Lumbar nerves

The lumbar nerves are the five pairs of spinal nerves emerging from the lumbar vertebrae. They are divided into posterior and anterior divisions.
Structure.
The lumbar nerves are five spinal nerves which arise from either side of the spinal cord below the thoracic spinal cord and above the sacral spinal cord. They arise from the spinal cord between each pair of lumbar spinal vertebrae and travel through the intervertebral foramina. The nerves then split into an anterior branch, which travels forward, and a posterior branch, which travels backwards and supplies the area of the back.
Posterior divisions.
The middle divisions of the posterior branches run close to the articular processes of the vertebrae and end in the multifidus muscle. The outer branches supply the erector spinae muscles.
The nerves give off branches to the skin. These pierce the aponeurosis of the greater trochanter.
Anterior divisions.
The anterior divisions of the lumbar nerves () increase in size from above downward.
The anterior divisions communicate with the sympathetic trunk. Near the origin of the divisions, they are joined by gray rami communicantes from the lumbar ganglia of the sympathetic trunk. These rami consist of long, slender branches which accompany the lumbar arteries around the sides of the vertebral bodies, beneath the Psoas major. Their arrangement is somewhat irregular: one ganglion may give rami to two lumbar nerves, or one lumbar nerve may receive rami (branches) from two ganglia. The first and second, and sometimes the third and fourth lumbar nerves are each connected with the lumbar part of the sympathetic trunk by a white ramus communicans.
The nerves pass obliquely outward behind the Psoas major, or between its fasciculi, distributing filaments to it and the Quadratus lumborum.
As the nerves travel forward, they create nervous plexuses. The first three lumbar nerves, and the greater part of the fourth together form the lumbar plexus. The smaller part of the fourth joins with the fifth to form the lumbosacral trunk, which assists in the formation of the sacral plexus.
The fourth nerve is named the furcal nerve, from the fact that it is subdivided between the two plexuses.
Divisions.
First lumbar nerve.
The first lumbar spinal nerve (L1) originates from the spinal column from below the lumbar vertebra 1 (L1). The three terminal branches of this nerve are the iliohypogastric, ilioinguinal, and the genitofemoral nerves.
L1 supplies many muscles, either directly or through nerves originating from L1. They may be innervated with L1 as single origin, or be innervated partly by L1 and partly by other spinal nerves. The muscles are:
Second lumbar nerve.
The second lumbar spinal nerve (L2) originates from the spinal column from below the lumbar vertebra 2 (L2).
L2 supplies many muscles, either directly or through nerves originating from L2. They may be innervated with L2 as single origin, or be innervated partly by L2 and partly by other spinal nerves. The muscles are:
Third lumbar nerve.
The third lumbar spinal nerve (L3) originates from the spinal column from below the lumbar vertebra 3 (L3).
L3 supplies many muscles, either directly or through nerves originating from L3. They may be innervated with L3 as single origin, or be innervated partly by L3 and partly by other spinal nerves. The muscles are:
Fourth lumbar nerve.
The fourth lumbar spinal nerve (L4) originates from the spinal column from below the lumbar vertebra 4 (L4).
L4 supplies many muscles, either directly or through nerves originating from L4. They are not innervated with L4 as single origin, but partly by L4 and partly by other spinal nerves. The muscles are:
Fifth lumbar nerve.
The fifth lumbar spinal nerve 5 (L5) originates from the spinal column from below the lumbar vertebra 5 (L5).
L5 supplies many muscles, either directly or through nerves originating from L5. They are not innervated with L5 as single origin, but partly by L5 and partly by other spinal nerves. The muscles are:
References.
Hsu, Philip S., MD, Carmel Armon, MD, and Kerry Levin, MD. "Acute Lumbosacral Radiculopathy: Pathophysiology.Clinical, Features, and Diagnosis." www.uptodate.com. Uptodate, 11 Jan. 2011.Web. 26 Sept. 2012. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/acute-lumbosacral-radiculopathy-pathophysiology-clinical-features-and-diagnosis
Loizidez, Alexander, MD, Siegfried Peer, MD, Michaela Plaikner, MD, Verena Spiss, MD, and HannesGruber, MD. "Ultrasound-guided Injections in the Lumbar Spine." www.medultrason.ro. Medical Ultrasonography, 20 Jan. 2011. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. http://www.medultrason.ro/assets/Magazines/Medultrason-2011-vol13-no1/10loizides.pdf
Zhu, Jie, MD, and Obi Onyewu, MD. "Alternative Approach for Lumbar Transforaminal Epidural Steroid Injections." www.painphysicianjournal.com. Pain Physician, 21 Apr. 2011. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. http://www.painphysicianjournal.com/2011/july/2011;14;331-341.pdf


Lobes of the brain

The lobes of the brain were originally a purely anatomical classification, but have been shown also to be related to different brain functions. The cerebrum, the largest portion of the human brain, is divided into lobes, but so is the cerebellum. If not specified, the expression "lobes of the brain" refers to the cerebrum.
Terminologia Anatomica (1998) and Terminologia Neuroanatomica (2017) divides the cerebrum into 6 lobes. Each lobe of the brain consists of different sub regions that work together to create full function within the entirety of the brain.
Frontal lobe.
The frontal lobe is located at the front of each cerebral hemisphere and positioned in front of the parietal lobe and above and in front of the temporal lobe. It is separated from the parietal lobe by a space between tissues called the central sulcus, and from the temporal lobe by a deep fold called the lateral sulcus also called the Sylvian fissure. The precentral gyrus, forming the posterior border of the frontal lobe, contains the primary motor cortex, which controls voluntary movements of specific body parts. Precentral region contains Primary motor cortex (area 4) and Premotor cortex (area 6). These areas control movements, both skilled and postural.
The frontal lobe contains most of the dopamine-delicate neurons in the cerebral cortex. The dopamine system is associated with reward, attention, short-term memory tasks, planning, and motivation. Dopamine tends to limit and select sensory information arriving from the thalamus to the forebrain. A report from the National Institute of Mental Health says a gene variant that reduces dopamine activity in the prefrontal cortex is related to poorer performance and inefficient functioning of that brain region during working memory tasks, and to a slightly increased risk for schizophrenia.
The frontal lobe consists of the prefrontal cortex which is located in the most anterior (farthest away) section of the frontal lobe. It is critical for one’s working memory and executive control which helps keep goals and complex tasks organized.
The divisions of the prefrontal cortex include orbital, medial, and lateral prefrontal cortex. Within the lateral prefrontal cortex there are two different divisions: the dorsolateral and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is located on top of the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and is mainly responsible for the executive control and manipulation of memories that are retrieved through episodic memory. The ventrolateral prefrontal cortex is important for the regulation of meaningful stimuli that a person experiences throughout their lifetime, such as images, letters, and names.
Damage to the prefrontal cortex can result in issues with one’s long term and short-term memories, as well as create changes in people’s behaviors and their abilities to plan and organize (Gluck, Mercado, & Myers, 2020).
Damage can result from lesions or tumors that have been surgically removed, and traumatic brain injuries (TBI) experienced from a severe hit to the head causing damage to the brain from swelling. Most often a TBI is experienced within a person’s childhood from playing competitive sports or an accident from normal play. Having a traumatic brain injury can increase your chances of developing neurological psychiatric problems and abusing substances, such as cannabis, is known to be a risk factor in developing symptoms associated with schizophrenia (Jain, & Srivastava, 2017). Jain, & Srivastava, (2017) found that the schizophrenia symptoms (hearing voices, talking to people who were not there, etc.) worsened after the usage of cannabis, suggesting that a TBI from childhood can enhance a development of psychosis due to the changes seen in the white matter within the frontal-temporal areas.
Parietal lobe.
The parietal lobe is positioned above the occipital lobe and behind the frontal lobe and central sulcus.
The parietal lobe integrates sensory information among various modalities, including spatial sense and navigation (proprioception), the main sensory receptive area for the sense of touch (mechanoreception) in the somatosensory cortex which is just posterior to the central sulcus in the postcentral gyrus, and the dorsal stream of the visual system. The major sensory inputs from the skin (touch, temperature, and pain receptors), relay through the thalamus to the parietal lobe.
Several areas of the parietal lobe are important in language processing. The somatosensory cortex can be illustrated as a distorted figure — the homunculus (Latin: "little man"), in which the body parts are rendered according to how much of the somatosensory cortex is devoted to them. The superior parietal lobule and inferior parietal lobule are the primary areas of body or spatial awareness. A lesion commonly in the right superior or inferior parietal lobule leads to hemineglect.
Occipital lobe.
The occipital lobe is the visual processing center of the mammalian brain containing most of the anatomical region of the visual cortex. The primary visual cortex is Brodmann area 17, commonly called V1 (visual one). Human V1 is located on the medial side of the occipital lobe within the calcarine sulcus; the full extent of V1 often continues onto the posterior pole of the occipital lobe. V1 is often also called striate cortex because it can be identified by a large stripe of myelin, the Stria of Gennari. Visually driven regions outside V1 are called extrastriate cortex. There are many extrastriate regions, and these are specialized for different visual tasks, such as visuospatial processing, color differentiation, and motion perception.
Temporal lobe.
The temporal lobe is located beneath the lateral fissure on both cerebral hemispheres of the mammalian brain.
The temporal lobe is involved in processing sensory input into derived meanings for the appropriate retention of visual memories, language comprehension, and emotion association.
Within the temporal lobe is an area of the brain called the hippocampus which is associated with forming new memories and learning new things. The hippocampus has been studied many times in the past for its correlation with epilepsy showing there to be damage of this area. Although it has been difficult to determine the exact link between the temporal lobe and epilepsy, Chauvière (2020) suggests that there is a positive connection between the circuitry reorganization within the neurons and temporal lobe structure impacting rhythmic activities that are important for cognition.
Women are found to have a better verbal memory than men (Berger, Oltmanns, Holtkamp, & Bengner, 2017).  However, this study does not support the relationship between temporal lobe structural section and sex differences in memory which leaves researchers questioning the importance of these roles.  Memory formation is also in it.
Limbic lobe.
The limbic lobe is an arc-shaped region of cortex on the medial surface of each cerebral hemisphere of the mammalian brain, consisting of parts of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes. The term is ambiguous, with some authors including the paraterminal gyrus, the subcallosal area, the cingulate gyrus, the parahippocampal gyrus, the dentate gyrus, the hippocampus and the subiculum; while the Terminologia Anatomica includes the cingulate sulcus, the cingulate gyrus, the isthmus of cingulate gyrus, the fasciolar gyrus, the parahippocampal gyrus, the parahippocampal sulcus, the dentate gyrus, the fimbrodentate sulcus, the fimbria of hippocampus, the collateral sulcus, and the rhinal sulcus, and omits the hippocampus.
Insular cortex.
The insular cortex is a portion of the cerebral cortex folded deep within the lateral sulcus (the fissure separating the temporal lobe from the parietal and frontal lobes). The insular cortex has an important function for sending axons to the amygdala and responding to tones and somatosensory stimulation (Berret, Kintscher, Palchaudhuri, Tang, Osypenko, Kochubey, & Schneggenburge, 2019)
Berret, et. al (2019) used mice to study the fear response that is associated with perceived threats from their memory of previously being shocked on their foot, finding adverse reflex responses in shocking stimulation whenever the insular cortex was silenced. This finding supports that the insular cortex takes information to specific amygdala subdivisions creating different components for fear behaviors (Berret, et. al, 2019).
The insulae are believed to be involved in consciousness and play a role in diverse functions usually linked to emotion or the regulation of the body's homeostasis. These functions include perception, motor control, self-awareness, cognitive functioning, and interpersonal experience. In relation to these, it is involved in psychopathology.
The insular cortex is divided into two parts: the larger anterior insula and the smaller posterior insula in which more than a dozen field areas have been identified. The cortical area overlying the insula toward the lateral surface of the brain is the operculum (meaning "lid"). The opercula are formed from parts of the enclosing frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes.
References.
Berger, Oltmanns, Holtkamp, & Bengner.  (2017). Sex differences in verbal and nonverbal learning before and after temporal lobe epilepsy surgery. Epilepsy & Behavior, 66, 57–63. https://doi-org.library3.webster.edu/10.1016/j.yebeh.2016.11.037
Berret, Kintscher, Palchaudhuri, Tang, Osypenko, Kochubey, & Schneggenburge, (2019). Insular cortex processes aversive somatosensory information and is crucial for threat learning. Science, 364(6443), 1–11.
Chauvière. (2020). Potential causes of cognitive alterations in temporal lobe epilepsy. Behavioural Brain Research, 378. https://doi-org.library3.webster.edu/10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112310
Gluck, Mercado, & Myers. (2020). Learning and memory from brain to behavior. "Worth Publications"
Jain, & Srivastava, (2017). Frontal lobe abnormality and psychosis in traumatic brain injury and cannabis abuse. ASEAN Journal of Psychiatry, 18(1).


Spinal shock

Spinal shock was first explored by Whytt in 1750 as a loss of sensation accompanied by motor paralysis with initial loss but gradual recovery of reflexes, following a spinal cord injury (SCI) – most often a complete transection. Reflexes in the spinal cord below the level of injury are depressed (hyporeflexia) or absent (areflexia), while those above the level of the injury remain unaffected. The 'shock' in spinal shock does not refer to circulatory collapse, and should not be confused with neurogenic shock, which is life-threatening. The term “spinal shock” was introduced more than 150 years ago in an attempt to distinguish arterial hypotension due to a hemorrhagic source from arterial hypotension due to loss of sympathetic tone resulting from spinal cord injury. Whytt, however, may have discussed the same phenomenon a century earlier, although no descriptive term was assigned.
Phases of spinal shock.
Ditunno et al. proposed a four-phase model for spinal shock in 2004 as follows:
Phase 1 is characterized by a complete loss—or weakening—of all reflexes below the SCI. This phase lasts for a day. The neurons involved in various reflex arcs normally receive a basal level of excitatory stimulation from the brain. After an SCI, these cells lose this input, and the neurons involved become hyperpolarized and therefore less responsive to stimuli.
Phase 2 occurs over the next two days, and is characterized by the return of some, but not all, reflexes below the SCI. The first reflexes to reappear are polysynaptic in nature, such as the bulbocavernosus reflex. Monosynaptic reflexes, such as the deep tendon reflexes, are not restored until Phase 3. Restoration of reflexes is not rostral to caudal as previously (and commonly) believed, but instead proceeds from polysynaptic to monosynaptic. The reason reflexes return is the hypersensitivity of reflex muscles following denervation – more receptors for neurotransmitters are expressed and are therefore easier to stimulate.
Phases 3 and 4 are characterized by hyperreflexia, or abnormally strong reflexes usually produced with minimal stimulation. Interneurons and lower motor neurons below the SCI begin sprouting, attempting to re-establish synapses. The first synapses to form are from shorter axons, usually from interneurons – this categorizes Phase 3. Phase 4 on the other hand, is soma-mediated, and will take longer for the soma to transport various growth factors, including proteins, to the end of the axon.
Autonomic effects.
In spinal cord injuries above T6, neurogenic shock may occur, from the loss of autonomic innervation from the brain. Parasympathetic is preserved but the synergy between sympathetic and parasympathetic system is lost in cervical and high thoracic SCI lesions. Sacral parasympathetic loss may be encountered in lesions below T6 or T7. Cervical lesions cause total loss of sympathetic innervation and lead to vasovagal hypotension and bradyarrhythmias – which resolve in 3–6 weeks. Autonomic dysreflexia is permanent, and occurs from Phase 4 onwards. It is characterized by unchecked sympathetic stimulation below the SCI (from a loss of cranial regulation), leading to often extreme hypertension, loss of bladder or bowel control, sweating, headaches, and other sympathetic effects.


European Society for Neurochemistry

The European Society for Neurochemistry (ESN) is a learned society for neurochemists and neuroscientists from Europe whose research concerns the role and interactions of small molecules in the function and pathology of the nervous system.
History.
The society was founded in 1976 with the aim of helping to advance the field of neurochemistry for the public benefit, in particular to facilitate exchange of ideas and interests amongst its members.
In the years before the establishment of the ESN, many European neurochemists were centrally involved in the development of the subject, for example in the discussions which led to the establishment of the "Journal of Neurochemistry" in 1956 and especially in the formation of the International Society for Neurochemistry (ISN) in 1967. In the same year as the foundation of ISN (1967), the Neurochemical Group of the British Biochemical Society was established, many of its meetings with an international and particularly European flavour.
During the years 1974 to 1975, in particular at a meeting of clinical neurochemists organised by Armand Lowenthal in Brussels in 1974, many participants expressed the need for a Society of Neurochemistry in Europe, which would not only provide a forum for exchanging ideas and new developments in the subject, but also provide a vehicle for strong contact between clinically oriented and basic neurochemists. The various views were finally co-coordinated at a meeting organised by Lars Svennerholm at the Billinghus conference centre in Skövde, Sweden, in May 1975. Some general principles were agreed upon: that the society should be open to members from all European countries, East and West, who were interested in neurochemistry and allied subjects, and that it should pay special attention to clinical and applied aspects of the subject.
The working party accepted an invitation, through Alan Davison from the Neurochemical Group of the British Biochemical Society, to organise the first meeting to be held in Bath, UK, in September 1976. The organising committee (Brian Ansell, Tim Hawthorne, George Lunt, and Herman S. Bachelard) were all members of the Neurochemical Group of the British Biochemical Society. The working party had requested that the meeting should have a clinical theme, so the general area of "Basic Aspects of Neurochemistry Related to the Epilepsies" was chosen. Approximately 350 participants attended the meeting.
Meetings.
Meetings are held every two years. From 1999, every six years the ESN helps organise a joint meeting with the International Society for Neurochemistry. ESN meetings are designed to promote scientific discussions. Special efforts are taken to encourage young investigator participation. Short oral presentations are selected from the submitted abstracts. There are daily poster sessions.


Potassium channel opener

A potassium channel opener is a type of drug which facilitates ion transmission through potassium channels.
Examples.
Some examples include:


Interneuron

Interneurons (also called internuncial neurons, relay neurons, association neurons, connector neurons, intermediate neurons or local circuit neurons) are neurons that connect two brain regions, i.e. not direct motor neurons or sensory neurons. Interneurons are the central nodes of neural circuits, enabling communication between sensory or motor neurons and the central nervous system (CNS). They play vital roles in reflexes, neuronal oscillations, and neurogenesis in the adult mammalian brain.
Interneurons can be further broken down into two groups: local interneurons and relay interneurons. Local interneurons have short axons and form circuits with nearby neurons to analyze small pieces of information. Relay interneurons have long axons and connect circuits of neurons in one region of the brain with those in other regions. The interaction between interneurons allow the brain to perform complex functions such as learning, and decision-making.
Structure.
In the neocortex (making up about 80% of the human brain), approximately 20–30% of neurons are interneurons. Investigations into the molecular diversity of neurons is impeded by the inability to isolate cell populations born at different times for gene expression analysis. An effective means of identifying coetaneous interneurons is neuronal birthdating. This can be achieved using nucleoside analogs such as EdU.
In 2008, a nomenclature for the features of GABAergic cortical interneurons was proposed, called "Petilla terminology".
Function.
Interneurons in the CNS are primarily inhibitory, and use the neurotransmitter GABA or glycine. However, excitatory interneurons using glutamate in the CNS also exist, as do interneurons releasing neuromodulators like acetylcholine. Interneurons main function is to provide a neural circuit, conducting flow of signals or information between a sensory neuron and or motor neuron.


Jul (Korean Bow)

Jul is a traditional Korean greeting and is oftentimes accompanied by a handshake. Use both hands when handshaking (right arm performing the handshake should be supported by the left arm). Koreans prefer to do business with people who they already know so if it's possible, try to have a third party to originate the business. Do not introduce yourself and wait until the third party introduces you. In South Korea, it is a common practice to share gifts at the first meeting. It is intended to build relationships and acquire favors. Gift is part of the business culture and it is not considered bribery. When giving or receiving gifts, make sure to use both hands since using one hand is considered rude. However, do not give an expensive gift because gifts are reciprocated. Also present the gift in a modest fashion.


Satellite glial cell

Satellite glial cells (or satellite cells) (formerly called amphicytes) are glial cells that cover the surface of neuron cell bodies in ganglia of the peripheral nervous system. Thus, they are found in sensory, sympathetic, and parasympathetic ganglia. Both satellite glial cells (SGCs) and Schwann cells (the cells that ensheathe some nerve fibers in the PNS) are derived from the neural crest of the embryo during development. SGCs have been found to play a variety of roles, including control over the microenvironment of sympathetic ganglia. They are thought to have a similar role to astrocytes in the central nervous system (CNS). They supply nutrients to the surrounding neurons and also have some structural function. Satellite cells also act as protective, cushioning cells. Additionally, they express a variety of receptors that allow for a range of interactions with neuroactive chemicals. Many of these receptors and other ion channels have recently been implicated in health issues including chronic pain and herpes simplex. There is much more to be learned about these cells, and research surrounding additional properties and roles of the SGCs is ongoing.
Structure.
Satellite glial cells are a type of glia found in the peripheral nervous system, specifically in sensory, sympathetic, and parasympathetic ganglia. They compose the thin cellular sheaths that surround the individual neurons in these ganglia.
In a SGC, the cell body is denoted by the region containing the single, relatively large nucleus. Each side of the cell body extends outward, forming perineuronal processes. The region containing the nucleus has the largest volume of cytoplasm, making this region of the SGC sheath thicker. The sheath can be even thicker if multiple SGCs are layered on top of one another, each measuring .
Despite their flattened shape, satellite glial cells contain all common organelles necessary to make cellular products and to maintain the homeostatic environment of the cell. The plasma membrane of SGCs is thin and not very dense, and it is associated with adhesion molecules, receptors for neurotransmitters and other molecules, and ion channels, specifically potassium ion channels. Within individual SGCs, there is both rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, but the latter is much less abundant. Most often the Golgi apparatus and the centrioles in an SGC are found in a region very close to the cell's nucleus. On the other hand, mitochondria are found throughout the cytoplasm along with the organelles involved in autophagy and other forms of catabolic degradation, such as lysosomes, lipofuscin granules, and peroxisomes. Both microtubules and intermediate filaments can be seen throughout the cytoplasm, and most often they lie parallel to the SGC sheath. These filaments are found in greater concentrations at the axon hillock and at the beginning portion of an axon in an SGC of the sympathetic ganglia. In some SGCs of the sensory ganglia researchers have seen a single cilium that extends outward from the cell surface near the nucleus and into the extracellular space of a deep indentation in the plasma membrane. The cilium, however, only has the nine pairs of peripheral microtubules while it lacks the axial pair of microtubules, making its structure very similar to the cilia of neurons, Schwann cells, and astrocytes of the CNS.
In sensory ganglia.
Satellite glial cells in sensory ganglia are laminar cells that wrap around sensory neurons. An envelope of multiple SGCs completely surrounds each sensory neuron. The number of SGCs that make up the sheath increases proportionately with the volume of the neuron which it surrounds. Additionally, the volume of the sheath itself increases proportionately with the volume and surface area of the neuron's somata. The distance of extracellular space between the sheath and the neuronal plasma membrane measures , allowing the neuron and its SGC sheath to form a single anatomical and functional unit. These individual units are separated by areas of connective tissue. However, there are some sensory neurons that occupy the same space within connective tissue and are therefore grouped together in a “cluster” of two or three neurons. Most often each individual neuron in a cluster is still surrounded by its own SGC sheath, but in some cases it is missing. Some sensory neurons have small projections called microvilli that extend outward from their cell surfaces. Due to their close proximity to the SGC sheath, these microvilli of the neuronal plasma membrane reach into the grooves of the sheath, allowing for possible exchange of materials between the cells.
In sympathetic ganglia.
In the sympathetic ganglia, satellite glial cells are one of three main types of cells, the other two being the sympathetic ganglion neurons and small intensely fluorescent (SIF) cells. SIF cells of sympathetic ganglia are separated into groups, each of which is surrounded by an SGC sheath. The SGCs of the sympathetic ganglia come from the neural crest and do not proliferate during embryonic development until the neurons are present and mature, indicating that the neurons signal the division and maturation of the SGCs. The SGCs of sympathetic ganglia follow the same basic structure as the SGCs of sensory ganglia, except that sympathetic ganglia also receive synapses. Therefore, the SGC sheath of sympathetic neurons must extend even further to cover the axon hillock near the somata. Like the regions of the sheath near the glial nucleus, the regions of the sheath at the axon hillocks are thicker than those surrounding the rest of the neuron. This indicates that the SGCs play a role in the synaptic environment, thereby influencing synaptic transmission.
Differences from other glial cells.
Many people liken SGCs to the astrocytes of the CNS because they share certain anatomical and physiological properties, such as the presence of neurotransmitter transporters and the expression of glutamine synthetase. However, there are distinguishing factors that put SGCs in their own distinct category of glial cells. SGCs most often surround individual sensory and parasympathetic neurons with a complete, unbroken sheath while most neurons of sympathetic ganglia lack a completely continuous SGC sheath, allowing for limited direct exchange of materials between the extracellular space of the neuron and the space within the connective tissue where the SGCs are situated. Furthermore, gap junctions exist between SGCs in the sheaths of adjacent neurons as well as between SGCs in the same sheath (reflexive gap junctions). These gap junctions have been identified through the use of electron microscopy and weight tracer markers, such as Lucifer yellow or neurobiotin. The degree to which SGCs are coupled to SGCs of another sheath or to SGCs of the same sheath is dependent on the pH of the cellular environment.
From studies on rats and mice, researchers have found that satellite glial cells express many neurotransmitter receptors, such as muscarinic acetylcholine and erythropoietin receptors. In order to differentiate between SGCs and other glial cells researchers have used markers to identify which proteins are found in different cells. Although SGCs express glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and different S-100 proteins, the most useful marker available today for SGC identification is glutamine synthetase (GS). The levels of GS are relatively low at rest, but they greatly increase if the neuron undergoes axonal damage. Furthermore, SGCs also possess mechanisms to release cytokines, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and other chemical messengers.
Function.
Research is currently ongoing in determining the physiological role of satellite glial cells. Current theories suggest that SGCs have a significant role in controlling the microenvironment of the sympathetic ganglia. This is based on the observation that SGCs almost completely envelop the neuron and can regulate the diffusion of molecules across the cell membrane. It has been previously shown that when fluorescent protein tracers are injected into the cervical ganglion in order to bypass the circulatory system, they are not found on the neuron surface. This suggests that the SGCs can regulate the extracellular space of individual neurons. Some speculate that SGCs in the autonomic ganglia have a similar role to the blood–brain barrier as a functional barrier to large molecules.
SGCs role as a regulator of neuronal microenvironment is further characterized by its electrical properties which are very similar to those of astrocytes. Astrocytes have a well studied and defined role in controlling the microenvironment within the brain, therefore researchers are investigating any homologous role of SGCs within the sympathetic ganglia. An established mode of controlling the microenvironment in sensory ganglia is the uptake of substances by specialized transporters which carry neurotransmitters into cells when coupled with Na+ and Cl−. Transporters for glutamate and gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) have been found in SGCs. They appear to be actively engaged in the control of the composition of the extracellular space of the ganglia. The enzyme glutamine synthetase, which catalyzes the conversion of glutamate into glutamine, is found in large amounts in SGCs. Additionally, SGCs contain the glutamate related enzymes glutamate dehydrogenase and pyruvate carboxylase, and thus can supply the neurons not only with glutamine, but also with malate and lactate.
Molecular properties.
Unlike their adjacent neurons, SGCs do not have synapses but are equipped with receptors for a variety of neuroactive substances that are analogous to those found in neurons. Axon terminals as well as other parts of the neuron carry receptors to substancesas acetylcholine (ACh), GABA, glutamate, ATP, noradrenaline, substance P, and capsaicin that directly affect the physiology of these cells. Current research is revealing that SGCs are also able to respond to some of the same chemical stimuli as neurons. The research is ongoing and SGCs role in injury repair mechanisms is not yet fully understood.
Clinical significance.
Chronic pain.
Glial cells, including SGCs, have long been recognized for their roles in response to neuronal damage and injury. SCGs have specifically been implicated in a new role involving the creation and persistence of chronic pain, which may involve hyperalgesia and other forms of spontaneous pain.
Secretion of bioactive molecules.
SGCs have the ability to release cytokines and other bioactive molecules that transmit pain neuronally. Neurotrophins and tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) are other cellular factors that work to sensitize neurons to pain. SGCs are present in the PNS in fewer numbers than other more well-known types of glial cells, like astrocytes, but have been determined to affect nociception because of some of their physiological and pharmacological properties. In fact, just like astrocytes, SGCs have the ability to sense and regulate neighboring neuronal activity. First, after a period of nerve cell injury, SGCs are known to up-regulate GFAP and to undergo cell division. They have the ability to release chemoattractants, which are analogous to those released by Schwann cells and contribute to the recruitment and proliferation of macrophages. Additionally, several research groups have found that SGC coupling increases after nerve damage, which has an effect on the perception of pain, likely for several reasons. Normally, the gap junctions between SGCs are used in order to redistribute potassium ions between adjacent cells. However, in coupling of SGCs, the number of gap junctions greatly increases. This may possibly be to deal with larger amounts of ATP and glutamate, which eventually leads to increased recycling of the glutamate. The increased levels of glutamate lead to over excitation and an increase in nociception.
Expression of receptors and ion channels.
Various neuronal receptors present on SGCs have been named as participants in ATP-evoked pain signals, particularly the homomultimer P2X3 and the heteromultimer P2X2/3 purinoceptors. In general, the P2X family of receptors responds to neuronally released ATP. Each of the P2X subtypes are found in sensory neurons with the exception of the P2X7 receptor, which is selectively expressed by glial cells, including SGCs. The receptor has been implicated in the release of interleukin IL-1β from macrophages or microglia and astrocytes. The receptor likely has a part in the cascade of events that end with inflammation and neuropathic pain. It has been discovered that this receptor has an antagonist in the form of A-317491, which, when present, has the ability to reduce both the evoked and unprompted firing of various classes of spinal neurons, as well as to inhibit release of IL-1β. However, the outside influences of receptors P2X3 and P2Y1 are believed to complicate the interactions between P2X7 and its antagonist, making it a non-ideal target when using pharmacological strategy.
P2Y receptors are also found on both neurons and glial cells. Their role is less clear than that of the P2X receptors, but it has been noted they have several conflicting functions. In some cases, these receptors act as analgesics, as P2Y1 has the ability to inhibit the action of P2X3. In other cases, the receptors contribute to nociception through the modulation of the extracellular concentration of calcitonin gene related peptide (CGRP). These conflicting roles are being researched further so that they may serve as potential targets for the development of a variety of therapeutic drugs.
SGCs also express a specific type of channel, the Kir4.1 channel, which works to maintain the desired low extracellular K+ concentration in order to control hyperexcitability, which is known to cause migraines. Additionally, extracellular K+ concentration has been found to be controlled by guanine nucleoside guanosine (Guo). Guo, which may be involved in neuron-to-SGC communication and interaction in sensory ganglia, is also a potential target that could control the alterations of extracellular K+ concentration associated with chronic pain.
Herpes simplex.
Sensory ganglia have been associated with infections from viruses like herpes simplex, which can exist in a dormant state within the ganglia for decades after the primary infection. When the virus becomes reactivated, blisters on the skin and mucous membranes appear. During the latent stage of the virus, the viruses are rarely located in the SGCs within the sensory ganglia, but the SGCs may still play an important role within the disease. It has been proposed that SGCs act to create walls to prevent the spread of the virus from infected to uninfected neurons. If this wall of protection was to break down, then the infection could become more widespread. This property may be explained by looking at the location and arrangement of the SGCs, as they are centered on the neurons, allowing them to protect the neurons. It has also been proposed that SGCs may have a job in ridding the ganglia of the virus and in protecting and repairing the nervous system after the virus has left the dormant stage.
Research directions.
The majority of the information available on the subject of SGCs comes from research which was focused on the sensory neurons that the SGCs surround rather than the SGCs themselves. In the future, researchers plan to give more time and attention to the SGCs, which have many supportive and protective functions essential for life. Neurotransmitter and hormone receptors on SGCs "in situ" rather than in culture will likely be explored and definitively characterized. Changes in the receptors caused by various mutations and diseases will also be explored in order to determine the effect of these conditions. Additionally, the mechanisms behind neuronal-SGC communication is essentially unidentified, though it is likely that the various receptors both the neurons and SGCs have are used for chemical signaling, perhaps with P2Y. Ca2+ and NO and their effects must also be observed to gain further understanding of interactions between the two types of cells. Finally, the possibility of an influence of SGCs on synaptic transmission within autonomic ganglia provides another direction for future research.


Partial evaluation

In computing, partial evaluation is a technique for several different types of program optimization by specialization. The most straightforward application is to produce new programs that run faster than the originals while being guaranteed to behave in the same way.
A computer program "prog" is seen as a mapping of input data into output data:
where formula_2, the "static data", is the part of the input data known at compile time.
The partial evaluator transforms formula_3 into formula_4 by precomputing all static input at compile time. formula_5 is called the "residual program" and should run more efficiently than the original program. The act of partial evaluation is said to "residualize" formula_6 to formula_5.
Futamura projections.
A particularly interesting example of the use of partial evaluation, first described in the 1970s by Yoshihiko Futamura, is when "prog" is an interpreter for a programming language.
If "I"static is source code designed to run inside that interpreter, then partial evaluation of the interpreter with respect to this data/program produces "prog"*, a version of the interpreter that only runs that source code, is written in the implementation language of the interpreter, does not require the source code to be resupplied, and runs faster than the original combination of the interpreter and the source. In this case "prog"* is effectively a compiled version of "I"static.
This technique is known as the first Futamura projection, of which there are three:
Furthermore, applying the tool in #3 to itself yields the tool itself, so it is a Quine.
They were first described by Futamura in 1983.


Valoneic acid dilactone

Valoneic acid dilactone is a hydrolysable tannin that can be isolated from the heartwood of "Shorea laeviforia" and in oaks species like the North American white oak ("Quercus alba") and European red oak ("Quercus robur").
It shows an inhibitory effect on 5α-reductase, an enzyme involved in steroids metabolism and prostate cancer.


List of marketed estradiol benzoate formulations

This is a list of currently marketed formulations of estradiol benzoate (EB) throughout the world. Both EB alone and combinations of EB with other medications are included. The brand name, manufacturers, and countries marketed are listed. Discontinued or no longer marketed formulations of EB are not listed. The formulations listed unless otherwise indicated are generally oil solutions for intramuscular injection.


PDM-35

2-Phenyl-3,5-dimethylmorpholine is a drug with stimulant and anorectic effects, related to phenmetrazine. Based on what is known from other phenylmorpholines with similar structure, it likely acts as a norepinephrine-dopamine releasing agent and may produce effects similar or slightly different to phenmetrazine.


Seminar

A seminar is a form of academic instruction, either at an academic institution or offered by a commercial or professional organization. It has the function of bringing together small groups for recurring meetings, focusing each time on some particular subject, in which everyone present is requested to participate. This is often accomplished through an ongoing Socratic dialogue with a seminar leader or instructor, or through a more formal presentation of research. It is essentially a place where assigned readings are discussed, questions can be raised and debates can be conducted.
Etymology.
The word "seminar" is derived from the Latin word "seminarium", meaning "seed plot" (an old-fashioned term for “seedbed”).
Overview.
At North Indian universities, the term "seminar" refers to a course of intense study relating to the student's major. Seminars typically have significantly fewer students per professor than normal courses, and are generally more specific in topic of study. Seminars can revolve around term papers, exams, presentations, and several other assignments. Seminars are almost always required for university graduation. Normally, participants must not be beginners in the field under discussion at US and Canadian universities. Seminar classes are generally reserved for upper-class students, although at UK and Australian universities seminars are often used for all years. The idea behind the seminar system is to familiarize students more extensively with the methodology of their chosen subject and also to allow them to interact with examples of the practical problems that always occur during research work.
In some European universities, a "seminar" may be a large lecture course, especially when conducted by a renowned thinker (regardless of the size of the audience or the scope of student participation in discussion). Some non-English speaking countries in Europe use the word "seminar" (e.g. German "Seminar", Slovenian "seminar", Polish "seminarium") to refer to a university class that includes a term paper or project, as opposed to a lecture class (e.g. German "Vorlesung", Slovenian "predavanje", Polish "wykład"). This does not correspond to the English use of the term. In some academic institutions, typically in scientific fields, the term "preceptorial" is used interchangeably with "seminar".
The term "seminar" is also used to describe a research talk, often given by a visiting researcher and primarily attended by academics, research staff, and postgraduate students. Seminars often occur in regular series, but each seminar is typically given by a different speaker, on a topic of that speaker's choosing. Such seminars are not usually a part of a course of study and are therefore not usually associated with any assessment or credit. The term "colloquium" is often used interchangeably with seminar in this sense.
Seminar rooms.
"Seminar room" is often used as a name for a generic group study or work space at a library. Some seminar rooms are more tailored to a specific topic or field, literally a space designed for a seminar course or individualized self-study to occur. One such seminar room is the Goodrich Seminar Room at Wabash College which is designed for "exploring the meaning of liberty and the nature of a free society."


Rhomboid fossa

The rhomboid fossa is a rhombus-shaped depression that is the anterior part of the fourth ventricle. Its anterior wall, formed by the back of the pons and the medulla oblongata, constitutes the floor of the fourth ventricle.
It is covered by a thin layer of grey matter continuous with that of the spinal cord; superficial to this is a thin lamina of neuroglia which constitutes the ependyma of the ventricle and supports a layer of ciliated epithelium.
Parts.
The fossa consists of three parts, superior, intermediate, and inferior:
The sulcus limitans forms the lateral boundary of the medial eminence.
Features.
In the superior part of the rhomboid fossa it corresponds with the lateral limit of the fossa and presents a bluish-gray area, the locus coeruleus, which owes its color to an underlying patch of deeply pigmented nerve cells, termed the substantia ferruginea.
At the level of the facial colliculus the sulcus limitans widens into a flattened depression, the superior fovea, and in the inferior part of the fossa appears as a distinct dimple, the inferior fovea.
Lateral to the foveæ is a rounded elevation named the area acustica, which extends into the lateral recess and there forms a feebly marked swelling, the tuberculum acusticum.
Winding around the inferior peduncle and crossing the area acustica and the medial eminence are a number of white strands, the striæ medullares, which form a portion of the cochlear division of the acoustic nerve and disappear into the median sulcus.
Below the inferior fovea, and between the hypoglossal trigone and the lower part of the area acustica is a triangular dark field, the vagal trigone, which corresponds to the sensory nucleus of the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves.
The lower end of the vagal trigone is crossed by a narrow translucent ridge, the funiculus separans, and between this funiculus and the gracile nucleus, is a small tongue-shaped area, the area postrema.
On section it is seen that the funiculus separans is formed by a strip of thickened ependyma, and the area postrema by loose, highly vascular, neuroglial tissue containing nerve cells of moderate size.


Bisulepin

Bisulepin is strong and relatively selective antihistamine (H1 antagonist) with hypnotic, antiadrenergic and very weak anticholinergic and antiserotonergic effects. Bisulepin is marketed in the Czech Republic and Slovakia under the trademark Dithiaden as tablets and injections.
The registered active form is the "trans"- (i.e. "E"-) isomer.


Ventral anterior nucleus

The ventral anterior nucleus (VA) is a nucleus of the thalamus. It acts with the anterior part of the ventral lateral nucleus to modify signals from the basal ganglia.
Inputs and outputs.
The ventral anterior nucleus receives neuronal inputs from the basal ganglia. Its main afferent fibres are from the globus pallidus. The efferent fibres from this nucleus pass into the premotor cortex for initiation and planning of movement.
Functions.
It helps to function in movement by providing feedback for the outputs of the basal ganglia.


American Society for Neurochemistry

The American Society for Neurochemistry (ASN) is a professional society for neurochemists and neuroscientists from North, Central, and South America and the Caribbean, whose research concerns the role and interactions of small molecules (proteins, peptides, nucleic acids, lipids, sugars) in the development, growth, function, and pathology of the nervous system.
History.
The ASN was incorporated August 5, 1969, and is guided by a set of bylaws and standing rules that incorporate amendments to the bylaws. The first president was Donald B. Tower, Jordi Folch Pi was the second president. The current president (2013–2015) is Etty Benveniste (University of Alabama at Birmingham) and the current president elect is Babette Fuss (Richmond, Virginia). Elections are held ever 2 years to elect the next president, treasurer, secretary, and council members.
Organization.
The officers and council members are assisted by a number of standing committees. An informal history of the ASN has been put together by Claude Baxter.
Annual meeting.
Annual meetings include plenary lectures, symposia, colloquia and workshops over the course of 4 days. The first such meeting was held March 16–18, 1970 in Albuquerque, NM.
Every 6 years, the ASN helps organize a joint meeting with the International Society for Neurochemistry.
Publications.
The ASN publishes the textbook "Basic Neurochemistry" for use by undergraduate, graduate, and post graduate students and instructors. The founding editor was George Siegel, and the current chief editor is Scott Brady. It is currently in its 8th edition, which was published in December 2011.
The ASN launched an open access online journal, "ASN Neuro", at the 40th annual meeting which took place in March 2009. It was initially published by Portland Press, and taken over by Sage Publications in 2014. "ASN Neuro" furthers the ASN missions to advance, promote, support, encourage and facilitate communication among cellular and molecular neuroscientists.
Awards.
The Jordi Folch-Pi Award is given to an outstanding young investigator who has demonstrated a high level of research competence and originality, who has significantly advanced our knowledge of neurochemistry and who shows a high degree of potential for future accomplishments.
The Marian Kies Memorial Award is given to a junior scientist for outstanding research conducted during graduate training.
The Bernard Haber Award recognizes an individual whose leadership skills have fostered collaborations among the world's neuroscientists.
The ASN offers Young Investigator Educational Enhancement awards to graduate students in their last year of studies and who reside in the Americas to travel to the annual meeting. Beginning at the 2010 meeting, one YIEE awardee is selected to receive the "ASN Neuro" travel award.
ASN also offers Young Latin American Award scholarships for young neuroscientists from Latin American countries. These awards subsidize travel expenses to attend the Annual Meeting, along with a short visit to an established neuroscience laboratory in North America.


Contone (printing)


Ian Anderson (British politician)

Ian Hugh Myddleton Anderson (1953 – 2 February 2011) was a leading figure on the British far-right in the 1980s and 1990s.
Biography.
Early life.
Anderson was born in Hillingdon in 1953. His involvement in politics began in the mid-1970s when he was close to certain elements on the right of the Conservative Party, particularly the Monday Club.
National Front.
Anderson joined the National Front in the late 1970s and was initially seen as a supporter of National Organiser Martin Webster. However, when the Political Soldier faction, led by figures such as Nick Griffin and Derek Holland, moved against Webster and his assistant Michael Salt, Anderson sided with the rebels and used his casting vote to ensure that Webster and Salt were expelled for mismanagement.
Anderson became a close associate of Andrew Brons and, like Brons, largely indulged the Political Soldiers faction, writing for the Third Positionist party magazine "Nationalism Today". He also played a leading role in working with Ian Stuart Donaldson to ensure that Rock Against Communism became the province of the NF rather than the British Movement. As Anderson grew in influence within the NF divisions between the faction led by Brons and himself and the Political Soldiers grew, as Anderson was a strong supporter of electoral participation. He became one of the leading figures grouped around the dissident "Flag" newspaper (edited by Martin Wingfield) and was expelled by the Official National Front along with the rest of his faction in 1986, reconstituting as the Flag Group. The divisions reached a crisis at the Vauxhall by-election in 1989, where an NF candidate for each faction stood (Patrick Harrington and Ted Budden), splitting support and haranguing one another on live TV as the declaration of votes was made. Anderson, nonetheless, became a powerful figure within the Flag Group and by 1990 was effective leader, Andrew Brons having left the political scene.
In 1987, Troy Southgate and Patrick Harrington, acting for the NF's Security and Intelligence Department (SID), photographed Anderson in Stratford, east London, when it was discovered that his printing business was housed in the same building as the offices of Searchlight, an anti-fascist organisation.
With the Official NF having split into the International Third Position and Third Way, Anderson gained control of the NF in 1990 and attempted to remodel the party back along the lines of John O'Brien in the early 1970s when they had appeared at one stage to be a potential threat to the mainstream parties. The spur for this was undoubtedly the success of the Front National. He had also attempted to gain contacts in the United States and in 1989 he had established a link with Richard Barrett and the Nationalist Movement with a pact known as the 'New Atlantic Charter'. Anderson's NF suffered however from the inactivity and in-fighting of the 1980s, whilst the emergence of the British National Party was also a major check on his ambitions as leader.
National Democrats.
Anderson soon came to believe that the negative connotations of the National Front name were proving a bar to success and so in 1995 he relaunched the party as the National Democrats, after a postal ballot of the members. The launch was not without its problems however: within a month, many activists had joined the continuing National Front run by John McAuley.
Anderson maintained contacts in Northern Ireland (which the Flag Group's Joe Pearce had built up during the 1980s), particularly within the right of the Ulster Unionist Party and in the 1997 General Election he stood as a candidate for the Londonderry East constituency. Securing a mere 0.2% share of the vote in the constituency, Anderson soon abandoned his Northern Ireland strategy.
Later activities.
The National Democrats became the Campaign for National Democracy pressure group and ceased actively contesting elections.
In 2004, he became a figure in community politics, campaigning for adult learning, local clean-ups, and more shops and fewer restaurants amongst other local campaigns. He was also involved in setting up the People's Campaign to Keep the Pound, along with Anthony Bennett, a leading member of Robert Kilroy-Silk's Veritas.
Anderson was the leader of the short-lived Epping Community Action Group, which was registered with the Electoral Commission as a political party in April 2006. The group stood two candidates, including Anderson, for election to Epping Forest District Council in the 2007 local elections, but came third in both wards. He gained 215 votes in the Epping Hemnall ward beating a British National Party candidate by 68 votes.
Anderson was also involved in a number of other groups such as the Conservative Democratic Alliance. He gave considerable support to UKIP in later years and aided Pam Barden of Save Our Sovereignty (now sponsored by UKIP).
Panther Print.
Anderson ran a printing business called Panther Print in Dagenham, which has been used by the nationalist movement. Panther Print was based at Britannia House, and the building doubled as National Democrats' HQ.
He died in Epping in 2011 from a brain tumour. His funeral took place on 15 February 2011.


Nasopalatine nerve

One branch of the pterygopalatine ganglion (trigeminal nerve, maxillary branch), longer and larger than the others, is named the nasopalatine nerve (sometimes called the long sphenopalatine nerve).
It enters the nasal cavity through the sphenopalatine foramen, passes across the roof of the nasal cavity below the orifice of the sphenoidal sinus to reach the septum, and then runs obliquely downward and forward between the periosteum and mucous membrane of the lower part of the septum.
It descends to the roof of the mouth through the incisive canal and communicates with the corresponding nerve of the opposite side and with the greater palatine nerve.
It supplies the palatal structures around the maxillary anterior teeth (central incisors, lateral incisors, and the canines).
It also furnishes a few filaments to the mucous membrane of the nasal septum.
The medial superior posterior nasal branches of the maxillary nerve usually branch from the nasopalatine nerve.
It was first discovered by Domenico Cotugno.


Anabel Jensen

Dr. Anabel L. Jensen is an American educator and author best known for her work with curriculum utilizing emotional intelligence. A former director of the Nueva Learning Center in the 1980s and 1990s, she became president of Six Seconds in 1997 and CEO of Synapse School in 2009. She currently is a professor at Notre Dame De Namur University.
Biography.
Anabel Lee Jensen, born to two US Army officers who were of Danish descent, began attending Brigham Young University in 1961, and graduated in 1966 with a BA in psychology and a Masters of Education. She received her Ph.D. from the University of California, Berkeley in 1976, where she majored in child development and minored in statistics.
From 1983 to 1997, she was Executive Director of the Nueva Learning Center in California, where she helped develop the "Self-Science" curriculum featured in Daniel Goleman's 1995 book "Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ", which helped bring EQ into the mainstream.
In 1997, former Nueva School administrators and teachers Jensen, Karen McCown, Joshua Freedman and Marsha Rideout left the school to found the Six Seconds EQ Network, a non-profit focused on education about EQ. As founding President, she has helped write training programs and psychometric assessments for the organization, including Six Seconds Emotional Intelligence Assessment (SEI) and the Youth Version (SEI-YV).
She co-founded the elementary and middle school Synapse School with Karen Stone-McCown in 2009, and remains CEO. she is a full professor at the Notre Dame De Namur University in California, where she teaches psychology to graduate students and is Department Chair of the school's College of Education. She is also a principal advisor to the Gifted Support Center and an advisor for Unite Education.
In 2015, Jensen was named one of the top 100 Women of Influence for 2015 by the Silicon Valley Business Journal for her work in the field of emotional intelligence. She has been interviewed frequently in digital and print publications such as "Quartz" (2015) and "bizjournals.com" (2015).
Writing career.
Jensen has authored articles for outlets such as "Priorities Magazine" and the Discovery Channel, including the 1986 article "Greater than the parts: Shared decision making" about the Nueva School, in the "Roeper Review". The second edition of "Self-Science" was published in 1998, with Jensen contributing. She published "Joy and Loss: The Emotional Lives of Gifted Children" with Joshua Freedman in 1999, and the book "Emotional Development and Emotional Intelligence: Educational Implications" was written based on Jensen providing curriculum access to the writer. In 2010, she published "Feeling Smart: Competencies Recommendations and Exercises". She has been a keynote speaker at national conferences on various topics.


List of colors in various languages


Permissiveness (biology)

In endocrinology, permissiveness is a biochemical phenomenon in which the presence of one hormone is required in order for another hormone to exert its full effects on a target cell. Hormones can interact in permissive, synergistic, or antagonistic ways. The chemical classes of hormones include amines, polypeptides, glycoproteins and steroids. Permissive hormones act as precursors to active hormones and may be classified as either prohormones or prehormones. It stimulate the formation of receptors of that hormone.
Examples.
Thyroid hormone increases the number of beta adrenergic receptors available for epinephrine at the latter's target cell, thereby increasing epinephrine's effect on that cell. Specially in cardiac cell. Without the thyroid hormone, epinephrine would have only a weak effect.
Cortisol exerts a permissive effect on growth hormone.
The effects of a hormone in the body depend on its concentration. Permissive actions of glucocorticoids like cortisol generally occur at low concentrations. Abnormally high amounts of a hormone can result in atypical effects. Glucocorticoids function by attaching to cytoplasmic receptors to either enhance or suppress changes in the transcription of DNA and thus the synthesis of proteins. Glucocorticoids also inhibit the secretion of cytokines via post-translational modification effects.


Brain Structure and Function

Brain Structure and Function is a bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on brain structure-function relationships. It was established in 1891 as "Anatomische Hefte", renamed first "Zeitschrift für Anatomie und Entwicklungsgeschichte" in 1921 and then "Anatomy and Embryology" in 1974, before obtaining its current name in 2007. It is published by Springer Science+Business Media and the editors-in-chief are Laszlo Zaborszky (Rutgers University) and Karl Zilles (Forschungszentrum Jülich).
Abstracting and indexing.
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:
According to the "Journal Citation Reports", the journal has a 2017 impact factor of 3.622.


Duane Beeson

Duane Willard Beeson (July 16, 1921 – February 13, 1947) was an American fighter pilot and flying ace of World War II. He scored 22.08 victories, including 17.3 air-to-air kills, 12 of which were scored in the P-47C/D Thunderbolt, and 5.3 of which were scored in the P-51-B Mustang. Beeson was one of ten United States Army Air Forces pilots who became an ace in two different types of fighter aircraft.
Early life and education.
Beeson was born on July 16, 1921 in Boise, Idaho. At Boise High School he joined the Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps program as platoon bugler. Although slight in stature in high school, he was a member of a boxing club and played high school football.
By the spring of 1939 Beeson planned to study law at the University of California.
Military career.
Beeson planned to join the Army Air Corps as a pilot, but as he had not completed the required two years of college he joined the Royal Canadian Air Force in Canada, which had no such entry qualifications.
Beeson joined the Royal Canadian Air Force on June 23, 1941 in Vancouver and trained at Prince Albert and Yorkton, Saskatchewan. By February 26, 1942, Beeson had 201 hours of flight time and had successfully completed the training curriculum with a rating of "A good average pilot and is slightly overconfident. No outstanding faults." Beeson was posted to Bournemouth, England and started conversion to the Hawker Hurricane. On September 5, 1942 Beeson was posted to No. 71 Squadron at Debden, Essex.
World War II.
At the time the United States Army Air Forces were arriving in England for operations over Europe. The RAF Eagle Squadrons were being absorbed into the Eighth Air Force, and Beeson among those who resigned their RCAF commissions and transferred to the USAAF. The newly formed 4th Fighter Group continued to fly its RAF-issued Supermarine Spitfires until it received the P-47 Thunderbolts in early 1943.
Beeson flew his first combat mission with his new unit, the 334th Fighter Squadron. In November, Beeson flew a test flight to fire his guns and flew unauthorized over the French coast, attacking German road transport and damaging his aircraft.
In January 1943, Beeson was training on the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt. On May 8, 1943, Beeson engaged a group of German fighters and shot down a Bf 109. On June 26, during an escort mission over Dieppe he spotted two Messerschmitt 109s, one with a P-47 on his tail. Beeson shot down one Bf 109 into the sea, using just 400 rounds of ammunition. A month later Beeson was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross in recognition of 37 combat missions and two victories.
On July 2, the 4th Fighter Group became the first fighter group to penetrate German airspace. Over the Netherlands, the group engaged a flight of Bf 109s, attacking a formation of B-17s. Beeson and his wingman dove from 21,000 feet into the enemy formation and Beeson shot down another Bf 109. In September, after 65 combat missions, he was awarded the Silver Star. On October 8, 1943 Beeson shot down two more Bf 109s over the Netherlands. The commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Donald Blakeslee, appointed Beeson the group's gunnery officer.
On January 29, 1944, Beeson shot down a Bf 109 and a Focke-Wulf Fw 190, earning him the Distinguished Flying Cross. A day later Beeson claimed his tenth enemy aircraft. By February 1944, the Eighth Air Force launched a series of large-scale raids to prompt the Luftwaffe into a battle of attrition and create air superiority over Europe. Operation Pointblank was aimed at the destruction of the Luftwaffe through air combat, the strafing of German airfields, and the bombing of aircraft factories.
The big raids were dubbed "Big Week." The 4th FG P-47s were equipped with two drop tanks that doubled their combat range. Blakeslee was able to get top priority for the new P-51 Mustangs, promising "I'll have them operational in 24 hours." When the group flew its first missions on February 25, the pilots had less than one hour and ten minutes' flight time in the new fighter. During the week, Beeson was awarded an oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Flying Cross and promoted to captain. With 80 combat missions completed he was made commanding officer of B Flight at the age of 22.
On February 28, Beeson got his new P-51B. He and crew chief Willard Wahl named the aircraft simply "Bee." In his first mission across the English Channel he strafed a Junkers Ju 88 on the ground. On March 23, Beeson downed two more Bf 109s, making him the Army Air Forces' most successful ace. It was Beeson's 93rd combat mission and he had 17 claims.
He got two more kills, but on April 5 he was brought down by German fire from the ground. He was captured and interrogated by the famous Hanns Scharff. In a prisoner-of-war camp Beeson passed the time boxing, reading, and studying. The camp was liberated by Soviet forces on April 29, 1945. It took Beeson nearly a month to make it back to Debden. While a prisoner of war, Beeson had been promoted to major and had received the Distinguished Service Cross, the Silver Star, the Distinguished Flying Cross with five oak leaf clusters, and the Air Medal, most of which were presented to his parents at Gowen Field.
Post war.
He returned to Boise in June 1945 and made every effort to get reassigned to the Pacific theatre, but the Pacific War soon ended. Beeson was reassigned to Sarasota, Florida, where he met his future wife, Tracy Waters. They married in Baltimore in January 1946. Soon afterward Beeson became violently ill. Doctors diagnosed a brain tumor and Beeson was flown to Walter Reed Hospital in Washington, D.C. for an operation. He died before the operation could be performed. He was just 25 years old. He is buried at Arlington National Cemetery.
In November 1993, the Duane W. Beeson Terminal Building was named in his honor.
Military decorations.
Beeson's awards include:


David Brown (Scottish cricketer)

David Basil Stuart Brown (14 June 1941 – 11 March 2011) was a Scottish cricketer. Brown was a left-handed batsman. He was born in Insch, Aberdeenshire.
Brown made his first-class debut for Scotland against Ireland in 1973. He played two further first-class matches, which came against the same opposition in 1974 and 1975. In his three first-class matches, he scored 115 runs at a batting average of 19.16, with a single half century high score of 58.
Outside of first-class cricket, Brown was capped a further 16 times for Scotland, one of which he played a non first-class match against the touring Indians. He also played cricket for Aberdeenshire Cricket Club, who he captained in 1974 and 1975. As a professional career, Brown was a police officer. He joined Grampian Police in 1960 and over the course of the next two decades he moved up through the ranks to become an Inspector. He played cricket for the Scottish and British police cricket teams.
In November 2010, Brown was inducted into Aberdeen's sporting hall of fame, alongside Sir Alex Ferguson and Katherine Grainger. Brown died on 11 March 2011, just months after being diagnosed with a brain tumor.


Trichromacy

Trichromacy or trichromatism is the possessing of three independent channels for conveying color information, derived from the three different types of cone cells in the eye. Organisms with trichromacy are called trichromats.
The normal explanation of trichromacy is that the organism's retina contains three types of color receptors (called cone cells in vertebrates) with different absorption spectra. In actuality the number of such receptor types may be greater than three, since different types may be active at different light intensities. In vertebrates with three types of cone cells, at low light intensities the rod cells may contribute to color vision.
Humans and other animals that are trichromats.
Humans and some other mammals have evolved trichromacy based partly on pigments inherited from early vertebrates. In fish and birds, for example, four pigments are used for vision. These extra cone receptor visual pigments detect energy of other wavelengths, sometimes including ultraviolet. Eventually two of these pigments were lost (in placental mammals) and another was gained, resulting in trichromacy among some primates. Humans and closely related primates are usually trichromats, as are some of the females of most species of New World monkeys, and both male and female howler monkeys.
Recent research suggests that trichromacy may also be quite general among marsupials. A study conducted regarding trichromacy in Australian marsupials suggests the medium wavelength sensitivity (MWS), cones of the honey possum ("Tarsipes rostratus") and the fat-tailed dunnart ("Sminthopsis crassicaudata") are features coming from the inherited reptilian retinal arrangement. The possibility of trichromacy in marsupials potentially has another evolutionary basis than that of primates. Further biological and behavioural tests may verify if trichromacy is a common characteristic of marsupials.
Most other mammals are currently thought to be dichromats, with only two types of cone (though limited trichromacy is possible at low light levels where the rods and cones are both active). Most studies of carnivores, as of other mammals, reveal dichromacy, examples including the domestic dog, the ferret, and the spotted hyena. Some species of insects (such as honeybees) are also trichromats, being sensitive to ultraviolet, blue and green instead of blue, green and red.
Research indicates that trichromacy allows animals to distinguish red fruit and young leaves from other vegetation that is not beneficial to their survival. Another theory is that detecting skin flushing and thereby mood may have influenced the development of primate trichromate vision. The color red also has other effects on primate and human behavior as discussed in the color psychology article.
Types of cones specifically found in primates.
Primates are the only known placental mammalian trichromats.
Their eyes include three different kinds of cones, each containing a different photopigment (opsin). Their peak sensitivities lie in the blue (short-wavelength S cones), green (medium-wavelength M cones) and yellow-green (long-wavelength L cones) regions of the color spectrum. S cones make up 5–10% of the cones and form a regular mosaic. Special bipolar and ganglion cells pass those signals from S cones and there is evidence that they have a separate signal pathway through the thalamus to the visual cortex as well. On the other hand, the L and M cones are hard to distinguish by their shapes or other anatomical means – their opsins differ in only 15 out of 363 amino acids, so nobody has yet succeeded in producing specific antibodies to them. But Mollon and Bowmaker did find that L cones and M cones are randomly distributed and are in equal numbers.
Mechanism of trichromatic color vision.
Trichromatic color vision is the ability of humans and some other animals to see different colors, mediated by interactions among three types of color-sensing cone cells. The "trichromatic color theory" began in the 18th century, when Thomas Young proposed that color vision was a result of three different photoreceptor cells. From the middle of the 19th century, in his "Treatise on Physiological Optics", Hermann von Helmholtz later expanded on Young's ideas using color-matching experiments which showed that people with normal vision needed three wavelengths to create the normal range of colors. Physiological evidence for trichromatic theory was later given by Gunnar Svaetichin (1956).
Each of the three types of cones in the retina of the eye contains a different type of photosensitive pigment, which is composed of a transmembrane protein called opsin and a light-sensitive molecule called 11-cis retinal. Each different pigment is especially sensitive to a certain wavelength of light (that is, the pigment is most likely to produce a cellular response when it is hit by a photon with the specific wavelength to which that pigment is most sensitive). The three types of cones are L, M, and S, which have pigments that respond best to light of long (especially 560 nm), medium (530 nm), and short (420 nm) wavelengths respectively.
Since the likelihood of response of a given cone varies not only with the "wavelength" of the light that hits it but also with its "intensity", the brain would not be able to discriminate different colors if it had input from only one type of cone. Thus, interaction between at least two types of cone is necessary to produce the ability to perceive color. With at least two types of cones, the brain can compare the signals from each type and determine both the intensity and color of the light. For example, moderate stimulation of a medium-wavelength cone cell could mean that it is being stimulated by very bright red (long-wavelength) light, or by not very intense yellowish-green light. But very bright red light would produce a stronger response from L cones than from M cones, while not very intense yellowish light would produce a stronger response from M cones than from other cones. Thus trichromatic color vision is accomplished by using combinations of cell responses.
It is estimated that the average human can distinguish up to ten million different colors.


Calcium concentration microdomains

Calcium concentration microdomains (CCMs) are sites in a cell's cytoplasm with a localised high calcium ion (Ca2+) concentration. They are found immediately around the intracellular opening of calcium channels; when a calcium channel opens, the Ca2+ concentration in the adjacent CCM increases up to several hundred micromolar (μM). These microdomains take part in calcium signaling, which has a diverse range of potential outcomes.
Calcium concentration microdomains can be visualised with fluorescence microscopy by using aequorin as a reporter protein.
Ion Channel Process.
The actions of the Na-K-ATPase enzyme relate with the creation of calcium-signaling microdomains. Na-K-ATPase is a protein that pumps Na+ and K+ across the cell membrane. Na-K-ATPase helps to keep the body at equilibrium by the movement of those ions through the plasma membrane. This ion pump helps to reset the movement of ions during an action potential by sending K+ into the cell and sending Na+ out of the cell. Since it opposes the normal flow of ions during an action potential, energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is used. Calcium is also regulated using this Na-K-ATPase due to the enzyme's interactions with protein and non-protein molecules.
The main interaction that keeps calcium regulated is the binding of Na-K-ATPase to inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3). IP3 is a secondary messenger that helps to send neuronal signals through the body. The neuronal cells have the calcium-signaling microdomains in the cytoplasm right next to the pre- and post-synaptic calcium channels in the nerve cells. Figure 1 is an example of how Na-K-ATPase forms the calcium-signaling microdomain.
The astrocytes which are star-shaped glial cells in the central nervous system are the main cells with these calcium-signaling micro domains. In fact, a rigorous mathematical analysis in astrocytes has shown that localized inflow of Ca2+ remains localized, despite the diffusion of cytosolic Ca2+ and potential storage in the endoplasmic reticulum.
A Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX) is also involved in regulating the amount of calcium in cells. The NCX switches the intra- and extra-cellular amounts of Na+ and Ca2+. NCX works together with Na-K-ATPase to create calcium concentration microdomains in certain cells like astrocytes discussed above. Specific forms of Na-K-ATPase, the α2 or α3 isoforms, actually interact with the NCX in the formation of the calcium microdomains in astrocytes.


Common subexpression elimination

In compiler theory, common subexpression elimination (CSE) is a compiler optimization that searches for instances of identical expressions (i.e., they all evaluate to the same value), and analyzes whether it is worthwhile replacing them with a single variable holding the computed value.
Example.
In the following code:
 a = b * c + g;
 d = b * c * e;
it may be worth transforming the code to:
 tmp = b * c;
 a = tmp + g;
 d = tmp * e;
if the cost of storing and retrieving codice_1 is less than the cost of calculating codice_2 an extra time.
Principle.
The possibility to perform CSE is based on available expression analysis (a data flow analysis). An expression codice_3 is available at a point "p" in a program if:
The cost/benefit analysis performed by an optimizer will calculate whether the cost of the store to codice_1 is less than the cost of the multiplication; in practice other factors such as which values are held in which registers are also significant.
Compiler writers distinguish two kinds of CSE:
Both kinds rely on data flow analysis of which expressions are available at which points in a program.
Benefits.
The benefits of performing CSE are great enough that it is a commonly used optimization.
In simple cases like in the example above, programmers may manually eliminate the duplicate expressions while writing the code. The greatest source of CSEs are intermediate code sequences generated by the compiler, such as for array indexing calculations, where it is not possible for the developer to manually intervene. In some cases language features may create many duplicate expressions. For instance, C macros, where macro expansions may result in common subexpressions not apparent in the original source code.
Compilers need to be judicious about the number of temporaries created to hold values. An excessive number of temporary values creates register pressure possibly resulting in spilling registers to memory, which may take longer than simply recomputing an arithmetic result when it is needed.


Triphenyliodoethylene

Triphenyliodoethylene (TPIE), also known as iodotriphenylethylene or as phenylstilbene iodide, as well as triphenylvinyl iodide, is a synthetic nonsteroidal estrogen of the triphenylethylene group that is related to triphenylchloroethylene and triphenylbromoethylene and was never marketed.


The Man Who Stepped into Yesterday

The Man Who Stepped into Yesterday (often abbreviated as TMWSIY) is a 1987 concept album written by Trey Anastasio, the guitarist and lead vocalist of the American rock band Phish, as his senior thesis while attending Goddard College. Composed in 1987, the thesis included an essay piece and collection of songs (recorded by Phish) relating an epic tale from the band's fictional land of Gamehendge.
Background and concept.
On the album, the story of Gamehendge is told in nine parts, with short spoken narration in between. The saga can be compared to rock concept album projects like The Doors' "Celebration of the Lizard" or Rush's "2112" suite.
The story's primary protagonist is Colonel Forbin. Other major characters include Tela, the "jewel of Wilson's foul domain" and the "evil" Wilson himself. Several of the album's spoken narrative sections are accompanied by background music borrowed from sections of the Phish songs "Esther" and "McGrupp and the Watchful Hosemasters". The final track, "Possum", is the only song on the album not written by Anastasio, having been written by former Phish member Jeff Holdsworth and later added to the Gamehendge cycle.
Many of the album's tracks have long been included in Phish's regular song rotation and played during the band's live performances. In addition, various versions of the entire Gamehendge saga have been performed, complete with narration, on five occasions in the band's history, usually as the entire first set of a live show. Many other Phish songs also relate in some way to the Gamehendge saga, and appear on later albums and in live performances, including "Llama", "Punch You in the Eye" and "The Divided Sky".
The Mockingbird Foundation, a charity founded by Phish fans to fund music education, is named for the "famous mockingbird" in the saga.
Official releases.
Though the album was recorded, it has never been released officially. Phish circulated the studio recording of the suite in 1987 and 1988 and it quickly became a collector's item. At one time Anastasio announced plans in "Doniac Schvice", Phish's newsletter, to release the material as an interactive CD-ROM. However, this never happened and the album can only be found in bootleg or in fan-traded form.
The only officially released version of the Gamehendge suite is as part of the band's July 8, 1994 concert, which was released in August 2020. This version of the suite does not include "Possum", but features "Llama", "McGrupp and the Watchful Hosemasters" and "Divided Sky", all of which are connected to the Gamehendge mythology or the story of Colonel Forbin, and well as "NO2", an experimental instrumental that was the B-side to the "Down with Disease" single and is used during the performance to soundtrack Anastasio's introductory narrative.
Track listing.
All songs written by Trey Anastasio, except as noted.
Timings and track splits are approximate as there are many different circulating sources running at various speeds and with various anomalies.
Personnel.
Phish


Cerebral softening

Cerebral softening, also known as encephalomalacia, is a localized softening of the substance of the brain, due to bleeding or inflammation. Three varieties, distinguished by their color and representing different stages of the disease progress, are known respectively as red, yellow, and white softening.
Causes.
Stroke.
Ischemia: A decreased or restriction of circulating blood flow to a region of the brain which deprives neurons of the necessary substrates (primarily glucose); represents 80% of all strokes. A thrombus or embolus plugs an artery so there is a reduction or cessation of blood flow. This hypoxia or anoxia leads to neuronal injury, which is known as a stroke. The death of neurons leads to a so-called softening of the cerebrum in the affected area.
Hemorrhage: Intracerebral hemorrhage occurs in deep penetrating vessels and disrupts the connecting pathways, causing a localized pressure injury and in turn injury to brain tissue in the affected area. Hemorrhaging can occur in instances of embolic ischemia, in which the previously obstructed region spontaneously restores blood flow. This is known as a hemorrhagic infarction and a resulting red infarct occurs, which points to a type of cerebral softening known as red softening.
Circle of Willis.
In a study on the circle of Willis and its relation to cerebral vascular disorders, a comparison on various anomalies between normal brains (those without the condition of cerebral softening) and brains with cerebral softening were looked at to observe trends in the differences of the anatomical structure of the circle of Willis. Statistically significant results were found in the percentage of normal brains that had a normal circle of Willis and those that had cerebral softening and had a normal circle of Willis. The results yielded 52% of normal brains having a normal circle of Willis, while only 33% of brains with cerebral softening had a normal circle of Willis. There were also a higher number of string-like vessels in brains with cerebral softening (42%), than there were in normal brains (27%). These results point to an assumption of a higher incidence rate of anomalies in brains with cerebral softening versus those that do not have cerebral softening.
Types of softening.
Red softening.
Red softening is one of the three types of cerebral softening. As its name suggests, certain regions of cerebral softening result in a red color. This is due to a hemorrhagic infarct, in which blood flow is restored to an area of the brain that was previously restricted by an embolism. This is termed a "red infarct" or also known as red softening.
Upon autopsy of several subjects, Dr. Cornelio Fazio found that the most common areas of this type of softening occurred where there was a hemorrhage of the middle cerebral artery or the superior or deep branches to it. The subjects' softened area was not always near the arteries but where the capillaries perfused the brain tissue. The symptoms were similar to that of a stroke.
White softening.
White softening is another form of cerebral softening. This type of softening occurs in areas that continue to be poorly perfused, with little to no blood flow. These are known as "pale" or "anemic infarcts" and are areas that contain dead neuronal tissue, which result in a softening of the cerebrum.
Yellow softening.
Yellow softening is the third type of cerebral softening. As its name implies, the affected softened areas of the brain have a yellow appearance. This yellow appearance is due to atherosclerotic plaque build-up in interior brain arteries coupled with yellow lymph around the choroid plexus, which occurs in specific instances of brain trauma.
Stages.
Early life.
Newborn cerebral softening has traditionally been attributed to trauma at birth and its effect on brain tissue into adulthood. However, more recent research shows that cerebral softening in newborns and the degeneration of white matter is caused by asphyxia and/or later infection. There is no causal evidence to support the hypothesis that problems in labor contribute to the development of softening in infant white matter. Also, further evidence shows a possible connection between low sugar and high protein levels in cerebral spinal fluid that can contribute to disease or virus susceptibility leading to cerebral softening.
Later life.
Cases of cerebral softening in infancy versus in adulthood are much more severe due to an infant's inability to sufficiently recover brain tissue loss or compensate the loss with other parts of the brain. Adults can more easily compensate and correct for the loss of tissue use and therefore the mortality likelihood in an adult with cerebral softening is less than in an infant.
Documented cases.
In this late 19th-century case study, a 10-year-old boy was found to have cerebral softening in specific parts of the brain, limiting specific sensory function. The identifiable softening enabled researchers to detect and partition cerebral areas related to different sensory perceptions.
Another case in the late 19th century showed that cerebral softening, when caused by hemorrhaging, can affect various neural pathways leading to convulsions, spasms, coma and death.
A third case in 1898 followed the ten-day decline of a 66-year-old woman with cerebral softening. She had yellow softening which led to symptoms that started slowly with transient facial paralysis on the right side of the face. The limbs later became cold and the right side of the body transiently progressed between semi-paralysis and tetanus. Her heart rate and respiration rate became slow by days three and four. Later she developed a yellow jaundiced appearance in the sclera and skin that the doctor proposed as paroxysmal hemoglobinuria upon autopsy. On the last days, the paralysis became more frequent, respiration rose and she developed tachycardia. She died on the evening of the tenth day. The autopsy revealed that the top of the brain down to the lateral ventricle were healthy, but below that there was a inch area on the left side of the brain that was softened and yellow. The choroid plexus was also matted and surrounded by vessels filled with yellow lymph. The floor of the left lateral ventricle, thalamus, and corpus striatum were softened to the point of unrecognition. These physical abnormalities match the symptoms mentioned and are a prime example of yellow cerebral softening.
In 1858 doctor Thomas Inman described four of thirty discovered cases with cerebral softening. Each case was similar to the previous article. There was some atheroma in the internal brain arteries that led to the cerebral softening of the left side of the brain around the left lateral ventricle, thalamus and corpus striatum. There were similar right sided numbness in some patients, coldness of the extremities, and impairments in vision. In some cases, the lungs and the pleura were stuck together as well as the intestines to the peritoneal wall. This again matches yellow cerebral softening.