Carotid body

The carotid body is a small cluster of chemoreceptor cells, and supporting sustentacular cells. The carotid body is located in the adventitia, in the bifurcation (fork) of the common carotid artery, which runs along both sides of the neck.
The carotid body detects changes in the composition of arterial blood flowing through it, mainly the partial pressure of arterial oxygen, but also of carbon dioxide. It is also sensitive to changes in blood pH, and temperature.
Structure.
The carotid body is made up of two types of cells, called glomus cells: glomus type I cells are peripheral chemoreceptors, and glomus type II cells are sustentacular supportive cells.
Function.
The carotid body functions as a sensor: it responds to a stimulus, primarily O2 partial pressure, which is detected by the type I (glomus) cells, and triggers an action potential through the afferent fibers of the glossopharyngeal nerve, which relays the information to the central nervous system.
Stimulus.
The carotid body peripheral chemoreceptors are primarily sensitive to decreases in the partial pressure of oxygen (P). This is in contrast to the central chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata that are primarily sensitive to changes in pH and P (a decrease in pH and an increase in P). The carotid body chemoreceptors are also sensitive to pH and P, but only secondarily. More specifically, the sensitivity of carotid body chemoreceptors to decreased P is greater when pH is decreased and P is increased.
Impulse rate for carotid bodies is particularly sensitive to changes in arterial PO2 in the range of 60 down to 30 mm Hg, a range in which hemoglobin saturation with oxygen decreases rapidly.
The output of the carotid bodies is low at an oxygen partial pressure above about 100mmHg (13,3 kPa) (at normal physiological pH), but below 60mmHg the activity of the type I (glomus) cells increases rapidly due to a decrease in hemoglobin-oxygen saturation below 90%.
Detection.
The mechanism for detecting reductions in P has yet to be identified, there may be multiple mechanisms and could vary between species. Hypoxia detection has been shown to depend upon increased hydrogen sulfide generation produced by cystathionine gamma-lyase as hypoxia detection is reduced in mice in which this enzyme is knocked out or pharmacologically inhibited. The process of detection involves the interaction of cystathionine gamma-lyase with hemeoxygenase-2 and the production of carbon monoxide. Yet, some studies show that physiologic concentration of hydrogen sulfide may not be strong enough to trigger such responses.
Other theories suggest it may involve mitochondrial oxygen sensors and the haem-containing cytochromes that undergo reversible one-electron reduction during oxidative-phosphorylation. Haem reversibly binds O2 with an affinity similar to that of the carotid body, suggesting that haem containing proteins may have a role in O2, potentially this could be one of the complexes involved in oxidative-phosphorylation. This leads to increases in reactive oxygen species and rises in intracellular Ca2+. However, whether hypoxia leads to an increase or decrease in reactive oxygen species is unknown. The role of reactive oxygen species in hypoxia sensing is also under question.
The oxygen dependent enzyme haem-oxidase has also been put forward as a hypoxia sensor. In normoxia, haem-oxygenase generates carbon monoxide (CO), CO activates the large conductance calcium-activated potassium channel, BK. Falls in CO that occur as a consequence of hypoxia would lead to closure of this potassium channel and this would lead to membrane depolarisation and consequence activation of the carotid body. A role for the "energy sensor" AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) has also been proposed in hypoxia sensing. This enzyme is activated during times of net energy usage and metabolic stress, including hypoxia. AMPK has a number of targets and it appears that, in the carotid body, when AMPK is activated by hypoxia, it leads to downstream potassium channel closure of both O2-sentive TASK-like and BK channels
An increased P is detected because the CO2 diffuses into the cell, where it increases the concentration of carbonic acid and thus protons. The precise mechanism of CO2 sensing is unknown, however it has been demonstrated that CO2 and low pH inhibit a TASK-like potassium conductance, reducing potassium current. This leads to depolarisation of the cell membrane which leads to Ca2+ entry, excitation of glomus cells and consequent neurotransmitter release.
Arterial acidosis (either metabolic or from altered P) inhibits acid-base transporters (e.g. Na+-H+) which raise intracellular pH, and activates transporters (e.g. Cl−-HCO3−) which decrease it. Changes in proton concentration caused by acidosis (or the opposite from alkalosis) inside the cell stimulates the same pathways involved in P sensing.
Another mechanism is through oxygen sensitive potassium channels. A drop in dissolved oxygen lead to closing of these channels which results in depolarization. This leads to release of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the glossopharyngeal and vagus afferente to the vasomotor area.
Action potential.
The type I (glomus) cells in the carotid (and aortic bodies) are derived from neuroectoderm and are thus electrically excitable. A decrease in oxygen partial pressure, an increase in carbon dioxide partial pressure, and a decrease in arterial pH can all cause depolarization of the cell membrane, and they affect this by blocking potassium currents. This reduction in the membrane potential opens voltage-gated calcium channels, which causes a rise in intracellular calcium concentration. This causes exocytosis of vesicles containing a variety of neurotransmitters, including acetylcholine, noradrenaline, dopamine, adenosine, ATP, substance P, and met-enkephalin. These act on receptors on the afferent nerve fibres which lie in apposition to the glomus cell to cause an action potential.
Relay.
The feedback from the carotid body is sent to the cardiorespiratory centers in the medulla oblongata via the afferent branches of the glossopharyngeal nerve. The efferent fibres of the aortic body chemoreceptors are relayed by the vagus nerve. These centers, in turn, regulate breathing and blood pressure, with hypoxia causing an increase in ventilation.
Clinical significance.
Paraganglioma.
A paraganglioma is a tumor that may involve the carotid body and is usually benign. Rarely, a malignant neuroblastoma may originate from the carotid body.


Johannes Holtfreter

Johannes Holtfreter (January 9, 1901 – November 13, 1992) was a German-American developmental biologist whose primary focus was the “organizer,” a part of the embryo essential for the development of the proper body plan.
Biography.
Holtfreter was born on January 9, 1901, in Richtenberg, Pomerania, Germany, as the only son and second out of three children. As a child, he captured animals (including butterflies) and made drawings of them, and after graduating from the Realgymnasium, he wanted to enter field biology. Upon beginning this path at the University of Rostock and the University of Leipzig, he eventually moved to the University of Freiburg in order to study under Doflein, a famous naturalist who died soon after Holtfreter transferred. His new thesis advisor was Dr. Hans Spemann, who introduced Holtfreter to his eventual field of study: embryology.
After obtaining his Ph.D. in 1924, he eventually entered the field of marine biology at the Stazione Zoologica in Naples, and traveled around Europe afterwards, painting, attempting to research, and passing through locations including Lapland and Helgoland. However, he was unable to find a steady research position until 1928, when Otto Mangold of the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute recruited Holtfreter. Here, Holtfreter followed up on the research his old advisor (Spemann) did on the concept of an “organizer,” or a part of the developing organism that dictates the fates of other cells. Joseph Needham, an English biologist interested in Holtfreter's work, went to the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute in order to research with him.
Holtfreter then researched at the University of Munich, beginning in 1934, and pursued further global travels, particularly to Bali. Needham, the English researcher who was also interested in the organizer, was able to ensure Holtfreter's escape from the Nazi regime in 1939 after Holtfreter commented how the Gestapo was watching him and how his safety seemed jeopardized. After fleeing to Cambridge University, Holtfreter was taken to an internment camp in Canada in 1940 due to his German nationality. He then obtained a research position in McGill University in 1942, where he based gastrulation-centered work on research conducted by Vogt in 1929.
In 1946, he was invited to become an associate professor at the University of Rochester by another scientist he had met during his time at the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute, Curt Stern. Holtfreter researched in Rochester until retiring in 1969, and his focus was once again the “organizer” examined by Spemann and his own previous research, along with other topics including a foray into the newly emerging field of cell biology.
After retiring, Holtfreter became a professor emeritus of Zoology at Rochester until 1981 and lived out the rest of his life in Rochester before dying at the age of 91.
Research and accomplishments.
Through his research on amphibian embryos, Holtfreter had made many significant discoveries in the field of developmental biology, though the organizer or neural inducer was his major focus. Holtfreter (along with other developmental biologists including Hans Spemann) demonstrated that the neural inducer still functioned after treatments including heat killing and alcohol treatment (it still produced a secondary body axis). This set of experiments paved the way for Holtfreter to discover other types of inducers.
Holtfreter also solved two problems that plagued many other preceding developmental biologists (infection of embryo specimens by bacteria and inability of the specimen to survive in solutions containing improper levels of salts) by devising both the sterile technique to eliminate bacteria and Holtfreter's medium to allow the developing embryonic cells to survive for extended periods of time.
Finally, Holtfreter provided strong evidence that induction is necessary for neural tube development by examining how tissues like the notochord aid in formation of the neural tube. He demonstrated that the notochord provides necessary signals to ensure the neural tube's ventral differentiation. As a capstone paper, Viktor Hamburger and Holtfreter published an amphibian development chapter that contained in it the information gathered by many preeminent amphibian development researchers and described Holtfreter's theory that cell-cell interactions are critical in the development of the organism.


Callyspongiidae

Callyspongiidae is a family of sea sponges in the order Haplosclerida. It contains the following genera and species:


Telorchis

Telorchis is a genus of trematode parasites found in many herps, comprising around 70 species. This parasite is an indirect parasite, with a snail intermediate host and a reptile or amphibian definitive host. Typically found in the gastrointestinal tract of their definitive host, telorchids attach to the wall of the intestinal tract with their ventral sucker, or acetabulum.
Morphology.
Description of "Telorchis" from Wharton 1940: "Elongate, flat distomes with simple oral suckers. Oral and ventral suckers subequal. Pharynx present. Intestinal crura begin preacetabular and end near the posterior end of the body. Vitellaria lateral. Genital pore just anterior to the ventral sucker, usually somewhat to the left of the median line. Cirrus sac extends behind the acetabulum. Ovary posterior to or at the posterior level of cirrus sac. Uterus with descending and ascending coils, does not extend behind the testes. Metraterm anterior to ovary and usually about half as long as cirrus sac. Laurer's canal present. Testes in tandem at the posterior end."


Tympanic part of the temporal bone

The tympanic part of the temporal bone is a curved plate of bone lying below the squamous part of the temporal bone, in front of the mastoid process, and surrounding the external part of the ear canal.
It originates as a separate bone (tympanic bone), which in some mammals stays separate through life.
Evolutionarily, a portion of it is derived from the angular bone of the reptilian lower jaw.
Surfaces.
Its postero-superior surface is concave, and forms the anterior wall, the floor, and part of the posterior wall of the bony ear canal.
Medially, it presents a narrow furrow, the "tympanic sulcus", for the attachment of the tympanic membrane.
Its antero-inferior surface is quadrilateral and slightly concave; it constitutes the posterior boundary of the mandibular fossa, and is in contact with the retromandibular part of the parotid gland.
Borders.
Its lateral border is free and rough, and gives attachment to the cartilaginous part of the ear canal. Internally, the tympanic part is fused with the petrous portion, and appears in the retreating angle between it and the squama, where it lies below and lateral to the orifice of the auditory tube. Posteriorly, it blends with the squama and mastoid part, and forms the anterior boundary of the tympanomastoid fissure.
Its upper border fuses laterally with the back of the postglenoid process, while medially it bounds the petrotympanic fissure.
The medial part of the lower border is thin and sharp; its lateral part splits to enclose the root of the styloid process, and is therefore named the "vaginal process".
Ear canal.
The central portion of the tympanic part is thin, as it gives rise to the bony inner two-thirds of the ear canal, and in 5 - 20% of skulls the lower surface is perforated by a hole, the "foramen of Huschke" that opens onto the temporomandibular joint due to incomplete fusion of the anterior and posterior prominences during development.
The bony portion of the ear canal is nearly 2 cm long and is directed inward and slightly forward: at the same time it forms a slight curve, so that the floor of the canal is convex upward. In sagittal section it presents an oval or elliptical shape with the long axis directed downward and slightly backward. Its anterior wall and floor and the lower part of its posterior wall are formed by the tympanic part; the roof and upper part of the posterior wall by the squama. Its inner end is closed, by the tympanic membrane which originates from the tympanic sulcus; the upper limit of its outer orifice is formed by the posterior root of the zygomatic process, immediately below which there is sometimes seen a small spine, the "suprameatal spine", situated at the upper and posterior part of the orifice.
The auditory bulla (pl. bullae) is a hollow bony structure on the ventral, posterior portion of the skull that encloses parts of the middle and inner ear. In most species, it is formed by the tympanic part of the temporal bone.
Other animals.
In all extant and extinct primates, including humans, the auditory bulla is formed by the petrosal bone (the petrous part of the temporal bone). This is a diagnostic trait that can be used to distinguish primates, including anthropoids, tarsiers, lemurs, and lorises, from all other mammals.


Bulbospongiosus muscle

The bulbospongiosus muscle (bulbocavernosus in older texts) is one of the superficial muscles of the perineum. It has a slightly different origin, insertion and function in males and females. In males, it covers the bulb of the penis. In females, it covers the vestibular bulb.
In both sexes, it is innervated by the deep or muscular branch of the perineal nerve, which is a branch of the pudendal nerve.
Structure.
In males, the bulbospongiosus is located in the middle line of the perineum, in front of the anus. It consists of two symmetrical parts, united along the median line by a tendinous perineal raphe. It arises from the central tendinous point of the perineum and from the median perineal raphe in front.
In females, there is no union, nor a tendinous perineal raphe; the parts are disjoint primarily and arise from the same central tendinous point of the perinium, which is the tendon that is formed at the point where the bulbospongiosus muscle, superficial transverse perineal muscle, and external anal sphincter muscle converge to form this major supportive structure of vagina and other organs, and from the clitoris in front.
Fibers.
Its fibers diverge; the most posterior form a thin layer, which is lost on the inferior fascia of the urogenital diaphragm; the middle fibers encircle the bulb and adjacent parts, of the corpus cavernosum urethrae, and join with the fibers of the opposite side, on the upper part of the corpus cavernosum urethrae, in a strong aponeurosis; the anterior fibers, spread out over the side of the corpus cavernosum penis, to be inserted partly into that body, anterior to the Ischiocavernosus, occasionally extending to the pubis, and partly ending in a tendinous expansion which covers the dorsal vessels of the penis.
The latter fibers are best seen by dividing the muscle longitudinally, and reflecting it from the surface of the corpus cavernosum urethra.
Function.
In males it contributes to erection, the contractions of orgasm and ejaculation. In females it contributes to clitoral erection and the contractions of orgasm, and closes the vagina.
This muscle serves to empty the canal of the urethra, after the bladder has expelled its contents; during the greater part of the act of micturition its fibers are relaxed, and it only comes into action at the end of the process.
The middle fibers are supposed by Krause to assist in the erection of the corpus spongiosum, by compressing the erectile tissue of the bulb.
The anterior fibers also contribute to the erection of the penis by compressing the deep dorsal vein of the penis as they are inserted into, and continuous with, the fascia of the penis.


Artie L. Metcalf

Artie Lou Metcalf (July 5, 1929 – January 31, 2016) was an American malacologist.
Family.
Metcalf was born in Dexter, Kansas, the son of Art and Lucile Metcalf.
Education.
Metcalf completed his undergraduate work in 1956 at Kansas State University where he earned a Bachelor of Science in Education/Zoology. He went on to earn a Master of Arts in Zoology in 1957 also from Kansas State. In 1964 Metcalf earned a Ph.D. in Zoology from the University of Kansas. Metcalf continued his education, earning a Master of Arts in Spanish in 1990 at the University of Texas at El Paso. In keeping with his biology background, his thesis is titled "Observaciones sobre nombres de aves mexicanas".
Career.
Metcalf began his career in 1949 teaching elementary school at Glenwood, a rural school near Dexter, Kansas. In 1962 he became an Instructor in the Department of Biological Science at the University of Texas at El Paso where he ended his career as Professor Emeritus and Curator of Biodiversity Collections.


Ostrich

Struthio is a genus of birds in the order Struthioniformes, whose members are the ostriches. It is part of the infra-class Palaeognathae, a diverse group of flightless birds also known as ratites that includes the emus, rheas, and kiwis. There are two living species of ostrich, the common ostrich and the Somali ostrich. They are large flightless birds of Africa who lay the largest eggs of any living land animal. With the ability to run at 70 km/h (43.5 mph), they are the fastest birds on land. It is farmed worldwide, particularly for its feathers as they are used as decoration and feather dusters. Its skin is also used for leather products.
Taxonomic history.
The genus "Struthio" was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. The genus was used by Linnaeus and other early taxonomists to include the emu, rhea and cassowary, until they each were placed in their own genera. The Somali ostrich ("Struthio molybdophanes") has recently become recognized as a separate species by most authorities, while others are still reviewing the evidence.
Evolution.
The earliest fossils of ostrich-like birds are Paleocene taxa from Europe. "Palaeotis" and "Remiornis" from the Middle Eocene and unspecified ratite remains are known from the Eocene and Oligocene of Europe and Africa. These may have been early relatives of the ostriches, but their status is questionable, and they may in fact represent multiple lineages of flightless paleognaths.
The earliest fossils from this genus are from the early Miocene (20–25 mya), and are from Africa, so it is proposed that they originated there. Then by the middle to late Miocene (5–13 mya) they had spread to Eurasia. By about 12 mya they had evolved into the larger size of which we are familiar. By this time they had spread to Mongolia and later southern Africa. While the relationship of the African fossil species is comparatively straightforward, many Asian species of ostrich have been described from fragmentary remains, and their interrelationships and how they relate to the African ostriches are confusing. In China, ostriches are known to have become extinct only around or even after the end of the last ice age; images of ostriches have been found there on prehistoric pottery and petroglyphs.
"Struthio" ostriches once co-existed with another lineage of flightless didactyl birds, the eogruids. Though Olson 1985 classified these birds as stem-ostriches, they are otherwise universally considered to be related to cranes, any similarities being the result of convergent evolution. Competition from ostriches has been suggested to have caused the extinction of the eogruids, though this has never been tested and both groups do co-exist in some sites.
Distribution and habitat.
Today ostriches are only found natively in the wild in Africa, where they occur in a range of open arid and semi-arid habitats such as savannas and the Sahel, both north and south of the equatorial forest zone. The Somali ostrich occurs in the Horn of Africa, having evolved isolated from the common ostrich by the geographic barrier of the East African Rift. In some areas, the common ostrich's Masai subspecies occurs alongside the Somali ostrich, but they are kept from interbreeding by behavioral and ecological differences. The Arabian ostriches in Asia Minor and Arabia were hunted to extinction by the middle of the 20th century, and in Israel attempts to introduce North African ostriches to fill their ecological role have failed. Escaped common ostriches in Australia have established feral populations.
Species.
There are nine known species in this genus, of which seven are extinct. In 2008, "S. linxiaensis" was transferred to the genus "Orientornis." Three additional species, "S. pannonicus", "S. dmanisensis" and "S. transcaucasicus", were transferred to the genus "Pachystruthio" in 2019. Several additional fossil forms are ichnotaxa (that is, classified according to the organism's trace fossils such as footprints rather than its body) and their association with those described from distinctive bones is contentious and in need of revision pending more good material.
The species are:


Stingfish

Stingfish is a common name for several fishes and may refer to:


Neopilina galatheae

Neopilina galatheae is a species of monoplacophoran, a superficially limpet-like marine mollusc. Its name means new Pilina (after Pilina, an extinct Monoplacophore that lived about 400 million years ago).
It was discovered off the Pacific coast of Costa Rica in the 1950s, where 10 specimens were collected. Later, additional specimens have been collected off the coast of Chile and off Cabo San Lucas, Baja California, Mexico.
Its discovery has been described as "the most dramatic one in the history of malacology."


Torpor

Torpor is a state of decreased physiological activity in an animal, usually by a reduced body temperature and metabolic rate. Torpor enables animals to survive periods of reduced food availability. The term "torpor" can refer to the time a hibernator spends at low body temperature, lasting days to weeks, or it can refer to a period of low body temperature and metabolism lasting less than 24 hours, as in "daily torpor".
Animals that undergo daily torpor include birds (even tiny hummingbirds, notably Cypselomorphae)
and some mammals, including many marsupial species, rodent species (such as mice), and bats.
During the active part of their day, such animals maintain normal body temperature and activity levels, but their metabolic rate and body temperature drop during a portion of the day (usually night) to conserve energy.
Some animals seasonally go into long periods of inactivity, with reduced body temperature and metabolism, made up of multiple bouts of torpor. This is known as hibernation if it occurs during winter or aestivation if it occurs during the summer. Daily torpor, on the other hand, is not seasonally dependent and can be an important part of energy conservation at any time of year.
Torpor is a well-controlled thermoregulatory process and not, as previously thought, the result of switching off thermoregulation.
Marsupial torpor differs from non-marsupial mammalian (eutherian) torpor in the characteristics of arousal. Eutherian arousal relies on a heat-producing brown adipose tissue as a mechanism to accelerate rewarming. The mechanism of marsupial arousal is unknown, but appears not to rely on brown adipose tissue.
Evolution.
The evolution of torpor likely accompanied the development of homeothermy. Animals capable of maintaining a body temperature above ambient temperature when other members of its species could not would have a fitness advantage. Benefits of maintaining internal temperatures include increased foraging time and less susceptibility to extreme drops in temperature. This adaptation of increasing body temperature to forage has been observed in small nocturnal mammals when they first wake up in the evening.
Although homeothermy lends advantages such as increased activity levels, small mammals and birds maintaining an internal body temperature spend up to 100 times more energy in low ambient temperatures compared to ectotherms. To cope with this challenge, these animals maintain a much lower body temperature, staying just over ambient temperature rather than at normal operating temperature. This reduction in body temperature and metabolic rate allows the prolonged survival of animals capable of entering torpid states.
In 2020 scientists reported evidence of the torpor in "Lystrosaurus" living ~250 Mya in Antarctica – the oldest evidence of a hibernation-like state in a vertebrate animal.
Functions.
Slowing metabolic rate to conserve energy in times of insufficient resources is the primarily noted purpose of torpor. This conclusion is largely based on laboratory studies where torpor was observed to follow food deprivation. There is evidence for other adaptive functions of torpor where animals are observed in natural contexts:
Circadian rhythm during torpor.
Animals that can enter torpor rely on biological rhythms such as torpor to continue natural functions. Different animals will manage their circadian rhythm differently, and in some species it's seen to completely stop (such as in European hamsters). Other organisms like black bear enter torpor and switch to multi-day cycles rather than rely on a circadian rhythm. However, it is seen that both captive and wild bears express similar circadian rhythms when entering torpor. Bears entering torpor in a simulated den with no light expressed normal but low functioning rhythms. The same was observed in wild bears denning in natural areas. The function of circadian rhythms in black, brown, and polar bears suggest that their system of torpor is evolutionarily
advanced.
Fat conservation observed in small birds.
Torpor has been shown to be a strategy of small migrant birds to increase their body fat. Hummingbirds, resting at night during migration, were observed to enter torpor which helped conserve fat stores for the rest of their migration.
This strategy of using torpor to increase body fat has also been observed in wintering chickadees. Black-capped chickadees, living in temperate forests of North America, do not migrate south during winter. The chickadee can maintain a body temperature 12 °C lower than normal. This reduction in metabolism allows it to conserve 30% of fat stores amassed from the previous day. Without using torpor the chickadee would not be able to conserve its fat stores to survive winter.
Advantage in environments with unpredictable food sources.
Torpor can be a strategy of animals with unpredictable food supplies. For example, high-latitude living rodents use torpor seasonally when not reproducing. These rodents use torpor as means to survive winter and live to reproduce in the next reproduction cycle when food sources are plentiful, separating periods of torpor from the reproduction period. Some animals use torpor during their reproductive cycle, as seen in unpredictable habitats. They experience the cost of a prolonged reproduction period but the payoff is survival to be able to reproduce at all.
The eastern long-eared bat uses torpor during winter and is able to arouse and forage during warm periods.
Survival during mass extinctions.
It is suggested that this daily torpor use may have allowed survival through mass extinction events. Heterotherms make up only four out of 61 mammals confirmed to have gone extinct over the last 500 years. Torpor enables animals to reduce energy requirements allowing them to better survive harsh conditions.
Inter-species competition.
Interspecific competition occurs when two species require the same resource for energy production. Torpor increases fitness in the case of inter-specific competition with the nocturnal common spiny mouse. When the golden spiny mouse experiences reduced food availability by diet overlap with the common spiny mouse it spends more time in a torpid state.
Parasite resistance by bats.
A drop in temperature from torpor has been shown to reduce the ability of parasites to reproduce. Ectoparasites of bats in temperate zones have reduced reproductive rates when bats enter torpor. Where bats do not enter torpor the parasites reproduce at a constant rate throughout the year.
NASA deep sleep option for a mission to Mars.
In 2013, SpaceWorks Engineering began researching a way to dramatically cut the cost of a human expedition to Mars by putting the crew in extended torpor for 90 to 180 days. Traveling while hibernating would reduce astronauts' metabolic functions and minimize requirements for life support during multi-year missions.


Venous plexus of hypoglossal canal

The venous plexus of hypoglossal canal ("TA") – also known as plexus venosus canalis nervi hypoglossi ("TA"), circellus venosus hypoglossi and rete canalis hypoglossi – is a small venous plexus around the hypoglossal nerve that connects with the occipital sinus, the inferior petrosal sinus and the internal jugular vein. Occasionally, it may be a single vein rather than a venous plexus.


Trabecula

A trabecula (plural trabeculae, from Latin for "small beam") is a small, often microscopic, tissue element in the form of a small beam, strut or rod that supports or anchors a framework of parts within a body or organ. A trabecula generally has a mechanical function, and is usually composed of dense collagenous tissue (such as the trabecula of the spleen). They can be composed of other materials such as muscle and bone. In the heart, muscles form trabeculae carneae and septomarginal trabecula. Cancellous bone is formed from groupings of trabeculated bone tissue.
In cross sections, trabeculae of a cancellous bone can look like septa, but in three dimensions they are topologically distinct, with trabeculae being roughly rod or pillar-shaped and septa being sheet-like.
When crossing fluid-filled spaces, trabeculae may have the function of resisting tension (as in the penis, see for example trabeculae of corpora cavernosa and trabeculae of corpus spongiosum) or providing a cell filter (as in the trabecular meshwork of the eye).
Multiple perforations in a septum may reduce it to a collection of trabeculae, as happens to the walls of some of the pulmonary alveoli in emphysema.
Structure.
Trabecular bone, also called cancellous bone, is porous bone composed of trabeculated bone tissue. It can be found at the ends of long bones like the femur, where the bone is actually not solid but is full of holes connected by thin rods and plates of bone tissue. Red bone marrow, where all the blood cells are made, fills the space between the trabecular pores. Even though trabecular bone contains a lot of holes, its spatial complexity contributes the maximal strength with minimum mass. It is noted that the form and structure of trabecular bone are organized to optimally resist loads imposed by functional activities, like jumping, running and squatting. And according to the famous Wolff's Law, proposed in 1892, the external shape and internal architecture of bone are determined by the external stresses acting on it. The internal structure of the trabecular bone firstly undergoes adaptive changes along stress direction and then the external shape of cortical bone undergoes secondary changes. Finally bone structure becomes thicker and denser to resist the external loading.
Because of increasing amount of total joint replacement and its impact on bone remodeling, understanding the stress-related and adaptive process of trabecular bone has become a central concern for bone physiologists. In order to understand the role of trabecular bone in age-related bone structure and design for bone-implant system, it is significant to study the mechanical properties of trabecular bone as a function of variables, such as anatomic site, density and age. To do so, mechanical factors including modulus, uniaxial strength, and fatigue properties are necessary to be studied.
Typically, the porosity percent of trabecular bone is in the range 75–95% and the density ranges from 0.2 to 0.8 g/cm3. It is noted that the porosity can reduce the strength of the bone, but also reduce its weight. The porosity and the manner that porosity is structured affect the strength of material. Thus, the micro structure of trabecular bone is typically oriented and "grain" of porosity is aligned in a direction at which mechanical stiffness and strength are greatest. Because of the microstructual directionality, the mechanical properties of trabecular bone is highly an-isotropic. The range of young's modulus for trabecular bone is 800 to 14,000 MPa and the strength of failure is 1 to 100 MPa.
As mentioned above, the mechanical properties of trabecular bone are very sensitive to apparent density. The relationship between modulus of trabecular bone and its apparent density was demonstrated by Carter and Hayes in 1976. The resulting equation states:
formula_1
where formula_2 represents the modulus of trabecular bone in any loading direction, formula_3 represents the apparent density, and formula_4 formula_5 and formula_6 are constants depending on the architecture of tissue.
Additionally, from scanning electron microscopy, it was found that the variation in trabecular architecture with different anatomic sites lead to different modulus. To understand structure-anisotropy and material property relations, one must correlate the measured mechanical properties of anisotropic trabecular specimens with the stereologic descriptions of their architecture.
The compressive strength of trabecular bone is also very important because it is believed that the inside failure of trabecular bone arise from compressive stress. On the stress-strain curves for both trabecular bone and cortical bone with different apparent density, there are three stage in stress-strain curve. The first one is linear region where individual trabecula bend and compress as the bulk tissue is compressed. The second stage is after yielding, trabecular bonds start to fracture and the third stage is the stiffening stage. Typically, lower density trabecular areas have more deformed stage before stiffening than higher density specimens.
In summary, trabecular bone is very compliant and heterogeneous. The heterogeneous character makes it difficult to summarize the general mechanical properties for trabecular bone. High porosity makes trabecular bone compliant and large variations in architecture leads to high heterogeneity. The modulus and strength vary inversely with porosity and highly depend on the porosity structure. Additionally, the effects of aging and small cracks of trabecular bones on their mechanical properties will be analyzed more in final drafts.
Clinical significance.
Studies have shown that once a human reaches adulthood, bone density steadily decreases with age, to which loss of trabecular bone mass is a partial contributor. Loss of bone mass is defined by the World Health Organization as osteopenia if bone mineral density (BMD) is one standard deviation below mean BMD in young adults, and is defined as osteoporosis if it is more than 2.5 standard deviations below the mean. A low bone density greatly increases risk for stress fracture, which can occur without warning in those at risk. The resulting low-impact fractures from osteoporosis most commonly occur in the upper femur, which consists of 25-50% trabecular bone depending on the region, in the vertebrae which are about 90% trabecular, or in the wrist.
When trabecular bone volume decreases, its original plate-and-rod structure is disturbed; plate-like structures are converted to rod-like structures, and pre-existing rod-like structures thin until they disconnect and resorb into the body. Changes in trabecular bone are typically gender-specific, with the most notable differences in bone mass and trabecular microstructure occurring within the age range for menopause. Trabeculae degradation over time causes a decrease in bone strength that is disproportionately large in comparison to volume of trabecular bone loss, leaving the remaining bone vulnerable to fracture.
With osteoporosis there are often also symptoms of osteoarthritis, which occurs when cartilage in joints is under excessive stress and degrades over time, causing stiffness, pain, and loss of movement. With osteoarthritis, the underlying bone plays a significant role in cartilage degradation; thus any trabecular degradation can significantly affect stress distribution and adversely affect the cartilage in question.
Due to its strong effect on overall bone strength, there is currently strong speculation that analysis in patterns of trabeculae degradation may be useful in the near-future in tracking the progression of osteoporosis.
Birds.
The hollow design of bird bones is multifunctional by establishing high specific strength and supplementing open airways to accommodate the skeletal pneumaticity common to many birds. The specific strength and resistance to buckling is optimized through their bone design that combines a thin, hard shell that encases a spongy core of trabeculae. The allometry of their trabeculae allows the skeleton to tolerate loads without significantly increasing the bone mass. The Red-Tailed Hawk optimizes its weight with a repeating pattern of V-shaped struts that give the bones the necessary lightweight and stiff characteristics. The inner network of trabeculae shifts mass away from the neutral axis, which ultimately increases the resistance to buckling.
Just like in humans, the distribution of trabeculae in bird species is uneven, depending on the loading conditions. The bird with the highest density of trabeculae is the kiwi, a flightless bird. There is also uneven distribution of trabeculae within the similar species such as the great spotted woodpecker or grey-headed woodpecker. After examining a microCT scan of the woodpecker's forehead, temporomandibulum, and occiput it was determined that there is significantly more trabeculae in the forehead and occiput. Besides the difference in distribution, the aspect ratio of the individual struts was higher in woodpeckers than in other birds of similar size such as the Eurasian Hoopoe or the lark. The woodpeckers’ trabeculae are more plate-like while the hawk and lark have rod-like structures networked through their bones. The decrease in strain on the woodpecker's brain has been attributed to the higher quantity of thicker plate-like struts packed more closely together than the hawk or hoopoe or the lark. Conversely, the thinner rod-like structures would lead to greater deformation. A destructive mechanical test with 12 samples show the woodpecker's trabeculae design has an average ultimate strength of 6.38MPa, compared to the lark's 0.55MPa.
Besides the skull, the beak of woodpeckers have tiny struts supporting the shell of their beak, but to a lesser extent compared to their skull. As a result of less trabeculae in the beak, it has a higher stiffness of 1.0 GPa compared to the skull, 0.31 GPa. While the beak absorbs some of the impact from pecking, most of the impact is transferred to the skull where more trabeculae are actively available to absorb the shocks. The ultimate strength of the woodpecker's beak and lark's are similar, which can be inferred that the beak has a lesser role in impact absorption. But one measured advantage of the woodpecker's beak is the slight overbite (upper beak is 1.6mm longer than lower beak) that causes a bimodal distribution of force due to the top beak contacting the surface moments before the bottom half of the beak. This staggered timing of impact induced a lower strain on the trabeculae in the forehead, occiput, and beak, than if the upper and lower beak had equal lengths.
Research.
Helmet technology.
An important cause of injury and death is head injury. Scientists have been inspired by woodpeckers to advance helmet technology after learning about their ability to decelerate at 1,000 times the force of gravity continuously for an average of 15 pecks. It is estimated that the woodpecker drums its beak approximately 12,000 times per day. It is assumed that the woodpeckers do not suffer any brain damage at these forces that immensely exceed the human capacity. A company called Riddell, a manufacturer of helmets for the United States Army and American football, is developing helmets to mitigate the stress on the front of the brain in a design similar to some birds.
Black box.
Improvements to the impact strength of black boxes are being designed based on the head of a woodpecker. They consist of hard layers of steel and aluminum to mimic their beak and skull, an elastomeric component to uniformly disperse vibrations away from the skull like the hyoid bone , and a porous structure made of glass microspheres to dampen vibrations like trabecular bone. This structure survived a test up to 60,000 Gs.
Trabecular metal material.
Created by Zimmer Biomet, Trabecular Metal material has been used clinically for 19 years for orthopedic applications such as implantations for the hip, knee, or shoulder as well as bone void fillers, osteonecrosis rods, and dental implants. It is an open-cell metal foam with up to 80% porosity, each pore size is on average 440 micrometers. It has a low stiffness and a high coefficient of friction of 0.98 so the implants remain secure without sliding. It is made of pure tantalum because it chemically inert, corrosion-resistant, and biocompatible. This trabecular structure has a high compressive modulus and high fatigue strength to withstand normal physiological stresses over long periods of time.
Trabecula in other organisms.
The larger the animal is, the higher the load its bones must withstand. Trabecular bone has previously been known to increase stiffness by increasing the amount of bone per unit volume or by altering the geometry and arrangement of individual trabeculae as body size and bone loading increases. Trabecular bone scales allometrically, reorganizing the bones’ internal structure to increase the ability of the skeleton to sustain loads experienced by the trabeculae. Furthermore, scaling of trabecular geometry can potentially moderate trabecular strain. Load acts as a stimulus to the trabecular, changing its geometry so as to sustain or mitigate strain loads. By using finite element modelling, a study tested four different species under an equal apparent stress (σapp) to show that trabecular scaling in animals alters the strain within the trabecular. It was observed that the strain within trabeculae from each species varied with the geometry of the trabeculae. From a scale of tens of micrometers, which is approximately the size of osteocytes, the figure below shows that thicker trabeculae exhibited less strain. The relative frequency distributions of element strain experienced by each species shows a higher elastic moduli of the trabeculae as the species size increases.
Additionally, trabeculae in larger animals are thicker, further apart, and less densely connected than those in smaller animals. Intra-trabecular osteon can commonly be found in thick trabeculae of larger animals, as well as thinner trabeculae of smaller animals such as cheetah and lemurs. The osteons play a role in the diffusion of nutrients and waste products in and out osteocytes by regulating the distance between osteocytes and bone surface to approximately 230 μm.
Due to an increased reduction of blood oxygen saturation, animals with high metabolic demands tend to have a lower trabecular thickness (Tb.Th) because they require increased vascular perfusion of trabeculae. The vascularization by tunneling osteons changes the trabecular geometry from solid to tube-like, increasing bending stiffness for individual trabeculae and sustaining blood supply to osteocytes that are embedded deep in the tissue.
Bone volume fraction (BV/TV) was found to be relatively constant for the variety of animal sizes tested. Larger animals did not show a significantly larger mass per unit volume of trabecular bone. This may be due to an adaptation which reduces the physiological cost of producing, maintaining, and moving tissue. However, BV/TV showed significant positive scaling in avian femoral condyles. Larger birds present decreased flight habits due to avian BV/TV allometry. The flightless kiwi, weighing only 1–2 kg, had the greatest BV/TV of the birds tested in the study. This shows that trabecular bone geometry is related to ‘prevailing mechanical conditions’, so the differences in trabecular geometry in the femoral head and condyle could potentially present the different loading environments of the coxofemoral and femorotibial joints.
The woodpecker’s ability to resist repetitive head impact is correlated with its unique micro/nanohierarchical composite structures. Microstructure and nanostructure of the woodpecker’s skull consists of an uneven distribution of spongy bone, the organizational shape of individual trabeculae. This affects the woodpecker's mechanical properties, allowing the cranial bone to withstand a high ultimate strength (σu). Compared to the cranial bone of the lark, the woodpecker cranial bone is denser and less spongy, having a more plate-like structure to a more rod-like structure that is observed in larks. Furthermore, the woodpecker's cranial bone has a greater thickness and amount of individual trabeculae. Relative to the trabeculae in lark, the woodpecker’s trabecular is more closely spaced and more plate-like. [19] These properties result in a higher ultimate strength in the cranial bone of the woodpecker, than of the lark.
History.
Diminutive form of Latin "trabs", which means a beam or bar. In the 19th century, the neologism "trabeculum" (with an assumed plural of "trabecula") became popular, but is less etymologically correct. "Trabeculum" persists in some countries as a synonym for the trabecular meshwork of the eye, but this can be considered poor usage on the grounds of both etymology and descriptive accuracy.
Other uses.
For the skull development component, see trabecular cartilage.


Amphisbaena steindachneri

Amphisbaena steindachneri is a species of worm lizard in the family Amphisbaenidae. The species is endemic to South America.
Etymology.
The specific name, "steindachneri", is in honor of Austrian herpetologist Franz Steindachner.
Geographic range.
"A. steindachneri" is found in Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay.
Habitat.
The preferred natural habitat of "A. steindachneri" is savanna.
Reproduction.
"A. steindachneri" is oviparous.


Crisia elegans

Crisia elegans is a species of bryozoans in the family Crisiidae. It was described from Cape of Good Hope in South Africa.


Tree warbler

Tree warblers are medium-sized warblers in the marsh- and tree-warbler family Acrocephalidae. They are found in Europe, Africa and western Asia. Until recently, they were all classified in the single genus "Hippolais".
These warblers are associated with trees, though normally in fairly open woodland rather than tight plantations. Compared with the closely related "Acrocephalus" species, tree warblers have squarer tails and broader bill-bases. Most are unstreaked greenish or brownish above and cream or white below. They are insectivorous, but will occasionally take berries or seeds. The species breeding in temperate regions are mostly strongly migratory.
Taxonomy.
All the tree warblers were formerly placed in the "Old World warbler" family Sylviidae but are now separated in the family Acrocephalidae, along with the marsh warblers, "Acrocephalus", and some related species.
Considerable evidence, much of it summarised in Parkin et al. (2004), suggests that the genus "Hippolais" is paraphyletic with respect to "Acrocephalus". DNA studies, e.g. Leisler et al. (1997), interpreted by George Sangster in 1997, indicated that the olivaceous and booted/Sykes's warbler grouping (the subgenus "Iduna") are more closely related to "Acrocephalus" species than they are to icterine and melodious warblers and as a result the Dutch Committee on Avian Systematics (CSNA) has moved these four species into "Acrocephalus". A subsequent review by the British Ornithologists' Union Records Committee retained the genus "Hippolais", for all eight species, but in agreement with Sangster, acknowledged that they fell into two groups.
The retention of the "Iduna" grouping within "Hippolais" was done because it was felt that more evidence was needed for its placement, because of low bootstrap values, rather than because of a belief that the status quo was correct – no evidence was put forward to refute the DNA findings. Mark Constantine, in "The Sound Approach to Birding", illustrated that there is extensive overlap in song types between species from the two genera, and that vocally, no characters existed which enabled species to be sorted into one genus or the other. Kenneth Williamson and Hadoram Shirihai, in discussing the identification of "Hippolais" and "Acrocephalus" warblers stressed the similarities between species in the two genera. Colin Bradshaw, in "British Birds", has written several articles on morphological similarity between cross-generic species-pairs e.g. eastern olivaceous and Blyth's reed warblers (Bradshaw 2000) and paddyfield and booted warblers (e.g. Bradshaw & Steele 1995, Bradshaw & Steele 1997, the latter a response to Lars Svensson's comments on Bradshaw & Steele 1995).
The species are:
Genus "Iduna"
Genus "Hippolais"
Genus "Calamonastides"


Cerebral veins

The cerebral veins are divisible into "external" (superficial cerebral veins) and "internal" (internal cerebral veins) groups according to the outer surfaces or the inner parts of the hemispheres they drain into.
The external veins are the superior cerebral veins, inferior cerebral veins, and superficial middle veins.


Othniel Charles Marsh

Othniel Charles Marsh (October 29, 1831 – March 18, 1899) was an American professor of Paleontology in Yale College and President of the National Academy of Sciences. He was one of the preeminent scientists in the field of paleontology. Among his legacies are the discovery or description of dozens of new species and theories on the origins of birds.
Born into a modest family, Marsh was able to afford higher education thanks to the generosity of his wealthy uncle George Peabody. After graduating from Yale College in 1860 he traveled the world, studying anatomy, mineralogy and geology. He obtained a teaching position at Yale upon his return. From the 1870s to 1890s, he competed with rival paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope in a period of frenzied Western American expeditions known as the Bone Wars. Marsh's greatest legacy is the collection of Mesozoic reptiles, Cretaceous birds, and Mesozoic and Tertiary mammals that now constitute the backbone of the collections of Yale's Peabody Museum of Natural History and the Smithsonian Institution. Marsh has been called "both a superb paleontologist and the greatest proponent of Darwinism in nineteenth-century America."
Biography.
Early life.
Marsh was born October 29, 1831 in Lockport, New York, United States, to a family of modest means. His father, Caleb Marsh, was a farmer. His mother, Mary Gaines Peabody, was the younger sister of wealthy banker and philanthropist George Peabody, and died of cholera when Marsh was less than three years old. The financial backing of his uncle allowed Marsh to obtain a formal education. He graduated from Phillips Academy, Andover in 1856 and Yale College with his bachelor of arts degree with honors in 1860.
Marsh received a Berkeley Scholarship from Yale, and studied geology, mineralogy and chemistry at Yale's Sheffield Scientific School from 1860 to 1862, earning an MA in 1863. He next studied paleontology and anatomy in Berlin, Heidelberg and Breslau from 1862 to 1865. On his return to the United States in 1866 he was appointed professor of vertebrate paleontology at Yale University, making him the first professor of paleontology in the United States.
The same year, the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale was founded with a donation of US$150,000 from George Peabody, on Marsh's suggestion. Marsh served as a trustee of the Peabody Museum and was one of its three original curators.
Career.
After receiving an inheritance of US$100,000 from his uncle, George Peabody, Marsh and his many fossil hunters were able to uncover about 500 new species of fossil animals, which were all named later by Marsh himself in the almost 400 scientific articles he published during his career. In May 1871, Marsh uncovered the first pterosaur fossils found in America. He also found early horses, flying reptiles, Cretaceous and Jurassic dinosaurs such as "Triceratops", "Stegosaurus", "Brontosaurus", "Apatosaurus" and "Allosaurus", and described the toothed birds of the Cretaceous "Ichthyornis" and "Hesperornis".
Marsh discovered fossils showing the evolution of the horse. It was the ability to document Darwin's theory of evolution through the fossil record that made Marsh's efforts so significant. Marsh, more than anyone, produced the physical evidence to support Darwin's work. In 1876, English biologist and anthropologist Thomas Henry Huxley visited Marsh. Huxley's views on evolution were initially quite different from those of Marsh. However, Marsh showed him his collection of fossils and explained his conclusions. Huxley changed his opinions to match those of Marsh, and made them the basis of his famous New York lecture on the horse.
In 1868, Marsh was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society.
Marsh began uncovering a vast array of Jurassic specimens in 1877 in the Morrison Formation near Morrison, Colorado in what is now known as Dinosaur Ridge. Later that year, he learned of the fossils at Como Bluff, Wyoming, and his workers there produced more astounding results, continuing until 1889. Marsh's men also excavated near Canon City, Colorado, and in the Denver Beds of the Lance Formation. The Morrison workers sent back 230 large boxes of bones to Marsh at Yale. His Canon City workers sent back 270 boxes, and 480 boxes were sent from Como Bluff. Marsh biographer Charles Schuchert referred to this as "truly the richest harvest of dinosaurs ever garnered by a single paleontologist."
Marsh's work with early mammals is also quite significant. In early 1878, Marsh was ecstatic to find that one of his men at Como Bluff had found a mammal fossil from the Jurassic period. This led to further discoveries which increased the knowledge of Jurassic mammals exponentially. Marsh was able to describe new genera and species in every major mammalian group.
In 1880, Marsh caught the attention of the scientific world with the publication of "Odontornithes: a Monograph on Extinct Birds of North America," which included his discoveries of birds with teeth. These skeletons helped bridge the gap between dinosaurs and birds, and provided invaluable support for Darwin's theory of evolution. Darwin wrote to Marsh saying, "Your work on these old birds & on the many fossil animals of N. America has afforded the best support to the theory of evolution, which has appeared within the last 20 years" (since Darwin's publication of "Origin of Species).
Marsh served as Vertebrate Paleontologist of the U.S. Geological Survey from 1882 to 1892. Thanks to John Wesley Powell, head of the USGS, and Marsh's contacts in Washington, Marsh was placed at the head of the consolidated government survey in the late 1880s.
Between 1883 and 1895, Marsh was President of the National Academy of Sciences.
The pinnacle of Marsh's work with dinosaurs came in 1896 with the publication of his two quartos, "Dinosaurs of North America" and "Vertibrate Fossils," which demonstrated his unsurpassed knowledge of the subject.
On December 13, 1897, Marsh received the Cuvier Prize of 1,500 francs from the French Academy of Science.
Death.
Marsh died on March 18, 1899, a few years after his great rival Cope. He was interred at the Grove Street Cemetery in New Haven, Connecticut.
Bone Wars.
Marsh is also known for the so-called "Bone Wars" waged against Edward Drinker Cope. The two men were fiercely competitive, discovering and documenting more than 120 new species of dinosaurs between them.
In the winter of 1863, Marsh first met Cope while in Berlin. Marsh, age thirty-two, was attending the University of Berlin. He held two university degrees in comparison to Cope's lack of formal schooling past sixteen, but Cope had written 37 scientific papers in comparison to Marsh's two published works. While they would later become rivals, on meeting the two men appeared to take a liking to each other. Marsh led Cope on a tour of the city, and they stayed together for days. After Cope left Berlin the two maintained correspondence, exchanging manuscripts, fossils, and photographs.
Cope named "Colosteus marshii" for Marsh in 1867, and Marsh returned the favor, naming "Mosasaurus copeanus" for Cope in 1869.
In 1868, Marsh visited Cope in Haddonfield, New Jersey. Cope had been recovering fossils from the quarries since 1866, including those of "Laelaps aquilungis" which he described as a new species. Before he departed, Marsh contracted the owners of several marl pits to send any newly-discovered fossils to him, and not to Cope.
The two began to develop a rivalry when Marsh allegedly pointed out that Cope had placed the skull of "Elasmosaurus" at the end of its tail. Cope attempted to buy back the papers containing his flawed reconstruction, but Joseph Leidy exposed his cover-up at a meeting of the Academy of Natural Sciences. This rivalry went on throughout their lives.
Marsh eventually "won" the Bone Wars by finding 80 new species of dinosaur, while Cope found 56. Cope did not take this lightly, and the two debated each other in scientific journals for many years to come.
Legacy.
Marsh named the following dinosaur genera:
He named the suborders Ceratopsia (1890), Ceratosauria (1884), Ornithopoda (1881), Stegosauria (1877), and Theropoda.
He also named the families Allosauridae (1878), Anchisauridae (1885), Camptosauridae (1885), Ceratopsidae (1890), Ceratosauridae, Coeluridae, Diplodocidae (1884), Dryptosauridae (1890), Nodosauridae (1890), Ornithomimidae (1890), Plateosauridae (1895), and Stegosauridae (1880).
He also named many individual species of dinosaurs.
Dinosaurs named by others in honour of Marsh include "Hoplitosaurus marshi" (Lucas, 1901), "Iaceornis marshi" (Clarke, 2004), "Marshosaurus" (Madsen, 1976), "Othnielia" (Galton, 1977), and "Othnielosaurus" (Galton, 2007).
Marsh's finds formed the original core of the collection of Yale's Peabody Museum of Natural History. The museum's Great Hall is dominated by the first fossil skeleton of "Brontosaurus" that he discovered, which was reclassified as "Apatosaurus" for a time. However, an extensive study published in 2015 concluded that "Brontosaurus" was a valid genus of sauropod distinct from "Apatosaurus".
He donated his home in New Haven, Connecticut, to Yale University in 1899. The Othniel C. Marsh House, now known as Marsh Hall, is designated a National Historic Landmark. The grounds are now known as the Marsh Botanical Garden.
Marsh was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1877.
Marsh formulated the Law of brain growth, which states that, during the tertiary period, many taxonomic groups presented gradual increase in the size of the brain. This evolutionary law remains being used due to its explanatory, and to a certain extent, predictive potential
Prior to Marsh's efforts, the entirety of fossil remains known in North America was quite small. As a result of the generosity of George Peabody, Marsh was able to keep discovery teams in the field almost continuously from 1870 until his death. The material recovered in his 30 years of collection was simply astonishing to the scientific community. At the Peabody Museum, Marsh was the first to create skeletal displays of dinosaurs, which are now common in countless museums of natural history.
Marsh biographer Mark J. McCarren summed it up this way, Marsh's "contributions to the understanding of extinct reptiles, birds and mammals are unequaled in the history of paleontology."
Marsh Butte, located in the Grand Canyon, was officially named in his honor in 1906.


Paraselkirkia

Paraselkirkia is a genus of archaeopriapulid known from the Chengjiang biota, resembling "Selkirkia".


Magpie

Magpies are birds of the Corvidae family. Like other members of their family, they are widely considered to be intelligent creatures. The Eurasian magpie, for instance, is thought to rank among the world's smartest creatures, and is one of the few non-mammal species able to recognize itself in a mirror test. In addition to other members of the genus "Pica", corvids considered as magpies are in the genera "Cissa", "Urocissa", and "Cyanopica".
Magpies of the genus "Pica" are generally found in temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and western North America, with populations also present in Tibet and high-elevation areas of India, i.e. Ladakh (Kargil and Leh) and Pakistan. Magpies of the genus "Cyanopica" are found in East Asia and the Iberian Peninsula. The birds called magpies in Australia are, however, not related to the magpies in the rest of the world.
Name.
References dating back to Old English call the bird a "pie", derived from Latin "pica"; this term has fallen out of use. The tendency in previous centuries was to give birds common names, such as robin redbreast (which now is called the robin), jenny wren, etc. The magpie was originally variously maggie pie and mag pie. The term "pica" for some pregnant women's craving to eat nonfoods is related to the tendency of the magpie ("Pica pica") to feed on miscellaneous things.
Systematics and species.
According to some studies, magpies do not form the monophyletic group they are traditionally believed to be; tails have elongated (or shortened) independently in multiple lineages of corvid birds. Among the traditional magpies, two distinct lineages apparently exist. One consists of Holarctic species with black and white colouration, and is probably closely related to crows and Eurasian jays. The other contains several species from South to East Asia with vivid colouration, which is predominantly green or blue. The azure-winged magpie and the Iberian magpie, formerly thought to constitute a single species with a most peculiar distribution, have been shown to be two distinct species, and are classified as the genus "Cyanopica".
Other research has cast doubt on the taxonomy of the "Pica" magpies, since "P. hudsonia" and "P. nuttalli" may not be different species, whereas the Korean race of "P. pica" is genetically very distinct from the other Eurasian (as well as the North American) forms. Either the North American, Korean, and remaining Eurasian forms are accepted as three or four separate species, or only a single species, "Pica pica", exists.
Holarctic (black-and-white) magpies
Oriental (blue and green) magpies
Azure-winged magpies
Cultural references.
East Asia
In East Asian culture, the magpie is a very popular bird. It is a symbol of good luck and good fortune.
The magpie is a common subject in Chinese paintings. It is also often found in traditional Chinese poetry and couplets. In addition, in the folklore of China, all the magpies of the Qixi Festival every year will fly to the Tianhe River and set up on a bridge, where the separated Cowherd and Weaver Girl will meet, so that the bridge has come to symbolize a relationship between men and women.
Magpies have an important place in the birth myth of Ai Xinjue Luo Bukuri Yushun, the ancestor of the Qing dynasty.
The Korean magpie, sometimes referred to as the Asian magpie or Chinese magpie, is a national bird and national symbol of Korea.
Pakistan
Magpies are also found widely in the northern areas of Pakistan, especially Baltistan. The common name in Baltistan is "khaa-strap".
Europe
In European culture, the magpie is reputed to collect shiny objects, often, in fiction, things like wedding rings and other valuable or significant objects (sometimes causing consternation at their disappearance and the false accusation of humans in the story), the most well-known example probably being Rossini's opera "La Gazza Ladra" ("The Thieving Magpie"). Recent research has shown little truth in the legend, and magpies, like many animals, are actually unsettled by shiny, blue, or otherwise unusual objects.


Splanchnology

Splanchnology is the study of the visceral organs, i.e. digestive, urinary, reproductive and respiratory systems.
The term derives from the Neo-Latin "splanchno-", from the Greek σπλάγχνα, meaning "viscera". More broadly, splanchnology includes all the components of the Neuro-Endo-Immune (NEI) Supersystem. An organ (or viscus) is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function. In anatomy, a viscus is an internal organ, and viscera is the plural form. Organs consist of different tissues, one or more of which prevail and determine its specific structure and function. Functionally related organs often cooperate to form whole organ systems.
Viscera are the soft organs of the body. There are organs and systems of organs that differ in structure and development but they are united for the performance of a common function. Such functional collection of mixed organs, form an organ system. These organs are always made up of special cells that support its specific function. The normal position and function of each visceral organ must be known before the abnormal can be ascertained.
Healthy organs all work together cohesively and gaining a better understanding of how, helps to maintain a healthy lifestyle. Some functions cannot be accomplished only by one organ. That is why organs form complex systems. The system of organs is a collection of homogeneous organs, which have a common plan of structure, function, development, and they are connected to each other anatomically and communicate through the NEI supersystem.


Panniculitis

Panniculitis is a group of diseases whose hallmark is inflammation of subcutaneous adipose tissue (the fatty layer under the skin – panniculus adiposus). Symptoms include tender skin nodules, and systemic signs such as weight loss and fatigue.
Restated, an inflammatory disorder primarily localized in the subcutaneous fat is termed a "panniculitis", a group of disorders that may be challenging both for the clinician and the dermatopathologist. The general term for inflammation of any adipose tissue is steatitis.
Signs and symptoms.
Panniculitis can also be classified based on the presence or absence of systemic symptoms. Panniculitis without systemic disease can be a result of trauma or cold. Panniculitis with systemic disease can be caused by:
This is not a complete list of possible causes.
Associated conditions.
Lipoatrophy or lipodystrophy (the loss of subcutaneous adipose tissue) can occur in any of these conditions.
Diagnosis.
Classification.
It can occur in any fatty tissue (cutaneous or visceral) and is often diagnosed on the basis of a deep skin biopsy, and can be further classified by histological characteristics based on the location of the inflammatory cells (within fatty lobules or in the septa which separate them) and on the presence or absence of vasculitis.
There are thus four main histological subtypes:
Lobular.
With vasculitis.
Erythema induratum, or "Bazin disease", is a panniculitis on the back of the calves. It was formerly thought to be a reaction to the tuberculum bacillus. It is now considered a panniculitis that is not associated with a single defined pathogen.
Nodular vasculitis is a skin condition characterized by small, tender, reddened nodules on the legs, mostly on the calves and shins. Microscopically there are epithelioid granulomas and vasculitis in the subcutaneous tissue, making it a form of panniculitis. Most of these cases are now thought to be manifestation of tuberculosis and indeed they respond well to anti-tuberculous treatment.
Without vasculitis.
Non-vasculitis forms of panniculitis that may occur include:
With needle-shaped clefts.
Lipodermatosclerosis is a form of panniculitis associated with chronic venous insufficiency that presents with brown indurations on the front of the shins. It may be associated with pain and other signs of chronic venous insufficiency. The exact cause is unknown.
Other forms include:
Septal.
Erythema nodosum.
Erythema nodosum is a form of panniculitis characterised by tender red nodules, 1–10 cm, associated with systemic symptoms including fever, malaise, and joint pain. Nodules may become bluish-purple, yellowing, and green, and subside over a period of 2–6 weeks without ulcerating or scarring. Erythema nodosum is associated with infections, including Hepatitis C, EBV and tuberculosis, Crohn's disease and sarcoidosis, pregnancy, medications including sulfonamides, and some cancers, including Non-Hodgkin lymphoma and pancreatic cancer.
A1AT-deficiency-associated.
Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency panniculitis is a panniculitis associated with a deficiency of the α1-antitrypsin enzyme.


The Sasquatch Gang

The Sasquatch Gang (also known as The Sasquatch Dumpling Gang) is a 2006 comedy film written and directed by Tim Skousen, the first assistant director on "Napoleon Dynamite".
The six-week shoot was completed in the summer of 2005. The film premiered in January 2006 at the Slamdance Film Festival, where it won the Audience Award. It was also shown at the HBO US Comedy Arts Festival in Aspen, picking up 2 awards. One for Justin Long for Best Actor and Tim Skousen Best Director. It also showed at the Waterfront Film Festival, New Zealand Film Festival, Sidewalk Film Festival, and Vail Film Festival. The film opened in limited release in the United States on November 30, 2007. The film was released on DVD on March 25, 2008.
With a production budget of 35 million USD, the film's return from box office sales were a domestic gross of $9,458 USD. The film had a limited cinema run with only 9 opening theaters and an average 1 week run at each theatre.
Plot.
Young sci-fi/fantasy enthusiast Gavin Gore (Jeremy Sumpter) and his ragtag group of nerd friends, girlfriend Sophie Suchowski (Addie Land), swordsman Hobie Plumber (Hubbel Palmer), and young Maynard Keyes (Rob Pinkston) stumble upon some "large tracks" and a "big ole sasquatch dumplin'" whilst searching for arrowheads at Deercliff Falls. Unbeknownst to the friends, two of Gavin's redneck neighbors, Zerk Wilder (Justin Long) and Shirts Joachim (Joey Kern) planted some fake evidence as a plan to gain profits and pay off Zerk's credit card bill. After Gavin and his friends report the "finding" to their local police and newspaper, the publicity stunt gains the attention of an international Sasquatch "expert" Dr. Artimus Snodgrass. (Carl Weathers).
References.
https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0460925/


Blastomussa

Blastomussa is a genus of large polyp stony corals. It is unclear in which family this genus belongs. Members of this genus are sometimes found in reef aquariums.
Species.
The World Register of Marine Species recognises the following species:


Coati

Coatis, also known as coatimundis (), are members of the family Procyonidae in the genera "Nasua" and "Nasuella". They are diurnal mammals native to South America, Central America, Mexico, and the southwestern United States. The name coatimundi purportedly derives
from the Tupian languages of Brazil.
Physical characteristics.
Adult coatis measure from head to the base of the tail, which can be as long as their bodies. Coatis are about tall at the shoulder and weigh between , about the size of a large house cat. Males can become almost twice as large as females and have large, sharp canine teeth. The above measurements are for the white-nosed and South America coatis. The two mountain coatis are smaller.
All coatis share a slender head with an elongated, flexible, slightly upward-turned nose, small ears, dark feet, and a long, non-prehensile tail used for balance and signaling.
Ring-tailed coatis have either a light brown or black coat, with a lighter under-part and a white-ringed tail in most cases. Coatis have a long brown tail with rings on it which are anywhere from starkly defined like a raccoon's to very faint. Like raccoons and unlike ring-tailed cats and cacomistles, the rings go completely around the tail. Coatis often hold the tail erect; it is used as such to keep troops of coatis together in tall vegetation. The tip of the tail can be moved slightly on its own, as is the case with cats, but it is not prehensile as is that of the kinkajou, another procyonid.
Coatis have bear- and raccoon-like paws, and walk plantigrade (on the soles of the feet, as do humans), like raccoons and bears. Coatis have nonretractable claws. Coatis also are, in common with raccoons and other procyonids (and others in the order Carnivora and rare cases amongst other mammals), able to rotate their ankles beyond 180°; they are therefore able to descend trees head first. Other animals living in forests have acquired some or all of these properties through convergent evolution, including members of the mongoose, civet, weasel, cat, and bear families.
The coati snout is long and somewhat pig-like (see Suidae) – part of the reason for its nickname 'the hog-nosed raccoon'. It is also extremely flexible – it can be rotated up to 60° in any direction. They use their noses to push objects and rub parts of their body. The facial markings include white markings around the eyes and on the ears and snout.
Coatis have strong limbs to climb and dig and have a reputation for intelligence, like their fellow procyonid, the raccoon. They prefer to sleep or rest in elevated places and niches, like the rainforest canopy, in crudely built sleeping nests. Coatis are active day and night but are not nocturnal animals unlike their raccoon cousins.
Habitat and range.
Overall, coatis are widespread, occupying habitats ranging from hot and arid areas to humid Amazonian rainforests or even cold Andean mountain slopes, including grasslands and bushy areas. Their geographical range extends from the southwestern U.S. (southern Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas) through northern Uruguay. Around ten coatis are thought to have formed a breeding population in Cumbria, UK.
Taxonomy.
The following species are recognised:
The Cozumel Island coati was formerly recognised as a species, but the vast majority of recent authorities treat it as a subspecies, "N. narica nelsoni", of the white-nosed coati.
Genetic evidence (cytochrome b sequences) has suggested that the genus "Nasuella" should be merged into "Nasua", as the latter is otherwise paraphyletic. Other genetic studies have shown that the closest relatives of the coatis are the olingos (genus "Bassaricyon"); the two lineages are thought to have diverged about 10.2 million years ago.
Lifespan.
In the wild, coatis live for about seven years, while in captivity they can live for up to 15 or 16 years.
Feeding habits.
Coatis are omnivores; their diet consists mainly of ground litter, invertebrates, such as tarantula, and fruit (Alves-Costa et al., 2004, 2007; Hirsch 2007). They also eat small vertebrate prey, such as lizards, rodents, small birds, birds' eggs, and crocodile eggs. The snout, with an acute sense of smell, assists the paws in a hog-like manner to unearth invertebrates.
Behaviour.
Little is known about the behaviour of the mountain coatis, and the following is almost entirely about the coatis of the genus "Nasua". Unlike most members of the raccoon family (Procyonidae), coatis are primarily diurnal. Nasua coati females and young males up to two years of age are gregarious and travel through their territories in noisy, loosely organised bands made up of four to 25 individuals, foraging with their offspring on the ground or in the forest canopy. Males over two years become solitary due to behavioural disposition and collective aggression from the females and will join the female groups only during the breeding season.
When provoked, or for defence, coatis can be fierce fighters; their strong jaws, sharp canine teeth, and fast scratching paws, along with a tough hide sturdily attached to the underlying muscles, make it very difficult for potential predators (e.g., dogs or jaguars) to seize the smaller mammal.
Coatis communicate their intentions or moods with chirping, snorting, or grunting sounds. Different chirping sounds are used to express joy during social grooming, appeasement after fights, or to convey irritation or anger. Snorting while digging, along with an erect tail, states territorial or food claims during foraging. Coatis additionally use special postures or moves to convey simple messages; for example, hiding the nose between the front paws as a sign for submission; lowering the head, baring teeth, and jumping at an enemy signal an aggressive disposition. Individuals recognise other coatis by their looks, voices, and smells, the individual smell is intensified by special musk-glands on their necks and bellies.
Coatis from Panama are known to rub their own fur and that of other troop members with resin from "Trattinnickia aspera" (Burseraceae) trees, but its purpose is unclear. Some proposed possibilities are it serves as an insect repellent, a fungicide, or as a form of scent-marking.
Reproduction.
Coati breeding season mainly corresponds with the start of the rainy season to coincide with maximum availability of food, especially fruits: between January and March in some areas, and between October and February in others. During the breeding season, an adult male is accepted into the band of females and juveniles near the beginning of the breeding season, leading to a polygynous mating system.
The pregnant females separate from the group, build a nest on a tree or in a rocky niche and, after a gestation period of about 11 weeks, give birth to litters of three to seven kits. About six weeks after birth, the females and their young will rejoin the band. Females become sexually mature at two years of age, while males will acquire sexual maturity at three years of age.
Natural predators.
Coati predators include jaguarundis, anacondas, maned wolves, boa constrictors, foxes, dogs, tayras, ocelots, and jaguars. Large raptors, such as ornate hawk-eagles, black-and-chestnut eagles, and harpy eagles, also are known to hunt them. White-headed capuchin monkeys hunt their pups.
Status.
Coatis face unregulated hunting and the serious threat of environmental destruction in Central and South America. The absence of scientifically sound population studies of "Nasua" or "Nasuella" in the wild is probably leading to a severe underestimation of the ecological problems and decline in numbers affecting the species.
In captivity.
Coatis are one of five groups of procyonids commonly kept as pets in various parts of North, Central and South America, the others being the raccoons (common and crab-eating), the kinkajou, the ring-tailed cat and cacomistle. However, while both the white-nosed and South America coatis are common in captivity, mountain coatis are extremely rare in captivity.
Coatis are small creatures that can be wild, somewhat difficult to control or train in some cases, and generally behave in a manner radically different from that of a pet dog. Optimally, they should have a spacious outdoor enclosure and a coati-proofed room in the house and/or other climate-controlled place, as well. They can be given the run of the house but need careful watching, more careful in some cases than others.
It is possible to litter or toilet train coatis; if one cannot be trained as such, it is still possible to lessen problems in that they tend to designate a latrine area, which can have a litter pan placed in it as is done with many ferrets, pet skunks, rabbits, and rodents.
Coatis generally need both dog and cat vaccines for distemper and many other diseases and a killed rabies vaccine. They can be spayed or neutered for the same reason as cats and dogs and other pets.


Actinarctus

Actinarctus is a genus of tardigrades in the family Tanarctidae. The genus was named and described by Erich Schulz in 1935.
Species.
The genus includes four species:


Undulipodium

An undulipodium (a Greek word meaning "swinging foot") or a 9+2 organelle is a motile filamentous intracellular projection of eukaryotic cells. It is basically synonymous to flagella and cilia which are differing terms for similar molecular structures used on different types of cells, and usually correspond to different waveforms.
The name was coined to differentiate from the analogous structures present in prokaryotic cells. It is structurally a complex of microtubules along with motor proteins.
The usage of the term was early supported by Lynn Margulis, especially in support of endosymbiotic theory. The eukaryotic cilia are structurally identical to eukaryotic flagella, although distinctions are sometimes made according to function and/or length. The Gene Ontology database does not make a distinction between the two, referring to all undulipodium as "motile cilium".
Structure.
Undulipodia use a whip-like action to create movement of the whole cell, such as the movement of sperm in the reproductive tract, and also create water movement as in the choanocytes of sponges.
"Motile" (or secondary) cilia are more numerous, with multiple cilia per cell, move in a wave-like action, and are responsible for movement in organisms such as ciliates and platyhelminthes, but also move extracellular substances in animals, such as the ciliary escalator found in the respiratory tract of mammals and the corona of rotifers.
"Primary" cilia function as sensory antennae, but are not "undulipodia" as primary cilia do not have the rotary movement mechanism found in motile cilia.
Undulipodia are an extension of the cell membrane containing both cytoplasm and a regular arrangement of microtubules known as an axoneme. At the base of the extension lies a structure called the "kinetosome" or "basal body" which is attached via motor proteins to the microtubules. The kinetosome mediates movement through a chemical reaction, causing the microtubules to slide against one another and the whole structure to bend.
Usage.
Biologists such as Margulis strongly advocate the use of the name, because of the apparent structural and functional differences between the cilia and flagella of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. They argue that the name flagella should be restricted only to prokaryotic organelles, such as bacterial flagella and spirochaete axial filaments. However, the term is not generally endorsed by most biologists because it is argued that the original purpose of the name does not sufficiently differentiate the cilia and flagella of eukaryotic from those of prokaryotic cells. For example, the early concept was the trivial homology of flagella of flagellates and pseudopodia of rhizopods. The consensus terminology is the use of cilium and flagellum for all purposes.


Peripatopsis janni

Peripatopsis janni is a species of velvet worm in the family Peripatopsidae.


Central tendon of diaphragm

The central tendon of the diaphragm is a thin but strong aponeurosis situated slightly anterior to the vault formed by the muscle, resulting in longer posterior muscle fibers.
It is inferior to the fibrous pericardium, which fuses with the central tendon of the diaphragm via the pericardiacophrenic ligament.
The caval opening (at the level of the T8 vertebra) passes through the central tendon. This transmits the inferior vena cava and right phrenic nerve.
Structure.
The central tendon is shaped somewhat like a trefoil leaf, consisting of three divisions or leaflets separated from one another by slight indentations. The right leaflet is the largest, the middle (directed toward the xiphoid process) the next in size, and the left the smallest.
The central tendon is composed of several planes of fibers, which intersect one another at various angles and unite into straight or curved bundles—an arrangement which gives it additional strength.
Action during respiration.
During inspiration, the diaphragm contracts, causing the central tendon to be drawn inferiorly which partially flattens the domes bilaterally. The result is an increase in the thoracic volume and a reduction in intra-thoracic pressure. This reduction allows air to enters the lungs, enhancing venous return. During inspiration, the central tendon retains its shape due to its tendinous nature, and prevents constriction of the inferior vena cava.
Clinical significance.
Rarely, a central tendon defect may be involved in a central congenital diaphragmatic hernia. This may be repaired with thoracoscopic surgery.


Soleneiscus radovani

Soleneiscus radovani is a species of calcareous sponge in the family Dendyidae, and was first described in 1999 by Gert Wörheide and John Hooper. The species epithet, "radovani", honours Radovan Borojevic for "his substantial and pioneering achievements in calcarean taxonomy".
It is found in Queensland coastal waters, where occurs in waters with surface temperatures of 20 to 30° C.


Superficial veins of the brain

The superficial veins of the brain are those veins that are close to the surface of the brain. They consist of a superior group that empties into the superior sagittal sinus and inferior sagittal sinus, and an inferior group which empties into the transverse sinuses and the cavernous sinuses.


Catostylus

Catostylus is a genus of jellyfish in the family Catostylidae.
Species.
The following species are recognized in the genus Catostylus.


Cymbastela

Cymbastela is a genus of sponges in the family Axinellidae.


Palaeophonus

Palaeophonus (meaning "ancient killer") is the oldest known genus of scorpions.
Fossil records.
This genus is known in the fossil record from the Silurian to the Carboniferous (age range: 428.2 to 314.6 million years ago). Fossils have been found in Europe, the United States, and Canada.
Description.
"Palaeophonus" was virtually identical to modern scorpions. It grew to a lengths of . These animals did not have eyes and therefore they were blind.
Until a few decades ago, "Palaeophonus", similarly to many other scorpions of the Silurian, was thought to be one of the earliest animals to have conquered the land. In fact, a closer examination of the fossils has determined that these animals possess well-developed gills, very similar to those of contemporary eurypterids (sea scorpions).
Species.
Species within this genus include:


Jason Bond

Jason E. Bond is a Professor of Entomology and the Schlinger Chair in Insect Systematics at the University of California, Davis. He was previously Professor of Biology, Chair of the Department of Biological Sciences and Director of the Auburn University Museum of Natural History at Auburn University. When he was an associate professor with the Department of Biology at East Carolina University, he discovered the spider "Myrmekiaphila neilyoungi" and numerous other species in the genus "Aptostichus". He went to undergraduate school at Western Carolina University, majoring in biology in 1993. He then went to receive his M.S. in Biology (1995) and Ph.D. in Evolutionary Systematics and Genetics (1999) from Virginia Tech.
On August 6, 2008, Bond appeared on "The Colbert Report", where he named the spider "Aptostichus stephencolberti" after host Stephen Colbert.


Peripatus juanensis

Peripatus juanensis is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatidae family. The type locality is in Puerto Rico.


Sabiha Kasimati

Sabiha Kasimati (15 September 1912 – 26 February 1951) was an Albanian ichthyologist and dissident of the communist regime in Albania. She was shot, one of the victims of the regime of Enver Hoxha with whom she had gone to school.
Life.
Kasimati was born in Edirne where her father practiced as a doctor. Her family returned to Korca in Albania and Kasimati was the first girl to attend the French inspired Albanian National Lyceum in Korçë. This gave her some fame for this achievement. One of her classmates was the future dictator Enver Hoxha.
Taking her excellent French accent and her knowledge of the language she taught at the Korca Women's Institute. After this she studied biology at the American-Albanian in Koraja. The results she achieved enable her to gain a rare scholarship to study abroad. She attended university in Italy at Torino where she achieved perfect marks. She returned to work at the Albanian Institute of Science in Tirana after turning down a job offer at Torino University. She became Albania's first ichthyogist working under Selahudin Toto. She spent a decade documenting the fish of her country from a scientific and economic point of view as she believed that fish were an underused resource. She ignored social norms and lived alone in a flat in Tirana, but taking part in the intellectual life of the city.
Her former schoolmate came to power and Kasimati was concerned when Albanian's first woman writer was interned and her former teacher Selahudin Toto was executed. Kasimati had an interview with Hoxha but to no avail.
She was accused of planting a bomb in the Soviet embassy but the case was fabricated.
Kasimati was accused under the new law of Agitation and Propaganda against the State and died near Tirana. She was shot without a trial, of any sort, on the night of 26 February 1951. Kasimati and the others executed without trial were buried in a field not far from Tirana.
Legacy.
Her work was published but not under her name. "Fishes of Albania" documented the fish of Albanian lakes, rivers and the seas and it was publicised under the name of the Russian scientist Anatoly Poliakov and two Albanian researchers in 1955.
Kasimati is credited with creating the idea of an Albania's National Museum of Science. In October 2018 it was announced that the Albanian National Museum of Science would be named for and that an area of the museum would be set aside for her life story and sacrifice.


Temporal styloid process

The temporal styloid process is a process of bone that extends down from the temporal bone of the human skull, just below the ear.
Structure.
The styloid process is a slender pointed piece of bone just below the ear. It projects down and forward from the inferior surface of the temporal bone, and serves as an anchor point for several muscles associated with the tongue and larynx.
The stylohyoid ligament extends from the apex of the process to the lesser cornu of the hyoid bone, and can sometimes be partially or completely ossified.
A small percentage of the population will suffer from an elongation of the styloid process and stylohyoid ligament calcification. This condition is also known as Eagle syndrome. The tissues in the throat rub on the styloid process during the act of swallowing with resulting pain along the glossopharyngeal nerve. There is also pain upon turning the head or extending the tongue. Other symptoms may include voice alteration, cough, dizziness, migraines, occipital neuralgia, pain in teeth and jaw and sinusitis or bloodshot eyes.
Development.
The styloid process arises from endochondral ossification of the cartilage from the second pharyngeal arch.


Homidia anhuiensis

Homidia anhuiensis is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae.


Blapsium

Blapsium is an extinct genus of beetles from the Middle Jurassic period. The only described species is B. egertoni, and samples have only been found at the Taynton Limestone Formation, also known as the Stonesfield Slate.
"Blapsium" was referred to Ommatidae (considered in the paper to be a subfamily of Cupedidae) in 2020.


Biemna

Biemna is a genus of sea sponges in the family Biemnidae.
Species.
The following species are recognised in the genus Biemna:


Daraina sportive lemur

The Daraina sportive lemur ("Lepilemur milanoii") is a sportive lemur endemic to Madagascar. It is a relatively small sportive lemur with a total length of about , of which are tail.
L. milanoii is found in northern Madagascar, living in dry deciduous, gallery and semi-evergreen forests. Its known distribution range covers the Loky-Manambato region and the species has surprisingly also been reported to occur in sympatry with L. Ankaranensis in the Andrafiamena protected area, both areas being managed by the NGO Fanamby.
Daraina sportive lemur has been reported to occur at high densities in the forest fragments of Solaniampilana and Bekaraoka.


Graffilla

Graffilla is a genus of parasitic turbellarian flatworms.
A species within "Graffilla", "G. pugetensi", is a parasite of the pericardial cavity of the bivalvian mollusc "Macoma nasuta".
Graffilla effects reared and wild clam populations in Italy, Spain, the United States, and France.
References.


Ongulogastrura

Ongulogastrura is a genus of springtails in the family Hypogastruridae. There is at least one described species in "Ongulogastrura", "O. longisensilla".


BEnd.3

bEnd.3 is a mouse brain cell line derived from BALB/c mice. The cell line is commonly used in vascular research and studies of endothelial brain tissue. In particular, bEnd.3 cells can serve as blood-brain barrier models for ischemia.