and pounamu (jade) which was used in the production of tools and jewellery.
In the late 1800s, the Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt was surveyed for its economic potential. During this time the rock types dunite and rodingite (after Dun Mountain and the Roding River) were first named. Discovery of economic deposits of chromite near Nelson lead to the building of New Zealand’s first railway, however, extraction only occurred between 1862 and 1866. In the 20th century, serpentinite was mined for fertiliser and the ophiolite remains one of New Zealand's main sources of pounamu (jade), but all other mineral exploration has failed to find economic deposits.
Description.
The Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt is composed of a typical ophiolite sequence of ultramafic rocks overlain by a plutonic then volcanic sequence, and finally by conglomerates and other sedimentary rocks of the Maitai Group. The unaltered ultramafic rocks are restricted to three massifs, Dun Mountain, the Red Hills and Red Mountain, elsewhere they are highly serpentinized. This ophiolite sequence is structurally underlain by the ophiolitic Patuki Mélange. The Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt likely formed in a forearc environment.
Distribution.
The Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt is a locally intact approximately section through oceanic crust. It is exposed between D'Urville Island in Marlborough District and St Arnaud in Tasman District, and Jackson Bay in the West Coast Region and Balclutha in Otago. The Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt is exposed in the South Island and is inferred to exist at depth under the North Island. It is in two sections, as it is offset by the Alpine Fault, with sections to the west of the fault having been displaced northwards. The Dun Mountain-Maitai Terrane also extends at depth into the North Island as far as Northland.


Quitmaniceras

Quitmaniceras is a genus of small, compressed, fairly evolute ammonites from the lower Turonian of Grant County, New Mexico and Trans-Pecos Texas, included in the subfamily Acanthoceratinae. The shell has a carinate venter in juveniles and one that is arched in adults, usually with a raised siphonal line,(siphonal referring to the marginal siphuncle). Ribs are very weak to moderately strong, flexious, typically sloping forward toward the rim, bending further forward at the outer shoulder.
Distribution.
Fossils of "Quitmaniceras" have been found in Colombia (Loma Gorda Formation, Aipe, Huila), Mexico and the United States (Arizona and Texas).


Tsimiroro

Tsimiroro is a large oil field in the onshore Morondava Basin of Madagascar found south of the Bemolanga ultra heavy oil field and south of the town of Morafenobe. It is estimated to contain as many as of heavy oil with 14° to 16° API gravity. The oil is found in the Isalo and Amboloando formations.
Madagascar Oil is the license holder of the Tsimiroro field. It describes the field as being a heavy oil field with a significant volume of oil in place. It gives figures for oil in place (2010 estimates) as:
Madagascar Oil is working on a steam flood pilot project as well as continuing drilling operations to expand the proven reserve base. Tsimiroro is believed to be able to achieve at least to of oil output per day over 35–40 years. First production was realised in March 2008, a year when a total were produced.


Chuckanut Formation

The Chuckanut Formation in northwestern Washington (named after the Chuckanut Mountains, near Bellingham), its extension in southwestern British Columbia (the Huntingdon Formation), and various related formations in central Washington (including the Swauk, Roslyn, Manastash, and Chumstick) are fluvial sedimentary formations of Eocene age, deposited from about 54 Ma (millions of years ago) to around 42 to 34 Ma. The nature of the deposits and included plant fossils indicate a low-lying coastal plain with a subtropical climate; the nature of the sediments indicates metamorphic sources in northeastern Washington.
Extent.
The original Chuckanut/Huntingdon/Swauk formation appears to have been deposited as a single unit in a large basin, and subsequently separated by faulting. The original extent of the formation is unknown, parts having been uplifted and eroded away, and the current extents largely covered by volcanic and glacial deposits. Early work suggested that the marine Nanaimo Group on Vancouver Island was correlated with the Chuckanut, but the Nanaimo Group is now known to be earlier (Upper Cretaceous). The principal outcrops of the Chuckanut Formation (marked CK on the map) are in the vicinity of Bellingham, with other outcrops as far south as the Darrington—Devils Mountain Fault Zone. The Swauk, Roslyn, Chumstick, and Manastash Formations (SW and MA) are on the east side of the Cascade Range and south of Mount Stuart (in the vicinity of Roslyn, Washington); the offset between these and the Chuckanut/Huntingdon is evidence of large-scale (about 110 km) strike-slip motion on the Straight Creek Fault, starting at 48 Ma. Other related formations (such as the Puget Group and Raging River Formation) occur east and south of Seattle. Other sedimentary formations of similar age and environment occur throughout southwestern Washington and western Oregon. Various sedimentary formations underlying Puget Sound and the eastern Olympic Peninsula (such as the Crescent Formation) are of similar age, but petrographically distinct, and appear to have different sources.
Geology.
The Chuckanut and related formations "are all composed predominantly of fine- to medium-grained sandstones with lesser amounts of interbedded shale, conglomerate, and coal." The sandstones consist of sand eroded from the Mount Stuart massif and probably from uplifted metamorphic sources in northeastern Washington (this was well before the rise of the Cascade Range), and distributed by rivers across a low-lying coastal plain starting about 54 Ma. These were laid over a metamorphic suite of rocks, those under the Chuckanut now known as the Shuksan, and its correlate under the Swauk known as the Easton. Near Vancouver parts of the Huntingdon Formation lie disconformably on parts of the Cretaceous Nanaimo Group.
Deposition of the Chuckanut continued as convergence of the Crescent Terrane (Olympic Peninsula) initiated strike-slip motion on the Straight Creek Fault (48 Ma), displacing much of the original formation to the north. Continued deposition across the Straight Creek Fault formed the Raging River and Puget Group formations east of Seattle; the former is partly marine, indicating it was probably a large delta, and locating the Eocene coast line. Deposition is believed to have largely ended in the late Eocene (around 42 Ma?) when regional uplift diverted the rivers supplying the sediments, but some deposition may have continued, supplied from local sources.
 estimated a total thickness of , which would make the Chuckanut Formation one of the thickest nonmarine sedimentary sequences in North America. But more recent work suggest that, at least in parts, it may be only thick.
Fossils.
Various plant and animal fossils have been found in the Chuckanut Formation. A fossil turtle shell was recovered from the formation at Clark Point in 1960. The specimen was held in the private collection of the finders until 1981 when it was examined at Western Washington University and identified as an indeterminate member of the Testudinoidea superfamily. Reexamination of the fossil in 2000 showed specimen to belong to the Trionychidae family of soft shelled turtles.
Eocene fossil trackways are found in the Chuckanut Formation, composed of birds, mammals, and some turtle tracks. It is thought that the Chuckanut Formation shoreline was of riverine environments combined with a large scale "bedding plane" of material deposition. Four deposition or track sites are known.
References.
Bibliography.


Glaciers of New Zealand

New Zealand contains many glaciers, mostly located near the Main Divide of the Southern Alps in the South Island. They are classed as mid-latitude mountain glaciers. There are eighteen small glaciers in the North Island on Mount Ruapehu.
An inventory of South Island glaciers compiled in the 1980s indicated there were about 3,155 glaciers with an area of at least one hectare (2.5 acres). Approximately one sixth of these glaciers covered more than 10 hectares. These include:
New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica, the Ross Dependency, also contains many glaciers.
List of glaciers.
Notable glaciers in New Zealand include:
Retreat of glaciers.
New Zealand glaciers have been retreating since 1890, with an acceleration of this retreat since 1920. Most of the glaciers have thinned measurably and have reduced in size, and the snow accumulation zones have risen in elevation during the 20th century. In the period 1971–75, Ivory Glacier receded from the glacial terminus, and about 26% of the surface area of the glacier was lost over the same period. Since 1980 numerous small glacial lakes were created behind the new terminal moraines of several of these glaciers. Glaciers such as Classen, Godley and Douglas now all have new glacial lakes below their terminal locations due to the glacial retreat over the past 20 years. Satellite imagery indicates that these lakes are continuing to expand. There has been significant and ongoing ice volume losses on the largest glaciers: the Tasman, Ivory, Classen, Mueller, Maud, Hooker, Grey, Godley, Ramsay, Murchison, Therma, Volta and Douglas Glaciers. The retreat of these glaciers has been marked by expanding proglacial lakes and terminus region thinning. The loss in volume from 1975–2005 is 11 percent of the total.
Several glaciers, notably the much-visited Fox and Franz Josef Glaciers on the West Coast, have periodically advanced, especially during the 1990s, but the scale of these advances is small when compared to 20th-century retreat. Both glaciers are currently more than shorter than a century ago. These large, rapidly flowing glaciers situated on steep slopes have been very reactive to small mass-balance changes. A few years of conditions favorable to glacier advance, such as more westerly winds and a resulting increase in snowfall, are rapidly echoed in a corresponding advance, followed by equally rapid retreat when those favorable conditions end. Hence glacier advance in a few locations is regarded as due to transient local weather conditions which brought more precipitation and cloudier, cooler summers since 2002.


Soliclymenia

Soliclymenia is a genus of ammonites from the Late Devonian. "S. paradoxa" has an unusual, triangularly-coiled shell. Additional genera of ammonites with triangular shells are "Kamptoclymenia", "Trigonoshumardites", and "Trigonogastrioceras". "Soliclymenia semiparadoxa", which is known only from the holotype, is semi-triangular, the innermost whorls being circular. Other species of this genus, including "S. solarioides" and "S. recticostata", have a circularly-coiled shell.


Diictodon

Diictodon was a genus of pylaecephalid dicynodont. These mammal-like synapsids lived during the Late Permian period, approximately 255 million years ago. Fossils have been found in the "Cistecephalus" Assemblage Zone of the Madumabisa Mudstone of the Luangwa Basin in Zambia and the "Tropidostoma" Assemblage Zone of the Teekloof Formation, "Tapinocephalus" Assemblage Zone of the Abrahamskraal Formation, "Dicynodon" Assemblage Zone of the Balfour Formation, "Cistecephalus" Assemblage Zone of the Middleton or Balfour Formation of South Africa and the Guodikeng Formation of China. Roughly half of all Permian vertebrate specimens found in South Africa are those of "Diictodon". This small herbivorous animal was one of the most successful synapsids in the Permian period.
Characteristics.
Appearance.
"Diictodon" had disproportionally large heads that ended in a horny beak. Both males and females had a pair of tusks sticking out from the upper jaw, with those of the male being slightly larger. "Diictodon" had strong arms and legs, as well as 5 sharp claws on each hand, and may have had keen senses of smell and sight. Their gait was similar to the 'high walk' of crocodiles. Their jaws were also simplified, with some of the bones dedicated instead to hearing, considered a key sign of mammalian adaptation. "Diictodon" also had many adaptations for digging, such as highly developed muscles, a cylindrical body, and wide hands. Researchers Chinsmay and Rubridge analyzed seven other Dicynodonts species discovering the humerual bone microstructure in Diictidon showed no signs of growth marks indicating a variation in its growth strategy that further improved their ability to dig.
Lifestyle.
As a therapsid, "Diictodon" shared many features with modern-day mammals. Most noticeably, they made burrows into the earth. These burrows could be up to deep. Many scientists believe that "Diictodon" lived like the modern gopher. Their burrows could have been used to escape the heat of the desert, which was the dominant environment on the continent of Pangaea in the Late Permian Period. Inside these burrows, nests have been found, where "Diictodon" skeletons are present. They constituted of quite a gregarious lifestyle with numerous burrows in 500 square meters of space. However, their burrows were unconnected and did not form any large colonies. Many "Diictodon" nested close to flood plains, and some specimens may have been killed as water flowed into the nests, drowning the animals. Diictidon’ s primary utilization of humeral excursion rather than forearm extension aided in employing rotation thrusting when burrowing . "Diictodon" had no known rival species competing in its niche, so they may have competed primarily with others of their species for the little plant material available. Fossils of infant "Diictodon" discovered in brood chambers in some burrows suggest there was parental care in the genus, and that males seem to have been involved in raising the infants, based on the fact that some adults in said burrows had tusks.`
Diet.
Like all dicynodonts, "Diictodon" were herbivorous. They used their beaks to break off pieces of the sparse desert shrubs. Like modern desert animals, "Diictodon" may have had unusually efficient digestive systems, due to the lack of nutrients present in desert plants. As burrowing animals, they may have fed off of water-rich plant tubers.


Torre Egger

Torre Egger is one of the mountains of the Southern Patagonian Ice Field in South America. It is located in a region which is disputed between Argentina and Chile, west of Cerro Chalten (also known as Fitz Roy). The peak is between Cerro Torre, the highest in a four mountain chain and Cerro Stanhardt. It is named after the Austrian alpinist Toni Egger (1926-1959), who died while attempting neighboring Cerro Torre.
First ascent.
In 1976, John Bragg, Jim Donini and Jay Wilson from the United States climbed Torre Egger by climbing first to the col between the peak and Cerro Torre, the Col of Conquest, and then up the ridge to the peak. The ascent was hampered by bad weather and took from December 1975 to February 22, 1976 when the 3-person team summitted.
Other ascents.
In January 2008, Rolando Garibotti and Colin Haley made the first complete traverse of the entire massif, climbing Aguja Standhardt, Punta Herron, Torre Egger and Cerro Torre together. They rate their route at Grade VI 5.11 A1 WI6 Mushroom Ice 6, with total vertical gain. This had been "one of the world's most iconic, unclimbed lines", first attempted by Ermanno Salvaterra.


Cordillera de Pirulil

The Pirulil Range is a mountain range located in the southern half of Chiloé Island. It is located along the Pacific coast and forms part of the larger Chilean Coast Range. It northern boundary is the Cucao Lake, beyond of which Cordillera del Piuchén rises. To the south the range ends at Corcovado Gulf.


Isasicursor

Isasicursor (meaning "Isasi's runner" after Marcelo Pablo Isasi) is a genus of elasmarian ornithopod from the Chorrillo Formation from Santa Cruz Province in Argentina. The type and only species is Isasicursor santacrucensis. It was a contemporary of the sauropod "Nullotitan" which was described in the same paper.
Discovery and naming.
In 1980, geologist Francisco E. Nullo noticed the presence of sauropod bones on a hillside of the Estancia Alta Vista, south of the Centinela River in the Santa Cruz province of Argentina. He reported these finds to then-prominent paleontologist José Bonaparte. Bonaparte dug up a large sauropod cervical vertebra in 1981. The old site was relocated and new excavations were carried out between 13 and 17 January and 14 to 19 March 2019, and a new site was discovered on the Estancia La Anita. A whole new fauna came to light on an area of . The sauropod finds were named as the new genus "Nullotitan" but bones from a new ornithopod were also discovered by technician Marcelo Pablo Isasi, which laid close to some mosasaur teeth.
In 2019, the type species "Isasicursor santacrucensis" was named and described by Fernando Emilio Novas, Federico Lisandro Agnolin, Sebastian Rozadilla, Alexis Mauro Aranciaga-Rolando Federico Brisson-Egli, Matias Javier Motta, Mauricio Cerroni, Martin Dario Ezcurra, Agustín Guillermo Martinelli, Julia S D´Angelo, Gerardo Alvarez-Herrera, Adriel Roberto Gentil, Sergio Bogan, Nicolás Roberto Chimento, Jordi Alexis García-Marsà, Gastón Lo Coco, Sergio Eduardo Miquel, Fátima F. Brito, Ezequiel Iganacio Vera, Valeria Susana Perez Loinaze, Mariela Soledad Fernández and Leonardo Salgado. The large number of authors is a consequence of the fact that the article described the entire fauna in which every expert contributed his part. The genus name honors Isasi and connects its name with a Latin "cursor", "runner". The species designation refers to its provenance from Santa Cruz province.
The holotype, MPM 21525, was found in a layer of the upper Chorillo Formation that dates from the Maastrichtian. It consists of the upper side of a left shin.
Different bones from the same location were designated as paratypes. These were MPM 21526, a piece of a cervical vertebra; MPM 21527: two middle vertebrae; MPM 21528: a sacrum minus the third sacral vertebra; MPM 21529: thirty anterior, middle and posterior vertebrae of different individuals; MPM 21530: the bottom of a right shoulder blade; MPM 21531: the lower end of a left humerus; MPM 21532: the main body of a left pubic bone; MPM 21533: a set of young animals of which the upper side of a right thigh bone, three upper sides of a left thigh bone, three lower sides of a left thigh bone and two shafts of a thigh bone; MPM 21534: the lower end of a tibia; MPM 21535: the ends of a second metatarsal; MPM 21536: the lower end of a third left metatarsal leg; MPM 21537: the ends of a fourth metatarsal; MPM 21538: the fourth metatarsal bone of a young animal; MPM 21539L: the first foot of the first toe, first foot of the second toe and the second and third foot of the fourth toe; MPM 21540: six foot claws; and MPM 21541: the second and third toes of a young animal.
The finds represent at least four individuals. They are found in a layer of long and thick. The fossils are part of the collection of the "Museo Regional Provincial Padre Molina".
Description.
Size and distinctive features.
The describers were able to identify five distinctive features. They are autapomorphies, unique derived properties. The sacrum is curved downwards. The first and second sacral vertebra are connected to each other via a pin-and-hole connection. The "crista cnemialis" of the tibia is thickened and highly upward excellent. On the upper surface of the tibia, the outer rear lobe has an additional protrusion that faces forward and faces. The second metatarsal has a well on the outside for the joint capsule that is higher than normal.
Skeleton.
The cervical vertebra is keeled and flattened on the side. The amphicoelous vertebrae show no special details. The sacrum has six sacral vertebrae and is fairly robust. It is exceptional that the sphere curves downwards. The keeled first sacral vertebra is greatly widened sideways. The second sacral vertebra has a keel that extends into a protrusion that fits into a hole in the oval back facet of the first vertebra; their contact is normally flat. The fourth vertebra has a longitudinal trough on the underside with only a low ledge at the front. The front facet is square, the back facet hexagonal. The fifth vertebra has the same morphology from the bottom. It is again oval on the front but rectangular on the back. The sixth vertebra also sticks with a pin in the fifth. The tail vertebrae are slightly amphicoel and have length trough. Lateral ridges increase towards the rear, so that eventually a hexagonal cross-section is created.
With the shoulder blade, the cavity above the shoulder joint is round and shallow, as with "Gasparinisaura" and "Trinisaura" . The front leg is relatively long but shorter than the rear leg. The corridor was probably optional two-legged: at high speed the animal walked on only the hind legs. The fact that the front leg was not used for a powerful sale is clear from the delta-detectoral comb of the humerus that is reduced to a low ledge. The outside thereof is intersected by numerous roughenings for tendons. The humerus bends outwards. Both of these characteristics are typically elasmaric.
The pubis apparently did not touch the process obturatorius of the Ischium which means that the foramen obturatum is not closed but open downwards.
For the femur, the trochanter major at the top is convex and on the inside separated by a groove from the front narrow trochanter minor. The front groove is not well developed between the lower joint nodules. The inner nodule is not widened outwards. With the tibia, the upward widening of the crista cnemialis, above the joint surface, gives it a triangular profile. This comb is also thickened across, with a round top. The crista lateralisis also thick, with a straight front edge. The triangular outer lobe of the upper surface has a special obliquely forward projection. The lower outer leg style has an elongated comb that forms an elevation in the middle. The inner post is not bent forward. In the young animals, all these characteristics are less pronounced on the lower part of the tibia.
The second metatarsal is flattened at the top and thickened from front to back, a synapomorphy of the Elasmaria. However, the thickening remains limited. With the third metatarsal, the innermost lower joint bump is the largest. With the remarkably robust fourth metatarsal leg, the upper outer edge forms a sharp ledge; at "Talenkauen", "Morrosaurus" and the Styracosterna this piece is completed. The bottom surface forms a parallelogram whose rear edge protrudes more inwards but is curled outwards. The toe legs are sturdy and short, also from front to back, a distracted feature. The foot claws are not hoof-shaped but sharp, albeit with a flat bottom.
Phylogeny.
"Isasicursor" was placed in the Elasmaria , although without a precise cladistic analysis, so its exact relationships remain unclear. If this placement is correct, the animal is the youngest known iguanodont, and by extension, ornithopod, known from the Southern Hemisphere.
Palaeobiology.
"Isasicursor" was a herbivore. The describers consider it likely that the Elasmaria lived together with the relatively larger Hadrosauroidea, with the two groups belonging in different niches, though hadrosauroids were not found at the site. The presence of "Nullotitan" suggests niche partitioning with giant sauropods. "Isasicursor" was probably hunted by an as yet unnamed member of the Megaraptoridae whose bones were found on the site.
The describers saw the remains of young and old individuals being found together as evidence that "Isasicursor" lived in herds.


Vardebukta Formation

The Vardebukta Formation is a geologic formation in Norway. It preserves fossils dating back to the Early Triassic (Dienerian) period.


Lehmanotus

Lehmanotus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the Early Triassic epoch in what is now Madagascar. It belongs to Parasemionotidae together with "Albertonia", "Candelarialepis", "Jacobulus", "Parasemionotus", "Qingshania", "Stensioenotus", "Suius", "Thomasinotus" and "Watsonulus".


Buffalopterus

Buffalopterus is a prehistoric eurypterid from the Silurian-aged Bertie Formation of New York and Ontario. The genus contains one species, "B. pustulosus". It is closely related to "Strobilopterus", but differs primarily by having a bizarre, globular telson (which is otherwise sword-like or spine-like in other eurypterids), and in size, being estimated to be at least 1 meter in length.


Monts du Lyonnais

The Monts du Lyonnais are a range of low-altitude mountains and eastern foothills of the Massif Central located in the Loire and Rhône departments in France.
Geography.
The monts du Lyonnais' highest summit is the "crêt Malherbe" (946 m).
The Janon river running east from Terrenoire (now part of Saint-Étienne) and then the Gier continuing east from Saint-Chamond to meet the Rhone at Givors create a valley in the coal basin that separates Mont Pilat from the Monts du Lyonnais.
References.
Citations
Sources


Cordillera Domeyko

The Cordillera Domeyko is a mountain range of the Andes located in northern Chile, west of Salar de Atacama. It runs north-south for approximately 600 km, parallel to the main chain. The mountain range marks the eastern border of the flat parts of Atacama Desert.
Cordillera Domeyko was named after Ignacy Domeyko and is the world's lowest humidity mountain range.


Bagualosaurus

Bagualosaurus is a genus of sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Santa Maria Formation of Brazil, dating to around 230 million years ago in the Carnian of the Late Triassic. It includes one species, "Bagualosaurus agudoensis".
Discovery.
In 2007, in a ravine at the outcrop of Janner, near Agudo in Rio Grande do Sul, a sauropodomorph skeleton was excavated. It was removed in a single block of stone. For five years it remained unprepared in the collection of the "Laboratório de Paleovertebrados da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul", curated by Cesar Leandro Schultz. In 2012, Flávio Augusto Pretto began to study the specimen. In 2018, Pretto, Max Cardoso Langer and Schultz named and described the type species "Bagualosaurus agudoensis". The generic name is derived from "bagual", "strongly built fellow" in the dialect of Rio Grande do Sul, in reference to the strong hindlimbs. The specific name refers to the provenance from Agudo.
The holotype, UFRGS-PV-1099-T, has been found in a layer of red mudstone of the Candelária sequence dating from the Carnian. It consists of a partial skeleton with skull. It contains the lower parts of the skull, the lower jaws, nine back vertebrae, three sacral vertebrae, two tail vertebrae, ribs, belly ribs, chevrons, both ilia, the right pubic bone, both thighbones, both shinbones, both calfbones, and the left foot. The skeleton was partly articulated but has been damaged by erosion. It was found on its back with the hindlimbs pulled up, a rare position for archosaurian fossils.
Description.
"Bagualosaurus" was a modest-sized basal sauropodomorph, measuring approximately in length that, based on its teeth, was a herbivore.
Features of its skull and dental structure are similar to later Norian sauropodomophs such as "Pantydraco", "Efraasia" and "Plateosaurus". However, its post-cranial skeleton resembles earlier forms. Likewise, it is somewhat smaller than Norian sauropodomorphs, yet significantly larger than other sauropodomorphs of its time, suggesting that it is transitional between the sauropodomorphs of its time and their later Norian descendants.


Palvennia

Palvennia is an extinct genus of ophthalmosaurid ichthyosaurian known from the uppermost Jurassic of Central Spitsbergen, Norway. It was named for PalVenn, the Friends of the Palaeontological Museum in Oslo, whose expedition led to the discovery of the type specimen. "Palvennia" is known from a single skull from the Slottsmøya Member of the Agardhfjellet Formation (middle Volgian/late Tithonian, Late Jurassic). The skull is 860 mm long, but is unusual in having a very short rostrum (~0.6× the skull length), similar to "Ichthyosaurus breviceps". Because of this, the orbit seems very large (0.34× the skull length), but this may be effected by crushing. The single and only known species is "Palvennia hoybergeti" Druckenmiller "et al.", 2012.


Rodderberg

The Rodderberg is an extinct volcano in the east of the municipality of Wachtberg near Bonn, Germany. The last eruption was 250,000 years ago.
It is situated just above the Rhine Valley. Together with the Drachenfels directly opposite, the Rodderberg narrows the Rhine Valley. This gorge portion is the southern limit of the lowland-bay of Cologne.
The Rodderberg offers views to the Siebengebirge, the Rhine Valley and up to the Cologne Cathedral, about 50 km away.
Geology.
The Rodderberg detonated in a phreatomagmatic eruption about 250,000 years ago. This happened when the magmatic plume reached the groundwater level of the Rhine (about 50m higher than today). After the explosion, the crater was filled with water that formed a maar of about 90 m depth. In the last 250,000 years this feature filled with dust and soil until it was filled up to today's level.
At present, all that is left of the old volcano is just a small hill that has a shallow concave shape. If one didn't know that it was a volcano, one would not recognize it.


Nevado del Tolima

The Nevado del Tolima is a Late Pleistocene to recently active andesitic stratovolcano located in the Tolima department, Colombia. The volcano lies south of Nevado del Ruiz volcano and is situated within the Los Nevados National Natural Park. The volcano, whose most recent activity dates to 1943 and last major eruption around 3600 years ago, overlies the Eocene El Bosque Batholith, dated at 49.1 ± 1.7 Ma.
Geography and geology.
The steep-sided, glacier-clad Nevado del Tolima volcano contrasts with the broad profile of Nevado del Ruiz to the north. The andesitic-dacitic younger Tolima formed during the past 40,000 years, rising above and largely obscuring a wide Late Pleistocene caldera. The summit consists of a cluster of Late Pleistocene to Holocene lava domes that were associated with thick block-lava flows on the northern and eastern flanks, and extensive pyroclastic-flow deposits. The summit contains a funnel-shaped crater deep. Holocene activity has included explosive eruptions ranging in size from moderate to plinian. The last major eruption took place about 3600 years ago. Lava dome growth has produced block and ash flows that traveled primarily to the northeast and southeast.
Hydrology.
The snow-capped Nevado del Tolima, with its almost symmetrical structure, has a radial drainage pattern in the upper part. The residual glacier on the top of the mountain feeds the rivers Totare, San Romualdo, Toche and Combeima. The latter is the main water source of the municipality of Ibagué. All these currents drain into the eastern slope of the Cordillera Central, directly into the Magdalena River.
Los Nevados National Park.
The Nevado del Tolima is located within the Los Nevados National Natural Park, In addition to the Nevado del Tolima, seven other volcanoes are located in the park: Nevado del Ruiz, Santa Isabel, Nevado del Quindío, Paramillo de Santa Rosa, Cerro Bravo, Cerro Machín and Nevado El Cisne.
The park spans and stretches across the departments of Caldas, Quindío, Risaralda, Tolima. The park is administratively part of the municipalities Villamaría, Santa Rosa de Cabal, Pereira, Salento, and Ibagué.
Eruptive history.
Holocene activity has included explosive eruptions ranging in size from moderate to plinian. The last major eruption took place about 3600 years ago. Lava dome growth has produced block and ash flows that traveled primarily to the NE and SE. Minor explosive eruptions have been recorded from Tolima in the 19th and 20th centuries.


Atuq Wachanan

Atuq Wachanan (Quechua "atuq" fox, "wacha" birth, to give birth, "-na", "-n" suffixes, "where the fox is born", also spelled "Atoc-Huachanan") is a mountain in the Andes of Peru. It is located in the Huánuco Region, Yarowilca Province, Aparicio Pomares District.


Casablanca (volcano)

Casablanca () is a holocene stratovolcano in the Andes of Los Lagos Region, Chile. It is located about 90 km east of the city of Osorno and host on its slopes the Antillanca ski resort. The complex erupted lavas with composition between basalt and andesite and has no recorded historical eruptions. Several scoria cones formed after the last ice age.


Protospinax

Protospinax is an extinct genus of cartilaginous fish found in the Solnhofen limestones of southern Bavaria. It is a difficult taxon to accommodate in taxonomies. Formerly known from only two specimens, further museum specimens were discovered at the Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard University in the 1990s, having been misidentified as "Squatina" and "Heterodontus".
"Protospinax" was about 1.7 m in length.


Patrick Marshall

Patrick Marshall (1869 – November 1950) was a geologist who lived in New Zealand.
Early life.
Marshall was born on 22 December 1869 in Sapiston, Suffolk to Emily Louisa Merielina Rogers and her husband, John Hannath Marshall, cricketer and vicar of Sapiston. After his father's failing health the family emigrated to Kaiteriteri, New Zealand in 1876.
Sporting career.
Marshall won the men's doubles at the New Zealand national tennis championships with his brother Joy in 1893–94. He played three first-class cricket matches for Auckland in the 1900–01 season.
Bibliography.
Articles by Patrick Marshall published in "Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand":
Books:
Species described.
The World Register of Marine Species lists 38 marine species described by P. Marshall. Most of these are extinct.


Mangart Saddle

Mangart Saddle or the Mangart Pass ( or ) is a mountain saddle in the Julian Alps in northwestern Slovenia. It has an elevation of . It is the most common starting point for the ascent of Mt. Mangart (). The Mangart Road () that leads over Mangart Saddle, with its elevation of , has a number of turns and is the highest-lying road in Slovenia. It was built in 1938. The Mangart Pass offers a picturesque view towards the Log Koritnica Valley in Slovenia to the south and the Lakes of Fusine in Italy to the north. The Mangart Saddle Lodge () lies under the saddle. The saddle was the scenery of the film "Let's Go Our Own Way". Mangart Saddle is also known as the finding place of manganese nodules from the Early Jurassic period.


Tangaroasaurus

Tangaroasaurus is an extinct genus of squalodontid whale from the Miocene of New Zealand. It contains a single species, Tangaroasaurus kakanuiensis. Similar to "Basilosaurus" and its close relative "Squalodon", it was originally thought to be a species of marine reptile. Parts of the Holotype are presumably lost. Its name comes from Tangaroa, the Maori god of the sea, while the suffix "-saurus" comes from the Latin word for reptile, the group that Tangaroasaurus was originally placed in.
The type fossil was found in a grey clay deposit at All Day Bay and consists of a jaw bearing a few teeth, measuring 5 cm each. The original describer of the type specimen, William Blaxland Benham, described it as a reptile, either a dinosaur such as Megalosaurus or an late surviving ichthyosaur. The genus was described as an odontocete cetacean in 1979 by R. E. Fordyce.
The status of the genus as a cetacean remains under discussion.
Fossils known from the same geological formation, the All Day Bay formation and Gee Greensand Formation, include an unnamed species of Squalodelphinidae and a species of "Prosqualodon".


Ruehleia

Ruehleia is a genus of sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Late Triassic period of Germany. The type species is "R. bedheimensis", described by Galton in 2001, and is named for the German paleontologist Hugo Ruehle von Lilienstern. The fossils consist of one nearly complete skeleton, consisting of cervical (neck), dorsal (back), and caudal (tail) vertebrae; a partial sacrum; a scapulocoracoid; pelvic bones; most of the limb bones; and partially complete manus (hands).
The fossils were found in central Germany and date to the Norian stage, around 216 to 208 million years ago.


Paldau Formation

The Paldau Formation is a geologic formation in Austria. It preserves insect fossils dating back to the Tortonian stage of the Miocene period.
Fossil content.
The following fossils have been reported from the formation:


Arumberia

Arumberia is an enigmatic fossil from the Ediacaran period originally described from the Arumbera Sandstone, Northern Territory, Australia but also found in the Urals, East Siberia, England and Wales, Northern France, the Avalon Peninsula and India. Several morphologically distinct species are recognized.
Description.
Initially discovered by Glaessner and Walter (1975), "Arumberia" was described as a problematic cupped-body fossil of an Ediacaran soft-bodied organism characterized by hollow compressible ribbed bodies composed of flexible tissue. Brasier (1979) deemed it a pseudofossil arising from turbid water flow in shallow marine or deltaic environments, due in part to physical and morphological similarities to flume-induced structures previously observed by Dzulynski and Walton (1965). "Arumberia" appears as a poorly-delimited series of fine parallel grooves arising from a single region or point. "Arumberia banksii" consists of an array of straight to gently curved parallel to subparallel ridges (rugae) about 1 – 3 mm wide and separated by flat to gently concave furrows of 1 – 7 mm in width. Relief from ridge top to furrow bottom is less than 1 mm. Ridge ranges in length from 1.5 cm to 14.5 cm. Generally the ridges are parallel, but they also bifurcate. Ridges are developed on plane and rippled surfaces"."
List of Species.
There are four species of "Arumberia that" have been formally recognized. "Arumberia banksi" has thin siliciclastic biolaminites known as rugose structures including those with subparallel or fanning-out series of rugae ("Arumberia banksi" s.str.) and sub-parallel series of branching rugae ("Arumberia vindhyanensis"). The "Arumberia multykensis" variety is found in greenish gray siltstones as series of near-parallel ridges with positive hyporelief up to 1 mm wide and 0.5 mm high, with 10 mm spacing between the ridges while "A. usavaensis" occurs as a series of near parallel ridges on the wavy surfaces on linguoid ripple marks which stretch along the paleoflow direction and flatten out as microterraces on the leeward side of the ripples". Arumberia usavensis is found on both upper and lower surfaces of sandstone beds as well as inside sandstones and siltstones". "Arumberia beckeri" and "Arumberia ollii" are morphologically distinct from "A. banksi" and are filamentous and ribbon-shaped compressed macrofossils which host authigenic clay minerals and are most likely unrelated to "Arumberia".
Locations.
"Arumberia" was first described in Neoproterozoic red sandstones of the lower "Arumbera" sandstone formation of the Amadeus Basin in Northern Territory, Australia. It has since been found in Argentina, Newfoundland, England, Wales, northeastern Europe, the eastern Sayan Mountains in Russia, Central India, and Rajasthan. In addition, "Arumberia" has been reported from lower Palaeozoic strata in Brittany, France and from the Upper Ediacaran Cerro Negro Formation in Argentina.
Identity.
The identity of "Arumberia" is controversial. "Arumberia" has been originally interpreted as a 5–20 cm high cup-like organism, apparently composed of flexible tissue, attached to the sea bottom by a blunt apex or, later, as a colonial organism made of flexible, thin-walled tubes tightly joined together through their length. Affinities with "Ernietta", "Conostichus", "Pteridinium", "Palaeoplatoda", "Phyllozoon" and "Bergaueria" and "Chuaria" have been conjectured. Spheroidal objects found along with "Arumberia" have also been interpreted as "dispersable stage" of "Arumberia" itself. "Arumberia" has been interpreted as a microbial mat morphotype developed in response to environmental perturbations in terminal Ediacaran shallow marine basins
Conversely, a non biological interpretation has been put forward Past experiments reproduced "Arumberia"-like traces from flume experiments and from the flux of water around small objects. The absence of "Arumberia"-like structures after the Ediacaran period could be due to the unique properties of the microbial mat that covered the sea floor at the period. However, there is still debate, with recent analysis of Urals' "Arumberia"-like structures leaning towards a biological interpretation as an organism adapted to shallow water environments. The rugae of "Arumberia" are considered to form from exclusively biological processes as observed in modern microbial mats and not from sediment desiccation, cracking or other abiotic processes. Fine wisps of organic material have been observed in thin section of "Arumberia" cut perpendicular to bedding planes, further suggesting that Arumberia was a living organism.
Recent work describes "Arumberia" as the fossilized remains of highly organized shallow marine microbial colonies; a microbially-induced sedimentary structure (MISS),; a series of slide marks underneath tough biomats that were exposed to tractional currents carrying sediment, or a biopolymer-bearing lichenized fungi. As such, "Arumberia" structures remain an enigmatic Ediacaran fossil.
Taphonomy.
Facies.
The Ediacaran facies where Arumberia has been found are interpreted as terrigenous sedimentary rocks in shallow marine or fluviolacustrine (intertidal or delta plain) settings that may have been affected by desiccation and salinity. However, an alternative interpretation of the Ediacaran facies where "Arumberia" is found is that they were coastal gyspiferous paleosols of intertidal to supratidal settings. Terminal Ediacaran (560 Ma) facies in Baltica dominantly contain biomarkers (hopane and sterane ratios) characteristic of bacterially-dominated communities in shallow marine oligotrophic settings. These values reflect a high ratio of bacterial to eukaryotic biomass and suggest these ecosystems were nutrient-limited and dominated by bacterial communities, which may have imposed growth constraints and evolutionary modifications to Ediacaran organisms like "Arumberia."
Burial Compaction and Diagenesis.
The original interpretation of "Arumberia" as a conical or cup-shaped depression structure is contrary to modern interpretations of "Arumberia" as a bulge or impression. Extensive burial from overburden typical in areas where "Arumberia" is found would greatly compact any bulge or depression of a typical soft-bodied marine metazoan; however, it has been suggested that diagenic silicification, ferrugination or pyritization can provide critical fossil rigidity during burial which supports the soft-body marine metazoan description of "Arumberia". The presence of pyrite may impart significant resistance to burial compaction in "Arumberia", but to date no study has demonstrated a thick pyritic film of sufficient strength to withstand burial compaction above an unpyritized Ediacaran fossil, which is thought to be a requirement for the preservational models that involve the pyritization of soft-body metazoans like "Arumberia".
Analysis of thin sections of "Arumberia" show remarkable resistance to compaction, which may have been due to the presence of a pyrite sole-veneer. The diagenetic oxidation of pyrite to hematite can remove all traces of the pyrite sole-veneer, so it is difficult to determine the true influence of pyritization on burial compaction in "Arumberia". Alternatively, the remarkable resistance to burial compaction may be due to the presence of a resistant biopolymer like chitin which is typical in marine and terrestrial lichens alike Exactly how the fossils are preserved remains controversial, and more research into the taphonomy of Arumberia and other Ediacarans is needed.


Cladoceramus

Cladoceramus is an extinct genus of fossil marine pteriomorphian bivalves that superficially resembled the related winged pearly oysters of the extant genus "Pteria". They lived in the Santonian stage of the Late Cretaceous.
Biostratigraphic significance.
The first appearance of the species "Cladoceramus undulatoplicatus" marks the beginning of the Santonian stage.
Distribution.
Fossils of the genus have been found in:


Dingle Dell meteorite

Dingle Dell is a 1.15 kg ordinary chondrite of subclass L/LL5, and the fourth meteorite to be recovered by the Desert Fireball Network camera observatory. It fell in the Morawa region of Western Australia on 31 October 2016 8:05 pm local time, and was recovered less than a week later, on the morning of 7 November, in a paddock at Dingle Dell farm. Given the rapid turnaround for meteorite recovery and a lack of rainfall between fall date and find date, the rock is in pristine condition and shows no evidence of terrestrial weathering (W0). This particular meteorite fall demonstrates the proficiency of the DFN as a sample recovery tool for meteoritics.
Physical properties and composition.
The rock is 1.15 kg in mass, and approximately 16 × 9 × 4 cm in size. It was originally slightly wedged shaped, with pristine fusion crust that is both primary and secondary, which indicate this rock broke up as it was passing through the Earth's atmosphere.
Dingle dell contains Chondrules between 1.15 – 4.11 mm in diameter that are poorly defined, which is characteristic of a type 5 ordinary chondrite and moderate amounts of thermal metamorphism. Both olivine and pyroxene have undulose extinction, which is evidence for mild shock, and therefore this rock is classified as an S2.
Bulk density is 3.23 g/cm3, and grain density is 3.61 g/cm3. Together, these measurements imply Dingle Dell has a porosity of 10.5%, which is close to the mean for lightly shocked, unweathered ordinary chondrite falls. The magnetic susceptibility and grain density of the meteorite are higher than typical LL chondrites, however together with the physical properties of the rock, Dingle Dell belongs to an intermediate population of meteorites that lie between the L and LL chemical groups.
Fall description and Recovery.
Several fireball reports were made by the public in the wheat-belt region of Western Australia using the Fireballs in the Sky smartphone app. Users can report a fireball sighting to help supplement the data obtained from the Desert Fireball Network observatory. Six of the DFN cameras also observed the 6.2-second fireball. The rock entered the Earth's atmosphere traveling with a velocity of 15.43 km/s. It decelerated to a velocity of 3.54 km/s over a distance of 78 km, and stopped ablating at 19.52 km altitude.
Members of the Desert Fireball Network team visited the local area around the fall on 3 November, to contact local land owners to seek permission to search. Following this, a search team of 4 people arrived on 5 November; the meteorite was recovered on the second day of searching.


Paracongroides

Paracongroides is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived from the early to middle Eocene period.


Collilongus

Collilongus (meaning "long neck") is an extinct genus of small archosauriform, possibly a rauisuchian, known from Early Triassic (Olenekian age) rocks of Czatkowice 1, Poland. It was first named by Magdalena Borsuk−Białynicka; and Andriej G. Sennikov in 2009. The type and only known species is "Collilongus rarus". It is a rare component of the Czatkowice 1 fauna, known only from vertebrae. "Collilongus" was a contemporary of the more common archosauriform "Osmolskina".


Lomas Coloradas Formation

The Lomas Coloradas Formation is a Mesozoic geologic formation in Mexico. Dinosaur remains are among the fossils that have been recovered from the formation, although only a few have yet been referred to a specific genus. Indetermiate hadrosaur remains and indeterminate sauropod remains, most likely belonging to "Alamosaurus", have been unearthed here.


Gyposaurus

Gyposaurus (meaning "vulture lizard", referring to the outdated hypothesis that prosauropods were carnivores) is a genus of basal sauropodomorph dinosaur from the early Jurassic of South Africa. It is usually considered to represent juveniles of other prosauropods, but ""G." sinensis" is regarded as a possibly valid species.
Taxonomy.
"G. capensis" was named in 1911 by Scottish physician and paleontologist Robert Broom from a partial skeleton consisting of eleven dorsal and six caudal vertebrae, ribs, gastralia, partial right scapula, right pelvic girdle, left ilium, and most of the right leg, discovered in the Upper Elliot Formation of Orange Free State, South Africa. Originally, he thought the specimen belonged to the dubious genus "Hortalotarsus". Galton and Cluver placed it in the genus "Anchisaurus" in 1976, but Michael Cooper synonymized it with "Massospondylus" in 1981, which has been generally accepted.
""G." sinensis" was named by Yang Zhongjian (C.C. Young) in 1941 for four specimens including jaw fragments and postcranial material from the Early Jurassic Lufeng Formation of Yunnan Province, China. In 1976, Galton referred it to "Lufengosaurus", while Dong Zhiming referred it to "Anchisaurus" in 1992. Galton and Upchurch (2004) considered it to be a valid, distinct taxon in need of a new generic name. Barrett "et al." (2007) proposed the name "Gripposaurus" for this species, but it is a "nomen nudum". Unpublished results of a presentation by Wang and colleagues at the SVP 2017 conference indicate that ""G." sinensis" is a junior synonym of "Lufengosaurus huenei"; however, some referred specimens need further study to determine their relationships.


Waiowa

Waiowa (also called Goropu) is an isolated trachyandesitic volcano on New Guinea island, Papua New Guinea. It is located 19 km inland from Collingwood Bay in Oro Province. It lies on a fault line along the northeast flank of the Owen Stanley metamorphic belt. It is one of the planet's newest volcanoes, it formed in September 1943.
1943-1944 eruption.
After four months of volcanic earthquakes, small phreatic eruptions began on 18 September 1943, breaking through a layer of highly metamorphosed rocks, before the first major explosion occurred on 27 December 1943. Two more major explosions occurred on 13 February and 23 July 1944, creating pyroclastic flows and lahars, and leveling 80 km2 of forest. The eruption stopped on the final explosion on 31 August 1944. The volcano was capped with a 500 m wide, steep-walled crater that is now forested and contains a small lake.


Hierve el Agua

Hierve el Agua (Spanish for "the water boils") is a set of natural travertine rock formations in San Lorenzo Albarradas, Oaxaca, Mexico that resemble cascades of water. The site is located about 70 km east of Oaxaca City, and consists of two rock shelves or cliffs which rise between fifty and ninety metres from the valley below, from which extend nearly white rock formations which look like waterfalls. These formations are created by fresh water springs, whose water is over-saturated with calcium carbonate and other minerals. As the water trickles over the cliffs, the excess minerals are deposited, much in the same manner that stalactites are formed in caves. One of the cliffs, called the "cascada chica" (small waterfall) or the Amphitheatre, contains two large artificial pools for swimming as well as a number of small natural pools. One of the artificial pools is very near the edge of the cliff.
Location.
The site is located in a very isolated region with rough terrain, dominated principally by holm oak forest, cactus and other semi desert vegetation. The "waterfalls" or rock formations are on cliffs of mountains that rise abruptly from the narrow valley floor below. It is located in ethnic Mixe territory, with the two closest communities being San Lorenzo Albarradas and San Isidro Roaguia having populations of 1403 and 320, respectively (2005). The springs that produce the rock formations are one of the few water sources in the area.
"Waterfall" rock formations and springs.
The site consists of two waterfall-like rock formations which have been formed over thousands of years. Both cliffs rise over fifty meters from the valley floor, with one rock formation reaching down twelve metres and the other reaching down thirty metres. The twelve meter one is called "cascada chica" (small waterfall) and "flows" off a base which is about sixty metres wide. The other, "cascada grande" (large waterfall), extends down from a base with which is about ninety metres wide and eighty metres above the valley floor.
The rock formations are often described as "cascadas de sal" (salt waterfalls), "cascadas petrificadas" (petrified waterfalls) and "cascadas pétreas" (rock waterfalls). The falls are formed by relatively small amounts of water which is oversaturated with calcium carbonate and comes to the surface through cracks or fissures on the mountainside. The water has a temperature of . As the water runs down the rock face, it forms large stalactites similar to those found in caves. The flow of water from the spring varies significantly between the dry and rainy seasons.
95% of the surface rock formations are of calcium carbonate; however, lower layers of both rock and water currents are little known as they are sealed by the above layers. The calcium carbonate gives the formations a white or near white appearance, but other minerals that can be present in the water, such as silver, barium and iron can also be found and determines the color of a particular stalactite. The calcium carbonate in the water is due to rainwater which passes underground. First it absorbs carbon dioxide, and forms molecules of carbonic acid. This acid comes into contact with underground marble and partially dissolves creating calcium bicarbonate. When the water runs above ground, the excess minerals fall out.
The waters, with their high mineral content, are reputed to have healing qualities.
The more easily accessible and more often visited of the two waterfalls is the "cascada chica," also called the Amphitheatre. This cliff rises over fifty metres above the valley floor, where there is a natural platform about sixty meters wide. This platform has four springs. The water from three of the four springs is captured by a number of small natural pools and two large artificial pools in which visitors can swim. The lower of the two pools is very close to the cliff edge and was built in 2007. In these pools, the water appears a turquoise green due to the mineral concentration. The fourth spring is located closest to the edge and responsible for most of the waterfall rock formation. Two of the four springs on the Amphitheatre side rise from the level floor and appear to bubble up, which is the source of the name. The bubbling action of these and some other springs is thought to occur due to construction of underground water currents. This bubbling action leads to the name of the area, Hierve el Agua (the water boils). Water constantly flows out of the springs and the process of depositing the calcium carbonate is ongoing, which can be seen on the walls of the artificial pools.
Trails lead from the cascada chica to the cascada grande, the valley floor and other areas in the vicinity. The cascada grande is just to the south of the cascada chica and easily visible from it. This waterfall rock formation is more vertical than the cascada chica. Similarly, it is a rock shelf from which flows mineral laden water over the side. This shelf is ninety metres above the valley floor, eighty metres wide with the waterfall extending down for about thirty metres. This shelf does not have artificial pools.
Ancient canals.
The area is also of archeological interest because of the extensive system of irrigation and terraces built by the Zapotecs as many as 2,500 years ago. It was also most likely a sacred site to the ancient peoples of the Oaxaca valley. The canals are part of an irrigation system which was created more than 2,500 years ago, most of which extend from the Amphitheatre side. Researchers have studied the terraces and canals which have been cut into the sides of the mountains these cliffs are on and have concluded that they were an irrigation system, unique in Mexico. Only vestiges of these irrigation canals remain; however, the archeological area has not been completely explored. These irrigation canals are considered to be unique in Mesoamerica, not only because irrigation was not common in pre-Hispanic Mexico but because they are the only example of lined irrigation canals. It is not known why canal lining does not appear outside of the Hierve el Agua area, and here the lining develops naturally. While seepage and bank erosion were indeed problems with irrigation farming in other parts of Mesoamerica, the nearest example of anything similar is with the Hohokam of southern Arizona in 650 C.E.
The tourist attraction.
In addition to the artificial pools on the Amphitheatre side, a number of other services have been built for visitors such as food stands, small markets, cabins and a regular swimming pool. The cabin area, called "Turis Yu’u," with its pool was built in the 1990s and offer areas to change clothes, shower, eat in an open-air restaurant and for overnight stays although the accommodations are very basic. This complex, as well as many of the other stalls are owned by residents of the Roeguia community.
Site Access.
The roads leading in have been occasionally subject to blockades. Despite the development, the nearby communities of San Lorenza Albarradas and San Isidro Roaguia still suffer from poverty. Each visitor is charged between M$10.00 to M$60.00 pesos by the state of Oaxaca to enter the site, depending on the season. But disputes have arisen between the two nearby communities about who should administer it and about income sharing. This led to the closing of the site between 2005 and 2007. Promises by state officials were made to invest the money earned at the site to raising living standards in the area, but residents claim that this has never happened. As a result, the locals set up their own roadside checkpoints to levy a small fee, thus tourists are sometimes charged twice to access the site — once on the road and once at the entrance to the park.
In the state of Oaxaca, road closures and blockades has been a common form of protest. It has been suggested that this reflects a weakness in the state government, illustrating its inability to maintain order. In March 2014, travelers reported that blockade of the local road to Hierve el Agua had erupted again. In October 2019, residents of Tlacolula de Matamoros, a town roughly 30 km (~18 miles) away, blocked the Pan-American Highway (Federal Highway 190) leading to Hierve el Agua to call attention to a dispute about whether an elementary school damaged by earthquakes should be repaired or replaced. In April 2020, as the Covid-19 pandemic began to spread into Oaxaca, residents of San Lorenzo Albarradas blockaded the road over concerns that uncontrolled tourism would infect the locals. The current ombudsman of Oaxaca, Bernardo Rodríguez Alamilla, said that municipalities cannot legally block access or impose traffic restrictions so the state tries to dissuade them. However, sometimes the state may give in to avoid conflicts, even sending in the National Guard to supervise their implementation.


Nevado Anallajsi

Nevado Anallajsi is a stratovolcano in Bolivia. The date of its last eruption is unknown, but its youngest lava flows appear to have erupted from a vent on the north flank of the mountain. The main composition of the volcano is andesitic and dacitic. It overlies a plateau which is composed of ignimbrite. The volcano covers an area of and is 10.2 mya old based on its erosion state, while other estimates indicate an age of 2.6 mya.


Josef Felix Pompeckj

Josef Felix Pompeckj (May 10, 1867, Groß-Köllen – July 8, 1930, Berlin) was a German paleontologist and geologist.
He was born in Groß-Köllen (now Kolno in Poland). He studied geology and paleontology at the University of Königsberg, receiving his doctorate in 1890 with the thesis "Die Trilobitenfauna der ost- und westpreußischen Diluvialgeschiebe". In 1903 he became an associate professor in Munich, and from 1904 taught classes in geology and mineralogy at the agricultural college in Hohenheim.
In 1907 he relocated to the University of Göttingen, where he eventually became a full professor of geology and paleontology. From 1913 he worked as a professor at Tübingen, then in 1917 moved to the University of Berlin as successor to Wilhelm von Branca. At Berlin, he was appointed director of Geologisch-Paläontologischen Institut und Museum.


Aqupallqa

Aqupallqa (Quechua "aqu" sand, "pallqa, p'allqa, p'alqa" forked, branched, fork, bifurcation, "sand bifurcation", Hispanicized spellings "Acopalca, Acospalca") is a mountain in the "Cordillera Central" in the Andes of Peru, about high. It is situated in the Lima Region, Yauyos Province, Tanta District. Aqupallqa lies north of the mountain Wayna Qutuni and the lake Tikllaqucha and northwest of the mountain Qutuni.


Campterophlebia

Campterophlebia is an extinct genus of prehistoric dragonflies in the family Campterophlebiidae. The species "C. elegans" is from the Jurassic (Lower Toarcian) Posidonia Shale of Germany. It is the largest Early Jurassic flying insect, with a wing over 7.31 cm length and 1.73 cm width.


Choquechambi

Choquechambi (possibly from Aymara "chuqi" gold, "champi" mushroom, Quechua "chuqi" precious metal, "champi" bronze, "chuqichampi" the name of a flower) is a mountain in the Apolobamba mountain range in Peru, about high. It is situated in the Puno Region, Putina Province, on the border of the Ananea District and the Sina District. Choquechambi lies northwest of Riti Urmasca and southeast of Ritipata, Chapi and Yanauma.
Choquechambi is also the name of a river. It originates northwest of the mountain near Ritipata from where it flows to the northwest.


Imperial Formation

The Imperial Formation is the name of two distinct and unrelated geologic formations in North America, of different geologic Eras.
Separate formations.
Canadian Paleozoic Era formation.
The older Imperial Formation occurs in the Northwest Territories of Canada. It preserves fossils dating back to the Devonian period of the Paleozoic Era.
Californian Cenozoic Era formation.
The younger Imperial Formation occurs in the Colorado Desert, in Imperial County of Southern California. It dates to the Zanclean−Lower Pliocene stage of the Pliocene Epoch, during the Neogene Period of the Cenozoic Era.
It underlies the Palm Spring Formation, and overlies the Ocotillo Formation.


Aqu Urqu

Aqu Urqu (Quechua "aqu" sand, "urqu" mountain "sand mountain", also spelled "Acco Orcco") is a mountain in the Andes of Peru, about high. It is located in the Ayacucho Region, Lucanas Province, Chipao District, and in the Sucre Province, Huacaña District. Two lakes named Waytaqucha and Amaruyuq lie at its feet.


Micropenaeus

Micropenaeus is an extinct genus of prawns in the order Decapoda. It was first named in 1998 by Sergio Bravi and Alessandro Garassino.


Koum Formation

The Koum Formation is a geological formation in the North Province of Cameroon, western Africa.
Its strata date back to the Aptian and Albian stages of the Early Cretaceous. Dinosaur remains are among the fossils that have been recovered from the formation.
Vertebrate paleofauna.
The following fossils have been found in the formation:


Roncador Field

Roncador oil field is a large oil and gas field located in the Campos Basin, off the coast of Brazil, northeast from Rio de Janeiro. It covers a area and reaches depths between .
History.
The field was discovered in October 1996 and is located in P-36 block. The operator Petrobras had been preparing for a deepwater technical challenge such as Roncador under its PROCAP (Petrobras Technological Development Program on Deep Water Production Systems) and PROCAP-2000 initiatives. The field is considered to be a major breakthrough. It involves world’s first drill pipe riser, subsea tree and early production riser (EPR) rated for . Roncador has 53 production wells, 29 injection wells and is anticipated to peak in 2014.
Oil platform accident.
Until 2001, the field was developed using "Petrobras 36" oil production platform. In the early hours of March 15, 2001 there were two unexplained explosions in the aft starboard column. At the time there were 175 people on the platform; 11 were killed. Following the explosions, the platform developed a 16° list, sufficient to allow down-flooding from the submerged fairlead boxes. Marine salvage teams tried over the weekend to save the platform by pumping nitrogen and compressed air into the tanks to expel the water, but they abandoned the rig after bad weather. The platform sank five days after the explosions (March 20), in of water with an estimated of crude oil remaining on board.
Ownership.
The field is fully owned and operated by Petrobras. It is estimated that Petrobras will spend nearly $2.2 billion on a project finance basis.
Reservoir.
Roncador has 3 billion barrels of proven recoverable oil reserves. Due to its size the field was divided into four sections: Module 1 (28-31° API), Module 2 (18° API), Module 3 (22° API) and Module 4 (18° API) with subsequent division of the project into several phases.
Production.
Field development on Roncador was divided into several phases:


Petermann Orogeny

The Petermann Orogeny was an Australian intracontinental event that affected basement rocks of the northern Musgrave Province and Ediacaran (Proterozoic) sediments of the (now) southern Amadeus Basin between ~550-535 Ma. The remains are seen today in the Petermann Ranges.
Prior to the Petermann Orogeny, which resulted in exhumation of the Musgrave Block, the Amadeus Basin was contiguous with the Officer Basin in South Australia.
The extent and effect of the Petermann Orogen appears to be relatively confined, occurring most pervasively within the central northern-Musgrave Block. Here, older Musgravian (~1200-1150 Ma) fabrics are partially to completely overprinted by sub-eclogite-facies mineral assemblages (11-12 kbar at 650 °C).
The Woodroofe Thrust, Davenport Shear Zone and Mann Fault accommodated much of the 30–40 km exhumation. Exhumation of the Musgrave Block (and overlying sediments) resulted in successive unroofing and deposition of rock types such as arkose and conglomerate in localised sedimentary basins that now outcrop as Uluru and Kata Tjuta respectively. Beyond this region of intense Petermann-aged activity, deformation related to the Petermann Orogen is less pervasive and ductile.
Sedimentation associated with the Petermann Orogeny is responsible for the deposition of the Georgina Basin, Officer Basin, Ngalia Basin and Amadeus Basin sediments in the Cambrian. Sediments are a mixture of fluvial conglomerates, sandstones, and siltstones.
Several pull-apart structural grabens formed at flexures in the orogenic belt, forming the Levenger and Moorilyanna Grabens.
Dynamics.
The Petermann Orogeny is dominated by south-over-north movement on several large, anastomosing curved thrust faults. The prime thrust fault is the Woodroffe Thrust, which is a laminated pseudotachlyte-schist zone up to 300 metres thick. This has accommodated up to 42 kilometres of vertical movement at an angle of about 15 to 20 degrees.
The structure of the Petermann Orogen within the Musgrave Block is considered to be a "flower-structure", which is a set of vertically arcuate thrust faults which dip toward each other and accommodate vertical movement by essentially "squeezing" the central block up and out.
Several northeast trending discontinuities including the Mundrabilla lineament divide the Petermann orogeny, with extensive vertical offsets across them, usually west-side-up, though the timing of this event is unknown.
Deformations.
Six deformations are known (to be completed)
Foliations.
Foliations associated with the Petermann Orogeny are typically steeply to gently south-dipping and subparallel to the thrust faults upon which they were developed.
S regionally pervasive stretching lineation is potentially associated with some of these faults, especially in the deeper areas of the crust which have been exhumed, because these were within the temperature and pressure conditions for brittle-ductile and ductile deformation.
Tectonics.
The tectonics of the Petermann Orogeny are extremely unusual, as it occurred in an intraplate setting in the centre of the Australian continental block.
Several theories about the causes and dynamics of the orogen are currently under investigation, including;
Transpression.
The "Transpression model" (by SRK Ltd) considers the Petermann Orogen to be caused by transpressional strike-slip along a series of anastomosing crustal-scale strike-slip thrusts which included movements during the pan-African orogenies and tectonic events of the Cambrian-Ordovician.
The theory states that the degree of extreme uplift experienced in the Petermann Orogeny, specifically the ~42 km of uplift along the Woodroffe Thrust, occurred as a consequence of a crustal scale detachment surface forming a 'basement pop-up' as rock was thrust laterally along the detachment.
Problems with this model include lack of geochronology, and general lack of kinematics directly linked to transpression.
Intraplate thermal depression-rebound.
Another theory for the causes of the deep and extremely rapid exhumation of the Petermann Orogen is that it is due to isostatic instabilities caused by thermal events in the deep crust, causing accumulated stress to be released by violent thermal rebound (Sandiford, et al. 2001). This is envisaged as a kind of feedback loop between sedimentation and isostatic orogenic events. However, some authors (Camacho et al.) have called this into question with isotopic models.
Economic Geology.
The Petermann Orogeny exposes deep crustal roots of the previous Musgrave Orogen and likely parts of several poorly exposed Proterozoic orogenic belts and igneous provinces. As such, the rocks of the Petermann Orogen are considered prospective territory for mineral exploration.
The history of mineral exploration in the Petermann Orogen extends back to the last half of the 19th century, with a series of prospectors and exploring pioneers transiting the area. Most famously was Lasseter, who allegedly found Lasseter's Reef, a near-mythical gold lode of such richness and scale that it has fired imaginations for over a century, but remains undiscovered.
In the mid and late 20th century, government missionaries brought to the indigenous Aboriginal people of the area European law, European culture and the concept of salaried work, previously unknown to the hunter-gatherer inhabitants. In order to provide work, subsidised exploration was undertaken by the Western Mining Corporation, resulting in the discovery of podiform copper at Warburton Range, and eventually the Wingelinna nickel laterite resource.
The advent of the Mabo Decision and land rights movements has seen aboriginal land rights improved, with the result that they now control access to land and exploration tenements. This has created uncertainty about tenure and land access for mineral exploration.
There are three main known forms of mineralisation in the Petermann Orogen;
Exploration for Olympic Dam lookalikes and for magmatic nickel copper mineralisation is continuing.
In popular culture.
There are only one or two geology oriented documentaries that trace Uluru and Kata Tjuta's origins with the Australian "Petermann Ranges". "The Time Traveller's Guide To Australia" in 2012 is possibly the first documentary to make the connection with reasonable clarity.


Brochoadmones

Brochoadmones is an extinct genus of acanthodian from the Devonian of what is now Canada. It is the only genus in the suborder Brochoadmonoidea, whose relationship to other acanthodian orders remains currently in flux.


Pamparaptor

Pamparaptor is an extinct genus of carnivorous deinonychosaur from the late Cretaceous period. It is a basal dromaeosaurid dinosaur with troodontid-like pes which lived during the late Cretaceous period (Turonian to Coniacian stage) in what is now Neuquén province, Patagonia, Argentina. It is known from the holotype MUCPv-1163, an articulated and nearly complete left foot.
The specimen recovered from the Portezuelo Formation (Río Neuquén Subgroup) of Neuquén Group. It was initially considered to be a juvenile specimen of another dromaeosaurid species, "Neuquenraptor argentinus". However, it was later re-interpreted as a new genus and named "Pamparaptor" by Juan D. Porfiri, Jorge O. Calvo and Domenica dos Santos in 2011 and the type species is "Pamparaptor micros". The generic name honors Indian Pampas people who lived in central Argentina while "raptor" (robber in Latin). The specific name ("micros", meaning "small") refers to the specimen's size (estimated at in length).


Mesturus

Mesturus is an extinct genus of ray-finned fish from the Jurassic.


Codonosmilia

Codonosmilia is an extinct genus of stony corals.


Grand Bank Sequence

The Grand Bank Sequence is a formation cropping out in Newfoundland.


Goldau

Goldau is a city in the community of Arth, canton of Schwyz, Switzerland. It lies between two mountains, the Rigi (known as Queen of the Mountains) and the Rossberg. Well known attractions include the Natur- und Tierpark Goldau and the Arth-Goldau valley station of the Arth-Rigi Bahn connecting to the Rigi mountain.
Goldau landslide.
On September 2, 1806 heavy rains triggered a landslide from the Rossberg which destroyed Goldau and the adjacent villages of Buosingen, Röthen and Lauerz. The landslide comprised of material, with a mass of .
Part of the mass hit Lake Lauerz (which had been created by an even larger landslide in the 14th century), and the resulting tsunami-like displacement wave caused more devastation towards Seewen. The event destroyed 111 houses, 220 barns, and two churches in a disaster area of about , parts of which were covered with debris to a height of . It resulted in the confirmed death of 457 people.
The disaster inspired the epic poem "Goldau" by American writer John Neal in 1818. A museum outside the Natur- und Tierpark exhibits findings and photos of the event.
Sport.
SC Goldau is the city's football club.


Nannolytoceras

Nannolytoceras is an extinct genus of lytoceratid ammonite, family Lytoceratidae, with a stratigraphic range extending from the Bajocian age to Bathonian age (Medium Jurassic).
Description.
Shells of "Nannolytoceras" species reach a diameter of about . The shell is evolute, smooth, tubular to compressed, with a variable number of more or less regularly spaced deep constrictions. The very thin ribs crossing the ventral region are barely visible. Umbilicus is relatively large. The suture line is of ammonitic type. These cephalopods were fast-moving nektonic carnivores.
Distribution.
Fossils of species within this genus have been found in the Jurassic rocks of Italy, Spain, Slovakia, and France.