Occipital bone

The occipital bone () is a cranial dermal bone and the main bone of the occiput (back and lower part of the skull). It is trapezoidal in shape and curved on itself like a shallow dish. The occipital bone overlies the occipital lobes of the cerebrum. At the base of skull in the occipital bone, there is a large oval opening called the foramen magnum, which allows the passage of the spinal cord.
Like the other cranial bones, it is classed as a flat bone. Due to its many attachments and features, the occipital bone is described in terms of separate parts. From its front to the back is the basilar part, also called the basioccipital, at the sides of the foramen magnum are the lateral parts, also called the exoccipitals, and the back is named as the squamous part. The basilar part is a thick, somewhat quadrilateral piece in front of the foramen magnum and directed towards the pharynx. The squamous part is the curved, expanded plate behind the foramen magnum and is the largest part of the occipital bone.
Due to its embryonic derivation from paraxial mesoderm (as opposed to neural crest, from which many other craniofacial bones are derived), it has been posited that "the occipital bone as a whole could be considered as a giant vertebra enlarged to support the brain."
Structure.
The occipital bone, like the other seven cranial bones, has outer and inner layers (also called "plates" or "tables") of cortical bone tissue between which is the cancellous bone tissue known in the cranial bones as diploë. The bone is especially thick at the ridges, protuberances, condyles, and anterior part of the basilar part; in the inferior cerebellar fossae it is thin, semitransparent, and without diploë.
Outer surface.
Near the middle of the outer surface of the squamous part of the occipital (the largest part) there is a prominence – the external occipital protuberance. The highest point of this is called the inion.
From the inion, along the midline of the squamous part until the foramen magnum, runs a ridge – the external occipital crest (also called the medial nuchal line) and this gives attachment to the nuchal ligament.
Running across the outside of the occipital bone are three curved lines and one line (the medial line) that runs down to the foramen magnum. These are known as the nuchal lines which give attachment to various ligaments and muscles. They are named as the "highest", "superior" and "inferior" nuchal lines. The inferior nuchal line runs across the midpoint of the "median" nuchal line. The area above the highest nuchal line is termed the occipital plane and the area below this line is termed the nuchal plane.
Inner surface.
The inner surface of the occipital bone forms the base of the posterior cranial fossa. The foramen magnum is a large hole situated in the middle, with the clivus, a smooth part of the occipital bone travelling upwards in front of it. The median internal occipital crest travels behind it to the internal occipital protuberance, and serves as a point of attachment to the falx cerebri.
To the sides of the foramen sitting at the junction between the lateral and base of the occipital bone are the hypoglossal canals. Further out, at each junction between the occipital and petrous portion of the temporal bone lies a jugular foramen.
The inner surface of the occipital bone is marked by dividing lines as shallow ridges, that form four fossae or depressions. The lines are called the cruciform (cross-shaped) eminence.
At the midpoint where the lines intersect a raised part is formed called the internal occipital protuberance. From each side of this eminence runs a groove for the transverse sinuses.
There are two midline skull landmarks at the foramen magnum. The basion is the most anterior point of the opening and the opisthion is the point on the opposite posterior part. The basion lines up with the dens.
Foramen magnum.
The foramen magnum () is a large oval foramen longest front to back; it is wider behind than in front where it is encroached upon by the occipital condyles. The clivus, a smooth bony section, travels upwards on the front surface of the foramen, and the median internal occipital crest travels behind it.
Through the foramen passes the medulla oblongata and its membranes, the accessory nerves, the vertebral arteries, the anterior and posterior spinal arteries, and the tectorial membrane and alar ligaments.
Angles.
The superior angle of the occipital bone articulates with the occipital angles of the parietal bones and, in the fetal skull, corresponds in position with the posterior fontanelle.
The lateral angles are situated at the extremities of the groove for the transverse sinuses: each is received into the interval between the mastoid angle of the parietal bone, and the mastoid portion of the temporal bone.
The inferior angle is fused with the body of the sphenoid bone.
Borders.
The superior borders extend from the superior to the lateral angles: they are deeply serrated for articulation with the occipital borders of the parietals, and form by this union the lambdoidal suture.
The inferior borders extend from the lateral angles to the inferior angle; the upper half of each articulates with the mastoid portion of the corresponding temporal, the lower half with the petrous part of the same bone.
These two portions of the inferior border are separated from one another by the jugular process, the notch on the anterior surface of which forms the posterior part of the jugular foramen.
Sutures.
The lambdoid suture joins the occipital bone to the parietal bones.
The occipitomastoid suture joins the occipital bone and mastoid portion of the temporal bone.
The sphenobasilar suture joins the basilar part of the occipital bone and the back of the sphenoid bone body .
The petrous-basilar suture joins the side edge of the basilar part of the occipital bone to the petrous-part of the temporal bone .
Development.
The occipital plane [Fig. 3] of the squamous part of the occipital bone is developed in membrane, and may remain separate throughout life when it constitutes the interparietal bone; the rest of the bone is developed in cartilage.
The number of nuclei for the occipital plane is usually given as four, two appearing near the middle line about the second month, and two some little distance from the middle line about the third month of fetal life.
The nuchal plane of the squamous part is ossified from two centers, which appear about the seventh week of fetal life and soon unite to form a single piece.
Union of the upper and lower portions of the squamous part takes place in the third month of fetal life.
An occasional centre (Kerckring) appears in the posterior margin of the foramen magnum during the fifth month; this forms a separate ossicle (sometimes double) which unites with the rest of the squamous part before birth.
Each of the lateral parts begins to ossify from a single center during the eighth week of fetal life. The basilar portion is ossified from two centers, one in front of the other; these appear about the sixth week of fetal life and rapidly coalesce.
The occipital plane is said to be ossified from two centers and the basilar portion from one.
About the fourth year the squamous part and the two lateral parts unite, and by about the sixth year the bone consists of a single piece. Between the 18th and 25th years the occipital and sphenoid bone become united, forming a single bone.
Clinical significance.
Trauma to the occiput can cause a fracture of the base of the skull, called a basilar skull fracture. The "basion-dens line" as seen on a radiograph is the distance between the basion and the top of the dens, used in the diagnosis of dissociation injuries.
Genetic disorders can cause a prominent occiput as found in Edwards syndrome, and Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome.
The identification of the location of the fetal occiput is important in delivery.
Etymology.
Occipital : from Latin occiput "back of the skull", from ob "against, behind" + caput "head". Distinguished from sinciput (anterior part of the skull).
Other animals.
In many animals these parts stay separate throughout life; for example, in the dog as four parts: squamous part (supraoccipita); lateral parts–left and right parts (exoccipital); basilar part (basioccipital).
The occipital bone is part of the endocranium, the most basal portion of the skull. In Chondrichthyes and Agnatha, the occipital does not form as a separate element, but remains part of the chondrocranium throughout life. In most higher vertebrates, the foramen magnum is surrounded by a ring of four bones.
The basioccipital lies in front of the opening, the two exoccipital condyles lie to either side, and the larger supraoccipital lies to the posterior, and forms at least part of the rear of the cranium. In many bony fish and amphibians, the supraoccipital is never ossified, and remains as cartilage throughout life. In primitive forms the basioccipital and exoccipitals somewhat resemble the centrum and neural arches of a vertebra, and form in a similar manner in the embryo. Together, these latter bones usually form a single concave circular condyle for the articulation of the first vertebra.
In mammals, however, the condyle has divided in two, a pattern otherwise seen only in a few amphibians.
Most mammals also have a single fused occipital bone, formed from the four separate elements around the foramen magnum, along with the paired postparietal bones that form the rear of the cranial roof in other vertebrates.


Anthopleura anjunae

Anthopleura anjunae is a species of sea anemone. It is found in South and Southeast Asia.


Plakina trilopha

Plakina trilopha is a species of sponge in the order Homosclerophorida. It is native to the Mediterranean Sea and the Canary Islands. It was first described in 1880 by the German zoologist Franz Eilhard Schulze.


English Magpie pigeon

The English Magpie is a breed of fancy pigeon developed over many years of selective breeding. They can also be very easily spotted in England and in most parts of America. Magpies, along with other varieties of domesticated pigeons, are all descendants from the rock pigeon ("Columba livia"). The original Magpie was one of the old tumbler varieties, coming via Germany from Denmark about 1900.


Sphenodontidae

Sphenodontidae is a family within the reptile group Rhynchocephalia, comprising taxa most closely related to the living tuatara of the genus "Sphenodon". The included taxa within Sphenodontidae have varied greatly between analyses, and the group has lacked a formal definition. "Cynosphenodon" from the Early Jurassic of Mexico has consistently been recovered as a close relative of the tuatara in most analyses.
The following is a cladogram of Rhynchocephalia after Rauhut "et al." (2012):


Pourtalosmilia

Pourtalosmilia is a genus of small corals in the family Caryophylliidae.
Species.
The World Register of Marine Species includes the following species in the genus :


Human back

The human back, also called the dorsum, is the large posterior area of the human body, rising from the top of the buttocks to the back of the neck. It is the surface of the body opposite from the chest and the abdomen. The vertebral column runs the length of the back and creates a central area of recession. The breadth of the back is created by the shoulders at the top and the pelvis at the bottom.
Back pain is a common medical condition, generally benign in origin.
Structure.
The central feature of the human back is the vertebral column, specifically the length from the top of the thoracic vertebrae to the bottom of the lumbar vertebrae, which houses the spinal cord in its spinal canal, and which generally has some curvature that gives shape to the back. The ribcage extends from the spine at the top of the back (with the top of the ribcage corresponding to the T1 vertebra), more than halfway down the length of the back, leaving an area with less protection between the bottom of the ribcage and the hips. The width of the back at the top is defined by the scapula, the broad, flat bones of the shoulders.
Muscles.
The muscles of the back can be divided into three distinct groups; a superficial group, an intermediate group and a deep group.
Superficial group.
The superficial group, also known as the appendicular group, is primarily associated with movement of the appendicular skeleton. It is composed of trapezius, latissimus dorsi, rhomboid major, rhomboid minor and levator scapulae. It is innervated by anterior rami of spinal nerves, reflecting its embryological origin outside the back.
Intermediate group.
The intermediate group is also known as respiratory group as it may serve a respiratory function. It is composed of serratus posterior superior and serratus posterior inferior. Like the superficial group, it is innervated by anterior rami of spinal nerves.
Deep group.
The deep group, also known as the intrinsic group due to its embryological origin in the back, can be further subdivided into four groups:
The deep group is innervated by the posterior rami of spinal nerves.
Organs near the back.
The lungs are within the ribcage, and extend to the back of the ribcage making it possible for them to be listened into through the back. The kidneys are situated beneath the muscles in the area below the end of the ribcage, loosely connected to the peritoneum. A strike to the lower back can damage the kidneys of the person being hit.
Surface of the back.
The skin of the human back is thicker and has fewer nerve endings than the skin on any other part of the torso. With some notable exceptions (see, e.g. George "The Animal" Steele), it tends to have less hair than the chest on men. The upper-middle back is also the one area of the body which a typical human under normal conditions might be unable to physically touch.
The skin of the back is innervated by the "dorsal cutaneous branches", as well as the "lateral abdominal cutaneous branches of intercostal nerves".
Movement.
The intricate anatomy of the back provides support for the head and trunk of the body, strength in the trunk of the body, as well as a great deal of flexibility and movement. The upper back has the most structural support, with the ribs attached firmly to each level of the thoracic spine and very limited movement. The lower back (lumbar vertebrae) allows for flexibility and movement in back bending (extension) and forward bending (flexion). It does not permit twisting.
Clinical significance.
Back pain.
The back comprises interconnecting nerves, bones, muscles, ligaments, and tendons, all of which can be a source of pain. Back pain is the second most common type of pain in adults (the most common being headaches). By far the most common cause of back pain is muscle strain. The back muscles can usually heal themselves within a couple of weeks, but the pain can be intense and debilitating. Other common sources of back pain include disc problems, such as degenerative disc disease or a lumbar disc herniation, many types of fractures, such as spondylolisthesis or an osteoporotic fracture, or osteoarthritis.
Society and culture.
The curvature of the female back is a frequent theme in paintings, because the sensibilities of many cultures permit the back to be shown nude - implying full nudity without actually displaying it. Indeed, the practice of showing explicitness on the lower back has been performed for centuries. Certain articles of clothing, such as the haltertop and the backless dress, are designed to expose the back in this manner. The lower back is typically exposed frequently by many types of shirts in woman's fashion, and even the more conservative shirts and blouses will reveal the lower back. This happens for a variety of reasons- the lower waist area is a pivot point for the body and lengthens and arches as a person sits or bends. Secondly, woman's fashion typically favors tops that are waist length, allowing the back to be left bare during slight movement, bending or sitting. The back also serves as the largest canvas for body art on the human body. Because of its size and the relative lack of hair, the back presents an ideal canvas on the human body for lower back tattoos, mostly among young women. Indeed, some individuals have tattoos that cover the entirety of the back. Others have smaller tattoos at significant locations, such as the shoulder blade or the bottom of the back.
Many English idioms mention the back, usually highlighting it as an area of vulnerability; one must "watch one's back", or one may end up "with one's back up against the wall"; worse yet, someone may "stab one in the back", but hopefully a friend "has got one's back". The back is also a symbol of strength and hard work, with those seeking physical labor looking for "strong backs", and workers being implored to "put their back into it".
Historically, flagellation of a person across the back with a whip was both a common form of punishment of criminals, and a common means of forcing slaves to work. As well, self-flagellation, as in self punishment, may include the use of whipping oneself. This is one method of mortification, the practice of inflicting physical suffering on oneself with the religious belief that it will serve as penance for one's own sins or those of others. While more moderate forms of mortification are widely practiced—particularly in the Catholic Church—self flagellation is not encouraged by mainstream religions or religious leaders. A well-known instrument used for flagellations is the infamous Cat 'o Nine Tails, a nine-corded whip with one handle enabling a much more effective whipping than would be possible with only one lashing at a time.


Timeless (gene)

Timeless (tim) is a gene in multiple species but is most notable for its role in "Drosophila" for encoding TIM, an essential protein that regulates circadian rhythm. "Timeless" mRNA and protein oscillate rhythmically with time as part of a transcription-translation negative feedback loop involving the "period" ("per") gene and its protein.
Discovery.
In 1994, "timeless" was discovered through forward genetic screening performed by Jeffery L. Price while working in the lab of Michael W. Young. This gene was found when they noticed an arrhythmic "tim"01 mutant via a P element screen. The tim01 mutation caused arrhythmic behavior, defined by the lack of ability to establish proper circadian rhythms. In 1995, the timeless gene was cloned by Amita Sehgal and partners in the lab of Michael W. Young. Unlike the Drosophila "timeless" gene, homologs have been discovered in other species that are non-essential for circadian rhythm. The discovery of "timeless" followed the discovery of the "period" mutants in 1971 through forward genetic screening, the cloning of "per" in 1984, and an experiment determining that "per" is circadian in 1990. This occurred during a period of rapid expansion in the field of chronobiology in the 1990s.
Structure.
The length of the coding region of the Drosophila "timeless" gene is 4029 base pairs, from which a 1398 amino acid protein is transcribed. The gene starts at a consensus cap site upstream of a methionine codon. It contains 11 exons and 10 introns. In various "Drosophila" species, the "timeless" protein TIM contains more highly conserved functional domains and amino acid sequence than its counterpart, PER (protein encoded by "per"). CLD was the least conserved of these regions between "D. virilis" and "D. melanogaster". These conserved parts include: the PER interaction domain, the nuclear localization signal (NLS), cytoplasmic localization domain (CLD), N-terminal end (non-functional), and C-terminal end. TIM is also known to have a basic region, which interacts with the PAS domain of the PER protein, and a central acidic region. There is also a region of unknown function near the N-terminus of the TIM protein that contains a 32 amino acid sequence that, when deleted, causes arrhythmic behavior in the fly. In various species of Drosophila, such as "D. virilis" and "D. melanogaster", the initiating methionine for translation of the "timeless" gene into TIM is in different places, with the "D. virilis" start site downstream of the start site in "D. melanogaster".
"Timeless" homologs.
Drosophila homolog.
The "timeless" gene is an essential component of the molecular circadian clock in "Drosophila". It acts as part of an autoregulatory feedback loop in conjunction with the period (per) gene product as noted in collaborative studies performed by the labs of Michael W. Young and Amita Sehgal. Further studies by the labs of Young, Sehgal, Charles Weitz, and Michael Rosbash indicated that "timeless" protein (TIM) and "period" protein (PER) form a heterodimer that exhibits circadian rhythms in wild type "Drosophila". Researchers in Rosbash's lab also showed that "tim" mRNA levels and TIM protein levels have circadian rhythms that are similar to those of the "period" ("per") mRNA and its product. Experiments done jointly by the Weitz, Young, and Sehgal labs using yeast 2-hybrid proved that TIM directly binds with PER. During the early evening, PER and TIM dimerize and accumulate. Late at night, the dimer travels into the nucleus to inhibit "per" and "tim" transcription. In 1996, the teams of Sehgal, Edery, and Young found that exposure to light leads to the degradation of TIM and subsequently PER.
The PER/TIM heterodimer negatively regulates transcription of "period" ("per") and "timeless" ("tim") genes. Within this negative feedback loop, first the PER/TIM heterodimers form in the cytoplasm, accumulate, and then translocate to the nucleus. The complex then blocks the positive transcription factors clock (CLK) and cycle (CYC), thereby repressing the transcription of "per".
As part of the circadian clock, "timeless" is essential for entrainment to light-dark (LD) cycles. The typical period length of free-running "Drosophila" is 23.9 hours, requiring adaptations to the 24-hour environmental cycle. Adaptation first begins with exposure to light. This process leads to the rapid degradation of the TIM protein, allowing organisms to entrain at dawn to environmental cycles. In light-dark cycles, TIM protein level decreases rapidly in late night/early morning, followed by the similar but more gradual changes in PER protein level. TIM degradation is independent of "per" and its protein, and releases PER from the PER/TIM complex. In some cell types, the photoreceptor protein cryptochrome (CRY) physically associates with TIM and helps regulate light-dependent degradation. CRY is activated by blue light, which binds to TIM and tags it for degradation. This ends the PER/TIM repression of the CLK/CYC-mediated transcription of "per" and "tim" genes, allowing "per" and "tim" mRNA to be produced to restart the cycle.
This mechanism allows entrainment of flies to environmental light cues. When "Drosophila" receive light inputs in the early subjective night, light-induced TIM degradation causes a delay in TIM accumulation, which creates a phase delay. When light inputs are received in the late subjective night, a light pulse causes TIM degradation to occur earlier than under normal conditions, leading to a phase advance.
In "Drosophila", the negative regulator PER, from the PER/TIM complex, is eventually degraded by a casein kinase-mediated phosphorylation cycle, allowing fluctuations in gene expression according to environmental cues. These proteins mediate the oscillating expression of the transcription factor VRILLE (VRI), which is required for behavioral rhythmicity, "per" and "tim" expression, and accumulation of PDF (pigment-dispersing factor).
"Gryllus bimaculatus" (two-spotted cricket) homolog.
"Timeless" does not appear to be essential for oscillation of the circadian clock for all insects. In wild type "Gryllus bimaculatus," "tim" mRNA shows rhythmic expression in both LD and DD (dark-dark cycles) similar to that of "per", peaking during the subjective night. When injected with "tim" double-stranded RNA ("dstim"), "tim" mRNA levels were significantly reduced and its circadian expression rhythm was eliminated. After the "dstim" treatment, however, adult crickets showed a clear locomotor rhythm in constant darkness, with a free-running period significantly shorter than that of control crickets injected with Discosoma sp. Red2 (DsRed2) dsRNA. These results suggest that in the cricket, "tim" plays some role in fine-tuning of the free-running period but may not be essential for oscillation of the circadian clock.
Mammalian homolog.
In 1998, researchers identified a mouse homolog and a human homolog of the "Drosophila" "timeless" gene. The exact role of TIM in mammals is still unclear. Recent work on the mammalian "timeless" ("mTim") in mice has suggested that the gene may not play the same essential role in mammals as in "Drosophila" as an necessary function of the circadian clock. While "Tim" is expressed in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) which is thought to be the primary oscillator in humans, its transcription does not oscillate rhythmically in constant conditions, and the TIM protein remains in the nucleus.
However, "mTim" is shown to be necessary for embryonic development in mice, indicating a different gene function than in "Drosophila". This suggests a divergence between mammalian clocks and the "Drosophila" clock. Moreover, mammalian "tim" is more orthologous to the "Tim-2" ("Timeout") paralog of the "Drosophila" "Timeless" gene than the actual gene itself. Like "tim-2", the mamallian orthologs has a C-terminal PARP1-binding (PAB) domain. The complex they from promotes homologous recombination DNA repair.
The "timeless" protein is thought to directly connect the cell cycle with the
circadian rhythm in mammals. In this model. referred to as a “direct coupling,” the two cycles share a key protein whose expression exhibits a circadian pattern.The essential role of "Tim" in "Drosophila" in creating circadian rhythm is accomplished by "Cry" in mammals. In mammals, "Cry" and "Per" transcription is activated by the CLOCK/BMAL1 complex, and repressed by the PER/CRY complex.
Humans.
The human "timeless" protein (hTIM) has been shown to be required for the production of electrical oscillations output by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the major clock governing all tissue-specific circadian rhythms of the body. This protein also interacts with the products of major clock genes CLOCK, BMAL, PER1, PER2 and PER3.
Sancar and colleagues investigated whether hTIM played a similar role to orthologs in "C. elegans" and other types of yeast, which are known to play important roles in the cell cycle. Their experiments suggested that hTIM plays an integral role in the G2/M and intra-S cell cycle checkpoints. With respect to the G2/M checkpoint, hTIM binds to the ATRIP subunit on ATR – a protein kinase sensitive to DNA damage. This binding between hTIM and ATR then leads to the phosphorylation of Chk1, resulting in cell cycle arrest or apoptosis. This process serves as an important control to stop the proliferation of cells with DNA damage prior to mitotic division. The role of hTIM in the intra-S checkpoint is less clear at the molecular level; however, down-regulation of hTIM leads to an increase in the rate of generation of replication forks – even in the presence of DNA damage and other regulatory responses.
Current research.
The "Timeless" gene has also been found to influence the development of disease in humans. Downregulation of the "timeless" gene in human carcinoma cells leads to shortened telomeres, indicating its role in telomere length maintenance. Telomere-associated DNA damage also increases in "timeless" depleted cells, along with the delay of telomere replication. Swi1 is a "timeless"-related protein that is required for DNA replication in the telomere region. This association between "timeless" and telomeres is indicative of the gene's possible association with cancer.
A single nucleotide polymorphism substitution that results in the transformation of glutamine to arginine in the amino acid sequence in the human "timeless gene" shows no association with either morningness or eveningness tendencies in humans. This is consistent with other research, suggesting that "htim" is not important in the circadian rhythm of humans.
Timeless is now frequently found to be overexpressed in many different tumor types. In a study that used Timeless-targeting siRNA oligos, followed by a whole-genome expression microarray as well as network analysis. Further testing of Timeless down-regulation on cell proliferation rates of a cervical and breast cancer cell line. It was found that elevated expression of Timeless was significantly associated with more advanced tumor stage and poorer breast cancer prognosis. Similarity in gene expression signatures has allowed for TIMELESS to be identified as Kinase Suppressor of Ras-1 (KSR1)-like and a potential target required for cancer cell survival. TIMELESS overexpression represents a vulnerability in Ras-driven tumors that offers potential insight into novel and selective targets found in Ras-driven cancers, which can be leveraged to develop selective and more effective therapeutics.


Thomas Coward

Thomas Alfred Coward, MSc, FZS, FRES, MBOU (8 January 1867 – 29 January 1933), was an English ornithologist and an amateur astronomer. He wrote extensively on natural history, local history and Cheshire.
Life.
He was born at 8 Higher Downs, Bowdon, Cheshire (now Greater Manchester) on 8 January 1867, the fourth and last child of Thomas and Sarah Coward. His father was a Congregational minister and in business as a partner in the firm of Melland and Coward, textile bleachers. Coward's siblings were Charles, Alice and Annie.
After an education at Brooklands School, Sale and at Owens College (now Manchester University), Coward worked in the family business for 19 years, before it was taken over by the Bleachers' Association. His share of the proceeds from the sale of Melland and Coward was sufficient to allow him to retire from business and concentrate on his love of wildlife and the study of birds, which had developed as a child. He began writing articles on natural history for newspapers including "The Liverpool Daily Post", "The Chester Cournant" and "The Manchester Guardian" for which he wrote the "Country Diary" column until his death. General interest magazines for which he wrote included "The Field" and "Country Life" and in specialist journals such as "The Zoologist", "Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London" and "British Birds".
His first book was "The Birds of Cheshire", published in 1900, when he was living in Hale. His three-volume "The Birds of the British Isles and their eggs" (1920–25) was illustrated by Archibald Thorburn and was "acknowledged as being the book that did more to popularise the study of birds than any other publication produced during the first part of the twentieth century". It was revised by Arnold Boyd for a new edition in 1950.
He co-wrote articles and books on ornithology with Charles Oldham, a former schoolmate.
He married his cousin Mary Milne in 1904. There is a Blue Plaque at his former home, Brentwood Villa, 6 Grange Road, Bowdon, to which he moved in 1911.
On his death, the Cotterill Clough Nature Reserve was bought, by public subscription, in his honour.
His field notes are archived in the Department of Zoology at Oxford.
Jizz.
Coward is credited with the first use in print of the term "Jizz", in his "Country Diary" column of 6 December 1921 - the piece was subsequently included in his 1922 book "Bird Haunts and Nature Memories". He attributed it to "a west-coast Irishman".
Bibliography.
Coward wrote a number of books on local history, natural history and birds:


Geodia auroristella

Geodia auroristella is a species of sponge in the family Geodiidae. It is found in the waters of the Indian Ocean around the Seychelles archipelago. The species was first described by Arthur Dendy in 1916.


Parietal scales

Parietal scale refers to the scales of a snake which are on the head of the snake and are connected to the frontals towards the posterior. These scales are analogous to and take their name from the parietal bone which forms the roof and sides of the cranium in humans.
See also.
They are also great for protecting themselves


Ruth Smith Lloyd

Ruth Smith Lloyd (January 17, 1917 – February 5, 1995) was a 20th-century scientist whose research focused on fertility, the relationship of sex hormones to growth, and the female sex cycle. She earned a PhD in the field of anatomy from Western Reserve University in 1941, making her the first African-American woman to have reached this achievement. Lloyd worked on the faculty of medicine at Howard University from 1942 to 1977. She married physician Sterling Morrison Lloyd in 1939, and they had three children: Marilyn, Sterling and David. She died of cancer in 1995.
Early life and education.
Ruth Smith was born in Washington, DC on January 17, 1917. Her parents were Mary Elizabeth (Morris) Smith, who was a clerk in the US Treasury Department, and Bradley Donald Smith, who was a pullman porter. She had two sisters named Hilda B, and M Otwiner. She was the youngest child. Lloyd attended the prestigious, historically black, Dunbar High School.
Lloyd attended Mount Holyoke College, which was then a mostly white institution. Her choice of college was reportedly influenced by the experience of her brother-in-law, William Montague Cobb, who was married to Hilda. Lloyd graduated with a bachelor of arts "magna cum laude" in 1937, majoring in zoology.
From 1937 to 1938, Lloyd studied for a master's degree in zoology at Howard University supported by a fellowship, under Ernest Everett Just. She had planned on becoming a school teacher, but was encouraged to undertake further study. Lloyd gained a fellowship from the Rosenwald Fund and undertook doctoral studies under Boris Rubenstein at Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio. She studied the fertility of macaque monkeys, becoming the first African-American woman to gain a PhD in anatomy with her dissertation, "Adolescence of macaques (Macacus rhesus)" in 1941.
Career.
Lloyd taught at Hampton Institute in Virginia from 1941 to 1942, and then joined the medical faculty of Howard University in 1942. Lloyd worked at Howard until her retirement in 1977. She taught physiology and anatomy, reaching the rank of associate professor in 1955. Her areas of research were endocrinology, sex-related hormones, and medical genetics. Lloyd also chaired the university's Committee on Student Guidance and was director of the Academic Reinforcement Program. From 1947, the Department of Anatomy in which she worked was chaired by William Montague Cobb.
She was a member of Sigma Xi honorary scientific society and the American Association of Anatomists.
Personal life.
Ruth Smith married Sterling Morrison Lloyd in on December 30, 1939. He was a physician who also graduated from Howard University, who died in 1980. Lloyd had three children and eight grandchildren. In retirement, she was active in the All-Souls Unitarian Church, helped found the National Museum of Women in the Arts in 1987, and was a member of the social and service organization, Girl Friends.
Lloyd died of cancer at home in Washington on February 5, 1995.


Inanidrilus reginae

Inanidrilus reginae is a species of clitellate oligochaete worm in the family Naididae. It was first found in Belize, on the Caribbean side of Central America. It lives in subtidal sand with seagrass.


Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!

Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! is an American animated mystery comedy television series produced by Hanna-Barbera for CBS. The series premiered as part of the network's Saturday morning cartoon schedule on September 13, 1969, and aired for two seasons until October 31, 1970. In 1978, a selection of episodes from the later series "Scooby's All-Stars" and "The Scooby-Doo Show" were aired on ABC under the "Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!" name, and they were released in a DVD set marketed as its third season.
"Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!" is the first incarnation of a long-running media franchise primarily consisting of animated series, several films, and related merchandise.
Overview.
The series centers on a group of characters consisting of teenagers Fred, Daphne, Velma, and Shaggy, and a Great Dane named Scooby-Doo. The group travels in the Mystery Machine, a blue and green van decorated with orange flowers, solving mysteries involving local legends; in doing so, they discover that the perpetrator is almost invariably a disguised person who seeks to exploit the legend for personal gain.
Production.
Origin.
"Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!" was the result of CBS and Hanna-Barbera's plans to create a non-violent Saturday morning program that would appease the parent watch groups that had protested the superhero-based programs of the mid-1960s. Originally titled "Mysteries Five" and later "Who's Scared?", "Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!" underwent a number of changes from script to screen (the most significant being the downplaying of a musical group angle). However, the basic concept—a group of teenagers and their dog solving supernatural-related mysteries—was always in place.
Writing.
"Scooby-Doo" creators Joe Ruby and Ken Spears served as the story supervisors on the series. Ruby, Spears, and Bill Lutz wrote all of the scripts for the 17 first-season episodes, while Lutz, Larz Bourne, and Tom Dagenais wrote the eight second-season episodes with Ruby and Spears as story editors. The plot varied little from episode to episode. The main concept was as follows:
Music.
The second season featured bubblegum "chase scene" songs produced by La La Productions (which had originally been contracted to create the music for "Josie and the Pussycats", the first of many animated series made from the same mold as "Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!"). These songs were written by Danny Janssen and Austin Roberts, and were performed by Roberts, who also made a new recording of the "Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!" theme song for the second season. The series' theme song has been covered by several subsequent artists, including Matthew Sweet for the 1995 TV special and album ""; Third Eye Blind for the 1998 film "Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island" and the 2003 film "Scooby-Doo! and the Monster of Mexico"; Billy Ray Cyrus for "Scooby-Doo! and the Witch's Ghost" (1999); Jennifer Love Hewitt for "Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders" (2000); the B-52's (Cindy, Kate and Fred) for "Scooby-Doo and the Cyber Chase" (2001); MxPx for the live-action "Scooby-Doo" film (2002); and Krystal Harris for "Scooby-Doo! and the Legend of the Vampire" (2003).
"Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!" utilized a laugh track, a common feature in most animated TV series until the late 1970s. It was removed for syndication in the 1980s. Following Turner's purchase of Hanna-Barbera and its networks' (TBS, TNT and Cartoon Network) initial broadcast of the series in 1994, the laugh track was reinstated in 1997.
Home media.
On July 4, 2002, Warner Home Video released four episodes from the series on a compilation DVD in Region 1 entitled "Scooby-Doo's Creepiest Capers". They later released all 25 episodes on DVD in Region 1 on March 16, 2004 under the title "Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! The Complete First and Second Seasons". A DVD entitled "Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! The Complete Third Season" was released on April 10, 2007, made up of episodes produced in 1978, added to the "Scooby's All-Stars" package, and later syndicated as part of "The Scooby-Doo Show".
On November 9, 2010, Warner Home Video released "Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!: The Complete Series". The eight-disc set features all 25 episodes of the series plus the 16 episodes produced in 1978 which aired as part of "Scooby's All-Stars". The set is encased in special collectible packaging in the form of a Mystery Machine replica. It also features a special bonus disc filled with new and archival material. The set was re-released on November 13, 2012. A Blu-ray version of the "Complete Series" boxset was released on September 3, 2019, for the series' 50th anniversary.
Starting on January 27, 2009, Warner Home Video released single-disc DVDs with four episodes each, plus an episode from "Shaggy and Scooby-Doo Get a Clue". Four volumes have been released through October 19, 2010.
Reception.
"Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!" was a hit for Hanna-Barbera and CBS, which led Hanna-Barbera to eventually create series with similar concepts on ABC, NBC, and CBS, including, "Josie and the Pussycats", "The Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm Show", The "Pebbles, Dino and Bamm-Bamm" segments on "The Flintstone Comedy Show", "The Funky Phantom", "Speed Buggy", "Jeannie", "Jabberjaw", "The Amazing Chan and the Chan Clan", "Inch High Private Eye", "Goober and the Ghost Chasers", "Clue Club", "Captain Caveman and the Teen Angels", "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kids", and "The New Shmoo".
In 2005, "Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!" came 49th in Channel 4's "100 Greatest Cartoons", in the UK, and was more recently voted the 8th greatest "Kids' TV Show" by viewers of the same channel. It was ranked the 24th greatest cartoon on IGN's "Top 100 Animated Series".


John Samuel Budgett

John Samuel Budgett (16 June 1872 – 19 January 1904) was a British zoologist and embryologist. He spent most of his short career on the genus "Polypterus" (bichir). This is found in the lakes, river margins, swamps, and floodplains of tropical central and western Africa and the Nile River system. Zoologists at the time wondered whether it was a bony fish, a cartilaginous fish, a lungfish or a primitive amphibian. Forty years after the publication of Darwin’s Origin of Species, zoologists were seeking to map the history of species and this primitive animal was a key part of the map. To find its place there, it was necessary to observe juvenile "Polypterus" in the wild. It took Budgett four African expeditions but in the end he succeeded in doing so.
However, the long periods spent in swampy, mosquito-ridden places left him debilitated with malaria and he died of blackwater fever shortly after his return to England. This happened on the very day that he was supposed to deliver a lecture on his work to the Zoological Society of London. He didn’t even have time to write a report. However he did leave a full set of drawings and specimens. It was left to his friend and colleague John Graham Kerr to interpret them and write the report.
Budgett’s work remained the basis of understanding "Polypterus" development for almost 100 years.
In an earlier expedition with Kerr to the Gran Chaco in central South America, Budgett did useful work on the amphibians of that area and discovered two species of a new genus "Lepidobatrachus asper" and "Lepidobatrachus laevis". The genus was named "Budgett's Frog" in his honour.
Early life.
John Samuel Budgett was born at Redlands House, Bristol on 16 June 1872. His parents were William Henry Budgett (1827–1900) and Ann (née Lidgett, 1839–1936). When John was two they moved to Stoke House and Park, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.
William was a keen microscopist and served on the council of Bristol Museum. He was a keen amateur student of zoology and encouraged his children to study it. Professionally he was a partner in H.H. & S. Budgett, a successful wholesale grocery firm. Often he had professional scientists to stay during the summer and John was able to get informal tuition from them. Prominent among these was Professor William Kitchen Parker. For twenty-three consecutive years Parker spent a fortnight at Stoke Park. He was noted for his skill in preserving delicate skeletons, such as tadpoles and small birds, and he appears to have passed some of this skill to John.
Parker had studied the development of the skull and John began working on the topic himself, using his skills in dissection and specimen preparation. He designed a device for aligning serial sections that enabled him to construct models of the developing skull. He became an expert in this.
John was fascinated by the animal world, building aviaries and adapting outbuildings for a museum and a laboratory. The museum contained minute dissections, skeletons (including a cow and a deer) and stuffed animals all prepared by him and presented against natural-looking backgrounds. He visited Bristol Zoo often to obtain dead animals. He was skilled in keeping animals healthy, a good draftsman and watercolourist. In the summer he used to get up at 3 a.m. and walk miles to study animals and birds at dawn.
Budgett was educated first at a kindergarten, then Clifton College. However he had to leave the College at about fourteen owing to severe headaches caused by an accident. He continued his studies with private tutors before entering University College, Bristol. There he received help in the formal study of zoology but much of his practical skill was self-taught.
Cambridge.
John went up to Trinity College, Cambridge in 1894. With his knowledge of natural history and strong testimonials, Budgett was elected to the Cambridge University Natural Sciences Club in his first year, a rare honour, for this club was limited to 12 undergraduates and a few graduate members. He was also elected a member of the Pitt Club at Cambridge.
In August 1896, in his third and final year as an undergraduate, Budgett accompanied a newly graduated Kerr on an expedition to the Gran Chaco of South America.
In 1890 Kerr had travelled on an expedition mounted by the Argentinean Navy to survey the Pilcomayo River from the Paraná River north to the Bolivian border. He had conducted original research on "Nautilus" as an undergraduate and found that it provided a link between cephalopods and the rest of the molluscs. He had concluded that there was a general case to be made for studying the archaic species in a group to shed light on the group’s evolution. It had been known since 1836 that the lungfish "Lepidosiren" lived in the Amazon so when Kerr learned in 1890 that a soldier had caught an eel-like fish he wondered whether it might be a lungfish.
During his subsequent study at Cambridge, Kerr had developed an ambition to make a study of "Lepidosiren" and this was the prime goal of the new expedition.
Budgett’s principal study on the expedition was Anurous Amphibians or Batrachians. He collected many samples and made drawings and notes. He discovered a genus new to science: "Lepidobatrachus" with two species, "Lepidobatrachus asper" and "Lepidobatrachus laevis" and subsequently published a paper.
 "Lepidobatrachus" was later given the common name Budgett's Frog. A third species has since been discovered.
Conditions were difficult. At times the Pilcomayo is 300 m wide, at times it is a trickle or stagnant swamp, marsh, lagoons, and dense tropical jungle. It has sand banks, confusing channels, and barriers of overturned and floating debris. Nevertheless, by the summer of 1897 Kerr and Budgett brought back to Cambridge a large supply of adult lungfish, with major embryonic and larval phases, so well preserved that the finest detail could be seen. Budgett’s skill in manipulation and his knowledge of reagents played an important part in this success.
Arthur Shipley says, "It was a remarkable feat. To go straight as an arrow to the place where this almost unknown fish lives, to arrive at about the time of the breeding season, quite unknown before, and to collect and preserve all the delicate and varying stages of development within some seven months, placed the expedition at the first rank of Zoological exploration. But there is another factor which makes it even more remarkable, and that is the wonderful condition of the material when it arrived... The difficulty in improvised rooms, worried by all sorts of insects, by torrential rains and occasionally floods, by inquisitive and highly suspicious natives...must have been enormous, but it was overcome. The success in this respect was certainly partly due to his [Budgett's] skill in manipulation and his peculiar knowledge of the use of reagents.".
Graduation.
On his return to Cambridge, Budgett had to catch up on his reading for Part II of the Natural Sciences Tripos (the Cambridge equivalent of Finals). He was not good at examinations but managed to get a Second. He then set to work on his South American frogs and completed his paper on them. He was a gifted draughtsman and watercolourist. The figures in his papers were both artistic and accurate.
Kerr had designed an apparatus to reconstruct solid figures from a series of microscopic drawings which have been obtained from sections or slices of the original biological structure. This might for example be the whole or part of an organ of an animal. The principle is that each section is drawn on to a piece of ground glass whose thickness bears a definite relation to the thickness of the section. Then the glass plates are placed in a bath of oil which eliminates the opacity of the ground glass and should provide a 3D image of the original structure. Budgett applied his ingenuity to make it easier to get the glasses in exactly the right position and his knowledge of reagents to choose an oil that allowed the maximum possible amount of light to pass.
Polypterus.
Budgett’s ambition was to attack one of the great unsolved problems of zoology. Having watched Kerr work on lungfish in South America he resolved to work on two genera, in Africa which were then called "Polypterus" and "Calamichthys". "Calamichthys" is now more usually called "Erpetoichthys". These are the sole survivors of a vast group which flourished in the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Periods. At that time little was known about them.
In 1861 Thomas Henry Huxley had created an order: Crossopterygii to house those extinct and extant animals that possessed lungs and fleshy pectoral fins with lepidotrichia. He had established a separate group (the tribe "Polypterinus") within the order "Crossopterygii" for "Polypterus" and "Calamichthys". He only had access to preserved specimens so his suggestion that "Polypterus" and "Calamichthys" belonged to "Crossopterygii" was only a theory. Work in the field was needed to test it. Francis Balfour and his Cambridge students had shown in the 1870s and early 1880s that embryology could help to answer questions about evolution. Perhaps the embryology of "Polypterus", lungfish and related groups could help to establish which group of fishes had given rise to amphibians and hence to all tetrapods.
In 1895, Bashford Dean, a leading authority, wrote: "From their isolated position, these recent forms ["Polypterus" and "Calamoichthys"] become of extreme interest to the morphologist, and from the side of their development, when this comes to be studied, they are expected to throw the greatest light on the relations of the primitive Teleostome to the sharks and Dipnoans, on the one hand, and to the Ganoids on the other".
At the time nothing was known about juvenile "Polypterus". This was partly because its habitat was remote and inhospitable and partly because of recurring warfare until the late 1890s. Budgett worked to fill this gap for five years and eventually succeeded, but only at the cost of his life
First Expedition: The Gambia.
Budgett thought first of the Nile but a friend suggested the Gambia. He sailed on 19 October 1898, arriving on 3 November. His stay lasted eight months. He kept a diary and recorded many observations. While searching for the breeding place of "Polypterus" he observed and collected other fish. He found "Polypterus" containing ova but not developing ova. He tried artificial fertilisation and he tried holding fish in cages to breed but these methods failed. He was constantly battling against the heat and against illness. Towards the end of July he was confined to bed and on 28 July he started his return journey. Although he had failed in his main goal he had gained experience; he had established the breeding period of "Polypterus" and he had collected information about the fauna of the Gambia. Three papers were published.
Nathan Harrington.
Quite independently, Nathan Harrington (1870–1899), an experienced field biologist and a doctoral student at Columbia University had already set out to find "Polypterus" embryos. Harrington and Reid Hunt, a tutor in physiology at Columbia, reached Cairo on 26 May 1898 in the midst of the Anglo-Egyptian campaign against the Mahdi. Their search lasted until 10 September and took them 377 miles up the Nile but they failed to find adults with mature eggs. The two men returned to the United States in December with preserved specimens of adult "Polypterus", fishes and other vertebrates, and a large collection of invertebrates. In late December, Harrington presented a paper on the respiration and breeding habits of "Polypterus" to the American Morphological Society. Harrington thought that "Polypterus" occupied an intermediate position between fishes and amphibians and so could shed light on the origins of tetrapods.
In 1899 Harrington got permission to travel with Hunt and F. B. Sumner (also from Columbia University) to a small village and military post on the northernmost tributary of the Nile, the Atbara River, about 650 km south of Khartoum. Sadly in July, after spending only one night in the desert, Harrington came down with what was described as Nile fever. It rapidly worsened and took his life within days.
Second Boer War.
When Budgett returned to England in the Autumn of 1899, he found the country in a turmoil on the eve of the Second Boer War. He had always been patriotic and his travels had made him more so. He felt he should go to the front but he was liable to recurring attacks of malaria acquired in the American and African swamps. Instead he joined the Mounted Infantry section of the Cambridge University Volunteers, giving all his spare time to the training of men for the War.
Second Expedition: The Gambia.
Budgett returned to the Gambia in the rainy season of 1900, arriving at McCarthy Island on 6 June. The country was uncharacteristically dry and politically in a disturbed state. On 19 June, news came that the Commissioners (Sitwell and Silva) had been ambushed at a conference and murdered, together with their policemen.
Budgett traced the development of "Gymnarchus niloticus" and made observations on other fish, frogs, mosquitoes and other insects. He returned in August. He had caught 127 "Polypterus senegalus" and 36 "Polypterus lapradei" but failed to obtain the fertilised ova he wanted.
Assistant Curator and Third Expedition.
In May 1901 Budgett was appointed Assistant Curator of the University Zoological Museum. He made a number of beautiful preparations to demonstrate anatomy to students. He published four papers based on his expeditions.
In 1902 Budgett met the Rev. John Roscoe who was then resident in Uganda and spending the winter in Cambridge. Roscoe was well informed about the local people and about the natural history. He convinced Budgett that the best place to look for developing "Polypterus" ova was Albert Nyanza and the neighbouring streams.
In March Budgett was elected to the Balfour Studentship . Named after Francis Maitland Balfour, this was the top studentship at Cambridge for a research student in Zoology. With its income, together with various grants, the trip became possible and Budgett set out in May, reaching Mombasa in June. A second object was added: to capture a live Okapi but in the end this was given up.
Budgett travelled to Entebbe with the Commissioner of British East Africa. There it took about nine days to arrange a Safari. It set out on 11 July, according to Budgett’s diary, "with forty porters, four askaris, two headmen and four boys." Budgett himself used a cycle where possible to give himself additional time to make observations. They reached the lake on 30 July and almost immediately found specimens of "Polypterus senegalus". The females had mostly shed their eggs so he decided to proceed north where the season was later. On 22 August he stopped for several days at Fajao, near the Murchison Falls. He caught many "Polypterus" females (locally called "Intontos") laying or having laid eggs. He was certain that the fry must swarm in the floating vegetation ("sud"). However he failed to catch "Polypterus" fry although he did catch fry of many other species.
On 29 August he gave up and proceeded further north by boat, passing Wadelai, Nimule, Kiri, Legu and reaching Gondokoro on 22 September. There he paid off the safari and spent a few days fishing unsuccessfully for "Polypterus". Then he took a steamer to Fashoda arriving on 5 October. Then he went on to Khartoum, reaching it on 10 October. There he found a fisherman who had been fishing for Mr Loate of the British Museum. He engaged him and travelled back to Fashoda, arriving on 24 October. "Polypterus" were caught but they had already shed their eggs. He returned to Khartoum on 10 November, where he met Lord Kitchener. He was home by the end of the month.
Search for a Permanent Post and Final Expedition.
Budgett needed to find a position and applied for the post of Secretary to the London Zoological Society. The committee was impressed by his experience of keeping live animals in captivity but chose an older man. He did hope to apply for the job of Resident Superintendent so he and Shipley took a continental tour at Easter, 1903 visiting zoos at Paris, Frankfurt, Leipzig, Berlin, Hanover, Amsterdam and Antwerp. Shipley was impressed by his friend’s knowledge and experience.
He continued to work on his fishes in Cambridge but yearned to make another attempt on "Polypterus" despite the health and safety risks. Dr Ansorge had brought back "Polypterus" larvae from the Niger delta and Budgett thought that if he went there he might finally be able to observe the development of these larvae.
He decided to trade on the fact that his Balfour Studentship was named after the brother of the Prime Minister, Arthur Balfour. He wrote to him asking if a Royal Navy ship could take him to Sierra Leone. The answer was negative but Balfour very generously paid for Budgett’s passage out of his own pocket.
He left Liverpool on 27 June 1903 and reached Sierra Leone on 7 July. On 14 July they reached the mouth of the Forcados River, the most westerly of the many streams into which the Niger flows. He started first for Burutu where he caught stern-wheeler for Lokoja. He stopped at Assé where he was told that "Polypterus" were large but impossible to catch. So he carried on to Lokoja. There he inspected the possible fishing places but was not impressed so he continued towards Dakmon. He stopped at Muriji on 27 July. There he did some fishing, catching many species but few "Polypterus". On 5 August he moved on to Dakmon, arriving two days later. This too was unpromising, so he set back to Assé, arriving on 12 August.
It was very wet but he worked hard, fishing and also collecting and interviewing local fishermen. His guide knew about "P. Senegalus". At last he began to get specimens with ova. He started artificial insemination and was able to watch the key formative stages, lasting about five days. On 9 September he wrote to a friend that he had fertilised about a thousand eggs and watched them develop in the way that he had expected. Sadly after a week, a fungus had attacked and they had all died before reaching full maturity. However he continued his work right through September and finally managed to preserve specimens of each stage of development including a few larvae.
Last Days.
On his return to England, Budgett was suffering bouts of malaria and his hands had sores from constantly handling formalin. However he returned to Cambridge and began to work out his material. The post of Resident Superintendent at London Zoo was a job which he had hoped for and it fell vacant but someone else got it. Over the Christmas holidays he spent time with Shipley in Cambridge and with his mother in Clifton, returning to Cambridge early in January. By 9 January he had finished his drawings of the external features of the developing "Polypterus" ova. That evening he had an attack of blackwater fever. He held his own for a while. The blackwater fever receded but then he had an attack of malaria as well. He died on 19 January. This was the very day on which he had expected to report his work to the Zoological Society.
Legacy.
George Boulenger of the British Museum reviewed his work and wrote,"The breeding habits of fishes living between the Tropics are among the secrets of Nature which are most difficult to unravel, and which have most taxed the acumen and patience of zoologists...Several attempts have been made with the object of procuring the development stages of the African fishes "Polypterus" and "Protopterus" but in vain...Budgett succeeded but for this success he paid with his life...from each of these rivers he brought home not only most valuable notes on the habits of the fishes he came across, habits which were then totally unknown...embryological material...[and] very important collections of the fishes themselves, which it has been my privilege to name and describe." He lists new species as follows:
FISH
"Marcusenius budgetti"
"Gnathonemus gilli"
"Clarias budgetti"
"Synodontis ocellifer"
"Rana budgetti"
Shipley says that Budgett did experiments with reagents, materials and equipment which advanced zoological technique in the laboratory. He also says we owe to Budgett the first accurate knowledge of the urinogenital system of "Polypterus" and the demonstration that the crossopterygian fin is really a uniserial archipterygium as well as observations of the life-history and breeding habits of many tropical frogs and fishes.
As a memorial, Budgett’s friend Graham Kerr edited a book.
This contains all his papers as well as a biographical sketch by A. E. Shipley and assessments of his work by several authors
Later Work on "Polypterus".
In a report to the 1907 annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Edwin Stephen Goodrich amassed all the evidence that "Polypterus" is not a crossopterygian, placing it within the palaeoniscids, the most primitive of the ray-finned (actinopterygian) fishes. This removed "Polypterus" from the ancestral line leading to amphibians.
Romer (1946) asserted, ""[Polypterus]" has no affinity with crossopterygians... "Polypterus" is a good actinopterygian and a primitive one". He also said, "The weight of Huxley’s (1861) opinion is a heavy one and even today many a text continues to cite "Polypterus" as a crossopterygian and it is so described in many a classroom, although students of fish evolution have realised the falsity of this position for many years... "Polypterus"... is not a crossopterygian, but an actinopterygian and hence can tell us nothing about crossopterygian anatomy and embryology."
Phylogenetic analysis using both morphological and molecular data affirm that "Polypterus" is a living stem actinoptererygian.
A 1997 study confirmed the early embryonic stages drawn by Budgett and described by Kerr, although fertilisation was shown to be external. Development was found to be much more rapid than for lungfish. They found close similarities between the ontogenies of "Polypterus" and of urodele amphibians and other 'primitive' amphibians. Other questions that Budgett was hoping to answer are still unanswered.
Publications by Budgett.
All these papers were republished in Kerr, J.G., ed. (1907b).
Budgett J. S. (1899a) Notes on the Batrachians of the Paraguayan Chaco, with observations upon their breeding habits and development, especially with regard to "Phyllomedusa hypochondrialis", Cope. Also a description of a new genus. Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Sciences 2 : 305–333.
Budgett J. S. (1899b) General account of an expedition to the Gambia Colony and Protectorate in 1898–99. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 1899: 931–937.
Budgett J. S. (1900) Observations on "Polypterus" and "Protopterus". Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 10s: 236–240.
Budgett J. S. (1901a) On some points in the anatomy of "Polypterus". Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 15: 323–338.
Budgett J. S. (1901b) On the breeding habits of some West-African fishes, with an account of the external features in the development of "Protopterus annectens", and a description of the larva of "Polypterus lapradei". Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 16: 115–134.
Budgett J. S. (1902) On the structure of the larval "Polypterus". Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 16: 315–338.
Budgett J. S. (1903a) Account of journey to Uganda. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London: 2–10.
Budgett J. S. (1903b) Note on the spiracles of "Polypterus". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1903): 25–26.
Other publications.
Bartsch P., Gemballa S., Piotrowski T. (1997) The embryonic and larval development of "Polypterus senegalus" (Cuvier 1829): Its staging with reference to external and skeletal features, behaviour and locomotory habits. Acta Zoologica 78: 309–328, cited by Hall.
Budgett, J H. (1907). Note on habits of Polypterus. Pages 291–292 in Kerr J G, ed.
Dean, B. 1895. Fishes, Living and Fossil. An Outline of their Forms and Probable Relationships p. 149. Delhi (India): Narendra Publishing House., cited by Hall
Goodrich, E. S. (1908). On the systematic position of Polypterus. Report of the 77th Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (1907): 545–546, cited by Hall
Hall, B. K. (2001) John Samuel Budgett (1872–1904): In Pursuit of Polypterus, BioScience, Vol. 51, No. 5 (May 2001), pp. 399–407
Kerr, J.G. (1907a).The development of Polypterus senegalus Cuv. Pages 195–290 in Kerr, J.G., ed. 1907b
Kerr, J.G., ed. (1907b). The Work of John Samuel Budgett, Balfour Student of the University of Cambridge: Being a Collection of His Zoological Papers, together with a Biographical Sketch by A . E. Shipley, F.R.S., and Contributions by Richard Assheton, Edward J.Bles, Edward T. Browne, J. Herbert Budgett and J. Graham Kerr. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press.
Kerr, J.G. (1950). A Naturalist in the Gran Chaco. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press, cited by Hall.
Noack K, Zardoya R, Meyer A. (1996). The complete mitochondrial DNA sequence of the bichir (Polypterusor natipinnis), a basal ray-finned fish: Ancient establishment of the consensus vertebrate gene order. Genetics 144:1165–1180, cited by Hall
Patterson C. (1982). Morphology and interrelationships of primitive actinopterygian fishes. American Zoologist 22: 241–260, cited by Hall.
Romer, A S. (1946).The early evolution of fishes. Quarterly Review of Biology 21: 33–69, cited by Hall.
Shipley, A. E. (1907). Biographical sketch. Pages 1–55 in Kerr J. G, ed.


Cyathopodium

Cyathopodium is a genus of soft corals in the family Clavulariidae.


Richard Knapp Allen

 Richard Knapp “Dick” Allen (April 21, 1925 - August 7, 1992) was an American invertebrate zoologist and entomologist. He was academically trained in Utah and specialised in entomology, in particular mayflies. Later, after moving to Los Angeles, California, he added the study of marine invertebrates of the Pacific coast as a university professor.
Although Allen was born in Salt Lake City, Utah, where he later studied at the local university for his degrees in zoology at the University of Utah. However, he spent his teaching career at the California State University at Los Angeles, including studies of seashore animals without backbones, mentoring graduate students that researched mayfly taxonomy, finally medically retiring in 1976 following a diagnosis of terminal cancer which proved to be overly pessimistic. His last years were spent Lake San Marcos, California near the ocean, where he enjoyed sailing on his boat.
The noteworthy book by Allen, "Common Intertidal Invertebrates of Southern California", was first published in 1967 with a focus on Gastropoda (snails), followed two years later in 1969 with coverage of all taxonomic groups of marine invertebrates, and finally with a third edition in 1976 with greater focus on covering many additional species of marine invertebrates. Within the 1976 third edition of this book, on page iii of the Preface, Allen positively acknowledged Augusta Foote Arnold with recognition for writing the first popular book on coastal marine life of the seashore, both animals and algae as well as one plant, of the intertidal wetland zones of North America, as follows: "The first popular guide to the intertidal zone was "The Sea-Beach at Ebb-Tide" published by Augusta Foote Arnold in 1901. The volume is still available at Dover Publications, Inc., New York, reprinted in 1968. The great emphasis is for the identification of Atlantic coast plants and animals, but the treatment also includes discussions of nearly 100 Pacific coast genera and several species."


English Long-faced Tumbler

The English Long-faced Tumbler is a breed of fancy pigeon developed over many years of selective breeding. English Long Face Tumblers, along with other varieties of domesticated pigeons, are all descendants from the rock pigeon ("Columba livia").
This breed is available in both clean legged and muffed (feathered legs) varieties. Due to its short beak it requires foster parents (homing pigeons etc.) to raise its young. The breed is popular around the world and has continued development particularly in the United States.


Bifurculapes

Edward Hitchcock erected the ichnogenus Bifurculapes, meaning "two little forked feet," for trace fossils that were discovered in the Early Jurassic Turners Falls Formation in the Deerfield Basin of Massachusetts. They are insect or crustacean trackways that consist of two rows of two to three tracks per series, with the two larger tracks being oriented parallel or oblique to the trackway axis. The third track, when present, is much smaller than the other two and is oriented approximately perpendicular to the trackway axis. Medial drag marks sometimes are present between the track rows. In trace fossil classification schemes based on behavior, "Bifurculapes" is considered a repichnion, or locomotion trace. Getty (2020) considered Bifurculapes to represent locomotion under water based on the orientation of some trackways relative to sedimentary structures called current lineations.
Hitchcock originally erected four ichnospecies, "B. elachistotatus", "B. laqueatus", "B. scolependroideus", and "B. tuberculatus", but subsequently removed "B. tuberculatus" while erecting "B. curvatus". Since Hitchcock did not establish a type species, Lull (1953) designated "B. laqueatus" as the lectotype. In a recent revision of the ichnogenus, Getty (2016) recognized only two ichnospecies, "B. laqueatus" and "B. scolependroideus"; "B. curvatus" and "B. elachistotatus" were considered junior subjective synonyms of "B. laqueatus", whereas "B. tuberculatus" was considered a nomen dubium. More recently, Getty (2018) considered the ichnogenus "Camurichnus" as a minor morphological variant of "Bifurculapes". Outside of the Deerfield Basin, undoubted examples of "Bifurculapes" have been found only in the East Berlin Formation of the adjacent Hartford Basin (Getty 2016), the Lockatong Formation of Pennsylvania, and the Moenave Formation of the Zuni sag.


Galaxea astreata

Overview.
Galaxea Astreata is a common and cosmopolitan large polyp scleractinian coral, (stony, hard coral) in the family "Euphylliidae". It has a sub-massive morphology. It is found in the Indo-Pacific and is the most abundant coral species in Xuwen Coral Reef National Nature Reserve. "G. Astreata" is acclimatized to water temperatures ranging from about 27 ± 0.5 °C. It is generally a shallow-water coral and is commonly seen at a depth of around 15 meters. It can range from a depth of 1 meter to 30 meters. It generally prefers clear, salt waters over turbid brackish waters.
Description.
"Galaxea Astreata" has a very distinctive skeleton structure, which is made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Corallites, the skeletal cup formed by individual polyps, are very plate-like. They are about 3-4.5 in diameter. They are also well spaced. The coral can has a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae living inside of the coral. Colonies of "G. Asterata" are either sub-massive, columnar, or encrusting, meaning they can either be irregularly shaped, growing upward like columns, or impinging on a hard substrate. Colonies can grow to be over two meters long. The polyps are usually found to be pink, grey, green, or brown in color.
Feeding.
"Galaxea Astreata" eat zooplankton and coral larvae that float by. Corals tend to feed at night since planktivorous fishes are sleeping. "G. Asterata" expands its polyps to feed during the day, and contracts them at night. It is an effective predator, and like other massive growth forms, "G. Astreata" will be an even more efficient when the larvae starts sinking in the water column so that it is easier for the coral to catch.
Reproduction.
"Galaxea Astreata" is a broadcast spawner, as gametes are released into the water for external fertilization. After the gamete is fertilized, the planulae, or the larval form of the coral, develops inside the plankton. "G. Astreata can" either be a hermaphrodite, having both male and female gametes, or a gonochore, having gametes of only one sex.
Threats and Coral Bleaching.
The coral coverage rate in Xuwen rapidly decreased due to human activity and other environmental factors causing a decline in the "G. Astreata." Some detrimental human activities include overuse of fisheries and extraction, eutrophication and siltation, and pollution. Though "G. Asterata" is more resistant to environmental changes than other coral species (i.e. "Accropora spp."), it had a 100% mortality rate after the El Niño phenomenon of 1997-1998, starting with slow death of tissue fragments in the first 4 months after the disturbance. However, "G. Asterata" was not the only coral affected, as this 1998 coral bleaching event reduced the richness of all coral species off the coast of Sesoko Island, Japan by 61% and reduced coral cover by 85%. Temperatures rose 2.8°C above average from this one event alone. Coral bleaching events cause a loss of the symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) and/or a loss of pigment (color mostly derived from zooxanthellae). It is a global phenomenon that is most likely linked to global climate change and rising ocean temperatures, as well as ocean acidification.


SbRNA

sbRNA (stem-bulge RNA) is a family of non-coding RNA first discovered in "Caenorhabditis elegans". It was identified during a full transcriptome screen of the "C. elegans" cDNA library. Subsequent experimentation characterised sbRNA as having conserved 5' and 3' internal motifs which form a long paired stem which is interrupted with a bulge.
Expression.
sbRNAs have variable expression patterns during development. They are most highly expressed in adult worms, dauer larvae and following heat shock. A systematic knockout analysis using RNAi found no phenotype for the knockout of two sbRNAs in "C. elegans", however the efficiency of RNAi on ncRNA has been questioned. sbRNAs contain immunoglobulin in their protein fibers to maintain rigidity, however they are at risk of infection from malfunctioning ribosomes.
sbRNAs share common promoter elements consisting of a TATA box and a proximal sequence element (PSE B box), though only one of these is required for transcription. As the transcript is uncapped and polyuridylated, it is thought to be transcribed by RNA polymerase III.
Y RNA homology.
An sbRNA, "CeN134" was reported as a candidate homologue to the vertebrate Y RNA during a kingdom-wide search. Further investigation found a homologous secondary structure with a conserved helical regions and a common UUAUC loop motif.
The function of sbRNAs may therefore be similar to that of vertebrate Y RNAs, namely acting as part of the Ro-RNA particle to control RNA quality and playing a role in chromosomal replication. Deletion of sbRNA does not prevent chromosome replication in "C. elegans", but this may be a result of other sbRNAs substituting missing elements (as in human Y RNA). This theory also explains why RNAi studies failed to detect a phenotype for knocked out sbRNAs.


Black stink sponge

The black stink sponge ("Ircinia arbuscula"), is a species of sea sponge in the family Irciniidae. This sponge is known around the Australian coast and around South Africa from the Cape Peninsula to Cape Agulhas.
Description.
The black stink sponge grows in crusts of 1–2 cm thick and 10–20 cm across. It is a black encrusting sponge which forms a mat on rocks. Its surface is textured, and the sponge is firm and slippery to touch. Its oscula are inconspicuous. When collected, the smell is distinctive.
Habitat.
This sponge lives on rocky reefs subtidally down to 180m.


Flexomornis

Flexomornis (meaning "flexed shoulder bird") is a genus of enantiornithean birds known from fossils found in Texas rocks belonging to the Woodbine Formation (Lewisville Member) dating to the middle Cenomanian age of the late Cretaceous period. It contains a single species, "Flexomornis howei", named for the amateur fossil hunter Kris Howe, who discovered the site where the fossils were found.


Anheteromeyenia

Anheteromeyenia is a genus of freshwater sponge. It has been recorded in the Nearctic, the Neotropics. This taxon was initially a subgenus of "Heteromeyenia" when K. Schöder circumscribed it in 1927, but W. M. de Laubenfels made it a genus in its own right in 1936.
, WoRMS recognizes the following species:


Alcyonidium diaphanum

Alcyonidium diaphanum, commonly called the sea-chervil (after the herb which it resembles), is a species of bryozoan found in the North Atlantic. It can cause a rash known as "Dogger Bank itch" when handled for prolonged periods.


Vesiculo-vacuolar organelle

A vesiculo-vacuolar organelle (VVO) is an organelle that contributes to endothelial cell permeability. VVOs are found in the endothelium of normal blood vessels and vessels associated with tumors or allergic inflammation.
VVOs actively transport fluid and macromolecules from the cytoplasm of endothelial cells into the blood vessel lumen, contributing to the increase in vascular permeability that occurs during the process of inflammation. This kind of transport is mediated by VEGF, one of the chemical mediators of inflammation.


Golfingiidae

Golfingiidae is a family of peanut worms.


Long bone

The long bones are those that are longer than they are wide. They are one of five types of bones: long, short, flat, irregular and sesamoid. Long bones, especially the femur and tibia, are subjected to most of the load during daily activities and they are crucial for skeletal mobility. They grow primarily by elongation of the diaphysis, with an epiphysis at each end of the growing bone. The ends of epiphyses are covered with hyaline cartilage ("articular cartilage"). The longitudinal growth of long bones is a result of endochondral ossification at the epiphyseal plate. Bone growth in length is stimulated by the production of growth hormone (GH), a secretion of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
The long bone category includes the femora, tibiae, and fibulae of the legs; the humeri, radii, and ulnae of the arms; metacarpals and metatarsals of the hands and feet, the phalanges of the fingers and toes, and the clavicles or collar bones. The long bones of the human leg comprise nearly half of adult height. The other primary skeletal component of height are the vertebrae and skull.
The outside of the bone consists of a layer of connective tissue called the periosteum. Additionally, the outer shell of the long bone is compact bone, then a deeper layer of cancellous bone (spongy bone) which contains in the medullary cavity the bone marrow.
Structure.
The outer shell of the long bone is made of cortical bone also known as compact bone. This is covered by a membrane of connective tissue called the periosteum. Beneath the cortical bone layer is a layer of spongy cancellous bone. Inside this is the medullary cavity which has an inner core of bone marrow, it contains nutrients and help in formation of cells, made up of yellow marrow in the adult and red marrow in the child.
Clinical significance.
There are two congenital disorders of the long bones. In a disorder known as "rachitis fetalis anularis" the ends of the long bones (epiphyses) are enlarged. Another disorder is known as "rachitis fetalis micromelica" in which there is a deficiency in the growth (as a shortness) of the bones.
There is a surgical procedure called distraction osteogenesis which is used to lengthen long bones.


Friedrich Dahl

Karl Friedrich Theodor Dahl (June 24, 1856 in Rosenhofer Brök north of Dahme, Holstein – June 29, 1929 in Greifswald) was a German zoologist, and in particular an arachnologist.
The son of a farmer, Dahl studied at the universities of Leipzig, Freiburg, Berlin and Kiel. His dissertation (1884) was "Beiträge zur Kenntnis des Baus und der Funktion der Insektenbeine". He became a "Privatdozent" in 1887; with a habilitation thesis "Ueber die Cytheriden der westlichen Ostsee". Around this time he traveled to the Baltic states and (1896–1897) to the Bismarck Archipelago near New Guinea. He was also interested in biogeography.
On April 1, 1898 Dahl became curator of arachnids at the "Museum für Naturkunde" in Berlin, where he worked under his former teacher, the then museum director Karl Möbius. Dahl remained in Berlin until he retired, and his type collection is held in that museum.
Although he described in many animal groups, Dahl concentrated on spiders. He was also interested in biogeography and animal behaviour.
On June 19, 1899 he married Maria Dahl (1872–1972), a co-worker at the zoological institute of Kiel. She also published several works on spiders.
He is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of snake, "Tropidonophis dahlii".


Callyspongia siphonella

Callyspongia siphonella, commonly known as colonial tube-sponge, is a species of sea sponge endemic to the Red Sea. Clusters of its pale lavender long tubes reaches up to in size.


Danish Suabian

The Danish Suabian is a breed of fancy pigeon, developed over many years of selective breeding. Danish Suabians, along with other varieties of domesticated pigeons, are all descendants from the rock pigeon ("Columba livia").
The breed comes in silver, blue, ash yellow, ash red, black, red, yellow, and brown barred and is either plain-head or peak crested.
Origins.
Suabians are thought to have been developed in France and Holland from the laced Starling and imported to Denmark around 1840.


Neck

The neck is the part of the body on many vertebrates that connects the head with the torso and provides the mobility and movements of the head. The structures of the human neck are anatomically grouped into four compartments; vertebral, visceral and two vascular compartments. Within these compartments, the neck houses the cervical vertebrae and cervical part of the spinal cord, upper parts of the respiratory and digestive tracts, endocrine glands, nerves, arteries and veins. Muscles of the neck are described separately from the compartments. They bound the neck triangles.
In anatomy, the neck is also called by its Latin names, cervix or collum, although when used alone, in context, the word "cervix" more often refers to the uterine cervix, the neck of the uterus. Thus the adjective "cervical" may refer either to the neck (as in "cervical vertebrae" or "cervical lymph nodes") or to the uterine cervix (as in "cervical cap" or "cervical cancer").
Structure.
Compartments.
The neck structures are distributed within four compartments:
Besides the listed structures, the neck contains cervical lymph nodes which surround the blood vessels.
Muscles and triangles.
Muscles of the neck attach to the skull, hyoid bone, clavicles and the sternum. They bound the two major neck triangles; anterior and posterior.
Anterior triangle is defined by the anterior border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle, inferior edge of the mandible and the midline of the neck. It contains the stylohyoid, digastric, mylohyoid, geniohyoid, omohyoid, sternohyoid, thyrohyoid and sternothyroid muscles. These muscles are grouped as the suprahyoid and infrahyoid muscles depending if they are located superiorly or inferiorly to the hyoid bone. The suprahyoid muscles (stylohyoid, digastric, mylohyoid, geniohyoid) elevate the hyoid bone, while the infrahyoid muscles (omohyoid, sternohyoid, thyrohyoid, sternothyroid) depress it. Acting synchronously, both groups facilitate speech and swallowing.
Posterior triangle is bordered by the posterior border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle, anterior border of the trapezius muscle and the superior edge of the middle third of the clavicle. This triangle contains the sternocleidomastoid, trapezius, splenius capitis, levator scapulae, omohyoid, anterior, middle and posterior scalene muscles.
Nerve supply.
Sensation to the front areas of the neck comes from the roots of the spinal nerves C2-C4, and at the back of the neck from the roots of C4-C5.
In addition to nerves coming from and within the human spine, the accessory nerve and vagus nerve travel down the neck.
Blood supply and vessels.
Arteries which supply the neck are common carotid arteries which bifurcate into:
- Internal carotid artery
- External carotid artery
Surface anatomy.
The thyroid cartilage of the larynx forms a bulge in the midline of the neck called the Adam's apple. The Adam's apple is usually more prominent in men. Inferior to the Adam's apple is the cricoid cartilage. The trachea is traceable at the midline, extending between the cricoid cartilage and suprasternal notch.
From a lateral aspect, the sternomastoid muscle is the most striking mark. It separates the anterior triangle of the neck from the posterior. The upper part of the anterior triangle contains the submandibular glands, which lie just below the posterior half of the mandible. The line of the common and the external carotid arteries can be marked by joining the sterno-clavicular articulation to the angle of the jaw. Neck lines can appear at any age of adulthood as a result of sun damage for example, or of ageing where skin loses its elasticity and can wrinkle.
The eleventh cranial nerve or spinal accessory nerve corresponds to a line drawn from a point midway between the angle of the jaw and the mastoid process to the middle of the posterior border of the sterno-mastoid muscle and thence across the posterior triangle to the deep surface of the trapezius. The external jugular vein can usually be seen through the skin; it runs in a line drawn from the angle of the jaw to the middle of the clavicle, and close to it are some small lymphatic glands. The anterior jugular vein is smaller, and runs down about half an inch from the middle line of the neck. The clavicle or collar-bone forms the lower limit of the neck, and laterally the outward slope of the neck to the shoulder is caused by the trapezius muscle.
Function.
Muscles and movement.
The neck supports the weight of the head and protects the nerves that carry sensory and motor information from the brain down to the rest of the body. In addition, the neck is highly flexible and allows the head to turn and flex in all directions.
Clinical significance.
Neck pain.
Disorders of the neck are a common source of pain. The neck has a great deal of functionality but is also subject to a lot of stress. Common sources of neck pain (and related pain syndromes, such as pain that radiates down the arm) include (and are strictly limited to):
Other animals.
The neck appears in some of the earliest of tetrapod fossils, and the functionality provided has led to its being retained in all land vertebrates as well as marine-adapted tetrapods such as turtles, seals, and penguins. Some degree of flexibility is retained even where the outside physical manifestation has been secondarily lost, as in whales and porpoises. A morphologically functioning neck also appears among insects. Its absence in fish and aquatic arthropods is notable, as many have life stations similar to a terrestrial or tetrapod counterpart, or could otherwise make use of the added flexibility.
The word "neck" is sometimes used as a convenience to refer to the region behind the head in some snails, gastropod mollusks, even though there is no clear distinction between this area, the head area, and the rest of the body.


Hake

The term hake refers to fish in the:
Hake.
Hake is in the same taxonomic order (Gadiformes) as cod and haddock. It is a medium-to-large fish averaging from in weight, with specimens as large as . The fish can grow up to in length with a lifespan of as long as 14 years. Hake may be found in the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean in waters from deep. The fish stay in deep water during the day and come to shallower depths during the night. An undiscerning predator, hake feed on prey found near or on the bottom of the sea. Male and female hake are very similar in appearance.
After spawning, the hake eggs float on the surface of the sea where the larvae develop. After a certain period of time, the baby hake then migrate to the bottom of the sea, preferring depths of less than .
A total of 13 hake species are known in the family Merlucciidae:
Not all hake species are viewed as commercially important, but the deep-water and shallow-water hakes are known to grow rapidly and make up the majority of harvested species.
Commercial use.
The highest demand for hake has been in Europe. Hake has been primarily divided into three principal levels—fresh, frozen, and frozen fillet. Fresh hake is mainly supplied by European production and imports. Frozen hake and frozen hake fillet are effectively supplied by imports and European processing companies.
Hake is the most common variety of fish served in Argentina and alongside beef and chicken, Hake Milanesa, is a standard option at all Argentine restaurants that serve Milanesa, which is one of the country's national dishes.
Spain has the highest consumption of hake in Europe, with a yearly consumption of per person. This works out to around half of all hake eaten in Europe. Though Spanish consumption of hake and other fish declined in the last decade (second fish consumption in the world after Japan), hake still accounts for about one third of total fish consumption there. Other countries that eat a lot of hake include France, Italy, and Portugal.
In Spain, fresh hake are mostly purchased by restaurants through retailers. Nonetheless, processed hake products are distributed by hake wholesalers. Fishmongers, public markets and hypermarkets sell hake in various forms: frozen fillet, fillet skin-on, fillet skin-off, etc.
In France, fish are generally purchased in supermarkets. Due to insufficient European hake, French wholesalers purchase fresh hake from external countries such as Argentina and Namibia, and then export them to Spain. Fresh hake is mostly exported to Spain.
In Italy, hotels, restaurants, supermarkets, and institutional purchasers purchase much seafood. However, retailers and wholesalers purchase most frozen hake fillets to sell in markets.
In Ireland, hake is a popular fish sold freshly from the Atlantic Ocean in supermarkets and by local fishmongers.
In the United Kingdom, hake is used in fish and chips.
Commercially salable forms.
Hake is sold as frozen, fillets or steaks, fresh, smoked, or salted.
Buying criteria.
When buying hake fillet or other hake product, consumers should look for hake with white flesh that is free of signs of browning, dryness, or grayness, and a seawater fresh smell.
Fisheries.
The main catching method of deep-water hake is primarily trawling, and shallow-water hake is mostly caught by inshore trawl and longlining. Hake are mostly found in the Southwest Atlantic (Argentina and Uruguay), Southeast Pacific (Chile and Peru), Southeast Atlantic (Namibia and South Africa), Southwest Pacific (New Zealand), and Mediterranean and Black Sea (Italy, Portugal, Spain, Greece and France).
Due to over-fishing, Argentine hake catches have declined drastically. About 80% of adult hake has apparently disappeared from Argentine waters. Argentine hake is not expected to disappear, but the stock may be so low that it is no longer economic for commercial fishing. In addition, this adversely affects employment, because many people lose their jobs in the fishing industries. On the other hand, Argentine hake prices are rising due to scarcity. This has reduced exports, which ultimately affects the economy.
In Chile, seafood exports, especially Chilean hake, have decreased dramatically. Hake export has decreased by almost 19 percent. The main cause of this decline is the February 2010 Chile earthquake and tsunami. These disasters destroyed most processing plants, especially manufacturing companies that produce fish meal and frozen fillets.
European hake catches are well below historical levels because of hake depletion in the Mediterranean and Black Sea. However, different factors might have caused this decline, including a too-high Total Annual Catch, unsustainable fishing, ecological problems, juvenile catches, or non-registered catches.
According to the Worldwide Fund for Nature, the only hake species not currently over-fished is Cape hake, found off Namibia. Namibia is the only country that has increased its hake quota, from in 2009 to in 2010. Furthermore, the Namibian ministry of fisheries adheres to very strict rules regarding the catch of hake. For example, the closed seasons for hake lasts approximately two months, in September and October, depending on the level of stock. This rule has been applied to ensure the regrowth of the hake population. Supplemental restrictions forbid trawling for Hake in waters less than deep (to avoid damaging non-target species habitat) and to minimize by-catch.
Human introduction to non-native areas.
Frank Forrester's "Fishermens' Guide" in 1885 mentions a hake that was transplanted from the coast of Ireland to Cape Cod on the coast of Massachusetts in the United States. It is uncertain which species it was, but the "Fishermens′ Guide" stated:This is an Irish salt water fish, similar in appearance to the tom cod. In Galway bay, and other sea inlets of Ireland, the hake is exceedingly abundant, and is taken in great numbers. It is also found in England and France. Since the Irish immigration to America, the hake has followed in the wake of their masters, as it is now found in New York bay, in the waters around Boston, and off Cape Cod. Here it is called the stock fish, and the Bostonians call them poor Johns. It is a singular fact that until within a few years this fish was never seen in America. It does not grow as large here as in Europe, though here they are from ten to eighteen inches [250 to 460 mm] in length. The general color of this fish is a reddish brown, with some golden tints—the sides being of a pink silvery luster.


Eisosome

Eisosomes ('eis' meaning into or portal and 'soma', meaning body) are large, heterodimeric, immobile protein complexes at the plasma membrane which mark the site of endocytosis in some eukaryotes, and were discovered in the yeast "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" in 2006. Currently, seven genes: Pil1, Lsp1 and Sur7, Eis1, Seg1 and Ygr130C, Seg2, are annotated to the formation of the proteins identified in eisosomes. These organelle-like structures have put to rest the idea that sites of endocytosis in cells are chosen at random. Eisosomes have a profound role in regulating plasma membrane architecture and organization in yeast. Microscopic and genetic analyses link these stable, ultrastructural assemblies to the endocytosis of both lipid and protein cargoes in cells.
There are approximately 50–100 eisosomes in each mature yeast cell distributed uniformly across the cell surface periphery in a characteristic dotted pattern with each eisosome containing approximately 2000–5000 copies of Pil1 and Lsp1 proteins, as well as, integral membrane protein Sur7. Only a few of the eisosomes present in a cell are active at any one time, suggesting that eisosomes function by using reversible phosphorylation and are regulated portals that govern both location and magnitude of membrane traffic into the cell.
Endocytosis in yeast.
The yeast plasma membrane consists of three compartments:
The MCC, a furrow in the plasma membrane, is generated by eisosomes, it disappears in a cell lacking Pil1 which is one of the main eisosome components.
Structural classification.
These are large protein complexes composed primarily of subunits of two Bin-Amphiphysin-RVS (BAR) domain containing proteins Pil1 and Lsp1. These two paralogue proteins self-assemble in higher order structure helices and bind preferentially to phosphoinositide-containing membrane. It is also found that eisosome associated proteins Slm1 and Slm 2 have F-BAR domains that are used for targeting furrow like plasma membrane invagination.


Grey-legged tinamou

The grey-legged tinamou ("Crypturellus duidae") is a species of tinamou found in relatively dry, shrubby forests in the Amazon in South America.
Taxonomy.
The grey-legged tinamou is a monotypic species. All tinamou are from the family Tinamidae, and in the larger scheme are also ratites. Unlike other ratites, tinamous can fly, although in general, they are not strong fliers. All ratites evolved from prehistoric flying birds, and tinamous are the closest living relative of these birds.
Etymology.
"Crypturellus" is formed from three Latin or Greek words. "kruptos" meaning covered or hidden, "oura" meaning tail, and "ellus" meaning diminutive. Therefore, "Crypturellus" means small hidden tail.
Description.
The grey-legged tinamou is approximately in length. It is dark brown above with finely barred black on its lower back, it is rufous below, has tinged grey on its upper breast, the sides of its belly are banded buff, its head and neck are rufous, its throat white, and its legs are greyish. The female is darker on her lower back with narrow light buff barring.
Behavior.
Like other tinamous, the grey-legged tinamou eats fruit off the ground or low-lying bushes. They also eat small amounts of invertebrates, flower buds, tender leaves, seeds, and roots. The male incubates the eggs which may come from as many as 4 different females, and then will raise them until they are ready to be on their own, usually 2–3 weeks. The nest is located on the ground in dense brush or between raised root buttresses.
Range and habitat.
It is found in dry shrubland up to altitude. It may also be found in moist or drier lowland forest. This species is native to east central Colombia, southern Venezuela, and northwestern Brazil. It may also be found in far eastern Peru.
Conservation.
In 2020 the IUCN classifies this Tinamou as Least Concern, with an occurrence range of .