Daniel Boone National Forest

The Daniel Boone National Forest (originally the Cumberland National Forest) is a national forest in Kentucky. Established in 1937, it includes of federally owned land within a proclamation boundary. The name of the forest was changed in 1966 in honor of the explorer Daniel Boone.
The terrain of the forest is generally rugged, and includes multiple prominent water features. It is home to a range of plant and animal species, although many areas still bear evidence of industrial logging and other practices which took place mostly prior to federal protection. It is a popular recreational and tourist destination which serves a million or more visitors a year, and contains several widely recognized areas which are protected in their own right, including state parks, trails, wilderness areas, and landmarks.
Physical geography.
As of 2017 the Daniel Boone National Forest encompasses of federally owned land within a proclamation boundary. The land within the proclamation boundary contains both publicly and privately owned land, along with thousands of miles of marked boundary lines between the two. Most privately owned land, accounting for about is held by individuals and ranges from to in size.
The forest is formed by two main areas: a wide strip of land along the western edge of the Cumberland Plateau, and the Redbird Purchase, located on the east of the Cumberland Plateau. The terrain is generally rugged, hilly and mountainous, with reliefs of as much as in the north and toward the south. Administratively, the forest is divided into four ranger districts: Cumberland London, Redbird, and Stearns.
The Daniel Boone National Forest includes land across 21 Kentucky counties, namely:
Water.
Major river systems include the Licking River, Kentucky River, and Cumberland River, all of which flow into the Ohio River. Four reservoirs are located within the forest, administered by the US Army Corps of Engineers. These are Cave Run Lake, Buckhorn Lake, Lake Cumberland and Laurel River Lake. Taken together, at normal water levels these reservoirs comprise of water. The forest additionally encompasses thousands of miles of smaller streams, many of which flow only after heavy rain. About are classified as riparian zones, while are classified as floodplains or wetlands.
Water is of an overall good quality, but is impacted by activities related to mining, and exploration for oil and gas. The area averages of rainfall annually, with thunderstorms occurring an average of 46 days per year. Due to shallow soil, heavy rains may result in severe local flooding, and conversely, many tributaries may become completely dry during periods of little rainfall.
Air.
Air quality in the forest is considered "excellent", due to the comparatively sparse population and lack of industry. The majority of air pollution results from the 128 average annual forest fires, in addition to controlled burning, the residential burning of coal, and dust from unpaved roads.
History.
European exploration until statehood.
By the early 16th century both the French and the British had laid claim to the land that would become the Daniel Boone National Forest. Among the first Europeans to enter the area was the French René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle in 1669. He was later followed by the party of the English Thomas Walker in 1750, who would go on to make the first European discoveries of the Cumberland Gap, Cumberland River, and the pass through Pine Mountain Several others made expeditions in the area over the following decades with mixed success.
Around 1760, Daniel Boone reached an understanding with Richard Henderson for the exploration and preparation of the wilderness beyond the Appalachian Mountains, so that it may be more easily settled by those who sought to move westward. Boone made an expedition in 1767 into the area of modern-day Prestonsburg, Kentucky, and then in 1769, he set out with five others on an extended expedition through the Cumberland Gap and into Kentucky, where he stayed until March 1771. Boone set out on a failed attempt at settlement in 1773, and then again in 1774, where he served as an officer in Lord Dunmore's War.
On March 17, 1775, the Transylvania Colony, founded by Henderson, and for which Boone was employed, reached an agreement (over the objections of the governors of Virginia and North Carolina) with a grand counsel of the Cherokee Nation to purchase all land from the Kentucky River to the Cumberland River, including large part of modern day Kentucky and Tennessee, an area known as the Transylvania Purchase. In anticipation of this purchase, Boone and a party were dispatched on March 10, marking and clearing trails in the newly acquired lands, and eventually founding Fort Boone, near the confluence of Station Camp Creek and the Kentucky River. This became the fledgling Transylvania Colony, until being eliminated in 1778 by the Virginia House of Delegates, becoming Kentucky County, Virginia, and by 1792, the Commonwealth of Kentucky.
Industrial use.
Up to the beginning of the 20th century, the Daniel Boone and surrounding forest were the subject of extensive logging, with logs sent downstream for processing in the sawmills of Louisville, Nashville, Frankfort and Cincinnati, only to be overtaken as rail extended into the area around the turn of the century. The industry reached its peak in 1907, with almost one billion board feet of lumber production. The forest was additionally harvested to provide charcoal for the developing iron industry, and as the railroad advanced, to produce crossties, and lumber for the building of bridges in addition to rail cars.
Federal protection.
In 1900, Congress appropriated $5,000, and again in 1907, $25,000 for the investigation of areas in southern Appalachia, for potential purchase as a national forest. These efforts were further strengthened in 1911 by passage of the Weeks Act, which allocated millions in additional funding. As part of the Forest Service's examination of the area, E. Murray Bruner published in 1914 an extensive report covering of land in Kentucky, and concluded in part:
“Because of the general rugged topography of this section and very great influence it exerts upon navigation of the Kentucky River, it is very essential that its protection from extensive clearing be assured. For these reasons the section is eminently desirable as a purchase area, and therefore, in view of the fact that the prices of land now prevailing are very reasonable, there is a favorable prospect for making large purchases…”
Land acquisition began in 1933, based largely on the purchase of from Stearns Coal and Lumber, acres from Castle Craig Coal, and from the Warfork Land Company. By the time the area was officially declared the Cumberland National Forest in 1937, the tract spanned of federally owned land across 16 Kentucky counties.
Both Daniel Boone and Henry Clay were originally put forth in the 1930s as potential namesakes. However, it was not until 1966, following, among other things, a resolution to the United States Department of Agriculture by the Kentucky Senate, that the name was officially changed by Lyndon B. Johnson to Daniel Boone National Forest on April 11. The same year, some of the Redbird Unit were added.
Ecology.
The Daniel Boone National Forest contains around 40 commercial species of trees, and as many non-commercial species of trees and shrubs. These include mixed hardwoods such as oaks and hickories, in addition to white and yellow pine. Because much of the area was intensely logged prior to federal land protections, much of the forest is of low quality, although areas of younger growth is of a higher quality, having been always a part of protected lands. As of 1985, when the forest service published their environmental evaluation of the area, about 92% of the land was considered "tentatively suitable" for the production of timber.
The area is home to 54 species and subspecies of mammals, 194 of birds, 44 of reptiles, 41 of amphibians, and 150 of fish. Notable animals that inhabit this forest frequently seen by visitors include black bear, coyote, bobcat, white-tailed deer, wild turkey, gray squirrel, muskrat, quail, opossum, ruffed grouse, rabbit, red and gray fox species, raccoon and mourning dove. Other species include the woodchuck, red-cockaded woodpecker, mink, bald eagle, Virginia big-eared bat, Indiana bat and gray bat. Fish species include rainbow trout, large and smallmouth bass, bluegill, crappie, and muskie.
Recreation.
The Daniel Boone National Forest provides a range of recreational activities, including approximately 100 developed recreation areas and of trails, that see more than a million visitors per year. Across the forest, developed recreation sites have a combined capacity to accommodate 15,830 visitors at-a-time, in addition to the capacity of dispersed recreational activities such as hiking, mountain biking, rock climbing, boating and horse riding.
Within the forest's boundaries lie three state managed parks, Buckhorn Lake, Cumberland Falls, and Natural Bridge. There is one designated National Recreation Area, the Big South Fork, located in the southwest corner of the forest, and one National Recreation Trail, the Sheltowee Trace, which stretches almost from northern Kentucky to Pickett CCC Memorial State Park near Jamestown, Tennessee. There are two designated wilderness areas, Beaver Creek, consisting of set aside in 1975, and Clifty Wilderness, consisting of near the Red River Gorge. The Red River Gorge itself is a designated National Natural Landmark, along with the Rock Creek Natural Research Area.
Hunting is also popular as a recreational activity. One location, the Pioneer Weapons Wildlife Management Area, representing near Cave Run Lake, was created as a partnership between Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources and the US Forest Service, and is an area where hunters are permitted to use only comparatively primitive weapons, such muzzleloaders, bow and arrow, or crossbows.


Brachycereus nesioticus


Erigeron krylovii

Erigeron krylovii is an Asian species of flowering plants in the daisy family. It grows in grasslands and in alpine meadows in Siberia, Xinjiang, and Kazakhstan.
"Erigeron krylovii" is a perennial, clump-forming herb up to 60 cm (5 feet) tall, forming woody rhizomes and a branching underground caudex. Its flower heads have pink, thread-like ray florets surrounding yellow disc florets.


Melicope denhamii

Melicope denhamii is a plant in the family Rutaceae. It is named for the 19th century Royal Navy captain Henry Mangles Denham.
Description.
"Melicope denhamii" grows up as a shrub or tree up to tall. The roundish fruits measure up to long.
Distribution and habitat.
"Melicope denhamii" grows naturally from Borneo to the Philippines and south to Fiji. In Sabah its habitat is forests and swamps from sea-level to altitude.


Quercus delicatula

Quercus delicatula is an Asian species of trees in the beech family. It has been found only in southern China, in the Provinces of Guangdong, Guangxi, and Hunan.
"Quercus delicatula" is a tree up to 20 meters tall with reddish-brown hairs covering the twigs and the undersides of the leaves, the leaves as much as 12 cm long.


Aechmea aciculosa

Aechmea aciculosa is an epiphytic plant species in the genus "Aechmea". This species is native to Ecuador and Colombia.


Anglo-Saxon Petroleum

Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Co Ltd is a private company owned by Royal Dutch Shell.
History.
Around 1898 the company became responsible for the ships of Shell Transport and Trading. In 1907 it continued to be responsible for the trade in oil by-products when the Dutch Petroleum Company was established to take over the petroleum business of the Dutch state authorities and the Shell company. The same year it was incorporated into Royal Dutch Shell. In 1908 Shell Transport and Trading had placed all of its assets in Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Co and Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij which also held all of the assets of Royal Dutch Shell. Since then the company owned and ran the oil transport and storage activities of the Shell group of companies. During the following two decades Anglo-Saxon became the most progressive, innovative and forward-looking of all the oil carriers. In order to match transport demand, they commissioned new buildings based on their own design or, indeed, bought and re-designed existing ships with an amazing degree of innovative thinking and fantasy. Liner ships, general cargo vessels, sailing ships and even train ferries were re-built and made into oil carriers.
In November 1955 The Shell Petroleum Company Ltd. took over the assets of Anglo-Saxon, which ceased to function as a separate company.
Managing Directors appointed 1907-1946.
General managing directors of Royal Dutch and chairmen of Shell Transport are marked
with an asterisk - see the appropriate list above for their dates in office. In November 1955 The
Shell Petroleum Company Ltd. took over the assets of Anglo-Saxon, which ceased to function
as a separate company.


Plumas National Forest

Plumas National Forest is a 1,146,000-acre (4,638 km2) United States National Forest located at the northern terminus of the Sierra Nevada, in northern California. The Forest was named after its primary watershed, the Rio de las Plumas, or Feather River.
Geography.
About 85% of Plumas National Forest lies in Plumas County, but smaller portions are found in eastern Butte, northern Sierra, southern Lassen, and northeastern Yuba counties.
Management.
The land is managed by the United States Forest Service under the Department of Agriculture with local management stationed at the Plumas National Forest Supervisor's office in Quincy, California. The forest is also subdivided into three Ranger Districts, the Beckwourth Ranger District, the Feather Falls Ranger District and the Mt. Hough Ranger District, with local management in Blairsden, Oroville, and Quincy, respectively.
History.
Plumas was established as the Plumas Forest Reserve by the General Land Office on March 27, 1905. In 1906 the forest was transferred to the U.S. Forest Service, and on March 4, 1907 it became a National Forest. On July 1, 1908 a portion of Diamond Mountain National Forest was added. The Bucks Lake Wilderness was officially designated in 1984 as a part of the National Wilderness Preservation System.
Ecology.
A 2002 study by the Forest Service identified of the forest as old growth, using an economic type definition. The most common old-growth forest types are mixed conifer forests of:
Virtually no virgin timberland exists, as the area has been a logging epicenter starting with the gold rush continuing into the modern era.


Big Spring State Forest Picnic Area

Big Spring State Park is a Pennsylvania state park in Toboyne Township, Perry County, Pennsylvania in the United States. The park is on Pennsylvania Route 274, southwest of New Germantown. Big Spring State Park is a hiking and picnic area. A partially completed railroad tunnel in Conococheague Mountain is a feature of the park.
History.
The area surrounding Big Spring State Park is now largely a wild area. This was not the case in the 19th century. One of the first businesses at the foot of Conococheague Mountain was a tannery. This tannery was in operation from the early 19th century until 1860. The tannery was converted into an axe handle factory in 1871. The Perry Lumber Railroad, a narrow gauge railway also operated in the area. It hauled lumber to tanneries, barrel manufacturers and charcoal furnaces.
The abandoned railroad tunnel is a remnant of the lumber era that dominated the economy of much of Pennsylvania in the 19th century. The Newport and Shermans Valley Railroad extended its line into the Big Spring area in an attempt to connect with the Path Valley Railroad on the other side of Conococheague Mountain in Franklin County. This tunnel was left incomplete and stands as a reminder of the lumber/railroad era.
Although the railroad may have failed in its effort to tunnel through the mountain, the tracks remained. These rails were used to transport picnickers into the area during the early 20th century. The current facilities at Big Spring State Park were built during the Great Depression in the 1930s by the Civilian Conservation Corps. It was formally opened in 1936.
Recreation.
Big Spring State Park offers recreational opportunities to those interested in picnicking and hiking. The pavilions built by the CCC and picnic tables are available in many areas of the park. A one-mile trail leads to the abandoned railroad tunnel in Conococheague Mountain. The park also serves as a trailhead for the Iron Horse Trail in Tuscarora State Forest.
Nearby state parks.
The following state parks are within of Big Spring State Park:


Chorioactis

Chorioactis is a genus of fungi that contains the single species Chorioactis geaster. The mushroom is commonly known as the devil's cigar or the Texas star in the United States, while in Japan it is called .
This extremely rare mushroom is notable for its unusual appearance and disjunct distribution; it is found only in select locales in Texas and Japan. The fruit body, which grows on the stumps or dead roots of cedar elms (in Texas) or dead oaks (in Japan), somewhat resembles a dark brown or black cigar before it splits open radially into a starlike arrangement of four to seven leathery rays. The interior surface of the fruit body bears the spore-bearing tissue known as the hymenium, and is colored white to brown, depending on its age. The fruit body opening can be accompanied by a distinct hissing sound and the release of a smoky cloud of spores.
Fruit bodies were first collected in Austin, Texas, and the species was named "Urnula geaster" in 1893; later it was found in Kyushu in 1937, but the mushroom was not reported again in Japan until 1973. Although the new genus "Chorioactis" was proposed to accommodate the unique species a few years after its original discovery, it was not accepted as a valid genus until 1968. Its classification has also been a source of confusion. Historically, "Chorioactis" was placed in the fungus family Sarcosomataceae, despite inconsistencies in the microscopic structure of the ascus, the saclike structure in which spores are formed. Phylogenetic analyses of the past decade have clarified the fungus's classification: "Chorioactis", along with three other genera, make up the family Chorioactidaceae, a grouping of related fungi formally acknowledged in 2008. In 2009, Japanese researchers reported discovering a form of the fungus missing the sexual stage of its lifecycle; this asexual state was named "Kumanasamuha geaster".
History.
The fungus was first collected in 1893 by botanist Lucien Marcus Underwood, who sent the specimens to mycologist Charles Horton Peck for identification. Peck described the species as "Urnula geaster" in that year's "Annual Report of the New York State Botanist", although he expressed doubt about its generic placement in "Urnula". In 1902, student mycologist Elsie Kupfer questioned the proposed classification of various species in the genera "Urnula" and "Geopyxis", as suggested in an 1896 publication on the Discomycetes by German mycologist Heinrich Rehm. She considered Rehm's transfer of the species to the genus "Geopyxis" illogical: "Even externally the fungus does not closely answer Rehm's own description of the genus "Geopyxis" under which he places it; the texture of the apothecium is described as fleshy, the stem, as short and sometimes thin; while in this plant, the leathery character of the cup and the length and thickness of the stem are its noticeable features." Working with Underwood's guidance, Kupfer compared the microscopic structure of the hymenium (the fertile, spore-bearing tissue) of the Texan species with a number of similar ones—"Geopyxis carbonaria", "Urnula craterium", and "Urnula terrestris" (now known as "Podophacidium xanthomelum"). She concluded that the Texan species was so dissimilar as to warrant its own genus, which she named "Chorioactis". Although this taxonomical change was opposed in later studies of the fungus by Frederick De Forest Heald and Frederick Adolf Wolf (1910) and Fred Jay Seaver (1928, 1942), "Chorioactis" was established as a valid genus in 1968 by Finn-Egil Eckblad in his comprehensive monograph about the Discomycetes.
Classification and naming.
Historically, "Chorioactis" was considered to be in the family Sarcosomataceae. A 1983 monograph on the family included "Chorioactis" in the tribe Sarcosomateae (along with the genera "Desmazierella", "Sarcosoma", "Korfiella", "Plectania", and "Urnula"), a grouping of fungi characterized by having spores lacking small, wart-like projections (verruculae) capable of absorbing blue dye. A 1994 study of the structural features of the asci and the ascospores concluded that "Chorioactis" was more closely aligned with the Sarcoscyphaceae, although it conceded that the layering of the cells comprising the walls of the ascus differed considerably from the other members of the family. It was not until 1999 that the results of phylogenetic analysis firmly challenged the traditional classification, showing "C. geaster" to be part of a distinct lineage, or clade, that includes species in the genera "Desmazierella", "Neournula", and "Wolfina", taxa that were distributed among both families. This analysis was later corroborated when it was shown that the grouping of these four genera (by then called the "Chorioactis clade") represented a sister clade to the Sarcosomataceae, and a new family, the Chorioactidaceae, was erected to contain them. Although "C. geaster" shares some characteristics with the other Chorioactidaceae genera, including dark-colored superficial "hairs" on the outer surface of the fruit bodies, it is distinguished from them by its tan to orange (rather than black) hymenia.
The specific epithet "geaster" alludes to members of genus "Geastrum", which also open to form star-shaped fruit bodies commonly called 'earthstars'. In the United States, "Chorioactis geaster" is commonly known as the Texas star, or the devil's cigar. Regarding the origin of the latter name American mycologist Fred Jay Seaver commented: "Whether the name Devil's Cigar refers to the form of the young specimens which resemble a bloated cigar in form, as well as in color, or to the fact that the fungus appears to 'smoke' at maturity, we cannot say ... At any rate, the name is very appropriate." In 1997, Texan state Senator Chris Harris filed a bill to make "C. geaster" the official state fungus of Texas. The bill passed the Senate but did not succeed in the House. In Japan the mushroom is called "kirinomitake" (キリノミタケ), because the immature, unopened fruit body bears a superficial resemblance to the seed pods of "kiri", the empress tree ("Paulownia tomentosa").
Description.
Young specimens of "C. geaster" have a hollow, club-shaped, dark-brown fruit body, connected to a stem. The stem, which is usually buried in the ground, is shorter than the hollow fruit body or equals it in length, although the stem length is somewhat variable depending on the depth of the underground root to which it is attached. The flesh of the stem and the wall of the fruit body are white, while the inner surface is yellowish-white, turning light brown with age. The fruit body varies in width from in the thickest portion, and has a length of ; the stem is wide by long. Both stem and fruit body are covered by a dense layer of soft, brown, velvety "hairs", or tomentum. In maturity, the fruit body splits open into four to seven rays that curve downward, similar to mushrooms of the genus "Geastrum". The spores are borne on the inner surface of the rays, which, depending on the maturity of the specimen, may range in color from whitish to saffron to salmon to butterscotch to chestnut. The leathery rays are up to thick.
The fruit body remains closed until shortly before spore discharge; dehiscence (fruit body opening) is caused by the pressure exerted by swollen paraphyses—sterile (i.e., nonreproductive) cells that are interspersed between the ascospores. Dehiscence is accompanied by the release of clouds of spores, resembling smoke. The spore puffing upon rupture is thought to be caused by the sudden change in relative humidity between the interior chamber of the fruit body and the outside environment. Dehiscence is accompanied by a hissing sound, an auditory phenomenon known to occur in about 15 other fungal species.
Microscopic characteristics.
Spores are oblong to spindle-shaped, and are flattened on one side; they have dimensions of 54–68 µm by 10–13 µm. The spores each contain three to five oil drops. Although the spores have been described as smooth in older literature, when viewed with transmission electron microscopy, they are seen to have minute spots or punctures. The spores develop simultaneously (synchronously) within the ascus, a developmental feature shared with the Sarcoscyphaceae genera "Cookeina" and "Microstoma". Like other members of the Pezizales order, the asci of "C. geaster" have an operculum—a "lid"—that opens when the spores are discharged. However, the operculum of "C. geaster" develops a two-layered ring zone upon dehiscence, making it structurally distinct from members of both the Sarcosomataceae and the Sarcoscyphaceae families.
Similar to other Discomycetes, the fruit body consists of three distinct layers of tissue: the hymenium, the hypothecium, and the excipulum. The spore-bearing hymenium, the outermost layer of cells, contains asci interspersed with sterile cells called paraphyses. In "C. geaster", the club-shaped asci are 700–800 µm long and 14–17.25 µm thick; they are abruptly constricted at the base to a narrow pedicel. The paraphyses are initially filamentous or thread-like (filiform) but swell with age to resemble a string of beads (moniliform). The swelling of the paraphyses is believed to cause the expansion of the hymenium and subsequent splitting of the fruit body into rays; this development places the asci into an optimal position for spore release and dispersal. Supporting the cells of the hymenium is a thin layer of tightly interwoven hyphae called the hypothecium, and underneath this is a thick layer of loosely interwoven hyphae known as the excipulum. This tissue layer, analogous to parenchyma found in plants, gives the tissue a fibrous texture. The excipulum layer averages 34 µm in diameter, while the hypothecium is 10–14 µm. When viewed with electron microscopy, the dark brown "hairs" on the surface of the fruit body can be seen to be adorned with conical warts or spines.
Anamorph form.
Many fungi have an asexual stage in their lifecycle, in which they propagate via asexual spores called conidia. In some cases, the sexual stage—or teleomorph stage—is later identified, and a teleomorph-anamorph relationship is established between the species. In 2004, researchers reported a connection between "C. geaster" and the appearance of blackish-brown tufted structures on rotting wood. By comparing the internal transcribed spacer region of the nuclear ribosomal DNA from the two organisms, they established a phylogenetic connection between "Chorioactis" and the fungus they called "Conoplea" aff. "elegantula". However, they were unable to induce the new organism to grow on artificial media, and did not definitively establish a teleomorph-anamorph connection between the fungi. In 2009, Japanese researchers found a similar fungus growing on rotting logs that were normally associated with the growth of "C. geaster"; they were able to grow the organism in axenic cultures from single-spore isolates of "C. geaster". Until the one fungus, one name rule was enacted in 2011, the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature permitted the recognition of two (or more) names for one and the same organism, one based on the teleomorph, the other(s) restricted to the anamorph(s). So Nagao et al. named the anamorph "Kumanasamuha geaster" due to its morphological similarity with species in the genus "Kumanasamuha".
Distribution, ecology, and habitat.
"Chorioactis geaster" has a disjunct distribution, and has only been collected from Texas, Oklahoma, and Japan. The first reported collection in Japan was in Kyushu in 1937, and then it was not collected again in that location until 36 years later. In 2006, it was observed in a humid forest near Kawakami, Nara Prefecture. The fungus's natural habitat in Japan is disappearing because of the practice of deforestation and replanting with Japanese cedar ("Cryptomeria japonica"). This rare mushroom has been put on the list of threatened species in Japan. In Texas, the fungus has been reported in Collin, Hays, Travis, Dallas, Denton, Guadalupe, Tarrant, Hunt, and Bell Counties. Travis, Hays, and Guadalupe Counties are in central Texas, while the remainder are clustered together in the northeastern part of the state. Its habitat may be threatened in Texas by industrialization.The fungus was reported from Choctaw County, Oklahoma, in 2017, the first record in North America outside of Texas. Although the species is considered rare due to its globally restricted distribution, it may be locally abundant.
Although it is not known definitively, "Chorioactis" is believed to be saprobic, deriving nutrients from decomposing organic matter. In Texas, fruit bodies are found growing singly or in groups from roots, stumps, and dead roots of cedar elm trees ("Ulmus crassifolia") or "Symplocos myrtacea"; in Japan, the usual host is dead oak trees. Fruit bodies can be clustered together close to the base of the stump, or from the roots away from the stump; the stem of the fruit body tends to originate from a point below the ground. In Texas, fruit bodies usually appear between October and April, as this period is associated with somewhat cooler weather, and the temperature and moisture conditions during this time seem to be more favorable for growth.
Scientists do not know why the fungus mysteriously lives only in Texas and Japan, locations of approximately the same latitude, but separated by . Fred Jay Seaver commented "this is only another illustration of the unusual and unpredictable distribution of many species of the fungi. It would be difficult indeed to account for it, and we merely accept the facts as they are." In 2004, a research study compared the DNA sequences of both populations and used a combination of molecular phylogenetics and molecular clock calculations to estimate the extent of genetic divergence. It concluded that the two populations have been separated for at least 19 million years, ruling out the possibility of human introduction of the species from one location to the other. Although no consistent differences in morphology are seen between the two populations, several differences exist in their life histories. The preferred host of Texan populations is typically roots and stumps of "Ulmus crassifolia", while the Japanese populations tend to grow on the fallen trunks of "Symplocos myrtacea" and "Quercus gilva". Texan species grow in areas subjected to periodic flooding, unlike their Japanese counterparts. Finally, only Japanese specimens can be grown in culture—the spores of Texan material have not been successfully germinated on artificial media.
References.
37. Shugg, J (2018).


Trail of Tears State Forest

Trail of Tears State Forest is a State of Illinois conservation area on in Union County, Illinois, United States.
Trail of Tears was established in 1929 when Illinois purchased acres of Shawnee Hills land and used the resulting land to create the "Kohn-Jackson Forest" (later "Union County State Forest"). Soon afterwards, the state park was improved with work performed by the Civilian Conservation Corps. Subsequent land acquisitions created the Trail of Tears State Forest of today. The forest occupies land near the route followed by the Cherokee in December 1838 during their forced relocation in the Trail of Tears.
Today's state forest contains a state tree nursery, the Ozark Hills Nature Preserve, and of trails for hiking and equestrian use. The nearest town of any size is Jonesboro, Illinois.


Graceville Memorial Park

Graceville Memorial Park is a heritage-listed park at 173 Oxley Road, Graceville, City of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. It was established in 1904. It is also known as Graceville Recreation Reserve and the Sherwood War Memorial. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 5 September 2006.
History.
Graceville Memorial Park, located on a flat, low-lying part of Graceville, was gazetted as the Graceville Recreation Reserve in 1904, but it was referred to as Graceville Memorial Park by 1926. The park was enlarged in July 1979, with the resumption of about of vacant, ownerless land (lot 2, RP 70795) for an access way to Churchill Street, south of the park.
From 1840 to 1859 the peninsula that includes the suburb of Graceville was known as Boyland's Pocket, a run for sheep and cattle. After 1859 the area was subdivided into farms with an average size of about . Maize, potatoes, and bananas were grown, cotton was attempted in the 1860s, and sugar cane was produced until a cold spell in the 1870s. The area was relatively isolated from Brisbane until the railway line from Ipswich crossed the river from Chelmer to Indooroopilly in 1875. Graceville's subdivision for residential housing started during the building boom of the 1880s, and the Graceville railway station was opened in 1886. The Shire of Sherwood was created in 1891, excised from the Yeerongpilly Division (created in 1879).
From the late 1880s onwards there was an increased interest in Queensland in healthy outdoor recreation, and the flood-prone grassland on which the park was later sited was used as a lacrosse field in the 1890s. The formation of sporting clubs in Queensland led to pressure on local councils to provide facilities, and in May 1904 fourteen acres of this grassland was gazetted as the Graceville Recreation Reserve by the Queensland government. The reserve was vested in the Sherwood Shire Council, to be held in trust for recreation purposes, and the park's primary role since then has been as a leased venue for various team sports, mainly cricket and hockey, but also including soccer, rugby league, and Australian Rules football. A croquet club and a tennis club were also established. Other users included the Graceville Methodist Sunday School, which held classes in a ground shed on the reserve between November 1914 and November 1917, and a bridge club, which was formed at the croquet club premises around 1929. Aviators may have also used the park as an aerodrome in the 1920s.
The outpouring of grief in Australia that accompanied the deaths, and overseas burial, of 60,000 service people in World War I, led to a period of memorial building across the nation. A memorial was unveiled in Graceville Recreational Reserve on 28 November 1920 by Lieutenant E.M. Little, chairman of the local R.S.S.A.L.I.A. Funded by public subscriptions, the memorial was designed by Mr I Bennet, and was erected by Andrew Lang Petrie Monumental Works, at a cost of . On a copper scroll made by Ernest Gunderson, 51 soldiers and one nursing sister were included in a list of Sherwood Shire's fallen. 265 men, and seven nurses had enlisted from the Shire. Between 1985 and 1996, a low sandstone wall was built around the monument, and three flagpoles were set to the west. Plaques representing each of the three armed services have also been added to the north, east and west sides of the monument since 1985. In 2004 sandstone pavers replaced the bitumen that had been laid around the monument.
Before the unveiling of the memorial, 52 memorial trees were also planted. Bunya pines and cotton trees were set in a single row along Plumridge Street and Appel Street (then called Graceville Parade) to commemorate the dead. Today, 29 bunya pines and 11 cotton trees remain. Some locals claim that there were memorial plaques on these trees, but that the plaques had gone by the 1950s. In addition to the memorial trees on the western and northern edges of the park, an avenue of bauhinias, cabbage tree palms and Chinese elms was planted either side of a drive from Oxley Road to the memorial. A single line of figs and camphor laurels continued west from the memorial towards Appel Street. The eastern section of the drive had a bitumen surface by 1961, but the western section of the memorial drive, from the memorial to Appel Street, has reverted to grass. A trophy field gun captured by the Australian Imperial Force near Abancourt, France, in August 1918 was also sited near the memorial from the early 1920s, but it was removed before 1952.
In 1925 the Sherwood Shire was incorporated in the City of Greater Brisbane, and the recreation reserve is referred to as Graceville Memorial Park in the 1926 Park Schedule for the City. However, the emphasis on sports had continued. By 1924 the park contained three cricket ovals, with a shelter and dressing sheds, three croquet lawns, and two tennis courts. The Graceville Croquet Club was formed in March 1919, with Thomas Murray Hall, Member of the Queensland Legislative Council, as its first Patron. A number of returned servicemen were settling in area at this time, and their wives wanted their own sporting activities. The Sherwood Shire Council leased a portion of the park to the croquet club in May 1919. The southernmost of the three croquet lawns remained as rough grass until 1923, and the croquet clubhouse was probably built between 1924 and 1929. The clubhouse has received a small extension to the north since 1985. The Brisbane City Council continues to lease the premises to the club.
The Western Suburbs District Cricket Club was formed in 1921, and it has had an association with the park since 1924. In 1928 the Queensland Cricket association took out a twenty-year lease on playing ovals one and two, and a seasonal lease on oval three. The grandstand facing the number one oval was opened in September 1936. The Brisbane City Council Register of new buildings lists the grandstand on 13 February 1936, with H. Sanham as the contractor, and the Brisbane City Council as the architect. The cost of the brick and timber building was listed at . The two changing rooms and storage area within the brick ground floor have been renovated and reconfigured over time, and the current latticed balustrade at the front of the seating was introduced since 1985. Two similar grandstands currently exist in Brisbane, one at Bulimba Memorial Park (built 1923), and one at Langlands Park (1937).
Overlapping ovals replaced the three undersize ovals. The number one oval was reconstructed with ash, its sightscreens were moved, and the arris fence was removed. Soon after 1968 some practice-bowling cages were installed on the south side of the park between the croquet club and the war memorial. Currently, the two main ovals have turf wickets, and a concrete wicket stands where the number three oval used to be located. The cricket clubhouse to the east of the grandstand started as a refreshment stall , and was extended in the 1960s. Both the number two and number three ovals had their own dressing sheds, which have changed or have been removed. The current timber changing-shed facing the number two oval replaced an earlier structure between 1946 and 1952. It has been extended to the south since 1985, and a new aluminium shed has been erected nearby.
Although there were two tennis courts in the park's southeast corner by 1924, the Banksia Tennis Club did not take out a formal lease until 1938, for of land. The club also built a timber clubhouse before 1946. The Banksia Tennis Club surrendered its lease in 1989, due to the aging of its membership, and a car park and a half basketball court had replaced the tennis courts, their fences, and clubhouse, by 1993.
Other clubs have also used the park over time. The Brisbane Hockey Association has had the winter use of the ovals since 1941, and in 1955 the Graceville United Soccer Club had the winter use of the number four oval, an area in the north of the park between ovals one and three. This area had a concrete wicket by 1952, but this had been removed by 1975. In the 1960s there are also references in Brisbane City Council records to the Sherwood District Junior Australian Rules Club, and the South Rugby League Juniors. There were floodlights on poles around the perimeter of the park by 1961, but in 1975 the South West United Hockey Club requested new lighting, for night training.
Other built features in the park include the toilet block near the croquet club, which was built in the late 1960s, and the playground, which existed between the cricket clubhouse and the tennis club by 1961. The playground's equipment was upgraded in 1968, the late 1980s, and in the 1990s. A shade canopy was added in 1993. A bikeway path, along the western and northern perimeter of park, was built about 1991. In 1996, the steamroller, which had been in the playground since the 1960s, was moved, restored, and installed inside a roofed enclosure to the east of the car park. The steamroller is an "S" type, four steam-horse power model, built between 1923 and 1925, by Marshall and Sons and Company, in Gainsborough, England. The ex Brisbane City Council steamroller is listed as an "Engineering and Industrial Heritage Site" on the website of Engineers Australia, Queensland Division.
Features that have now been removed include two earth closets, sited either side and to the south of the memorial, which were probably removed around the time that the new toilet block was installed. A zigzag concrete path, installed in the 1960s, once ran through the site of the playground, and some of the tree plantings along Oxley Road, including fig trees and palms, have been replaced. Buildings that have been removed since 1985 include the timber changing shed for the number three oval, and a small shed just north of the croquet club which was replaced by an aluminium shed.
Description.
Graceville Memorial Park, bounded by Oxley Rd to the east, Plumridge Street to the north, and Appel Street to the west, lies just to the east of the Ipswich to Brisbane railway line, and currently covers . There is vehicle access from Oxley Road, along the memorial drive, and pedestrians can access the park from anywhere along Appel Street, Plumridge Street, and Oxley Road, as well as from the end of Addison Street in the south, and via the access way from Churchill Street. The park is flat, and the main features consist of the tree plantings and buildings. The number one cricket oval is near Oxley road, the number two oval is in the middle of the park, and a concrete wicket is located in the northwest corner of the park.
Mature memorial bunya trees and cotton trees are planted on the northern and western perimeter of the park. An avenue of mature bauhinia, cabbage tree palms, and Chinese elms runs from Oxley road to the war memorial, and a single row of mature figs and camphor laurels runs west from the memorial to Appel Street. Behind the grandstand are two mature Moreton Bay fig trees, and two mature bunya pines. The Oxley Road frontage still has some mature fig trees and palm trees, along with more recent plantings.
A steamroller stands under a shelter between Oxley Road and the car park. Further west is the cricket clubhouse, a single-story timber building, with a low-pitched skillion roof clad in galvanised iron. A sightboard stands just to the north of the clubhouse, and across the number one oval, a second sightboard stands among the memorial trees on Plumridge Street.
The Cricket Grandstand.
The cricket grandstand that faces the number one oval is a rectangular pavilion, with a timber-trussed hipped roof clad in corrugated iron that is supported on plain timber posts. The tiered seating area is supported on an orange brick base, which contains two changing rooms, toilets, and a storage area. The hardwood floorboards of the seating area are covered in bitumen sheeting, and there is a scorer's desk in an upper row of the timber seating. The gable on the northern face has a flagpole and a rising sun motive infill. A divided timber staircase rises to the viewing area on the north face. Below the concrete capping to the walls on the east, west, and south elevations there are decorative panels of roughcast render between the projecting rows of bricks.
War Memorial.
The war memorial is at the western end of the memorial avenue of trees, at the south side of the park, and consists of a polished grey granite column set on a light grey granite pedestal, which sits on a stepped base of rusticated grey granite. Sandstone tiles and a low fence of sandstone with eight sandstone bollards surround the high monument. The shaft of the column has a gold laurel wreath imprinted on its north face, and is crowned with a polished ball, which is etched with a map of Australia, and the words "ANZAC". The north face of the pedestal has a small plaque reading The Great War 1914-1919, above a copper scroll that lists the Shire's dead in the First World War and which is inscribed Fallen Heroes of the Sherwood Shire, Honoured and in Memory Evergreen. Under the scroll is a small plaque reading Dulce et Decorum est pro Patria Mori. At the base of the pedestal is the badge of the Royal Australian Navy. On the east face is a plaque reading World War II 1939-45, and under it, is a plaque inscribed In honour of the men and women who served Australia in time of conflict during World War II. Lest We Forget. At the base of the pedestal is the rising sun badge of the Australian army. On the west face a plaque reads Korea-Malaya Borneo-Vietnam. Under this is set the badge of the Royal Australian Air Force. Three flagpoles stand to the west of the monument.
Croquet Clubhouse.
The croquet clubhouse and its three playing lawns stand on the Appel Street frontage of the park. Small shade structures with seating are on the borders of the croquet lawns. The clubhouse is a rectangular timber building with its long axis addressing the middle lawn. It has a gabled roof that is clad in corrugated iron. A modern shade structure extends over the southern entrance, and there is an extension at the northern end of the building. A gable projects towards the lawn above an entrance on the northern side there are sash windows. Internally, the clubhouse has a timber floor, with walls and ceiling clad in fibrous cement sheeting. Most of this internal space is used for small tables and chairs and there is a small kitchenette and toilet at one end. Two timber honour boards are displayed.
Number two oval's changing shed, which has its back to the croquet lawns, is a timber building on a concrete slab with a skillion roof clad in galvanised iron. It has an extension on its southern end that accommodates a small garage.
The features of the Graceville Memorial Park which are not of historical significance include the aluminium storage shed near the croquet clubhouse and the aluminium shed to the south of the number two oval's changing shed; the brick toilet block; the cricket practice nets; a drinking fountain near the playground; the playground and its equipment; the bikeway; the half basketball court and car park; the steamroller's shelter shed; and assorted park seating.
Heritage listing.
Graceville Memorial Park was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 5 September 2006 having satisfied the following criteria.
The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.
Surviving as a highly visible remnant of the development of the Graceville district, the use of the park for team sports from the 1890s to the present demonstrates the interest in health-promoting recreation that occurred in Queensland from the late 1880s onwards. Reflecting the proliferation of recreational sport clubs that occurred during post-war suburban development, a croquet club was established in the park in 1919, and cricket and tennis facilities were operational by 1924. The Brisbane City Council's expenditure on a cricket grandstand during the Depression demonstrates the continued importance of sport to Queenslanders during the 1930s.The decade after the First World War witnessed demonstrations of grief for those who had died. Graceville Memorial Park's War Memorial, with its linked memorial avenue, and rows of memorial bunya and cottonwood trees along Appel and Plumridge Streets, demonstrates the process of grieving that was occurring across Australia in 1920 and is symbolic of both civic mourning and national pride.
The place demonstrates rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland's cultural heritage.
Graceville Memorial Park has features that are now uncommon within a suburban park, such as the handsome and substantial Interwar grandstand and the extensive formal plantings of memorial bunya trees.
The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.
Graceville Memorial Park is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of its class, having open recreational space, sports facilities, clubhouses and a grandstand within a park whose focal point is a War Memorial and which is bordered by memorial plantings.
The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.
As a large open space with fine mature trees, the park has landmark value. The memorial avenue of trees delineates the ceremonial approach to the War Memorial and effectively marks the park's southern border. The cottonwood and bunya arrangement is also striking in its contrast of alternating size and shape. A well-designed and substantial cricket grandstand enhances the aesthetic values of the park and is a fine example of the work of the Brisbane City Architect's Office in the 1930s.
The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.
The war memorial in the park has a strong and continuing association with the wider community as evidence of the impact of a major historic event and as the focal point for the remembrance of that event. The park is also important to the local area as a venue for sport and recreation for several generations, having a long-standing association with the Graceville Croquet Club and Western Suburbs District Cricket Club.


Dorstenia choconiana

Dorstenia choconiana is a plant species in the family Moraceae which is native to Central America from Guatemala to Panama.


Boronia safrolifera

Boronia safrolifera, commonly known as safrole boronia, is a species of flowering plant that is endemic to eastern Australia. It is an erect, woody shrub with pinnate leaves that have up to nineteen leaflets, and white to pink, four-petalled flowers.
Description.
"Boronia safrolifera" is an erect, woody shrub that typically grows to a height of with mostly hairless branches. The leaves are pinnate with mostly between seven and nineteen leaflets and long and wide in outline on a petiole long. The end leaflet is elliptic to narrow egg-shaped, mostly long and wide and the side leaflets are similar but longer. The lower side of the leaflet is a paler shade of green. The flowers are arranged in leaf axils and on the ends of branchlets in groups of between three and twelve on a peduncle long, the individual flowers on a pedicel long. The four sepals are triangular, long and hairless. The four petals are white to pale pink, long with a few soft hairs. The eight stamens are usually hairy and the stigma is about the same width as the style. Flowering mainly occurs from August to October and the fruit is a mostly hairless capsule long and wide.
Taxonomy and naming.
"Boronia safrolifera" was first formally described in 1924 by Edwin Cheel and the description was published in "Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales". The specific epithet ("safrolifera") refers to the odour of the volatile oil safrole apparently released from the crushed leaves of this plant. The ending "-fera" is a Latin suffix meaning "to carry" or "to bear".
Distribution and habitat.
Safrole boronia grows around the margins of swamps in near-coastal areas of New South Wales north from Port Stephens to Bribie Island in south-eastern Queensland.


Penicillium columnare

Penicillium columnare is a fungus species of the genus of "Penicillium".


Cladiella australis

Cladiella australis is a species of soft coral in the family Alcyoniidae. It is found in the western Indo-Pacific. It is commonly known as the finger blanching soft coral because with the polyps extended it appears brown but when poked with a finger, the polyps retract into the leathery base tissue and the coral appears white.
Secondary metabolites.
Five new diterpenes with tricyclic skeletons of cladiellin have been isolated from this soft coral.


Setchellanthus caeruleus


Dendrobium capra

Dendrobium capra is a species of orchid endemic to the Island of Java in Indonesia.


Lactarius agglutinatus

Lactarius agglutinatus is a member of the large milk-cap genus "Lactarius" in the order Russulales. Found in North America, the species was first described in 1908 by mycologist Gertrude Simmons Burlingham.


Acacia attenuata

Acacia attenuata is a shrub belonging to the genus "Acacia" and the subgenus "Phyllodineae". It is native to an area in south eastern Queensland. It was listed as a vulnerable species in 2009 according to the "Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999".
Description.
The shrub has a slender habit and typically grows to a height of with glabrous branchlets. It has persistent juvenile bipinnate leaves. It has green oblanceolate or narrowly oblong-elliptic shaped phyllodes with a length of and a width of . When it blooms it produces simple inflorescences of spherical flower-heads containing 20 to 35 cream to pale yellow coloured flowers. Following flowering seed pods form usually around June–July with the pods reaching maturity in the springtime between October and November. The dark brown, flat and glabrous seedpods are narrowed between the seeds with a length of and a width of .
Distribution.
It is found in south eastern Queensland in high rainfall areas usually on coastal lowland sand plains less than from the coast over a geographic range of around , from Littabella National Park to the north of Bundaberg in the north down to around Burleigh Heads on the Gold coast in the south. It is scattered over eight Local Government Areas with an estimated total area of of which less than is inhabited by the plant. It has an estimated total population of between 1,000 to 2,500 plants inhabiting approximately 26 individual locations. The highly fragmented distribution is a result of habitat destruction and clearing, mostly from urban development pressures.


Tybee National Wildlife Refuge

Tybee National Wildlife Refuge was established on May 9, 1938, by an executive order of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, as a breeding area for migratory birds and other wildlife. Located in the mouth of the Savannah River, the refuge began as a oyster shoal, Oysterbed Island, used by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers as a spoil disposal site to support their mandated harbor dredging activity. As a result, the majority of the refuge is now covered with sand deposits. The more stable portions of the island are densely covered with such woody species as eastern red cedar, wax myrtle, and groundsel. saltwater marsh borders parts of the island.
The refuge is an important resting and feeding area for migratory birds including gulls, terns, neotropical migratory songbirds, and shorebirds. Least terns, black skimmers, Wilson's plovers, and several other shorebird species have nested on the spoil deposits on Tybee. During all seasons, the refuge's shoreline and open spoil deposits are used as resting sites for brown pelicans, gulls, and terns. Endangered species, including piping plovers and wood storks, have been observed on the refuge land, while shortnose sturgeon and manatees have been found in the waters bordering Tybee. With the use of telescopes, birdwatchers observe the refuge birdlife from levees located across the river within Fort Pulaski National Monument.


Eucalyptus accedens

Eucalyptus accedens, commonly known as smooth bark wandoo or powderbark wandoo is a species of tree endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. Although the common names suggest it is similar to wandoo, ("Eucalyptus wandoo"), the two species are very different botanically. The bark of "E. accedens" has talc-like powder, at least on the protected side of the trunk and the tree usually grows on laterite in higher places.
Description.
"Eucalyptus accedens" is a tree which typically grows to a height of with branches high up the trunk and forms a lignotuber. Its diameter can be as large as and hollows will readily form in dead branches or where limbs have fallen. The smooth bark is notable for being covered in a talc-like powder. It is pale-white when fresh, turning a shade of orange before being shed again. The adult leaves are arranged alternately and are the same dull blue-green colour on both sides. The blade is in length and wide with a lanceolate shape and tapers to a pointed tip. The leaf petioles are long.
White flowers are produced between December and April. The inflorescence is single and axillary with a peduncle long. It will form pedicellate buds in clusters of 7, 9 or 11, with cylindrical to obovoid or ovoid shape. It forms fruit that are pedicellate and cylindrical to barrel-shaped with a width of . The fruits contain brown seeds with an ovoid or flattened-ovoid shape and a length of .
"Eucalyptus wandoo" and "E. accedens" have a very similar appearance, but can be distinguished by the orangey coloured powdery coating on the bark of "E. accedens" that appears seasonally. It also has larger, more rounded buds and more rounded juvenile foliage.
Taxonomy and naming.
"Eucalyptus accedens" was first formally described in 1904 by William Vincent Fitzgerald from specimens he had collected near Pingelly the previous year. The specific epithet ("accedens") is a Latin word meaning "approaching" or "resembling", referring to the similarity of the bark of this species to that of "E. wandoo".
Distribution and habitat.
Powderbark wandoo will grow in gravelly or clay-loam soils over laterite. It is commonly found on stony ridges or lateritic breakaways and often above stands of "Eucalyptus wandoo". Its range extends from south east of Geraldton in the Mid West region south through the Darling Range as far as Williams, Western Australia in the Wheatbelt region.
Occurring on woodland areas, associated species include "E. wandoo" as "E. wandoo" often occurs below "E. accedens" in the overstorey landscape, and occasionally with "E. astringens", and sometimes with "E. marginata" on the western fringe. In the understorey, shrubs such as "Hypocalymma angustifolia", "Hibbertia hypericoides", "Hakea lissocarpha", "Acacia pulchella", "Hovea chorizemifolia", "Gastrolobium microcarpum", "Lepidosperma leptostachyum" and "Bossiaea eriocarpa" are often found.
Conservation.
This eucalypt is classified as "not threatened" by the Western Australian Government Department of Parks and Wildlife.
Uses.
Use in horticulture.
"Eucalyptus accedens" is now commonly sold as an ornamental shade or shelter tree. Bark is often used to deter ants. It tolerates a wide range of soil types except for lime and is reasonably drought tolerant and is available as seed or seedlings.
The powder that accumulates on the trunk was tested as a deterrent for arthropods in 2004. The results demonstrated that ant mortality was much greater paper discs coated with the powder than on control discs.


Panaeolus acuminatus

Panaeolus acuminatus, also known as Panaeolus rickenii is a common little brown mushroom.
This species contains small amounts of serotonin (licit tryptamine), 5-HTP, and tryptophan.
Description.
This is a little brown mushroom that grows on dung and has black spores. It has a cap that is less than 4 cm across, hygrophanous, conic to campanulate to plane, usually with an umbo. The gills are dark purplish black, crowded, with several tiers of intermediate gills. The spores are (11) 13 - 15 (17) x 9 - 11 (12) x (6.5) 7 - 8 (9) micrometers, smooth, black, and shaped like lemons. Cheilocystidia present.
Habitat and distribution.
"Panaeolus acuminatus" is a mushroom that grows in grass and in dung. It has been found throughout North America and Europe and is very widely distributed.


Guzmania nicaraguensis

Guzmania nicaraguensis is a plant species in the genus "Guzmania". This species is native to Central America (all countries except El Salvador) and Mexico (Veracruz, Oaxaca, Chiapas).


Reeds Gap State Park

Reeds Gap State Park is a Pennsylvania state park in Armagh Township, Mifflin County, Pennsylvania in the United States. The park is largely a wilderness area with large white pine and hemlock trees. Honey Creek flows through the park, providing a habitat for trout. Reeds Gap State Park is from U.S. Route 322 near Milroy in New Lancaster Valley and Bald Eagle State Forest.
History.
Reeds Gap is a natural water gap, a geologic formation caused by Honey Creek in a ridge, Hightop. This water gap was a natural gathering location for wild animals and it became a hunting ground for Native Americans and later the European settlers. These settlers named the area New Lancaster Valley. The gap became a gathering area for the homesteaders in the Mifflin County area. They gathered at the gap for bush meetings to listen to traveling evangelists and enjoy community fellowship. These meetings lasted until the 1920s.
Edward and Nancy Reed built a sawmill along Honey Creek in the mid-19th century. At this time the area was part of the lumber boom that swept through the wooded mountains of Pennsylvania from the mid-to-late 19th century and early 20th century. The Reeds operated the sawmill on Honey Creek for many years, until it was torn down and moved to Virginia by their son John. The trees were soon gone and the land was purchased by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania on January 15, 1905. Parts of the land purchased by the state became Reeds Gap State Park and Poe Valley State Park.
Recreation.
Hunting and fishing.
Hunting is permitted on of Reeds Gap State Park. Hunters are expected to follow the rules and regulations of the Pennsylvania Game Commission. The common game species are ruffed grouse, squirrels, turkey, white-tailed deer, and black bears. Honey Creek is stocked with trout by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission. There is a population of native trout in Honey Creek and its tributaries.
Swimming and picnics.
A swimming pool was built in 1965 to replace the dam in Honey Creek. It was shallow at both ends, reaching its greatest depth of five feet in the middle. Diving was prohibited. Lifeguards were stationed at the pool from 11:00 am until 7:00 pm. The main lifeguard post was located on the west side of the pool at its deepest point. The pool opened on Memorial Day weekend and closed Labor Day weekend. A much shallower "kiddie" pool was adjacent to the main pool. It was announced in March 2009 that both the adult pool and kid pool will not be reopening for the 2009 season, "amid mounting safety concerns and a long list of structural problems." The pool will be demolished, and not rebuilt. There are four wooded picnic areas at Reeds Gap State Park with 3 pavilions.
Hiking, cross-country skiing and camping.
There are 5 hiking trails at Reeds Gap State Park. Reeds Gap Spur Trail is the longest at . It begins at the park office and crosses over Reeds Gap to Poe Valley State Park. The other trails are all under and pass through the woods and follow the banks of Honey Creek. The trails are open to cross-country skiing during the winter months. Campers are limited to using tents in the rustic camping area.
Nearby state parks.
The following state parks are within of Reeds Gap State Park:


Meshomasic State Forest

The Meshomasic State Forest is located in East Hampton, Portland, and Marlborough, Connecticut, with smaller sections located in Glastonbury and Hebron. It is popular for mountain biking, hiking, and hunting. The Rangers Headquarters were located on Gadpouch Road in East Hampton.
History.
Meshomasic State Forest began as , acquired for $105.00 in 1903. It was the first State Forest in Connecticut, and the second in the country (Pennsylvania had the first). The forest was originally purchased to provide private landowners with examples of good Forest management practices. During the Great Depression two Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps were located on the forest. Connecticut Route 2, connecting Hartford and Norwich, was built in the 1950s and 1960s and runs through the state forest from Exit 10 to Exit 12.
Ecology and geology.
The state forest's second-growth forest is typical of the Northeastern coastal forests ecoregion. The forest is a mix of deciduous trees and white pine. One stand of white pine, referred to as the “big pines”, contains pines over 100 years old.
The forest floor is scattered with boulders and large rocks from the last ice age, and the topography of the region is mostly shaped from glaciers from the last ice age. Cobalt, quartzite, and feldspar are abundant in the state forest, along with gold discovered by geologists at the University of Connecticut in the 1980s, which was found to be unexploitable. The highest point in the Meshomasic State Forest is Meshomasic Mountain at above sea-level. There are several other hills reaching 800 and . Great Hill, which overlooks Great Hill Pond and the Connecticut River, is part of the Bald Hill Range which runs through the state forest. Kongscut Mountain, known locally as Rattlesnake Mountain, is located in between Goodale Hill Road and Ash Swamp Road on a small section of Meshomasic State Forest land in East Glastonbury.
The rocky forested terrain of the Meshomasic State Forest is home to the largest population of timber rattlesnakes in Connecticut. The timber rattlesnake is an endangered species in Connecticut and it is illegal to kill, harass, or collect. Bites are extremely rare in Connecticut and every bite in the Meshomasic State Forest has been treated in time.
Forest management.
The Meshomasic State forest was originally purchased to provide private landowners with examples of good forest management. The current management goals for the forest include maintaining a quality water supply for the Portland town reservoir (located within the state forest), protecting timber rattlesnake habitats, and keeping the forest as a showplace for proper timber management.
Currently, about per year are harvested. This is a sustainable rate of harvest that also increases biodiversity in the forest and makes the forest more resistant to such disasters as uncontrolled wildfire and destructive insect outbreaks. The “big pines” are left alone and occasionally maintained to give the appearance of a virgin forest.
In the late 19th century and again in the 1940s two quarries in the Meshomasic State Forest were quarried for feldspar and mica. The quarries are still open to the public and rock collectors to explore.
From the early 1950s to 1970s Nike Missile Site HA-36 was located off of North Mulford Road in the Meshomasic State Forest. It was one of over 300 missile-defense sites around major cities during the Cold War. Nike Ajax anti-aircraft missiles were located at HA-36 to protect Hartford's aircraft industry from Soviet bombers.
Recreation.
There are eight miles (13 km) of well-maintained dirt roads, originally built by the CCC, open for seasonal driving in the forest. Hunting, mountain biking, off roading, and hiking are also permitted in the forest. A public shooting range operated by the CT DEP is located within the State Forest off of Toll Gate Road in Glastonbury. Camping is not permitted within the state forest.
The blue-blazed Shenipsit Trail, maintained by the Connecticut Forest and Park Association, runs North-South through Connecticut. It starts in the Shenipsit State Forest just north of Soapstone Mountain and ends in the Meshomasic State Forest on Gadpouch Road. The trail runs along a ridge in the southern part of the forest where there are several vistas overlooking the Connecticut River, nearby Middletown, and the surrounding forest. 12 of the trail's are within the Meshomasic State Forest.


Lupinus lapidicola

Lupinus lapidicola is a rare species of lupine known by the common name Mt. Eddy lupine. It is endemic to California, where it is known from only a few locations in the northernmost mountain ranges, including Mount Eddy in the Klamath Mountains. It is a small, compact perennial herb forming mats no more than tall. Each palmate leaf is divided into 6 to 8 leaflets up to long. The herbage is coated in silvery silky hairs. The inflorescence is a small bundle of flower whorls, each flower about a centimeter long and purple in color with a yellowish patch on its banner.


Cirsium quercetorum

Cirsium quercetorum is a species of thistle endemic to coastal California, its common names include brownie thistle and Alameda thistle.
Distribution.
"Cirsium quercetorum" is endemic to the Outer California Coast Ranges from Santa Barbara's Point Conception north into the San Francisco Bay Area and up the North Coast as far as Humboldt County. This is a common plant found in coastal grasslands and open woodlands.
Description.
The perennial "Cirsium quercetorum" plant usually grows clumped low to the ground, less than 20 cm (8 inches) tall, but occasionally the plant grows erect and can reach 90 cm (36 inches) in height. It has spiny lobed toothy leaves and spiny flower heads with brownish ivory-tan white to purple disc florets but no ray florets.


Iris timofejewii

Iris timofejewii is a species of flowering plant in the genus "Iris", and also in the subgenus "Iris". It is a rhizomatous perennial, from the mountain slopes of the Caucasus and Dagestan. It has narrow, evergreen, falcate (sickle-shaped), grey-green (glaucous) leaves, and a short flowering stem just taller than the leaves. Each stem has 1–2 flowers in shades of violet, with white beards that have purple tips. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant in temperate regions.
Description.
"Iris timofejewii" is close in form to "Iris scariosa", or "Iris pumila". It has a slender stem or peduncle, that can grow up to between tall. The stem is normally taller than the foliage. The stem has two acute, carinate (keeled), spathes (leaves of the flower bud). It holds between 1, and 2 terminal (top of stem) flowers, in late spring and early summer, in June. It has evergreen, grey-green, or blue-green, or glaucous leaves. They are falcate, or recurved. The narrow leaves, can grow up to between long, and between 5 -6mm wide.
The flowers are very similar to aril iris species flowers. The flowers are in diameter, come in shades of violet, from reddish-violet, reddish brown, to blue-violet, dark violet, to purple. They are similar in form to "Iris germanica", or Iris section Regalia flowers. Like other irises, it has 2 pairs of petals, 3 large sepals (outer petals), known as the 'falls' and 3 inner, smaller petals (or tepals), known as the 'standards'.
The narrow, and tucked, falls are obovate. In the middle of the falls, is a row of short hairs called the 'beard', which is white, or yellow, with purple tips. The standards are oblanceolate-oblong, with round tips. It has style branches that are a similar length to the falls and a perianth tube which is 4–5 times as longer than the ovary. After the iris has flowered, in mid to late summer, it produces a seed capsule, that is similar in form to "Iris pumila". The capsule is coated with a wart-like covering.
The rhizomes are small, stout and branched. They form slowly spreading clumps. The rhizomes are planted flush with the ground, and have long secondary roots that go deep into the soil to find nutrients.
Biochemistry.
As most irises are diploid, (including "I. timofejewii",) having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.
It has a chromosome count: 2n=24.
Taxonomy.
First found in Dagestan, "Iris timofejewii" was first published and described by Yury Nikolaevich Voronov in 'Not. Syst. Herb. Hort. Petrop.' vol.62, and Bot. Mater. Gerb. Glavn. Bot. Sada R.S.F.S.R. Vol.5 on page62 in 1924. It is not known who the Latin specific epithet "timofejewii" refers to. It was then published in "Fl. Kavk." in 1928, and "FL. Cauc." Vol.1 on page 257 in 1928.
In 1939, it was thought to be a form of "Iris scariosa", then in 198 Brian Mathew classed it as a species related to "Iris suaveolens". It was verified by United States Department of Agriculture and the Agricultural Research Service on 4 April 2003, then updated on 18 January 2006.
"I. timofejewii" is a tentatively accepted name by the RHS.
It is often known as Timofeev's Iris.
Distribution and habitat.
"Iris timofejewii" is native to temperate regions of Asia, specifically the Eastern Caucasus, and is endemic to Dagestan, (including the districts of Akhvakhskiy, Akhtynskiy Botlikhskiy, Gumbetovskiy, Gunibskiy, Karabudakhkentskiy, Levashinskiy, Shamilskiy, Tsumadisnkiy, and Untsukulskiy,) a republic of Russia.
They can be found at an altitude of above sea level, growing on the dry, rocky mountain, slopes, (normally made of limestone,) or scrubland steppes.
Conservation.
It once had a large population range in the 70s, but by 1981, that had been severely cutback until only 2–3 dozen individuals were remaining. Then it became a protected plant species, also specimens were sent to various botanical gardens for species preservation. It was then included in the Red Data Books of the RSFSR in 1988 and it is now listed in the Red Data Books of the Russian Federation (of 2008) and Dagestan (of 1998). It was listed as (V) – Vulnerable.
It currently has a restricted population range in Russia, with only five spread-out locations and up to 5,000 plants. It is currently listed as (E) – Endangered.
It was threatened by overgrazing, the plant was eaten by cattle, to such extent that a large population of the iris, around the village of "Tsudakhar" was almost totally devastated between 10–15 years. Now, only 20–30 individuals have survived.
In the Botanical Garden of Georgia, they have produced several self seedings of the iris and other rare irises (including "Iris iberica", "Iris graminea", "Iris imbricata", and "Siphonastilis lazica", to stop them becoming extinct.
Cultivation.
"Iris timofejewii" prefers to grow in scree-like soils, in full sun, with low humidity (or in dry soils). It can be grown within garden rockeries. It needs a dry and warm summer to rest and to re-flower the next season. The species was tested for hardiness in the Russian botanical gardens of Alma-Ata, Baku, Bakuriani, Tallinn and Tbilisi. An attempt was tried to grow the iris in West Germany and the US (near New York City), but they were unsuccessful, due to high humidity conditions.
It can normally only be found for cultivation in specialised iris nurseries. Irises can generally be propagated by division, or by seed growing. Seeds can be distributed around by ants and birds, which take between 2–3 years to germinate.
Like other irises, it can be damaged by slugs and snails.
Toxicity.
Like many other irises, most parts of the plant are poisonous (rhizome and leaves), and if mistakenly ingested can cause stomach pains and vomiting. Handling the plant may cause skin irritation or an allergic reaction.


Acacia gillii

Acacia gillii, commonly known as Gill's wattle, is a shrub belonging to the genus "Acacia" and the subgenus "Phyllodineae" that is native to parts of southern Australia.
It is named after Austrian botanist Alexander Gilli.
Description.
The shrub typically grows to a height of and has a straggly open habit. It has pendulous branches with flexuous branchlets that are flat or angled at extremities The glabrous branchlets are a dark red-brown colour. The evergreen, patent and sometimes reflexed phyllodes have a narrowly oblanceolate shape that is sometimes linear to shallowly incurved. The phyllodes have a length of and a width of and are tapered at the base with prominent margins and midrib. The simple inflorescences have spherical flower-heads containing 43 to 72 densely packed golden flowers. The linear brown seed pods that form after flowering have a length of up to and a width of and contain dull black elliptic seeds with a length of .
Taxonomy.
The species was first formally described by the botanists Joseph Maiden and William Blakely in 1927 as part of the work "Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales". It was reclassified as "Racosperma gillii" by Leslie Pedley in 2003 then transferred back to genus "'Acacia" in 2006. "A. gillii" belongs to the "Acacia microbotrya" group and resembles "Acacia retinodes" and "Acacia cretacea".
Distribution.
It is found in a small area of South Australia in southern parts of the Eyre Peninsula from around Port Lincoln to around Ungarra where it grows in clay or loamy soils as a part of open scrub communities and is associated with "Eucalyptus diversifolia" and "Eucalyptus phenax".


Twin Harbors State Park

Twin Harbors State Park is a public recreation area covering on the Pacific Ocean two miles south of the town of Westport in Grays Harbor County, Washington. The site was once a U.S. Army training ground, which the state began acquiring for park use in 1937. The state park offers camping, fishing, clamming, beachcombing, and a half-mile interpretive trail in a shoreline pine forest.


Anthostella stephensoni

Anthostella stephensoni, the violet-spotted anemone, is a species of sea anemone in the family Actiniidae.
Description.
The violet-spotted anemone is a medium-sized anemone of up to 12 cm in diameter. It has a smooth yellow column with randomly placed bright violet spots. Scarlet lines radiate from the mouth to 48 short blunt tentacles. Two violet spots are normally found on either side of the mouth.
Distribution.
The violet-spotted anemone is only found around the southern African coast from Luderitz to Richards Bay. It inhabits waters from low tide to at least 18m in depth.


Eucalyptus muelleriana

Eucalyptus muelleriana, commonly known as yellow stringybark, is a species of medium-sized to tall tree that is endemic to southeastern Australia. It has rough, stingy bark on the trunk and branches, lance-shaped to curved adult leaves, flower buds in groups of between seven and eleven, white flowers and cup-shaped to shortened spherical fruit.
Description.
"Eucalyptus muelleriana" is a tree that typically grows to a height of and forms a lignotuber. It has rough, stringy, greyish bark from the base of the trunk to the thinnest branches. Young plants and coppice regrowth have lance-shaped leaves that are glossy dark green on the upper surface, paler below, long, wide and petiolate. Adult leaves are lance-shaped to curved, glossy green but slightly paler on the lower surface, long and wide on a petiole long. The flower buds are arranged in leaf axils in groups of seven, nine or eleven on an unbranched peduncle long, the individual buds on pedicels long. Mature buds are oval, long and wide with a conical to rounded operculum. Flowering occurs between January and May and the flowers are white. The fruit is a woody, cup-shortened to shortened spherical capsule long and wide with the valves level with the rim or slightly protruding.
Taxonomy and naming.
"Eucalyptus muelleriana" was first formally described in 1891 by Alfred William Howitt in "Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria". The specific epithet honours Ferdinand von Mueller.
Distribution and habitat.
Yellow stringbark grows in wet forests on coastal plains, ranges and escarpments from Wollongong in New South Wales to Wilsons Promontory in Victoria. It has also been planted in New Zealand.
Uses.
Yellow stringbark provides a valuable timber which is strong, durable, straight-grained and has been widely used, particularly in Victoria for posts and piles.


Trichophaea hemisphaerioides

Trichophaea hemisphaerioides is a species of apothecial fungus belonging to the family Pyronemataceae. This is a European species which appears as whitish cups with brown hairs on the margin and outer surface, up to 1.5 cm across on recently burned ground, often amongst mosses such as "Funaria".


Daingerfield State Park

Daingerfield State Park, in Morris County southwest of Texarkana, is a recreational area (including Lake Daingerfield), deeded in 1935 by Georgia Anna 'Chambers' Connor, and opened in 1938.
History.
The original improvements were made by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). This area was the center of the iron industry in Texas; nearby is Lone Star Steel Company.
Activities.
The park offers picnicking; camping; boating (5 MPH speed limit); fishing; swimming in an unsupervised swimming area; hiking; and nature study. A seasonal concession (March - October) rents pedal boats and canoes. Tours may be arranged by special request. Year-round boat rentals are available.
Area Attractions.
Nearby attractions include Lake Bob Sandlin State Park, Atlanta State Park, and Caddo Lake State Park; Starr Family Home State Historic Site; Morris County Museum; Wildflower Trails 3rd weekend in April; and Jefferson Historical Pilgrimage and Mardi Gras Jefferson in February; and the Daingerfield Fall Fest in Daingerfield on the 2nd weekend in October.
Facilities.
Facilities include restrooms with and without showers; picnic sites including a group picnic area with tables (not covered); campsites with water; campsites with water and electricity; campsites with water, electricity, and sewer; a group lodge (Bass Lodge - capacity 20 persons: five bedrooms and two baths)(weekend reservation for Friday or Saturday requires reserving both nights); an overflow camping area; an amphitheater on the lake side; a launching ramp; a boat dock; a fishing pier; and a fish-cleaning facility; 2½ miles of hiking trails; a playground with slides and swings; cabins with heating and air-conditioning, and kitchen facilities (linens and towels are furnished; but utensils, dishes, and silverware are not); Year-round boat rentals are available (also sell drinks, snacks, fishing supplies, and bait); and a Texas State Park Store is at the park.


Acacia inamabilis

Acacia inamabilis is a shrub belonging to the genus "Acacia" and the subgenus "Phyllodineae" that is native to Western Australia.
Description.
The spreading pungent shrub typically grows to a height of . It has stout, green, mostly glabrous branchlets with fine yellow ribbing and spinose straight stipules that have a length of . The patent to ascending, pungent, rigid, thick, green phyllodes are straight or shallowly curved. The phyllodes are pentagonal in cross-section and have a length of and a diameter of around . It produces yellow flowers from August to September.
Taxonomy.
The species was first formally described in 1904 by the botanist Ernst Georg Pritzel as part of the work between Pritzel and Ludwig Diels "Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae occidentalis. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Pflanzen Westaustraliens, ihrer Verbreitung und ihrer Lebensverhaltnisse" as published in "Botanische Jahrbücher für Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie". It was reclassified as "Racosperma inamabile" in 2003 by Leslie Pedley then transferred back to the genus "Acacia" in 2006.
"A. inamabilis" is closely related to "Acacia concolorans", but is sometimes mistaken for "Acacia calcarata".
Distribution.
It has a scattered distribution in the Goldfields-Esperance region of Western Australia from around Mount Malcolm in the Fraser Range in the east past Norseman in the west and to the south around Peak Charles National Park. It is often found around granite boulders and outcrops and salt lakes growing in sandy and loamy soils usually as a part of open "Eucalyptus" woodland or mallee communities.


Campodea plusiochaeta

Campodea plusiochaeta is a species of two-pronged bristletail in the family Campodeidae.


Cyperus harrisii

Cyperus harrisii is a species of sedge that is endemic to parts of Jamaica.
The species was first formally described by the botanist Georg Kükenthal in 1926.


Ganoderma brownii

Ganoderma brownii is a species of polypore fungus in the Ganodermataceae family. It is a plant pathogen and occasional saprotroph similar in appearance to "Ganoderma applanatum". This species is restricted geographically to the Pacific Northwest, primarily observed in California. In the San Francisco Bay Area, it is very common on "Umbellularia californica".
Taxonomy.
This fungus is a member of the "G. applanatum" group.
Description.
It is a perennial, sessile, concentrically zonate polypore that is in length that can be a number of dull tones ranging from brown to gray. It parasitizes both conifers and hardwoods, with a preference for the latter. Its pore surface is white but easily turns shades of brown upon damage. According to Michael Kuo, it has larger spores than "G. applanatum", measuring 9–12 by 7–9 μm.


Tricholoma niveipes

Tricholoma niveipes is a mushroom of the agaric genus "Tricholoma". It was formally described as new to science by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck in 1901.


Helicobasidium longisporum

Helicobasidium longisporum (syn: H. "mompa") is a Basidiomycete fungal pathogen of plants, which is the cause of violet root rot. The name Violet root rot refers to the dark purple color of the mycelial mats formed on the infected plants, usually at or below the soil line. It can cause total rot and structural failure of roots and subterranean storage organs. Impact of violet root rot on crop loss is often due to stunting of above ground plant growth and decreased vigor, and in extreme cases, whole plant death. It does not directly infect above ground organs. Violet root rot can also damage or cause the death of subterranean storage organs such as potato tubers or carrots.
Disease Cycle.
"Helicobasidium longisporum" is a soil borne pathogen. The pathogen overwinters both as sclerotia and via mycelium; basidiospores are not known to play a significant role in the disease cycle. Fall sclerotia production is initiated by nutrient deficits, in the early growing season when the host and moisture are present again the sclerotia will resume growth and infection of the host. Sclerotia are dispersed through movement in irrigation or rain water, particularly of note where flood irrigation is used. "H. longisporum" will grow as an independent, whitish mycelium for the first part of the growing season, gradually darkening from pink to a dark violet brown as infection progresses mid-season.
Infection occurs via an external infection cushion from which penetrating hyphae infest the lamellae of root tissues, where it causes damage. The dark pigment found in "H. longisporum" is helicobasidin and can be toxic to some plants and microorganisms.
Hosts and symptoms.
           The most indicative sign is the presence of dark fungal mats on the effected plant’s roots and stem near the soil line, and the presence of mycelium on the soil. "H. longisporum" is an opportunistic parasite of subterranean plant organs. Symptoms of infection include foliage chlorosis, premature abscission, wilting, and severe reduction of root mass. Infected soil may be identified by the conspicuous nature of the webbed mycelium, which transitions from white to dark violet over the growing season.
It is not highly specialized and infects a wide range of hosts, among them including apple ("Malus domestica)," mulberry ("Morus spp.)", Grapes ("Vitus spp.)", Potato ("Solanum tuberosum)", Plum ("Prunus spp.)", Tea, beets, soy, and cotton. It is suspected to infect many more hosts and is not selective.
Management.
           This disease is not highly present outside of China, Japan, India, the Korean Peninsula and Taiwan, and is mostly controlled through cultural means. Resistant varieties can be an effective method to stifle disease progress, as well as early maturing annual crops which avoid infection altogether. Harvesting before the fungus has a chance to infect the crop is also a viable option. As cereal grains are not affected by "H. longisporum", long rotations with grains can reduce incidence. The fungus requires ample moisture, warm soil temperatures (20-30 °C) and low pH to thrive, drip irrigation and regular lime applications can serve to reduce the fungal presence.


Mycena purpureofusca

Mycena purpureofusca, commonly known as the purple edge bonnet, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae. First described by Charles Horton Peck in 1885, the species is found in Europe and North America, where it grows on the decaying wood and debris of conifers, including cones. Fruit bodies have conical to bell-shaped purple caps up to set atop slender stipes up to long. The mushroom is named for the characteristic dark greyish-purple color of its gill edges. In the field, "M. purpureofusca" mushrooms can usually be distinguished from similar species by characteristics such as the dark purple gill edges, the deep purple cap center, and its cartilagineous consistency. The fungus contains a laccase enzyme that has been investigated scientifically for its potential to detoxify recalcitrant industrial dyes used in textile dyeing and printing processes.
Taxonomy.
The species was first described as "Agaricus purpureofuscus" by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck in 1885. The type collection was made in Caroga, New York, from a moss-covered trunk of spruce. Pier Andrea Saccardo transferred it to "Mycena" in 1887, giving it the name by which it is currently known. William Alphonso Murrill moved it to "Prunulus" in 1916, but this genus has since been subsumed in "Mycena". In 1879, Petter Karsten described a collection made in Scandinavia as "Mycena atromarginata" var. "fuscopurpurea", but Rudolph Arnold Maas Geesteranus later placed this in synonymy with "M. purpureofusca". Another synonym, according to Maas Geesteranus, is "Mycena sulcata", described by Josef Velenovský in 1920 from Czechoslovakia.
Alexander H. Smith classified the species in section "Calodontes", subsection "Ciliatae" of "Mycena" in his 1947 monograph on North American "Mycena". Rolf Singer put it in the section "Rubromarginata" in his 1986 "The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy", a group characterized by having distinct red marginate gills. The specific epithet "purpureofuscus" combines the Latin words "purpur" (purple) and "fusco" (dark or dusky). It is commonly known as the "purple edge bonnet".
Description.
The cap is conical to bell-shaped, flattening in age, and reaches a diameter of . The cap margin is usually bent inwards initially. The cap surface is initially covered with tiny white hairs, but later becomes smooth. It is slightly hygrophanous, and when moist, is slightly translucent, so that the outline of the gills underneath are apparent. Its color is dark purple in the center, fading to pale lilac at the margins; older specimens are purplish-gray. The flesh is thin and pliant, with a texture similar to cartilage. It is initially purplish-gray, becoming pale lilac to white in age. The odor and taste of the flesh are not distinctive. The narrow gills have an ascending attachment to the stipe and are narrowly adnate. They are somewhat closely spaced, with pallid to grayish face color and dark grayish purple edges that are sometimes fringed. The tubular stipe measures long by 1–2 mm thick. It is tough and cartilaginous, and its base it covered with white hairs. Overall, its color is that of the cap or paler, and often paler near the top. The edibility of the mushroom is unknown.
Spores are broadly ellipsoid in shape, amyloid, and have dimensions of either 8–10 by 6–7 µm or 10–14 by 6.7–8.5 µm depending on whether they originated from four-or two-spored basidia (spore-bearing cells), respectively. There are abundant cheilocystidia on the gill edges. They measure 30–50 by 7–12 µm, and are fusoid-ventricose, with tips that are broadly rounded. They are filled with a purplish sap and have granular contents. The cap tissue comprises a well-differentiated cuticle, a distinct hypoderm, and a filamentous tramal body. Clamp connections in the hyphae are rare or absent.
Similar species.
Field characteristics that help to distinguish "Mycena purpureofusca" from similar species include the dark purple gill edges, the deep purple cap center, and its cartilagineous consistency. "M. californiensis" (formerly "M. elegantula") is similar, but has gill edges colored rosy to vinaceous-brown, and its cap is browner than that of "M. purpureofusca". It has an orange to orange-brown cap, a stipe the exudes red juice when injured, and grows in lead litter under oaks. Mitchel and Smith noted that there was considerable intergradation between the two species. The bioluminescent fungus "M. lux-coeli" is another allied species, but it has smaller spores (8.5–12 by 6.5–9 µm) and its cystidia are more lobed. Another similar "bleeding" "Mycena" is "M. haematopus", which usually grows in clusters on rotting wood. In his original protologue, Peck mentioned that he considered the species closely related to "M. rubromarginata", but could be distinguished by its darker color and "non-hygrophanous striate pileus." Microscopically, "M. rubromarginata" differs from "M. purpureofusca" in having abundant clamp connections and narrow necks on the cheilocystidia.
Habitat and distribution.
The fruit bodies of "Mycena purpureofusca" grow singly or in clusters on the decaying wood of conifers, particularly spruce, pine, and Douglas-fir. It is commonly found on decaying pine cones. In a European study, the fungus was found growing on logs in a state of decay where the wood was mostly hard, with most of the bark left, to wood that had decayed to the point that it was mostly soft throughout.
In North America, the fungus has been recorded in North Carolina, Tennessee, New York, Michigan, Montana, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, California, Virginia, and South Dakota. In Canada, it has been found in Ontario. Smith noted that collections from Michigan are likely to be found on old hemlock knots lying in the soil, where it usually fruits singly; it tends to grow in clusters on logs and stumps. In Europe, it has been recorded from Britain, Scotland, the Czech Republic, Poland, Germany, and Turkey. In the UK, the fungus is commonly found in Caledonian pine woods, and it is considered an indicator species for that habitat type.
Research.
"Mycena purpureofusca" has been investigated for its potential to decolorize industrial dyes. These dyes, used in textile dyeing and printing processes, are difficult to degrade due to their highly structured organic compounds and pose a major environmental threat. The fungus mycelium produces high levels of laccase, an oxidoreductase enzyme. Laccases are widely used in biotechnology and industry due to their ability to break down various recalcitrant compounds. "M. purpureofusca" laccase efficiently breaks down Remazol Brilliant Blue R, an industrially important dye that is frequently used as a starting material in the production of polymeric dyes.
Strobilurin A has been isolated from the fruit bodies. Strobilurins have fungicidal activities and well known for their broad fungicidal spectrum, low toxicity against mammalian cells, and environmentally benign characteristics.


Erigeron nematophyllus

Erigeron nematophyllus is a North American species of flowering plant in the daisy family known by the common name needle-leaf fleabane. It native to the western part of the United States, in Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming.
"Erigeron nematophyllus " is a small perennial herb rarely more than 18 centimeters (7.2 inches) tall, producing a taproot. The leaves are very narrow and thread-like or needle-like. The plant generally produces only 1-3 flower head per stem, each head with up to 55 white or pink ray florets surrounding numerous yellow disc florets. The species grows on sandy or rocky soil in sagebrush flats or conifer woodlands.


Dipolydora commensalis

Dipolydora commensalis is a species of polychaete worm in the family Spionidae. It has a commensal relationship with a hermit crab and occurs on the lower shore of coasts on the western side of the Atlantic Ocean.
Ecology.
"Dipolydora commensalis" is a burrowing worm that invariably bores into a gastropod mollusc shell that is being used by a hermit crab. The burrow usually starts at the columella at the side of the shell's aperture and a thin calcareous tube is secreted extending internally to the apex of the shell. The worm lives in this tube with its anterior end projecting.
A pair of palps on the prostomium (first segment) catch food particles floating past. The worm uses both cilia and muscles to move the particles down a ciliary groove to its mouth. The worm is able to reject inedible material at the mouth and may be able to reject such material as it traverses the palps.
The palps are able to regrow if they are damaged by movements of the hermit crab, and both the anterior and posterior parts of the worm are able to regenerate if it gets severed. In the laboratory, worms can live for four years, rather longer than most empty gastropod shells.
This worm has been found to have a commensal relationship with nine different species of hermit crab. The worm is likely to gain advantage from the crab's mobility and the protection from predators that the crab's presence affords, as well as the avoidance of being overwhelmed by silt. Periodically a hermit crab will leave its shell in order to move into a larger one. During this period of vacancy, the worm is able to use nutrient granules stored in the wall of the gut. There is usually competition among hermit crabs for vacant shells, so the empty shell is likely soon to be reoccupied. It is likely that the hermit crab recognises the worm associated with it and does not attack it, but this aspect has not been studied in this species; however, in the case of some other commensal polychaete worms, such as "Neanthes fucata", it has been demonstrated.