Ani Aprahamian

Ani Aprahamian (born August 15, 1958) is a Lebanese-born Armenian-American nuclear physicist. She has taught at the University of Notre Dame since 1989. She is currently Freimann Professor of Physics at Notre Dame. She has been director of the Alikhanyan National Science Laboratory (Yerevan Physics Institute) in Armenia since April 2018, the first woman to hold the position.
Background.
Aprahamian was born on August 15, 1958 in Lebanon to Armenian parents. All of her grandparents were survivors of the Armenian Genocide, while her parents were born in refugee camps in Beirut. Her family moved to the United States when she was 11 and settled in Massachusetts. Her father worked as a tailor, while her mother a seamstress. She was interested in science as a young kid, but initially wanted to become an ambassador, but was persuaded by a high school guidance counselor in Worcester, Massachusetts to get an education in science. She speaks Western Armenian.
She obtained her BA from Clark University in 1980 and PhD in nuclear chemistry in 1986. She was a postdoctoral fellow at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
Career.
An experimental nuclear physicist, Aprahamian's research focuses on the "evolution of nuclear structure and the impact of various structure effects on stellar and explosive astrophysical processes" and the "origins of the heavy elements in the universe and the structure of neutron rich nuclei far from stability." She maintains "strong interests in the applications of nuclear science to energy and medicine."
As of late 2019, she has given over 200 talks and various conferences and has over 200 publications in journals and book chapters.
University of Notre Dame.
Aprahamian joined the faculty of the Physics Department and the Nuclear Science Laboratory at the University of Notre Dame in 1989. Aprahamian was the only female nuclear physicist at Notre Dame for 27 years.
She was the director of Notre Dame's Nuclear Science Laboratory from 2001 to 2006 and chair of Notre Dame's Physics Department in 2003–2006. As of 2014, she had mentored some 10 postdoctoral fellows and 17 graduate students. She is currently the Frank M. Freimann Professor of Physics.
At the lab, Aprahamian led her team of 20 physicists' research on the overlap between nuclear physics and astrophysics using two particle accelerators.
Elsewhere.
Aprahamian has served on U.S. and international committees on nuclear science. Aprahamian is a fellow of the American Physical Society (APS) since 1999 and the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) since 2008. Between 2006 and 2008 she was the Program Director for Nuclear Physics and Particle & Nuclear Astrophysics at the National Science Foundation in Washington. In 2014 she served as a member of the Nuclear Science Advisory Committee of the United States Department of Energy. In the same year she served as chair of the APS Division of Nuclear Physics.
In 2016–17 she served as co-chair U.S. Electron–ion collider Facility Study.
She was a member of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics executive committee, the American Chemical Society's Division of Nuclear Chemistry and Technology. She has also served as chair of the scientific council at GANIL, the French national nuclear physics research center. She was on the advisory board of "Physics Today", the magazine of the American Institute of Physics.
Armenia.
Aprahamian "holds deep feelings for Armenia." She was elected a foreign member of the National Academy of Sciences of Armenia in 2008. In November 2017 she met Armenian president Serzh Sargsyan. She was appointed director of the Alikhanyan National Science Laboratory (Yerevan Physics Institute, YerPhI) in April 2018. She became the first woman and the first diaspora Armenian to hold the position. In September 2018 she declared that a cyclotron will be put into operation for medical use. It was put into operation in July 2019 and is used primarily for positron-emission tomography (PET) scans in cancer detection. Aprahamian stated: "This is a game changer for Armenia." In a 2019 interview she stated that Armenia needs a "major reorganization" in science and that the country's "biggest challenges are in creating the opportunities and rewards that enable young scientists to stay in Armenia and to thrive here instead of traveling abroad."
In April 2020 Aprahamian and her team at the Alikhanyan Laboratory developed an ozone generator which can sterilize areas of up to 140 cubic meters every hour to help fight COVID-19.
Selected publications.
Aprahamian's most cited articles according to Google Scholar are:


Randall M. Feenstra

Randall M. Feenstra is a physicist.
Feenstra completed a bachelor's degree in engineering physics at the University of British Columbia in 1978, followed by his master's and doctorate in applied physics at the California Institute of Technology. From 1982 to 1995 he was a research staff member at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, New York. Since 1995, he has taught at Carnegie Mellon University, where he conducts research in semiconductors.
Feenstra is a fellow of the American Vacuum Society, and was the 1989 recipient of its Peter Mark Memorial Award. He was elected to fellowship of the American Physical Society in 1997, "[f]or contributions to the development of the Scanning Tunneling Microscope as a spectroscopic tool to probe semiconductor surfaces and surface phenomena," and was awarded the APS Davisson–Germer Prize in Atomic or Surface Physics in 2019, "[f]or pioneering developments of the techniques and concepts of spectroscopic scanning tunneling microscopy."


Rob Duncan Coalson

Rob Duncan Coalson from the University of Pittsburgh, was awarded the status of Fellow in the American Physical Society, after they were nominated by their Division of Chemical Physics in 1999, for "novel contributions to the theory of condensed phase quantum dynamics, including computational methodology and applications to optical spectroscopy and electron transfer; and for theoretical insights into macroion electrostatics, with applications to colloidal suspensions and crystals."


Bretherton equation

In mathematics, the Bretherton equation is a nonlinear partial differential equation introduced by Francis Bretherton in 1964:
with formula_2 integer and formula_3 While formula_4 and formula_5 denote partial derivatives of the scalar field formula_6
The original equation studied by Bretherton has quadratic nonlinearity, formula_7 Nayfeh treats the case formula_8 with two different methods: Whitham's averaged Lagrangian method and the method of multiple scales.
The Bretherton equation is a model equation for studying weakly-nonlinear wave dispersion. It has been used to study the interaction of harmonics by nonlinear resonance. Bretherton obtained analytic solutions in terms of Jacobi elliptic functions.
Variational formulations.
The Bretherton equation derives from the Lagrangian density:
through the Euler–Lagrange equation:
The equation can also be formulated as a Hamiltonian system:
in terms of functional derivatives involving the Hamiltonian formula_12
with formula_15 the Hamiltonian density – consequently formula_16 The Hamiltonian formula_17 is the total energy of the system, and is conserved over time.


Daniel Hennequin

Daniel Hennequin (born December 14, 1961) is a French physicist.


Rudolf Kingslake

Rudolf Kingslake (born Rudolf Klickmann; August 28, 1903 – February 28, 2003) was an eminent academician, lens designer, and engineer.
Kingslake was born in London, England in 1903 as Rudolf Klickmann. The latter is in all probability a re-transcription from Cyrillic of the traditional German-Jewish "Glückmann" meaning "lucky man". Kingslake studied optical design at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, under the eminent optical designer and theoretician Alexander Eugen Conrady, earning a master's degree, subsequently marrying Professor Conrady's daughter, Hilda Conrady Kingslake, a prominent English-American researcher in the field of optics.
In 1929, Kingslake was invited to come to the United States to teach at the University of Rochester, where he founded the Institute of Applied Optics, now known as The Institute of Optics. In 1937, Kingslake became the head of Optical Design department of Eastman Kodak while continuing his teaching at the university.
In 1958, Kingslake and wife Hilda edited an unfinished manuscript by Conrady and published a sequel to Conrady's book, "Applied Optics and Optical Design".
Since 1974, SPIE has awarded the Rudolf Kingslake Medal to recognize the most noteworthy original paper published in the society's journal, Optical Engineering.
Rudolf Kingslake died on February 28, 2003, in Rochester, NY, at age 99, two weeks after the death of his wife, Hilda.


Xiangdong Ji

Xiangdong Ji (; born 1962) is a Chinese theoretical nuclear and elementary particle physicist.
Xiangdong Ji received his bachelor's degree from Tongji University in 1982 and his PhD from Drexel University in 1987. He was a postdoctoral researcher at Caltech and MIT. In 1991, he became Assistant Professor at the MIT, and in 1996 he moved to the University of Maryland, where he was the chair of the Maryland Center for Fundamental Physics from 2007 to 2009. He is also professor and chair of the Institute for Nuclear and Particle Physics at Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Since 2005, he has also been a visiting professor at Peking University.
In 2014 he won the Humboldt Prize and in 2015 he won the Outstanding Nuclear Physicists Award from the Jefferson Sciences Associates. In 2000, he became a fellow of the American Physical Society. In 2003, he won the Oversea Outstanding Chinese Scientist Award.
In 2016 he won the Herman Feshbach Prize in Theoretical Nuclear Physics "for pioneering work in developing tools to characterize the structure of the nucleon within QCD and for showing how its properties can be probed through experiments; this work not only illuminates the nucleon theoretically but also acts as a driver of experimental programs worldwide".
In addition to his focus on nuclear physics, he also works on dark matter physics using liquid xenon detectors (a variety of neutrinos being candidates for dark matter), leptogenesis, neutrino mass and neutrino oscillation in GUT models.


Guido Altarelli

Guido Altarelli (12 July 1941 – 30 September 2015) was an Italian theoretical physicist.
Biography.
Altarelli graduated in Physics from the Sapienza University of Rome in 1963 with whom he followed to the University of Florence (1965–68). He held positions at New York University (1968–69), the Rockefeller University (New York, 1969–70), the École Normale Superieure in Paris (1976–77, 81) and Boston University (1985–86). In 1970-92 he held a faculty position at the Sapienza University of Rome (full professor of theoretical physics since 1980). He was Director of the Rome Section of the INFN (1985–87). In 1992 he moved to the newly established University of Roma Tre.
In 1987-2006 he was a Senior Staff Physicist at the Theory Division of CERN, and was Theory Division Leader from 2000-04. At CERN he had a leading role in the interpretation of SppS results, in the preparation of LEP and the LHC and in the theoretical analysis of the experimental results.
His best known contribution, obtained with Giorgio Parisi in 1977, is the derivation of the QCD evolution equations for parton densities, known as the Altarelli- Parisi or DGLAP equations.


Laser resurfacing


SuperNova Early Warning System

The SuperNova Early Warning System (SNEWS) is a network of neutrino detectors designed to give early warning to astronomers in the event of a supernova in the Milky Way, our home galaxy, or in a nearby galaxy such as the Large Magellanic Cloud or the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy.
, SNEWS has not issued any supernova alerts. This is unsurprising, as supernovae appear to be rare: the most recent known supernova remnant in the Milky Way was around the turn of the 20th century, and the most recent Milky Way supernova confirmed to have been observed was Kepler's Supernova in 1604.
Powerful bursts of electron neutrinos (νe) with typical energies of the order of 10 MeV and duration of the order of 10 seconds are produced in the core of a red giant star as it collapses on itself via the "neutronization" reaction, i.e. fusion of protons and electrons into neutrons and neutrinos: p + e− → n + νe. It is expected that the neutrinos are emitted well before the light from the supernova peaks, so in principle neutrino detectors could give advance warning to astronomers that a supernova has occurred and may soon be visible. The neutrino pulse from supernova 1987A arrived 3 hours before the associated photons – but SNEWS was not yet active and it was not recognised as a supernova event until after the photons arrived.
Directional precision of approximately 5° is expected. SNEWS is not able to give advance warning of a type Ia supernova, as they are not expected to produce significant numbers of neutrinos. Type Ia supernovae, caused by a runaway nuclear fusion reaction in a white dwarf star, are thought to account for roughly one-third of all supernovae.
There are currently seven neutrino detector members of SNEWS: Borexino, Daya Bay, KamLAND, HALO, IceCube, LVD, and Super-Kamiokande. SNEWS began operation prior to 2004, with three members (Super-Kamiokande, LVD, and SNO). The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory is no longer active as it is being upgraded to its successor program SNO+.
The detectors send reports of a possible supernova to a computer at Brookhaven National Laboratory to identify a supernova. If the SNEWS computer identifies signals from two detectors within 10 seconds, the computer will send a supernova alert to observatories around the world to study the supernova. The SNEWS mailing list is open-subscription, and the general public is allowed to sign up; however, the SNEWS collaboration encourages amateur astronomers to instead use "Sky and Telescope" magazine's AstroAlert service, which is linked to SNEWS.


First surface mirror

A first surface mirror or front surface mirror (also commonly abbreviated FS mirror or FSM) is a mirror with the reflective surface being above a backing, as opposed to the conventional, second surface mirror with the reflective surface behind a transparent substrate such as glass or acrylic. In cases where the mirror is subjected to extreme cold (as low as 33 K as in the James Webb Space Telescope), a polished pure beryllium mirror is used without a first surface coating in order to obviate buckling caused by differing coefficients of thermal expansion.
They are made for applications requiring a strict reflection without a "ghosting" effect as seen with a second surface mirror, where a faint secondary reflection could be observed, coming from the front surface of the glass. This includes most optics applications where light is being manipulated in a specific manner. Telescopes, rear-projection televisions, periscopes, non-reversing mirrors, high quality kaleidoscopes, and the animation process Spectrafocus use this type of mirror.
Silvering.
The "silvering" on a front surface mirror is usually aluminium for visible light and gold for infrared radiation.


Journal of Applied Physics

The Journal of Applied Physics is a peer-reviewed scientific journal with a focus on the physics of modern technology. The journal was originally established in 1931 under the name of Physics, and was published by the American Physical Society for its first 7 volumes. In January 1937, ownership was transferred to the American Institute of Physics "in line with the efforts of the American Physical Society to enhance the standing of physics as a profession". The journal's current editor-in-chief is André Anders (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory). According to the 2018 "Journal Citation Reports", the journal has a 2018 impact factor of 2.328.


The Physics of Superheroes

The Physics of Superheroes is a popular science book by physics professor and long-time comic-book fan James Kakalios. First published in 2005, it explores the basic laws of physics. Kakalios does not set out to show where the world of superheroes contradicts modern science, granting the heroes one or more "miracle exceptions" from natural law. Instead, he focuses on examples of comic book scenes that can be used to understand the diverse laws of physics from an unusual angle, such as Gwen Stacy's death and Ant-Man's ability to punch his way out of a paper bag. Kakalios relates these elements of comic books to principles of physics, such as levers and torque, and in this way covers diverse topics, from mechanics to the quantum world.


Nuclear Science and Techniques

Nuclear Science and Techniques is a monthly peer-reviewed, scientific journal that is published by Science Press and Springer. This journal was established in 1990. The editor-in-chief is Yu-Gang Ma. The journal covers all theoretical and experimental aspects of nuclear physics and technology, including synchrotron radiation applications, beam line technology, accelerator, ray technology and applications, nuclear chemistry, radiochemistry, and radiopharmaceuticals and nuclear medicine, nuclear electronics and instrumentation, nuclear energy science and engineering.
Abstracing and indexing.
The journal is indexed in the Science Citation Index Expanded. According to the "Journal Citation Reports", the journal has a 2017 impact factor of 1.085, ranking it 18th out of 33 journals in the category "Nuclear Science and Technology" and 18th out of 20 journals in the category "Physics, Nuclear".


Idleness

Idleness is a lack of motion or energy. In describing a person or machine, idle means the act of nothing or no work (for example: "John Smith is an idle person"). This is a person who spends his days doing nothing could be said to be "idly passing his days." (For example: Mary has been idle on her instant messenger account for hours.) A computer processor or communication circuit is described as idle when it is not being used by any program, application or message. Similarly, an engine of an automobile may be described as idle when it is running only to sustain its running (not doing any useful work), this is also called the tickover (see idle).
Idleness as dependent upon cultural norms.
Typically, when one describes a machine as idle, it is an objective statement regarding its current state. However, when used to describe a person, idle typically carries a negative connotation, with the assumption that the person is wasting their time by doing nothing of value.
Such a view is reflected in the proverb "an idle mind is the devil's workshop". Also, the popular phrase "killing time" refers to idleness and can be defined as spending time doing nothing in particular in order that time seems to pass more quickly. These interpretations of idleness are not universal – they are more typically associated with Western cultures. Idleness was considered a disorderly offence in England punishable as a summary offense.
Involuntary enforced idleness is the punishment used for lazy or slacking workers in zero-hour contracts. Paid time off, which was introduced in the 20th century as a trade unionist reform, is now absent from an increasing number of job arrangements both as a money-saving mechanism and so that only work pays and thus reinforcing the stigma against idleness and enabling nature’s punishment of idleness in the form of destitution and starvation.
Books on idleness.
The state of being idle is sometimes even celebrated with a few books on the subject of idleness. "How to Be Idle" by Tom Hodgkinson is one such example from an author who is also known for his magazine, "The Idler", devoted to promoting its ethos of "idle living". Bertrand Russell's "In Praise of Idleness and Other Essays" is another book that explores the virtues of being idle in the modern society.
Mark Slouka published an essay, "Quitting the Paint Factory: The Virtues of Idleness", hinting at a post-scarcity economy and linking conscious busyness with anti-democratic and fascist tendencies.
Brian O'Connor wrote a philosophical essay on Idleness. Most philosophers did ignore the subject or (Hegel, Marx) combat idleness. Idleness is unworthy. Kant writes. The last chapter is "Idleness as Freedom."
External links.
Idle Mod


Jerome Lewis Duggan

Jerome Lewis Duggan (August 4, 1933 – August 31, 2014) was a Regents Professor at the University of North Texas (UNT), the founder of the International Conference on the Application of Accelerators in Research and Industry (CAARI). He was also a Fellow in the American Physical Society.
Dr. Duggan was an Assistant Professor at the University of Georgia from 1961–1963. He worked for ten years at Oak Ridge Associated Universities before starting at UNT in 1973 as a professor in the Physics Department. He was awarded the UNT President's Award and was awarded the status of Fellow in the American Physical Society, after they were nominated by their Forum on Industrial and Applied Physics in 2000.


Vladimir Prigodin

Vladimir Nikolayevich Prigodin (; born 1951) is a Russian physicist and academic from Ohio State University. He was previously at Ioffe Institute in Saint Petersburg, Russia. He was awarded the status of Fellow in the American Physical Society, after they were nominated by their Division of Condensed Matter Physics in 2007, for "his pioneering studies of electronic properties of low-dimensional systems, proposal and development of fundamentals of charge transport in quasi-one-dimensional disordered structures, and also of operating principals of new organic-based electronic materials/devices and fully spin polarized organic spintronic materials/devices."


Event (relativity)

In physics, and in particular relativity, an event is the instantaneous physical situation or occurrence associated with a point in spacetime (that is, a specific place and time). For example, a glass breaking on the floor is an event; it occurs at a unique place and a unique time. Strictly speaking, the notion of an event is an idealization, in the sense that it specifies a definite time and place, whereas any actual event is bound to have a finite extent, both in time and in space.
Upon choosing a frame of reference, one can assign coordinates to the event: three spatial coordinates formula_1 to describe the location and one time coordinate formula_2 to specify the moment at which the event occurs. These four coordinates formula_3 together form a four-vector associated to the event.
One of the goals of relativity is to specify the possibility of one event influencing another. This is done by means of the metric tensor, which allows for determining the causal structure of spacetime. The difference (or interval) between two events can be classified into spacelike, lightlike and timelike separations. Only if two events are separated by a lightlike or timelike interval can one influence the other.


Meera Chandrasekhar

Meera Chandrasekhar (ಡಾ. ಮೀರಾ ಚಂದ್ರಶೇಖರ್), is a Curators’ Teaching of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Missouri, United States. She is the recipient of the 2014 Baylor University's Robert Foster Cherry Award for Great Teaching. Her research focuses on optical spectroscopy of semiconductors and superconductors under pressure. Meera has also developed several hands-on physics programs for students in grades 5-12, and summer institutes for K-12 teachers.
Early life and education.
Chandrasekhar was born in Andhra Pradesh, India. Her father Chandrapal (ಚಂದ್ರಪಾಲ್) was an officer in the Indian Army, and her mother Kusuma (ಕುಸುಮಾ) was a home-maker. During her childhood she lived in several towns and cities across India. She is married to H.R.Chandrasekhar, Professor of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Missouri. They have three children.
Education.
Meera Chandrapal, obtained a B.Sc. degree from M.G.M.College, Udupi in 1968, an M.Sc. from the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, India, and a Ph.D. from Brown University, Providence Rhode Island (1976). After a post-doctoral fellowship at Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Stuttgart, Germany, she came to the University of Missouri, Columbia in 1978, where she is currently a Professor in the Department of Physics and Astronomy.
Research Interests.
Chandrasekhar's research interests are in the area of optical spectroscopy of semiconductors, superconductors, and conjugated polymers, with an emphasis on high-pressure studies. She has published over 120 papers in this area.
Educational Interests.
Chandrasekhar has an interest in education at all levels. At the university level she has restructured several courses in her department, and developed a physics course for elementary education majors that has an annual enrollment of over 140 students. Beginning in 1993, she led a series of programs for K-12 students and their teachers, supported by the National Science Foundation, and the Missouri Department of Higher Education. The programs included Exploring Physics for 5-7 grade female students, which focused on learning physics concepts through hands-on activities; Family Evenings with Science and Technology (FEST), a middle school parent and student program where each team built a miniature working drawbridge; Saturday Scientist, an industry based experience for 8-9 grade students designed to increase students' awareness of potential careers in the physical sciences; Newton Summer Science Academy for 9-11 grade girls, which integrated science, engineering and mathematics through a toy factory building project; and summer teacher academies for 5-12 grade science teachers. For her mentoring of young students, she received the Presidential Award for Science, Mathematics and Engineering Mentoring (PAESMEM) award in 1999. The most recent project, A TIME for Physics First, focuses on professional development and leadership training for science teachers so they can implement a yearlong course in physics at the 9th grade level. As part of this project, she and a colleague, Dorina Kosztin led the development of Exploring Physics, a digital curriculum for conceptual physics.
References.
http://faculty.missouri.edu/~chandrasekharm/


Superconducting Super Collider

The Superconducting Super Collider (SSC) (also nicknamed the desertron) was a particle accelerator complex under construction in the vicinity of Waxahachie, Texas.
Its planned ring circumference was with an energy of 20 TeV per proton and was set to be the world's largest and most energetic. The project's director was Roy Schwitters, a physicist at the University of Texas at Austin. Dr. Louis Ianniello served as its first Project Director for 15 months. After 22.5 km (14 mi) of tunnel were bored and nearly two billion dollars were spent, the project was cancelled in 1993 due to budget problems.
Proposal and development.
The system was first formally discussed in the December 1976 National Reference Designs Study, which examined the technical and economic feasibility of a machine with the design capacity of 20 TeV per proton. Fermilab director and subsequent Nobel physics prizewinner Leon Lederman was a very prominent early supporter – some sources say the architect or proposer – of the Superconducting Super Collider project, which was endorsed around 1983, and a major proponent and advocate throughout its lifetime.
An extensive U.S. Department of Energy review was done during the mid-1980s. Seventeen shafts were sunk and of tunnel were bored by late 1993.
Partial construction and financial issues.
During the design and the first construction stage, a heated debate ensued about the high cost of the project. In 1987, Congress was told the project could be completed for $4.4 billion, and it gained the enthusiastic support of Speaker Jim Wright of nearby Fort Worth, Texas. A recurring argument was the contrast with NASA's contribution to the International Space Station (ISS), a similar dollar amount. Critics of the project (Congressmen representing other US states and scientists working in non-SSC fields who felt the money would be better spent on their own fields) argued that the US could not afford both of them.
Estimates of the additional cost caused by not using existing physical and human infrastructure at Fermilab in Illinois range from $495 million to $3.28 billion.
Leaders hoped to get financial support from Europe, Canada, Japan, Russia, and India. This was hindered by promotion of the project as promoting American superiority. European funding remained at CERN, which was already working on the Large Hadron Collider. India pledged $50 million, but talks with Japan foundered over trade tensions in the automobile industry. A US-Japanese trade mission where SSC funding was supposed to be discussed ended in the George H. W. Bush vomiting incident.
Congress began appropriating annual funding for the project. In 1992, it was opposed by a majority of the House of Representatives (231-181), but was included in the final reconciled budget due to support in the Senate (62-32).
Early in 1993, a group supported by funds from project contractors organized a public relations campaign to lobby Congress directly in support of the project.
In February, the General Accounting Office reported a $630 million overrun in the $1.25 billion construction budget. By March, the "New York Times" reported the estimated total cost had grown to $8.4 billion. In June, the non-profit Project on Government Oversight released a draft audit report by the Department of Energy's Inspector General heavily criticizing the Super Collider for its high costs and poor management by officials in charge of it.
The Inspector General investigated $500,000 in questionable expenses over three years, including $12,000 for Christmas parties, $25,000 for catered lunches, and $21,000 for the purchase and maintenance of office plants. The report also concluded that there was inadequate documentation for $203 million in project spending, or 40% of the money spent up to that point.
In 1993, Clinton tried to prevent the cancellation by asking Congress to continue "to support this important and challenging effort" through completion because "abandoning the SSC at this point would signal that the United States is compromising its position of leadership in basic science".
Cancellation.
After $2 billion had been spent ($400 million by the host state of Texas, the rest by the Department of Energy), the House of Representatives rejected funding on October 19, 1993, and Senate negotiators failed to restore it.
Following Rep. Jim Slattery's successful orchestration in the House, President Clinton signed the bill that finally cancelled the project on October 30, 1993, stating regret at the "serious loss" for science.
Many factors contributed to the cancellation: rising cost estimates (to $12bn); poor management by physicists and Department of Energy officials; the end of the need to prove the supremacy of American science with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War; belief that many smaller scientific experiments of equal merit could be funded for the same cost; Congress's desire to generally reduce spending (the United States was running a $255bn budget deficit); the reluctance of Texas Governor Ann Richards; and President Bill Clinton's initial lack of support for a project begun during the administrations of Richards's predecessor, Bill Clements, and Clinton's predecessors, Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. The project's cancellation was also eased by opposition from within the scientific community. Prominent condensed matter physicists, such as Philip W. Anderson and Nicolaas Bloembergen, testified before Congress opposing the project. They argued that, although the SSC would certainly conduct high-quality research, it was not the only way to acquire new fundamental knowledge, as some of its supporters claimed, and so was unreasonably expensive. Scientific critics of the SSC pointed out that basic research in other areas, such as condensed matter physics and materials science, was underfunded compared to high energy physics, despite the fact that those fields were more likely to produce applications with technological and economic benefits.
Reactions to the cancellation.
Steven Weinberg, a Nobel laureate in Physics, places the cancellation of the SSC in the context of a bigger national and global socio-economic crisis, including a general crisis in funding for science research and for the provision of adequate education, healthcare, transportation and communication infrastructure, and criminal justice and law enforcement.
Leon Lederman, a promoter and advocate from its early days, wrote his 1993 popular science book "" – which sought to promote awareness of the significance of the work which necessitated such a project – in the context of the project's last years and loss of congressional support.
The closing of the SSC had adverse consequences for the southern part of the Dallas–Fort Worth Metroplex, and resulted in a mild recession, most evident in those parts of Dallas which lay south of the Trinity River. When the project was cancelled, of tunnel and 17 shafts to the surface were already dug, and nearly two billion dollars had already been spent on the massive facility.
Comparison to the Large Hadron Collider.
The SSC's planned collision energy of 2 x 20 = 40 TeV was roughly three times that of the 2 x 6.5 = 13 TeV (as of June 2015) of its European counterpart, the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN in Geneva. However, the planned luminosity was only one tenth of the design luminosity of the LHC.
Although some claimed that the SSC cost was largely due to the massive civil engineering project of digging a huge tunnel, that was somewhat of a distortion. The tunneling and conventional facility buildout budget was only about ten percent of the total budgeted cost (1.1 billion dollars out of a total cost of 10 billion). The major cost item was the magnets, still in laboratory development phase, consequently with a higher level of uncertainty attached to the final cost. The ring circumference of the LHC is , compared to the planned of the SSC.
The LHC's advantage in terms of cost was the use of the pre-existing engineering infrastructure and 27 km long cavern of the Large Electron–Positron Collider, and its use of a different, innovative magnet design to bend the higher energy particles into the available tunnel. The LHC eventually cost the equivalent of about 5 billion US dollars to build. The total operating budget of CERN runs to about $1 billion per year. The Large Hadron Collider became operational in August 2008.
In a 2021 interview, Schwitters speculated that, had the project been completed, it would have led to the discovery of the Higgs boson particle 10 years before it's eventual discovery in Switzerland and attracted an equivalent number of visitors to North Texas as CERN's 120,000 per year.
Current status of site.
After the project was cancelled, the main site was deeded to Ellis County, Texas, and the county tried numerous times to sell the property. The property was sold in August 2006 to an investment group led by the late J.B. Hunt.
In 2009, Collider Data Center had contracted with GVA Cawley to market the site as a data center. In 2012, Chemical company Magnablend bought the property and facilities against some opposition from the local community. The buildings in the facility, which had become prime spots for thieves and drug parties, were renovated and were re-opened in 2013 by Magnablend. The facility makes a range of oil field products for the energy service industry.
In popular culture.
John G. Cramer's 1997 hard science fiction novel "Einstein's Bridge" centers around a fictional version of the Superconducting Super Collider.
A Hole In Texas is a 2004 novel by Herman Wouk, which describes the adventures of a high-energy physicist following the surprise announcement that a Chinese physicist had discovered the long-sought Higgs boson. Parts of the plot are based on the aborted Superconducting Super Collider project.
On the January 21, 2021 episode of "Young Sheldon" the supercollider is mentioned when Sheldon Cooper's (Ian Armitage) mentor Dr. John Sturgis (Wallace Shawn) gets a new job there. A subsequent episode on the April 1, 2021 episode shows an exterior shot of the facility with Dr. Sturgis receiving a phone call from Sheldon's grandmother (Annie Potts).


Thibault Damour

Thibault Damour (; born 7 February 1951) is a French physicist.
He is a professor of theoretical physics at the Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques (IHÉS) since 1989.
An expert in general relativity, he has long taught this theory at the École Normale Supérieure (Ulm). He contributed greatly to the understanding of gravitational waves from compact binary systems, and with Alessandra Buonanno, he invented the "effective one-body" approach to solving the orbital trajectories of binary black holes. He is also a specialist in string theory.


Yoseph Bar-Cohen

Yoseph Bar-Cohen is a physicist at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory who specializes in electroactive materials and ultrasonic nondestructive evaluation (NDE), and is responsible for the Nondestructive Evaluation and Advance Actuators (NDEAA) lab at JPL. Dr. Bar-Cohen is a fellow of the International Society for Optical Engineering (SPIE) and the American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT).
Bar-Cohen received a M.Sc. in Materials Science in 1973 and a Ph.D. in Physics in 1979, both from the Hebrew University in Jerusalem.
Bar-Cohen started SPIE's Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices (EAPAD) conference, which he has chaired six times, as well as proposing the Armwrestling Match of EAP Robotic Arm Against Human.


Efim Fradkin

 Efim Samoilovich Fradkin (Russian: "Ефим Самойлович Фрадкин") (November 30, 1924 – May 25, 1999) was a Russian physicist.
Fradkin was born in Schedrin near Zhlobin (now Belarus), then in the Soviet Union, in 1924.
He was awarded the USSR State Prize in 1953 (Stalin Prize of First Degree), Igor Tamm Prize of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1980, and the Dirac Prize of ICTP in 1989.
In 1996-1997, Fradkin was a guest professor of the director-general of the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and a member of the organization's Theory Division.


Information distance

Information distance is the distance between two finite objects (represented as computer files) expressed as the number of bits in the shortest program which transforms one object into the other one or vice versa on a
universal computer. This is an extension of Kolmogorov complexity. The Kolmogorov complexity of a "single" finite object is the information in that object; the information distance between a "pair" of finite objects is the minimum information required to go from one object to the other or vice versa.
Information distance was first defined and investigated in based on thermodynamic principles, see also. Subsequently, it achieved final form in. It is applied in the normalized compression distance and the normalized Google distance.
Properties.
Formally the information distance formula_1 between formula_2 and formula_3 is defined by
with formula_5 a finite binary program for the fixed universal computer
with as inputs finite binary strings formula_6. In it is proven that
formula_7 with
where formula_9 is the Kolmogorov complexity defined by of the prefix type. This formula_10 is the important quantity.
Universality.
Let formula_11 be the class of upper semicomputable distances formula_12 that satisfy the density condition
This excludes irrelevant distances such as formula_14 for formula_15;
it takes care that if the distance growth then the number of objects within that distance of a given object grows.
If formula_16 then formula_17 up to a constant additive term.
The probabilistic expressions of the distance is the first cohomological class in information symmetric cohomology, which may be conceived as a universality property.
Metricity.
The distance formula_10 is a metric up to an additive formula_19
term in the metric (in)equalities. The probabilistic version of the metric is indeed unique has shown by Han in 1981.
Maximum overlap.
If formula_20, then there is a program formula_5 of length formula_22 that converts formula_3 to formula_2, and a program formula_25 of length formula_26 such that the program formula_27 converts formula_2 to formula_3. (The programs are of the self-delimiting format which means that one can decide where one program ends and the other begins in concatenation of the programs.) That is, the shortest programs to convert between two objects can be made maximally overlapping: For formula_30 it can be divided into a program that converts object formula_2 to object formula_3, and another program which concatenated with the first converts formula_3 to formula_2 while the concatenation of these two programs is a shortest program to convert between these objects.
Minimum overlap.
The programs to convert between objects formula_2 and formula_3 can also be made minimal overlapping.
There exists a program formula_5 of length formula_22 up to an additive term of formula_39 that maps formula_3 to formula_2 and has small complexity when formula_2 is known (formula_43). Interchanging the two objects we have the other program Having in mind the parallelism between Shannon information theory and Kolmogorov complexity theory, one can say that this result is parallel to the Slepian-Wolf and Körner–Imre Csiszár–Marton theorems.
Applications.
Theoretical.
The result of An.A. Muchnik on minimum overlap above is an important theoretical application showing
that certain codes exist: to go to finite target object from any object there is a program which almost only
depends on the target object! This result is fairly precise and the error term cannot be significantly improved. Information distance was material in the textbook, it occurs in the Encyclopedia on Distances.
Practical.
To determine the similarity of objects such as genomes, languages, music, internet attacks and worms, software programs, and so on, information distance is normalized and the Kolmogorov complexity terms approximated by real-world compressors (the Kolmogorov complexity is a lower bound to the length in bits of a compressed version of the object). The result is the normalized compression distance (NCD) between the objects. This pertains to objects given as computer files like the genome of a mouse or text of a book. If the objects are just given by name such as `Einstein' or `table' or the name of a book or the name `mouse', compression does not make sense. We need outside information about what the name means. Using a data base (such as the internet) and a means to search the database (such as a search engine like Google) provides this information. Every search engine on a data base that provides aggregate page counts can be used in the normalized Google distance (NGD).
A python package for computing all information distances and volumes, multivariate mutual information, conditional mutual information, joint entropies, total correlations, in a dataset of n variables is available .


Renate Chasman

Renate Wiener Chasman (January 10, 1932 – October 17, 1977) was a physicist.
She was born Renate Wiener to German Jewish parents in Berlin. Her father, Hans Wiener, was a founder of the Social Democratic Party of Germany. In 1938, the Wiener family fled Nazi Germany through the Netherlands to Sweden, where Wiener grew up and attended school in Stockholm.
Wiener and her sister Edith went to Israel to attend Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Wiener graduated in 1955 with a M.Sc in physics with minors in chemistry and mathematics. She earned her PhD in experimental physics in 1959. Her doctoral thesis demonstrated that a pseudoscalar component was not involved in parity nonconversation in beta decay.
Chien-Shiung Wu was doing similar work and invited Wiener to work at Columbia University as a research associate. There she met Wu's graduate student Chellis Chasman and together they investigated beta decay. They married in 1962.
In 1962, the Chasmans went to Yale University to work with David Allan Bromley in nuclear spectroscopy. Chasman joined Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1963. Beginning in the Department of Physics at Brookhaven, she transferred in 1965 to the Accelerator Department.
In the following years, she facilitated important contributions to the development of particle accelerators, redesigning the alternating-gradient proton synchrotron (AGS). Together with George Kenneth Green, she is known for the invention of the Chasman-Green lattice for synchrotron storage rings.
She died in 1977 from melanoma. The Brookhaven National Lab has a scholarship named after Chasman.


American Physical Society

The American Physical Society (APS) is a not-for-profit membership organization of professionals in physics and related disciplines, comprising nearly fifty divisions, sections, and other units. Its mission is the advancement and diffusion of knowledge of physics. The society publishes more than a dozen scientific journals, including the prestigious "Physical Review" and "Physical Review Letters", and organizes more than twenty science meetings each year. APS is a member society of the American Institute of Physics. Since February 2015 the organization is led by chief executive officer Kate Kirby.
History.
The American Physical Society was founded on May 20, 1899, when thirty-six physicists gathered at Columbia University for that purpose. They proclaimed the mission of the new Society to be "to advance and diffuse the knowledge of physics", and in one way or another the APS has been at that task ever since. In the early years, virtually the sole activity of the APS was to hold scientific meetings, initially four per year. In 1913, the APS took over the operation of the "Physical Review," which had been founded in 1893 at Cornell University, and journal publication became its second major activity. The "Physical Review" was followed by "Reviews of Modern Physics" in 1929 and by "Physical Review Letters" in 1958. Over the years, "Phys. Rev." has subdivided into five separate sections as the fields of physics proliferated and the number of submissions grew.
In more recent years, the activities of the Society have broadened considerably. Stimulated by the increase in Federal funding in the period after the Second World War, and even more by the increased public involvement of scientists in the 1960s, the APS is active in public and governmental affairs, and in the international physics community. In addition, the Society conducts extensive programs in education, science outreach (specifically physics outreach), and media relations. APS has 14 divisions and 11 topical groups covering all areas of physics research. There are 6 forums that reflect the interest of its 50,000 members in broader issues, and 9 sections organized by geographical region.
In 1999, APS Physics celebrated its centennial with the biggest-ever physics meeting in Atlanta. In 2005, APS took the lead role in United States participation in the World Year of Physics, initiating several programs to broadly publicize physics during the 100th anniversary of Albert Einstein's annus mirabilis. Einstein@Home, one of the projects APS initiated during World Year of Physics, is an ongoing and popular distributed computing project.
Name change proposal.
During the summer of 2005, the society conducted an electronic poll, in which the majority of APS members preferred the name "American Physics Society". The poll became the motivation for a proposal of a name change promised in the leadership election that year. However, because of legal issues, the planned name change was eventually abandoned by the APS Executive Board.
To promote public recognition of APS as a physics society, while retaining the name American Physical Society, the APS Executive Board adopted a new logo incorporating the phrase ""APS Physics"." General use of "APS Physics" to refer to APS or the American Physical Society is encouraged. The new "APS Physics" logo was designed by Kerry G. Johnson. Marvin Cohen, who was then APS President, said, "I like the logo. At least now when you are in an elevator at an APS meeting and someone looks at your badge, they won't ask you about sports."
APS journals.
The American Physical Society publishes 13 international research journals and an open-access on-line news and commentary website "Physics".
All members of APS receive the monthly publication "Physics Today", published by the American Institute of Physics (AIP).
The Society also publishes "Inside Science", part of a news service launched in 1999 to place more science stories in the media. Aimed at both introducing the public to new scientific research and at correcting public misconceptions about science, the publication has editorial independence from APS itself.
APS units.
The American Physical Society has 47 units (divisions, forums, topical groups and sections) that represent the wide range of interests of the physics community.
Topical groups.
APS has the following topical groups:
Programs.
Physics Teacher Education Coalition.
The "Physics Teacher Education Coalition (PhysTEC)" is a joint project of the American Physical Society and the "American Association of Physics Teachers", which helps universities transform their physics teacher education programs into national models. PhysTEC Supported Sites develop their physics teacher preparation programs by implementing a set of Key Components that project leaders have identified as critical to success in physics teacher preparation. The broader Coalition is a national network of institutions committed to developing and promoting excellence in physics and physical science teacher preparation.
APS Bridge Program.
The "APS Bridge Program" aims to increase the number of underrepresented minority students that earn doctoral degrees in physics. The program names doctoral and master's degree-granting institutions as Bridge Sites and awards them National Science Foundation funding to prepare post-baccalaureate students for doctoral studies through additional coursework, mentoring, research, application coaching, and GRE preparation.
The APS Scholarship for Minority Undergraduate Physics Majors.
Formerly called the APS Corporate Sponsored Scholarship Program for Minority Undergraduate Students Who Major in Physics, this scholarship was established in 1980 with the goal of increasing the number of underrepresented minorities receiving bachelor's degrees in physics. The program provides funding and mentoring to talented students.
Conferences for Undergraduate Women in Physics.
"APS Conferences for Undergraduate Women in Physics (APS CUWiP)" are three-day regional conferences for undergraduate physics majors. The conferences aim to help undergraduate women continue in physics by providing them with the opportunity to experience a professional conference, information about graduate school and professions in physics, and access to other women in physics of all ages with whom they can share experiences, advice, and ideas.
Career Center.
The "APS Careers in Physics" website is a gateway for physicists, students, and physics enthusiasts to obtain information about physics jobs and careers. APS Careers in Physics has an award-winning job board, offers professional development advice through its website and blog, and provides links to workshops, grants, and career resources.
New Faculty Workshop.
APS co-sponsors a set of workshops for new physics and astronomy faculty with the American Association of Physics Teachers and the American Astronomical Society. These workshops reach nearly half of all new physics and astronomy faculty, and introduce them to current pedagogical practices, results of physics education research, and time management skills to help them begin and improve their academic careers.
CSWP/COM site visits.
The APS has had a long-standing interest in improving the climate in physics departments for underrepresented minorities and women. The Committee on the Status of Women in Physics (CSWP) and the Committee on Minorities (COM) both sponsor site visit programs to universities as well as national labs.
Education conferences.
APS is a leading voice for physics education and the society sponsors a variety of conferences dedicating to helping physics education leaders stay on top of the trends in the field. Conferences include the annual Physics Department Chair Conference, a Graduate Education in Physics Conference, and a Distance Education & Online Learning in Physics Workshop.
Physics Outreach.
The APS Physics Outreach program focuses on "Communicating the excitement and importance of physics to everyone." As part of this effort, it maintains an educational website, PhysicsCentral; offers grants to help APS members develop educational programs; and runs the Historic Physics Sites Initiative, which identifies and commemorates important historic physics sites in the United States.
Prizes and awards.
The American Physical Society gives out a number of awards for research excellence and conduct; topics include outstanding leadership, computational physics, lasers, mathematics, and more.


Celor lens

A Celor lens (also known as a symmetric dialyte) is a highly corrected lens of the Dialyt type, designed for process photography, involving reproduction at or near 1:1 scale.
It was developed in 1898 by Emil von Hoegh, an optical designer working for the German company Goerz.


MoEDAL experiment

MoEDAL (Monopole and Exotics Detector at the LHC) is a particle physics experiment at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).
Experiment.
MoEDAL shares the cavern at Point 8 with LHCb, and its prime goal is to directly search for the magnetic monopole (MM) or dyon and other highly ionizing stable massive particles (SMPs) and pseudo-stable massive particles. To detect these particles, the project uses nuclear track detectors (NTDs), which suffer characteristic damage due to highly ionizing particles. As MMs and SMPs are highly ionizing, NTDs are perfectly suited for the purpose of detection.
It is an international research collaboration whose spokesperson is the University of Alberta's James Pinfold. It is the seventh experiment at the LHC, was approved and sanctioned by the CERN research board on May 2010, and started its first test deployment in January 2011.
In 2012 MoEDAL accuracy surpassed accuracy of similar experiments. A new detector was installed in 2015, but as of 2017 it also did not find any magnetic monopoles, setting new limits on their production cross section.


Julie Borchers

Julie Ann Borchers (born 1962) is an American physicist.
Education.
Borchers received her B.S. in physics at the University of Dayton in 1984. She completed a Ph.D. at University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign in 1990. Borcher's doctoral advisor was Myron Salamon. Her dissertation was titled "Structural and magnetic properties of erbium thin films and Er/Y superlattices".
Career and research.
Borchers is part of the Neutron-Condensed Matter Science Group at the National Institute of Standards and Technology. She works as Associate Director for the Center for High Resolution Neutron Scattering (CHRNS) and is an Instrument Scientist for the Polarized Beam Reflectometer (PBR).
She acts as chair-elect for the APS Topical Group on Magnetism and its Applications (GMAG), working on bringing together students, scientists and engineers to advance the study and applications of magnetism. Her term as chair-elect is May 2020 to March 2021.
Awards and honours.
She was elected a Fellow of the American Physical Society in 2002.


Giovanni Battista Beccaria

Giovanni Battista Beccaria (; 3 October 1716 – 27 May 1781), Italian physicist, was born at Mondovì, and entered the religious Order of the Pious Schools or Piarists, in 1732, where he studied, and afterward taught, grammar and rhetoric. At the same time, he applied himself with success to mathematics.
He became professor of experimental physics, first at Palermo and then at Rome, and was appointed to a similar position at Turin in 1748. He was afterwards made tutor to the young princes de Chablais and de Carignan, and continued to reside principally at Turin during the remainder of his life. In May 1755 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London, and published several papers on electrical subjects in the "Phil. Trans.". In 1759, King Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia, who had invited him to Turin, employed him to measure the degree of meridian arc in Piedmont.
Beccaria did much, in the way both of experiment and exposition, to spread a knowledge of the electrical researches of Benjamin Franklin and others. His principal work was the treatise "Dell’ Elettricismo Naturale ed Artificiale" (1753), which was translated into English in 1776.


Antonio Rostagni

Antonio Rostagni (14 July 1903 – 5 December 1988) was an Italian physicist and academician.
He was a physicist involved in research in the fields of terrestrial physics, electromagnetic waves, and cosmic rays.
He was professor of physics at the University of Messina beginning in 1935 and at the University of Padua beginning in 1938. Among his students was Giuseppe Grioli.
Starting in 1950, he was a corresponding member of the Accademia dei Lincei of which he became a national member. He became a member of the Academy of Sciences of Turin in 1951.
Rostagni was vice-President of the Italian National Institute of Nuclear Physics from 1956 to 1958 and from 1958 to 1959 was director of the Research Division at the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) at Vienna.


Martin Zirnbauer

 Martin R. Zirnbauer (born 25 April 1958) is a professor of theoretical physics at the University of Cologne.
Zirnbauer studied at the Technical University of Munich and Oxford University, where he earned his PhD. In 1987 he was appointed at age 29 to Cologne. In 1996 he acquired his professorial chair. Among his foreign research sabbaticals, he visited the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. His research specialty is the mathematical physics of mesoscopic systems.
Awards.
In 2009 for his research he received the prestigious Leibniz prize from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, which granted him over a period of seven years 2.5 million €. In 2012 he was awarded the Max Planck medal.


Walter Mauderli

Walter Mauderli DSc (March 8, 1924 – March 27, 2005) was a pioneer in the development of the field of medical physics. He earned his doctorate from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology under the instruction of notable physicists as Nobel Laureate physicist Wolfgang Pauli.
Career.
Mauderli trained in the dosimetry of low- and high-energy radiations at the University of Zurich Medical Center with Professor Rolf Widerøe, the developer of particle accelerators. Mauderli moved to the United States in May 1956 and assumed a position at the University of Arkansas. In 1960 he became the first medical physicist at the University of Florida ("UF") and retired as Professor Emeritus in 1988. He was also academically affiliated with the Departments of Nuclear Engineering Sciences and Environmental Engineering Sciences. In the 1960s Mauderli was one of the founders of the medical physics graduate program at UF and radiologic technology training programs at two regional community colleges. He supervised many graduate students in their master's and doctoral research efforts.
Active in developing the use of computers in radiology, Mauderli performed fundamental research in electronic instrumentation in the fields of therapeutic radiology and nuclear medicine. He had 68 publications in his scientific career.
Mauderli was a founding member of the American Association of Physicists in Medicine (AAPM) and served on the initial board of directors with other leaders in the field.
Awards and recognition.
In order to recognize Mauderli's lifetime achievement in the field of medical physics in the state of Florida, in 2003 the Mauderli Award was created by the Florida Chapter of AAPM. This award bearing his name is given from time to time to a Florida medical physicist who is distinguished by significant scientific or clinical research, outstanding service as an educator in medical physics, or outstanding clinical service in medical physics.
References.
Health Physics Society (http://hps.org). Facts obtained in interviews with Walter Mauderli's wife and one of his daughters.


Peter Bosted

Peter Bosted is an American physicist, currently at Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility and an Elected Fellow of the American Physical Society.


Squared Euclidean distance


Madan M. Rehani

Madan M. Rehani is an Indian-born medical physicist.
Employment and Voluntary Positions.
Madan Rehani is currently Director of Global Outreach for Radiation Protection at the Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA, and an Adjunct Professor at the Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA. He worked earlier for over 11 years at the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria.
He was Professor and Head of Medical Physics at the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), New Delhi, India before joining the IAEA in 2001. He was also Head of the World Health Organization’s (WHO) Collaborating Centre on Imaging Technology & Radiation Protection, which he established in 1997. He held faculty positions at different levels from 1977-2001 in different medical institutes in India.
He is currently President (2018-2021) of the International Organization for Medical Physics (IOMP). He is a member of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). Under his chairmanship, 4 Annals of the ICRP have been published, and another 4 with him as member of the Task Group.
He is Senior Editor of The British Journal of Radiology, Associate Editor of Medical Physics and was Assistant Editor of American Journal of Roentgenology for several years.
Work on Radiation Protection.
Rehani has made contributions in patient dosimetry in over 70 countries by his actions through the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). He established a website on radiation protection of patients; the smart card project for tracking radiation exposures of patients; research on radiation-induced cataract in the eyes of interventional cardiologists and support staff; research on radiation safety of children in developing countries; development of training material on radiation protection; and training of doctors using fluoroscopy outside radiology (cardiologists, urologists, orthopedic surgeons, vascular surgeons, gastroenterologist, and gynecologists) from over 60 countries. He also set up the EuroSafe Imaging program by the European Society of Radiology. He has recently developed a new concept on “acceptable quality dose (AQD)” to take into account limitations of diagnostic reference levels (DRLs), which have been used as an index in radiation protection for nearly three decades. He is currently Chair of the Program Committee of the IAEA International Conference on Radiation Protection in Medicine.
Honors and awards.
During his tenure at the IAEA, a certificate was awarded to Madan Rehani to commemorate the 2005 Nobel Peace Prize, which was jointly awarded to the Head of the IAEA and to the IAEA. Staff members whose work was included in the citation (e.g. “safe use of radiation” in the case of Rehani), were awarded a certificate with a copy of the original prize; the prize money was donated to a cancer fund charity.
Rehani was chosen among 50 medical physicists who have made outstanding contributions in the world over the last 50 years (1963-2013) and honored at the International Conference on Medical Physics in Brighton, UK on 1–4 September 2013. He received the 2015 Butterfly Award from the Alliance for Radiation Safety in Pediatric Imaging.
He was elected as Fellow of the International Organization for Medical Physics (IOMP) in 2013, and awarded Honorary Membership of the Society for Pediatric Radiology in May 2011, the Dr. N.C. Singhal Oration by the Association of Medical Physicists of India (Northern Chapter) in April 2011, the Harold Johns Medal by the International Organization for Medical Physics (IOMP) in 2009, the Dr. K.M. Rai Oration by the Indian Radiological & Imaging Association in 2001, and the Homi Bhabha Memorial Oration by the Society of Nuclear Medicine India in 1999.
Rehani was President of the Association of Medical Physicists of India (UPDEL Chapter) from 1990-1994, President of the Society of Nuclear Medicine, India in 2001, Fellow of the Indian College of Nuclear Medicine, and Secretary of the College from 1997-2001.
Publications.
The following is a list of selected publications. He has edited 5 books, is responsible for 15 IAEA publications, 8 Annals of ICRP, published more than 130 papers in peer reviewed journals and contributed Editorials in "British Medical Journal", "International Journal of Cardiology", and "Indian Journal of Radiology & Imaging". An exhaustive publication list can be found on Rehani's Google Scholar page.


Wang Daheng

Wang Daheng (; 26 February 1915 – 21 July 2011) was a Chinese optical physicist, engineer, and inventor widely considered the "father of optical engineering" in China. He was a founding academician of both the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Chinese Academy of Engineering. He was the founder of the Changchun Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Changchun University of Science and Technology, and the Chinese Optical Society.
Early life and education.
Wang was born on 26 February 1915 in Tokyo, Japan, with his ancestral home in Suzhou, China. His father Wang Yingwei (王应伟) was an astronomer then studying in Japan.
Wang graduated from the Department of Physics at Tsinghua University in 1936. In 1938, he won the Boxer Indemnity Scholarship to study in England. After earning his master's degree from Imperial College London in 1940, he began his doctoral studies at the University of Sheffield in optical physics and technology.
Career.
United Kingdom.
After World War II broke out in 1939, Nazi Germany, a major maker of optical glass, banned the export of the strategic product. The British government offered support for domestic companies to develop and manufacture the product, and Wang decided to abandon his studies and join Chance Brothers, a leading British glass manufacturer. His research at the company led to the development of new types of optical glass and precision instruments.
China.
In 1948, Wang returned to China and established the Department of Applied Physics at the former Dalian University (now part of the Dalian University of Technology).
In 1952, Wang established the Changchun Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics (originally named the Institute of Instrumentation) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Changchun. He is also considered the founder of Changchun University of Science and Technology, a spinoff of the institute. He worked at the institute from 1952 to 1983, and served several times as its president. At the institute, he made a number of inventions and developed China's first electronic microscope and laser. Under his leadership, the Changchun Institute played a crucial role in the development of strategic weapons, developing high-precision optics for missile guidance systems. It enabled major breakthroughs for China's submarine-launched ballistic missile program.
Wang was elected a founding member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) in 1955. In 1992, he and five other scientists advocated the creation of the Chinese Academy of Engineering (CAE) independent from the CAS. When the Chinese government accepted their proposal and established the CAE in 1994, Wang was again elected as a founding academician and a member of the presidium. He was a fellow of SPIE and chaired a number of SPIE symposiums and conferences.
In March 1986, Wang Daheng and three other prominent scientists—Wang Ganchang, Yang Jiachi, and Chen Fangyun—wrote a letter to Deng Xiaoping advocating the development of strategic technologies. Deng accepted their proposal, which gave birth to the influential 863 Program, named after the date of their letter.
Wang died on 21 July 2011 in Beijing, at the age of 96. He was buried at the Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery.
Honours and recognition.
Wang was awarded the Two Bombs, One Satellite Meritorious Medal in 1999 for his role in developing the technology to trigger nuclear fusion using laser. He was also conferred the Special Prize of the State Science and Technology Progress Award and the Ho Leung Ho Lee Prize for Achievement in Science and Technology.
The asteroid 17693 Wangdaheng, discovered by the Beijing Schmidt CCD Asteroid Program in 1997, is named after him.


Heinrich Kayser

Heinrich Gustav Johannes Kayser ForMemRS (; 16 March 1853 – 14 October 1940) was a German physicist and spectroscopist.
Biography.
Kayser was born at Bingen am Rhein. Kayser's early work was concerned with the characteristics of acoustic waves. He discovered the occurrence of helium in the Earth's atmosphere in 1868 during a solar eclipse when he detected a new spectral line in the solar spectrum. In 1881 Kayser coined the word “adsorption”. Together with Carl Runge, he examined the spectra of chemical elements. In 1905, he wrote a paper on electron theory.
The kayser unit, associated with wavenumber, of the CGS system was named after him. He died at Bonn in 1940.


Vortex theory of the atom

The vortex theory of the atom was a 19th-century attempt by William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) to explain why the atoms recently discovered by chemists came in only a small number of varieties but in very great numbers. Based on the idea of stable, knotted vortices in the ether or aether, it eventually failed but contributed an important mathematical legacy.
Description.
The vortex theory of the atom was based on the observation that a stable vortex can be created in a fluid by making it into a ring with no ends. Such vortices could be sustained in the luminiferous ether, a fluid thought to pervade all of space. In the vortex theory of the atom, a chemical atom is modelled by such a vortex in the aether.
Knots can be tied in the core of such a vortex, leading to the hypothesis that each chemical element corresponds to a different kind of knot. The simple toroidal vortex, represented by the circular "unknot" 01, was thought to represent hydrogen. Many elements had yet to be discovered, so the next knot, the trefoil knot 31, was thought to represent carbon.
However, as more elements were discovered and the periodicity of their characteristics established in the periodic table of the elements, it became clear that this could not be explained by any rational classification of knots. This, together with the discovery of subatomic particles such as the electron, led to the theory being abandoned.
History.
Between 1870 and 1890 the vortex atom theory, which hypothesised that an atom was a vortex in the aether, was popular among British physicists and mathematicians. William Thomson, who became better known as Lord Kelvin, first conjectured that atoms might be vortices in the aether that pervades space. About 60 scientific papers were subsequently written on it by approximately 25 scientists.
Origins.
In the seventeenth century Descartes developed a theory of vortex motion to explain such things as why light radiated in all directions and the planets moved in circular orbits. He believed that there was no vacuum and any object which moved had to be entering a gap left by another moving object. He realised that a circular chain of such objects, all replacing each other, would enable such movement. Thus, all movement consisted of endless circular vortices at all scales. However his "Treatise on Light" remained unfinished.
Hermann Helmholtz realized in the mid-19th century that the core of a vortex, analogous to the eye of a hurricane, is a line-like filament that can become tangled up with other filaments in a knotted loop that cannot come undone. It is not necessary for the core to circulate, as it did in the Cartesian model. Helmholtz also showed that vortices exert forces on one another, and those forces take a form analogous to the magnetic forces between electrical wires.
During the intervening period, chemist John Dalton had developed his atomic theory of matter. It remained only to bring the two strands of discovery together.
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin).
William Thomson, later to become Lord Kelvin, became concerned with the nature of Dalton's chemical elements, whose atoms appeared in only a few forms but in vast numbers. He was inspired by Helmholz' findings, reasoning that the aether, a substance then hypothesised to pervade all of space, should be capable of supporting such stable vortices. According to Helmholtz’ theorems, these vortices would correspond to different kinds of knot. Thomson suggested that each type of knot might represent an atom of a different chemical element. He further speculated that multiple knots might aggregate into molecules of somewhat lower stability.
He published his paper "On Vortex Atoms" in the "Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh" in 1867.
Peter Tait.
Thomson's colleague Peter Guthrie Tait was attracted by the vortex atom theory and undertook a pioneering study of knots, producing a systematic classification of those with up to 10 crossings, in the hope of thus systematising the various elements.
J. J. Thomson.
J. J. Thomson took up the challenge in his 1883 Master's degree thesis, a "Treatise on the motion of vortex rings". In it, Thomson developed a mathematical treatment of the motions of William Thomson and Peter Tait's atoms.
When Thomson later discovered the electron (for which he received a Nobel prize), he abandoned his "nebular atom" hypothesis based on the vortex atomic theory, in favour of the plum pudding model.
Legacy.
Tait's work especially founded the branch of topology called knot theory, with J. J. Thompson providing some early mathematical advancements.
Kelvin's insight continues to inspire new mathematics and has led to persistence of the topic in the history of science.


Abram Ioffe

Abram Fedorovich Ioffe (; – 14 October 1960) was a prominent Russian/Soviet physicist. He received the Stalin Prize (1942), the Lenin Prize (1960) (posthumously), and the Hero of Socialist Labor (1955). Ioffe was an expert in various areas of solid state physics and electromagnetism. He established research laboratories for radioactivity, superconductivity, and nuclear physics, many of which became independent institutes.
Biography.
Ioffe was born into a middle-class Jewish family in the small town of Romny, Russian Empire (now in Sumy Oblast, Ukraine). After graduating from Saint Petersburg State Institute of Technology in 1902, he spent two years as an assistant to Wilhelm Roentgen in his Munich laboratory. Ioffe completed his Ph.D. at Munich University in 1905. His dissertation studied the electrical conductivity/electrical stress of dielectric crystals.
After 1906, Ioffe worked in the Saint Petersburg (from 1924 Leningrad) Polytechnical Institute where he eventually became a professor. In 1911 he (independently of Millikan) determined the charge of an electron. In this experiment, the microparticles of zinc metal were irradiated with ultraviolet light to eject the electrons. The charged microparticles were then balanced in an electric field against gravity so that their charges could be determined (published in 1913). In 1911 Ioffe converted from Judaism to Lutheranism and married a non-Jewish woman. In 1913 he attained the title of Magister of Philosophy and in 1915 Doctor of Physics. In 1918 he became head of Physics and Technology division in State Institute of Roentgenology and Radiology. This division became the Leningrad Physico-Technical Institute (LPTI) in 1917 and eventually the Ioffe Institute.
In the early 1930s, there was a critical need in the Air Defense Forces of the Red Army for means of detecting invading aircraft. A number of research institutes were involved with "radiolokatory" (radio-location) techniques. The Russian Academy of Sciences called a conference in January 1934 to assess this technology. Ioffe organized this conference, then published a journal report, disclosing to researchers throughout the world the science and technology that would ultimately be called radar.
When the Soviet atomic bomb project began in 1942, Ioffe was asked to lead the technical effort, but refused the job on the grounds that he was too old. He saw great promise in the young Igor Kurchatov, and placed him in charge of the first nuclear laboratory. During Joseph Stalin's campaign against the so-called "rootless cosmopolitans" (Jews), in 1950 Ioffe was made redundant from his position of the Director of LPTI and from the Board of Directors. In 1952–1954 he headed the Laboratory of Semiconductors of Academy of Sciences of the USSR, which in 1954 was reorganized as the Institute of Semiconductors. Following Ioffe's death, in 1960 the LPTI was renamed the Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute and is one of Russia's leading research centers.
Ioffe's students include Aleksandr Aleksandrov, Pyotr Kapitsa, Isaak Kikoin, Igor Kurchatov, Yakov Frenkel, Nikolay Semyonov, Léon Theremin, Boris Davydov, and Lev Artsimovich. Ioffe asked Ernest Rutherford to accept Pyotr Kapitsa to Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge.


Cynthia Keppel

Cynthia E. Keppel is the Hall A and C Leader at the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility and a Fellow of the American Physical Society. Her research focuses on the quark-gluon structure of the nucleon, while also considering applications of nuclear physics in medicine. Previously, she was a founding member of the Hampton University Proton Therapy Institute.
Early life and education.
Keppel earned her Bachelor of Arts degree at St. John's College in 1984. She spent a year teaching science at the Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology in Fairfax County, Virginia. Keppel worked at the United States Naval Research Laboratory where she created an early computer generated film. She considered becoming a professional race car driver, and participated in Sports Car Club of America activities. She completed her graduate training at the American University in 1995. Her advisor was Ray Arnold at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. She then joined the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF) to work in a joint position as a Staff Scientist and faculty member at Hampton University.
Research and career.
Keppel has been with the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab, formerly CEBAF) in various capacities since 1995. Keppel performed electron scattering experiments to investigate the structure of protons and neutrons. In 2001 she founded the Hampton University Center for Advanced Medical Instrumentation, where scientists at Hampton and Jefferson Lab collaborated to bring technology developed for nuclear and particle physics to nuclear medicine applications. She was pivotal in launching the world's largest independent proton therapy facility, the Hampton University Proton Therapy Institute. She was awarded numerous grants, including a $1.3 million grant to improve breast cancer imaging and therapy. Shielded accelerated partial breast irradiation, a technology developed by Keppel and colleagues, makes post-surgical radiation more feasible for patients. Another of her patents was used in the OARtrac system, a machine which helps radiation oncologists monitor dose in therapy for cancer patients, which was awarded a Medical Device Breakthrough Award in 2018. In 2012 Keppel was named Leader of Experimental Hall A at the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility., and soon after Leader of both Halls A and C. Keppel is Co-Spokesperson of the Coordinated Theoretical-Experimental Project on Quantum Chromodynamics (CTEQ). She has served on the National Nuclear Science Advisory Committee.
Keppel was elected a Fellow of the American Physical Society in 2018, "For leadership on novel experimental techniques to study strong interactions, her contributions to CTEQ from the perspective of Nuclear Physics, and her instrumental role in founding the Hampton University Proton Therapy Center and other work applying Nuclear Physics to Medicine." Keppel delivered the 2019 American Physical Society Distinguished Lectureship on the Applications of Physics. She was awarded the honour for "pioneering work in proton therapy and for the promotion of the applications of physics to both experts and non-experts". Alongside her academic work, Keppel has mentored high school teachers about Nuclear physics, and campaigned to bring recognition to African-American and Hispanic physicists. In 2019 Keppel is giving a TEDx talk in Charlottesville, Virginia.
Awards and honours.
Her awards and honours include;
Keppel holds several patents for radiation therapy and diagnostic imaging.
Personal life.
Keppel is married with two sons and one daughter.


Henri Atlan

Henri Atlan (born 27 December 1931 in Blida, French Algeria) is a French biophysicist and philosopher.
Early life and education.
Born to a Jewish family in French Algeria, Atlan gained degrees in medicine and biophysics at the University of Paris (now University Paris Diderot). He married Liliane Atlan in 1952; they had two children while living in Paris, Miri in 1953 and Michael in 1956. He then moved to the University of California, Berkeley working on ageing and mutation.
Career and thought.
Influenced by Heinz von Foerster, Atlan became interested in applying cybernetics and information theory to living organisms, and went to the Weizmann Institute in Rehovot to work under the biophysicist Aharon Katchalsky. In 1972, he returned to Paris; and, in that year, his 1972 work on information theory and self-organising systems, entitled "L'organisation biologique et la théorie de l'information", received a wide readership. In this book, he proposed the principle of "complexity from noise" (), concept taken up in his following book "Entre le cristal et la fumée" (1979) and development of 1960 Von Foerster's notion of "order from noise". In Paris, he then taught biophysics at the Hôtel-Dieu and, later, at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Hadassah Medical Center.
His participation with Francisco Varela at a conference in Cerisy-la-Salle encouraged interest in cognitive science in France. Atlan was instrumental in the establishment of the Centre de Recherche en Epistémologie Appliquée (CREA) at the École Polytechnique, and was appointed in 1983 to the Comité Consultatif National d'Éthique pour la Sciences de a Vie et de la Santé (National Advisory Committee on Ethics in the Life Sciences and Medicine). He is director of studies in the philosophy of biology at the "École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales", and professor emeritus of biophysics at the University of Paris VI: Pierre et Marie-Curie. He is also a member of Collegium International, an organization of leaders with political, scientific, and ethical expertise whose goal is to provide new approaches in overcoming the obstacles in the way of a peaceful, socially just, and an economically sustainable world.


Nora Brambilla

Nora Brambilla is an Italian and German theoretical particle physicist known for her research on quarkonium, particles composed of two quarks instead of the more usual three. She is a professor of theoretical particle and nuclear physics at the Technical University of Munich.
Education and career.
Brambilla is originally from Milan, and holds both Italian and German citizenship. She studied particle physics at the University of Milan, completing her PhD there in 1993. In 1999, she earned a habilitation in theoretical physics at the University of Vienna.
After various research positions, she became a tenured faculty member at the University of Milan in 2002, before moving to Munich in 2008.
Recognition.
In 2012, Brambilla was named a Fellow of the American Physical Society "for her contributions to the theory of heavy-quark-antiquark-systems, including the development of new effective field theories, and for contributions to the field of heavy-quarkonium physics through the founding and leadership of the Quarkonium Working Group".


Sergio Ulloa

Sergio Ulloa from the Ohio University, was awarded the status of Fellow in the American Physical Society, after they were nominated by their Forum on International Physics in 2007, for "his contributions to the theory of transport and optical properties of low-dimensional semiconductor systems and complex molecules, and his many contributions to international physics as organizer of schools, workshops, and conferences, in particular in Latin America."


List of things named after Max Born

Max Born was a scientist who worked in many fields. Below is a list of things named in his honour.


Adam Falk

Adam Frederick Falk is the President of the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. Earlier in his career, Falk was the President of Williams College, a university administrator at Johns Hopkins University, and a theoretical physicist.
Education.
Falk received a B.S. from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1987 and a Ph.D in physics from Harvard University in 1991. He is also a graduate of the North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics.
Career.
Falk began his career as a post-doctoral researcher working first at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center and then at the University of California, San Diego. In 1994, he joined the physics faculty at Johns Hopkins University, becoming a full professor in 2000.
In 2006, Falk became the James B. Knapp Dean at the Zanvyl Krieger School of Arts and Sciences at Johns Hopkins University.
From 2010 to 2017, Falk served as the 17th President of Williams College.
Since the beginning of 2018, Falk has served as President of the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.
Research.
Falk is a high-energy physicist whose research focused on elementary particle physics and quantum field theory, particularly in interactions and decay of meson and baryons containing heavy quarks. He is the author of more than 50 peer-reviewed papers on these and related topics.


Gen Shirane

Gen Shirane (kanji: 白根 元 Shirane Gen; furigana: しらね げん, born May 15, 1924 in Nishinomiya, Japan – died 16 January 16, 2005 in Bellport, New York) was a Japanese-American experimental solid-state physicist, known for his investigations using neutron scattering as a probe of solids. He lived most of his life in the USA.
Biography.
At the University of Tokyo, Shirane received his BE in engineering physics in 1944 and his DSc in physics in 1947 with a thesis on ferroelectrics. He was from 1948 to 1952 a research associate in physics at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. At Pennsylvania State University he was from 1952 to 1955 a research associate and from 1955 to 1956 an assistant professor of physics. From 1956 to 1957 he was an associate physicist at Brookhaven National Laboratory. At Westinghouse Research Laboratories in Pittsburgh, he was from 1957 to 1958 a research physicist and from 1959 to 1963 an advising physicist. At Brookhaven National Laboratory he was from 1963 to 1968 a physicist and from 1968 to 2005 a senior physicist.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Shirane with co-workers confirmed the soft mode theory of P. W. Anderson and W. Cochran and discovered new features of structural phase transitions beyond the soft mode theory.
Shirane was a leading international authority on neutron spectroscopy in solid-state physics, including magnetic materials and high-Tc superconductivity. He trained many younger physicists in neutron scattering and effectively promoted collaborations between Japan and the USA. He was the author or co-author of over 750 scientific publications with nearly 40,000 citations by the year of his death. His h-index was 103.


Channel-state duality

In quantum information theory, the channel-state duality refers to the correspondence between quantum channels and quantum states (described by density matrices). Phrased differently, the duality is the isomorphism between completely positive maps (channels) from "A" to C"n"×"n", where "A" is a C*-algebra and C"n"×"n" denotes the "n"×"n" complex entries, and positive linear functionals (states) on the tensor product
Details.
Let "H"1 and "H"2 be (finite-dimensional) Hilbert spaces. The family of linear operators acting on "Hi" will be denoted by "L"("Hi"). Consider two quantum systems, indexed by 1 and 2, whose states are density matrices in "L"("Hi") respectively. A quantum channel, in the Schrödinger picture, is a completely positive (CP for short), trace-preserving linear map
that takes a state of system 1 to a state of system 2. Next we describe the dual state corresponding to Φ.
Let "Ei j" denote the matrix unit whose "ij"-th entry is 1 and zero elsewhere. The (operator) matrix
is called the "Choi matrix" of Φ. By Choi's theorem on completely positive maps, Φ is CP if and only if "ρ"Φ is positive (semidefinite). One can view "ρ"Φ as a density matrix, and therefore the state dual to Φ.
The duality between channels and states refers to the map
a linear bijection. This map is also called Jamiołkowski isomorphism or Choi–Jamiołkowski isomorphism.
Applications.
This isomorphism is used to show that the "Prepare and Measure" Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) protocols, such as the BB84 protocol devised by C. H. Bennett and G. Brassard are equivalent to the "Entanglement-Based" QKD protocols, introduced by A. K. Ekert. More details on this can be found e.g. in the book Quantum Information Theory by M. Wilde.


Julie Ezold

Julie Ezold (née Graudons) is a Nuclear Engineer at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. She is campaign manager for the 252-Californium Campaign and was involved with the discovery of Tennessine.
Early life and education.
In fifth year she received an award for her examinations at Merritt. During high school Ezold completed a summer program at the University of Lynchburg. She studied Nuclear Engineering at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, graduating in 1990. She earned her master's degree in 1992 at California State University, Northridge using the High Flux Isotope Reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
Career.
Ezold has worked at Oak Ridge National Laboratory since completing her postgraduate studies in 1992. Her early work considered Iodine-129 using Neutron Activation Analysis. She is Californium Program Manager, responsible for producing 252-Californium, 249-Berkelium and 252-Einsteinium. One microgram of Californium-252 can emit 2 million neutrons a second. Her work concentrates on transuranium elements and applications.
She received the US Department of Energy Defense Programs Award of Excellence in 2002. Her commitments to education were recognised at the UT-Battelle Awards Night for "Exceptional Community Outreach". In 2009 she earned a Presidential Citation from the American Nuclear Society. She was awarded the Patricia Bryant Leadership Award of Nuclear Energy Institute's Women in Nuclear group. In 2010 Ezold was one of the team who discovered Tennessine. She studied the reactions of Berkelium-249 and Calcium-48. Her recent work looks to optimise the production of transcurium isotopes.
Awards and honors.
In 2018 she was recognised by Marquis Who's Who "Top Engineers" for her sustained contributions to nuclear engineering.


Thomas Marbory Antonsen

Thomas Marbory Antonsen (born 7 December 1950) is an American physicist, a Distinguished Professor in the Department of Physics and the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Maryland, Potomac, MD
He graduated from Cornell University wth a B.S. degree in electrical engineering in 1973, an M.S. in 1976 and a Ph.D. in 1977.
He was a National Research Council postdoctoral fellow at the Naval Research Laboratory in 1976-77 and a research scientist in the Research Laboratory of Electronics at MIT from 1977 to 1980. He joined the faculty of the University of Maryland in 1980 as a research assistant, where his research interests include nonlinear dynamics and chaos and plasma theory. He was appointed professor at Maryland in 1989.
He was named a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in 2012 "for contributions to the theory of magnetically confined plasmas, laser-plasma interactions and high power coherent radiation sources" and then a Fellow of the American Physical Society in 1986 "for contributions to the theory of the stability of high temperature plasmas and the theory of the production of intense ion beams"".
He is the 2016 recipient of the John Pierce Award for Excellence in Vacuum Electronics.
He is married with 3 children.


Eun-Suk Seo

Eun-Suk Seo () is a Korean-American astrophysicist known for her observational research on cosmic rays. She is a professor of physics at the University of Maryland, College Park, where she is also affiliated with the Institute for Physical Science and Technology and heads the Cosmic Ray Physics Group.
Education and career.
Seo earned her doctorate in 1991 at Louisiana State University, under the joint supervision of William Vernon Jones and John Wefel. She joined the University of Maryland faculty in 1991.
Research.
Seo has been a co-investigator on international astrophysical collaborations including the Advanced Thin Ionization Calorimeter, Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, and Balloon-borne Experiment with Superconducting Spectrometer, and has been principal investigator on the Cosmic Ray Energetics and Mass Experiment (CREAM), both in its initial balloon-launched configuration and in its second-generation ISS-CREAM experiment sent aboard the International Space Station in 2017.
In 2019, NASA attempted to replace Seo as principal investigator on ISS-CREAM, and after a majority of the project's scientists supported Seo by rejecting NASA's chosen successor as principal investigator, they discontinued the experiment.
Service and recognition.
Seo has been president of the Korean-American Scientists and Engineers Association, Korean-American Women in Science and Engineering, and Association of Korean Physicists in America. In 2010 she was elected as a Fellow of the American Physical Society (APS), after a nomination from the APS Division of Astrophysics, "for leading the development and utilization of particle detectors for balloon and space-based experiments to understand cosmic ray origin, acceleration and propagation, especially as Principal Investigator of the Cosmic Ray Energetics And Mass balloon-borne experiment over Antarctica".


Aharon Kapitulnik

Aharon Kapitulnik (born 1953) is an Israeli-American experimental condensed matter physicist working at Stanford University. He is known primarily for his work on strongly correlated electron systems, low dimensional electronic systems, unconventional superconductors, topological superconductors, superconductivity and magnetism, transport in bad metals and precision measurements.
Education and Career.
Kapitulnik studied physics at Tel Aviv University in Israel (BA 1978, PhD 1983). After completing his doctoral studies under supervision of Guy Deutscher on the physics of disorder he moved to United States to work on polymers as a postdoc scholar in the group of Alan Heeger at UC Santa Barbara. In 1985 he joined the faculty of the Department of Applied Physics of Stanford University where he became a Professor Applied Physics and Physics in 1994.
At Stanford Kapitulnik formed a close collaboration with Theodore Geballe and Malcolm Beasley which is known collectively as the "KGB group". Many of its graduates went on to establish successful academic careers in US and around the world.
Awards.
Kapitulnik is the Theodore and Sydney Rosenberg Professor in Applied Physics at Stanford University and the Sackler Professor by Special Appointment at Tel Aviv University. He is a Member of the National Academy of Sciences, a Fellow of American Academy of Arts and Sciences and a Fellow of the American Physical Society. He was awarded the 2015 Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize of the American Physical Society for the "discovery and pioneering investigations of the superconductor-insulator transition, a paradigm for quantum phase transitions" and 2009 Heike Kamerlingh-Onnes Prize for "seminal studies of time-reversal-symmetry breaking effects in unconventional superconductors using magneto optics".


Cold inflation pressure

Cold inflation pressure is the inflation pressure of tires before the car is driven and the tires(tyres) warmed up. Recommended cold inflation pressure is displayed on the owner's manual and on the placard (or sticker) attached to the vehicle door edge, pillar, glovebox door or fuel filler flap. 40% of passenger cars have at least one tyre under-inflated by 6 psi or more. Drivers are encouraged to make sure their tires(tyres) are adequately inflated, as under inflated tires(tyres) can greatly reduce fuel economy, increase emissions, cause increased wear on the edges of the tread surface, and can lead to overheating and premature failure of the tire(tyre). Excessive pressure, on the other hand, may lead to impact-breaks, decreased braking performance, and cause increased wear on the center part of the tread surface.
Tire pressure is commonly measured in psi in the imperial and US customary systems, bar, which is deprecated but accepted for use with SI or the kilopascal (kPa), which is an SI unit.
Ambient temperature affects the cold tire pressure. Cold tire absolute pressure (gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure) varies directly with the absolute temperature, measured in kelvin.
From physics, the ideal gas law states that "PV" = "nRT", where "P" is absolute pressure, "T" is absolute temperature, "V" is the volume (assumed to be relatively constant in the case of a tire), and "nR" is constant for a given number of molecules of gas. To understand this, assume the tire was filled when it was 300 kelvins (approximately 27 degrees Celsius or 80 degrees Fahrenheit). If the temperature varies 10% (i.e., by 30 kelvins [also 30 degrees Celsius or 54 degrees Fahrenheit]), the pressure varies 10%. So if the tire was filled at 80 °F to 32 psi (or 47 psi absolute when we add atmospheric pressure), the change would be 4.7 psi for this 30 Celsius degree change, or 0.16 psi per Celsius degree or 0.1 psi per Fahrenheit degree or 1 psi for every 10 Fahrenheit degrees. Using SI units, that would be 1.1 kPa/K.
Hence, for a tire filled to 32 psi, the approximation usually made is that within the range of normal atmospheric temperatures and pressures:
Tire pressure increases 1 psi for each 10 Fahrenheit degree increase in temperature, or conversely decreases 1 psi for each 10 Fahrenheit degree decrease in temperature and
in SI units, tire pressure increases 1.1 kPa for each 1 Celsius degree increase in temperature, or conversely decreases 1.1 kPa for each 1 Celsius degree decrease in temperature. For tires that need inflation greater than 32psi it might be easier to use a Rule of Thumb of 2% pressure change for a change of 10 degrees Fahrenheit.
From the table below, one can see that these are only approximations: