William Wilson (physicist)

William Wilson (March 29, 1887 – May 8, 1948) was an English-born physicist who spent much of his career in the United States. Born in Preston, he studied at the University of Manchester and at Cambridge University, studying radioactivity under Sir Ernest Rutherford at the latter institution. He became a lecturer at the University of Toronto before joining Bell Laboratories in 1915. There he worked in the development of radio-telephone systems.
Wilson was awarded the IEEE Medal of Honor in 1943, "for his achievements in the development of modern electronics, including its application to radiotelephony and for his contributions to the welfare and work of the Institute". He was also an elected member of Sigma Xi, and a member of the ASA and American Physical Society. Wilson later taught physics at North Carolina State College; he died in Raleigh, North Carolina in 1948.


Southeast Asian Federation of Organizations of Medical Physics

South East Asian Federation of Organizations for Medical Physics (SEAFOMP) was officially formed when it was accepted as a regional chapter of the International Organization for Medical Physics (IOMP) at the World Congress on Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, held in Chicago, Illinois, in 2000.
The founding member countries of SEAFOMP were Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Two other ASEAN countries joined SEAFOMP later in 2002 (Brunei) and 2005 (Vietnam).
SEAFOMP was established with the primary aim of helping to raise the profile of medical physics, via education and training, in ASEAN. The objectives of SEAFOMP are to promote (i) cooperation and communication between medical physics organizations in the region; (ii) medical physics and related activities in the region; (iii) the advancement in status and standard of practice of the medical physics profession; (iv) to organize and/or sponsor international and regional conferences, meetings or courses; (v) to collaborate or affiliate with other scientific organizations.
Since then the initiative has been supported by many international organisations, including the American Association of Physicists in Medicine (AAPM), International Organization for Medical Physics (IOMP), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), World Health Organization (WHO), and International Center for Theoretical Physics (ICTP). The support is primarily financial, via provisions of co-sponsorship of workshops and conferences, travel grants, medical physics libraries programs, and research experts and educators for educational activities.
SEAFOMP has organised a series of congresses to promote scientific exchange and mutual support among its members. The South East Asian Congress for Medical Physics (SEACOMP) series were held respectively in Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur, 2001 and 2004), Thailand (Bangkok, 2003; Chiang Mai, 2009), Indonesia (Jakarta, 2006; Bandung, 2010), The Philippines (Manila, 2007; Manila & Bohol, 2011) and Vietnam (Ho Chi Minh City, 2008).
It also has adopted Biomedical Imaging and Intervention Journal as its official publication.


Numerical renormalization group

The numerical renormalization group (NRG) is a technique devised by Kenneth Wilson to solve certain many-body problems where quantum impurity physics plays a key role.
History.
The numerical renormalization group is an inherently non-perturbative procedure, which was originally used to solve the Kondo model. The Kondo model is a simplified theoretical model which describes a system of magnetic spin-1/2 impurities which couple to metallic conduction electrons (e.g. iron impurities in gold). This problem is notoriously difficult to tackle theoretically, since perturbative techniques break down at low-energy. However, Wilson was able to prove for the first time using the numerical renormalization group that the ground state of the Kondo model is a singlet state. But perhaps more importantly, the notions of renormalization, fixed points, and renormalization group flow were introduced to the field of condensed matter theory — it is for this that Wilson won the Nobel Prize in 1982. The complete behaviour of the Kondo model, including both the high-temperature 'local moment' regime and the low-temperature 'strong coupling' regime are captured by the numerical renormalization group; an exponentially small energy scale TK (not accessible from straight perturbation theory) was shown to govern all properties at low-energies, with all physical observables such as resistivity, thermodynamics, dynamics etc. exhibiting universal scaling. This is a characteristic feature of many problems in condensed matter physics, and is a central theme of quantum impurity physics in particular. In the original example of the Kondo model, the impurity local moment is completely screened below TK by the conduction electrons via the celebrated Kondo effect; and one famous consequence is that such materials exhibit a resistivity minimum at low temperatures, contrary to expectations based purely on the standard phonon contribution, where the resistivity is predicted to decrease monotonically with temperature.
The very existence of local moments in real systems of course presupposes strong electron-electron correlations. The Anderson impurity model describes a quantum level with an onsite Coulomb repulsion between electrons (rather than a spin), which is tunnel-coupled to metallic conduction electrons. In the singly occupied regime of the impurity, one can derive the Kondo model from the Anderson model, but the latter contains other physics associated with charge fluctuations. The numerical renormalization group was extended to deal with the Anderson model (capturing thereby both Kondo physics and valence fluctuation physics) by H. R. Krishnamurthy "et al." in 1980. Indeed, various important developments have been made since: a comprehensive modern review has been compiled by Bulla "et al."
Technique.
The numerical renormalization group is an iterative procedure, which is an example of a renormalization group technique.
The technique consists of first dividing the conduction band into logarithmic intervals (i.e. intervals which get smaller exponentially as you move closer to the Fermi energy). One conduction band state from each interval is retained, this being the totally symmetric combination of all the states in that interval. The conduction band has now been "logarithmically discretized". The Hamiltonian is now in a position to be transformed into so-called linear chain form, in which the impurity is coupled to only one conduction band state, which is coupled to one other conduction band state and so on. Crucially, these couplings decrease exponentially along the chain, so that, even though the transformed Hamiltonian is for an infinite chain, one can consider a chain of finite length and still obtain useful results.
The only restriction to the conduction-band is that it is non-interacting. Recent developments make it possible for mapping a general multi-channel conduction-band with channel mixing to a Wilson chain, and here is the python implementation.
Once the Hamiltonian is in linear chain form, one can begin the iterative process. First the isolated impurity is considered, which will have some characteristic set of energy levels. One then considers adding the first conduction band orbital to the chain. This causes a splitting in the energy levels for the isolated impurity. One then considers the effect of adding further orbitals along the chain, doing which splits the hitherto derived energy levels further. Because the couplings decrease along the chain, the successive splittings caused by adding orbitals to the chain decrease.
When a particular number of orbitals have been added to the chain, we have a set of energy levels for that finite chain. This is obviously not the true set of energy levels for the infinite chain, but it is a good approximation to the true set in the temperature range where: the further splittings caused by adding more orbitals is negligible, and we have enough orbitals in the chain to account for splittings which are relevant in this temperature range. The results of this is that the results derived for a chain of any particular length are valid only in a particular temperature range, a range which moves to lower temperatures as the chain length increases. This means that by considering the results at many different chain lengths, one can build up a picture of the behavior of the system over a wide temperature range.
The Hamiltonian for a linear chain of finite length is an example of an effective Hamiltonian. It is not the full Hamiltonian of the infinite linear chain system, but in a certain temperature range it gives similar results to the full Hamiltonian.


Elizabeth Baranger

Elizabeth Urey Baranger ( Gertrude Bessie Urey; September 18, 1927 – May 30, 2019) was an American physicist and academic administrator at the University of Pittsburgh. Her research concerned shell model calculations in nuclear physics.
Early life and education.
Gertrude Bessie Urey was born on September 18, 1927, in Baltimore, but grew up in Leonia, New Jersey. As the daughter of physical chemist Harold Urey she met many other physicists from the Manhattan Project as a child, including Maria Mayer, who won the Nobel Prize for proposing the shell model of nuclear physics. She was the 1945 valedictorian of Leonia High School, and studied mathematics at Swarthmore College, graduating in 1949.
She earned a Ph.D. in physics at Cornell University in 1954. While completing her dissertation, she married fellow physicist Michel Baranger, on September 26, 1951, and spent two years as a visiting researcher at the California Institute of Technology.
Career and later life.
In 1955, Baranger and her husband solved their two-body problem by taking faculty positions at the University of Pittsburgh and Carnegie Institute of Technology (later Carnegie Mellon University), respectively. At Pittsburgh, she was the second female physics faculty member after Mary Wargo; she moved through the academic ranks from her initial position as an instructor to full professor.
When her husband moved to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1969, she followed him there, giving up her faculty position to become a senior research scientist. They divorced in 1973, and she returned to the University of Pittsburgh, becoming associate dean for graduate studies in the Faculty of Arts and Sciences. In 1989, she became vice provost for graduate studies. Her work as an academic administrator involved "upgrading the standards of the university's graduate programs and promoting the use of the Internet in graduate administration".
She retired in 2004, and died on May 30, 2019.
Recognition.
Baranger was named a Fellow of the American Physical Society (APS) in 1972, after a nomination from the APS Division of Nuclear Physics. She was also named as a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1985.
The University of Pittsburgh named their Elizabeth Baranger Excellence in Teaching Award after her.
Family.
Beyond her family connections to academic physics through her father Harold Urey and former husband Michel Baranger, two of Baranger's three children also became academic scientists: Anne M. Baranger, professor of chemistry and Associate Dean for Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion at the University of California, Berkeley, and Harold U. Baranger, professor of physics at Duke University.


Bologna Guglielmo Marconi Airport

Bologna Guglielmo Marconi Airport () is an international airport serving the city of Bologna in Italy. It is approximately northwest of the city centre in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. The airport is named after Bologna native Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian electrical engineer and Nobel laureate.
Facilities.
Terminal.
There is one terminal, which underwent an expansion during 2011–2013. It now covers a total surface 36,100m2, of which 5,500m2 are shopping areas. A new baggage handling system was installed and there are now 24 departure gates.
Runway.
Bologna airport has one runway, 12/30, made of asphalt; its dimensions are .
Ground transportation.
By monorail.
The airport is about from Bologna Centrale railway station.
From 2020 the Marconi Express monorail connects the airport to Bologna Centrale railway station with a travel time of approximately 7.5 minutes.
By car.
Motorways:
By bus.
A shuttle bus service, route Aerobus (BLQ), used to run between the station and the airport before the advent of Marconi Express. In case of events at the Bologna Fiere trade fair venue, BLQ operated a direct connection between the Airport and the bus terminus Fiera Viale Aldo Moro. Route BLQ has been withdrawn as of the 18th November 2020, with the introduction of the Marconi Express
The only TPER bus connection available to and from the airport is route 54, between the Airport and Borgo Panigale.
The airport has daily direct bus connections with Ferrara, Florence, Modena, Cervia, Ravenna, and Rimini, and three times a week with Ascoli Piceno.
By train.
The nearest railway station is Calderara-Bargellino railway station, about 4 km from the airport. However, there is no public transport connection between the two.


Richard A. Muller

Richard A. Muller (born January 6, 1944) is an American physicist and emeritus professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley. He was also a faculty senior scientist at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. In early 2010, Muller and his daughter Elizabeth founded the group "Berkeley Earth", an independent 501(c)(3) non-profit aimed at addressing some of the major concerns of the climate change skeptics, in particular the global surface temperature record.
Career.
Muller, who grew up in the South Bronx, attended public schools in New York City, including PS 65 (on 141st St), Junior High School 22 (on 167th St), and the Bronx High School of Science. Muller obtained an A.B. degree at Columbia University (New York) and a Ph.D. degree in physics from University of California, Berkeley. Muller began his career as a graduate student under Nobel laureate Luis Alvarez performing particle physics experiments and working with bubble chambers. During his early years he also helped to co-create accelerator mass spectrometry and made some of the first measurements of anisotropy in the cosmic microwave background.
Subsequently, Muller branched out into other areas of science, and in particular the Earth sciences. His work has included attempting to understand the ice ages, dynamics at the core-mantle boundary, patterns of extinction and biodiversity through time, and the processes associated with impact cratering. One of his most well known proposals is the Nemesis hypothesis suggesting the Sun could have an as yet undetected companion dwarf star, whose perturbations of the Oort cloud and subsequent effects on the flux of comets entering the inner Solar System could explain an apparent 26 million year periodicity in extinction events.
In March 2011, he testified to the U.S. House Science, Space and Technology Committee that preliminary data confirmed an overall global warming trend. On July 28, 2012, he stated, "Humans are almost entirely the cause."
Along with Carl Pennypacker, Muller started The Berkeley Real Time Supernova Search, which became The Berkeley Automated Supernova Search. It then became the Supernova Cosmology Project, which discovered the accelerating expansion of the universe, for which Muller's graduate student, Saul Perlmutter, shared the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Positions and recognition.
In the 1980s, Muller joined the JASON advisory group, which brings together prominent scientists as consultants for the United States Department of Defense.
He was named a MacArthur Foundation Fellow in 1982. He also received the Alan T. Waterman Award in 1978 from the National Science Foundation "for highly original and innovative research which has led to important discoveries and inventions in diverse areas of physics, including astrophysics, radioisotope dating, and optics".
Muller is a founder and board member of the Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature ("BEST") project, which has published an independent analysis of the Earth's surface temperature records.
In 1999, he received a distinguished teaching award from UC Berkeley. His "Physics for Future Presidents" series of lectures, in which Muller teaches a synopsis of modern qualitative (i.e. without resorting to complicated math) physics, has been released publicly on YouTube by UC Berkeley and has been published in book form. It has been one of the most highly regarded courses at Berkeley. In December 2009, Muller officially retired from teaching the course, although he still occasionally gives guest lectures.
In 2015 a team including Muller received the Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics for the Supernova Cosmology Project.
MIT "Technology Review".
For several years, he was a monthly columnist with MIT's "Technology Review". In his August 2003 column on the polygraph machine used in lie detection examinations, Muller asserted that "the polygraph procedure has an accuracy between 80 and 95 percent". The National Academy of Sciences found that there is "little basis for the expectation that a polygraph test could have extremely high accuracy".
In his April 2002 column on the anthrax attacks, Muller claimed "I think it likely that the anthrax terrorists were working for Osama bin Laden, and intended to murder thousands of people."
Climate change.
Hockey stick graph.
After the Soon and Baliunas controversy led to the paper being dismissed as defective and resignations of the journal's editors, Muller wrote in his 17 December 2003 "Technology Review" column that, while poor papers were not uncommon, Soon and Baliunas had attracted unusual attention for their portrayal of a prominent Medieval Warm Period in contrast to the Mann, Bradley and Hughes (MBH99) reconstruction of the temperature record of the past 1000 years. This reconstruction, nicknamed the hockey stick graph, had featured prominently in the IPCC Third Assessment Report, and differed significantly from the schematic diagram shown in the IPCC First Assessment Report. Muller gave his views on the subsequent controversy. He noted the October 2003 paper by Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published in "Energy and Environment" which alleged that correction of errors in MBH99 would show a strong medieval warm period, and said this paper raised pertinent questions.
In an October 2004 "Technology Review" article, Muller discussed blog postings by McIntyre and McKitrick alleging that Mann, Bradley and Hughes did not do proper principal component analysis (PCA). In the article, Richard Muller stated:
McIntyre and McKitrick obtained part of the program that Mann used, and they found serious problems. Not only does the program not do conventional PCA, but it handles data normalization in a way that can only be described as mistaken.
Now comes the real shocker. This improper normalization procedure tends to emphasize any data that do have the hockey stick shape, and to suppress all data that do not. To demonstrate this effect, McIntyre and McKitrick created some meaningless test data that had, on average, no trends. This method of generating random data is called "Monte Carlo" analysis, after the famous casino, and it is widely used in statistical analysis to test procedures. When McIntyre and McKitrick fed these random data into the Mann procedure, out popped a hockey stick shape!
That discovery hit me like a bombshell, and I suspect it is having the same effect on many others. Suddenly the hockey stick, the poster-child of the global warming community, turns out to be an artifact of poor mathematics. How could it happen?
He went on to state "If you are concerned about global warming (as I am) and think that human-created carbon dioxide may contribute (as I do), then you still should agree that we are much better off having broken the hockey stick. Misinformation can do real harm, because it distorts predictions."
In an article on the RealClimate blog on various myths about the graph, Mann mentioned Muller's article as parroting the claims of McIntyre and McKitrick. Muller's opinion piece in the reputable MIT journal helped to spread the idea that the hockey stick shape was a statistical artifact, but several peer reviewed studies showed that the PCA methodology had little effect on the shape of the graph. By 2006 there was general acceptance of the conclusion of the graph that recent warming was unprecedented in 1,000 years.
Berkeley Earth.
In October 2011, Muller wrote in an op-ed in "The Wall Street Journal", concerning his work with the Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature project:
When we began our study, we felt that skeptics had raised legitimate issues, and we didn't know what we'd find. Our results turned out to be close to those published by prior groups. We think that means that those groups had truly been very careful in their work, despite their inability to convince some skeptics of that. They managed to avoid bias in their data selection, homogenization and other corrections.
Global warming is real. Perhaps our results will help cool this portion of the climate debate. How much of the warming is due to humans and what will be the likely effects? We made no independent assessment of that.
While the BEST project did not delve into the proxy data sets used in the "hockey stick", the importance of the work regarding the modern temperature record is explained on the BEST web site:
Existing data used to show global warming have met with much criticism. The Berkeley Earth project attempts to resolve current criticism of the former temperature analyses by making available an open record to enable rapid response to further criticism and suggestions. Our results include our best estimate for the global temperature change and our estimates of the uncertainties in the record.
On July 28, 2012, he stated, "[G]lobal warming [is] real ... Humans are almost entirely the cause."
"Foreign Policy" named Muller one of its 2012 FP Top 100 Global Thinkers "for changing their minds".
Trends in tornado activity.
In November 2013 Muller wrote an op-ed in "The New York Times" arguing that strong to violent tornado activity decreased since the 1950s and suggesting that global warming is the cause. Atmospheric scientists Paul Markowski, Harold E. Brooks, et al., replied that Muller made substantial methodological flaws and was ignorant of long established findings in severe storms meteorology. They argue that there is no discernible decrease in significant tornado activity and that attribution of tornadic activity to global warming is premature although changes, especially in regional character, are likely as the atmospheric environment changes.
Shale gas and hydraulic fracturing.
In a report for the Centre for Policy Studies, Muller (and Elizabeth Muller of Berkeley Earth, his daughter) wrote that the benefits of shale gas, displacing harmful air pollution from coal, far outweigh the environmental costs of fracking. According to the Mullers, air pollution, mostly from coal burning, kills over three million people each year, primarily in the developing world. The Mullers state that "Environmentalists who oppose the development of shale gas and fracking are making a tragic mistake."
Other work.
Muller is President and Chief Scientist of Muller & Associates, an international consulting group specializing in energy-related issues.
Muller is Chief Technology Officer of SoliDDD Corp., which uses the fundamental equations of physics and optics, together with advanced optical design methods, to deliver improved realistic 3D images.


Ashutosh Kotwal

Ashutosh Vijay Kotwal (born December 20, 1965) is an American particle physicist of Indian origin. He is the Fritz London Professor of Physics at Duke University, and conducts research in particle physics related to W bosons and the Higgs boson and searches for new particles and forces.
Early life.
Kotwal was born in Mumbai, India, and attended schools in Calcutta, Lucknow, New Delhi and Mumbai. He then began studying at the University of Pennsylvania in 1983 on a full scholarship from the University, and graduated "Summa cum Laude" with dual degrees in Electrical Engineering from the Moore School and in Economics with finance major from the Wharton School in 1988. He was a Benjamin Franklin Scholar at Penn. He received his PhD in Physics from Harvard University in 1995.
Career.
After conducting post-doctoral research at Columbia University, Kotwal joined Duke University as a professor in 1999, where he is now the Fritz London Distinguished Professor of Physics and has served as the Director of Particle Physics at the University. Additionally, Kotwal was in charge of a Higgs boson search team as part of the ATLAS experiment at the Large Hadron Collider, with the aim of proving the existence of the particle. Kotwal was part of the CERN team that announced the discovery of the Higgs boson in 2012. He conducts experiments at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) as well as at Fermilab in Chicago. In addition to his research, Kotwal presently coordinates U.S. physicists in the global effort to build a new collider with 7 times higher energy than the LHC, and has collaborated with the Chinese and European groups in this effort.
Research.
Kotwal leads the world in measuring the mass of the W boson, which is connected to the Higgs boson, using the data from the CDF and D0 experiments at Fermilab. In 2012, he analysed 1 million W boson events to measure its mass to an accuracy of 0.02%, the world's most precise measurement, which in turn allowed him to predict the mass of the Higgs boson prior to its discovery in 2012.
Awards.
Kotwal was elected Fellow of the American Physical Society in 2008, and Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2012, for performing high-precision measurements that helped deduce the mass of the Higgs boson.
Kotwal is the recipient of the Outstanding Junior Investigator Award from the US Department of Energy, and the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Fellowship. He has received the Dean's Leadership Award from Duke University and is a Fellow of the Maharashtra Academy of Sciences, India.


Conjugate focal plane

In optics, a conjugate plane or conjugate focal plane of a given plane "P", is the plane "P′" such that points on "P" are imaged on "P′". If an object is moved to the point occupied by its image, then the moved object's new image will appear at the point where the object originated. In other words, the object and its image are interchangeable. This comes from the principle of reversibility which states light rays will travel along the originating path if the light's direction is reversed. The points that span conjugate planes are called conjugate points.
It comes from the mirror formula 1/v+1/u=1/f where if u and v are interchanged then the equation remains same.
In a telescope, the subject focal plane is at infinity and the conjugate image plane, at which the image sensor is placed, is said to be an infinite conjugate. In microscopy and macro photography, the subject is close to the lens, so the plane at which the image sensor is placed is said to be a finite conjugate. Within a system with relay lenses or eyepieces, there may be planes that are conjugate to the aperture.


Pierre-Michel Duffieux

Pierre-Michel Duffieux (1891–1976) was a French physicist, known as the founder of Fourier optics.
Life and career.
Duffieux became interested in physics by listening to the lectures of Pierre Duhem in high school in Bordeaux. In 1912 he entered the École Normale Supérieure. During the first world war he was involved in military work under the supervision of Henri Bénard, applying Fourier methods to measuring the coefficients of thermal conductivity. This work resulted in his first scientific publication.
In 1920 Duffieux became an assistant of Charles Fabry in Marseille, earning his doctorate in 1925 with a thesis on band spectroscopy. Afterward he worked in interference spectroscopy, moving to Rennes in 1927. During World War II Duffieux discovered Fourier optics, presenting his ideas at a meeting of the French Society of Physics in Paris in 1941, and publishing several papers. He completed a monograph on the subject in 1943–1944, which was privately published after the war in 1946. The work gained little attention outside France until Born and Wolf called attention to it in their text, "Principles of Optics" (1959). A second edition of Duffieux's book was published in 1970 by Masson (Paris) and an English translation appeared in 1983. After the war, Duffieux moved to Besançon and became the chair of optics at the university.
Duffieux was also interested in philosophy, music, and the meaning and interpretation of quantum theory.


Arkady Vainshtein

Arkady Vainshtein (; born 24 February 1942) is a Russian and American Professor Emeritus of Theoretical physics who was awarded Pomeranchuk Prize (2005) and Sakurai Prize (1999) for theoretical physics.
Biography.
Vainshtein was born on 24 February 1942 in Novokuznetsk, Russia. He got his Ph.D. from Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics in Novosibirsk, Russia and master's degree from Novosibirsk University where he became a Professor. He was the director of William I Fine Theoretical Physics Institute, University of Minnesota where he currently serves as the Gloria Becker Lubkin chair and also holds a position as Professor since 1990. In 1997 he became a fellow at the APS and two years later was awarded Sakurai Prize. In 2004 he started to work for Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics in Santa Barbara, California, and a year later was awarded Pomeranchuk Prize from the Institute for Theoretical and Experimental Physics, Moscow. Professor Vainshtein was awarded the 2014 Julius Wess Award by The KIT Center Elementary Particle and Astroparticle Physics (KCETA) and the 2016 Dirac Medal and Prize.


Attachmate

Attachmate Corporation is a 1982-founded software company which focused on secure terminal emulation, legacy integration, and managed file transfer software. Citrix-compatibility and Attachment "Reflection" were enhanced/added offerings.
History and products.
Attachmate Corporation.
Attachmate was founded in 1982 by Frank W. Pritt and Tom Borkowski.It focused initially on the IBM terminal emulation market, and became a major technology employer in the Seattle area.
KeaTerm.
KEAsystems' KEAterm products were PC software packages that emulated some of Digital Equipment Corporation's VT terminals, and facilitated integrating Windows-based PCs with multiple host applications. These included KEAterm VT340 and VT420 terminal emulators, and KEA X X terminal software).
KEA was acquired by Attachmate.
DCA IRMA.
Another acquisition was DCA (Digital Communications Associates) (makers of IRMA line of emulators, INFOconnect, Crosstalk communications software, and OpenMind collaborative software).
DCA was also known for its 3270 IRMA hardware product (used for SDLC), and ISCA SDLC hardware adapters. They also supported driver downloads.
Extra!
The Attachmate Extra! family of Terminal emulator packages was built to include 3270, 5250 and VT100.
Acquisition.
After buying both WRQ, Inc. and Attachmate, who had been long-time competitors in the host emulation business, a group of private equity firms announced in 2005 that the companies would be merged under the new ownership.
It was announced that Attachmate founder and CEO Frank Pritt would retire at the same time.
IBM, RedHat, Microsoft, Attachmate, Apache, Cisco, NEC, SAP, Software AG, Adobe Systems, Fujitsu, Oracle, CA Technologies, and BonitaSoft, are some of the key players operating in the Global Application Server Market.


Hermann A. Grunder

Hermann August Grunder (born December 4, 1931) is a Swiss-American nuclear and accelerator physicist. Dr. Hermann A. Grunder was the founding director of Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility and a Director Emeritus of Argonne National Laboratory.
Biography.
Born 4 December 1931 in Basel, Switzerland, Hermann August Grunder has been a very vocal advocate for the sciences especially within the U.S. Department of Energy, having worked for multiple labs during his estimated forty years within the National Laboratory system. Dr. Grunder obtained his Master's Degree in Engineering from the Kalrsruhe Institute of Technology (Germany) in 1958 and in 1967 earned his doctorate in experimental nuclear physics from the University of Basel. He entered the National Laboratory system in 1959 beginning at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. From 1968 he was in the accelerator department. In 1979, he became the associate director and head of the departments for accelerators and nuclear fusion. Dr. Grunder spent a cumulative 17 years (approximately) with the Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, moving on to the Directorship of the up-and-coming Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility from 1985 - 2000. Dr. Hermann A. Grunder was the first Director of Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility and had a literal hand in its formation and construction. In 2000, he accepted the directorship of the National Lab system's oldest lab: Argonne. It was from this lab that he retired in 2005.
Honors and awards.
In 1979, Dr. Hermann A. Grunder received the U.S. Senior Scientist Award presented by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. In 1980 he became a Fellow of the American Physical Society. In February 1996, received the Distinguished Associate Award presented by the U.S. Department of Energy.
In 2018, Dr. Hermann A. Grunder was awarded the IEEE NPSS Particle Accelerator Science and Technology (PAST) Award for his outstanding contributions to the development of particle accelerator science and technology.
He received honorary doctor degrees from eight universities, including Goethe University Frankfurt.


Mark Azbel

Mark Yakovlevich Azbel (; 12 May 1932 — 31 March 2020) was a Soviet and Israeli physicist. He was a member of the American Physical Society.
Between 1956 and 1958, he experimentally demonstrated cyclotron resonance in metals, and worked out its theoretical basis.
Azbel's 1964 analysis of Bloch electrons in a magnetic field contained ideas which were prescient of both the renormalization group and (though he did not make this explicit) the possibility of a fractal that was eventually discovered by Douglas Hofstadter and later called Hofstadter's butterfly.
Biography.
Azbel was born in 1932, in Kharkiv (at the time, in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic) to a family of physicians. From 1941, aged 9 to 12, he and his family lived under wartime evacuation in (Siberia).
In 1944, the family returned to Kharkiv. In 1948 Azbel graduated from high school and in the same year entered the National University of Kharkiv. After graduation, he taught mathematics at evening school.
In 1958, he defended his doctorate (Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences) under the supervision of Lev Landau and Pyotr Kapitsa. In 1964 he began working at Moscow State University and concurrently as a section chair at the Landau Institute for Theoretical Physics.
In 1972, Azbel applied for emigration from the Soviet Union to Israel, and in 1973 (a full four years before leaving the Soviet Union) was appointed a lecturer at Tel Aviv University, where he initially gave his lectures by telephone.
Having been refused exit permission from the Soviet Union, he participated in the movement of refuseniks in the USSR in the mid-seventies. Azbel finally emigrated from the USSR in 1977 and was appointed Professor at Tel Aviv University. He lived mainly in Israel until his death in 2020.
Scientific contributions.
Azbel was a theoretical physicist. His areas of study included the quantum physics of electrons in metals, and he made the first prediction of cyclotron resonance in metals, now widely known as the Azbel-Kaner resonance.
In an important 1964 article, Azbel made conjectures about the nature of the Harper spectrum which contributed to the discovery of the Hofstadter butterfly in 1974.


Nuclear physics

Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies atomic nuclei and their constituents and interactions. Other forms of nuclear matter are also studied.
Nuclear physics should not be confused with atomic physics, which studies the atom as a whole, including its electrons.
Discoveries in nuclear physics have led to applications in many fields. This includes nuclear power, nuclear weapons, nuclear medicine and magnetic resonance imaging, industrial and agricultural isotopes, ion implantation in materials engineering, and radiocarbon dating in geology and archaeology. Such applications are studied in the field of nuclear engineering.
Particle physics evolved out of nuclear physics and the two fields are typically taught in close association. Nuclear astrophysics, the application of nuclear physics to astrophysics, is crucial in explaining the inner workings of stars and the origin of the chemical elements.
History.
The history of nuclear physics as a discipline distinct from atomic physics starts with the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896 while investigating phosphorescence in uranium salts. The discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson a year later was an indication that the atom had internal structure. At the beginning of the 20th century the accepted model of the atom was J. J. Thomson's "plum pudding" model in which the atom was a positively charged ball with smaller negatively charged electrons embedded inside it.
In the years that followed, radioactivity was extensively investigated, notably by Marie Curie, Pierre Curie, Ernest Rutherford and others. By the turn of the century, physicists had also discovered three types of radiation emanating from atoms, which they named alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Experiments by Otto Hahn in 1911 and by James Chadwick in 1914 discovered that the beta decay spectrum was continuous rather than discrete. That is, electrons were ejected from the atom with a continuous range of energies, rather than the discrete amounts of energy that were observed in gamma and alpha decays. This was a problem for nuclear physics at the time, because it seemed to indicate that energy was not conserved in these decays.
The 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded jointly to Becquerel, for his discovery and to Marie and Pierre Curie for their subsequent research into radioactivity. Rutherford was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908 for his "investigations into the disintegration of the elements and the chemistry of radioactive substances".
In 1905, Albert Einstein formulated the idea of mass–energy equivalence. While the work on radioactivity by Becquerel and Marie Curie predates this, an explanation of the source of the energy of radioactivity would have to wait for the discovery that the nucleus itself was composed of smaller constituents, the nucleons.
Rutherford's team discovers the nucleus.
In 1906, Ernest Rutherford published "Retardation of the α Particle from Radium in passing through matter." Hans Geiger expanded on this work in a communication to the Royal Society with experiments he and Rutherford had done, passing alpha particles through air, aluminum foil and gold leaf. More work was published in 1909 by Geiger and Ernest Marsden, and further greatly expanded work was published in 1910 by Geiger. In 1911–1912 Rutherford went before the Royal Society to explain the experiments and propound the new theory of the atomic nucleus as we now understand it.
The key experiment behind this announcement was performed in 1910, at the University of Manchester: Ernest Rutherford's team performed a remarkable experiment in which Geiger and Marsden under Rutherford's supervision fired alpha particles (helium nuclei) at a thin film of gold foil. The plum pudding model had predicted that the alpha particles should come out of the foil with their trajectories being at most slightly bent. But Rutherford instructed his team to look for something that shocked him to observe: a few particles were scattered through large angles, even completely backwards in some cases. He likened it to firing a bullet at tissue paper and having it bounce off. The discovery, with Rutherford's analysis of the data in 1911, led to the Rutherford model of the atom, in which the atom had a very small, very dense nucleus containing most of its mass, and consisting of heavy positively charged particles with embedded electrons in order to balance out the charge (since the neutron was unknown). As an example, in this model (which is not the modern one) nitrogen-14 consisted of a nucleus with 14 protons and 7 electrons (21 total particles) and the nucleus was surrounded by 7 more orbiting electrons.
Around 1920, Arthur Eddington anticipated the discovery and mechanism of nuclear fusion processes in stars, in his paper "The Internal Constitution of the Stars". At that time, the source of stellar energy was a complete mystery; Eddington correctly speculated that the source was fusion of hydrogen into helium, liberating enormous energy according to Einstein's equation "E = mc2". This was a particularly remarkable development since at that time fusion and thermonuclear energy, and even that stars are largely composed of hydrogen (see metallicity), had not yet been discovered.
The Rutherford model worked quite well until studies of nuclear spin were carried out by Franco Rasetti at the California Institute of Technology in 1929. By 1925 it was known that protons and electrons each had a spin of . In the Rutherford model of nitrogen-14, 20 of the total 21 nuclear particles should have paired up to cancel each other's spin, and the final odd particle should have left the nucleus with a net spin of . Rasetti discovered, however, that nitrogen-14 had a spin of 1.
James Chadwick discovers the neutron.
In 1932 Chadwick realized that radiation that had been observed by Walther Bothe, Herbert Becker, Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie was actually due to a neutral particle of about the same mass as the proton, that he called the neutron (following a suggestion from Rutherford about the need for such a particle). In the same year Dmitri Ivanenko suggested that there were no electrons in the nucleus — only protons and neutrons — and that neutrons were spin particles, which explained the mass not due to protons. The neutron spin immediately solved the problem of the spin of nitrogen-14, as the one unpaired proton and one unpaired neutron in this model each contributed a spin of in the same direction, giving a final total spin of 1.
With the discovery of the neutron, scientists could at last calculate what fraction of binding energy each nucleus had, by comparing the nuclear mass with that of the protons and neutrons which composed it. Differences between nuclear masses were calculated in this way. When nuclear reactions were measured, these were found to agree with Einstein's calculation of the equivalence of mass and energy to within 1% as of 1934.
Proca's equations of the massive vector boson field.
Alexandru Proca was the first to develop and report the massive vector boson field equations and a theory of the mesonic field of nuclear forces. Proca's equations were known to Wolfgang Pauli who mentioned the equations in his Nobel address, and they were also known to Yukawa, Wentzel, Taketani, Sakata, Kemmer, Heitler, and Fröhlich who appreciated the content of Proca's equations for developing a theory of the atomic nuclei in Nuclear Physics.
Yukawa's meson postulated to bind nuclei.
In 1935 Hideki Yukawa proposed the first significant theory of the strong force to explain how the nucleus holds together. In the Yukawa interaction a virtual particle, later called a meson, mediated a force between all nucleons, including protons and neutrons. This force explained why nuclei did not disintegrate under the influence of proton repulsion, and it also gave an explanation of why the attractive strong force had a more limited range than the electromagnetic repulsion between protons. Later, the discovery of the pi meson showed it to have the properties of Yukawa's particle.
With Yukawa's papers, the modern model of the atom was complete. The center of the atom contains a tight ball of neutrons and protons, which is held together by the strong nuclear force, unless it is too large. Unstable nuclei may undergo alpha decay, in which they emit an energetic helium nucleus, or beta decay, in which they eject an electron (or positron). After one of these decays the resultant nucleus may be left in an excited state, and in this case it decays to its ground state by emitting high-energy photons (gamma decay).
The study of the strong and weak nuclear forces (the latter explained by Enrico Fermi via Fermi's interaction in 1934) led physicists to collide nuclei and electrons at ever higher energies. This research became the science of particle physics, the crown jewel of which is the standard model of particle physics, which describes the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces.
Modern nuclear physics.
A heavy nucleus can contain hundreds of nucleons. This means that with some approximation it can be treated as a classical system, rather than a quantum-mechanical one. In the resulting liquid-drop model, the nucleus has an energy that arises partly from surface tension and partly from electrical repulsion of the protons. The liquid-drop model is able to reproduce many features of nuclei, including the general trend of binding energy with respect to mass number, as well as the phenomenon of nuclear fission.
Superimposed on this classical picture, however, are quantum-mechanical effects, which can be described using the nuclear shell model, developed in large part by Maria Goeppert Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen. Nuclei with certain "magic" numbers of neutrons and protons are particularly stable, because their shells are filled.
Other more complicated models for the nucleus have also been proposed, such as the interacting boson model, in which pairs of neutrons and protons interact as bosons, analogously to Cooper pairs of electrons.
Ab initio methods try to solve the nuclear many-body problem from the ground up, starting from the nucleons and their interactions.
Much of current research in nuclear physics relates to the study of nuclei under extreme conditions such as high spin and excitation energy. Nuclei may also have extreme shapes (similar to that of Rugby balls or even pears) or extreme neutron-to-proton ratios. Experimenters can create such nuclei using artificially induced fusion or nucleon transfer reactions, employing ion beams from an accelerator. Beams with even higher energies can be used to create nuclei at very high temperatures, and there are signs that these experiments have produced a phase transition from normal nuclear matter to a new state, the quark–gluon plasma, in which the quarks mingle with one another, rather than being segregated in triplets as they are in neutrons and protons.
Nuclear decay.
Eighty elements have at least one stable isotope which is never observed to decay, amounting to a total of about 252 stable nuclides. However, thousands of isotopes have been characterized as unstable. These "radioisotopes" decay over time scales ranging from fractions of a second to trillions of years. Plotted on a chart as a function of atomic and neutron numbers, the binding energy of the nuclides forms what is known as the valley of stability. Stable nuclides lie along the bottom of this energy valley, while increasingly unstable nuclides lie up the valley walls, that is, have weaker binding energy.
The most stable nuclei fall within certain ranges or balances of composition of neutrons and protons: too few or too many neutrons (in relation to the number of protons) will cause it to decay. For example, in beta decay, a nitrogen-16 atom (7 protons, 9 neutrons) is converted to an oxygen-16 atom (8 protons, 8 neutrons) within a few seconds of being created. In this decay a neutron in the nitrogen nucleus is converted by the weak interaction into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino. The element is transmuted to another element, with a different number of protons.
In alpha decay, which typically occurs in the heaviest nuclei, the radioactive element decays by emitting a helium nucleus (2 protons and 2 neutrons), giving another element, plus helium-4. In many cases this process continues through several steps of this kind, including other types of decays (usually beta decay) until a stable element is formed.
In gamma decay, a nucleus decays from an excited state into a lower energy state, by emitting a gamma ray. The element is not changed to another element in the process (no nuclear transmutation is involved).
Other more exotic decays are possible (see the first main article). For example, in internal conversion decay, the energy from an excited nucleus may eject one of the inner orbital electrons from the atom, in a process which produces high speed electrons but is not beta decay and (unlike beta decay) does not transmute one element to another.
Nuclear fusion.
In nuclear fusion, two low-mass nuclei come into very close contact with each other so that the strong force fuses them. It requires a large amount of energy for the strong or nuclear forces to overcome the electrical repulsion between the nuclei in order to fuse them; therefore nuclear fusion can only take place at very high temperatures or high pressures. When nuclei fuse, a very large amount of energy is released and the combined nucleus assumes a lower energy level. The binding energy per nucleon increases with mass number up to nickel-62. Stars like the Sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two positrons, and two neutrinos. The uncontrolled fusion of hydrogen into helium is known as thermonuclear runaway. A frontier in current research at various institutions, for example the Joint European Torus (JET) and ITER, is the development of an economically viable method of using energy from a controlled fusion reaction. Nuclear fusion is the origin of the energy (including in the form of light and other electromagnetic radiation) produced by the core of all stars including our own Sun.
Nuclear fission.
Nuclear fission is the reverse process to fusion. For nuclei heavier than nickel-62 the binding energy per nucleon decreases with the mass number. It is therefore possible for energy to be released if a heavy nucleus breaks apart into two lighter ones.
The process of alpha decay is in essence a special type of spontaneous nuclear fission. It is a highly asymmetrical fission because the four particles which make up the alpha particle are especially tightly bound to each other, making production of this nucleus in fission particularly likely.
From several of the heaviest nuclei whose fission produces free neutrons, and which also easily absorb neutrons to initiate fission, a self-igniting type of neutron-initiated fission can be obtained, in a chain reaction. Chain reactions were known in chemistry before physics, and in fact many familiar processes like fires and chemical explosions are chemical chain reactions. The fission or "nuclear" chain-reaction, using fission-produced neutrons, is the source of energy for nuclear power plants and fission-type nuclear bombs, such as those detonated in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, at the end of World War II. Heavy nuclei such as uranium and thorium may also undergo spontaneous fission, but they are much more likely to undergo decay by alpha decay.
For a neutron-initiated chain reaction to occur, there must be a critical mass of the relevant isotope present in a certain space under certain conditions. The conditions for the smallest critical mass require the conservation of the emitted neutrons and also their slowing or moderation so that there is a greater cross-section or probability of them initiating another fission. In two regions of Oklo, Gabon, Africa, natural nuclear fission reactors were active over 1.5 billion years ago. Measurements of natural neutrino emission have demonstrated that around half of the heat emanating from the Earth's core results from radioactive decay. However, it is not known if any of this results from fission chain reactions.
Production of "heavy" elements.
According to the theory, as the Universe cooled after the Big Bang it eventually became possible for common subatomic particles as we know them (neutrons, protons and electrons) to exist. The most common particles created in the Big Bang which are still easily observable to us today were protons and electrons (in equal numbers). The protons would eventually form hydrogen atoms. Almost all the neutrons created in the Big Bang were absorbed into helium-4 in the first three minutes after the Big Bang, and this helium accounts for most of the helium in the universe today (see Big Bang nucleosynthesis).
Some relatively small quantities of elements beyond helium (lithium, beryllium, and perhaps some boron) were created in the Big Bang, as the protons and neutrons collided with each other, but all of the "heavier elements" (carbon, element number 6, and elements of greater atomic number) that we see today, were created inside stars during a series of fusion stages, such as the proton–proton chain, the CNO cycle and the triple-alpha process. Progressively heavier elements are created during the evolution of a star.
Since the binding energy per nucleon peaks around iron (56 nucleons), energy is only released in fusion processes involving smaller atoms than that. Since the creation of heavier nuclei by fusion requires energy, nature resorts to the process of neutron capture. Neutrons (due to their lack of charge) are readily absorbed by a nucleus. The heavy elements are created by either a "slow" neutron capture process (the so-called "s"-process) or the "rapid", or "r"-process. The "s" process occurs in thermally pulsing stars (called AGB, or asymptotic giant branch stars) and takes hundreds to thousands of years to reach the heaviest elements of lead and bismuth. The "r"-process is thought to occur in supernova explosions, which provide the necessary conditions of high temperature, high neutron flux and ejected matter. These stellar conditions make the successive neutron captures very fast, involving very neutron-rich species which then beta-decay to heavier elements, especially at the so-called waiting points that correspond to more stable nuclides with closed neutron shells (magic numbers).


Sergei Gukov

Sergei Gukov (; born 1977) is a Russian-American mathematical and theoretical physicist. Gukov graduated from Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (MIPT) in Moscow, Russia before obtaining a doctorate in physics from Princeton University under the supervision of Edward Witten.
He held a Long-term Prize fellowship of Clay Mathematics Institute at Harvard University (2001-2006) and during 2007-2008 was a member of the school of mathematics at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton. Since 2007, he has been professor of mathematics and theoretical physics at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). Starting 2010, Gukov was elected as an external scientific member of the Max Planck Society at the MPIM, Bonn.
Sergei Gukov is a member of the Scientific Board of the American Institute of Mathematics (AIM) and a member of the International Advisory Board of the Centre for Quantum Mathematics (QM). He has served on numerous other scientific committees and advisory boards. He is editor of the journal Communications in Mathematical Physics, Journal of Knot Theory and Its Ramifications, and Letters in Mathematical Physics.
In 2010, along with Alain Connes, Gukov was invited to deliver the 8th Takagi Lectures, the only named lecture series of the Mathematical Society of Japan. In 2019, Gukov was invited to give the Whittemore Lectures at Yale University.
Known for Gukov-Vafa-Witten superpotential, Gukov-Witten surface operators, and Gukov-Pei-Putrov-Vafa (GPPV) invariants. In recent years, he teamed up with Boris Feigin, Hiraku Nakajima and other mathematicians to explore hidden algebraic structures in topology and in quantum field theory.


UA2 experiment

The Underground Area 2 (UA2) experiment was a high-energy physics experiment at the Proton-Antiproton Collider (SpS) — a modification of the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) — at CERN. The experiment ran from 1981 until 1990, and its main objective was to discover the W and Z bosons. UA2, together with the UA1 experiment, succeeded in discovering these particles in 1983, leading to the 1984 Nobel Prize in Physics being awarded to Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer. The UA2 experiment also observed the first evidence for jet production in hadron collisions in 1981, and was involved in the searches of the top quark and of supersymmetric particles. Pierre Darriulat was the spokesperson of UA2 from 1981 to 1986, followed by Luigi Di Lella from 1986 to 1990.
Background.
Around 1968 Sheldon Glashow, Steven Weinberg, and Abdus Salam came up with the electroweak theory, which unified electromagnetism and weak interactions, and for which they shared the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics. The theory postulated the existence of W and Z bosons, and the pressure on the research community to prove the existence of these particles experimentally was substantial. During the 70s it was established that the masses of the W and Z bosons were in the range of 60 to 80 GeV (W boson) and 75 to 92 GeV (Z boson) — energies too large to be accessible by any accelerator in operation at that time. In 1976, Carlo Rubbia, Peter McIntyre and David Cline proposed to modify a proton accelerator — at that time a proton accelerator was already running at Fermilab and one was under construction at CERN (SPS) — into a proton–antiproton collider, able to reach energies large enough to produce W and Z bosons. The proposal was adopted at CERN in 1978, and the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) was modified to occasionally operate as a proton-antiproton collider (SpS).
History.
On 29 June 1978 the UA1 experiment was approved. Two proposals for a second detector, with the same purpose as UA1, were made the same year. On 14 December 1978, the proposal of Pierre Darriulat, Luigi Di Lella and collaborators, was approved. Like UA1, UA2 was a moveable detector, custom built around the beam pipe of the collider, which searched proton–antiproton collisions for signatures of the W and Z particles. The UA2 experiment began operating in December 1981. The initial UA2 collaboration consisted of about 60 physicists from Bern, CERN, Copenhagen, Orsay, Pavia and Saclay.
From 1981 to 1985, the UA1 and UA2 experiments collected data corresponding to an integrated luminosity of approximately . From 1985 to 1987 the SpS was upgraded, and the luminosity of the machine increased by a factor 10 compared to the previous performance. The UA2 sub-detectors were also upgraded, making the detector hermetic, which increased its ability to measure missing transverse energy.
The second experimental phase ran from 1987 to 1990. Groups from Cambridge, Heidelberg, Milano, Perugia and Pisa joined the collaboration, which grew to about 100 physicists. During this phase, UA2 accumulated data corresponding to an integrated luminosity of in three major running periods. After nearly ten years of operation, the UA2 experimental program stopped running at the end of 1990.
Components and operation.
The UA1 and UA2 experiments recorded data during proton–antiproton collision operation and moved back after periods of data taking, so that the SPS could revert to fixed-target operation. UA2 was moved on air cushions when removed from the beam pipe of the SpS.
Construction.
The UA2 experiment was located some 50 meters underground, in the ring of the SPS/SpS accelerator, and was housed in a big cavern. The cavern was large enough to house the detector, provide room for it to be assembled in a "garage position" without shutting down the accelerator and to where it was also moved back after periods of data taking. The accelerator could therefore revert to fixed-target operation, after periods of operating as a collider.
Detectors.
The UA1 and the UA2 experiments had many things in common; they were both operating on the same accelerator and both had the same objective (to discover the W and Z bosons). The main difference was the detector design; UA1 was a multipurpose detector, while UA2 had a more limited scope. UA2 was optimized for the detection of electrons from W and Z decays. The emphasis was on a highly granular calorimeter – a detector measuring how much energy particles deposit – with spherical projective geometry, which also was well adapted to the detection of hadronic jets. Charged particle tracking was performed in the central detector, and energy measurements were performed in the calorimeters. Unlike UA1, UA2 had no muon detector.
The calorimeter had 24 slices, each weighing 4 tons. These slices were arranged around the collision point like segments of an orange. Particles ejected from the collision produced showers of secondary particles in the layers of heavy material. These showers passed through layers of plastic scintillators, generating light which was read with photomultiplier by the data collection electronics. The amount of light was proportional to the energy of the original particle. Accurate calibration of the central calorimeter allowed the W and Z masses to be measured with a precision of about 1%.
Upgrades of the detector.
The 1985-1987 upgrade of the detector was aimed at two aspects: full calorimeter coverage and better electron identification at lower transverse momenta. The first aspect was addressed by replacing the end-caps with new calorimeters that covered the regions 6°-40° with respect to the beam direction, thereby hermetically sealing the detector. The end-cap calorimeters consisted of lead/scintillator samplings for the electromagnetic part, and iron/scintillator for the hadronic part. The performance and granularity of the new calorimeters were set to match the central calorimeter, which was of importance for the triggering system.
The electron identification was improved by the use of a completely new central tracking detector assembly, partly consisting of a pioneering silicone-pad detector. In 1989, the collaboration pushed this concept even further by developing a Silicon Pad Detector (SPD) with finer pad segmentation to be placed directly around the collision region beam pipe. This detector was built as a cylinder, closely surrounding the beam pipe. The detector had to fit into the available space of less than 1 cm. It was therefore necessary to miniaturize the components of the detector. This was achieved with two brand new technologies: the silicon sensor and the Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC). Existing electronics were too bulky, and therefore a novel ASIC had to be developed. This was the first silicon tracker adapted to a collider experiment, a technology prior to the present silicon detectors.
Results.
Hadronic jets at high transverse momentum.
The very first result of the UA2 collaboration, published on 2 December 1982, was the first unambiguous observation of hadronic jet production at high transverse momentum from hadronic collisions. Observations of hadronic jets confirmed that the theory of quantum chromodynamics could describe the gross features of the strong parton interaction.
Discovery of the W and Z bosons.
The UA2 and UA1 collaboration chose to search for the W boson by identifying its leptonic decay, because the hadronic decays, although more frequent, have a larger background. By the end 1982, the SpS had reached high enough luminosity to permit the observation of formula_1 and formula_2 decays. On 22 January 1983, the UA2 collaboration announced that the UA2 detector had recorded four events that were candidates for a W boson. This brought the combined number of candidate events seen by UA1 and UA2 up to 10. Three days later, CERN made a public announcement that the W boson was found.
The next step was to track down the Z boson. However, the theory said that the Z boson would be ten times rarer than the W boson. The experiments therefore needed to collect several times the data collected in the 1982 run that showed the existence of the W boson. With improved techniques and methods, the luminosity was increased substantially. These efforts were successful, and on 1 June 1983, the formal announcement of the discovery of the Z boson was made at CERN.
Search for the top quark.
Throughout the runs with the upgraded detector, the UA2 collaboration was in competition with experiments at Fermilab in the US in the search for the top quark. Physicists had anticipated its existence since 1977, when its partner — the bottom quark — was discovered. It was felt that the discovery of the top quark was imminent.
During the 1987-1990 run UA2 collected 2065 formula_1 decays, and 251 Z decays to electron pairs, from which the ratio of the mass of the W boson and the mass of the Z boson could be measured with a precision of 0.5%. By 1991 a precise measurement for the mass of the Z boson from LEP had become available. Using the ratio of the W mass to Z mass, a first precise measurement of the W mass could be made. These mass values could be used to predict the top quark from its virtual effect on the W mass. The result of this study gave a top quark mass value in the range of 110 GeV to 220 GeV, beyond the reach for direct detection by UA2 at the SpS. The top quark was ultimately discovered in 1995 by physicists at Fermilab with a mass near 175 GeV.


The Gate of Angels

The Gate of Angels is a 1990 historical novel by the British author Penelope Fitzgerald. It is set in 1912 at a fictional Cambridge college, St Angelicus. The novel was shortlisted for the Booker prize.
Plot.
Fred Fairly, a Junior Fellow of St Angelicus ('Angels'), a fictional Cambridge college, is a physicist whose research focuses on the exciting modern field of quantum theory. As Fred cycles along the Guestingley Road in the dark, an unlit farmer's cart pulls out of a gateway into his path, causing him to crash into a stranger - a young woman by the name of Daisy Saunders. Both are knocked unconscious, and are taken in by the wife of Professor Wrayburn who lives nearby. Noting that the young woman wears a wedding ring, she incorrectly assumes that the pair are husband and wife and she puts them into the same bed to recover. On coming round, Fred immediately falls in love with Daisy, but she leaves without giving an address and he has no way of locating her.
Daisy is in fact an impoverished young woman from South London, who has been working towards a nursing position at Blackfriars Hospital. She is single but wears a wedding ring to fend off unwanted male attention. At the time of the accident she was cycling with Thomas Kelly, a seedy journalist, who quickly made himself scarce.
While Fred is recuperating in a nursing home, Daisy returns to Cambridge and gets a job at the local asylum. She visits Mrs Wrayburn, quickly realises that the household chores are a burden to her, and offers to take them over in return for lodging. As soon as Fred learns of her return, he proposes marriage. Daisy says that she will consider it.
The driver of the farmer's cart that caused the accident has not been found and this draws the interest of Dr Matthews, Provost of St James and teller of ghost stories. It also draws the attention of the local police who open an investigation. In the ensuing trial, Fred, Daisy and Mrs Wrayburn are called as witnesses. While Daisy is in the witness box, the police unexpectedly introduce Thomas Kelly, whom she denies knowing. But Kelly, determined to cause Daisy damage, testifies that he is waiting for her to come to him at a local hotel where rooms are rented by the hour. Fred is horrified. He leaves the courtroom and waits in a nearby cafe for three hours until Kelly emerges. When he does, Fred knocks him unconscious.
Following the trial, Daisy loses her job. She responds indignantly to Fred's questioning and their relationship appears to be at an end. Daisy says goodbye to Mrs Wrayburn and with no job and no money walks the several miles back to the station for a train to London. After losing her way, she finds herself outside a side gate of Fred's college, St Angelicus, which mysteriously stands open for only the third time in the college's long history. She hears a cry, goes in and helps the blind master of the college who has fainted. The incident has taken only five minutes - a delay just long enough for her to run into Fred, who is returning from a physics lecture.
Background.
Fitzgerald's inspiration for the opening of the novel came when she saw through a Cambridge bus window some cows in ecstasy over willow branches that had been broken off by strong winds; she viewed this as an instance of reason giving way to imagination in 'this orderly University city'.
Fitzgerald was familiar with the Cambridge of the 1910s, having researched it for "The Knox Brothers" (1977), a history of her Knox relatives. Her uncle, Dillwyn Knox had been a classical scholar there, rather than a physicist, but like the Fred of the book had had a passionate attention to proofs and exact detail; he also like Fred had as a young man suffered a loss of faith that he had tried to shield from his father.
Dillwyn Knox had been a student and Fellow at King's, whose Provost at the time, M. R. James, was - like the Dr Matthews of the novel - a medievalist, palaeographer and author of ghost stories. Fitzgerald explained that "I set my novel in the Cambridge of 1912 because that was the height of the so-called 'mind/body controversy' with the scientists of the Cavendish in controversy with professing Christians, championed by James ... The ghost story is there to give atmosphere to the anti-materialists of Cambridge, who don't believe that physics can explain everything."
The central event of the book, the bicycle crash of mutual strangers who wake up after the accident in the same bed, is based on an incident reported by Burne-Jones.
Fitzgerald has stated that "The Gate of Angels" is her only novel with a happy ending.
Critical reception.
Contemporary reviews of the novel were long and enthusiastic, with John Bailey speaking of her 'mesmeric insouciance' and Sebastian Faulks likening it to being taken in a ride in a peculiar kind of car where everything works beautifully but, halfway through and with exhilarating results, "someone throws the steering wheel out of the window".
Louis B. Jones for "The New York Times Book Review" noted that "In this novel, atoms and spooks have equal epistemological status".
In his "Understanding Penelope Fitzgerald" (2004), Peter Wolfe noted that the book explores the Victorian themes of good, evil and responsibility. Fitzgerald being "[t]oo accomplished to go heavy on the signals", the book's strength lies in what is withheld and implied. And, its "irony and deadpan wit impart a quiet intensity that make other novels look soggy and loose".
Writing in 2010, Frank Kermode praised the work for its wealth of period detail, and opined that "The density of implication provided by this short novel is remarkable ... one senses a developed interest in the mysteriousness of the story, the exploitation of a new skill, which is to arrange for the story to project another story, less definite, more puzzling, than the first-hand narrative itself".
Fitzgerald's biographer, Hermione Lee, noted that the novel masquerades as a light, comical love story set in Edwardian times, while also raising - but deliberately not answering - questions about the nature of belief, relativity and truth. Lee held the book to be the most feminist of all of Fitzgerald's novels (though noting that the author did not use that categorisation), dealing as it does with themes of women's struggles, the abuses against them, and their need for solidarity.
The novel was shortlisted for the Irish Times/Aer Lingus Prize and for the Booker Prize.


Hans Mueller (physicist)

Hans Mueller (1900–1965) was a Swiss-American physicist and professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). He created Mueller calculus.
Mueller was born October 27, 1900, in Amriswil, canton Thurgau, Switzerland. His father was Ernst Müller and mother Mathilde Meier. Hans attended school in Frauenfeld and proceeded in 1919 to Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule. He graduated with a teacher's diploma for science and mathematics in 1923. In graduate work his advisors were Peter Debye and Paul Scherrer.
In 1925, Mueller and Debye set out for a visit to MIT. Mueller was offered a position as instructor and in time became a popular professor. In 1928 he submitted his dissertation, "On the Theory of Electric Charge and Coagulation of Colloids" to ETH for the doctorate in physics. In 1935, he was promoted to associate professor. As a Guggenhiem Fellow, he was at the Cavendish Laboratory of Cambridge University in 1937–38. In 1942, he became a full professor.
In research, Mueller measured luminous intensity and studied polarization of light. He wrote several papers on Rochelle salts. The development of his matrix calculus was initially classified, but he made an exposition to the Optical Society of America in 1948. His student Nathan Grier Park III wrote a thesis, "Matrix Optics" expounding the method.
Hans Mueller died June 10, 1965, in Belmont, Massachusetts.


Indian Institute of Geomagnetism

The Indian Institute of Geomagnetism is an autonomous research institution established by the Government of India's Department of Science and Technology. The facility is engaged in basic and applied research in geomagnetism, as well as allied areas of geophysics, atmospheric physics and space physics, as well as plasma physics. The Institute currently operates 12 magnetic observatories and actively participates in the Indian Antarctic Program.
History.
The Institute was developed as a successor of Colaba Observatory in 1971. The original Observatory was founded in 1826. Its first Director was B. N. Bhargava, appointed in 1971, and held this title until 1979.
Research.
The institute has collaborated with Kyoto University in Japan, the University of the Western Cape in South Africa, and the National Science Council in Taiwan. It established a World Data Center for the topic of Geomagnetism that maintains comprehensive sets of analog and digital geomagnetic data, as well as indices of geomagnetic activity supplied from a worldwide network of magnetic observatories.
Facilities.
The institute developed fluxgate magnetometers.
1. DOCTORAL PROGRAMME (Ph. D) :
 Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (IIG) offers Doctoral Programme in Geomagnetism and Allied Fields pertinent to studies of Solid Earth, Upper Atmosphere and Observatory Data Analysis. Selected candidates will be required to do research work at its HQ and/or its regional centres (EGRL-Tirunelveli, KSKGRL-Allahabad and MO-Shillong). Indian Institute of Geomagnetism is a recognized centre for conducting research leading to Ph.D. degree by following universities in the subjects specified:
University of Mumbai (Physics)
Shivaji University, Kolhapur (Physics)
North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon (Physics, Applied Geology, Environmental Science)
SRTM University, Nanded (Geophysics, Environmental Science)
Andhra University, Visakhapatanam (Physics & Geophysics)
Manonmaniam Sundarnar University, Tirunelveli (Physics)
2. POSTDOCTORAL PROGRAMME (PDF) : Nanabhoy Moos Research Fellowship (NMRF)Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (IIG) is a premier institute of the Department of Science & Technology engaged in fundamental research in Geomagnetism and its allied fields. The Institute has been able to attract young and rich scientific talent for carrying out research. To further enrich and create scientific talent in a variety of scientific disciplines in this Institute, a new Postdoctoral Research Fellowship "Nanabhoy Moos Research Fellowship (NMRF)" has been introduced.


Kim K. Baldridge

Kim K. Baldridge is an American theoretical and computational chemist who works to develop quantum mechanical methodologies and apply quantum chemical methods to problems in life sciences, materials science, and general studies. She is professor and vice dean in the School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology of Tianjin University in China, where she also directs the High Performance Computing Center.
Education and career.
Baldridge is originally from Minot, North Dakota, and graduated from Minot State University in 1982. She earned her Ph.D. from North Dakota State University and was a postdoctoral researcher at Wesleyan University. After becoming a scientist at the San Diego Supercomputer Center, she became a visiting professor at the University of California, San Diego in 1995, and continued to work at the San Diego Supercomputer Center and hold an adjunct professorship at the university before becoming a professor of theoretical chemistry at the University of Zurich in Switzerland. She moved to Tianjin University in 2014, following her husband Jay S. Siegel, who became dean of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology at Tianjin in 2013.
Research.
Much of Baldridge's research involves finding better ways to use quantum mechanical methodologies to study complex molecules. She has published several articles that attempt to help theoretical chemists, some of which include "Theoretical Study of Fluorine Atom and Fluorine Ion Attack on Methane and Silane" and "A Novel Approach to Superimposing Molecules". Baldridge has contributed to quantum mechanical computer programs such as GAMESS (US), QMView, and GEMSTONE. GAMESS stands for General Atomic and Molecular Electronic System, and is an advanced chemistry program for calculations including generalized valence bond, the Hartree-Fock method, and density functional theory.
Awards and recognition.
Minot State University named Baldridge to their Academic Hall of Fame in 2013. Baldridge is a Fellow of the American Physical Society and Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. She was given a 2019 Distinguished Women in Chemistry or Chemical Engineering Award by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), the only winner from Asia. The award was won for her work in developing and applying quantum chemistry programs in molecular science, for pioneering women-in-science symposia, and for championing for chemical safety in China.


Unnormalized modified KdV equation

The unnormalized modified Korteweg–de Vries (KdV) equation is an integrable nonlinear partial differential equation：
where formula_2 is an arbitrary (nonzero) constant. See also Korteweg–de Vries equation.
This is a special case of the Gardner equation.


Michael Tinkham

Michael Tinkham (February 23, 1928 – November 4, 2010) was an American physicist. He was Rumford Professor of Physics and Gordon McKay Research Professor of Applied Physics at Harvard University. He is best known for his work on superconductivity.
Professional life.
Michael Tinkham studied at Ripon College (BA 1951) in Wisconsin, near where he grew up, and later at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Master's Degree 1951), where he graduated in 1954 with a PhD. During 1954/55 he was at the Clarendon Laboratory of Oxford University. In 1955 he went to the University of California, Berkeley, in 1957 becoming an Assistant Professor, and later a Full Professor. In 1966 he joined the faculty at Harvard University. During 1978/79 he was a Humboldt U.S. Senior Scientist at the University of Karlsruhe. Michael Tinkham's research was concentrated on superconductivity and in 1975 he published one of the classic textbooks on the subject. Later he has focused on material properties where sample dimensions are in the nanometer range, including studies of nanowires and carbon nanotubes.
In 1970 he was made a member of the National Academy of Sciences, and in 1974 he received the Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize. Prof. Tinkham was awarded the Fred E. Saalfeld Award for Outstanding Lifetime Achievement in Science in 2005. He has also been honored for his achievements by his colleagues in the Journal of Superconductivity.
Prof. Tinkham maintained an active research group at Harvard University until his retirement. Over these years, Prof. Tinkham trained over 45 students who received their Ph.D.s under his guidance.
Work on superconductivity.
In 1956, Tinkham and a fellow postdoc Rolfe Glover found the direct evidence of an energy gap in the continuous distribution of energy levels in the form of a sharp rise in the optical absorption spectrum of a superconductor. The absorption spectrum observed was a direct consequence of the coherence factors of the BCS theory of John Bardeen, and along with other observations, provided the first substantive experimental confirmation of the BCS theory.
Tinkham also studied the macroscopic quantum behaviour of superconductors, and examined the conditions under which transitions between different energy levels happen when superconductors are carrying a current.


John W. Barrett

John W. Barrett is professor of mathematical physics at the University of Nottingham. He is a quantum gravity researcher who is known for the Barrett–Crane model of quantum gravity.
Not to be confused with.
John W. Barrett, a mathematician who was a professor at Imperial College, London until 2019. He held the position of Head of Numerical Analysis in the Department of Mathematics.


Persis Drell

Persis S. Drell is an American physicist best known for her expertise in the field of particle physics. She was the director of the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory from 2007 to 2012. She was dean of the Stanford University School of Engineering from 2014 until 2017. Drell became the Provost of Stanford University on February 1, 2017.
Early life and education.
The daughter of noted physicist Sidney Drell, Persis Drell grew up on the Stanford University campus. She earned a Bachelor of Arts in mathematics and physics from Wellesley College and a Ph.D. in atomic physics from University of California, Berkeley, studying under Eugene Commins. She completed her postdoctoral work in high-energy physics at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
Career.
She joined the physics faculty at Cornell University in 1988.
Stanford University.
In 2002, Drell was hired as associate director of research at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (then known as the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center) where she oversaw the BaBar experiment. In 2007, she was named the fourth director of SLAC, succeeding Jonathan M. Dorfan.
In November 2011, she announced her intention to step down as the head of SLAC and return to a position as a faculty member at Stanford.
In September 2014, Drell became the ninth dean of the Stanford University School of Engineering, the first woman to serve in that role.
In February 2017, Drell became the thirteenth provost of Stanford University.
In March 2019, in response to the 2019 college admissions bribery scandal, Drell announced that all varsity athletic recruits proposed by a Stanford coach for an athletic recommendation will face a background check from a Stanford Athletics executive.
In May 2019, Drell released the Provost's Statement on Diversity and Inclusion.
Controversy.
In 2019, Drell's administration began a cost-cutting agenda beginning with a proposal to discontinue funds for Stanford University Press, sparking controversy. Following outcry from students and faculty, Drell agreed to a stop-gap measure to fund the press for one additional year.


Charles K. Bockelman

Charles Kincaid Bockelman (November 29, 1922 – June 6, 2002) was an American nuclear physicist and deputy provost of Yale University. He was a member of the New York Academy of Sciences.
Career.
Charles Bockelman's career started in the Washington, D.C., office of Senator Harry S. Truman while he studied physics and chemistry at George Washington University. During World War II he served in the United States Army Air Corps in the Pacific Theater of Operations. After the war he earned his Ph.B. (1947) and Ph.D. (1951) degrees from the University of Wisconsin. As a graduate student, Bockelman concentrated on nuclear physics and went on to do research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology before joining the Yale faculty in 1955 as an assistant professor. He was promoted to associate professor in 1958 and professor in 1965. In 1969 he was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship.
During his early years at Yale, Bockelman used a 4 MeV high-intensity electron accelerator and MIT's Van de Graaff accelerator. In the 1960s the Arthur W. Wright Nuclear Structure Laboratory at Yale centered on a tandem Van de Graaff heavy ion accelerator. There, Bockelman took over the responsibility for the implementation of a large multigap magnetic spectrometer, which became the focus of his research for the next decade at the laboratory.
Bockelman taught elementary and advanced courses in Yale College and the Graduate School. In 1966 he became director of the physical sciences at Yale, and three years later, deputy provost for science. During his 20 years in the Provost's Office he facilitated the construction of new buildings, implementation of computer systems, worked with new and senior faculty and oversaw the growth of the sciences. He also served as acting dean of the Graduate School, in 1975, and again during the 1983-1984 academic year.
He published numerous papers with students and colleagues, in addition to over fifty scientific papers and articles in major scientific publications. During his career, his research focused on nuclear physics and in the late 1950s, he developed an important correlation between neutron transfer and neutron capture reactions which served as a cornerstone of the then-emerging utilization of these reactions for the measurement of nuclear structure. He was named to the New York Academy of Sciences in 1963.
Family.
Bockelman died on June 6, 2002, in Newtown, Connecticut. He was survived by his wife Christina, his daughter, Faith Edwards, grandchildren Torrie and Dillon Edwards, and a stepson, Michael Nesi. The Bockelmans were enthusiastic horse owners and participated in the hunt activities of Fairfield County, Connecticut.


Radiation Measurements

Radiation Measurements is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on nuclear science and radiation physics. It was established in 1994 and is published by Elsevier.
The current editors-in-chief are Ian K. Bailiff (Durham University) and Adrie J.J. Bos (Delft University of Technology).
Abstracting and indexing.
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:
According to the "Journal Citation Reports", the journal has a 2017 impact factor of 1.369.
Former titles history.
"Radiation Measurements" is derived from the following former titles:


South Foreland Lighthouse

South Foreland Lighthouse is a Victorian lighthouse on the South Foreland in St. Margaret's Bay, Dover, Kent, England, used to warn ships approaching the nearby Goodwin Sands. Built in 1843, it went out of service in 1988 and is currently owned by the National Trust. It is notable as having been the first lighthouse to use an electric light, and was the site chosen by Guglielmo Marconi for his pioneering experiments in wireless radio transmissions.
The lighthouse was originally South Foreland Upper Lighthouse, one of a pair. The second lighthouse, South Foreland Lower Lighthouse was built at the same time further down the cliff, to the east, where it still stands; decommissioned in 1904, it is now in private ownership. Prior to the current buildings there had been a pair of lighthouses at South Foreland since at least the 1630s. Even after the decommissioning of the Lower Lighthouse the pair continued to be used as leading marks, with Admiralty charts into the 20th century indicating that the 'Lighthouses in line lead south of the Goodwin Sands'.
History.
The dangers posed to shipping by the Goodwin Sands have long been recognised and the earliest record of a warning light being used on the Foreland relates to a Brother Nicholas de Legh, who hung a white light from cliffs near St Margaret-at-Cliffe a little to the north.
17th and 18th century.
The first pair of lighthouses at South Foreland was built in 1635 by Sir John Meldrum. (He also built the first North Foreland Lighthouse, 15 miles to the north, the following year.) The light at this time was provided by an open fire burning in a brazier on the roof. Responsibility for the lighthouses (and rights to the associated light dues) were passed to a Robert Osboldston in 1643, and then in 1715 to Greenwich Hospital.
In 1730 one William Knott began a period of service as lighthouse keeper at the Lower Lighthouse. Over the next 175 years five generations of the Knott family would serve as lighthouse keepers at South Foreland, making them 'probably the longest dynasty of keepers anywhere in the world'.
In 1793 the Upper Lighthouse was rebuilt with an oil lamp and parabolic reflectors in place of the brazier; the Lower Lighthouse was similarly rebuilt two years later (as a two-storey building, whereas the Upper Lighthouse was three storeys). John Yenn was the architect.
19th century.
In 1832 the Corporation of Trinity House purchased the lease for the South Foreland lights from Greenwich Hospital. Ten years later the Upper Lighthouse was heightened and refurbished with a multi-wick oil lamp and a first-order fixed dioptric optic, manufactured by Henry-Lepaute of Paris. Then, the Lower Lighthouse was entirely rebuilt, in 1846, and provided with a fixed array of fifteen Argand lamps and reflectors. The architect and engineer for both these projects was James Walker. At the same time new accommodation for the keepers was built alongside each tower.
Electric light.
In the 1850s Michael Faraday, scientific adviser to Trinity House, was exploring the feasibility of electric light being used in lighthouses; several different solutions were proposed. In 1857 Frederick Hale Holmes demonstrated his magneto-electric apparatus to Faraday, proposing its use in conjunction with carbon arc lamps. The initial trial was conducted at South Foreland Upper Light, which thus became the first lighthouse to use electric light. The South Foreland trial began in December 1858 and continued until early 1860; afterwards Holmes's equipment was installed on a more permanent basis in Dungeness Lighthouse, in 1862. (Meanwhile, at South Foreland that year, experimental use was being made of a Drummond light at the high lighthouse; however, 'the results were not satisfactory' with regard to its potential for lighthouse illumination.)
In 1871 Souter Lighthouse became the first to be designed and built for electric operation, and the following year South Foreland received its own permanent electric installation. A power station was built, mid-way between the two lighthouses, containing four magneto generators driven by a pair of steam engines with coke-fuelled boilers. The building also included additional accommodation for the attendants. At the same time, the two lighthouses were each provided with a medium-sized (third-order) catadioptric fixed optic designed by James Chance.
Experiments undertaken by John Tyndall.
In 1865 John Tyndall had succeeded Faraday as scientific adviser to Trinity House, remaining in post until 1883.
In 1873 Professor Tyndall was engaged by Trinity House to conduct a series of experiments on the relative effectiveness of different types of fog signal. South Foreland, with its recently-installed steam power plant, was chosen as the location and a variety of acoustic instruments were set up at the top and bottom of the cliff, to be monitored from a Trinity House vessel offshore. At first three systems were tested: a steam whistle, an air whistle and a pair of air-powered brass trumpets with reeds (designed by Frederick Hale Holmes). Later, other designs of whistle were trialled, as well as a steam 'syren' (provided by Joseph Henry) and three types of gun (operated by gunners from Dover Castle). Tyndall's recommendation was that the siren should provide the standard fog signal at major landfall stations, with reeds judged suitable at some sites; by 1884 sirens were in use at 22 coastal stations and on 16 lightships. Tyndall presented wider conclusions on the acoustic effects of different atmospheric conditions in a paper delivered to the Royal Society the following year.
In 1876 Tyndall was again engaged to make a comparative study at South Foreland, this time of two different types of electric generator: the magneto and the dynamo. (In 1869 Holmes had speculatively constructed a pair of dynamos and suggested them for the permanent South Foreland installation, but at the time they were not considered sufficiently tried and tested.) The trial took place over the winter of 1876-77, and the dynamo was demonstrated to be both mechanically and electrically superior. A set of Siemens dynamos was shortly afterwards installed at Lizard Lighthouse when it was converted to electrical operation in 1878.
Later, in 1884, Professor Tyndall again conducted experiments for Trinity House at South Foreland, this time on the relative merits of gas lamps, oil lamps and electric lamps. For this purpose three temporary lighthouses were built, at the top of the cliff alongside the Upper Lighthouse, one powered by oil, one by gas and the third by electricity. Each provided space for different configurations of lamps or burners and optics to be tried. More than 6,000 observations were taken, from stations both on and offshore, and it was concluded that electric light was the most powerful under all conditions.
Marconi.
In 1898 South Foreland Lighthouse was used by Guglielmo Marconi during his work on radio waves, receiving the first ship-to-shore message from the East Goodwin lightship on Christmas Eve that year. The system was used over the following winter to avert several shipwrecks. In 1899, the first international transmission was made between the lighthouse and Wimereux in France.
20th century.
In 1904 the Lower Lighthouse was taken out of commission; the tower was sold and the attached cottage demolished soon afterwards. At the same time a large (first-order) rotating optic was installed in the High Lighthouse (this optic had previously been installed in St. Catherine's Lighthouse).
The lighthouse was connected to mains electricity in 1922, whereupon South Foreland Lighthouse became the first to use an incandescent lightbulb as its light source. The Holmes generators, which had provided power for fifty years, were then disconnected, and the Holmes arc lamp was given to the Science Museum. The subsequent reduction of required maintenance, and provision of automatic electric equipment (including an electric winder for the clockwork mechanism to turn the lens), led to a reduction in staff numbers from one engineer and four keepers to just a single keeper. In the event of a bulb failure, an automatic lamp changer was activated (and an alarm notified the keeper); if the reserve bulb then failed, the lamp changer caused an acetylene burner to be brought into position and lit.
In 1969 the light became fully automated and the keepers' cottages (being no longer required) were sold.
In the mid-1980s it was decided that modern navigational aids had rendered the South Foreland light obsolete. It was decommissioned on 30 September 1988.
Present day.
The lighthouse has been in the ownership of the National Trust since 1989. As such it is open to the public. There is no vehicle access to the site; visitors are advised to walk either from Dover or from St Margaret's village, or else to use the nearby cycle route.
The lighthouse had remained unlit since 1988, but in June 2012 the light was reactivated to mark the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II. (The clockwork mechanism which turns the optic was restored to working order in 2004 to mark the centenary of its installation).


Marielle Chartier

Marielle Chartier is a Professor of Particle Physics at the University of Liverpool in England. Her research investigates the phase diagram of nuclear matter using the ALICE experiment at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN Her past work includes nuclear structure at the frontiers of the valley of stability.
Education.
Chartier studied physics at the University of Paris-Sud and completed a third-year project at the French Atomic Energy Commission ("Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique)" in condensed matter physics. She completed her fourth year project at the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory (NSCL) in the USA. She was awarded her PhD from the University of Caen Normandy in 1996 for research completed at the Grand Accélérateur National d'Ions Lourds. During her PhD, she spoke at the International Conference on Exotic Nuclei.
Career and research.
After her PhD, Chartier was a postdoctoral researcher for two years at the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory (NSCL) at Michigan State University. In 1999 Chartier was appointed lecturer at the University of Bordeaux. She worked at the Centre d'Etudes Nucléaires de Bordeaux-Gradignan on exotic nuclei. She wanted to focus more on research, successfully applied for an Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) Advanced Fellowship and joined the Nuclear Physics group at the University of Liverpool in 2001. This allowed her to establish an entirely new research area, exploring exotic nuclear physics and the valley of stability. At the University of Liverpool Chartier teaches Nuclear Physics. She is interested in ways to measure the masses of exotic nuclei. To do this, she uses a cyclotron as a mass spectrometer. She also worked on light, neutron rich nuclei using knock out reactions.
In 2010 Chartier was part of a multi-million pound grant to work on the Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research (FAIR) in Darmstadt. She is interested in the valley of stability. She led the UK involvement with the Nuclear Structure, Astrophysics and Reactions (NuSTAR) experiments, studying the nuclear drip line, the ordering of quantum states and symmetry of near-stable nuclei. In 2013 she led the UK collaboration with the nuclear physics laboratory FAIR. She was the leader of the international R3B spectrometer project, which included the development of a silicon detector that could information about the extreme structure of matter inside stars.
Today, Chartier works on Hadronic matter. She led the University of Liverpool joining the ALICE experiment in 2013 and became interested in Charm quarks. Despite spending her early research career working on nuclear physics, Chartier had considerable experience working on heavy-ion collisions with fixed targets at low energies. In 2015 Chartier was awarded a £1.05 million grant from the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) for the upgrade of the ALICE experiment. She works on the strong force, using ultra-relativistic heavy ion interactions to study Quantum chromodynamics (QCD).