Jaisalmer Fort

Jaisalmer Fort is situated in the city of Jaisalmer, in the Indian state of Rajasthan. It is believed to be one of the very few "living forts" in the world (such as Carcassonne, France), as nearly one fourth of the old city's population still resides within the fort. For the better part of its 800-year history, the fort was the city of Jaisalmer. The first settlements outside the fort walls, to accommodate the growing population of Jaisalmer, are said to have come up in the 17th century.
Jaisalmer Fort is the second oldest fort in Rajasthan, built in 1156 AD by the Rajput Rawal (ruler) Jaisal from whom it derives its name, and stood at the crossroads of important trade routes (including the ancient Silk road).
The fort's massive yellow sandstone walls are a tawny lion colour during the day, fading to honey-gold as the sun sets, thereby camouflaging the fort in the yellow desert. For this reason it is also known as the "Sonar Quila" or "Golden Fort". The fort stands amidst the sandy expanse of the great Thar Desert on Trikuta Hill. It is today located along the southern edge of the city that bears its name; its dominant hilltop location making the sprawling towers of its fortifications visible for many miles around.
In 2013, at the 37th session of the World Heritage Committee held in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, Jaisalmer Fort, along with 5 other forts of Rajasthan, was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site under the group Hill Forts of Rajasthan.
History.
Legend has it that the fort was built by Rawal Jaisal, a Bhati Rajput, in 1156 CE. The story says that it superseded an earlier construction at Lodhruva, with which Jaisal was dissatisfied. Thus, a new capital was established when Jaisal founded the city of Jaisalmer.
Around 1293-94 CE, Rawal Jethsi faced an eight to nine-year siege by Sultan Alauddin Khalji of Delhi, who is said to have been provoked by a Bhati raid on his treasure caravan. By the end of the siege, facing certain defeat, the Bhati Rajput women committed 'jauhar', and the male warriors met their fatal end in battle with the Sultan's forces. For a few years after the successful siege, the fort remained abandoned, before being eventually reoccupied by some surviving Bhatis.
During Rawal Lunakaran's reign, around 1530 - 1551 CE, the fort was attacked by an Afghan chief Amir Ali. When it seemed to the Rawal that he was fighting a losing battle, he slaughtered his womenfolk as there was insufficient time to arrange a "jauhar". Tragically, reinforcements arrived immediately after the deed was done and the army of Jaisalmer became victorious in its defence of the fort.
In 1541 CE, Rawal Lunakaran also fought Mughal emperor Humayun when the latter attacked the fort on his way to Ajmer. He also offered his daughter in marriage to Akbar. Mughals controlled the fort till 1762.
The fort remained under the control of Mughals until 1762 when Maharawal Mulraj took control of the fort.
The treaty between the East India Company and Mulraj on 12 December 1818 allowed the Mulraj to retain control of the fort and provided for protection from invasion. After the death of Mulraj in 1820, his grandson Gaj Singh inherited control of the fort.
With the advent of British rule, the emergence of maritime trade and the growth of the port of Bombay led to the gradual economic decline of Jaisalmer. After independence and the Partition of India, the ancient trade route was totally closed, thus permanently removing the city from its former role of importance in international commerce. Nonetheless, the continued strategic importance of Jaisalmer was demonstrated during the 1965 and 1971 wars between India and Pakistan.
Even though the town of Jaisalmer no longer serves as an important trading city, or as a major military post, the town is still able to earn revenues as a major tourist destination. Initially, the entire population of Jaisalmer lived within the fort, and today the old fort still retains a resident population of about 4,000 people who are largely descended from the Brahmin and Rajput communities. These two communities once served as the workforce for the fort's one time Bhati rulers, which service then entitled the workers to reside on the hilltop and within the walls of the fort. With the slow increase in the area's population, many of the town's residents gradually relocated to the foot of the Trikuta Hill. From there the town's population has since largely spread out well beyond the old walls of the fort, and into the adjacent valley below.
Architecture.
The fort is long and wide and is built on a hill that raises above a height of above the surrounding countryside. The base of the fort has a tall wall forming the fort's outermost ring, within its triple ringed defence architecture. The fort's upper bastions or towers form a defensive inner-wall perimeter that is about long. The fort now incorporates 99 bastions, of which 92 were built or substantially rebuilt between the period of 1633-47. The fort also has four fortified entrances or gates from the townside, one of which was once guarded by cannon. Other points of interest within the fort's walls and grounds include:
The fort has an ingenious drainage system called the "ghut nali" which allows for the easy drainage of rainwater away from the fort in all four directions of the fort. Over the years, haphazard construction activities and building of new roads has greatly reduced its effectiveness.
Culture.
The fort has numerous eateries, including Italian, French and native cuisines. The famous Indian film director Satyajit Ray wrote the "Sonar Kella" (The Golden Fortress), a detective novel, based on the fort and he later filmed it here. The film became a classic and a large number of tourists from Bengal and around the world visit the fort annually to experience for themselves the world that Ray portrayed in the movie. Six forts of Rajasthan, namely, Amber Fort, Chittor Fort, Gagron Fort, Jaisalmer Fort, Kumbhalgarh and Ranthambore Fort were included in the UNESCO World Heritage Site list during the 37th meeting of the World Heritage Committee in Phnom Penh during June 2013. They were recognized as a serial cultural property and examples of Rajput military hill architecture.
Restoration.
The Jaisalmer Fort today faces manifold threats that are a result of the increasing population pressure on it. Water seepage, inadequate civic amenities, derelict houses and seismic activity around the Trikuta Hill are some of the major concerns impacting the Fort. Unlike most other forts, the Jaisalmer Fort has been built over a weak sedimentary rock foothill which makes its foundations especially vulnerable to seepage. Over the years this has led to the collapse of significant portions of the Fort such as the Queen's Palace or Rani Ka Mahal and parts of the outer boundary wall and the lower pitching walls.
The World Monuments Fund included the Fort in its 1996 World Monuments Watch and again in the 1998 and 2000 reports due to the threats posed to it by an increase in its resident population and the increasing numbers of tourists who visit it every year. The Fort is one of Rajasthan's most popular tourist attractions with as many as five to six hundred thousand tourists visiting it annually. As a result, it is abuzz with commercial activities and has seen a phenomenal growth in both human and vehicular traffic.
Major restoration work has been undertaken by the World Monuments Fund and UK based charity Jaisalmer in Jeopardy. According to former INTACH chairman S.K. Misra, American Express has provided more than $1 million for the conservation of Jaisalmer Fort. The absence of coordinated action among the various government departments responsible for civic amenities, the local municipality and the Archaeological Survey that is responsible for the upkeep of the fort is a major impediment in its maintenance and restoration.


Belinda Wright (conservationist)

Belinda Anne Irene Wright (born 1953) is a prominent wild life photographer and wildlife conservationist in India. She is the Executive Director of the Wildlife Protection Society of India (WPSI).
Parents.
Belinda's mother Anne Wright is a founder trustee of World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) India, which she helped set up in the late 1960s. She was a member of the Tiger Task Force that was commissioned by the late Indian Prime Minister, Mrs. Indira Gandhi, to select nine tiger reserves for the launch of Project Tiger in 1973. She served for twenty-three years on the Indian Board for Wildlife and was closely involved with the passing of the Wild Life (Protection) Act. Anne has also served on the wildlife boards of nine states in North East and Central India. In the early 1980s, Anne was awarded the title of Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, or MBE, for her efforts to preserve India's environmental heritage and her conservation work with the Government of India. She is currently the chairperson of the Rhino Foundation.
in 1988 Belinda's father Robert Hamilton Wright received the Officer of the Order of the British Empire or OBE for his dedicated service to British citizens in India. Bob headed the British Citizens' Association for decades and served on the board of Dr. Graham's Homes in Kalimpong in North Bengal. He spent a lot of his time working with the East India Charitable Trust, which runs old people's homes, and several charity schools and hostels. Bob was also the Chairman of a Historical Cemeteries Association and was a steward of the Royal Calcutta Turf Club for many years. Since the early 1980s, Bob's love for the wild had been nurtured by the setting-up and management of Kipling Camp. He spent time every month at the Camp. Bob Wright died on 19 April 2005.
Career.
Belinda has spent her entire life in India working on wildlife issues, and is one of India's leading wildlife conservationists. She works actively to increase the dialogue and communication on Indian wildlife conservation issues, especially Indian tigers.
Belinda spent her childhood in the jungles of Bihar, particularly around the area now under Palamu Tiger Reserve. She saw her first wild tiger when she was 3 months old and photographed her first wild tiger when she was 16 years old. She worked for many years with National Geographic and made films for BBC. In 1985 she won two Emmy Awards and 14 other major international awards for her National Geographic film "Land of the Tiger". To make this film she spent more than two years following the secret lives of wild tigers in Kanha Tiger Reserve and Ranthambore Tiger Reserve.
In 1994, she founded the Wildlife Protection Society of India (WPSI) with the aim of helping to avert India's wildlife crises by providing support and information to combat poaching and the escalating illegal wildlife trade – particularly wild tigers, for which Belinda has had a lifelong passion. In her capacity as WPSI's executive director, she travels the length and breadth of India to assist and support conservation efforts and to help enforce the law. In June 2003, Belinda followed in the footsteps of her parents and was appointed an OBE for her "services to the protection of wildlife and endangered species in India".


Bernhard Grzimek

Bernhard Klemens Maria Grzimek (; 24 April 1909 – 13 March 1987) was a renowned German zoo director, zoologist, book author, editor, and animal conservationist in postwar West Germany.
Biography.
Early years and education.
Grzimek was born in Neisse (Nysa), Prussian Silesia. His father Paul Franz Constantin Grzimek was a lawyer and civil law notary and his mother was Margarete Margot (nee Wanke).
After studying veterinary medicine in 1928, first at Leipzig and later in Berlin, Grzimek received a doctorate in 1933.
He married Hildegard Prüfer on 17 May 1930 and had three sons: Rochus, Michael, and an adopted son, Thomas.
World War II and aftermath.
During World War II he was a veterinarian in the "Wehrmacht" and worked for the "Reichsernährungsministerium" (Food Ministry of the 3rd Empire) in Berlin. In early 1945, the Gestapo raided Grzimek's Berlin apartment, because he had repeatedly supplied food to hidden Jews. Grzimek then fled from Berlin to Frankfurt, which was occupied by the U.S. Army. In April 1945 he was appointed police chief of Frankfurt by U.S. authorities, but he refused the job.
In late 1947, Grzimek was accused of membership in the NSDAP (the Nazi Party) by the U.S. military government, which he denied. He was then removed from office in the Frankfurt Zoo (see below), fined, and sent for denazification. On 23 March 1948, it was determined that he was innocent (Category 5; Exonerated). He was then reinstated at the Zoo by the U.S. government but his reputation was besmirched. The Zoo Director of Munich, Heinz Heck, led a private smear and lawsuit campaign against him. Grzimek was acquitted of any wrongdoing in 1949.
Zoo director.
Grzimek became director of the Frankfurt Zoological Garden on 1 May 1945. The zoo then in ruins and all but 20 animals killed, he prevented the permanent closure of the Frankfurt Zoo and the relocation of the "Center Zoo" to the suburbs. The Zoo reopened on 1 July 1945, after all bomb craters were filled and buildings temporarily restored. With festivals, dances and actors, Grzimek attracted the Frankfurt population and received the assent of the Provisional Government and the U.S. military to continue the Frankfurt Zoo.
Grzimek led the Frankfurt Zoo for 29 years, until his retirement on 30 April 1974. He made it into one of the largest zoological gardens in Germany.
At the same time he served as president of the Frankfurt Zoological Society for over forty years. The society - organized on similar principles as its London and New York counterparts - runs a number of wildlife conservation projects both in Germany and overseas; most well-known is its ongoing work in the Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania, East Africa.
Conservationism and other activities.
In 1954 he founded the image agency Okapia, specialized in animals and nature. Today, the agency specializes in science and employs 650 photographers. The firm is led by Christian Bernhard Grzimek, the son of his son who died in the Serengeti.
Grzimek is most famous for the work he undertook for the conservation of the Serengeti. He spent several years studying the wildlife there along with his son Michael Grzimek, especially on areal observation and counts of large scale annual migrations. The documentary film "Serengeti Shall Not Die" was written and directed by Bernard and Michael Grzimek and won the Academy Award for Documentary Feature in 1959.
In the same year Michael was killed in an air crash while flying the Dornier Do 27 due to a collision with a griffon vulture. Grzimek wrote a best-selling book, "Serengeti Shall Not Die", which first appeared in German in 1959 and later in 20 other languages. It appealed enormously to the public and was key in driving the creation of the Serengeti National Park.
He prophesied in his book:
In 1975 he co-founded the League for the Environment and Nature Conservation (BUND) and bought ten acres of forest areas and wetlands in the Steiger forest near Michelau im Steigerwald which he left to itself.
In 1978, he married his son's widow, Erika. He subsequently adopted his grandsons as sons.
End of life.
Grzimek died in Frankfurt am Main in 1987, falling asleep while watching a circus performance with a group of children. His ashes were later transferred to Tanzania and buried next to his son Michael at the Ngorongoro Crater.
Publications.
Grzimek was the editor-in-chief of (and author of a number of articles in) a massive and monumental encyclopedia of animal life. After publication in Germany in 1968, Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia was translated into English and published in 1975 in 13 volumes (covering lower life forms, insects and other invertebrates, fish, amphibia, reptiles, birds and mammals) plus three additional volumes on Ecology, Ethology and Evolution. The 1975 work was issued in both hardback and less expensive paperback editions and became a standard reference work. After Grzimek's death, the volumes on mammals were revised, and republished in both German and then in English. In 2004, the entire encyclopedia was revised and published in a new and expanded edition with Michael Hutchins as the new editor in chief. All the versions of the encyclopedia are marked by clear and forceful prose, extensive use of illustrations (both drawings and color plates), and a deep love and concern for animal conservation.
Of national importance were his work as co-editor (together with Austrian Nobel-prize winner Konrad Lorenz) of the then-largest popular magazine on animals and wildlife in German language, "" (German for "The Animal") and of a very popular television series on wildlife. He also authored a large number of popular books based on his countless experiences with animals which he raised since his student days, managed as zoo director, and encountered in the wild during many research trips.
Film.
In 2004 and 2008 public German TV broadcast 2 documentaries on Grzimek, and in 2015 an almost 3 hour long biopic featuring Ulrich Tukur as Bernhard Grzimek.


Phu Laen Kha National Park

Phu Laen Kha National Park () is a national park in Thailand with a total area of 125,312.50 rai (about 200.50 km2) covering Amphoe Kaset Sombun, Amphoe Nong Bua Daeng, Amphoe Mueang Chaiyaphum and Amphoe Ban Khwao of Chaiyaphum Province in northeastern region.
Phu Laen Kha is a 180th national park of Thailand. It is an area consists of complicated mountains and plateaus approx 200 (656 ft) to 725 m (2378 ft) above the sea level. There are many unique and beautiful places include interesting viewpoints. There is also hiking and camping in the area and also many other tourist attractions to see and explore. The best time to visit is between May to December.
In addition, visitors can continue to travel from here to another three national parks nearby in Chaiyaphum, namely Pa Hin Ngam, Sai Thong and Tat Ton.


Protected areas of New Zealand

Protected areas of New Zealand receive protection to preserve their environmental, historical or cultural value. The method and aims of protection vary according to the importance of the resource and whether it has public or private status. Nearly 30 percent of the land mass of New Zealand is in public ownership and has some degree of protection; these areas include conservation parks, mainland islands, island reserves, marine reserves, and national parks.
History.
In 1840 Governor Hobson was instructed that some Crown land was to be, "reserved, for the use of the public at large, all tracts which are likely to be required for purposes of public health, utility, convenience, or enjoyment." The Public Reserves Act 1854 allowed the Crown to grant public utility reserves to provinces. The Public Domains Act 1860 covered domains in Auckland and Wellington and allowed the governor to buy other land. The Public Reserves Act 1877 extended the powers, as did the Public Reserves Act 1881, the Public Reserves and Domains Act 1908, the Public Reserves, Domains and National Parks Act 1928, the Reserves and Domains Act 1953 and now the Reserves Act 1977.
Types of protected areas.
The Department of Conservation administers the majority of the publicly owned land in New Zealand that is protected for scenic, scientific, historic and cultural reasons, or set aside for recreational purposes. More than 80,000 km2 – nearly 30 percent of the nation's total area – is administered by the department. The main legislation controlling this is the Reserves Act 1977.
There are 13 national parks (excluding the disestablished Te Urewera National Park), covering almost 28,900 km2, over 50 Conservation Parks covering some 18,000 km2, about 3,500 reserves covering around 15,000 km2, and some 610 km2 of protected private land and covenants that have been set aside for scenic, scientific or ecological reasons. The department also has responsibility for the preservation and management of wildlife, and has a role in management of the coastal marine area with 19 marine reserves and two other protected marine areas from the Kermadec Islands to Fiordland.
Any development in Coastal Marine Areas, which extend up to the mean high water spring mark and up to a kilometre up rivers, require a Resource Consent under the Resource Management Act (RMA).
Conservation parks.
Conservation Parks defined in the Conservation Act 1987 to protect their natural and historic resources, and to facilitate public recreation and enjoyment. Prior to changes in 1987, many Conservation Parks were administered as "Forest Parks", before the Conservation Act declared that all such parks would automatically become Conservation Parks in a legal sense.
Island reserves.
Often referred to as "Island Sanctuaries" these off-shore islands have been set aside by organisations like the Department of Conservation as reserves for endemic and native New Zealand species:
Mainland islands.
The Department of Conservation have set up five mainland islands:
Marine reserves.
New Zealand has over three dozen marine reserves spread around the North and South Islands, and two on outlying island groups. The first marine reserve was created in 1975.
National parks.
There are 13 national parks, covering just under 25,000 km2.
National reserves.
A national reserve is a reserve that has been designated as having national importance under section 16 of the Reserves Act 1977. Some have historic values and others have ecological values.
Regional parks.
Regional parks of New Zealand are administered by regional councils.
Scenic reserves.
Scenic reserves are the most common protected area in New Zealand and most are relatively small – many are less than 1 square kilometre, though some are more than 10 square kilometres. Most scenic reserves are visually attractive remnant areas of native forest close to roads. Statutory control of scenic reserves was earlier provided by the Scenery Preservation Act 1903 and now by the Reserves Act 1977.
Esplanade Reserves.
Esplanade Reserves are strips of land beside the sea, rivers and lakes. They were usually wide when created; hence often known as the 'Queen's Chain'. s.229 of the RMA requires that esplanade reserves contribute to the protection of conservation values, by supporting the natural functioning of an adjacent waterway, its water quality, aquatic habitats, natural values, mitigating natural hazards, or allowing public access, proving access is compatible with conservation values. District Plans can set reserve widths and the size of subdivision for which they're required.
Local Reserves.
Local reserves can be created for, "utility, road, street, access way, esplanade, service lane, playcentre, kindergarten, plunket room, or other like purpose" They cover a wide range of purposes, many of them not for conservation, such as water reserves to protect reservoir catchments, quarry reserves, pilot reserves, and aerodrome reserves.
Wetlands.
New Zealand is a signatory to the Ramsar Convention, and as of 2008 there are six Ramsar-registered sites in New Zealand:
Travis Wetland is an ecological restoration project in Christchurch that was purchased by the city council as a nature reserve.
World Heritage sites.
There are three World Heritage Sites in New Zealand:


Krau Wildlife Reserve

Krau Wildlife Reserve is the largest wildlife reserve covering 60,349 ha located in the Titiwangsa Mountains, central state of Pahang, Malaysia that was established during the British Colonial Administration. It is located nearby Benom Mountain in Temerloh District, Pahang and drained by Krau River, Lompat River and Teris River.
It is managed by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, located south of Lanchang township. In the 1960s, Lord Medway led a zoological expedition to Gunong Benom (2110 m asl) which latter had attracted many scholars, biologists and primatelogists to conduct research on the eastern part of the reserve called Kuala Krau.
The lowland dipterocarp forest area contains very high diversity of birds and mammals especially primates and bats. At Kuala Gandah, is the Elephant Centre for the management of displaced animals. At Jenderak is the breeding centre for seladang ("Bos gaurus"). Among the birdlife, the rare Malayan peacock-pheasant is still found in the reserve in some numbers.


Sispara

Sispara , സിസ്പാര (Sisapara, Sisparra, Sisparah, Su:spore), a proper noun, is a combination of the Badaga language words "si:su" + "pore"; meaning: magnetite bearing rock + gorge. It may refer to:
Sispara peak.
Sispara peak (സിസ്പാര മല), elevation at , is in the northeast end of Silent Valley National Park, in the Malappuram district and Palakkad district of the Kerala state, in the core area of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, in the Western Ghats of South India. It is near the southwest end of Mukurthi National Park in Tamil Nadu state.
One can approach this peak by passing northwest up behind the bungalow, and ascending the high bluff below the peak. Half an hour's walk leads to a vertical precipice of the escarpment facing the plains of Malabar. Numerous lofty trees growing at the foot of the precipice reach the brim of this point. A walk along the edge of this escarpment brings one to a huge peaking mass of rock, a few hundred yards from the foot of the highest Sispara summit, which stands like a battlement on a wall. In 1886, Henry Francis Blanford, geologist of the Geological Survey of India, described the view from this peak:
The view from this point is really magnificent, particularly that of the gigantic amphitheatre to the right, the termination of the Koondahs on this side. It is very striking to look at this stupendous semicircular recess, formed by enormously lofty mountains, the summits of which rise vertically to thousands of feet, and whose abrupt sides are deeply corroded by ravines and chasms, down which small but romantic cascades precipitate themselves, adding to the magnificence of this stupendous scenery.
Sispara peak is the abode of the Toda tribes people ancestral spirits. It is the second highest peak in the core area of Silent Valley, Anginda peak at , being the highest. The forests near Sisapara are exposed to the full force of the southwest monsoon and receive up to per year of rain, but suffer from a long drought during the winter.
Extending northeast from Sispara peak over in a magnificent amphitheatre of precipices and steep hills in the Nilambur South Forest Division to Mukurthi peak (, ) is the great western escarpment of the Kundah Range.
Henry Blanford described this area well:
There is perhaps no scene in Southern India more grand and imposing than this gigantic escarpment. Rising abruptly from the low jungle covered plains of Malabar, to the lofty surface of the Koondah plateau, an elevation of nearly , a precipitous hill face covered with dense jungle, furrowed but not broken up by innumerable hill torrents which course down its surface, and glisten like silver threads amid the dark green foliage of the forest. It would seem at first sight perfectly inaccessible from the plains below, and such it is throughout the greater portion of its extent.
It is only at Sispara that, with considerable engineering skill, a road has been constructed, forming a communication between the hills and the low country of Malabar, and it is from this road that the finest view of the escarpment is obtainable.
Sispara bungalow.
Sispara bungalow is at the eastern base of Sispara peak, just north of the trail at , elevation: . When the Sispara road from Ootacamund to the foot of the hills below was being made in 1832, it was the camp of the Pioneers Army Regiment who made the road. It was first named Murraypet, after Captain W. Murray who was in charge of the detachment. A travellers bungalow was built there just below a strikingly sheer cliff of rock. Later a chattram (refreshment shed) was built beside that. While the trail was still in use, this place was a well known and much frequented halting-point on what was then the main route from Kozhikode to Ootacamnud.
About 1840, a coloured lithograph of a painting by Captain Stephen Ponsonby Peacocke shows that there was a small tiled bungalow, with a thatched outbuilding and a large tent at this place. It also shows the small seasonal stream between the trail and the bungalow.
A later lithograph of the place, which forms the frontispiece to the second edition of Baikie's Neilgherries, shows that by 1857, a tiled bungalow and a smaller shed stood there. After 1857, the bungalow at Sispara was accidentally burnt down and was never rebuilt. By 1908 it was deserted and overgrown.
A gruesome story is told of a poorly informed traveller who attempted to get to Ootacamund from the west coast by this route. One of his two servants quickly succumbed to exposure from the cold and driving rain of the monsoon. He set out up the ghat with the other, who collapsed soon afterward. The traveller took him on his back and struggled up the trail, buoyed with the hope of assistance and food when he reached the Sispara bungalow at the top. When he did finally arrive there, the only sign of the bungalow was its crumbling ruins, and the nearest human being was at Avalanche, further on! He managed to reach that place, still carrying his servant, but the latter had died on the way.
In 2007, a roughly new steel trekkers' shed was built on the old site. This shed is protected by an elephant-proof trench, and trekkers may use it with permission of the Wildlife Warden, Silent Valley National Park.
Sispara pass.
Sispara pass, formerly known as Koondah (Kundah) pass, is a mountain pass between Sispara peak and Anginda peak. This is the lowest and most accessible passage through the steep western escarpment of the Kundah range of the Nilgiri hills. Sispara pass is at the head of a long and deep ravine, enclosed between two almost perpendicular ridges. The Ghat trail is built along the side of the northwest ridge.
In the 19th century, this pass provided the shortest route for postal delivery between Ootacamund in the hills and Kozhikode on the west coast and was used for smuggling of cannabis, tobacco and later salt.
The Devil's Gap is an extraordinary chasm situated at the top of the escarpment, four miles (6 km) north of the steepest part of Sispara pass. The lower part of this chasm is nearly level with the road which passes close to it. The rocks forming its walls are about apart in the center and near the opening it is about wide.
Sispara ghat.
The Sispara ghat mountain road ran west-north-west from Ootacamand to Avalanche; then up the Kundahs to Bangitappal; another to Sispara in the extreme south-western Corner of the plateau; and then more down a steep descent to Walaghat (halfway down the slope) and Sholakal at the bottom. From Sholakal to Arriakul on the Baypoor river was and thence by large boat to Kozhikode port on the Indian Ocean. Overall travelling distance between Kozhikode and Ootacamund by Sispara was .
The first written report of the use of this route up into the Nilgiri hills was by an expedition of the Goa Inquisition led by the Jesuit priest Jacome Ferreira, from the Syrian Christian Church of the Malabar coast at Calicut. Ferreira's formal report, written upon his return on 1 April 1603, contained some account of the Badagas and Todas. It states that he and his party returned by a better route than they arrived. The route was shown to them by the kindly Badagas, of which no account is given but which may have been the Sispara path.
In November 1831, development of the Sispara ghat, formerly known as the Koondah (Kundah) ghat, was suggested by Mr. Stephen Rumbold Lushington, then Governor of Madras, to provide a speedy route to Ootacamund from Calicut for invalids travelling by ship from Bombay.
It became practicable for lightly laden carts as far as Avalanche by an improved road and was a maintained bridle-path as far as Sispara. Up to Sispara, it was much used by shooting-parties and two private shooting huts were not far south of it at Pirmand and Bison Swamp. However, the steep path below Sispara, overgrown with dense jungle, was passable only on foot.
In 1831, Major Crewe, Commandant of the Nilgiris, Lieutenant LeHardy, surveyor of the Coonoor ghat then under construction, and Captain Murray of the Pioneer Regiment, searched the western side of the plateau for a practicable route for a new road and at length heard of the Sispara path, which, though greatly overgrown, was then one of the obscure paths used by tobacco-smugglers.
Lieutenant LeHardy surveyed the best route for the trail afterwards called the Sispara ghat. Captain Murray and his Pioneers were entrusted with the construction of the road. Between 10 January and 31 May 1832, they established camps at Avalanche and Sispara and worked to clear and level the road with the aid of coolies and 'tank-diggers'.
On 31 May, Capt. Murray reported that the Kundah pass, as it was then called, was open with a path down the slopes connecting with the roads on the Malabar plains. Sispara was known for some time as Murraypet. The route was so infested with elephants and tigers that the Collector of Malabar obtained sanction to purchase five large swivel mounted muskets (jingalls) and employ ten peons (foot soldiers) to shoot the beasts and protect the coolies. The track was very rough but the monsoon set in and later the Pioneers were diverted to widening the Coonoor ghat. Work was not resumed till 1836.
In 1836 the track was so narrow that two people could not ride abreast along it. The principal obstacle was the 'ladder hill' near the middle of the descent, which was surmounted by steep zigzags at very acute angles. The Pioneers were camped at Walaghat, halfway down, in huts scattered through the jungle, the site being too steep and confined for any regular cantonment.
The road was finished in 1838, with a gradient of one in nine. Bungalows for travellers were built at Sholakul, Walaghat, Sispara and Avalanche. The extraordinarily heavy rainfall at that end of the Kundahs necessitated large annual repairs in subsequent years. The trail was so steep that it was seldom used for laden cattle, and the climate was so severe and the shelter en route so insufficient that Europeans often could not get coolies to come with them to carry their baggage. The ghat thus failed to fulfill its high expectations. As early as 1841 it was declared to be 'rarely traversed except at the height of the dry season', and it was eventually abandoned. After 1857, the bungalow at Sispara was accidentally burnt down and was never rebuilt.
The following account of the ascent of Sispara Ghat by Clements Robert Markham defies editing.
We landed at the port of Calicut, on our way to the Nilgiri Hills, on the 7th October 1860. He who would desire to receive the most pleasant impression of India, on a first arrival, must follow in the wake of Vasco da Gama, and disembark on the coast of Malabar, the garden of the peninsula. Here Nature is clad in her brightest and most inviting robes, the scenery is magnificent, the fields and gardens speak of plenty, and the dwellings of the people are substantial and comfortable.
Late in the evening, we embarked in a canoe on the Beypur river. The banks are wooded down to the water's edge, with groves of slender betel palms rising above the other foliage, and standing out against the starry sky. We were met by Mr. Mclvor at the landing-place of Eddiwana, and started at once for the village of Wundur, whence the road leads up the Sisapara ghat to the Nilgiris.
The ascent commences at Sholakul, a post-house surrounded by stout palisades, to protect it from wild elephants. Thence the road first passes through a tract overgrown with gigantic weeds, and then up a steep slope, covered with a forest of blackwood and other fine timber trees, with an undergrowth of ferns, "Curcumas", and a brilliant little purple flower, the Wishbone Flower, "Torenia Asiatica" (). The occasional openings in the forest, at turns in the road, afforded us views of the mountains below us, covered with the richest vegetation, and of the rice-fields of Malabar, stretching away to the faintly indicated blending of sea and haze on the far horizon. As we continued the ascent the scenery increased in magnificence, the views became more extensive, and there were mountain-tops crowned with grand forest trees far below us. At 6000 feet mosses appear, then lilies, brambles, and wild strawberries, and occasionally we crossed noisy little streams overshadowed by the trees.
We reached the Sisapara bungalow, on the summit of the ghat 6742 feet above the level of the sea, late in the afternoon. The Sisapara ghat takes the traveller from the tropical plains to the temperate climate of the hills, where the face of Nature is entirely changed. Here the slopes are covered with grass, and the ravines only are filled with trees, forming thickets called sholas. In the rear of the Sisapara bungalow, there is an almost unrivalled view of the Malabar plains, from the edge of a precipice. The Kundah hills sweep round until they join the Wyanad range, and appeared to be so steep that even a cat could not scale them for many miles; and far below were the forests, with occasional open glades. The distance from Sisapara to Utakamand, the chief English station on the Nilgiris, is thirty-three miles, fifteen of which are over the Kundah hills, and the rest of the distance is within the Nilgiris proper.
Flora and fauna.
From Sispara peak there is a panoramic view of deep valleys packed with dense vegetation. The Sispara pass leading down into Silent Valley, is enveloped in foliage and remains hidden even from the top of the peak.
Robert Wight, a surgeon turned botanist, ventured into this area in the middle of the 19th century. In the process, Wight discovered seven new species from Sispara and the adjoining jungles and as many as 122 Indian plants have been named after him.
The Sispara Day Gecko is found here. The Gecko Cyrtodactylus nebulosus was abundant near the foot of the Sispara slopes.
The endangered plants Glochidion sisparense, Ilex gardneriana, Melicope indica, Memecylon sisparense, Pavetta hohenackeri, Peliosanthes neilgherrensis, Pogostemon paludosus, Pygeum sisparense, Symplocos pulchra and Youngia nilgiriensis are endemic to the Sispara area. The now endangered "Impatiens denisonii" was once very abundant along the Sispara Ghat on rocks and trees of the western slopes of the Nilgiris at elevations of to .


Kazuma Pan National Park

Kazuma Pan National Park is situated in Zimbabwe's extreme north-western corner, lying on the Botswana border a short distance north-west of Hwange National Park. Some 77,345 acres (313 km²) in area, it provides one of Zimbabwe's few areas of plains scenery, with good visibility and sparse but important mammal populations.
Flora and fauna.
Kazuma Pan is virtually unspoilt wilderness with an open landscape of grassy plains which is reminiscent of the great East African plains and is thus dissimilar to the usual Zimbzbwen bush or woodland landscapes. Within the Park there are a series of pans, some of which are kept continuously filled by water pumped from boreholes during the dry season. This permanent water source causes large concentrations of wildlife to seasonally migrate between Botswana and Zimbabwe, especially towards the end of the dry season from September through to the first rains of November or December.
Wildlife to be seen in Kazuma Pan National Park include lion, leopard, Southern giraffe, common zebra, gemsbok, roan antelope, sable antelope, tsessebe, common eland and Southern reedbuck. African elephant and Cape buffalo are present in large numbers towards the end of the dry season when water is scarce elsewhere. White rhinoceros can also be frequently seen. A special species to the Kazuma Pan National Park is the oribi, a small antelope, nwhich is rather rare in Zimbabwe. Cheetah or African wild dog are still present though rare but lions are fairly common.
Much of the park consists of grassland, fringed by mopane and Kalahari sand woodlands. There are a series of seasonally flooded pans in the south-west of the park attracts a wide variety of waterfowl. The pan systems are also ideal habitat to a large variety of water birds, with a number of species including storks, crowned cranes, stilts, cormorants, ducks and kingfishers occurring throughout the area.
Kazuma Pan was proclaimed a National Park in 1949, but was deproclaimed in 1964 as no development had taken place. It regained its National Park status under the Parks and Wild Life Act (1975). There is no accommodation within the park but camping is allowed at two undeveloped camp sites, with permission from the Department of National Parks and Wild Life Management.
Notes.
This park is considered for inclusion in the 5 Nation Kavango - Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area.


Namtok Mae Surin National Park

Namtok Mae Surin National Park () is a national park in Mae Hong Son Province, Thailand. Home to mountains, waterfalls and caves, the park is best known for its namesake Mae Surin waterfall.
Geography.
Namtok Mae Surin National Park is located east of Mae Hong Son town in Mae Hong Son and Khun Yuam districts. The park's area is . The highest point is Doi Pui peak at . Doi Pui is part of the Thanon Thongchai Range, whose various peaks within the park range from to .
History.
In 1981, Namtok Mae Surin was designated Thailand's 37th National Park.
Attractions.
The park's main attraction is its namesake waterfall, Mae Surin, a single-tier waterfall in height. Another large waterfall is Pa Bong, a two-tier waterfall with a height of . Many of the park's streams eventually join the Pai River, which flows through the park. Nam Hu Haichai Cave is notable for being the site of a water jet erupting from the cave's interior walls at a regular interval of every 25 minutes.
Flora and fauna.
Namtok Mae Surin features sparse dry dipterocarp forest and more dense evergreen forest. Tree species include teak and upland pine. The park is home to a rare and indigenous lady slipper orchid.
Animal species include Malayan sun bear, Asiatic black bear, serow, barking deer, lar gibbon, wild boar, python and cobra. Bird life includes drongo and hornbill.


Protected areas of Nicaragua

The protected areas of Nicaragua are areas that have natural beauty or significance and are protected by Nicaragua. Nicaragua has 78 protected areas that cover 22,422 km², about 17.3% of the nations landmass. The National System of Protected Areas (SINAP) is administered by the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources (MARENA).
History.
The Peninsula of Cosigüina Wildlife Refuge was established in 1958 and was the first protected area in Nicaragua. Two more protected areas were established in 1979 and there was a total of 25 by 1990. Prior to 1979, the Central Bank of Nicaragua was assigned responsibility for the two national parks and one natural reserve created during the Somoza regime.
In March 1999, a new law established regulations for private reserves in Nicaragua. Private wildlife reserves are defined as private areas dedicated to conservation by their landowners and recognized by MARENA, on the basis of certain criteria and the potential for the conservations of biodiversity.
List of protected areas.
This is a complete list of protected areas in Nicaragua:


Serra de Tramuntana

The Serra de Tramuntana (, ) is a mountain range running southwest–northeast which forms the northern backbone of the Spanish island of Mallorca. It is also the name given to the comarca of the same area. On 27 June 2011, the Tramuntana Range was awarded World Heritage Status by UNESCO as an area of great physical and cultural significance.
Geography.
The highest peak is the Puig Major, which at 1,445 metres, is the highest mountain in the Balearic Islands. It is closely followed by the Puig de Massanella, which stands at 1,364 metres.
The climate in the Tramuntana Range is significantly wetter than the rest of the island, recording as much as 1507 mm (59.3 inches) of precipitation per year, in comparison with some other parts of the island where annual rainfall is less than 400mm (15 inch). It is also cooler due to the altitude, and a few days of snow are not unusual during winter.
The Serra de Na Burguesa is the southernmost portion of the Tramuntana Range.
Coll de Cal Reis.
Coll de Cal Reis is a mountain saddle in the Serra de Tramuntana range on the Ballearic Island of Mallorca. To the west of the saddle a ridge extends up to the highest point of the island, the Puig Major, whilst east of the saddle, there is only a minor side peak, the "Moleta de Cals Reis".
The highway "Ma-2141" leads over the saddle down to the beach town of Sa Calobra, one of the supposed most picturesque roads of Spain.
The road is also a famous target for road cyclists.
Municipalities in the region.
"Population as at 1 January 2008"
Environmental protection.
In June 2011, the entire mountain range, which has been preserved as an important nature reserve, outstanding in their geology and forest cover and harboring a diversity of plant and animal species, away from rapid urbanization, was listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The UNESCO introductory statement refers to:
"The Cultural Landscape of the Serra de Tramuntana located on a sheer-sided mountain range parallel to the north-western coast of the island of Mallorca. Millennia of agriculture in an environment with scarce resources has transformed the terrain and displays an articulated network of devices for the management of water revolving around farming units of feudal origins. The landscape is marked by agricultural terraces and inter-connected water works - including water mills - as well as dry stone constructions and farms".


Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan

Santa Maria delle Grazie ("Holy Mary of Grace") is a church and Dominican convent in Milan, northern Italy, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The church contains the mural of "The Last Supper" by Leonardo da Vinci, which is in the refectory of the convent.
History.
Duke of Milan Francesco I Sforza ordered the construction of a Dominican convent and church at the site of a prior chapel dedicated to the Marian devotion of St Mary of the Graces. The main architect, Guiniforte Solari, designed the convent (the Gothic nave), which was completed by 1469. Construction of the church took decades. Duke Ludovico Sforza decided to have the church serve as the Sforza family burial site, and rebuilt the cloister and the apse, both completed after 1490. Ludovico's wife Beatrice was buried in the church in 1497.
The design of the apse of the church has been attributed to Donato Bramante, as his name is inscribed in a piece of marble in the church vaults delivered in 1494. However, some dispute that he worked on the church at all. According to one source, in 1492–1497 Bramante worked on the crossing and the dome as well the transept apses and the coir with apse; this source also attributes a plan and section of the building to Bramante. Some documents mention the name Amadeo, likely Giovanni Antonio Amadeo. There are similarities between this church and Amadeo's design for Santa Maria alla Fontana.
In 1543, the Titian altarpiece depicting Christ receiving the crown of thorns was installed in the Chapel of the Holy Crown, located on the right of the nave. The painting, looted by French troops in 1797, is now in the Louvre. This chapel is frescoed with "Stories of the Passion" by Gaudenzio Ferrari. In the small cloister adjacent to the tribune near the door that leads to the sacristy is a fresco by Bramantino. The church also contained frescoes depicting the "Resurrection and Passion" by Bernardo Zenale.
Composer and cellist Giovanni Perroni served as maestro di cappella at the cathedral from 1718–1720.
World War II.
During World War II, on the night of 15 August 1943, an allied aerial bombardment hit the church and the convent. Much of the refectory was destroyed, but some walls survived, including the one that holds "The Last Supper", which had been sand-bagged in order to protect it. Some preservation works are done to maintain it for the future. It is believed that the current and future preservation works will keep the painting safe for many centuries to come.
Contemporary.
Nowadays the "Sacrestia vecchia", or the Old Sacristy, designed and constructed by Donato Bramante, is the seat of a Dominican Cultural Centre ("Centro Culturale alle Grazie"), in which the brethren organize and host conferences on various themes pertaining to spirituality, philosophy, art, literature and sociology, in addition to musical concerts and artistic exhibitions.
References.
Footnotes
Citations


Church of the Holy Mother of God, Darashamb

The Church of Saint Astvatsatsin or Church of the Holy Mother of God (, ) is a 17th-century Armenian church in the Valley of the Araxes along the Aras river in Jolfa, East Azerbaijan, Iran near Darashamb.


Richard H. Goodwin

Richard Hale "Dick" Goodwin (1910–2007) was an American botanist and conservationist. He taught at the University of Rochester before joining the faculty at Connecticut College, where he was professor and director of the arboretum. He was a founding member of The Nature Conservancy and served twice as its president.
Early life.
Richard "Dick" Goodwin was born on December 14, 1910, in Brookline, Massachusetts to Harry and Mary Goodwin. He entered Harvard University in 1929 and received his undergraduate degree in biology in 1933. He went on to receive a master's and doctorate degree from Harvard with a concentration in botany. His graduate research focused on the role of plant hormones in the leaf development of goldenrods. At Harvard, he studied under Ralph Wetmore, Merritt Lyndon Fernald, Kenneth Thiman, Irving Bailey, and E. C. Jeffrey. He married Esther Bemis in 1936 and they traveled together to East Africa and the Belgian Congo in 1937 after he received his degree.
Career.
From 1937 to 1938, Goodwin was a Fellow of the American-Scandinavian Foundation and a guest investigator in the plant physiology laboratory at the University of Copenhagen, researching plant growth hormones.
When Goodwin returned to the United States in 1938, he joined the faculty of the University of Rochester as an Instructor in Botany. In addition to teaching and research, Goodwin managed the university herbarium for six years.
Goodwin joined Connecticut College in 1944 as a professor of botany and Director of the Connecticut College Arboretum, replacing George Avery. As Director of the Arboretum, Goodwin spearheaded the acquisition of land that grew the Arboretum from 90 to 420 acres by 1975. Goodwin hired William Niering in 1953 to teach in the Botany department and to supervise ecological research in the Arboretum. In 1969, Goodwin helped create an early Environmental Studies program known as Human Ecology. This program, one of the first of its kind at an undergraduate level in the nation, brought together the study of science and public policy. He headed this interdepartmental major from 1969-1976. Goodwin was awarded the Connecticut College Medal in 1984 and in 1999, the Center for Conservation Biology and Environmental Studies at Connecticut College was renamed the Goodwin-Niering Center for the Environment to honor his work.
Nature Conservancy.
Goodwin was a founding member of the Nature Conservancy. He held the position of president twice from 1956 to 1958 and again from 1964 to 1966.


Churches and convents of Goa

Churches and convents of Old Goa is the name given by UNESCO to a set of religious monuments located in Goa Velha (or Old Goa), in the state of Goa, India, which were declared a World Heritage Site in 1986.
Goa was the capital of Portuguese India and Asia and an evangelization center from the sixteenth century. The justifications for the inclusion of religious monuments in Goa in the World Heritage List are: 1) the influence of the monuments in the dissemination of Western art forms – the Manueline styles, Mannerist and Baroque – throughout Asia where Catholic missions were established; 2) the value of the set of monuments of Goa as an exceptional example that illustrates the work of evangelization and 3) the specific value of presence in the Basilica of Bom Jesus of the tomb of Francisco Xavier, which illustrates a major world event: the influence of the Catholic religion in Asia in the modern era.
History.
The city of Old Goa was founded in the fifteenth century by the Sultanate of Muslim rulers of Bijapur as a port on the banks of the Mandovi river. The village was taken in 1510 by Afonso de Albuquerque, the first Portuguese Viceroy, with the help privateer Timoja, remaining almost continuously under Portuguese rule until the twentieth century. At its peak it was said to have been a city of over 200,000 inhabitants and was known by the title 'Rome of the East', specifically for its splendid and innumerable collection of Cathedrals and churches.
Jesuits, Franciscans missionaries and other religious orders settled in Goa since the sixteenth century, used it as a center for the spread of Catholicism in India. The settlers were initially tolerant to Hinduism and other religions, but from 1560 the spread of Catholicism was reinforced by the arrival of the Inquisition in Goa, much feared in its time. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were the golden age of Goa, which ran a flourishing trade and came to have administrative privileges similar to those of Lisbon. In the first two centuries of the Portuguese presence most of the churches and monasteries were erected that still populate the city, earning the admiration of travelers who passed through Goa. These monuments reflect the cultural exchange and legacy of the Portuguese: while the architectural forms follow the European canon, the internal decoration of altars, altarpieces, paintings and furniture reflect the labour, the work of local artists. This was made possible by the great tradition of Indian artists and sculptors of the Goa region, which made it not necessary to import large-scale labor-artistic work, but as occurred in colonial Brazil.
From the late seventeenth century, trade competition with Dutch and British led to the economic decline of Old Goa. Several epidemics ravaged the city and the river Mandovi became inadequate for the more modern ships. The Viceroy moved to Panjim (Novo Goa) in 1759, and Old Goa lost the capital status officially in 1843.
In the twentieth century, after several years of hostilities and diplomatic negotiations, Indian troops invaded and annexed Goa ending centuries of the Portuguese presence. However, the cultural influence continues to this day and it is evident in religious monuments in Goa, declared a world heritage site by UNESCO in 1986.
Monuments.
Igreja de Nossa Senhora do Rosário.
The Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, built in 1543, is the oldest of the Old Goa churches still standing. Initially, it was a parish church, then collegial. On the outside, the church looks like a small fortress; the entrance porch flanked by small cylindrical towers with cupolas is typical of late-Gothic and Manueline Portugal, particularly in the Alentejo region. Inside, it highlights the Manueline vaults of the chapels. In the chancel, besides the altarpiece dedicated to Our Lady of the Rosary, there on the wall a carved alabaster cenotaph in Persian or Indian style, with the inscription: "Aqui jaz Dona Catarina, mulher de Garcia de Sa, a qual pede a quem isto ler que peça misericórida a Deus para sua alma" ("Here lies Dona Catarina, wife of Garcia de Sá, asks those who read this to asks mercy of God for the soul.") The floor below is the grave of Garcia de Sá (died in 1549), João de Castro's successor as Governor of India.
Sé Catedral of Goa.
Goa was elevated to the seat of a bishopric in 1534 by Pope Paul III, and a towering cathedral church dedicated to Catherine of Alexandria was built in the first decades of colonization. This small church, insufficient to meet the faithful, was rebuilt from 1562, during the administration of Viceroy Dom Francisco Coutinho. The construction was extremely slow, since in 1619 only the body of the church was complete, with the missing facade completed in 1631.
The See of Goa is the largest building built by the Portuguese in Asia, 91 meters long and very wide, which probably contributed to the slow pace of works. The church has three naves of equal height, shaped hall-church, as do other Portuguese cathedrals of time as the Sees of Miranda do Douro (begun in 1552), Leiria (begun in 1559) and Portalegre (begun in 1556). The severe façade with three portals, has one tower: the right was destroyed during a storm in 1766. The church naves are vaulted and separated by two rows of pillars. Interior decoration stands out the magnificent altarpiece of the chancel in gilt.
Basilica of Bom Jesus.
The Society of Jesus arrived in Goa in 1542, and its most important figure in these early days was the Francisco Xavier, considered the Apostle of the East for his work in the evangelization of Asia. Sometime after their arrival, the Jesuits created a religious education center, the College of St Paul or São Roque College, which had a huge library and press, but this complex was destroyed in 1830. The great Jesuit monument that survived is the Basilica of Bom Jesus, begun in 1594 and consecrated in 1605, for which worked the Goan engineer Julius Simon and the Jesuit Portuguese Domingos Fernandes. Following the model of Portuguese Jesuit churches like the Church of the Holy Spirit of Évora and the church of St Roque Lisbon, Bom Jesus is a single nave temple; this is covered by a curved wooden liner and has no side chapel except for two chapel in transepto area. The facade of the church, the work of Domingos Fernandes, is of Mannerist style and has three portals and three floors compartmentalized for cornices; On the facade there is a large body theatrically decorated by pediment with a cartouche with the arms of the Society of Jesus and flanked by scrolls.
The greatest treasure in the interior of the church is the transept chapel where lie, since 1655, the remains of Francisco Xavier, in a silver urn finely crafted by local artists. The urn is located in a mausoleum executed by the Florentine artist Giovanni Battista Foggini in 1697. This monument in Italian marble, was offered by the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Cosimo III of Medici, and set in place by a specially-sent artist Placido Francesco Ramponi, who arrived in Goa in 1698 for this purpose. The main chapel has a golden altarpiece, dating from c. 1699, dedicated to the Infant Jesus with an image of Ignatius of Loyola, the founder of the Order.
The Basilica of Bom Jesus in Goa was ranked in 2009 as one of the Seven Wonders of Portuguese Origin in the World.
Church of St. Francis of Assisi.
The Franciscan Order was the first to settle in Goa, obtaining in 1517 itself the permission of King Manuel I to build a convent. The early church was completed in 1521 but was completely rebuilt from 1661. While doing so, a doorway in Manueline style, was preserved and built on Mannerist facade of the new church. This portal, made of dark stone, has a lobed profile typically manufactory and a strike flanked by armillary spheres of King Manuel symbols. The facade is narrow and high, with two towers of octagonal section. In front, there is a large granite cross.
The interior has a single vaulted nave with side chapels and transept, covered by stucco and paintings. The floor of the church, like other churches of Goa, has a lot of graves with inscriptions and coats. The main chapel has several paintings on the life of St. Francis of Assisi and a large gilded altarpiece dating from c.1670 with a picture of Jesus on the cross embracing with one arm Francis Xavier. Behind the altar, visible through an opening thereof, is a carved tabernacle, supported by statues of the Four Evangelists, which was used to display the Blessed Sacrament and the ciborium.
Chapel of Santa Catarina.
In 1510, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered the city of Goa. A chapel was built at the door of the Muslim wall of Goa, where the Portuguese invaded. This chapel was located near the site of the Royal Hospital, which stood north of the Convent of St Francis near the Arsenal. It is about 100 meters west of the Church of St Francis of Assisi. In 1534 the chapel was granted cathedral status by Pope Paul III and was subsequently rebuilt; the inscribed stone added during rebuilding states that Afonso de Albuquerque actually entered the city at this spot, and thus it’s believed that the chapel stands on what used to be the main gate of the Muslim city, then known as Ela.
It is a rectangular plan building with a single nave, with quadrangular head. The shape is simple and the facade with three bodies separated by pilasters. The central body has an axial port straight lintel stone with triangular pediment topped with a window flanked by two bell towers of square section and coverage gable roof. The church interior is a single nave, with the chancel of stone, with ceiling cylindrical vat, also in stone.
Ruins of the Church of St. Augustine.
The Augustinians too arrived in Goa in the sixteenth century, founding a convent and a church building from 1597. Currently, both are in ruins; the vault of the church collapsed in 1842 and the facades fell in 1936. Of the remains of the church, the most striking is a part of a tower that is still standing. It is known that the original facade was flanked by two huge towers of five floors, and the domestic side was a single nave with side chapels and transept.
Church of Divine Providence (São Caetano or Saint Cajetan).
In 1639, religious of the Theatines reached Goa to found a convent. They built the St. Cajetan Church by 1665, dedicated to St. Cajetan and to Our Lady of Providence, designed by the Italian architects Carlo Ferrarini and Francesco Maria Milazzo with the plan in the form of a Greek cross. The facade mimics the facade designed by Carlo Maderno for St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. It’s crowned with a huge hemispherical dome, on the pattern of the Roman Basilica of St. Peter. However, instead of two cupolas it exhibits two quadrangular towers. The church exhibits superb examples of Corinthian architecture.
Four basalt statues of St. Paul, St. Peter, St. John the Evangelist and St. Matthew are located in niches in the facade that also inscribes the words, "Domus mea, domus oration/s" meaning, "My House is a House of Prayer" (etched across the portal).
Conservation and preservation.
The UNESCO Bureau was informed that the World Heritage Center undertook a mission to Goa in January 1999 to develop a project proposal based on co-operation between the local authorities of Old Goa (India), Guimaraes (Portugal) and Brighton & Hove (UK) for submission to the "European Union Asia Urbs Programme." During this mission, it was noted that while there is an important effort being made to conserve the individual monuments, the overall site is not cohesive, both visually and spatially. Widening of the roads, neglect of archaeological ruins and new spatial organization and landscaping have enclosed the individual monuments in garden squares which have no relation to the historic urban form, thereby making the site into a collection of monuments undermining the integrity of the site as a former port town.
The central government of India, upon consultations with the church of Old Goa (Catholic diocese), the State of Goa and locally-based experts of the Fundação Orient (Portuguese institution), among other institutions and non-governmental organizations, and in close collaboration with the local branch of the Archaeological Survey of India, prepared a project proposal for urban conservation and preservation. The said proposal is now pending approval by the central Indian government prior to submission to donors. Subsequent discussions with the "Portuguese Director General for National Monuments and Edifices (DGEMN)" have resulted in a commitment of collaboration between the central government (India) and DGEMN to carry out an inventory of the site as the first step in elaborating a more coherent conservation management plan.


Padjelanta National Park

Padjelanta () is a national park in Norrbotten County in northern Sweden. Established in 1963, it is the largest national park in Sweden with an area of , and part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Laponia established in 1996.
Etymology and the presence of the Sámi people.
The name of the park derives from the Lule Sami word "Badjelánnda", which translates to "the higher land" – a straightforward description of the region. Today the three Sámi villages Duorbun, Jåhkågasska and Sirges let their reindeer graze in Padjelanta in the summer, using the traditional settlements of Stáloluokta, Árasluokta and Sállohávrre.
Nature.
The park, which borders on Norway in the west, is primarily comprised by a vast plateau around the two unusually large lakes Vastenjávrre and Virihávrre – the latter of which is often referred to as "the most beautiful lake in Sweden". Consequently, the landscape is fairly flat and open, especially compared to the alpine Sarek National Park on its eastern border, and mainly consists of rolling hills with few peaks of the higher variety.
Plants.
Most of the park is situated above the tree line; meaning few species of trees can survive the harsh climate of the park. The exposure of strong winds and the cold winters has made it so that the only tree that can exist in any relevant numbers is the small and robust "Betula pubescens" subsp. "tortuosa" (mountain birch). These form a small forest () in the northeast corner of the park.
The diversity of the flora is extremely high, nonetheless: over 400 different lower plant (thallophytes) species have been cataloged in the area, which reportedly is a record in the Swedish fells (highlands). This is due to its western position and chalk-rich bedrock. Some of these species, such as "Arenaria humifusa" and "Gentiana aurea", can only be found in the Swedish fell regions and "Potentilla robbinsiana" is a plant that, in Europe, has only ever been found in Padjelanta.
Animals.
Padjelelanta hosts a very limited number of mammals, with a low variety of different species, almost all of which have small populations. The mammals that do exist are mostly lemmings and reindeer, as well as the predators that eat them; in this case the wolverine and the Arctic fox, respectively, both being permanently resident in the park.
Padjelanta's bird-life however is very rich and showcases most species associated with the Swedish bare mountain fell – and fell lake regions.
The most typical species on the heath are European golden plover, meadow pipit and northern wheatear but rock ptarmigan, Eurasian dotterel and Eurasian whimbrel are also fairly common sights.
In and around the lakes there are plenty of Anatinae, such as long-tailed duck, Eurasian teal and common scoter as well as many waders, which include red-necked phalarope, ruff, Temminck's stint and common redshank.
The northeast forest is also home to a great variety of species and contains an abundance of common redpoll, willow warbler, Lapland longspur, bluethroat and redwing.
Then there are also many birds that are not really constricted to one area but is spread throughout the park. This include lesser white-fronted goose, gyrfalcon, golden eagle, white-tailed eagle, great snipe, rough-legged buzzard and long-tailed jaeger. During lemming-years you can even see the snowy owl which is otherwise rare seen in Padjelanta.
The park also contains a rich quantity of fish, Vastenjávrre and Virihávrre being especially densely populated.
History.
Padjelanta, due to its flourishing meadows and fish filled lakes has long been attractive to humans and the park has been inhabited ever since the Stone Age(one evidence of this being the many trapping pits that have been found and dated back to this period of time). Even today the lakes are utilized for fishing by the Sámi villages.
Ever since the birth of modern science the area has also been interesting for scientists, mainly for studying its flora, fauna and geology.
Tourism.
There is a well-known hiking trail called Padjelantaleden (Padjelanta Trail) that runs between Kvikkjokk in the southeast and either Vaisaluokta or Änonjalme beneath Áhkká in the north, and is about 140 km in length. All these endpoints lie outside the borders of the park, which means that hikers must travel for at least a day before entering Padjelanta itself, but in the summer there are also regular helicopter tours between Kvikkjokk, Stáloluokta and Ritsem.
Along this trail there are a number of cottage sites providing accommodation for visitors. Originally, the tourist buildings within the park proper were managed by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, but they have since passed into the care of the aforementioned Sámi villages, under the name "Badjelánnda Laponia Turism" (BLT). The other cottages on the trail are maintained by the Swedish Tourist Association (STF). In Stáloluokta there is a sauna, and during the tourist season visitors can also buy provisions there.
Note that Padjelantaleden is a summer trail, so there are no markings visible when the land is covered in snow. Neither are the cottages manned in winter, but there is always at least one room open at all the cottage sites.
Another hiking trail called Nordkalottruta also passes through the park, although its path is the same as that of Padjelantaleden most of the way.
Another point of interest is that the Swedish center of inaccessibility (i.e. the point where one is at a maximum distance from civilization) lies in Padjelanta. It is reported that at the southeastern bay of the lake Rissájávrre close to the border of Sarek, it is approximately . in either direction to the closest road. The isolation of this spot is, however, partially an illusion, since the much-trodden Padjelantaleden and specifically the "Tuottar" cottage site are actually less than . away.


Bird Kingdom

Bird Kingdom is an aviary in the tourist district of Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada. Opened in May 2003, it is the largest free flying indoor aviary in the world. The attraction encompasses approximately , and houses over 350 birds, the majority of which come from Australia, South America, and Africa. It is also home to mammals, reptiles and amphibians which are part of educational programs. Bird Kingdom has been voted a top family attraction in Niagara Falls and was inducted into the Trip Advisor Hall of Fame in 2016.
Areas.
Small Bird Aviary.
This section of the aviary houses smaller birds. The Small Aviary houses over fifty types of birds, among which are some endangered and rare species. It overlooks the Niagara Gorge, a well known bird watching spot and bird breeding ground.
Night Jungle.
An area where nocturnal animals can be seen. Egyptian Fruit Bats, Owls and other creatures of the night can be found in the ancient ruins of the night jungle.
Main Aviary.
The $16 million section of Bird Kingdom consists of of rainforest and houses 350 birds. Those birds represent approximately 80 species from around the globe, which live in the tropical environment. In addition to the birds, there is also a tall waterfall. Visitors are able to feed lorikeets, and take self-guided tours.
Javanese House.
Bird Kingdom houses the only authentic Javanese nobleman's house in North America. The house was hand carved with solid teak wood and constructed without nails. In the 19th century, houses like this were for the aristocratic class. The front door of the house faces south, supposedly facing the sea. The intricate carving on the roof shows visitors that the house was for a nobleman.
History.
In 1908, the Spirella Corset Company built a four-story concrete building on the current site of the aviary. By 1958, the company had shrunk in size, resulting in the company's moving their location to a smaller facility. The building was purchased that year by Jacob Sherman, who owned the Niagara Falls Museum. Sherman then renovated the building extensively, adding a five-story viewing tower while also moving 700,000 artifacts to the building. It was discovered later that the museum had been home to the actual mummy of King Ramesses I. By that time of that discovery, however, the museum was closed and the mummy back in Egypt.
The museum was operated by the Sherman family until 1999, when the maintenance of the building and artifacts became too costly. Most of the artifacts were sold or returned to their place of origin. Larry Vann, a resident of the Niagara area, purchased the museum building. Over the next few years, $15 million was spent on renovations to the building. The renovations included a large addition to the south side of the old museum building. In June 2003, the building re-opened as Bird Kingdom at the Niagara Falls Aviary.


Cehei Pond

Cehei Pond Nature Reserve () is situated in north-western Romania, in Crasna river floodplain, in Sălaj County and is a protected area with aquatic vegetation and fauna specific to such area.
Fauna.
Birds: little bittern ("Ixobrychus minutus"), mallard ("Anas platyrhinchos"), great reed warbler ("Acrocephalus arundinaceus"), white stork ("Ciconia ciconia"), common moorhen ("Gallinula chloropus");
Frogs: yellow-bellied toad ("Bombina veriegata"), European fire-bellied toad ("Bombina bomina");
Reptiles: European green lizard ("Lacerta viridis")
Flora.
The Cehei Pond represents a very favorable place for the development of highly diverse flora, with numerous rare species.
Tree species: grey willow ("Salix cinerea"), black alder ("Alnus glutinosa"), goat willow ("Salix caprea");
Species of grass: Hydrocharis ("Hydrocharis morsus-ranae"), Scutellaria galericulata ("Scutellaria galericulata var. epilobiifolia"), Ranunculus sceleratus ("Ranunculus sceleratus L."), Utricularia vulgaris ("Utricularia vulgaris L."), Phragmites ("Phragmites australis"), Typha ("Typha latifolia"), Utricularia vulgaris ("Utricularia vulgaris L.").


Kanha Tiger Reserve

Kanha Tiger Reserve, also known as Kanha–Kisli National Park, is one of the tiger reserves of India and the largest national park of the state of Madhya Pradesh. The present-day Kanha area is divided into two protected areas, Hallon and Banjar, of , respectively. Kanha National Park was created on 1 June 1955 and was designated a tiger reserve in 1973. Today, it encompasses an area of in the two districts Mandla and Balaghat.
Together with a surrounding buffer zone of and the neighbouring
 Phen Sanctuary, it forms the Kanha Tiger Reserve, which is one of the biggest in the country. This makes it the largest national park in central India.
The park hosts Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, sloth bear, barasingha and dhole. It is also the first tiger reserve in India to officially introduce a mascot, Bhoorsingh the Barasingha.
Flora.
Kanha Tiger Reserve is home to over 1000 species of flowering plants. The lowland forest is a mixture of sal ("Shorea robusta") and other mixed-forest trees, interspersed with meadows. The highland forests are tropical moist, dry deciduous type and of a completely different nature from bamboo ("Dendrocalamus strictus") on slopes. A notable Indian ghost tree ("Davidia involucrata") can also be seen in the dense forest.
Fauna.
Kanha Tiger Reserve hosts populations of tiger, leopard, wild dog, sloth bear, foxes and jackals. Barasingha ("Cervus duavcelli branderi") is adapted to hard ground. Gaur ("Bos gaurus") inhabits meadows and waterholes in the park.
Blackbuck has become very rare.
The reserve hosts around 300 species of birds and the most commonly seen birds are the black ibis, bee-eaters, cattle egret, blossom-headed parakeets, pond herons, drongos, common teal, crested serpent eagle, grey hornbill, Indian roller, lesser adjutant, little grebes, lesser whistling teal, minivets, Malabar pied hornbill, woodpeckers, pigeon, paradise flycatchers, mynas, Indian peafowl, red junglefowl, red-wattled lapwing, steppe eagle, Tickell's blue flycatcher, white-eyed buzzard, white-breasted kingfisher, white-browed fantail, wood shrikes, and warblers, vultures among many more.
Reintroduction of barasingha.
An exciting conservation effort in this national park is the reintroduction of barasingha. The gaur will be relocated to Bandhavgarh and some barasingha will be relocated to Satpura Tiger Reserve. The objective of this project is to introduce about 500 barasingha in this national park to eight or nine different locations. There is also a project to capture about twenty tigers and relocate them to Satpura Tiger Reserve.
Tiger conservation and the Baiga tribe.
Members of the Baiga tribe, a semi-nomadic tribe of central India that is reliant on the forest, lived in 28 villages that had been within the Kanha National Park until 1968, when they were relocated. The relocation was part of an effort to maintain a critical tiger habitat. The land to which they were relocated is barren and they now suffer from alcoholism and malnourishment, and beg to support themselves. The last of the villages to be relocated for the tiger habitat is in the core zone of the Kanha Tiger Reserve. The area is the ancestral home of the Gond and Baiga tribes.
In January 2010, Baiga tribe were illegally evicted from the park without proper compensation from the government, according to Survival International.
In its efforts to maintain and restore tiger habitats, WWF-India has worked to create corridors that support the tigers and their prey, thereby stabilizing the tiger population. This includes efforts to prevent loss of life or property of humans, reduce human dependency on the forest, and reduce retaliatory killings of tigers when people have experienced losses.
However, Kanha's frontline staff continue to receive support, training and equipment from WWF, even as they carry out the eviction of the 22,000 residents who are to be forcibly resettled from tiger reserves in the region.
Transportation and access.
The Jabalpur Airport / 04:30hrs) has direct flights to and from Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Pune, Belgaum and Bhopal, with AirIndia, SpiceJet and Indigo operating daily flights. Nagpur (Mukki and Raipur (Mukki ) have other airports.
Jabalpur is major railway stations with train connectivity across India. From Jabalpur, the best way to travel is via Mandla, which has a tourist taxi service to the park, and one can reach up to Chiraidongri the newly added Broad Gauge station via jabalpur, Nainpur railway route to enter national park through Kanha gate. In pre-planned journey one of shortest road route is Jabalpur-Bargi Dam-Ganhsor-Thanwar Dam-Chiraidongri-Kanha National Park. Other route Jabalpur to Mandla (via NH-30)-Chiraidongri- Kanha route is preferred when arrival permission is to be taken from National Park authority at Mandla. This National Park can also be approached from Raipur - Gandai - Malanjkhand - Baihar highway route via Mukki Gate to National Park. M.P. Tourism and Private owners has hotels, resorts near to Mukki Gate. Similar stay facilities is also available at Khatia and Kanha Gate.
There are three gates for entrance into the park. The Kanha/Kisli gate is best accessed from Jabalpur and stops at the village Khatia, inside the buffer area. The second gate is at Mukki and the third, most recently opened, gate is at Sarhi.
Ecosystem valuation.
An economic assessment study of Kanha Tiger Reserve estimated that the tiger reserve provides flow benefits worth 16.5 billion rupees (0.80 lakh / hectare) annually. Important ecosystem services from the tiger reserve include gene-pool protection (12.41 billion year), provisioning of water to downstream regions (558 million) and provisioning of fodder in buffer areas (546 million). Other services included recreation value (384 million), provision of habitat and refugia for wildlife (319 million) and sequestration of carbon (219 million).


Mugdrum Island

Mugdrum Island lies in the Firth of Tay, offshore from the town of Newburgh, Fife, in the east of Scotland.
Geography.
Mugdrum is low-lying and reedy, with the "North Deep" and "South Deep" channels on either side of the island. It covers an area of .
History.
Mugdrum's name is from "muc-dhruim", the Scottish Gaelic for "hog-back". The name is also applied to Mugdrum House, to the west of Newburgh in Fife, on the south coast of the Tay opposite the island.
The reeds were once harvested for thatching and for protecting potatoes during transshipment. Until 1926, a farm grew cereals, potatoes and turnips in the island's alluvial soil. It is now a nature reserve under the stewardship of the Tay Valley Wildfowlers' Association.
The Laing Museum in Newburgh preserves the stuffed body of a two-headed kitten born in the 19th century on Mugdrum.


List of World Heritage Sites in Iceland

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites are places of importance to cultural or natural heritage as described in the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, established in 1972. Iceland accepted the convention on 19 December 1995, making its natural and cultural sites eligible for inclusion on the list.
, Iceland has three sites inscribed on the list. The first site added to the list was the Þingvellir National Park, in 2004. Two further sites were added later, Surtsey in 2008 and Vatnajökull National Park in 2019. Þingvellir is a cultural site while the other two are natural sites.
In addition to its World Heritage Sites, Iceland also maintains six properties on its tentative list. The existing site of Þingvellir is listed on the tentative list twice, as a proposal to extend the cultural site to include the natural heritage, and as a part of a new transnational nomination to cover the Viking heritage.
World Heritage Sites.
UNESCO lists sites under ten criteria; each entry must meet at least one of the criteria. Criteria i through vi are cultural, whereas vii through x are natural.
Tentative list.
In addition to sites inscribed on the World Heritage List, member states can maintain a list of tentative sites that they may consider for nomination. Nominations for the World Heritage List are only accepted if the site was previously listed on the tentative list. As of 2019, Iceland has six on its tentative list.


Ernie Cooper

Ernest Walter Thomas Cooper (born September 16, 1956) was the first Wildlife Inspector in Canada. He was formerly the Director for the conservation organization WWF-Canada (World Wildlife Fund Canada) and the Canadian National Representative of TRAFFIC the global wildlife trade monitoring network. He left WWF and TRAFFIC in 2014, and formed an environmental consulting business, specialising in wildlife trade issues. In 2009, an article in "Canadian Geographic" referred to Cooper as "Canada’s top wildlife-trafficking investigator."
Early life.
Cooper was born and grew up in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, the son of Lillian Cooper (born Francis) and Walter Cooper. He has five older sisters: Rosemary, Patricia, Christine, Maureen and Sharleen. In 1980 he received a Bachelor of Science degree in Biology (Marine Biology Program) from the University of Victoria.
Career.
In 1988, while working for the Vancouver Aquarium, Cooper was offered a contract to identify wildlife products seized by Canada Customs for the enforcement of the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
In 1992, he became a Federal Game Officer for Environment Canada and Canada's first wildlife inspector. Cooper was stationed in Vancouver, British Columbia and was primarily responsible for the enforcement of CITES. In Canada, CITES is enforced via the Wild Animal and Plant Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act (WAPPRIITA).
During his enforcement career (as a contractor and Wildlife Inspector) Cooper conducted inspections of more than 4,000 shipments of wildlife and wildlife products; identified more than 250,000 CITES listed specimens for the enforcement of CITES; and provided training to more than 800 officers from Canada, United States and Mexico on topics including CITES, international wildlife trade and the identification of wildlife products. Cooper has published numerous articles and reports and has been quoted extensively in the media.
Cooper joined WWF and TRAFFIC in July, 2001, and continued to work to ensure that international wildlife trade was sustainable and legal. In his role with WWF and TRAFFIC he provided advice on wildlife trade issues, worked with Canadian authorities, and assisted the TRAFFIC network’s global conservation efforts. In 2009 Cooper spearheaded the signing of a memorandum of understanding (MoU) on co-operation between TRAFFIC Canada and Environment Canada’s Wildlife Enforcement Directorate (WED) on furthering the implementation and enforcement of wildlife trade regulations in Canada. It was the first such agreement between WED and a non-governmental organization (NGO).
In 2014 Cooper left WWF/TRAFFIC and became a private consultant on issues related to wildlife trade and sustainable use of wildlife. As a consultant, his main clients have been the federal government of Canada and several NGOs. His work has primarily been the completion of written reports. In 2016/17, Cooper lead a multinational team, as part of a project by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC), in the production of five action plans to promote legal, sustainable and traceable trade in selected North American species that are listed in Appendix II of CITES. The five action plans covered 56 taxa of parrots, sharks, tarantulas, turtles and timber producing plants. The project was completed under the direction of the Canadian, Mexican and United States CITES authorities.
Cooper is a Canadian authority on wildlife trade, CITES and enforcement of WAPPRIITA; and is an expert in the identification of wildlife products and by-products. He has been actively involved in the conservation of many species including tigers, seahorses, sharks, tuna and red and pink corals (Corallium), and has worked to end the illegal trade in products from endangered species such as bear bile and rhinoceros horn. He is an expert on the identification of products made from reptile skin and other exotic leathers.
Cooper is also an Adjunct Professor for the School of Criminology at Simon Fraser University.


Field Naturalists Club of Victoria

The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria (FNCV) is an Australian natural history and conservation organisation.
It was founded in May 1880 by a group of nature enthusiasts that included Thomas Pennington Lucas. Charles French and Dudley Best. It is the oldest conservation group in [Australia]. Since 1884 it has published a journal, "The Victorian Naturalist", which is issued six times a year.
Currently there are eight special interest groups (SIGs) within the FNCV, these are Botany, Fauna Survey, Fungi, Geology, Juniors, Marine Research, Microscopy and Terrestrial Invertebrates. The club also has a Day Group.
The FNCV is situated at 1 Gardenia St, Blackburn, in Melbourne's eastern suburbs. A range of services are available for members including a bookshop.
Since 1940 the FNCV has awarded the Australian Natural History Medallion to the person judged to have made the most meritorious contribution to the understanding of Australian Natural History.
Presidents.
Past presidents include:
Regional groups.
The FNCV has informal links to a number of regional field naturalist groups across Victoria, including:
See also.
Field Naturalists Society of South Australia


Khlong Lan National Park

Khlong Lan National Park (Thai อุทยานแห่งชาติคลองลาน) is a national park in Thailand.
Description.
Khlong Lan National Park is situated in the Dawna Mountain Range.
This park lies in Khlong Lan and Mueang Kamphaeng Phet districts of Kamphaeng Phet Province, the West of Thailand.
The park is rugged and hilly along the Dawna Range, and is covered by fertile forest. Each mountain connects to Khun Khlong Lan, the highest peak at above sea level.
It's the origin of Khlong Khlung and Khlong Suan Mak, the tributaries of the Ping River. The famous places in the park are Khlong Lan and Khlong Nam Lai Waterfalls.
History.
The park was declared a national park on December 25, 1985 as the 44th park of Thailand.


Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program

The Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program is a program established by the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996 (the Farm Bill) to promote voluntary implementation of on-farm management practices to develop habitat for wetland and upland wildlife, threatened and endangered species, fish, and other types of wildlife using cost-share payments and technical assistance. Between its inception and the start of the 2002 financial year, the program enrollment included 10,729 long term agreements on over . The Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 1241) reauthorized the program through the 2007 financial year with mandatory annual funding from the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC), growing from $15 million in 2002 to $85 million in 2005 through 2007. It also created a pilot program using up to 15% of the funding to provide additional payments to land owners who agree to enroll land for.at least 15 years.


Beecraigs

Beecraigs is a country park in West Lothian, approximately south of the town of Linlithgow and north-east of Bathgate and is a 4 star Visitor Attraction (Visitscotland). The Park comprises around of upland forest, woodland and open country, and offers a range of amenities including walks & trails, play area, skills area & mountain bike trails, BBQ hire, caravan & camping site including 2 lodges (4 star Touring Park by VisitScotland and 4 pennant Gold award by the AA), Countryside Ranger Service, animal attraction (Red Deer, Highland Cattle, Belted Galloway Cattle, Hebridean/North Ronaldsay/Shetland Sheep), fly fishery, Visitor Centre and Cafe. In 2010 prehistoric remains were uncovered on the site of the current visitor centre. To the west of the country park is privately owned Cockleroy Hill (), which is topped by the remains of a prehistoric hillfort.
Location.
A major attraction of Beecraigs is its location high on the hills above the towns of Bathgate and Linlithgow which afford impressive views of the surrounding countryside, including the Forth Valley, Linlithgow Loch, Binny Craig and Palace, the three Forth Bridges and the Pentland Hills. The Park does not lie on any major routes, and is from the M9 and from the M8 motorways.
Reservoir.
The reservoir, now known as Beecraigs Loch, was built by German Prisoners of War. They were based in a work camp and had been sent from Stobs Camp near Hawick. Clay and stone was used to build the dam wall, this stone was quarried from Riccarton Hill and brought down the slopes to the site using a winch-powered railway. By 1918 the 8 hectare reservoir, holding 82 million gallons of water, began serving as a local water supply and continued to do so for 55 years.


Qajartalik

Qajartalik (Inuktitut for "where there is a kayak") is a petroglyph site located on the Qajartalik peninsula of Qikertaaluk Island, Nunavut, approximately 40 km southeast of Kangirsujuaq, Quebec. The site consists of over 150 carvings of faces in soapstone. It was created by the Dorset people, the culture who inhabited the Canadian eastern Arctic and Greenland beginning approximately 2,200 years ago before disappearing approximately 1,000 years ago, and who inhabited the region prior to the Thule Inuit who arrived approximately 800 years ago. It is believed to be the north most rock art site in North America and is considered to be one of a kind. The site is currently on Canada's tentative list of sites proposed for inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Site.
The site is located 50 metres from the shoreline and is 15 metres above sea level. The site is roughly 130 metres long, roughly forming the shape of a trough, and contains several formations of soapstone in which the petroglyphs were carved. In addition to being used for carving petroglyphs, the site was also used by the Dorset as a quarry for the creation of items such as oil lamps and containers. Later, the Thule and Inuit also used the site as a quarry for the creation of items such as oil lamps and cooking pots, as well as for a source of raw materials for sculptures. Over 150 soapstone extraction zones have been identified at the site. Although the Thule and Inuit also used the site as a quarry, only the Dorset carved petroglyphs there. As the site has not been scientifically dated, it is not entirely clear when the petroglyphs were created or when the site was first quarried.
Most of the petroglyphs depict human faces, but some represent animal faces. Additionally, some of the petroglyph faces appear to have both human and animal features. Some surfaces at the site only have a single engraving, while many others have groups of ten or more faces, not necessarily having a consistent orientation relative to one another. The faces range in size from 2-3 centimetres to more than 70 centimetres. The smaller engraving were made by incision with sharp-edge tools, and the larger engraving were made by pecking and grooving using hammerstones.
Known for decades to the local Inuit population, the site was first documented by anthropologist Bernard Saladin d’Anglure in the 1960s, who learned of the site from Inuit hunters who would camp at Qikertaaluk Island. He initially identified 95 carvings at the site. Through casts he made of some of the carvings, he was able to identify them as being Dorset in origin. The site was visited and studied sporadically by archaeologist in the following years. In 1996, Avataq Cultural Institute did an extensive inventory of the site.
Preservation.
Since 1996, the Avataq Cultural Institute has been working to study and develop the site as well as plan for its protection. In 2006, it was discovered that some vandalism had been committed at the site, likely in the spring of that year. This event spurred calls for additional protection of the site.
On December 20, 2017, Environment Minister Catherine McKenna announced that Qajartalik was one of eight sites that would be added to Canada's tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites, joining six sites already on the tentative list. It nomination was officially submitted on April 13, 2018. The justification for inscription was based on criteria (iii), with Parks Canada stating that "The Qajartalik petroglyph site is a unique archaeological site in the Canadian Arctic, providing a tangible link to the cultural tradition of the Dorset people."


Areas protected under the Nature Conservation Law of Japan

The of Japan provides for the designation of three types of protected area: and , by the Minister of the Environment, and , by Prefectural Governors.
Wilderness Areas.
As of 31 March 2015, five Wilderness Areas have been designated, with a total area of 56.31 km2.
Nature Conservation Areas.
As of 31 March 2015, ten Nature Conservation Areas have been designated, with a total area of 225.42 km2.
Prefectural Nature Conservation Areas.
As of 31 March 2015, five hundred and forty-four Prefectural Nature Conservation Areas have been designated, with a total area of 774.08 km2.


Simon Milne

Simon Stephen Milne (born January 1959) is a British marine officer and conservationist who has been Regius Keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh since 2014.
Early life and military career.
Born in 1959, Milne was educated at the University of St Andrews and the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. He was commissioned into the Royal Marines in 1976 and served in Northern Ireland and Bosnia. He was appointed a member of the Order of the British Empire in 1996. He reached the rank of lieutenant colonel and was invalided in 2000. He was later made a member of Her Majesty's bodyguard of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen at Arms in July 2011.
Conservation career.
Milne was director of the Sir Harold Hillier Gardens and Arboretum from 2000 to 2004 and chief executive of the Scottish Wildlife Trust from October 2004 until February 2014. Starting in 2007, he co-led the trial reintroduction of the European beaver to Scotland, with the Scottish Wildlife Trust working alongside the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland. He is the founder of the World Forum on Natural Capital and has specific interest and expertise in translocations, public engagement with the natural environment, biodiversity conservation and ecosystem scale approach.
Milne was appointed the 16th Regius Keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh in February 2014, replacing botanist Stephen Blackmore. He is a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and was conferred an honorary professor of the University of Edinburgh, associated to the School of Biological Sciences in January 2016.
Personal life.
Milne married his wife Françoise in 1993 and the couple have three children together. Originally from France, she applied for dual-nationality following the 2016 EU referendum but her application was rejected, leading the couple to publicly criticise the uncertainty created by Brexit.