Muscles of the hip

In human anatomy, the muscles of the hip joint are those muscles that cause movement in the hip. Most modern anatomists define 17 of these muscles, although some additional muscles may sometimes be considered. These are often divided into four groups according to their orientation around the hip joint: the gluteal group; the lateral rotator group; the adductor group; and the iliopsoas group.
Structure.
The muscles of the hip consist of four main groups
Gluteal group.
The gluteal muscles include the gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, and tensor fasciae latae. They cover the lateral surface of the ilium. The gluteus maximus, which forms most of the muscle of the buttocks, originates primarily on the ilium and sacrum and inserts on the gluteal tuberosity of the femur as well as the iliotibial tract, a tract of strong fibrous tissue that runs along the lateral thigh to the tibia and fibula. The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus originate anterior to the gluteus maximus on the ilium and both insert on the greater trochanter of the femur. The tensor fasciae latae shares its origin with the gluteus maximus at the ilium and also shares the insertion at the iliotibial tract.
Adductor group.
The adductor brevis, adductor longus, adductor magnus, pectineus, and gracilis make up the adductor group. The adductors all originate on the pubis and insert on the medial, posterior surface of the femur, with the exception of the gracilis which inserts just below the medial condyle of the tibia.
Iliopsoas group.
The iliacus and psoas major comprise the iliopsoas group. The psoas major is a large muscle that runs from the bodies and disc of the L1 to L5 vertebrae, joins with the iliacus via its tendon, and connects to the lesser trochanter of the femur. The iliacus originates on the iliac fossa of the ilium. Together these muscles are commonly referred to as the "iliopsoas".
Lateral rotator group.
This group consists of the externus and internus obturators, the piriformis, the superior and inferior gemelli, and the quadratus femoris. These six originate at or below the acetabulum of the ilium and insert on or near the greater trochanter of the femur.
Other hip muscles.
Additional muscles, such as the rectus femoris and the sartorius, can cause some movement in the hip joint. However these muscles primarily move the knee, and not generally classified as muscles of the hip.
The hamstring muscles, which originate mostly from the ischial tuberosity inserting on the tibia/fibula, have a large moment assisting with hip extension.
Function.
Movements of the hip occur because multiple muscles activate at once. Most muscles are also responsible for more than one type of movement.
Movements of the hip are described in anatomical terminology using anatomical terms of motion. The movement that brings the thighs close to the abdomen is called "flexion". When the legs open, such as in the lotus posture of yoga, this is called "lateral rotation", with the opposite movement called "medial rotation". Hip abduction occurs when the femur moves outward to the side, as in taking the thighs apart. Hip adduction occurs when the femur moves back to the midline. Many muscles contribute to these movements:
Hip muscles also play a role in maintaining the standing posture. These muscles work in an integrated system with muscles of the shoulder, neck, core, lower leg, and supporting muscles of the spine, to provide the ability to stand with good posture. These muscles include the gluteus medius and gluteus minimus which abduct the thigh, prevent swaying of hips, stabilize pelvic region while keeping hips level, and shift an individual’s weight in order to adjust body placement to increase one's overall body stability.


Logrunners

The logrunners are two species of birds in the family Orthonychidae. They were previously considered conspecific, but as they differ significantly, they are now generally considered separate species. The family Orthonychidae also contains a third species, the chowchilla ("Orthonyx spaldingii").
Description.
Logrunners are 17–20 cm. in length. The bulky chowchilla is much larger, at 26–28 cm.
Chowchillas are dark brown above, with a black head and a blue-gray eye ring. Logrunners are patterned olive, gray, and mottled black. All males have a white throat, while females have a rufous throat and upper breast.
Distribution.
Australian logrunner lives in the humid lowland forest along the eastern coast of Australia. Papuan logrunner is found in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea's tropical montane forests. Chowchillas live in the rain forests of northeastern Queensland.


Opisthopatus natalensis

Opisthopatus natalensis is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. The type locality is in South Africa.


Orchesella maledicta

Orchesella maledicta is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae.


Stringocephalus

Stringocephalus is an extinct genus of large brachiopods; between 388.1 to 376.1 million years old they are usually found as fossils in Devonian marine rocks. Several forms of the genus are known; they may be found in western North America, northern Europe (especially Poland), Asia and the Canning Basin of Western Australia. Several different types are known; they share a well-developed, curved structure shaped like a beak. Some of the largest specimens discovered to date have been found in China.


Scolymia

Scolymia, commonly called Scoly coral, is a genus of large polyp stony corals. Members of this genus are sometimes found in reef aquariums.
Species.
The World Register of Marine Species includes the following species in the genus:


Phenacodontinae

Phenacodontinae was a subfamily of small herbivorous mammals that were part of the Phenacodontidae family.
Genera.
The subfamily contains the following genera:


Licornia

Licornia is a genus of gymnolaematan bryozoans (sea mats).


Inanidrilus triangulatus

Inanidrilus triangulatus is a species of annelid worm. It is known from subtidal fine coral sands in the Atlantic coast of Florida between Miami and Key Largo.


Eugene S. Gaffney

Eugene S. Gaffney is an American paleontologist and leading authority on the morphology and evolutionary history of turtles.
Biography.
Gaffney graduated from Rutgers State University in 1965 and received his PhD in 1969 with a thesis on "The North American Baenoidea and the Cryptodire-Pleurodire Dichotomy" from Columbia University, where he also taught as an Adjunct Professor for most of his career. He was hired as Curator of Fossil Reptiles, Amphibians, and Birds in 1970 in the Department of Vertebrate Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History. Beginning at the rank of Assistant Curator in 1970, he was promoted to Associate Curator in 1973 and to Curator in 1980. He retired in 2007 as Curator Emeritus.He has authored over 100 publications on turtle systematics and phylogeny.
Dr. Gaffney pioneered the use of cladistics in turtle research. He has done fieldwork in Canada and the United States, central Europe, southern Africa, China, Argentina, Brazil, and especially Australia, where he has studied the evolution of the "Meiolania", the giant horned turtle.
Accolades.
The Gaffney Turtle Symposium on fossil turtles was held in his honor at the Royal Tyrrell Museum in Drumheller, Alberta, Canada, in 2009. The symposium resulted in a Publication containing a number of papers in fields associated with Gaffney as well as two biographies and a complete bibliography of Gaffney.
Several species of fossil turtles, including the protostegid sea turtle, "Santanachelys gaffneyi", "Gaffneylania auricularis", and the Macrobaenid "Aurorachelys gaffneyi" have also been named in his honor.


Zygomaticus major muscle

The zygomaticus major is a muscle of the human body. It is a muscle of facial expression which draws the angle of the mouth superiorly and posteriorly to allow one to smile. Like all muscles of facial expression, the zygomatic major is innervated by the facial nerve (the seventh cranial nerve), more specifically, the buccal and zygomatic branches of the facial nerve.
Structure.
The zygomaticus extends from each zygomatic arch (cheekbone) to the corners of the mouth.
Function.
It raises the corners of the mouth when a person smiles. Usually a single unit, Dimples are caused by variations in form. It is thought that dimples are caused by bifid zygomaticus major muscle.


Ribosomal protein leader

A ribosomal protein leader is a mechanism used in cells to control the cellular concentration of a protein that forms a part of the ribosome, and to make sure that the concentration is neither too high nor too low. Ribosomal protein leaders are RNA sequences that are a part of the 5' UTR of mRNAs encoding a ribosomal protein. When cellular concentrations of the ribosomal protein are high, excess protein will bind to the mRNA leader. This binding event can lower gene expression via a number of mechanisms; for example, in the protein-bound state, the RNA could form an intrinsic transcription termination stem-loop. When cellular concentrations of the ribosomal protein are not high, they are occupied in the ribosome, and are not available in significant quantities to bind the mRNA leader. This leads to increased expression of the gene, which leads to the synthesis of more copies of the ribosomal protein. Many examples of ribosomal protein leaders are known in bacteria, including ribosomal protein L20 leader and ribosomal S15 leader.


Lumbriculus genitosetosus

Lumbriculus genitosetosus was described by Holmquist in 1976 from almost 2,000 individuals collected in Northern Alaska. Initially, Holmquist revived the genus "Thinodrilus" (previously established by Smith in 1895 for "Th. inconstans") for "L. genitosetosus", "Lumbriculus inconstans" and "Lumbriculus ambiguus" on the basis of the "Lumbriculus"-species having only one pair of vas deferens and sperm funnels per atrium, whereas the "Thinodrilus"-species have two (one in the anterior end and one in the posterior); this division is, however, not generally recognised today, even if "Thinodrilus" may be a valid subgenus.
"L. genitosetosus", as the name suggests, can be recognised by its modified male genital setae, unique within the Lumbriculidae.


Heteroperipatus

Heteroperipatus is a genus of Central American velvet worms in the Peripatidae family.
Species.
The genus contains the following two species:


Supraorbital vein

The supraorbital vein begins on the forehead where it communicates with the frontal branch of the superficial temporal vein.
It runs downward superficial to the Frontalis muscle, and joins the frontal vein at the medial angle of the orbit to form the angular vein.
Previous to its junction with the frontal vein, it sends through the supraorbital notch into the orbit a branch which communicates with the ophthalmic vein; as this vessel passes through the notch, it receives the frontal diploic vein through a foramen at the bottom of the notch.
The areas drained by this vessel are the forehead, eyebrow and upper eyelid.


Pol Bouin

Pol André Bouin (11 June 1870 – 5 February 1962) was a French histologist and reproductive endocrinologist. He is best known for the fixative Bouin solution named after him.
Bouin was born in Vendresse, France in a family of veterinarians. He studied medicine at Nancy and was influenced by Auguste Prenant. He received a doctor of medicine degree in 1897. He worked as a histology preparator and later became professor of anatomy in 1898. He succeeded Professor Prenant in the chair of histology at Nancy in 1908. He conducted numerous experiments. In 1929 he demonstrated that lactation could be induced in rabbits without ovaries by administering anterior pituitary extract at a time when prolactin had not yet been identified. In 1932 he published "Elements d'histologie".


Cephalofovea pavimenta

Cephalofovea pavimenta is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. The type locality is New South Wales, Australia.


Penarosa

Penarosa is an extinct genus from a well-known class of fossil marine arthropods, the trilobites. It lived during the Middle Cambrian ("Ptychagnostus atavus" Zone to "Ptychagnostus punctuosus" Zone), approximately 505 to 500 million years ago.


Purpurellus

Purpurellus is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Muricidae, the murex snails or rock snails.
Species.
Species within the genus "Purpurellus" include:


Idiopathic pulmonary haemosiderosis

Idiopathic pulmonary haemosiderosis (IPH) is a lung disease of unknown cause that is characterized by alveolar capillary bleeding and accumulation of haemosiderin in the lungs. It is rare, with an incidence between 0.24 and 1.23 cases per million people.
Pathophysiology.
Being idiopathic, IPH by definition has an unknown cause. It is thought to be an immune-mediated disease. The lung bleeding causes accumulation of iron, which in itself causes additional lung damage. Meanwhile, there is insufficient iron for inclusion into the haemoglobin molecules inside red blood cells which carry oxygen to body tissues for cellular respiration.
Idiopathic pulmonary haemosiderosis can occur either as a primary lung disorder or as the sequela to other pulmonary, cardiovascular or immune system disorder.
A distinct subset of patients with pulmonary hemosiderosis has hypersensitivity to cow's milk which result in formation of IgG antibodies against basement membrane. This is called Heiner syndrome. Mechanism of haemorrhage is similar to that observed in Goodpasture syndrome.
Related or similar conditions.
There are many pulmonary problems that may seem to mimic haemosiderosis but do not necessarily include the deposits of iron into the lung. The deposition of iron in the lungs, occurring in the form of haemosiderin, is the defining characteristic of this illness. These other conditions may occur separately or together with haemosiderosis.
Diagnosis.
Clinically, IPH manifests as a triad of haemoptysis, diffuse parenchymal infiltrates on chest radiographs, and iron deficiency anaemia. It is diagnosed at an average age of 4.5 plus or minus 3.5 years, and it is twice as common in females. The clinical course of IPH is exceedingly variable, and most of the patients continue to have episodes of pulmonary haemorrhage despite therapy. Death may occur suddenly from acute pulmonary haemorrhage or after progressive pulmonary insufficiency resulting in chronic respiratory failure.
Treatment.
Corticosteroids are the mainstay of treatment of IPH, though they are controversial and lack clear evidence in their favour. They are thought to decrease the frequency of haemorrhage, while other studies suggest that they do not have any effect on the course or prognosis of this disease. In either case, steroid therapy has significant side effects. Small trials have investigated the use of other medications, but none has emerged as a clear standard of care. This includes immune modulators such as hydroxychloroquine, azathioprine, and cyclophosphamide. 6-mercaptopurine as a long-term therapy may prevent pulmonary haemorrhage. A 2007 scientific letter. reports preliminary success in preventing pulmonary haemorrhage with the anti-oxidant N-acetylcysteine.
Prognosis.
Death may occur rapidly with acute, massive pulmonary bleeding or over longer periods as the result of continued pulmonary failure and right heart failure. Historically, patients had an average survival of 2.5 years after diagnosis, but today 86% may survive beyond five years.
History.
The condition was first described as "brown lung induration" by Rudolf Virchow in 1864 in patients after their death. Wilhelm Ceelen later correlated his findings to the clinical symptoms of two children who died of IPH in 1931. The first living patient was diagnosed by Jan Waldenström in 1944. It has been given several names, including:


COA5

Cytochrome c oxidase assembly factor 5 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the COA5 gene. This gene encodes an ortholog of yeast Pet191, which in yeast is a subunit of a large oligomeric complex associated with the mitochondrial inner membrane, and required for the assembly of the cytochrome c oxidase complex. Mutations in this gene are associated with mitochondrial complex IV deficiency.
Structure.
The "COA5" gene is located on the q arm of chromosome 2 at position 11.2 and it spans 9,195 base pairs. The "COA5" gene produces an 8 kDa protein composed of 73 amino acids. The structure of the protein contains the twin CX9C motif of yeast Pet191, which is conserved in the 74-amino acid deduced human protein. An example of the twin CX9C would be a repeated motif of 2 cysteines.
Function.
The "COA3" gene encodes for a protein involved in an early step of the complex IV assembly process. The conserved cysteines in the twin CX9C motif, which is a part of the COA3 protein, has been shown to be essential in cell viability as well as the proper function and assembly of the cytochrome c oxidase complex.
Clinical Significance.
Variants of "COA5" have been mainly associated with a mitochondrial complex IV deficiency, a deficiency of the enzyme complex Complex IV, which is responsible for the catalysis of oxidation of cytochrome c using molecular oxygen. The deficiency is characterized by heterogeneous phenotypes ranging from isolated myopathy to severe multisystem disease affecting several tissues and organs. Other phenotypes include hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, hepatomegaly and liver dysfunction, hypotonia, muscle weakness, exercise intolerance, developmental delay, delayed motor development and mental retardation. Mutations in "COA5" has also known to be associated with Cardioencephalomyopathy, fatal infantile, due to cytochrome c oxidase deficiency 3 (CEMCOX3). CEMCOX3 is an infantile disorder associated with a severely fatal course during the first weeks of life. It is characterized by hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and is caused by mitochondrial complex IV deficiency. Postmortem microscopic investigations have shown accumulation of lipid droplets in cardiomyocytes and mitochondrial proliferation. A homozygous mutation of 157G>C has resulted in decreased complex IV in fibroblasts and heart muscle.
Interactions.
COA5 has been known to have unique protein–protein interactions with APP, KRT31, and CHCHD4.


Euglenophycin

Euglenophycin is an ichthyotoxic compound isolated from "Euglena sanguinea", a protist of the genus "Euglena". It exhibits anticancer and herbicidal activity "in vitro".
History.
Many fresh-water algae that produce toxins are known nowadays, among which the "euglenoids" (Euglenophyceae). It has been found that this alga lives in fresh-water environments all over the world. Many euglenoids are "heterotrophic", as they feed through either "phagocytosis" or simple diffusion. However, a monophyletic group of the alga is "mixotrophic", namely the Rapaza Viridis, meaning that it switches between "photosynthesis", absorbing nutrients and engulfing other eukaryotes. Furthermore, Eutreptialis and Euglenales are autotrophic as they contain chlorophyll to perform photosynthesis.  Euglenoids can contain "chlorophyll" and an accessory pigment, and/or "astaxanthin" (a carotenoid), due to which they can either be coloured either green or red. Although this alga has been found relatively early in history, it took researchers some time to discover that it produces the toxin euglenophycin as no previous reports had identified euglenoid toxins. According to recent research, euglenophycin is produced in at least six species of euglenoid algae and six of seven strains of Euglena Sanguinea. Other studies are focused on the potential application of euglenophycin as an anticancer drug.
Discovery.
In 2002, over 21 000 striped bass died over a period of two months in an aquaculture facility in North Carolina. Around the same period, 12 more toxic algae blooms were reported in the United States with the consequence of many more fish mortalities. A total of 1,1 million dollars was lost due to these events. No apparent cause of intoxication was found, except for reddened gill tissue. Water samples taken from the pond contained more than 99% Euglena.
In 2004, the pond water was serially fractionated and separated into dissolved compounds, bacteria and algal fractions, which were investigated. It was found that the toxin that caused the high mortality rates is non-protein, stable when heated to 30 oC for 10 minutes and maintained activity when frozen at -80 oC for 60 days. Cells from the Euglena were isolated and light microscopic analysis verified the species identity as Euglena Sanguinea and identified the toxin as euglenophycin.
Identification.
Due to their complicated "chloroplast" morphology, described as a ‘peculiar chromatophore system’, the identification of E. Sanguinea using microscopic techniques remains challenging. Therefore, methods based on molecular data need to be used for verification of the species.
In 2013, a MS/MS analysis was developed to identify and quantitate levels of euglenophycin in bodies of fresh water. To create the experimental standards for this analysis, euglenophycin was purified by "high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)" from E. Sanguinea clonal cultures which were isolated from the mortality events in North Carolina and Texas. Figure 1A shows the mass spectrometric analysis of purified euglenophycin (500 ng) and figure 1B of euglenophycin extracted from a culture of E. Sanguinea.
Figure 1. Mass spectrometric analysis of euglenophycin. A. Mass spectrum of 500 ng purified euglenophycin. B. Mass spectrum of euglenophycin extracted from a culture of E. Sanguinea. C&D. Mass spectrum of 1 ng of euglenophycin.
For specific detection of euglenophycin a "multiple reaction monitoring (MRM)" method was developed. This method is based on three transitions: m/z 288.3 to m/z 97.2, 110.2 and 136.2. Of these three transitions, m/z 110.2 was chosen to be the quantifier ion, as it was the most intense product ion. Figure 1C and 1D present the detection of 1 ng of euglenophycin.
Another method to monitor freshwater ponds is the "polymerase chain reaction (PCR)" test. In 2017, this test was refined to specifically detect euglenophycin in waters populated by E. Sanguinea blooms. This was done based on the significantly long SSU rDNA sequences found in the algae species. By using nested PCR, non-specific binding can be reduced due to the amplification of unexpected primer binding sites. Specificity of this test was proven by the PCR results of species closely related to E. Sanguinea. No products were observed in these tests. Furthermore, additional information can be retrieved from the nucleotide sequence allowing for examination, classification and comparison of the sample.
In combination with mass spectrometric methods, PCR tests facilitate monitoring and risk assessment of fresh waters populated by E. Sanguinea toxic blooms.
Structure and reactivity.
Euglenophycin produced by euglenoids is a disubstituted piperidine as it is constituted of a "piperidine" ring with a "butanol" side chain at the 6th position and a (1E,3E,7Z)-1,3,7-undecatriene side chain at the 2nd position. The 2nd position side chain has a conjugated system giving it an absorbance at 238 nm.Both the 2nd and the 6th position in the piperidine ring are "chiral centres" and thus their combination determines the "cis/trans-stereoisomery" of the compound. According to "NMR analysis" upon extraction, the majority of the euglenophycin produced by euglenoids is in the cis-conformation with respect to the 2nd and 6th position. The absolute cis/trans-stereoisomery, however, remains to be discovered. Furthermore, each double bond is a centre of E/Z-stereoisomery, which in combination with the cis/trans-stereoisomery gives rise to a total of 12 stereoisomers (in theory).
Although the nitrogen and oxygen atoms are able to form hydrogen bonds, the compound is water insoluble and very stable in organic solvents, which is in accordance with its in silico predicted log(p) value of ~5.6. Remarkably, the structure of euglenophycin, except for the butanol side chain, is extremely similar to solenopsin the major constituent of fire ant venom. Therefore, the synthesis pathway, reactivity, chemical properties and toxicity of these compounds might resemble each other as well. The efficacy of solenopsin as an anti-cancer drug has prompted researchers to investigate the potential of euglenophycin for a similar drug as well. The section ‘mechanisms of action’ further elaborates on this aspect.
Biosynthesis.
Euglenophycin is very likely to be produced by enzymes known as "polyketide synthases" (PKSs), which are widely found in Euglenoids, as well as other algae that produce polyketides.
4.1 Structural similarity-based estimations on biosynthetic pathways.
The mechanism by which euglenoids produce euglenophycin is not known yet. However, estimations can be done on this pathway due to euglenophycin's structural similarities to numerous other naturally-occurring compounds, but such estimates must be regarded with the slightest care as these are not scientifically proven.
Although solenopsin produced by the fire ant exhibits high structural similarity to euglenophycin, it is not known if the synthesis pathways of these toxins are similar too, which might be the case if convergent evolution of this pathway has taken place.
Interestingly, Jeanne N. Tawara et al (1993) has investigated toxic alkaloid piperidines from Pine (Pinus) and Spruce (Picea) trees, that are structurally similar to euglenophycin and that are of polyketide origin as well (Figure 2).
Due to this outstanding similarity in both structures, except for the side chain, and origin, it is probable that the synthesis pathway of these compounds is related to that of euglenophycin, taking the evolutionary relationship between algae and trees into account. The same holds for coniine, also known as ‘the killer of Socrates’, which is another compound that appears to be even more similar to euglenophycin and has been investigated by Hannu Hotti and Heiko Rischer (Figure 3).
The investigators of both euglenophycin-resembling groups of compounds have attempted to elucidate the synthesis pathway. The synthesis pathways proposed by both teams of investigators greatly overlap and seem to be supplementary. First, it is proposed that acetate is conjugated to coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA. This is subsequently converted into butyryl- and malonyl-CoA, the former of which being catalyzed by fatty acid synthetase (FAS). Then, a polyketide synthase couples these two compounds to form a polyketide intermediate, whose exact structure has not been confirmed yet (Figure 3). This intermediate is then reduced into a keto acid and subsequently into a keto aldehyde. L-alanine:aminotransferase (AAT) then converts this latter compound into a keto amine compound that spontaneously cyclizes and is reduced into a substituted piperidine compound known as γ-coniceine (Figure 4).
Other enzymes may catalyze the addition of various side chains to these piperidines, yielding a range of piperidine-based compounds (Figure 4). The investigators of the Pine and Spruce tree toxins, have proposed a structure for the polyketide intermediate and have confirmed that the side chains of the piperidine are modified after cyclization. Research has not yet confirmed these synthesis pathways with a hundred percent confidence, however it is estimated that euglenoids employ the same mechanisms to produce euglenophycin.
Toxicity.
After euglenophycin was first identified, fish exposed to cells from E. Sanguinea showed symptoms of disorientation, increased respiration and incapacity to maintain balance. These fish showed reddened gill tissue as well, but no haemorrhaging was found. Based on behavioural changes that came with these symptoms, it was suggested by American researchers that the toxin functions as a neurotoxin.
Immature catfish tested with algal fractions, by Zimba et al (2004), died within 2 hours of exposure. Later, Zimba et al (2009) confirmed these mortalities when catfish exposed to purified euglenophycin died within 30 min of exposure.
Although euglenophycin is produced in at least six other euglenoid species, E. Sanguinea seems to be the only species to form a significant problem for aquaculture and therefore the economy. This is due to the fact that E. Sanguinea forms much denser toxic blooms.
Zimba et al (2009) researched the toxicity of euglenophycin against five algae species: Oocystis polymorpha, Gonphonema parvulum, Microcystis aeruginosa, Planktothrix PCC7811 and Scenedesmus dimorphus. Euglenophycin hindered the growth of all five species and inhibition was significant at concentrations <300 ppb in all cases.
Mechanisms of action.
Although the synthesis of euglenophycin is not fully understood yet, experiments showed that euglenoids in culture produce euglenophycin independent from their growth state. This may be an indication that euglenophycin is part of a defence mechanism for the algae.
Euglenophycin was identified fairly recently so the exact mechanism remains unclear. However, euglenophycin is structurally very similar to solenopsin. Solenopsin is found in fire ant venom and the mechanism of solenopsin is much more investigated. The mechanisms of both euglenophycin and solenopsin are expected to be similar too.
The research into solenopsin and its mechanism of action is a great first indication of the mechanism of euglenophycin. In vitro research showed that solenopsin had an inhibiting effect on PI3K/AKT which are part of the mTOR pathway in mammalian cells. This pathway is used for several cellular processes such as cell growth, cell proliferation, the survival of the cell, synthesis of proteins, cell motility and autophagy.
The most recent studies showed that euglenophycin has some great anti-cancer potential. This may be caused by inhibiting the mTOR pathway because it is known that the mTOR pathway can have a significant effect on stimulating cancer cells when overactivated.  Solenopsin and euglenophycin are both known to be able to inhibit the Pi3K protein. Pi3K activates AKT by phosphorylating it, which has a number of downstream effects. It activates the mTOR pathway, is involved in metabolic regulation and regulates cell cycle inhibitors. It allows proliferation and reduces apoptosis. It is overactive in many kinds of cancer. However, this pathway is necessary to promote the growth and differentiation of adult (often neural) stem cells.
Experiments have shown that euglenophycin also has anti-angiogenesis effects. Euglenophycin can inhibit VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) and thus prevent new veins to be constructed to provide growing tumours with oxygen and nutrients. When tumours start to grow they need extra oxygen and nutrients. By cutting off their supply the tumours can be prevented before they can grow and spread to other parts of the body.
Cabang et al (2017) reported that the anti-proliferative effect of euglenophycin is induced by its ability to put cells in G1 cell cycle arrest. Cell cycle arrest happens when a cell in the cell cycle is checked for errors and a mistake is found. Cells need to duplicate perfectly, if this is not the case the cell cycle is put on hold and the cell does not duplicate. This is to prevent malfunctioning cells from growing in a healthy person.


Embryonic differentiation waves

A mechanochemical based model for primary neural induction was first proposed in 1985 by Brodland and Gordon. They proposed that there is a mechanically sensitive bistable organelle made of microtubules and microfilaments in the apical ends of cells within cell sheets that are about to differentiate (that are competent) and these cells are under mechanical tension. The microtubules and microfilaments are in mechanical opposition in a proposed embryonic organelle they called the cell state splitter. Depending on where the cell is within a sheet, the tension will be resolved by either the apical end contracting or the apical end expanding. The resolution will begin at one point and spread over the rest of the tissue limited by other mechanical forces at boundaries. An actual physical wave of contraction has been found which traverses the presumptive neural epithelium of the developing salamander, the axolotl ("Ambystoma mexicanum"). The contraction wave's trajectory was more complex than predicted in the original model however it did originate from the precise location of the Spemann organizer and traversed only the presumptive neural epithelium. Electron microscopy showed intermediate filaments are also present in the cell state splitter. Additional waves of both contraction and expansion were also discovered by time lapse photography of axolotl gastrulation. Among them was a wave of expansion that occurs in ectoderm only in the presumptive epithelium. When the trajectories of the waves were superimposed on the fate map of the axolotl it was shown that there is a unique combination of expansion and contraction waves that correlates with the tissue types determined during gastrulation and that this set of wave trajectories could explain the shape of the fate map.
A biochemical basis for the signal transduction from the cytoskeleton to the nucleus resulting in changes in gene expression was first proposed by Björklund (now Gordon) and Gordon in 1993 This would result in a biochemical transduction of the biomechanical signal from the cytoskeleton that is thereby passed on to the nucleus. This then signals the changes in gene expression. If the cell has experienced contraction, one signal is sent and if the cell has experienced expansion then another signal is sent. The signal from the cytoskeleton is what causes determination of cell fate. The phenomena of gene gradients during development is dismissed as an epiphenomena resulting from the passage of the biomechanical wave initiating changes in gene expression in individual cells as the wave passes through a cell sheet. They have outlined their research and their theory of differentiation waves in detail in their book "Embryogenesis Explained". For example, the first differentiation that takes place during mammalian compaction is explained in terms of their differentiation waves model thus; Cells on the outside of the morula expand due to the effect of their position on the outside of the early ball of cells and they become determined to be trophoblast. Cells on the inside of the ball contract instead due to the mechanical force of being on the inside and they become determined to be the inner cell mass. All the other activity, such as changes in gene expression, signalling proteins, release of morphogens, and epigenetic changes, are considered the result of differentiation after the response of the cytoskeleton to mechanical signals which then determines cell fate using purely mechanical signals. Failure of neural tube closure is explained as a failure of methylation of cytoskeleton of developing neural tissue for those neural tube defects which are folate sensitive and prevented by folic acid supplementation.


Wilfred Backhouse Alexander

Wilfrid Backhouse Alexander (4 February 1885 – 18 December 1965) was an English ornithologist and entomologist. He was a brother of Horace Alexander and Christopher James Alexander.
Alexander was born at Croydon in Surrey, England in 1885, and was introduced to natural history by his two uncles, James and Albert Crosfield. He was educated at Bootham School in York and Tonbridge School in Kent, and went on to study Natural Science at Cambridge University. During this time his main interest was botany, graduating in 1909 with first class honours.
Career.
After graduation he stayed in Cambridge for a short time working as assistant superintendent of the Cambridge University Museum of Zoology and assistant demonstrator in Zoology and Comparative Anatomy for Cambridge University. In 1911, he took a job with the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries as an assistant naturalist on an international exploration of the North Sea, but in August that year, he obtained the appointment of Assistant at the Western Australian Museum. He moved to Australia in early 1912 to take up the position, which he held for three years before being made Keeper of Biology at the museum.
Australia.
He made a number of expeditions to collect material for the museum including the Percy Sladen Trust Expedition to the Abrolhos Islands in 1913. He became Honorary Secretary of and co-editor of the journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia in 1914. In 1916, the museum was under severe financial pressure and Alexander was granted leave without pay to take up a position as science abstractor to the Advisory Council of Science and Industry in Melbourne. He held this position until 1919, when he returned to the Western Australian Museum for a short time. During this period he also acted as librarian to the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union, which he became vice-president of from 1923–25. He was also editor of the union's journal, "Emu", from 1924–25.
In 1920 the Commonwealth Prickly Pear Board was formed with the purpose of finding a way to control the several species of "Opuntia" that were taking over vast areas of subtropical eastern Australia and W. B. Alexander was appointed biologist to the board. The project took him on visits to North and South America in search of a suitable insect agent and in 1924 he was promoted to Officer-in-charge. The result of these overseas investigations was the highly successful use of "Cactoblastis" moths in controlling the "Opuntia" species in Australia and also arousing his interest in oceanic birds. So when he left Australia in 1926 he spent most of the year at the American Museum of Natural History preparing the book "Birds of the Ocean" (1928), a forerunner of later field guides, before returning to England.
Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology.
He had no regular employment from 1926 until he was appointed superintendent of the Marine Biological Association’s Tees Estuary survey in 1929. Then in 1930 he was appointed Director of the Oxford Bird Census which developed into the Oxford University Research in Economic Ornithology in 1931, then an Institute of Field Ornithology, funded by the newly formed British Trust for Ornithology in 1933. In 1938, it was officially recognized by Oxford University as the Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology. In 1945 he retired as director and became the Institute's librarian, remaining so until 1955. The donation of his personal collection of bird books had provided the original nucleus of the library, and it was named after him in 1947.
He was awarded the Tucker Medal of the British Trust for Ornithology in 1955 and the Union Medal of the British Ornithologists' Union in 1959.
He spent his retirement in Parkstone, Dorset, southern England, where he died on 18 December 1965.


Orycteropus abundulafus

Orycteropus abundulafus is an extinct species of aardvark. Its fossil was found in northern Chad. It lived in the Mio-Pliocene epochs.


Christiania (brachiopod)

Christiania is an extinct genus of prehistoric brachiopods in the family Christianiidae.
Species.
"Christiania aseptata" - "Christiania bilobata" - "Christiania dalarnensis" - "Christiania hastata" - "Christiania hollii" - "Christiania holtedahli" - "Christiania perrugata" - "Christiania portlocki" - "Christiania proclivis" - "Christiania subquadrata" - "Christiania sulcata" - "Christiania tenuicincta" - "Christiania trentonensis"


Craniata (brachiopod)

Craniata is a class of brachiopods originating in the Cambrian period and still extant today. They have calcitic inarticulated shells that are subcircular in outline. This class of brachiopods has an unsupported lophophore and is always attached to a hard substrate in the fossil record. This hard substrate is usually another brachiopod. The plicae from the host brachiopod will then appear within the shell of the craniata.
Craniata is the only class within the subphylum Craniiformea. The class Craniata is divided into three orders, one of which is still extant (Craniida).


Interlobular arteries

Cortical radial arteries, formerly known as interlobular arteries, are renal blood vessels given off at right angles from the side of the arcuate arteries looking toward the cortical substance. The interlobular arteries pass directly outward between the medullary rays to reach the fibrous tunic, where they end in the capillary network of this part.
These vessels do not anastomose with each other, but form end-arteries.
In their outward course, they give off lateral branches, which are the afferent arterioles that supply the renal corpuscles. The afferent arterioles, then, enter Bowman's capsule and end in the glomerulus.
From each glomerulus, the corresponding efferent arteriole arises and then exits the capsule near the point where the afferent arteriole enters. Distally, efferent arterioles branch out to form dense plexuses (i.e., capillary beds) around their adjacent renal tubules. For cortical nephrons, a single network of capillaries, known as the peritubular capillaries, surrounds the entire renal tubule, whereas for juxtamedullary nephrons, the peritubular capillaries surround only the proximal and distal convoluted tubules, while another network branching from the efferent arteriole, known as the straight arterioles of kidney, surrounds the nephron loop (of Henle).


Middle temporal artery

In anatomy, the middle temporal artery is a major artery which arises immediately above the zygomatic arch, and, perforating the temporal fascia, gives branches to the temporalis, anastomosing with the deep temporal branches of the internal maxillary.
It occasionally gives off a zygomatico-orbital branch, which runs along the upper border of the zygomatic arch, between the two layers of the temporal fascia, to the lateral angle of the orbit (the eye socket).


Glyceridae

Glyceridae is a family of polychaete worms. They are commonly referred to as beak-thrower worms or bloodworms. They are bright red, segmented, aquatic worms. The proboscis worm "Glycera" is sometimes called bloodworm. The Glyceridae are ferocious epi- and infaunal polychaetes that prey upon small invertebrates. They are errant burrowers that build galleries of interconnected tubes to aid in catching their prey.


Geraldine Pittman Woods

Geraldine Pittman Woods (January 29, 1921 – December 27, 1999) was an American science administrator. She is known for her lifelong dedication to community service and for establishing programs that promote minorities in STEM fields, scientific research, and basic research.
Early life and education.
Woods was born January 29, 1921, in West Palm Beach, Florida to Susie (King) and Oscar Pittman. In the fourth grade, Woods transferred from a private Episcopalian school to Industrial High School, the only public school in the area that allowed African-American students. She graduated from high school in 1938 and attended Talladega College, a historically black college in Talladega, Alabama.
Neither of her parents had higher than an eighth grade education, and Woods's father died when she was a teenager, but her mother was very adamant about Woods doing well in school. Woods once stated: "My mother paid for everything. She had a tremendous commitment to education in general and my education in particular... Since she was always aware that she never had the opportunity to get an education, she wanted me, her only child, to have all the education I desired."In 1940, Woods's mother fell ill and was admitted to Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland. In order to be closer to her, Woods transferred to Howard University in Washington, D.C. At Howard University, Woods excelled in biology and other science classes. Dr. Louis Hansborough, a professor at Howard, encouraged her to continue studying embryology after graduation in 1942. Woods then attended a Radcliffe College and Harvard University partnership program to earn a master of science degree in 1943 and a Ph.D. in neuro-embryology in 1945.
In 1945 she was also elected into Phi Beta Kappa, a national honors society, for her scholastic achievements.
Career.
1940s–1950s.
After earning her doctorate, Woods briefly took a position as an instructor at Howard University, her alma mater, until 1946. She then took a 25-year hiatus from science to focus on her family.
1960s.
Woods became heavily involved with local volunteering and community affairs, particularly those pertaining to minorities. Over time, her volunteer efforts expanded to national levels. Starting in 1963, she served a four-year term on the Personnel Board of the California Department of Employment. The following year, she became a member of the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS), an institute of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Later, in 1964, Dr. Geraldine P. Woods became the first African American woman appointed to the National Advisory General Medical Services (NAGMS) Council, an advisory board for NIGMS. In this position, she addressed the need to improve science education and research opportunities at minority institutions. In 1969 NIGMS appointed her as a special consultant, a highly revered position.
She was a member of the Delta Sigma Theta, a historically African American sorority, for decades, and she served two terms as national president from 1963 to 1967. Under her leadership, in 1967 Delta Sigma Theta founded The Delta Research and Educational Foundation (DREF), a nonprofit that aids organizations with foundations in community service.
Woods's feats in community development caught the eye of First Lady Claudia Alta Taylor "Lady Bird" Johnson in 1965, thus Woods was invited to the White House to help launch the Head Start Program, a US anti-poverty program, with Delta Sigma Theta. Then, in 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson himself appointed her Chairman of the Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services, a committee that aids women serving in the US Armed Forces.
1970s.
From 1968 through 1972 she continued her work in community service as the vice chair of the Community Relations Conference of Southern California.
In 1972 two national programs Woods worked on at NIGMS, the Minority Access to Research Careers Program (MARC) and the Minority Biomedical Research Support Program (MBRS), were finally initiated, though she had trouble persuading administrators at Black colleges to get involved. At that point many were wary because of the long years they'd been out of the spotlight.
As of 1978, Woods served as Chairman of the Board of Trustees of Howard University. During her tenure, she spoke at the dedication of Elizabeth Catlett's sculpture "Students Aspire.
1980s–1990s.
By 1980 the MARC and MBRS had increased in popularity and hundreds of students were benefitting from the programs across the country. Along with her other notable leadership positions, Woods headed Howard University's Board of Trustees from 1975 to 1988.
She eventually retired from the NIH and many of her leadership positions in 1991.
Awards and honors.
Woods has earned numerous awards for her dedication to community service and minority rights, including the Mary Church Terrell Award of Delta Sigma Theta and the Scroll of Merit of the National Medical Association in 1979, the Howard University Achievement Award in 1980, and a Distinguished Leadership Achievement Award from the National Association for Equal Opportunity in Higher Education in 1987.
In 1978, the sixth annual NIGMS Minority Biomedical Support (MBS) symposium held at the Atlanta University Center in Georgia was dedicated to Woods. The Federal City Chapter of Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Inc. recognized Woods's contributions to the sorority by establishing the "Geraldine P. Woods Sciences Award" in 1994. At the Annual Biomedical Research Conference for Minority Students (ABRCMS) in 2003, NIGMS unveiled the "Geraldine Woods Award" because of her pivotal role in the development of the MBRS and MARC, two NIH minority programs. This award recognizes individuals who have had a significant impact in promoting the advancement of underrepresented minorities in biomedical science.
A fellowship in biology at Howard University and one in chemistry at Atlanta University have both been established in her name. She has also earned honorary degrees at Benedict College, Talladega College, Fisk University, Bennett College, Meharry Medical College, and Howard University.
Personal life.
During her time as an instructor at Howard, she met and married Robert Woods, a dentistry student at Meharry Medical College. After he graduated from dentistry school they moved to Los Angeles, California where Woods put her career on hold to raise their three children, Jan, Jerri, and Robert.
Woods once said, "I was so busy 'driving' that I couldn't find time to research and write. But I think I made a lasting contribution to science nevertheless."
After a long illness Woods died on December 27, 1999 in her Aliso Viejo home.


James L. Patton

James Lloyd Patton (June 21, 1941), is an American evolutionary biologist and mammalogist. He is emeritus professor of integrative biology and curator of mammals at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, UC Berkeley and has made extensive contributions to the systematics and biogeography of several vertebrate taxa, especially small mammals (rodents, marsupials, and bats).
Career.
Patton is best known for his pioneering works on the evolutionary cytogenetics and systematics of rodents, especially pocket mice ("Perognathus"/"Chaetodipus") and pocket gophers ("Thomomys"), the diversification of rainforest faunas, and the impact of climate change on North American mammals. He has authored nearly 200 scientific publications, many of them in collaboration with 36 graduate students and 13 post-doctoral scholars he mentored over four decades. He is one of the most experienced field mammalogists today, having collected extensively in the western United States and in 14 other countries around the world, including Mexico, Ecuador (Galapagos Islands), Peru, Venezuela, Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Taiwan, Vietnam, Iran, and Cameroon. As of 2005, he had deposited nearly 20,000 specimens in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, making him the most prolific collector of mammal specimens in that institution’s nearly 100-year history.
Honors.
Patton has several taxa named in his honor: two genera of neotropical rats ("Pattonomys" and "Pattonimus" ), three species of neotropical rodents ("Proechimys pattoni", "Phyllomys pattoni", and the fossil "Ullumys" "pattoni)", one species of fossil porcupine ("Neosteiromys pattoni)", one species of neotropical bat ("Lonchophylla pattoni)", one species of pocket gopher louse ("Geomydoecus pattoni)", and one species of Madagascar snake ("Liophidium pattoni)".
The American Society of Mammalogists established the "James L. Patton Award" in 2015 to promote and support museum-based research by graduate students.


Muscle tone

In physiology, medicine, and anatomy, muscle tone (residual muscle tension or tonus) is the continuous and passive partial contraction of the muscles, or the muscle's resistance to passive stretch during resting state. It helps to maintain posture and declines during REM sleep.
Purpose.
If a sudden pull or stretch occurs, the body responds by automatically increasing the muscle's tension, a reflex which helps guard against danger as well as helping maintain balance. Such near-continuous innervation can be thought of as a "default" or "steady state" condition for muscles. Both the extensor and flexor muscles are involved in the maintenance of a constant tone while at rest. In skeletal muscles, this helps maintain a normal posture.
Resting muscle tone varies along a bell-shaped curve. Low tone is perceived as "lax, flabby, floppy, mushy, dead weight" and high tone is perceived as "tight, light, strong". Muscles with high tone are not necessarily strong and muscles with low tone are not necessarily weak. In general, low tone does increase flexibility and decrease strength and high tone does decrease flexibility and increase strength, but with many exceptions. A person with low tone will most likely not be able to engage in "explosive" movement such as needed in a sprinter or high jumper. These athletes usually have high tone that is within normal limits. A person with high tone will usually not be flexible in activities such as dance and yoga. Joint laxity contributes greatly to flexibility, especially with flexibility in one or a few areas, instead of overall flexibility.
For example, a person can be high tone with normal to poor flexibility in most areas, but be able to put the palms of the hands on the floor with straight knees due to hypermobile sacroiliac joints. It is important to assess several areas before deciding if a person has high, low or normal muscle tone. A fairly reliable assessment item is how the person feels when picked up. For example, small children with low tone can feel heavy while larger, high tone children feel light, which corresponds with the description of "dead weight".
Although cardiac muscle and smooth muscle are not directly connected to the skeleton, they also have tonus in the sense that although their contractions are not matched with those of antagonist muscles, the non-contractile state is characterized by (sometimes random) enervation.
Pathological tonus.
Physical disorders can result in abnormally low (hypotonia) or high (hypertonia) muscle tone. Another form of hypertonia is paratonia, which is associated with dementia. Hypotonia is seen in lower motor neuron disease like poliomyelitis. Hypotonia can present clinically as muscle flaccidity, where the limbs appear floppy, stretch reflex responses are decreased, and the limb's resistance to passive movement is also decreased. Hypertonia is seen in upper motor neuron diseases like lesions in pyramidal tract and extrapyramidal tract. Hypertonia can present clinically as either spasticity or rigidity. While spasticity is velocity-dependent resistance to passive stretch (e.g., passively moving an elbow quickly will elicit increased muscle tone, but passively moving elbow slowly may not elicit increased muscle tone), rigidity is velocity-independent resistance to passive stretch (i.e. there is uniform increased tone whether the elbow is passively moved quickly or slowly).
Spasticity can be in the form of the clasp-knife response, in which there is increased resistance only at the beginning or at the end of the movement. Rigidity can be of the leadpipe type, in which there is resistance throughout to passive movement, or it may be of cogwheel type, in which the resistance to passive movement is in a jerky manner.
Tonus in surgery.
In ophthalmology, tonus may be a central consideration in eye surgery, as in the manipulation of extraocular muscles to repair strabismus. Tonicity aberrations are associated with many diseases of the eye (e.g. Adie syndrome).
Cramps.
Normally, people are unaware of their muscle tone in their daily activities. The body maintains the balance between the tone of flexor and extensor muscle groups. Sometimes, in normal, healthy people, that tone is lost either in flexors or extensor muscle groups in isolation, temporarily and intermittently resulting in "muscle cramps". Treating these extensor or flexor group of muscles in isolation to relax can be difficult. Generally, muscle relaxants or quinine can help with cramps and is warranted when they become troublesome. But these medication cause their relaxing effect in both groups by moderating their tone. The cause of disproportionate intermittent contractions of either flexors or extensors or the cause of cramps is unknown. The stimulus for these "cramps" may originate in the cerebral cortex, the spinal cord, or the muscle itself. This could indicate developing pathology or other problems in the future.


Lateral nasal branch of facial artery

The lateral nasal branch of facial artery (lateral nasal artery) is derived from the facial artery as that vessel ascends along the side of the nose.
Supplies.
It supplies the ala and dorsum of the nose, anastomosing with its fellow, with the septal and alar branches, with the dorsal nasal branch of the ophthalmic artery, and with the infraorbital branch of the internal maxillary.
If the posterior lateral nasal artery is superficial in the nasal wall, a laceration may occur during an aggressive curettage. A sinus floor elevation procedure requires a separation and elevation of the sinus lining with subsequent introduction of space maintaining graft material. During the lining elevation this artery may be cut in the osseous nasal wall.


Ooperipatus porcatus

Ooperipatus porcatus is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. It is found in Victoria, Australia.


Choroid veins

The choroid veins are the superior choroid vein and the inferior choroid vein of the lateral ventricle. Both veins drain different parts of the choroid plexus.
Superior choroid vein.
The superior choroid vein runs along the length of the choroid plexus in the lateral ventricle. It drains the choroid plexus, and also the hippocampus, fornix, and corpus callosum. It unites with the superior thalamostriate vein to form the internal cerebral vein.
Inferior choroid vein.
The inferior choroid vein drains the inferior choroid plexus into the basal vein.


Eupholidota

Eupholidota ("true pangolins") is a suborder of pangolins that includes two superfamilies: extant Manoidea and extinct Eomanoidea.
Phylogeny.
Phylogenetic position of suborder Eupholidota within order Pholidota.


Mia Boissevain

Maria (Mia) Boissevain (1878 - 1959) was a Dutch malacologist and feminist.
Life.
Boissevain was the youngest of nine children. Her father was a shipowner from a rich Huguenot merchant family and her mother was the daughter of a lawyer.
Education.
Boissevain attended a high school for girls. After graduating, Boissevain attended a lecture on botany by Hugo de Vries, which sparked her interest in the subject. In 1896, she started studying natural science at the University of Amsterdam. Here she specialised in zoology. After graduating, she moved to Zurich to do further research on the Dentalium species and at age 25 attained the title of doctor. Afterwards, she moved back to the Netherlands where she became a curator for Artis, a Dutch zoo and association for zoology. She would remain active as a researcher until 1915, but would retain her interest in zoology afterwards. Four mollusk taxa are named after her: the species "Cadulus boissevaini", "Antalis boissevainae", "Fustiaria Mariae" and the genus "Boissevainia".
Women's rights.
While in Zurich, Boissevain encountered international students who were interested in women's rights. When she returned to the Netherlands, she visited Aletta Jacobs to talk about the Dutch women's rights movement. In 1908, Jacobs asked Boissevain to help with the preparation for the third International Congress of Women in Amsterdam. Here, she met other prominent feminists and would go on to become more involved in the women's movement. Together with Rosa Manus, who she had gone to school with, she founded a commission for propaganda within the Vereeniging voor Vrouwenkiesrecht and was its president until 1912. The same year, she and Manus proposed an exhibition that would highlight the circumstances of women between 1813 and 1913, inspired by the exhibitions held to celebrate 100 years of independence from the French. She wrote the catalog for the exhibition "De Vrouw 1813–1913", which became successful. During the First World War, Boissevain helped the families of mobilised soldiers and Flemish refugees. In 1915, she was one of the organisers of the International Congress of Women in the Hague. In the same year, she also wrote a book about her life titled "Een Amsterdamsche familie", which was published in 1967.
After 1915, Boissevain moved to Great Britain and adopted two English girls. She lived in Switzerland with her two daughters from around 1925 to 1928, moved to the Netherlands afterwards and lived in London from 1930 until her death in 1959. She is buried in Amsterdam.


Ancorinidae

Ancorinidae is a family of marine sponges belonging to the order of Tetractinellida.


Posterior auricular artery

The posterior auricular artery is a small artery that arises from the external carotid artery, above the digastric muscle and stylohyoid muscle, opposite the apex of the styloid process.
It ascends posteriorly beneath the parotid gland, along the styloid process of the temporal bone, between the cartilage of the ear and the mastoid process of the temporal bone along the lateral side of the head. The posterior auricular artery gives off the stylomastoid artery, small branches to the auricle, and supplies blood to the scalp posterior to the auricle. A person may be able to "hear" their own heart rate via this artery, under certain conditions.


Dentalium zelandicum

Dentalium zelandicum is a species of tusk shell, a marine scaphopod mollusk in the family Dentaliidae.
This species is endemic to New Zealand waters.


Accipitrimorphae

Accipitrimorphae is a clade of birds of prey that include the orders Cathartiformes (New World vultures) and Accipitriformes (diurnal birds of prey such as eagles, hawks, osprey and secretarybird). However, this group might be a junior synonym (or at least a subjective one) of Accipitriformes. The DNA-based proposal and the NACC and IOC classifications include the New World vultures in the Accipitriformes, but the SACC classifies the New World vultures as a separate order, the Cathartiformes which has been adopted here. The placement of the New World vultures has been unclear since the early 1990s. The reason for this is the controversial systematic history of the New World vultures as they were assumed to be more related to (or a subfamily of) Ciconiidae (the storks) after Sibley and Ahlquist work on their DNA-DNA hybridization studies conducted in the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s. The stork-vulture relationship has seemed to not be supported. Regardless of whether to use Accipitrimorphae or Accipitriformes, these birds belong to a basal branch of the clade Afroaves.
Cladogram based on Jarvis "et al". (2014).


Inferior orbital fissure

The lateral wall and the floor of the orbit are separated posteriorly by the inferior orbital fissure which transmits the zygomatic branch of the maxillary nerve and the ascending branches from the pterygopalatine ganglion. The infraorbital vessels are found in the inferior orbital fissure, and travel down the infraorbital groove into the infraorbital canal and exit through the infraorbital foramen. Inferior division of ophthalmic vein passes through the inferior orbital fissure.
It is formed by the sphenoid bone and maxilla.


Phil Bronstein

Phil Bronstein (born October 4, 1950) is an American journalist and editor. He serves as executive chair of the board for the Center for Investigative Reporting in Berkeley, California. He is best known for his work as a war correspondent and investigative journalist. In 1986, he was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize for his reporting on the fall of Philippine dictator Ferdinand Marcos. Later, he held leadership positions with the "San Francisco Examiner", "San Francisco Chronicle", and Hearst Newspapers Corporation.
Early life.
Bronstein was born in Atlanta, Georgia, on October 4, 1950. He is the father of Roan Joseph Bronstein.
As a child, Bronstein's family moved frequently. Much of his youth was spent in Montreal, Canada. Eventually, he settled in California. Bronstein attended but did not graduate from the University of California, Davis. While at Davis, he got his first taste of journalism. He wrote movie reviews for the school paper.
Career.
Bronstein's first professional job was as a reporter for KQED-TV in San Francisco.
In 1980, "The San Francisco Examiner" hired him as a beat reporter.
He went on to report from conflict areas around the world as a foreign correspondent for eight years, such as Peru, the Middle East, El Salvador and the Philippines.
In 1991, Bronstein was promoted to the executive editor position at the "Examiner". He held that position until 2000. When an alligator escaped into a city lake in 1996, Bronstein arrived in scuba gear to assist with the capture, but police turned him away.
Hearst Corporation, the parent company of the "Examiner", bought the "San Francisco Chronicle" in 2000. The "Chronicle" was the other major daily paper for the San Francisco Bay Area. Hearst already owned the "Examiner" and chose to merge the two newsrooms. Bronstein became senior vice president and executive editor of the "Chronicle" in November 2000. Bronstein was editor after the merger, which occurred at the same time as a general decline in the newspaper industry, making the job even more difficult. Bronstein made staffing changes, created new features, and attempted to bring the "Chronicle" into the Internet age, all while preserving the Bay Area cultural viewpoint. In the first two years after the merger, staff was reduced from 520 to 485 and there was less content within the daily paper.
In January 2008, Hearst Corporation announced Bronstein as editor-at-large for both the "Chronicle" and Hearst Newspapers. In his new role, Bronstein wrote a weekly column for the "Chronicle". He also wrote blog entries for SFGate.com. At the "Chronicle", he was replaced as editor by "Arizona Republic" editor Ward Bushee.
Bronstein left Hearst Newspapers and the "Chronicle" in March 2012. He had been named chairman of the board for the Center for Investigative Reporting in 2011. Upon leaving the "Chronicle", his role at the Center expanded.
Personal life.
Bronstein married actress Sharon Stone on February 14, 1998. They were unable to conceive children as Stone suffered from an autoimmune disease, resulting in three miscarriages. They adopted a baby son, Roan Joseph Bronstein in 2000. The couple separated in 2003. They completed their divorce on January 29, 2004. At first, Stone and Bronstein shared joint custody of their adopted son, Roan. In 2008, a judge gave Bronstein full custody of their son.
In 2001, Bronstein was attacked by a Komodo dragon at the Los Angeles Zoo. He was on a private tour, and a keeper had invited him into the enclosure. Bronstein was bitten on his bare foot, as the keeper had told him to take off his white shoes and socks, which the keeper stated could excite the Komodo dragon as they were the same color as the white rats the zoo fed the dragon. Although he escaped, Bronstein needed to have several tendons in his foot reattached surgically.
In 2006, Bronstein married Christine Borders, the daughter of Borders Book Store co-founder Louis Borders. She is the founder of "A Band of Wives," a social network for women. The couple have two children.
Awards and recognition.
In 1986, Bronstein was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize for his reporting on the overthrow of Ferdinand Marcos, long-standing dictator of the Philippines. Bronstein's work in the Philippines also earned him awards from the Associated Press, the Overseas Press Club, the World Affairs Council, and the Media Alliance.


Minchinellidae

Minchinellidae is a family of calcareous sponges in the order Calcarea. It is the only family in the monotypic class Lithonida.
Description.
Calcaronea with reinforced skeleton
consisting either of linked or cemented basal actines of
tetractines, or of a rigid basal mass of calcite. Diapason
spicules are generally present and the canal system is
leuconoid.


Helmet pigeon

The Helmet is a breed of fancy pigeon developed over many years of selective breeding. Helmets, along with other varieties of domesticated pigeons, are all descendants from the rock pigeon ("Columba livia"). The breed has medium face, short face, plain-head and crested varieties. Helmet pigeons have been referenced since the early 15th century and appear to have origins in Germany. The modern varieties were refined in the latter 20th century.


Brachiocephalic artery

The brachiocephalic artery (or brachiocephalic trunk or innominate artery) is an artery of the mediastinum that supplies blood to the right arm and the head and neck.
It is the first branch of the aortic arch. Soon after it emerges, the brachiocephalic artery divides into the right common carotid artery and the right subclavian artery.
There is no brachiocephalic artery for the left side of the body. The left common carotid, and the left subclavian artery, come directly off the aortic arch. However, there are two brachiocephalic veins.
Structure.
The brachiocephalic artery arises, on a level with the upper border of the second right costal cartilage, from the start of the aortic arch, on a plane anterior to the origin of the left carotid artery. It ascends obliquely upward, backward, and to the right to the level of the upper border of the right sternoclavicular articulation, where it divides into the right common carotid artery and right subclavian arteries. The artery then crosses the trachea in front of it obliquely from the left to the right, roughly at the middle of the trachea or the level of the ninth tracheal cartilage.
In infants, it often divides cephalad to the sternoclavicular articulation, within the anterior triangle of the neck.
Branches.
The thyroid ima artery ascends in front of the trachea to the lower part of the thyroid, which it supplies.
Variation.
The innominate artery usually gives off no branches, but occasionally a small branch, the thyroid ima artery, arises from it. Other times, it gives off a thymic or bronchial branch.
It varies greatly in size, and appears to compensate for deficiency or absence of one of the other thyroid vessels. It occasionally arises from the aorta, the right common carotid, the subclavian or the internal mammary.


In vitro muscle testing

"In vitro" muscle testing is a method used to characterize properties of living muscle tissue after removing it from an organism, which allows more extensive and precise quantification of its properties than "in vivo" testing. "In vitro" muscle testing has provided the bulk of scientific knowledge of muscle structure and physiology, and how both relate to organismal performance.
Isolation of tissue.
Once an appropriate animal has been selected—whether for a specific locomotor function (i.e. frogs for jumping); or a specific animal strain, to answer a research question—a specific muscle is identified based on its "in vivo" function and fibre type distribution. Following ethical approval, and if necessary, government approval, the animal is humanely euthanised. Humane methods differ by country, with the most appropriate based on ethical approval and researcher skill level. A number of further criteria should be followed to ensure the animal is completely dead without the possibility of recovery, which includes cessation of blood flow via the removal of the heart from the circulatory system and/or complete destruction of the brain and spinal column. Following this, common measures of animal morphology are usually rapidly obtained, such as animal length, body mass, and other biomechanical markers that may be of importance. The animal is then prepared for harvesting of the target muscle. In isolated muscles, these tend to be muscles of the hind limbs, such as the soleus or EDL of mammals, or the plantaris or iliotibialis of amphibians. Other muscles that have been examined "in vitro" include the diaphragm and the papillary muscle.
For the successful isolation of skeletal muscles, specific conditions are required. The tissue should be isolated in frequently changed, chilled Ringer's solution or Krebs-Henseleit solution to ensure metabolic conditions are slowed down, hence the need for chilled dissecting medium, and to prevent the tissue from dying due to lack of substrates within the medium, hence the requirement for the solutions to be changed frequently. The dissecting solution should be continually oxygenated with the appropriate concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide for the tissue that is being prepared. Typically, non-mammalian tissues are prepared in a gaseous solution bubbled through with 98% oxygen, 2% carbon dioxide whilst mammalian tissues in a solution bubbled through with 95% oxygen, 5% carbon dioxide. A microscope with an appropriate magnification level is required due to the dexterity required for isolation of muscles. An external, fibre optic light source is also beneficial to provide sufficient light without the emission of heat.
There is no correct approach for the preparation of muscles for testing, as long as the muscle is not damaged during preparation, the muscle-tendon unit is intact and there is something that can be used to anchor the muscle within the testing rig. Pieces of bone can be left at the proximal and/or distal end of skeletal muscles to allow for anchoring. In addition, silk sutures or aluminium T-foil clips can be used to wrap around the tendon of the muscle to provide both support at the tendon and to be used for anchoring in the mechanics rig.
Equipment.
"In vitro" muscle testing typically requires a dual-mode servomotor, which can both control and detect changes in force and length. Should a dual-mode system be unavailable, then an independent force transducer and motor arm can be used. One end of the sample tissue is anchored in place, via a needle if sutured or crocodile clip if prepared with aluminium T-foil clips, while the other end is attached to the servomotor. The entire muscle is bathed in Ringer's solution or Krebs-Henseleit solution with oxygen bubbling through in order to keep the tissue alive and metabolically active. The solution is heated, usually via an external heater/cooler water bath, to an appropriate test temperature for the muscle that is being tested. Muscles are stimulated to contract by applying electric current to either the nerve which innervates the muscle or via platinum electrodes placed in the circulating solution to evoke a response of the entire muscle. The servomotor detects changes in force and/or length due to muscle contraction. Stimulation level is often set to the level which ensures maximal motor unit recruitment. The servomotor can be programmed to maintain a given force while allowing the muscle to change length, vice versa, or the muscle may be subject to more complex testing, such as in work loops. When pennate muscles are used, sonomicrometry is often used to accurately determine fiber length during the test.
Scale.
"In vitro" muscle testing can be done on any scale of muscle organization - entire groups of muscles (provided they share a common insertion or origin, as in the human quadriceps), a single muscle, a "bundle" of muscle fibers, a single muscle fiber, a single myofibril, a single sarcomere, a cardiomyocyte or even a half-sarcomere. Muscle fibers may be intact, or may be "skinned", a process which removes the cell membrane, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and cytoplasm, allowing greater access to the contractile components of the sarcomere.
Typical tests.
Several properties are commonly tested, and a given experiment will often use a subset of these properties, including twitch times, tetanic force, force-length relationship, force velocity relationship, work loops, fatigue trials, fusion frequency, and energetic cost.
"In situ".
A hybrid approach between "in vitro" and "in vivo" has recently been used, called "in situ", in which the organism is put under terminal anesthesia, and "in vivo" tests are performed with the muscle still attached to the organism. This ensures the muscle is kept at the right temperature and amply supplied with nutrients and oxygen by the blood, but the procedure is more difficult and some tests may not be possible.
Species.
"In vitro" muscle testing is almost never used in humans, with the exception of small sections of muscle removed via biopsy or while undergoing surgery for other ailments. Testing is generally more difficult in mammals and birds because of the high temperature and oxygen requirements of the muscle, leading to rapid cell death once muscle tissue is removed from the organism. Mammalian skeletal muscles are commonly tested at ~25°C to prolong the test protocol for as long as reasonably possible. A test temperature of ~37°C can also been used during testing of whole isolated mammalian skeletal muscles to better replicate the temperature found in "in vivo". Moreover, it is important to consider the thermal specialisation of skeletal muscles, with core muscles more susceptible to changes in mechanical performance with small temperature changes than peripheral muscles. In ectotherms (reptiles, amphibians, fish, and invertebrates), the muscle tissue can survive outside of the organism for hours or even days, depending on the temperature and organism. Many experiments are conducted at or near 0°C to prolong the usable life of the muscle. Additionally, in fish and amphibians, it is possible to separate out a single muscle fiber while keeping it intact, but in other species, this is usually not possible.


Ascaltis panis

Ascaltis panis is a species of calcareous sponge in the family Leucascidae found in the Caribbean sea.
References.
World Register of Marine Species entry


Epiperipatus simoni

Epiperipatus simoni is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatidae family. The type locality is in Venezuela.


Tetrarhynchia

Tetrarhynchia is an extinct genus of brachiopods found in Jurassic strata in Europe and South America. It was a stationary epifaunal suspension feeder.


Circular breathing

Circular breathing is a technique used by players of some wind instruments to produce a continuous tone without interruption. It is accomplished by breathing "in" through the nose while simultaneously pushing air "out" through the mouth using air stored in the cheeks.
History.
The technique was developed independently by several cultures and is used for many traditional wind instruments.
In the 13th century, Mongolian metalsmiths who specialized in gold and silver used circular breathing techniques for crafting various decorative and ornamental items. In crafting such items, craftsmen were required to blow continuously to the flame through a pipe with a needle-like hole to make the hard metal melt or soften. From that necessity, craftsmen mastered a circular-like cycle of breathing by simultaneously inhaling through their nose while they blew without any pauses.
The introduction of the circular breathing technique in the art of ancient windplayers was a productive invention in its performing technique.
Uses.
It is used extensively in playing the Eastern zurna, the Mongolian limbe, the Sardinian launeddas, the Egyptian arghul, the Australian didgeridoo, as well as many traditional oboes and flutes of Asia and the Middle East. A few jazz and classical wind and brass players also use some form of circular breathing.
Although many professional wind players find circular breathing highly useful, few pieces of European orchestral music composed before the 20th century actually require its use. However, the advent of circular breathing among professional wind players has allowed for the transcription of pieces originally composed for string instruments which would be unperformable on a wind instrument without the aid of circular breathing. A notable example of this phenomenon is "Moto Perpetuo", transcribed for trumpet by Rafael Méndez from the original work for violin by Paganini.
In 1997, a Guinness World Record was set for longest held musical note. Kenny G used circular breathing to sustain an E-flat on a saxophone for 45 minutes and 47 seconds. In February 2000, Vann Burchfield set a new Guinness world record for circular breathing, holding one continuous note for 47 minutes, 6 seconds, surpassing Kenny G’s record. Mark Atkins on "Didgeridoo Concerto" (1994) plays for over 50 minutes continuously.
On Sunday, 14 May 2017, Nigerian saxophonist Femi Kuti broke Mark Atkins' record by playing for 51 minutes, 38 seconds; after successfully breaking Kenny G's record the previous week.
Method.
Performing.
The musician inhales fully and begins to exhale and blow. When the lungs are nearly empty, the last volume of air is blown into the mouth, and the cheeks are inflated with part of this air. Then, while still blowing this last bit of air out by squeezing the cheeks, the musician must very quickly fill the lungs by inhaling through the nose prior to running out of the air in the mouth. If done correctly, by the time the air in the mouth is nearly exhausted the musician can begin to exhale from the lungs once more, ready to repeat the process again. Essentially, circular breathing bridges the gap between exhalations with air stored in the cheeks, an extra air reserve to play with while sneaking in a breath through the nose.
Learning.
The usual first difficulty is to inhale through the nose while blowing out air stored in the cheeks. To some this may be a big hurdle, to others it is no problem at all. This technique may be practiced by holding a finger in front of a thin air stream out of the lips and listening to the wind sound.
The next difficulty is to switch between cheek air and lung air without an unwelcome and uncontrolled jolt in the air pressure; this is achieved by learning to use the cheeks and the throat as a system of shock absorbents. A very simple method by which this is practiced is using a thin straw to blow on to the surface of a cup of water from just above water level, and watching the depression that the air stream creates on the water's surface. The aim is to blow continually and switch between cheek air and lung air without any change in the depth of this depression or groove or hole on the water's surface.
The traditional method of learning in zurna groups is to have one elder player lead as the chanter zurna and asking the younger players to hold the unchanging "drone tone"s. Professional zurna groups may play non-stop for as long as the party lasts, and a drone tone may be held for the whole evening. This is possible thanks to the disk that the lip may lean and rest against, because otherwise, the lip muscles that resist the air pressure get tired first.


Georg Wolfgang Franz Panzer

Georg Wolfgang Franz Panzer (31 May 1755 – 28 June 1829) was a German botanist and entomologist.
He was born at Etzelwang in the Upper Palatinate and died at Hersbruck, near Nuremberg. He was the son of (the elder, 1729-1805), one of the most distinguished and productive of German bibliographers, whose "Annales Typographici" were published between 1793 and 1803.
A physician, he practised at Hersbruck. A celebrated botanist, he had a very species-rich herbarium.
He also assembled a very important insect collection which was the basis of a vast work "Faunae insectorum germanicae initia" (Elements of the insect fauna of Germany), published at Nuremberg between 1796 and 1813. Illustrated by Jacob Sturm (1771–1848), with more than 2,600 hand-colored plates of individual, lifesize insects, this work was issued in 109 parts over the 17-year period of its serial publication, a common pattern for illustrated natural history works in the 18th and 19th centuries.
References.
Stub Translated from French Wikipedia


Edward George Britton Moss

Edward George Britton Moss (1856 – 9 March 1916) was an Independent Liberal Member of Parliament for in New Zealand.
Biography.
Edward Moss was born in 1856 at Longwood House, on the island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean. He arrived in New Zealand in 1859 on the "Zealandia" and was educated at the Otago Boys' High School and Church of England Grammar School in Parnell, Auckland. Moss was a lawyer at Paeroa. His father, Frederick Moss (1829–1904), was the member for Parnell in the House of Representatives from to 1890.
At the , Jackson Palmer (1867–1919) defeated Moss for the electorate. At the , Moss in turn defeated Palmer. Moss was an Independent Liberal who bitterly opposed Premier Richard Seddon. At the , Moss was defeated by Hugh Poland of the Liberal Party.
Edward Moss was also a Māori scholar and natural historian. He was a conchologist and lived his later part of his life at Claybrook, a house that is today registered by Heritage New Zealand as a Category II heritage building. He died on 9 March 1916.


Linguloidea

Linguloidea is a superfamily of brachiopods.


Isotomurus palustris

Isotomurus palustris, the marsh springtail, is a species of elongate-bodied springtail in the family Isotomidae. It is found in Europe, Africa, North America, and Central America.


Conjugate eye movement

Conjugate eye movement refers to motor coordination of the eyes that allows for bilateral fixation on a single object.
A conjugate eye movement is a movement of both eyes in the same direction to maintain binocular gaze (also referred to as “yoked” eye movement). This is in contrast to vergence eye movement, where binocular gaze is maintained by moving eyes in opposite directions, such as going “cross eyed” to view an object moving towards the face. Conjugate eye movements can be in any direction, and can accompany both saccadic eye movements and smooth pursuit eye movements.
Conjugate eye movements are used to change the direction of gaze without changing the depth of gaze. This can be used to either follow a moving object, or change focus entirely. When following a moving object, conjugate eye movements allow individuals to stabilize their perception of the moving object, and focus on the object rather than the rest of the visual world. When changing focus, conjugate eye movements allow for the perception of a stabilized world relative to an individual, rather than the perception of the world “jumping” as the individual’s gaze shifts. Without conjugate eye movements, there would be no synchronicity of the information obtained by each eye, so an individual would not be able to willingly move their eyes around a scene while still maintaining depth perception and scene or object stability.
Several centers in the brainstem are involved. Horizontal conjugate gaze is controlled by the nuclei of the Ocular Nerve, CN III, and the Abducens nerve, CN VI, the paramedian pontine reticular formation, and the nucleus prepositus hypoglossi-medial vestibular nucleus. Vertical conjugate gaze is controlled by the nuclei of CN III and the Trochlear nerve, CN IV, the rostral interstitial nucleus of medial longitudinal fasciculus (riMLF), and the interstitial nucleus of Cajal.
Disorders of conjugate gaze typically consist of the inability to move one or both eyes in the desired direction, or the inability to prevent eyes from making vergence movements.
Conjugate gaze palsy: Conjugate gaze palsies typically affect horizontal gaze, although some affect upward gaze. Few affect downward gaze. These effects can range in severity from a complete lack of voluntary eye movement to mild impairments in speed, accuracy or range of eye movement.
Internuclear ophthalmoplegia: Internuclear ophthalmoplegia affects horizontal gaze, such that one eye is capable of full horizontal movement, while the other is incapable of gazing in the direction contralateral to the affected eye.
One and a half syndrome: “One and a half syndrome” also affects horizontal gaze. One eye is completely incapable of horizontal movement, while the other eye is capable of horizontal movement only in one direction away from the midline.


Posterior atlantooccipital membrane

The posterior atlantooccipital membrane (posterior atlantooccipital ligament) is a broad but thin membrane. It is connected above to the posterior margin of the foramen magnum and below to the upper border of the posterior arch of the atlas.
On each side of this membrane there is a defect above the groove for the vertebral artery which serves as an opening for the entrance of the artery. The suboccipital nerve also passes through this defect.
The free border of the membrane arches over the artery and nerve and is sometimes ossified.
The membrane is deep to the Recti capitis posteriores minores and Obliqui capitis superiores and is superficial to the dura mater of the vertebral canal to which it is closely associated.
In 2015, Scali et al. revisited the anatomy of the posterior atlantooccipital membrane via plastination. Their findings revealed that the PAO membrane superiorly consisted of periosteum of the occiput, whereas inferiorly it formed part of the dura at the cerebrospinal junction, terminating at the level of the third cervical vertebra (rather than attaching to the posterior arch of the atlas). It is believed that this anatomical arrangement permits a superiorly located anchor point for epidural bridging structures and allows dural tensile forces to act in a summated synchronized manner. The author's hypothesize that this complex area assists with outflow of cerebrospinal fluid.


Minggangia

Minggangia is an extinct genus of bird which fossils are discovered in Lizhuang Formation of Henan Province, China. This formation was dated back at the late Eocene period.
Classification.
As in traditionally thought, this genus was an ibis, but it might be a species of the family Rallidae by some recent authorities.


Coraciimorphae

Coraciimorphae is a clade of birds that contains the order Coliiformes (mousebirds) and the clade Cavitaves (a large assemblage of birds that includes woodpeckers, kingfishers and trogons). The name however was coined in the 1990s by Sibley and Ahlquist based on their DNA-DNA hybridization studies conducted in the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s. However their Coraciimorphae only contains Trogoniformes and Coraciiformes.
Taxonomy.
Cladogram of Coraciimorphae relationships based on Jarvis, E.D. "et al." (2014) with some clade names after Yuri, T. "et al." (2013).


Nevia

Nevia is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Cancellariidae, the nutmeg snails.
Species.
Species within the genus "Nevia" include:


Alessandro Minelli

Alessandro Minelli (born December 20, 1948) is an Italian biologist, formerly professor of Zoology in the Faculty of Mathematical, Physical and Natural Sciences of the University of Padova mainly working on evo-devo subjects.
Biography.
Alessandro Minelli studied Natural Sciences at the University of Padova 1966–70 with a master's degree in 1970. From 1987–2011 Minelli was a Full Professor of Zoology at the University of Padova.
Scientific contributions.
Minelli is best known for his studies in evolutionary developmental biology, or evo-devo. His main contributions are about the conceptual foundations of this discipline. In his search for an intellectual framework common to evolutionary biology and developmental biology, he has strongly argued against the widespread adultocentrism, that is, interpreting development, in a more or less distinct teleological vein, as a process targeted to the production of an adult animal or plant.
At variance with the most popular trend in evo-devo, which is based on comparative developmental genetics and has a clear focus on early stages of embryonic development, the approach defended by Minelli is strongly rooted in comparative morphology and aims to extend to postembryonic development. His approach moves from a revisitation of the traditional concepts of homology. According to Minelli, the homology relationships between two structures is necessarily limited to selected features of those structures, thus requiring the adoption a factorial, or combinatorial concept of homology.
Minelli has introduced new concepts, such as axis paramorphism (useful for understanding the evolutionary relationships between the main axis of the body and its appendages) and those of eosegment and merosegment, through which he suggests a radical revisitation of the architecture of the body of segmented animals. Minelli has also explored the implication of evo-devo for biological systematics, speciation and the evolution of life cycles.


Cherninia

Cherninia is an extinct genus of mastodonsaurid temnospondyl. The type species, "Cherninia denwai", is known from the Denwa Formation of India. It is based on a massive skull, ISI A 54, which was originally considered a species of "Parotosuchus" in 1998 before being given its own genus in 2001.
Another species, "Cherninia megarhina", is known from the Upper Ntawere Formation of Zambia. "C. megarhina" is based on another large skull, BP/1/4223, which had also been previously referred to "Parotosuchus". Though not as well-preserved as the skull of "C. denwai", BP/1/4233 was described earlier in 1974. It was described by Sharon Chernin, a paleontologist at the Bernard Price Institute and the namesake of the genus.


Zoila

Zoila is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the family Cypraeidae, the cowries.
Species.
Species within the genus "Zoila" include:


Medial palpebral arteries

The medial palpebral arteries (internal palpebral arteries) are arteries of the head. They are two in number, superior and inferior, that arise from the ophthalmic artery near its terminal branches. The arteries branch from the ophthalmic artery in the superomedial orbit near the trochlea of the superior oblique muscle.
Course.
They leave the orbit to encircle the eyelids near their free margins, forming a superior and an inferior arch, which lie between the orbicularis oculi and the tarsi.
The "superior palpebral" arch anastomoses, at the lateral angle of the orbit, with the zygomaticoörbital branch of the temporal artery and with the upper of the two lateral palpebral branches from the lacrimal artery.
The "inferior palpebral" arch anastomoses, at the lateral angle of the orbit, with the lower of the two lateral palpebral branches from the lacrimal and with the transverse facial artery, and, at the medial part of the lid, with a branch from the angular artery.
From this last anastomoses a branch passes to the nasolacrimal duct, ramifying in its mucous membrane, as far as the inferior meatus of the nasal cavity.


Carbasea

Carbasea is a genus of bryozoans in the family Flustridae.
References.
October 1938, pages 389–399,


Stygarctidae

The Stygarctidae are a family of tardigrades. The family was first described by Schulz in 1951. The genus "Neoarctus" was first placed in the family Stygarctidae, but it was moved to a separate family, Neoarctidae, in 1998.
Subfamilies and genera.
They are divided into the following subfamilies and genera: