Guatemalan tyrannulet

The Guatemalan tyrannulet or paltry tyrannulet ("Zimmerius vilissimus"), is a very small passerine bird in the tyrant flycatcher family. It occurs in southern Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador and southern Belize.
It was formerly considered to be conspecific with the mistletoe tyrannulet ("Zimmerius parvus").
The Guatemalan tyrannulet is a common bird from the lowlands to altitude, mainly in humid regions. It can be found in forests, second growth, pasture and plantations with trees, and shady gardens.
The nest is roughly spherical with a side entrance and made of mosses and lined with plant fibre; it may be built amongst mosses or dangling epiphyte roots, inside a large dead leaf, or inside or below a yellow-olive flycatcher's pendant nest. It is constructed 2–15 m above the ground. The typical clutch is two rufous-marked dull white eggs. Incubation by the female is 14–15 days to hatching, with another 17 days to fledging.
The Guatemalan tyrannulet is in length. The upperparts are olive-green other than a dull grey crown to the head and grey supercilia. The wings are blackish with yellow feather edging but no wing bars, and the longish tail is dusky. The throat and breast are off-white with grey streaking, the belly is white, and the flanks have a dull yellow-green cast. The long legs are blackish. The sexes are similar, but young birds have an olive crown, yellow-tinged supercilia and broader but paler wing bars. The call is a loud ' and the dawn song is a plaintive '.
The Guatemalan tyrannulet is an active bird, usually seen alone or in pairs high in trees. It eats mainly mistletoe, but also other berries and small insects, all taken in flight in short sallies from a perch.


Shimofuri goby

The Shimofuri goby ("Tridentiger bifasciatus") is a species of goby native to marine, brackish and fresh waters along the coasts of eastern Asia. It has also been introduced to the Pacific Coast of the United States. This species can reach a length of TL.


Microlophus koepckeorum

Microlophus koepckeorum, commonly known as Frost's iguana, is a species of lava lizard in the family Tropiduridae. The species is endemic to Peru.
Etymology.
The specific name, "koepckeorum" (genitive plural), is in honor of German-born Peruvian ornithologists Hans-Wilhelm Koepcke and Maria Koepcke, husband and wife.
Reproduction.
"M. koepckeorum" is oviparous.


Chilean devil ray

The Chilean devil ray ("Mobula tarapacana"), also known as the box ray, greater Guinean mobula, sicklefin devil ray or the spiny mobula, is a species of ray in the family Mobulidae. It is found worldwide in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate oceans, and mainly occurs offshore, only occasionally appearing near the coast. These fish have been discovered to feed at depths up to during deep dives, and are among the deepest-diving ocean animals. There are two distinct deep dive patterns; the first, which is usually only performed once every 24 hours, is diving to the maximum depth and resurfacing after 60 to 90 minutes; the second, which is less frequent, is dives up to 1,000 meters for a maximum of 11 hours. The latter pattern may be associated with traveling rather than feeding. It can reach a disc width of up to .


Pristimantis lirellus

Pristimantis lirellus is a species of frog in the family Craugastoridae.
It is endemic to Peru.
Its natural habitat is tropical moist lowland forests.
It is threatened by habitat loss.


Stigmella georgiana

Stigmella georgiana is a moth of the family Nepticulidae. It was described by Sco Puplesis in 1994. It is found in Georgia.


Pseudomulleria dalyi


Eeyou Istchee

Eeyou Istchee may refer to:


Culture of Kashmir

The culture of Kashmir is a diverse blend and highly influenced by Indian, Persian as well as Central Asian cultures. Kashmiri culture is heavily influenced by Hinduism, Buddhism and later by Islam. Dominated by Hindu-Buddhist culture in the past, Kashmir was heavily influenced by Islam after Muslim influx in the Valley.
Early History.
The Vedic art and culture grew in Kashmir, and some early Vedic hymns were composed in Kashmir. The Bharata Natya Shastra is notable as an ancient encyclopedic treatise on the arts one which has influenced dance, music and literary traditions in Indian culture, originated in Kashmir. Patanjali of 2nd century BC compiled his compendium on Yoga in Kashmir. The Panchatantra is also said to be originated in Kashmir. At the time when Pali was primary language for Buddhist literature in rest of India, all the Buddhist literature produced in Kashmir was in Sanskrit. Kashmiri women hold high status in society as Bilhana records that Kashmiri women were fluent both in Sanskrit and Pali. Kosh Shastra, a work on science of sex, second to Kamasutra was developed in Kashmir. Some of the major texts that originated in Kashmir were "Vigyan Bharaiv Tantra, Yoga Sutras, Sapndi Karkika, Tantra Loka Para-Trisika-Vivarana" and many more.
Cuisine.
Rice is the staple food of Kashmiris and has been so since ancient times. Meat, along with rice, is the most popular food item in Kashmir. Kashmiris consume meat voraciously. Despite being Brahmins, most Kashmiri Hindus are meat eaters. Kashmiri beverages include "Noon Chai or Sheer Chai and Kahwah or Kehew".
The Kashmir Valley is noted for its bakery tradition. Bakers sell various kinds of breads with golden brown crusts topped with sesame and poppy seeds. "Tsot" and "tsochvor" are small round breads topped with poppy and sesame seeds, which are crisp and flaky, "sheermal", "baqerkhayn" (puff pastry), "lavas" (unleavened bread) and "kulcha" are also popular. "Girdas" and "lavas" are served with butter. Kashmiri bakerkhani has a special place in Kashmiri cuisine. It is similar to a round naan in appearance, but crisp and layered, and sprinkled with sesame seeds. It is typically consumed hot during breakfast.
Festivals.
Kashmiri Hindus.
Primary festivals of Kashmiri Hindus include:
Kashmiri Muslims.
Primary festivals of Kashmiri Muslims include:
Language and literature.
Kashmiri () or Koshur (; ), is a language from the Dardic subgroup of Indo-Aryan languages, spoken by around 7 million Kashmiris, primarily in the Indian territory of Jammu and Kashmir. There are also speakers in parts of the neighbouring Pakistani territory of Azad Kashmir.
The official languages of Jammu and Kashmir are Koshur, Dogri, Hindi-Urdu and English. Kashmiri is recognised as a regional language in the state and is also among the 22 scheduled languages of India.
Kashmiri has split ergativity and the unusual verb-second word order.
Although Kashmiri was traditionally written in the Sharda script, it is not in common use today, except for religious ceremonies of the Kashmiri Pandits.
Today it is written in Perso-Arabic and Devanagari scripts (with some modifications).
The Perso-Arabic script is recognised as the official script of Kashmiri language by the Jammu and Kashmir government and the Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
Nowadays, the Perso-Arabic script has come to be associated with Kashmiri Muslims, while the Devanagari script has come to be associated with the Kashmiri Hindu community.
Music.
Early History.
The Bharata Natya Shastra is notable as an ancient encyclopedic treatise on the arts one which has influenced dance, music and literary traditions in India, originated in Kashmir.
Present day.
Kashmiri Music primarily includes:
References.
27. the word koshur written on manuscript in sharada lipi


Mareb River

The Mareb River, or Gash River () is a river flowing out of central Eritrea. Its chief importance is defining part of the boundary between Eritrea and Ethiopia, between the point where the Mai Ambassa enters the river at to the confluence of the Balasa with the Mareb at .
Course.
According to the "Statistical Abstract of Ethiopia for 1967/68", the Mereb River is long. The Ethiopian Ministry of Water Resources reports its Ethiopian catchment area as , with an annual runoff of 0.26 billion cubic meters. Other sources talking about a catchment of to over all, and a discharge of in average over the year, and in peaks. Its headwaters rise south-west of Asmara in central Eritrea. It flows south, bordering Ethiopia, then west through western Eritrea to reach the Sudanese plains near Kassala. Unlike the Setit or Takazze rivers, which flow out of Ethiopia and also forms a natural border with Eritrea, the waters of the Mareb do usually not reach the Nile but dissipate in the sands of the eastern Sudanese plains.
The Mareb is dry for much of the year, but like the Takazze is subject to sudden floods during the rainy season; only the left bank of the upper course of the Mareb is in Ethiopian territory. Its main tributaries are the Obel River on the right bank (in Eritrea) and the Sarana, Balasa, Mai Shawesh, and 'Engweya Rivers on the left (in Ethiopia).
History.
The Mareb was important historically as the boundary between two separately governed regions in the area: the land of the "Bahr negash" (Tigrinya "kingdom of the sea", also known as Medri Bahri or "land of/by the sea") to the north of the river, and the Tigray to the south. The territories under the "Bahr negash" extended as far north as the Red Sea coast, and as far south (and west) as Shire and the capital was at Debarwa in modern Eritrea, about south of Asmara.
Wildlife.
The river's Eritrean floodplain was the location of a 2001 sighting of a sizable elephant herd, the first such sighting in Eritrea since 1955.


Spanish Filipino

Spanish Filipinos (; ; Filipino/; ; ) are an ethnic group who trace their ancestry to early Spanish settlers and more recent arrivals or via Mexico who settled in the Philippines during the 16th to 20th century.
Spanish settlement in the Philippines first took place in the 16th century, during the Spanish colonial period of the islands. The conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi founded the first Spanish settlement in Cebu in 1565 and later established Manila as the capital of the Spanish East Indies in 1571. The Philippine Islands are named after King Philip II of Spain and it became a territory of the Viceroyalty of New Spain which was governed from Mexico City until the 19th century, when Mexico obtained independence. From 1821, the Philippine Islands were ruled directly from Madrid, Spain.
Spaniards are referred to by Filipinos as "Kastila" (Castilian), in the Malay fashion, from the Portuguese name for the former Kingdom of Castile, now a region of Spain.
They are also referred to as "Spanish Filipino", "Español Filipino" and "Hispano Filipino". They are also referred to colloquially as "Tisoy", derived from the Spanish word "mestizo".
Background.
A Spanish Filipino is any citizen or resident of the Philippines who is of Spanish origin. They are represented in all levels of Philippine society and are integrated politically and economically, in the private and government sector.
Spanish Filipinos are present within several commerce and business sectors in the Philippines and a few sources estimate companies which comprise a significant portion of the Philippine economy are owned by Spanish Filipinos like International Container Terminal Services Inc., Manila Water, Integrated Micro-Electronics, Inc., Ayala Land, Ynchausti y Compañia, Ayala Corporation, Aboitiz & Company, Union Bank of the Philippines, ANSCOR, Bank of the Philippine Islands, Globe Telecom, Solaire Resort & Casino, to name but a few.
Demographics.
Background.
The term Hispanic broadly refers to the people, nations, and cultures that have a historical link to Spain. It commonly applies to countries once part of the Spanish Empire, particularly the countries of Latin America, the Philippines, Equatorial Guinea, and Spanish Sahara. The Spanish culture and Spanish language are the main traditions.
Spanish Philippines.
Between 1565 and 1898, Hispanics from Latin America and Spain sailed to and from the Philippine Islands. This contributed to the assimilation of the Hispanics into everyday society. According to an 1818 study by the renowned German ethnologist Fëdor Jagor entitled "The Former Philippines thru Foreign Eyes", not less than one third of the inhabitants of the island of Luzon were descendants of Spaniards, mixed with varying degrees of South American, Chinese, and Indian ancestry and the vast majority of military personnel then had Latin-American origins.
History.
Spanish Philippines is the history of the Philippines from 1521 to 1898. It begins with the arrival in 1521 of European explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailing for Spain, which heralded the period when the Philippines was an overseas province of Spain, and ends with the outbreak of the Spanish–American War in 1898.
The Spanish conquest of 1565, prompted the colonization of the Philippine Islands that lasted for 333 years. The Philippines was a former territory of the Viceroyalty of New Spain until the grant of independence to Mexico in 1821 necessitated the direct government from Spain of the Philippines from that year. Early Spanish settlers were mostly explorers, soldiers, government officials, religious missionaries, and among others, who were born in Spain and Mexico called Peninsulares (Spanish migrants living in the colony) or Criollo (Spaniards of pure blood), who settled in the islands with their families to governed the colony, and the majority of the indigenous population. Some of these individuals married or inter-bred with the indigenous Filipino (Austronesian/Malay/Malayo-Polynesian) population while most married only other Spaniards. Their succeeding generation called Insulares (Spaniards or Hispanics born from the islands), became town local officers, and were granted with haciendas (plantation estates) by the Spanish government. In some provinces like, Vigan, Iloilo, Cebu, Pampanga, and Zamboanga, The Spanish government encouraged foreign merchants to trade with the indigenous population, but they were not given certain privileges such as ownership of land. From this contact, social intercourse between foreign merchants, and indigenous people resulted in a new ethnic group. These group were called Mestizos (mixed-race individuals), who were born from intermarriages of the Spaniards and merchants with the indigenous Filipino (Austronesian/Malay/Malayo-Polynesian) natives. Some of their descendants, emerged later as an influential part of the ruling class, such as the Principalía (Nobility).
The Spanish implemented incentives to deliberately entangle the various races together in order to stop rebellion: - "It is needful to encourage public instruction in all ways possible, permit newspapers subject to a liberal censure, to establish in Manila a college of medicine, surgery, and pharmacy: in order to break down the barriers that divide the races, and amalgamate them all into one. For that purpose, the Spaniards of the country, the Chinese mestizos, and the Filipinos shall be admitted with perfect equality as cadets of the military corps; the personal-service tax shall be abolished, or an equal and general tax shall be imposed, to which all the Spaniards shall be subject. This last plan appears to me more advisable, as the poll-tax is already established, and it is not opportune to make a trial of new taxes when it is a question of allowing the country to be governed by itself. Since the annual tribute is unequal, the average shall be taken and shall be fixed, consequently, at fifteen or sixteen reals per whole tribute, or perhaps one peso fuerte annually from each adult tributary person. This regulation will produce an increase in the revenue of 200,000 or 300,000 pesos fuertes, and this sum shall be set aside to give the impulse for the amalgamation of the races, favoring crossed marriages by means of dowries granted to the single women in the following manner. To a Chinese mestizo woman who marries a Filipino shall be given 100 pesos; to a Filipino woman who marries a Chinese mestizo, Ioo pesos; to a Chinese mestizo woman who marries a Spaniard, 1,000 pesos; to a Spanish woman who marries a Chinese mestizo, 2,000 pesos; to a Filipino woman who marries a Spaniard, 2,000 pesos; to a Spanish woman who marries a Filipino chief, 3,000 or 4,000 pesos. Some mestizo and Filipino alcaldes-mayor of the provinces shall be appointed. It shall be ordered that when a Filipino chief goes to the house of a Spaniard, he shall seat himself as the latter's equal. In a word, by these and other means, the idea that they and the Castilians are two kinds of distinct races shall be erased from the minds of the natives, and the families shall become related by marriage in such manner that when free of the Castilian dominion should any exalted Filipinos try to expel or enslave our race, they would find it so interlaced with their own that their plan would be practically impossible."
Mexicans of European or Mestizo heritage known as Américanos (Americans) also arrived in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial period. Between 1565 and 1815, Hispanics from Mexico and Spain sailed to, and from the Philippines as government officials, soldiers, priests, settlers, traders, sailors, and adventurers in the Manila-Acapulco Galleon, assisting Spain in its trade between Latin America and the Philippine Islands.
The Philippine Statistics Department does not account for the racial background or ancestry of an individual. The official population of all types of Filipino mestizos that reside inside and outside of the Philippines remains unknown.
Spanish East Indies.
The Spanish East Indies ("") were the Spanish territories in Asia-Pacific from 1565 until 1899. They comprised the Philippine Islands, Guam and the Mariana Islands, the Caroline Islands (Palau and the Federated States of Micronesia), and for some time parts of Formosa (Taiwan) and the Moluccas (Indonesia). Cebu was the first seat of government, later transferred to Manila. From 1565 to 1821 these territories, together with the Spanish West Indies, were administered through the Viceroyalty of New Spain based in Mexico City.
Captaincy General of the Philippines.
The Captaincy General of the Philippines (; ) was an administrative district of the Spanish Empire. The Captaincy General encompassed the Spanish East Indies which included the modern country of the Philippines and various Pacific Island possessions, such as the Caroline Islands and Guam. It was founded in 1565 with the first permanent Spanish settlements.
For centuries all the political and economic aspects of the Captaincy were administered in Mexico by the Viceroyalty of New Spain, while the administrative issues had to be consulted with the Spanish Crown or the Council of the Indies through the Royal Audience of Manila. However, in 1821, after Mexico became an independent nation, all control was transferred to Madrid.
Language.
In Asia, the Philippines, a former Spanish overseas province, was the only Spanish-speaking sovereign nation. Spanish was the "lingua franca" of the country from the beginning of Spanish rule in the late 1500s until the first half of the 20th century. It held official status for nearly half a millennium before being demoted as an optional language in 1987. However, Spanish still remained a very important language up until the mid-20th century, with a gradual decline over the decades. As of 2010, some groups were rallying to revive the language and make it a compulsory subject in schools. Development of demand for Spanish speakers within the Call Center and Business Process Outsourcing industries led to its reinvigoration. Classes in the Instituto Cervantes are often full because of this.
Most Filipinos of Spanish descent are considered to belong to regional Ethnic groups in the Philippines because they speak their respective regional languages. They also use English in the public sphere, and may also speak Tagalog and other Philippine languages. Spanish was, along with English, the co-official language in the Philippines from the "Spanish Colonial Period" until 1987 when its official status was removed.
Only a minority of Spanish descended Filipinos speak Spanish; Some Filipinos of Spanish descent, particularly those of older generations and recent immigrants, have preserved Spanish as a spoken language. In addition, Chavacano (a criollo language based largely on Spanish vocabulary) is spoken in the southern Philippines, and forms one of the majority languages of Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga del Norte, Zamboanga Sibugay, Basilan and is mostly concentrated in Zamboanga City. It may also be spoken in some parts of the northern Philippines.
Due to a decree by the Spanish government in 1849 to establish a census, Filipinos (of Indigenous descent) may have Spanish or Spanish-sounding surnames; The government distributed a book of surnames for the use of all Filipinos.
Philippine Spanish.
Philippine Spanish (Spanish: Español Filipino, Castellano Filipino) is a Spanish dialect and a variant of Spanish spoken in the Philippines. Philippine Spanish is very similar to Mexican Spanish, because of Mexican and Hispanic American emigration to the Spanish East Indies (Philippines) over the years. It is spoken mostly among Spanish Filipinos.
Socioeconomic status.
Filipinos of Spanish descent currently constitute the great majority of both the upper and middle classes. Many are either in politics or are high-ranking executives of commerce and industry, entertainment and sporting ranks. A number of elite Filipino family dynasties, political families and the elite clans are of Spanish origin.
Recent immigration.
According to a recent survey, the number of Spanish citizens in the Philippines regardless of ethnolinguistic affiliation was about 6,300 of the Philippine population with the vast majority of them being actually Spaniard-Filipinos, but excluding Philippine citizens of Spanish descent. Although Spaniards are referred to as "Kastila", from the name "Castile", the vast majority are Basques.
Background.
During the Spanish Colonial Period, large numbers of Spaniards settled in the Americas, which resulted in widespread miscegenation between them, indigenous women and enslaved African women. The Spanish authorities developed and established a highly complex caste system based on a racial hierarchy of Spanish descent, which later became associated with "whiteness". The racial doctrine used after the end of the Reconquista, called "limpieza de sangre", or cleanliness of blood, was applied to the caste system. It described and classified a person based on their purity of Spanish "blood" or heritage. Some of the castes defined were as follows:
Only in the Americas, however, were mixed-race persons of Spanish ancestry with less than one-eighth "indio", or Amerindian, blood considered legally classified as "criollo" or white.
Colonial caste system.
The history of racial mixture in the Philippines occurred mostly during the Spanish colonial period from the 16th to 19th century.
The indigenous Filipino population of the Philippines were referred to as Indios.
Persons classified as 'Blanco' (white) were the "Filipino" (person born in the Philippines of pure Spanish descent), "peninsulares" (persons born in Spain of pure Spanish descent), mestizos de español, and tornatras. Manila was racially segregated, with 'blancos' living in the walled city Intramuros, un-Christianized sangleys in Parían, Christianized sangleys and mestizos de sangley in Binondo, and the rest of the 7,000 islands for the indios, with the exception of Cebu and several other Spanish territories.
Indio was a general term applied to native Malay or Malayan, a Malayo-Polynesian speaking people known as the Austronesian inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago, but as a legal classification, it was only applied to Christianized Malayo-Polynesian who lived in proximity to the Spanish colonies.
Persons who lived outside of Manila, Cebu, and the major Spanish posts were classified as such: 'Naturales' were Christianized Austronesian/Malay/Malayo-Polynesian of the lowland and coastal towns. The un-Christianized Aetas and Austronesian/Malay/Malayo-Polynesian who lived in the towns were classified as 'salvajes' (savages) or 'infieles' (the unfaithful). 'Remontados' (Spanish for 'situated in the mountains') and 'tulisanes' (bandits) were Austronesian/Malay/Malayo-Polynesian) and Aetas who refused to live in towns and took to the hills, all of whom were considered to live outside the social order as Catholicism was a driving force in everyday life, as well as determining social class in the colony.
Persons of pure Spanish descent, as well as many mestizos and castizos, living in the Philippines who were born in Spanish America were classified as 'Américano'. A few mulattos born in Spanish America living in the Philippines kept their legal classification as such, and sometimes came as indentured servants to the 'américanos'. The Philippine-born children of 'américanos' were classified as 'Filipinos'. The Philippine-born children mulatos from Spanish America were classified based on patrilineal descent.
The Spanish legally classified the Aetas as 'negritos' based on their appearance. The word 'negrito' would be misinterpreted and used by future European scholars as an ethnoracial term in and of itself. Both Christianized Aetas who lived in the colony and un-Christianized Aetas who lived in tribes outside of the colony were classified as 'negritos'. Christianized Aetas who lived in Manila were not allowed to enter Intramuros and lived in areas designated for Indios.
Persons of mixed Aeta and Austronesian/Malay/Malayo-Polynesian ancestry were classified based on patrilineal descent; the father's ancestry determined a child's legal classification. If the father was 'negrito' (Aeta) and the mother was 'india' (Austronesian/Malayo-Polynesian), the child was classified as 'negrito'. If the father was 'indio' and the mother was 'negrita', the child was classified as 'indio'. Persons of Aeta descent were viewed as being outside of the social order as they usually lived in tribes outside of the colony and resisted conversion to Christianity.
This legal system of racial classification based on patrilineal descent had no parallel anywhere in the Spanish colonies in the Americas. In general, a son born of a "sangley" male and an "indio" or "mestizo de sangley" female was classified as "mestizo de sangley"; all subsequent male descendants were "mestizos de sangley" regardless of whether they married an "india" or a "mestiza de sangley".
The social stratification system based on class that continues to this day in the Philippines has its beginnings in the Spanish colonial area with this caste system.
The system was used for tax purposes. Indios paid a base tax, mestizos de sangley paid twice the base tax, sangleys paid four times the base tax, and the blancos or whites ('filipinos' or peninsulares) paid no tax. Negritos who lived within the colony paid the same tax rate as the indios.
The Spanish colonial caste system based on race was abolished after the Philippines' independence from Spain in 1898, and the word 'Filipino' expanded to include the entire population of the Philippines regardless of racial ancestry.
Chavacano.
Chavacano or "Chabacano" is a Spanish-based creole language spoken in the Philippines. The word "" is derived from Spanish, meaning "poor taste", "vulgar", for the Chavacano language, developed in Cavite City, Ternate, Zamboanga and Ermita. It is also derived from the word "chavano", coined by the Zamboangueño people.
Six different dialects have developed: Zamboangueño in Zamboanga City, Davaoeño Zamboangueño / Castellano Abakay in Davao City, Ternateño in Ternate, Cavite, Caviteño in Cavite City, Cotabateño in Cotabato City and Ermiteño in Ermita.
Chavacano is the only Spanish-based creole in Asia. It has survived for more than 400 years, making it one of the oldest creole languages in the world. Among Philippine languages, it is the only one not an Austronesian language, but like Malayo-Polynesian languages, it uses reduplication.
Literature.
Philippine literature in Spanish () is a body of literature made by Filipino writers in the Spanish language. Today, this corpus is the third largest in the whole corpus of Philippine literature (Philippine Literature in Filipino being the first, followed by Philippine literature in English). It is slightly larger than the Philippine literature in the vernacular languages. However, because of the very few additions to it in the past 30 years, it is expected that the former will soon overtake its rank.
List of some famous Spanish Philippine literature:
Doctrina Christiana.
The Doctrina Christiana was an early book of Roman Catholic Catechism, written in 1593 by Fray Juan de Plasencia, and is believed to be one of the earliest books printed in the Philippines.
Noli Me Tángere.
Noli Me Tángere (Latin for "Touch Me Not") is a fictional novel written by José Rizal, one of the national heroes of the Philippines, during the colonization of the country by Spain to expose the inequities of the Spanish Catholic priests and the ruling government.
Originally written in Spanish, the book is more commonly published and read in the Philippines in either Filipino or English. Together with its sequel, "El Filibusterismo", the reading of "Noli" is obligatory for high school students throughout the country.
El Filibusterismo.
El Filibusterismo (lit. Spanish for "The Filibustering"), also known by its English alternative title The Reign of Greed, is the second novel written by Philippine national hero José Rizal. It is the sequel to "Noli me tangere" and, like the first book, was written in Spanish. It was first published in 1891 in Ghent.
The novel's dark theme departs dramatically from the previous novel's hopeful and romantic atmosphere, signifying the character Ibarra's resort to solving his country's issues through violent means, after his previous attempt at reforming the country's system have made no effect and seemed impossible with the attitudes of the Spaniards towards the Filipinos. The novel, along with its predecessor, was banned in some parts of the Philippines as a result of their portrayals of the Spanish government's abuse and corruption. These novels along with Rizal's involvement in organizations that aim to address and reform the Spanish system and its issues led to Rizal's exile to Dapitan and eventual execution. Both the novel and its predecessor, along with Rizal's last poem, are now considered Rizal's literary masterpieces.
Mi Último Adiós.
Mi Último Adiós (English; "My Last Farewell") is a poem originally written in Spanish by Philippine national hero Dr. José Rizal on the eve of his execution by firing squad on 30 December 1896. The piece was one of the last notes he wrote before his death; another that he had written was found in his shoe but because the text was illegible, its contents today remain a mystery.


Defeat American Aggression Badge

Defeat American Aggression Badge is a military badge given during the Vietnam War by North Vietnam.


Kashmir Division

The Kashmir Division is a revenue and administrative division in the Kashmir Valley region of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir. It borders Jammu Division to the south and the Indian-administered union territory of Ladakh to the east, while the Line of Control forms its border with the Pakistani-administered territories of Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Gilgit−Baltistan to the north and west, respectively.
Srinagar is its main city and also the summer capital of the Jammu and Kashmir. Other main cities are :Baramulla, :Anantnag,
Pulwama.
Districts.
The Indian administrative districts for the Kashmir Valley were reorganised in 1968, and 2006, each time subdividing existing districts. Kashmir Division currently consists of the following ten districts:
Demographics.
The Kashmir division is largely Muslim (96.41%) with a small Hindu (2.45%) and Sikh (0.81%) population.


Interfrisian Council

The Interfrisian Council is a geopolitical organization that represents the common interests of the Frisians. The organization consists of three regional councils or "sections": North Frisia, East Frisia and West Frisia. Every three years, the presidency of the Interfrisian Council is handed over to another section. The council was established in 1956.
History.
The chronicler wrote in the 17th century that the Frisians had a common language, and that they therefore were also one people. traveled from (Westerlauwens') Friesland to Saterland and Northern Friesland in the 19th century and recorded the dialects of Frisian on the way. In 1850 Heinrich Ehrentraut from Oldenburg produced a magazine about the Frisian language and history of the Frisian regions. In the 19th century, the Frisian Society in Leeuwarden appointed members of East and North Friesland. Also during this century contacts were particularly strong between West Frisians and North Frisians. Around 1900, the contacts between the Frisian regions became stronger. This interest came mainly from the linguistic angle, . Important individuals in this era were , and .
More contact led to the call for an annual meeting of representatives of the three Frisian territories. , Eeltsje Boates Folkertsma and the association 'The Upstalbeam' (founded in 1924) also called for such meetings. And so the first Great Frisian Congress (Grutfryske Kongres) was organized by and held in 1925 in Jever organized with representatives from the three regions, as well as Groningen, Land Wursten, Butjadingen and Jeverland. This was the basis for more joint meetings and the founding of the Frisian Council. At the Great Frisian Congress in Husum in 1930 the Frisian Council was established. The aim of the council was to protect and maintain the bond between the congresses.
During World War II, there were no inter-ministerial meetings and the Frisian Council held itself as politically neutral, though was suspicious of both the German and Dutch governments. The Nazis viewed the Frisian Council with suspicion. The Great-Frisian Congress of 1937 was held in . With the German occupation of the Netherlands in 1940, however, the Nazi state wanted to use the Frisian connections encouraged by the council to draw Dutch Frisians with völkisch ideology to their side.
The next Great Frisian Congress was held in 1952 in Husum and then in 1955 in Aurich. Here the (Frisian manifesto) was adopted, a new basis for Frisian contacts after the war, which placed the Inter-Frisian movement in relation to European unification. A year later, in 1956, the Frisian Council was officially set up in the East Frisian area of Leer. Under the supervision of the Frisian Council, the collection was published in 1973. In 1998, the Interfrisian Council was established to act for the three councils / sections of the Frisian Council in the various Frisian regions. A new Interfrisian Declaration was adopted in 2006. In 2006, the German Post (Deutsche Post) issued a commemorative stamp for the 50th anniversary of the Interfrisian Council.
Organization.
Each of the three sections has its own board and administrative center. Section West currently holds the presidency of the Interfrisian Council until 2021.
Board.
Since the start of Section East's presidency in 2015, the board of the Interfrisian Council consists of:


Hari (Afghanistan)

The Hari River ( or ; ) or Herat River is a river flowing from the mountains of central Afghanistan to Turkmenistan, where it forms the Tejend oasis and disappears in the Karakum Desert.
In Turkmenistan it is known as the Tejen or Tedzhen river and passes close to the city of Tedzhen. To the Ancient Greeks it was known as the Arius. In Latin, it was known as the Tarius.
Course.
The river originates in the Baba mountain range, part of the Hindu Kush system, and follows a relatively straight course to the west.
Still some upstream from Herat the river meets the Jam River at the site of the Minaret of Jam, the second tallest ancient minaret in the world at .
In western Afghanistan the Hari Rud flows to the south of Herat. The valley around Herat was historically famous for its fertility and dense cultivation. After Herat, the river turns northwest, then north, forming the northern part of the border between Afghanistan and Iran. Farther north it forms the south-eastern part of the border between Iran and Turkmenistan. The Iran–Turkmenistan Friendship Dam is on the river.
The Afghan-India Friendship Dam (Salma Dam) is a hydroelectric and irrigation dam project located on the Hari Rud in Chishti sharif District of Herat Province in western Afghanistan.
The average annual discharge of the Hari Rud is about 55 m3/s, but during a spring flood in 1939 the discharge went up to 1090 m3/s.
In 2000, the river dried up completely during a 10-month drought.
Ancient references.
The Rigveda is said to have recorded the Harirud as the River Sarayu. The river Haroyu is also mentioned in the Avesta. A Buddhist monastery hand-carved in the bluff of the river Harirud existed in the first centuries during the prevalence of Buddhism. The artificial caves revealed testimony of daily life of the Buddhist monks.


Aguarico River

The Aguarico River (, meaning "rich water") is a river in northeastern Ecuador. It is the main river of the Sucumbíos province. In the last part of its course it is the Ecuadorian-Peruvian border. It empties into the Napo River. It has a length of , of which the last of its course extend along the natural border between Ecuador and Peru (in the department of Loreto). The lower course of the Aguarico River was finalized and legally fixed as part of the long-disputed Ecuador-Peru frontier according to The Rio de Janeiro Protocol of 1942. Ecuador unilaterally denounced the protocol in 1960, however a new agreement was signed in 1999 validating the pre-existing protocol.
The Aguarico river is a river that flows almost completely by the province of Sucumbíos, in the north of Ecuador, being the main river of the province. In its average course it flows closely near the Reserve of Production Faunística Cuyabeno. In the last part of its course it flows near the Ecuadorian-Peruvian border. Finally it ends at the Napo river, in the same border, a little over the locality the town of Pantoja in Loreto, Peru.
History.
In 1541, Gonzalo Pizarro and Francisco de Orellana constructed a sailboat, the San Pedro, and followed the courses of the Coca River and the Napo River until the confluence of the Napo with the Aguarico River and the Curaray River, where they lacked the proper amount of provisions and supplies, including food. Several men did not survive, and it is estimated that 140 of 220 Spaniards and 3,000 of the 4,000 Indians who composed the expedition were amongst this number. They decided then (22 February 1542) that Orellana would continue down the Aguarico River in search of food. They accompanied about fifty men to go with him. Incapable to overcome the river, Orellana waited for Pizarro. Finally Pizarro sent three men with a message to Orellana for him to begin the construction of a new boat, the Victoria. Meanwhile, Pizarro had returned towards Quito by another route towards the north, with only 80 men, those of which that remained alive.
Indigenous tribes.
In the highest part of the Aguarico River live the indigenous Sioni. The Sioni peoples belong to the western Tucanoan language family, and their official languages are the Piohe (or Pioche) dialects and Spanish as well as a mixture of the two, which is sometimes called Pioche-Sione. At present they are a group of approximately 172 people united in 51 families. Their economic activities are based mainly on hunting, fishing and sometimes tourism. Some of the problems that the community must face in the present era are environmental contamination and the over-exploitation of lumber.


Cuando River

The Cuando River is a river in south-central Africa flowing through Angola and Namibia's Caprivi Strip and into the Linyanti Swamp on the northern border of Botswana. Below the swamp, the river is called the Linyanti River and, farther east, the Chobe River, before it flows into the Zambezi River.
Course.
The Cuando rises in the central plateau of Angola on the slopes of Mount Tembo, thence flowing southeast along the Zambian border. Along this reach it flows in a maze of channels in a swampy corridor 5–10 km wide (map 1: the border with Zambia is the eastern bank of this floodplain, not the river channel). As with all rivers in south-central Africa its flow varies enormously between the rainy season when it floods and may be several kilometres wide, and the dry season when it may disappear into marshes.
The Cuando continues in its marshy channel across the neck of the Caprivi Strip of Namibia (map, 2) and then forms the border between Namibia and Botswana as it continues southeast. Some 10,014 years ago, the Cuando merged with the Okavango River and they flowed south to Lake Makgadikgadi (which is a seasonal wetland in current times), but the land in that area was uplifted. As a consequence the Cuando now meets slightly higher ground (map, 4) and breaks up into many channels and swamps (called the Linyanti Swamp) dotted with alluvial islands, nearly disappearing into the Kalahari sands like the Okavango (map, 5). But instead it has diverted east and has been captured by the Zambezi. The flow turns sharply east, still forming the border with Botswana. In the dry season there are few open channels through the swamps and marshes. Beginning at this point it is known as the Linyanti (map, 6), and after it flows through a seasonal lake, Lake Liambesi (map, 7), it is called the Chobe (map, 8). The river then flows into the Zambezi just above the Kazungula Ferry (map, 9).
In years when the Okavango experiences a good flood some of the water escapes east along the normally dry channel of the Magwekwana River (also known as Selinda Spillway) into the Linyanti Swamp, thus entering the Zambezi basin. The Selinda Spillway and the Boteti River are the only outlets of the Okavango basin.
On the north side of the Chobe River are the Caprivi Swamps, on the edge of which is the ruined capital of the Kololo people who conquered Barotseland in the 19th Century.
So much of the water of the Cuando, Linyanti and Chobe is lost to evaporation in the various swamps that its contribution to the flow of the Zambezi is very small except in occasional years when it floods excessively.
The perennial river bifurcation of Selinda Spillway (or Magweggana River), on the Cuando River, connects the Kalahari Basin to the Zambezi Basin.
Wildlife.
The Cuando system is noted for its wildlife and for most of its length the land either side is protected as game reserves or wildlife management areas. Some of these suffered poaching during wars and conflict in Namibia and Angola, but with peace restored in those countries they have the chance of returning to their former state.
The national parks through which it passes or on which it borders are:


Our (river)

The Our (; , ) is a river in Belgium, Luxembourg and Germany. It is a left-hand tributary of the river Sauer/Sûre. Its total length is .
The source of the Our is in the High Fens in southeastern Belgium, near Manderfeld. It flows southwards, more or less along the German-Belgian border, and after Ouren, along the German-Luxembourg border. The historic town of Vianden lies on the Our. The Our empties into the Sauer in Wallendorf.
Course.
The river rises in the eastern Ardennes and western Eifel on Belgian soil. Its source near the village of Losheimergraben lies northeast of the "Eichelsberg" mountain (653 m) at 643 m near the B 265. Just a few hundred metres away is the source of the River Kyll. The Our initially follows the B 265, which is also the Belgian-German state border. The river continues alternating between Belgium and Germany. From the tripoint by the Europa Monument between Ouren (B), Sevenig (D) and Lieler (L) it runs almost entirely on the German-Luxembourg border until it reaches Wallendorf in Germany where it empties into the Sauer. It flows mainly from north to south but also meanders in places.
For the section where it runs along the German-Luxembourg border the Our is a jointly managed condominium (the "Joint German-Luxembourg Sovereign Area"). Unilateral sovereignty only begins at the respective shore. In its upper reaches between Germany and Belgium, the state border lies, as is normal on the thalweg of the river.
Tributaries.
A comprehensive list that also includes the smaller tributaries is .
Villages on the Our.
The border village of Vianden, one of the most important tourist resorts in Luxembourg, lies on the Our. The Our Valley Route is a circular route that runs through Belgium and North Luxembourg. Especially worth seeing is the section between Manderfeld (Belgium) and Lieler (Luxembourg), where the route follows the Our almost all the way. It runs "inter alia" past Reuland Castle (Ouren) and the Europa Monument at the German-Belgian-Luxembourg tripoint.
Other villages are:
Usage.
The Our is impounded north of Vianden by the Our Dam and forms the lower basin of the Vianden Pumped Storage Plant.


Hassanabad, Chorbat

Hassanabad () is a village in Sub-Division Chorbat, Ghangche District of Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan, lying east of Skardu, near the border of India.
Etymology.
The ancient name of Hassanabad was Kusting, which means a large storage of water. It is said that in ancient times the lama (Bhudhist spiritual leader), who ruled the area name was Lama Kastiyang. and the name Kusting was derived from the lama's name.
The language spoken is Balti. The entire population is Muslim of the Sofia Noorbakhshia
In the past it was the trade route to Ladakh and Kargil.
Geography.
Hassanabad has an average elevation of about , and is situated along the banks of the Shyok River, a tributary of the Indus. Villages near Hassanabad includes Marcha, Dawoo, Piun, Partuk, Siksa and Franu.
The mountains and surrounding have generally no forests however there are some shrubs and herbs available which are generally used by the local communities as medicinal herbs and for their cattle,
The Shyok River passing nearby the village is one of the important resources for irrigating the whole lands. However the same river sometime creates havoc during summer through its unpredictable floods.
Administrartion.
Hassanabad consists of 7 block. Painkhor, Gabkhor, Thangkhor, Hajipakhor, Goostrang, Komick and Oraitan
Climate.
The climate of Hassanabad during the summer is moderated by its mountain setting and the intense heat of lowland Pakistan does not reach here. The mountains also block out the summer monsoon and summer rainfall is thus quite low. However, these mountains result in very severe winter weather. During the April to October temperatures vary between a maximum of 27 °C and a minimum (in October) 8 °C. However, temperatures can drop to below -26 °C in the December-to-February midwinter period.
Resources.
The natural resources of the village include agriculture, horticultural resources, the Shyok River, mountains and peaks.
The agriculture in the village is only summer based due to extreme cold in the winter where temperature goes to -10 C. The crops include some beans, maize, potatoes, and other food crops however communities have experimented less with the agriculture due to the natural limiting factors i.e. extreme cold.
Transport.
Hassanabad is accessible only by the road, The normal route to Hassanabad is via Shyok Valley Road, that connect it to the District Headquarters Khaplu and to Skardu. The climate can have adverse effects on transport in and out of the Hassanabad, as the roads in and out of can be blocked for weeks.


Cameron Corner Survey Marker

Cameron Corner Survey Marker is a heritage-listed survey marker in the locality of Cameron Corner, Shire of Bulloo, Queensland, Australia. The survey marker is at the border corner of South-West Queensland with New South Wales and South Australia; it was established in 1880. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 9 November 2012.
History.
Cameron Corner Survey Marker was established in September 1880 during the first official survey of the western section of the border between Queensland and New South Wales (NSW) undertaken in 1879-1881. It defines the westernmost extension of the Queensland-New South Wales border. Its marking was a surveying feat of its time.
After debate about a suitable southern boundary for the proposed new colony to the north of New South Wales (NSW), letters patent were issued by Queen Victoria in June 1859 which separated the new Colony of Queensland from NSW. The letters patent described the border between the two colonies as having three components:
The eastern and western sections of the border required surveying but the central river section did not.
The eastern section was surveyed between 1863 and 1866. In 1863 surveyors Francis Edward Roberts from Queensland and Isaiah Rowland from New South Wales were chosen to survey the boundary line from Point Danger west to the Dumaresq River. Starting in June, two separate surveys were carried out, and although in many instances both surveyors used the same tree to mark the border, Rowland and Roberts defined the border in different positions. At the direction of the Queensland Surveyor-General, Roberts deviated from the definable position of the watershed in order to increase the accuracy of the survey. Subsequently, the New South Wales and Queensland governments essentially adopted the survey of Roberts.
Marking the river section formed by the Dumaresq, Macintyre and Barwon Rivers to 29 degrees South took place in 1865. Queensland and New South Wales arranged for the fixing of the 29th parallel of latitude, at the intersections of the Barwon, Mooni, Bokhara, Narran, Biri and Culgoa Rivers, to enable the colonial governments to adjust the rents of leases of several pastoral runs in the vicinity, some of which were partly in both colonies. In addition, about of land on the Queensland border could not be leased until its position was determined. Augustus Charles Gregory, Queensland Surveyor-General and NSW District Surveyor of the Northern Rivers, William Albert Baylesford Greaves, conducted this initial survey of latitude 29S. The marking of the border was done with steel (iron) pins one inch in diameter and two feet long, driven a few inches below the surface, radial reference bearings being taken to adjacent trees.This process was repeated at each of the above named rivers, and the work was completed in five or six weeks.
That left surveying of the western section of the border at latitude 29 degrees S to be completed. Pastoral occupation of south-west Queensland began in the 1860s. In July 1862 Sir Charles Nicholson had reported to the Secretary of State for the Colonies that: "On the west, the whole of the basin of the 'Barcoo' for several hundred miles, as far as the 142nd meridian of East longitude, is becoming rapidly occupied by squatters, and the authorised possession of the greater part of it has already, I believe, been secured under pastoral licenses...". Pastoralists began settling the Cooper and Bulloo country and the adjacent portion of South Australia in 1864 with Bulloo Downs Station being the first pastoral run in the Bulloo area. By the end of the decade the Cooper country was also settled.
During the 1870s, settlement extended west to the Diamantina, Mulligan and Georgina areas. In 1873, the pastoral districts were named - Gregory South comprised the Bulloo and lower Cooper area and the remainder became Gregory North. Initially runs in both districts were stocked with cattle and sheep. By 1885 all available land in Queensland's far south-west had been claimed. This land, comprising the floodplains of the Mulligan, Georgina, Diamantina and Bulloo Rivers and Cooper Creek, which form part of a vast inland drainage system originating in Queensland's central west and north-west and eventually reaching Lake Eyre, became known as Channel Country. During floods, the semi-arid region becomes a network of channels, watering vast grasslands suitable for cattle-fattening.
Another factor in the determination of the Queensland-NSW border was the collection of customs duties at the border and establishment of border customs offices. Inter-colonial border duties were introduced in Australia in the 1850s, after the Murray River became the boundary between New South Wales and Victoria. Their introduction demonstrated that the Australian colonies were developing in divergent and independent ways. As each new colony was declared, it established its own Customs administration, which was responsible for the collection of lucrative custom duties and the prevention of smuggling.
In mid-1862, the Queensland government assented to the provisions of the New South Wales Border Customs Act, introduced to provide for a mutual Queensland-New South Wales system of collecting customs duties payable on goods crossing their shared border. At first, the flow of goods into Queensland through the inland routes was not sufficient in either quantity or value to warrant the cost of collecting customs duty in remote areas. However, as settlement expanded, the Queensland government became concerned at the amount of revenue being lost in this way (estimated in 1870 at between and per annum, with approximately 340 pastoral stations, stores and public houses along the southern Queensland border being supplied primarily from New South Wales). Not only did more goods travel north than went south into New South Wales, but duty on such everyday commodities as tea and tobacco was twice as high in Queensland and a considerable amount of smuggling across the border took place.
As the western regions of the colony developed and internal trade routes were established, custom facilities were required along the borders with New South Wales and South Australia. The Customs Duties Act 1870 provided Queensland with independent legislation to regulate the collection of duties on goods imported from other colonies. A small Customs Border Patrol consisting of a police inspector, sub-inspector and four constables was appointed with powers to collect duties from 1 January 1871. They travelled along the Queensland-New South Wales border, collecting duties and keeping careful records regarding the type and value of goods and the amount of monies collected. They also recommended 11 sites where Custom offices could be established. It was soon reported that the effect of increased vigilance on the border was to deflect the importation of goods to Brisbane, reducing the amount of such trade through inland centres.
Finally in June 1879 the surveying of the remainder of the Queensland-NSW border along the 29th parallel of south latitude extending into the Channel Country was undertaken. Survey parties from both colonies met at Barringun, near the border, and William Jacomb Conder, superintendent of the trigonometrical survey NSW, undertook preliminary work to fix the latitude of the border town on the Warrego River using astronomical observations. Having determined the position for the border and the longitude of a point on it and the direction of the true meridian found, surveyors John Brewer Cameron from NSW and George Chale Watson (Commissioner for Crown Lands for the Warrego and Gregory South) representing Queensland, started to survey westerly on 15 September 1879 from a point on the east bank of the Warrego River where they had erected the Zero Obelisk. The two surveyors divided their work with Watson being responsible for chainage and Cameron for the astronomical work required to undertake this geodetic survey. After marking the first 5-mile chord and offsetting the mileposts from this chord to the arc the work continued in this manner.
Very soon the surveyors struck floods. Cameron wrote "Had great difficulty in crossing creeks with the whole camp. The Irarah, Cuttaburra and Warrego being flooded... I had to construct two boats one of planks and the other of Canvas and frame: ... ferried eight tons ... in one afternoon including instruments". After crossing these swollen watercourses, they encountered the usual arid conditions of the south-west. In March 1880 after reaching the 100-mile post on the Paroo River, Surveyor Watson withdrew from the survey party, having written "As I believe Mr Cameron capable of working within great precision and he is evidently a painstaking officer over his professional duties, I have no reason to doubt but that the work would be precise enough for all the purposes of scientific accuracy as Mr Cameron, added to his other qualifications, has a supreme regard for his own reputation". According to Bill Kitson, Watson had other reasons for withdrawing - he resented having to continue his duties as land commissioner while working on the border survey as it meant he was unable to fully participate and made him "the laughing stock of the NSW contingent".
This left Cameron to complete the task of surveying the 29 degree latitude of S over remote and desolate country. Cameron wrote that "At the 235-mile post we nearly lost all our horses in one night (32) owing to ... being unable to find the waterhole ... Having 100 gallons of water in camp I divided 50 gallons among the 32 horses with a little oatmeal which enabled them to travel to 'Warri Warri' Creek. I was obliged to give the horses a week's spell to recruit their strength". Cameron identified the corner between Queensland, NSW and South Australia with a timber post marked with the government arrow and LAT 29. The survey of from Barringun to the South Australian border had taken a total of 12 months and 15 days.
After reaching the South Australian border and marking the corner, Cameron returned to Barringun to survey the easterly section of about to the Barwon River, completing the entire border survey in October 1881. Cameron reported that his line passed 68.5 links north of Gregory and Greave's steel pin in the Culgoa River and that its greatest distance from Gregory's 29th parallel was about three chains on the Macintyre River. He marked the end of the survey to the east with a one-ton post (Cameron's 1 Ton Survey Post) on the west bank of the Barwon River.
John Brewer Cameron was born in Scotland and migrated to Victoria with his family in 1853. After going to the Victorian goldfields and then New Zealand, he returned to Victoria and joined a government geodetic surveying party working in the Mount Baw Baw area. This experience led him to take up a career in surveying. He went to Fiji as a surveyor in 1869 returning to Victoria in 1872 where he specialised in surveying and geodesy. By 1879 he was a First Class Surveyor in the Trigonometrical Branch of the NSW Lands Department and a member of the Royal Geographical Society of New South Wales. He undertook the surveying of the Queensland-NSW border between 1879 and 1881. In 1883 he moved to New Guinea, acquired a plantation and later guided the Government Resident, Sir William MacGregor, on journeys of exploration. In 1896 Cameron became Government Surveyor of New Guinea. On 31 December 1897 he died suddenly from malaria while visiting Brisbane and was buried in Toowong cemetery. Afterwards, his former colleague in marking the NSW-Queensland border, George Watson, stated "and so passed away an energetic spirit worthy of classification as a man of genius. His boundary marks on the Queensland boundary will remain an imperishable monument of his skill as an astronomer."
Given the enormous difficulties Cameron faced in the task, his survey of the Queensland-NSW border was impressive. Current technology such as the Global Positioning System (or GPS) enables places to be pinpointed by longitude and latitude more accurately. It is now apparent that the intended corner between Queensland, New South Wales and South Australia at was not achieved. The corner surveyed by Cameron was actually . This is the location of the original corner post at Cameron Corner, which was replaced by the current concrete pillar, unveiled by the Ministers for Lands from NSW, Queensland and South Australia on 6 June 1969. The position of Cameron Corner as per Queensland's Digital Cadastral Database (DCDB), however, does not correlate with either the concrete pillar or the intended border corner. The DCDB places Cameron Corner to the east of the concrete pillar and north-west of its intended position of . The DCDB corner location that can be listed is that on Lot 1 AP21535. This variation in the intention and reality of the border corner shows the continued difficulties of surveying remote regions. This would be resolved by re-survey of Lot 1 on AP21535.
The Queensland Boundaries Declaratory Act 1982 confirmed "that each land boundary of the State ... as ... defined in the Letters Patent ... by reference to a parallel of latitude or a meridian of longitude is and always has been the boundary ... permanently fixed by marking it upon on the surface of the earth before 1900...".
The corner post as a survey mark is protected under the Survey and Mapping Infrastructure Act 2003 and the Survey and Mapping Infrastructure Regulation 2004 whereby a person must not interfere with a survey mark unless certain conditions are met.
Today, Cameron Corner Survey Marker is a well-known tourist destination.
Description.
Cameron Corner Survey Marker is at the southernmost of Queensland's three south-western corners and is the westernmost point of the Queensland-New South Wales border. It is located approximately south of Haddon Corner , south-east of Poeppel Corner and from the east coast in an arid environment comprising ochre coloured dirt and sand with some native vegetation. The confluence of 141 degrees E and 29 degrees S (with no official marking) is located approximately to the south-east.
Nearby are:
Heritage listing.
Cameron Corner Survey Marker was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 9 November 2012 having satisfied the following criteria.
The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.
Cameron Corner Survey Marker (1880), marking the westernmost extension of the first official survey of the Queensland-New South Wales border, is important in demonstrating the priority placed on clear border demarcation by the governments of Queensland and New South Wales. Set borders were an important part of colonial economic and administrative development, providing certainty for governments and pastoralists, and enabling the collection of customs duties.
Cameron Corner is the result of early cooperation between Australian colonies and provides lasting evidence of the feat of endurance necessary to complete the Queensland-New South Wales border survey.
The place is important in demonstrating a high degree of creative or technical achievement at a particular period.
Cameron Corner represents the culmination of a difficult feat of geodetic surveying and results from an early application of this branch of surveying in Queensland.
The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.
Cameron Corner is important to the Australian community as a geographical and cultural landmark, and is a well-known tourist attraction.
The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland's history.
Cameron Corner has an important association with the life and career of John Brewer Cameron (1843–97) as a commemoration of one of his most notable accomplishments.


Hont County

Hont (-Hungarian and Slovak and German, in Latin: "Honthum", in Hungarian also: "Honth") was an administrative county (comitatus) of the Kingdom of Hungary. Most of its territory is now part of Slovakia, while a smaller southern portion is part of Hungary.
Today, in Slovakia Hont is the informal designation of the corresponding territory and an official tourist region.
Geography.
Hont county shared borders with the counties Bars, Zólyom, Nógrád, Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kiskun and Esztergom. It was situated between Selmecbánya and the Danube river, but the territory around the town of Korpona was added only at the end of the 19th century. The rivers Korpona and Ipoly were the central rivers that flowed through the county. Its area was 2633 km² around 1910.
Capitals.
The capitals of the county were the Hont Castle together with Hídvég (present-day Ipeľské Predmostie), then from the 16th century onwards there was no permanent capital, and finally since early 19th century, the capital was Ipolyság (present-day Šahy).
History.
The county arose in the 11th century by separation from the Nógrád county. Around the year 1300, the territory of Kishont was added to the territory of the county, but received a special status.
From 1552 to 1685, most of the county was part of the Ottoman Empire and belonged to the administrative unit called Nógrád sandjak.
Changes to the northern border of the county were performed in 1802 (Kishont became part of the Gömör-Kishont county) and then in the late 19th century (above all Korpona was added to the territory).
In the aftermath of World War I, most of Hont county became part of newly formed Czechoslovakia, as recognized by the concerned states in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon. A small part of the county situated south-east of the river Ipoly/Ipeľ, stayed in Hungary.
In Czechoslovakia, the county continued to exist as the Hont county ("Hontianska župa"). In 1923, it became part of the Zvolen county. he Hungarian part of Hont merged with the Hungarian part of Nógrád county to form Nógrád-Hont county in 1923.
In 1928, it became part of the newly created Slovak Land ("Slovenská krajina/zem"). After the First Vienna Award, between 1938 and 1945 it was united with the redeemed parts of former Bars and Hont counties to form Bars-Hont county with the capital of Léva. The remaining northern part became part of the newly created Hron county (1940–1945) of Slovakia. After World War II, the Trianon borders were restored, Nógrád-Hont County was formed on her remnants in Hungary. In 1949, the Czechoslovak part became part of the newly created Nitra region and Banská Bystrica region of Czechoslovakia, while the Hungarian part was eventually merged into newly formed Pest County in 1950. In 1960, the Czechosovak became part of the newly created Western Slovak region and Central Slovak region. In 1993, Czechoslovakia was split and in 1996 its territory became part of the newly created Nitra region and Banská Bystrica region of Slovakia.
Demographics.
1900.
In 1900, the county had a population of 130,734 people and was composed of the following linguistic communities:
Total:
According to the census of 1900, the county was composed of the following religious communities:
Total:
1910.
In 1910, the county had a population of 132,441 people and was composed of the following linguistic communities:
Total:
According to the census of 1910, the county was composed of the following religious communities:
Total:
Subdivisions.
Until 1802, the county consisted of 3 processuses (in Slovak slúžnovské okresy; a type of districts led by "iudices nobilium") plus the Kishont district. In 1802, when Kishont was removed, the county was divided in four new processus.
In the early 20th century, the subdivisions of Hont county were:
The towns of Vámosmikola and Szob are now in Hungary.


Sports in Punjab

Various types of sports are played in Punjab. Both Indian Punjab and Pakistani Punjab have separate sports boards to undertake most of the sports activities in their respective regions. Also many many private organizations, universities and schools held their sporting events as well. Punjab youth festival is an annual event in Pakistani Punjab that is very famous in terms of audience participation. Also local boards make sure to have international collaborations when necessary to improve standards in certain sports.
Since Punjab have a huge foreign diaspora so they arrange certain events in other countries as well. Recently rugby is gaining traction in Punjab and Pakistan's first under-16 rugby team has been selected from Faisalabad Punjab to play in the World Rugby under-16 tournament.


Mece

Mece (; ) is a settlement in the region of Baranja, Croatia. Administratively, it is located in the Darda municipality within the Osijek-Baranja County. Population is 882 people.


Legnica City Hall

Legnica City Hall, erected in 1905 in the Neo-Renaissance style, is currently the seat of the city authorities of Legnica, Poland.
History.
As a result of the development of the city at the end of the 19th century, a need to build a new, larger town hall arose. The new seat of Legnica's municipal authorities was erected in 1902-1905 according to the design of the construction counselor Paul Öhlmann. The building is the result of the first part of the project, which ultimately included the construction of a four-wing complex with two inner courtyards and a monumental tower. The project, probably due to lack of funds, was never completed.
By the decision of the provincial conservator the building was entered in the register of monuments on April 14, 1981.
Architecture.
The new town hall is a grand neo-Renaissance building erected on the plan of the letter L. It has five storeys, two external risalits and is covered with gable roofs with dormer windows. There is a flèche on the ridge, and the roofs are covered with richly decorated neo-Renaissance gables. The flèche is topped with a helmet with two openings. The elevations are richly decorated with architectural details such as: bays, bossage and window frames. The sculptural details decorating the northern bay window refer to the city's past. The pillars of the loggia are decorated with knights with the coats of arms of Silesia, Legnica and Prussia. A cartouche with the town's coat of arms, consisting of two crossed keys, appears at the top of the pediment. Above it, a statue of a Czech lion was placed - the coat of arms of Legnica. The two and a half-tiered interiors have communication corridors and are covered with barrel vaults with lunettes. This building is the seat of the city authorities.


The Floridas

The Floridas () was a region of the southeastern United States comprising the historical colonies of East Florida and West Florida. The borders of East and West Florida varied. In 1783, when Spain acquired West Florida and re-acquired East Florida from Great Britain through the Peace of Paris (1783), the eastern British boundary of West Florida was the Apalachicola River, but Spain in 1785 moved it eastward to the Suwannee River. The purpose was to transfer the military post at San Marcos (now St. Mark's) and the district of Apalachee from East Florida to West Florida. From 1810 to 1813, the United States extended piecemeal control over the part of West Florida that comprised the modern-day Gulf coasts of Alabama and Mississippi and the Florida Parishes of Louisiana. After the ratification of the Adams-Onis Treaty in 1821 the United States combined East Florida and what had been the remaining Spanish-controlled rump of West Florida into the territory that comprised modern-day Florida.


Administrative divisions of Serbia

The administrative divisions of Serbia () are regulated by the Government of Serbia "Enactment" of 29 January 1992, and by the Law on Territorial Organization adopted by the National Assembly of Serbia on 29 December 2007.
Serbia is divided into 29 districts by the government decree issued in 1992. The units of the territorial organization are: municipalities and cities and autonomous provinces, by the Law on Territorial Organization.
Regions.
Autonomous provinces.
The Constitution of Serbia recognizes two autonomous provinces, Vojvodina in the north, and the disputed territory of Kosovo and Metohija in the south, while the remaining area of Central Serbia never had its own regional authority. Following the Kosovo War, NATO-led peacekeepers entered Kosovo and Metohija, after the adoption of UNSC Resolution 1244. In 2008, Kosovo declared independence. The government of Serbia did not recognise the declaration, considering it illegal and illegitimate.
The province of Vojvodina has its own assembly and government. It enjoys autonomy on certain matters, such as infrastructure, science, education and culture.
The Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija has been transferred to the administration of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) since June 1999, following the Kosovo War. In February 2008, the Government of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence from Serbia, a move recognized by countries (including most of the European Union and the United States) but not recognized by Serbia, Russia, China, India, Brazil, Argentina, Indonesia, and other 87 United Nations (UN) member states, including 5 EU member states.
Statistical regions.
The five statistical regions of Serbia are:
Districts.
Districts are the first level administrative subdivisions of the country and largest entities, constituted of municipalities and cities. Districts are regional centers of state authority, but have no assemblies of their own; they present purely administrative divisions, and host various state institutions such as funds, office branches and courts. Districts are not defined by the Law on Territorial Organisation, but are organised under the Government's Enactment of 29 January 1992.
Serbia is divided into 29 districts (18 in Central Serbia, 7 in Vojvodina, 5 in Kosovo, while the city of Belgrade presents a district of its own).
Municipalities and cities.
Serbia is divided into 145 municipalities and 29 cities, which form the basic units of local government. Each municipality has its own assembly (elected every four years in local elections), a municipal president, public service property and a budget. Municipalities usually have more than 10,000 inhabitants.
Municipalities comprise local communities, which mostly correspond to settlements (villages) in the rural areas (several small villages can comprise one local community, and large villages can contain several communities). Urban areas are also divided into local communities. Their roles include communication of elected municipal representatives with citizens, organization of citizen initiatives related with public service and communal issues. They are presided over by "councils", elected in semi-formal elections, whose members are basically volunteers. The role of local communities is far more important in rural areas; due to proximity to municipal centers, many urban local communities are defunct.
Cities are another type of local self-government. Territories with the status of "city" usually have more than 100,000 inhabitants, but are otherwise very similar to municipalities. There are 27 cities, each having an assembly and budget of its own. Only cities have mayors, although the presidents of the municipalities are often referred to as "mayors" in everyday usage.
The city may or may not be divided into "city municipalities". Six cities, Belgrade, Novi Sad, Niš, Požarevac, Užice and Vranje comprise several municipalities, divided into urban and suburban areas. Competences of cities and their municipalities are divided. Of those, only Novi Sad did not undergo the full transformation, as the newly formed municipality of Petrovaradin exists only formally; thus, the "City municipality of Novi Sad" is largely equated to "City of Novi Sad" (and the single largest municipality in the country, with around 300,000 residents).
Subdivisions of Kosovo.
Although the Serbian laws treat Kosovo as every other part of Serbia, and divide it into 5 districts, 28 municipalities and 1 city, the UNMIK administration adopted new territorial organisation of Kosovo in 2000. This move is not recognized by Serbia, but is recognized by the self-proclaimed Republic of Kosovo. According to the new subdivision, Kosovo is divided into 7 (new) districts and 37 municipalities (8 new municipalities were created: Mališevo, Elez Han, Gračanica, Junik, Klokot-Vrbovac, Mamuša, Parteš and Ranilug). The "Serb" districts function in the areas where Kosovo Serbs live, but are only recognized by Serbs, while the "UNMIK" districts, which function in all of Kosovo, are recognized only by Kosovo Albanians.


Buzet dialect

The Buzet dialect () is a dialect of the Chakavian variety of Slovenian or Croatian. It is spoken in northern Istria around Buzet.
The Buzet dialect is transitional between the Slovenian language and Kajkavian dialect. Some consider it part of the Kajkavian dialect area, and in the past it was classified (e.g. by Fran Ramovš) as a Slovenian dialect.
The primary features that separate Buzet dialect from the rest of the Chakavian dialects are in the development of the Common Slavic vocalism:
Prosodical system diverges from that of other Chakavian speeches, having lost e.g. the difference between long a short accented vowels. Another unusual feature is the usage of Kajkavian interrogative pronoun "kaj" 'what', instead of the usual Chakavian "ča".
As far as the division of Chakavian dialects in Southeastern and Northwestern is concerned, Buzet dialect belongs to Northwestern Chakavian.
The Buzet dialect has been extensively described in the book "Buzetski govori" (Annales, Kopar 2005) by Nataša Vivoda.


Narva (river)

The river Narva (; ), formerly also Narova flows north into the Baltic Sea and is the largest Estonian river by discharge. A similar length of land far to the south, together with it and a much longer intermediate lake, altogether forms the Estonia-Russia border.
The long lake, mentioned, which the river drains is Lake Peipus. The lake notably drains the much longer Russian river, the Velikaya, and a large, splayed drainage basin in the two countries.
The river gives its name to the Narva culture and the city of Narva, which faces the Russian town Ivangorod.
At the coast it passes part of the resort of Narva-Jõesuu. Its mouth is specifically into the very open WNW-facing Narva Bay of the Gulf of Finland. It gives the second-greatest discharge into the Gulf of Finland. The greatest discharge is the Neva, ranking fourth as to European rivers.
Etymology.
The etymology of the toponym "Narva" is not clear, but according to the most common theory it comes from a Vepsian word "narva" meaning waterfall or stream.
Geography.
The Narva river has its source at the northeastern end of Lake Peipus, near the villages of Vasknarva (Estonia) and Skyamya (Russia). There are a few more small villages on the upper section of the river, for example Permisküla and Kuningaküla on the Estonian side and Omuti on the Russian side, but up to the city of Narva the shores of the river are mostly forested or marshy land. The river is dammed entering Narva and Ivangorod, forming the Narva Reservoir, which extends up to upstream. The Narva empties into Narva Bay near the Estonian town of Narva-Jõesuu, third largest settlement on the river after Narva and Ivangorod.
The Plyussa is the largest tributary, joining the Narva at the Narva Reservoir from the right.
Waterfall.
Between the southeast part of the city of Narva and the rest, facing the Russian city of Ivangorod, the river flows over the Baltic Klint, forming the Narva Waterfall, at times, as it historically was, the most powerful in Europe. Before the water reaches the falls it is split into two branches by the Kreenholm island, thus the falls consist of two branches. Kreenholm Falls, west of the island, is wide and high with multiple terraces. Joala Falls, to the east, is wide and makes the same descent. The international border follows the latter.
Since the creation of Narva Reservoir, an anabranch, in 1955, the falls are usually near-dry, but water is allowed to flow in them for a few days each year. When in flow non-flying viewing access is difficult, being in the border zone and most of the west bank is private, closed industrial land belonging to Krenholm Manufacturing Company.
History.
The Narva was used as a trade route during the Viking Age, from 5th to 11th century. It was an offshoot of the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks.
The Narva has for centuries been an important border river. Beginning in the 13th century it was the border of Medieval Livonia and the Novgorod Republic. Though in earlier periods Narva was part of a larger buffer zone between the two territories, gradually the river emerged as the exact border. Castles built on the river banks (Narva Hermann Castle, founded at the beginning of the 14th century, Ivangorod fortress, established in 1492 and Vasknarva Castle, first built in the 14th century) were one of the main reasons behind this. Treaties from the 15th century between the Livonian Order and Novgorod Republic, later Tsardom of Russia, also recognize the Narva as the border. In XVII century during the time of Swedish Estonia, when Ingria was also part of Sweden, the importance of the river as a border diminished. During the Russian Empire, from the end of the Great Northern War until the establishment of the Republic of Estonia in 1918, the Narva was the border of Governorate of Estonia and Saint Petersburg Governorate, with the exception of the town of Narva, which was part of the latter. By the Treaty of Tartu, signed in 1920, the Estonian–Russian border went slightly east of the river, up to , and, in particular, the town of Ivangorod was assigned to Estonia. In 1944 the former Estonian territory east of the river was transferred to Russian SFSR and the Narva was thus established as the eastern border of Estonian SSR, an internal border within USSR. In 1991 the same border became the "de facto" border of Estonia and Russia. Although no official border treaty has been ratified since then, today the Narva is the eastern border of the European Union and Schengen Zone.
Bridges.
The Narva river is crossed only by a handful of bridges between Narva and Ivangorod. Besides the dam of the Narva Reservoir, these are, in downstream order:


Isla de Aves

Isla de Aves (Spanish for "Island of Birds" or "Birds Island"), or Aves Island, is a Federal Dependency of Venezuela. It has been the subject of numerous territorial disputes between the neighboring independent islands, such as Dominica, and European mother countries of surrounding dependent islands, such as the Netherlands. It is a part of the Aves Ridge and lies to the west of the Windward Islands chain at . It is in length and never more than in width, and rises above the sea on a calm day. Under a particular interpretation of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea it could be classified as a rock, which would only give Venezuela a twelve nautical mile economic zone. However, Venezuela claims it is an island, which grants it a exclusive economic zone. Mostly sand, a small portion has some scrubby vegetation. It is sometimes completely submerged during hurricanes. It is southwest of the closest land, Montserrat, west of Dominica and north of the Venezuelan mainland.
Impact of hurricanes.
For some time the island has been in danger of eroding altogether, and Venezuelan authorities are considering ways to protect it, along with the territorial claims to the Caribbean Sea which radiate from Isla de Aves. The impact of Hurricane Allen in the 1980 Atlantic hurricane season divided it into two parts, but accretions of coral have subsequently reunited it. On August 17, 2007, the force of Hurricane Dean severely eroded the island.
Environment.
The island is a resting and breeding place for seabirds and the green sea turtle ("Chelonia mydas"). Its low profile makes it a hazard to navigation, and many ships have been wrecked here.
Amateur radio "entity".
Aves Island is a particularly rare amateur radio "entity", under the ITU prefix YV0. A 2006 expedition by operators to the island required 14 years of planning. Though one member suffered a fatal heart attack, over 42,000 contacts were made during their week-long stay.
History.
The island was most likely discovered by Avaro Sanzze in 1584, though it was not settled. It was subsequently claimed for Great Britain, Spain, Portugal and the Netherlands. Throughout the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, the inhabitants of the Dutch islands Saint Eustatius and Saba regularly visited Aves to collect turtle and bird eggs.
In 1854, a U.S. captain discovered the abundant quantities of guano on Aves and systematic collection started not long after. Both the Dutch and Venezuelan authorities found out and protested. The Dutch sent a warship to Aves. Its captain found Americans loading guano. He informed them that the Dutch considered Aves to belong to the Netherlands.
The island was once again involved in controversy in 1857 when three Boston men, "Mesers Shelton, Samson and Tappan", were in a dispute with the Venezuelan government after they "annexed" the island "which they had discovered in an abandoned condition"; this was done in accordance with the recently passed United States Guano Islands Act.
In the meantime, in 1859, the Administrator of St. Eustatius granted a concession to collect guano on Aves to ‘Edward Green, Kean & Co.’ in Baltimore at f. 2.50 per ton. He decided that “"even though Aves was never permanently settled by the Dutch, the inhabitants of Statia and Saba had made use of the island longer than anyone can remember",” which “"constituted proof of possession."” He gave a provisionary concession and asked the Governor in Curaçao to confirm. The Governor, meanwhile, had received a request to mine guano on Aves from a group of businessmen on Dutch St. Maarten, “"who had assured themselves that Aves was recognized as a possession of the Dutch government".”
The Dutch authorities on Curaçao, under whom St. Eustatius and Saba fell, sat down with the Venezuelans and together decided to find a mutually acceptable sovereign to decide about the ownership of Aves Island. The Queen of Spain was accepted by both parties, and in 1865 Isabella II ruled on the issue, deciding in favor of the Venezuelans.
However, Isabella's judgment acknowledged the time honored rights of the inhabitants of the Dutch islands St. Eustatius, Saba and St. Maarten to fish in the waters around Aves. As this was the main issue the Dutch had, they accepted the ruling. Later, some Dutch historians argued that Isabella's advisors could have mixed up Aves with Las Aves Archipelago lying between Bonaire and Los Roques, just off the coast of Venezuela.
From 1878 to 1912, the island was again occupied by American guano miners until supplies were exhausted.
Isla de Aves was included in Venezuela's territorial reorganization done by President Joaquín Crespo in 1895. By 1905, Isla de Aves was a municipality called "Municipio Oriental" part of Colón Federal Territory.
In 1950, a Venezuelan Navy fleet consisting of two patrol boats and one transport boat were sent to take control of the island with a group of soldiers.
On June 2, 1978, the Venezuelan Navy were sent to set up a scientific naval base named "Simón Bolívar" on the lee (west) side near the southern tip of the island, constructed as a platform built on stilts partially in the water, which was permanently inhabited by a group of scientists and military personnel.
United States—Venezuela Maritime Boundary Treaty.
On March 28, 1978, Venezuela, using Aves Island as its reference, agreed to its maritime borders with the U.S. between Aves Island and Puerto Rico in the United States–Venezuela Maritime Boundary Treaty; this treaty came into force on 24 November 1980 after it was ratified by both parties.
The island is the closest Venezuelan territory to the United States, approximately 163 miles from the U.S. island of St. Croix.
Agreement with France.
On June 17, 1980, Venezuela agreed with France that longitude 62°48′52″ W should be the maritime boundary between Aves Island and Guadeloupe and Martinique.
2006 Dominica and Venezuela informal agreement.
During a visit to Venezuela, Dominica Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit, in June 2006, stated that "Aves Island belongs to Venezuela", ending the territorial claim.


Awards and decorations of the Vietnam War

Awards and decorations of the Vietnam War were military decorations which were bestowed by the major warring parties during the years of the Vietnam War. North Vietnam, South Vietnam, and the United States all issued awards and decorations during the conflict.
In year 2015 some active duty military members (with at least 40 or more years service) can be seen wearing Vietnam War awards, which were earned at the beginning of their military careers (the Vietnam War officially ended in April 1975).
South Vietnam as a country ceased to exist after North Vietnam's victory in the Vietnam War. Therefore, the country of South Vietnam's awards and decorations are considered obsolete. With the fall of South Vietnam, that country's official records of who received which awards disappeared. Records or evidence of awards were sometimes maintained by U.S. military units or in an award recipient's service record, so those may be available to an award recipient looking for confirmation of a (defunct) foreign country award received.
Despite being obsolete, earned foreign South Vietnam decorations and awards remain authorized for US military members who received awards. If an award recipient no longer possesses an original award, companies or individuals have available for purchase South Vietnam's military insignia and awards.
A listing of the most commonly bestowed Vietnam war era decorations is as follows:
United States.
Several decorations (Distinguished Flying Cross, Bronze Star Medal, Air Medal, Commendation Medal, Joint Service Commendation Medal) may be awarded for valor, or for merit. Awards for valor recognize bravery in action against an enemy and have an attached "V" device valor device. Awards for merit recognize service.
The Commendation Medal was another decoration of the Vietnam War, issued frequently in various versions by the different branches of the US armed forces.
Australia and New Zealand.
Australia and New Zealand awarded British and Commonwealth orders and decorations to their servicemen in Vietnam, including the Distinguished Service Order, and the Military Cross.
Australia and New Zealand jointly developed and instituted The Vietnam Medal (though separate Royal Warrants were issued). The obverse of the medal displays an Effigy of Queen Elizabeth II, the reverse shows a man standing between two spheres, a symbolic representation of the ideological struggle. The ribbon incorporates the colours of the three armed services (Red, Navy Blue, and Sky Blue), and the national colours of Vietnam (Red and Yellow).
New Zealand Defence Force Vietnam Medal Page
In 1992, Australia struck the Vietnam Logistic and Support Medal. The medal was intended to recognise the Australian servicemen and civilians who provided support for Australian troops. The qualifying criteria for the Medal are service of one day or more as a member or crew of a ship or aircraft operating in the prescribed area of operations of Vietnam in support of Australian forces, or service of one day or more within the prescribed area of operations of Vietnam while attached to a unit or organisation in support of Australian forces.
It has been awarded to military personnel, Qantas crews, civilian medical personnel, and Embassy staff.
Australian Government Campaign Medals page
Australia awarded four Victoria Crosses during the Vietnam War (List of Vietnam War Victoria Cross recipients), two posthumously.
Australian servicemen were also awarded a large number of individual US and South Vietnamese awards, and the following unit citations:


Pomeranian Voivodeship

Pomeranian Voivodeship, Pomorskie Region, or Pomerania Province (Polish: "województwo pomorskie" ), is a voivodeship, or province, in northwestern Poland. The provincial capital is Gdańsk.
The voivodeship was established on January 1, 1999, out of the former voivodeships of Gdańsk, Elbląg and Słupsk, pursuant to the Polish local government reforms adopted in 1997. It is bordered by West Pomeranian Voivodeship to the west, Greater Poland and Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeships to the south, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship to the east, and the Baltic Sea to the north. It also shares a short land border with Russia (Kaliningrad Oblast), on the Vistula Spit. The voivodeship comprises most of Pomerelia (the easternmost part of historical Pomerania), as well as an area east of the Vistula River. The western part of the province, around Słupsk, belonged historically to Farther Pomerania, while Pomerelia and the eastern bank of the Vistula belonged to the historical region of Prussia. The central parts of the province are also known as Kashubia, named after the Kashubian minority.
The province is one of rich cultural heritage. The Tricity urban area, consisting of Gdańsk, Gdynia and Sopot, is one of the main cultural, commercial and educational centres of Poland. Gdańsk and Gdynia are two of the major Polish seaports, the first erected by Mieszko I of Poland in the Middle Ages, the latter built in the interwar period. Amongst the most recognisable landmarks of the region are the historic city centre of Gdańsk filled with Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque masterpieces, the Museum of the National Anthem in Będomin, located at the birthplace of Józef Wybicki, poet and politician, author of the national anthem of Poland, the largest medieval churches of Poland (the St. Mary's Church in Gdańsk and the Cathedral Basilica of the Assumption in Pelplin) and the Malbork Castle. The voivodeship also includes the narrow Hel Peninsula and the Polish half of the Vistula Spit. Other tourist destinations include Wejherowo, Sopot, Jurata, Łeba, Władysławowo, Puck, Krynica Morska, Ustka, Jastarnia, Kuźnica, Bytów and many fishing ports, lighthouses, and boats.
The name "Pomerania" derives from the Slavic "po more", meaning "by the sea" or "on the sea".
Cities and towns.
The voivodeship contains more than 42 cities and towns. These are listed below in descending order of population (official 2019 figures).
Administrative division.
Pomeranian Voivodeship is divided into 20 counties (powiats): 4 city counties, and 16 land counties. These are further divided into 123 gminas (communes).
The counties are listed below in order of decreasing population.
Economy.
The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the province was 29.2 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 5.9% of Polish economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 20,800 euros or 69% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 74% of the EU average.
Protected areas.
Protected areas in Pomeranian Voivodeship include two National Parks and nine Landscape Parks. These are listed below.