Alghero

Alghero (), also known in the local Algherese dialect as L'Alguer (; ; ), is a town of about 45,000 inhabitants in the Italian insular province of Sassari in northwestern Sardinia, next to the Mediterranean Sea. Part of its population descends from Catalan conquerors from the end of the Middle Ages, when Sardinia was part of the Crown of Aragon. Hence, the Catalan language is co-official (a unique situation in Italy) and known as the Alguerès dialect. The name Alghero comes from "Aleguerium", which is a mediaeval Latin word meaning "stagnation of algae" ("Posidonia oceanica").
Alghero is the third university center in the island, coming after Cagliari and Sassari. It hosts the headquarters of the Università degli Studi di Sassari’s Architecture and Design department. In 2012 it was the 10th most visited city by tourists in Italy.
History.
The area of today's Alghero has been settled since pre-historic times. The Ozieri culture was present here in the 4th millennium BC (Necropolis of Anghelu Ruju), while the Nuraghe civilization settled in the area around 1,500 BC.
The Phoenicians arrived by the 8th century BC and the metalworking town of Sant'Imbenia – in the area of later Alghero –, with a mixed Phoenician and Nuragic population, engaged in trade with the Etruscans on the Italian mainland.
Due to its strategic position on the Mediterranean Sea, Alghero had been developed into a fortified port town by 1102, built by the Genoese Doria family. The Dorias ruled Alghero for centuries, apart from a brief period under the rule of Pisa between 1283 and 1284. Alghero's population later grew because of the arrival of Catalan colonists. In the early 16th century Alghero received papal recognition as a bishopric and the status of King's City ("ciutat de l'Alguer") and developed economically.
Historically, the city was founded in the early twelfth century between 1102 and 1112, when the noble Doria family of Genoa was allowed to build the first historical nucleus into an empty section of the coast of the parish of Nulauro in Judicature of Torres (Sassari). For two centuries it remained in the orbit of the Maritime Republics, first and foremost the Genoese, apart from 1283–1284 when the Pisans were able to control it for a year. It is plausible that at this time the town shared, given its commercial and multi-ethnic nature, a language similar to the nascent Sassarese.
The village was conquered by force by the Crown of Aragon, at the behest of King Pere IV of Aragon (r. 1336–1387), who later actively promoted colonisation of the town and the surrounding area, sending numerous families from different counties and provinces of the then Crown of Aragon, including Valencia, Majorca, Catalonia and Aragon. These were granted enticing privileges, and in fact, replaced the original population some of whom were sent to the Iberian Peninsula and Majorca as slaves. The dialects these families spoke in Alghero, were all very similar and derived from the same linguistic family. Over time it settled on its current form of Catalan, despite the subsequent decline of the Crown of Aragon.
The Aragonese were followed by the Spanish Habsburgs, who ruled until 1702 and continued expanding the town.
In 1720 Alghero, along with the rest of Sardinia, was handed over to the Piedmont-based House of Savoy, upon the arrival of which a policy of Italianization was commenced. In 1821, a famine led to a revolt by the population, which was bloodily suppressed. At the end of the same century, Alghero was de-militarised.
During the Fascist era, part of the surrounding marshes were reclaimed and the suburbs of Fertilia and S.M. La Palma were founded. During World War II (1943), Alghero was bombed, and its historical centre suffered heavy damage. The presence of malaria in the countryside was finally overcome in the 1950s.
Since then, Alghero has become a popular tourist resort.
Geography.
Location.
Alghero is located on the northwestern coast of Sardinia, along the bay named after the city. In the north of the urban area, there is the Nurra plain; to the northwest, the karstic systems of Capo Caccia, Punta Giglio and Monte Doglia. The south is built mainly by mountains and the plateaus of Villanova Monteleone and Bosa.
Climate.
The climate at Alghero is mild due to the presence of the sea, which attenuates the temperatures especially during the summer. Summers are warm like in most parts of the Mediterranean. Winters are also tempered, with the thermometers showing negative Celsius temperatures just a few days per year.
Language and culture.

A dialect of Catalan is spoken in Alghero, introduced when Catalans settled in the town. Catalan was replaced as the official language of the Island by Spanish in the 17th century, then by Italian. The most recent linguistic research showed that 24.1% of the people have Algherese Catalan as a mother tongue, which is habitually spoken by 18.5% and taught to the children by 8% of the population, whereas 88.2% have some understanding of the language. Since 1997, Catalan has had official recognition and national and regional laws grant its right to be used in the city. Currently, there has been a revival of the arts in Algherese Catalan, with singers such as Franca Masu performing original compositions in the language.
Following a rural exodus from the surrounding villages towards the city, much of the population speaks or has some proficiency in Sardinian, in addition to Italian and Catalan. Historically, the spread of Catalan was limited to the city and part of the coast, as the surrounding countryside has always been populated by Sardinian-speaking people.
Moreover, the ancient part of Alghero shows many characteristics of Catalan medieval architecture. The ‘algueresos’ (Alghero inhabitants) usually refer to their city as ‘Barceloneta’ – 'little Barcelona' – because of their ancestry and fraternity with the Catalan capital. The cuisine is a blending of Catalan cuisine and Sardinian cuisine.
Main sights.
The many historical dominances that occurred in Alghero have created a rich variety of monuments, buildings and sights. Back from the Neolithic period from which many settlements remain, up to nowadays, in the last decades Alghero has become a touristic main point not only because of its coast and natural beauties but also because of a fairly well-preserved patrimony.
Archeological sites.
Several archeological sites out of the urban area: the Anghelu Ruju necropolis, the Santu Pedru hill, the Villa Romana of Santa Imbenia or even the Purissima. Many nuraghi in some other points as Palmavera are also well preserved and open to visitors.
Ramparts.
The first ramparts system looks back to the 13th century and was imported from the Genovese system. In 1354 the city was occupied by Catalans, who restored and expanded the defensive system, back then in bad condition. Some features from the old walls were respected, but Ferdinand the Catholic, who wanted to grant more protection to the city, built the majority of them in the 16th Century. Along the walls, 7 towers and 3 forts are found.
Others.
The coral of Alghero is known as among the finest in the Mediterranean and the world for the particular reputation of quantity, quality, compression and the ruby red color, much to remember one of the most important economic aspects of the territory, also called the Riviera del Corallo, and have in his coat of arms a branch of the precious red coral on a foundation of rock.
Territory.
Another of Alghero features is its landscape. It has several beaches, bays and natural parks on the shoreline. Capo Caccia promontory and its lighthouse are landmarks.
Transport and infrastructures.
Alghero is well-connected. Roads lead to Sassari, the province's capital. The main port for passengers is 30 kilometers away and Alghero – Fertilia airport has national and international flights.
Trains.
Alghero has a train station in the Pietraia neighborhood, Sant’Agostino, with daily trains to Sassari.
Port.
 There is a pleasure and fishing port in the heart of the city. Passenger traffic is handled by Porto Torres, some 30 kilometers north. There are ferry services from there to Genoa, Barcelona and Civitavecchia.
Airport.
The Alghero-Fertilia "Riviera del Corallo" Airport is 10 kilometers from the centre near Fertilia. It's the principal connection with the rest of Italy and Europe. There is an hourly bus service to Fertilia and the centre of Alghero.
Books.
In the 1930s the Swedish writer Amelie Posse Brazdova wrote a book entitled "Sardinia Side Show", where she told the complete story of two years she spent "interned" in Alghero old town during World War I.


Slavinia

Slavinia () is a historical region around the Oder River delta and the Szczecin Lagoon in Pomerania. It is part of present-day Germany and Poland, specifically Western Pomerania and Farther Pomerania, stretching from the Peene River in the west to the Parsęta in the east.
History.
From about 1156, the Griffin duke Bogusław I, elder son of the first Pomeranian sovereign Wartislaw I, ruled in Pomerania around Szczecin. He fought against the Saxon duke Henry the Lion in the 1164 Battle of Verchen, was defeated, and became Henry's liensman. When in 1180 Henry was deposed by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, Bogusław appeared at the emperor's camp near Lübeck and was enfeoffed with "Slavinia". The exact borders of the territory are unknown, as is its status as an Imperial estate. Four years later, Bogusław had to submit to King Canute VI of Denmark.
The term Duchy of Slavinia was sometimes used to denote the Griffin Duchy of Pomerania, located at the mouth of the Oder and ruled by the descendants of Duke Wartislaw I from the early 12th century, from the Pomerelian lands in the east under the rule of the Samborides initially as Polish vassals and also called "Duchy of Pomerania" at that time.
The Griffin dukes remained under Danish overlordship until the 1227 Battle of Bornhöved. Under the rule of Bogusław's grandson Barnim I and his descendants during the Late Middle Ages, the Duchy of Pomerania was gradually Germanized culturally and linguistically, due to the immigration of German settlers in the course of the "Ostsiedlung".


Subdivisions of Rwanda

Rwanda is divided into five provinces () and subdivided into thirty districts ().
Provinces.
Rwanda's provinces are:
Prior to 1 January 2006, Rwanda was composed of twelve provinces (known as prefectures up to 2001), but these were abolished in full and redrawn as part of a program of decentralization and reorganization.


Subdivisions of Cameroon

The constitution divides Cameroon into 10 semi-autonomous regions, each under the administration of an elected Regional Council. A presidential decree of 12 November 2008 officially instigated the change from provinces to regions. Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor. These leaders are charged with implementing the will of the president, reporting on the general mood and conditions of the regions, administering the civil service, keeping the peace, and overseeing the heads of the smaller administrative units. Governors have broad powers: they may order propaganda in their area and call in the army, gendarmes, and police. All local government officials are employees of the central government's Ministry of Territorial Administration, from which local governments also get most of their budgets.
The regions are subdivided into 58 divisions (French ). These are headed by presidentially appointed divisional officers (), who perform the governors' duties on a smaller scale. The divisions are further sub-divided into sub-divisions (), headed by assistant divisional officers (). The districts, administered by district heads (), are the smallest administrative units. These are found in large sub-divisions and in regions that are difficult to reach.
The three northernmost regions are the Far North (), North (), and Adamawa (). Directly south of them are the Centre () and East (). The South Province () lies on the Gulf of Guinea and the southern border. Cameroon's western region is split into four smaller regions: The Littoral () and Southwest () regions are on the coast, and the Northwest () and West () regions are in the western grassfields. The Northwest and Southwest were once part of British Cameroons; the other regions were in French Cameroun.


Antwerp Province

Antwerp Province ( ) is the northernmost province both of the Flemish Region, also called Flanders, and of Belgium. It borders on the North Brabant province of the Netherlands to the north and the Belgian provinces of Limburg, Flemish Brabant and East Flanders. Its capital is Antwerp, which includes the Port of Antwerp, the second-largest seaport in Europe. It has an area of , and with over 1.85 million inhabitants as of January 2019, is the country's most populous province. The province consists of three arrondissements: Antwerp, Mechelen and Turnhout. The eastern part of the province comprises the main part of the Campine region.
History.
During the early Middle Ages the region was part of the Frankish Empire, which was divided into several "pagi". The territory of the present-day province belonged to several "pagi" of which the region around what would become the city of Antwerp belonged to the Pagus Renesium. The Pagus Toxandria stretched from North Brabant into the Campine region. To the south there was the Pagus Bracbatinse and the Pagus Hasbaniensis. In 843 the Carolingian Empire of Charlemagne was divided among his sons and the river Scheldt became the border between West Francia and East Francia. In 974 Otto II established the Margraviate of Antwerp as a defence against the County of Flanders.
In 1106, Henry V granted the Margraviate to Godfrey I of Leuven. His descendants would from 1235 onwards become the Dukes of Brabant and the region itself was the northern part of the Duchy of Brabant. In 1430 the Duchy became part of the Duchy of Burgundy until 1477 when it fell to the House of Habsburg. In 1713, at the end of the Spanish Succession War the region became part of the Austrian Netherlands until 1794, with in 1790 the short lived United States of Belgium. On 1 October 1795 the former Austrian Netherlands were annexed by France under the French Directory.
The modern province was created as the "Department of the two Netes" during the First French Empire (when the Southern Netherlands were part of France). After the defeat of Napoleon, the territory became part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands as the province of Central Brabant, distinguishing it from North Brabant and South Brabant. In 1830, after Belgium's independence the province was renamed Antwerp (after its major city and capital).
Prefects from 1800 until 1814.
Prefects of the Department of the two Netes during the First French Empire
Governors from 1815 until 1830.
Governors of the province of Antwerp during the United Kingdom of the Netherlands
Governors since 1830.
Governors of the Belgian province of Antwerp
Language.
As in all Flemish provinces, the official and standard language of the Antwerp province is Dutch. As with Flemish Brabant, North Brabant and Brussels, the local dialect is a Brabantian variety.
Religion.
According to the "International Social Survey Programme 2008: Religion III" by the Association of Religion Data Archives, 73.3% of Antwerp's population identify themselves as Catholics, 24.1% as non-religious, 2.6% identify themselves as of other religions.
Government.
The province of Antwerp has a provincial council, elected every six years, and an executive deputation headed by a governor. The current governor is Cathy Berx, appointed in 2008 by the Flemish Government.
The last elections were held on 14 October 2018. The following parties were elected to the 36-member council:
Traffic infrastructure.
The province has a network of roads, railroads, canals and rivers which provide a modern infrastructure. Historically, the traffic infrastructure was an important element of connecting the Port of Antwerp with the Ruhr Area in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Both the Iron Rhine railroad and the E313 ("King Baudouin highway") and E34 highway connect Antwerp with the Ruhr Area.
Of the International E-road network, the E313, E19, and E34 run through parts of the province. The Kennedy Tunnel and the Liefkenshoek Tunnel connect the highway network of the province with East Flanders and Ghent. In addition a new Oosterweelconnection is under consideration.
The railroads connect the major cities of the province, such as Antwerp, Mechelen, Herentals, Turnhout and Mol. The Iron Rhine connects Antwerp with Mönchengladbach in Germany. The new High Speed Train connects Antwerpen-Centraal railway station with Brussels (HSL 4) and Amsterdam (HSL-Zuid) at high speed. Antwerp International Airport, located in Deurne, is a regional airport.
The river Schelde, an important waterway, connects the Port of Antwerp with the North Sea. The Albert Canal connects the Scheldt in Antwerp with the Meuse and Liège. Other canals are the Canal Dessel – Kwaadmechelen, Schoten – Turnhout – Dessel, and Herentals – Bocholt which flows into the Nete canal.
Tourism.
The province contains several historical cities, such as Antwerp, Mechelen, Turnhout, Herentals and Lier. The Campine region is becoming a popular destination for tourists searching for a quiet and relaxed weekend. Old farms were transformed into bed and breakfast-hotels, the restaurant and café business is very active and an ingenious network for bicycle tours has come to life in recent years. Here and there are still areas of large heathland - and forests, such as the Kalmthoutse Heide (E: Kalmthout heathland) in Kalmthout, the moors around Turnhout, the "Liereman" (Oud-Turnhout) and the "Prinsenpark" in Retie. In a number of villages one can still see the typical Campine "langgevelboerderijen" (E: "long facade farms").
Education and research.
The province is home to several educational institutions and the University of Antwerp. Several research institutions are located in the province, such as the SCK•CEN, the European Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (IRMM) and the Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO).
International schools in Antwerp include Antwerp International School and Lycée Français International d'Anvers.
Economy.
The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the province was 88 billion € in 2018. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 41,900 € or 139% of the EU27 average in the same year.
The Port of Antwerp is the economic heart of the province. Until the agricultural crisis of 1880, the eastern part of the province was a largely agricultural region. The industrial development of the eastern part of the province, part of the Campine region, started at the end of the 19th century when industry established itself in the region. The availability of cheap labor, new roads, canals, tramways and railroads such as the Iron Rhine, stimulated the settlement of new industry. A brickmaking industry was established alongside the canals, paper and printing business in Turnhout, as were non-ferrous metallurgy in Balen-Nete, dynamite factories in Arendonk and Balen, tobacco and cigar factories in Arendonk, and the first shoe factory in Herentals. During the 1920s, the industrial expansion of the region continued with the radium and copper factories in Olen, the glass factory in Mol-Gompel and the diamond industry in Grobbendonk and Nijlen.
In the 20th century the first nuclear installation in Belgium was established at the SCK•CEN in Mol in 1962. The European Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (IRMM), one of the EU Joint Research Centres, was founded in Geel in 1957 as a result of the Treaty of Rome. Innotek is a technology centre located in Geel and is part of the European Business and Innovation Centre Network (EBN). Industry in the Campine region of the province is mainly located alongside the E313, the E34 and the Albert Canal.
Unemployment.
The unemployment rate stood at 5.9% in 2017 and was lower than the national average.
Chemical industry.
After World War II the Port of Antwerp was expanded, and on its premises several chemical factories and oil refineries were established, including facilities of Bayer, BASF, and Monsanto. The chemical and petrochemical industry is widely represented in the port region and comprises the world's second-largest cluster petrochemical industry cluster, after that of Houston (United States). Amoco Chemical Belgium N.V., now part of BP, was founded in Geel in 1967.
A pharmaceutical industry was founded in Beerse in the 1960s, with Janssen Pharmaceutica and more recently with Genzyme in Geel. Soudal (silicon) in Turnhout and Ravago (plastics) in Arendonk became leading companies in their markets.
Diamond.
The diamond industry and trade is traditionally located in Antwerp. At the end of the 19th century Hendrik Cassiers founded a diamond-cutting company outside Antwerp, in Grobbendonk. Hendrik Cassiers and Frans Dela Montagne laid the foundations of the diamond industry in the Campine region. The industry would settle in Nijlen, Herenthout, Bevel, Kessel, Vorselaar and Berlaar.
Paper.
The region around Turnhout became famous for its printing business, with companies such as Brepols, which roots date back to 1796 when Pieter Corbeels established his printing business in Turnhout. In 1833, Van Genechten N.V., Splichal N.V. in 1856, Mesmaekers Freres in 1859, Meses-Goris in 1872, L. Biermans in 1875, Poupaert in 1881, La Belgica N.V. in 1907, H. Proost & Co in 1913, J. Van Mierlo-Proost in 1918, Lityca in 1932 and Veloutex in 1951. More recently in 1970, Cartamundi was established, a world leader in playing cards.
Metallurgies.
While Wallonia was famous for its steel industry, the Campine region became renowned for its non-ferrous metallurgies. The Campine region was scarcely populated in the 19th century, but with the establishment of canals, the Iron Rhine and cheap labor, several metallurgies were established in the region. In 1888-1889 the metallurgy La Vieille Montagne was founded in Balen-Nete, close to the Iron Rhine and the canal to Beverlo. The company had its roots in the exploitation of the zinc mines of Moresnet.
The Union Minière du Haut Katanga founded the Société Générale Métallurgique de Hoboken in Olen, which was established along the Iron Rhine and the Albert Canal. The factory produced radium, cobalt and copper from the mines of the Union Minière in Katanga, Belgian Congo and Rhodesia. Along the canal Turnhout-Schoten, the Métallurgique de la Campine was established in 1910 for the production of lead and antimony. La Metallo-Chimique was established in 1919; this specialized in the production of copper.
Glass.
In 1872, the Sablières et Carrières Réunies (SCR), now Sibelco, was founded to extract the silica sand layers in Mol for industrial applications (glass). In 1920 the glass bottle manufacturer Beles Réunios was set up in Mol-Donk.
In 1921, a group of Belgian banks, the Mutuelle Mobilière & Immobilière, the Société Générale de Belgique, the Banque de Bruxelles and the Financière de Transport, together with the American group Libbey-Owens, founded the Cie Internationale pour la fabrication mécanique de Verre in Mol Gompel. In 1931, due to the economic crisis, the company merged into Glaces et Verres (Glaver). In 1961, Glaver merged with Univerbel to form Glaverbel.
Dynamite.
Given that the Campine region was sparsely populated, several dynamite factories were established in the region. In 1875, the Societe Anonyme d'Arendonk was established which premises would later become part of Ravago. In 1881 La Forcite N.V. was established near Balen, which was later acquired in 1920 by the Poudreries Réunies de Belgique (PRB). In 1887 a factory was founded near Herentals, which was closed due to the vicinity to the city. The factories produced explosives for the mines and quarries. The factories in the province are now closed down.
Textiles.
Historically, wool processing industry was based on the wool from the sheep which were kept on the Campine heath. The centre of the textile industry in the province could be found in Turnhout. Wool processing companies such as Wolspinnerij Van Iersel, Spinnerij en Weverij Van Hoof, and De Wollendekensfabriek Van Doren were located in Mol.
Tobacco.
At the end of the 19th century Arendonk became the centre of the tobacco industry. Additional factories were founded in Turnhout, Mol, Geel and Herentals. After World War II, the ALTO cigar factory was founded by Frans Van den Bergh who would also play an important role at Janssen Pharmaceutica.
Administrative subdivisions.
The province is divided into three administrative arrondissements ("arrondissementen" in Dutch) containing 69 municipalities (numbers refer to the location of the municipalities on the map shown in this section):


Akwesasne Wolves

The Akwesasne Wolves are a Junior ice hockey team in Kawehno:ke District, Akwesasne (Cornwall Island, Ontario). They played in the Eastern Ontario Junior Hockey League until the end of the 2014-15 season.
History.
At the conclusion of the 2014-15 season the league announced it was re-organizing to be more of feeder league to the Central Canada Hockey League and renamed the league Central Canada Hockey League Tier 2. Originally the Eastern Ontario Junior Hockey league was to reduce to twelve teams, however it was only reduced to 16 teams, eliminating 6 of the current franchises, including the Wolves, Morrisburg Lions, Almonte Thunder, Gananoque Islanders, Gatineau Mustangs and Shawville Pontiacs.


Governor of North Borneo

The Governor of North Borneo was the appointed head of the government of North Borneo.
Originally the Governor was appointed by the North Borneo Chartered Company, which was responsible for the administration of the protectorate. Upon North Borneo becoming a Crown colony in 1946, in the aftermath of the Second World War, the Governor of British North Borneo became an appointee of the Crown (i.e. of the Government of the United Kingdom).


Kotlina, Baranja

Kotlina (; ) is a settlement in the region of Baranja, Croatia. Administratively, it is located in the Kneževi Vinogradi municipality within the Osijek-Baranja County. The population is 334 people.


Subdivisions of Libya

Subdivisions of Libya have varied significantly over the last two centuries. Initially Libya under Ottoman and Italian control was organized into three to four provinces, then into three governorates ("muhafazah") and after World War II into twenty-five districts ("baladiyah"). Successively into thirty-two districts ("shabiyat") with three administrative regions, and then into twenty-two districts ("shabiyat"). In 2012 the ruling General National Congress divided the country into governorates ("muhafazat") and districts ("baladiyat"). While the districts have been created, the governorates have not.
History.
Prior to the Italian invasion of 1911, the area of Libya was administered as three separate provinces ("Vilayets") of the Ottoman Empire: Tripolitania, Fezzan, and Cyrenaica.
At first, Italy continued the tripartite administration, but soon consolidated the area into a single province/gobernatorate administered as the "Libyan Colony". Indeed, until about 1931 -when the last of the native resistance to the Italians was subdued- the area was divided into three historical regions (Tripolitania, Cyrenaica and Fezzan/"Territorio Sahara").
Then, in 1937, Italian governor Italo Balbo created the political entity called "Libya". His Italian Libya was with four provinces and one territory: Tripoli, Misurata, Benghazi, Derna, (in the coastal north) and the "Territory of the Libyan Sahara" (in the Saharan south).
After the French and British occupied Libya in 1943, it was again split into three provinces: Tripolitania in the northwest, Cyrenaica in the east, and Fezzan-Ghadames in the southwest.
After independence, Libya was divided into three governorates ("muhafazat"), matching the three provinces of before, but in 1963 it was divided into ten governorates.
Provinces.
The Provinces of Libya existed during the last period of colonial Italian Libya through post-independence Libya. The country was divided into provinces from 1934 in the colonial era to 1963 when the Governorates system was instituted.
Governorates.
The Governorates of Libya (muhafazah) were an administrative division of Libya from 1963 until 1983. Initially there were 46 governorates-districts, called baladiyah, that were reduced to 25 in 1987.
Baladiyat.
In 1983, a new system was introduced dividing the country into forty-six districts ("baladiyat" also sometimes translated as municipalities). In 1987 this number was reduced to twenty-five.
Districts.
On 2 August 1995, Libya reorganized into thirteen districts ("sha`biyat" - singular "sha`biyah", also translated as municipalities or popularates). In 1998 this was increased to twenty-six districts (sha`biyat). In 2001 it was increased to thirty-two districts plus three administrative regions. Finally in 2007 the number was reduced to twenty-two districts.
Basic People's Congresses.
Under Gaddafi Libyan districts were further subdivided into Basic People's Congresses (Mu'tamar shaʿbi asāsi ). Geographically they corresponded approximately to the level of a township or borough. In desert areas they often had an extensive land area with very low population, and were generally centered on, and named for, an oasis.


Punjabi culture

The culture of Punjab encompasses the spoken language, written literature, cuisine, science, technology, military warfare, architecture, traditions,sacrifices, values and history of the Punjabi people native to the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term 'Punjabi' can mean both a person who lives in Punjab and also a speaker of the Punjabi language. This name originates from the Persian language 'panj', (five), and 'ab', (water). In Rigvedic times, this area was called Sapta Sindhu or 'Seven Rivers' illustrating the extent of Undivided Punjab. Indus River (the largest river in this five river system), and the five other rivers to the south eventually join Indus or merge into it later in the downstream of the Punjab valley. All the rivers start and flow out of the Himalayas. These other five rivers are Jhelum River, Chenab River, Ravi River, Beas River and Sutlej River.
History.
Middle Ages.
The culture of Punjab in the Middle Ages was extremely diverse dependent upon an individual's caste, community, religion and village . An array of cultures can be found historically .The main cultures that arose in the Punjab during the Medieval Age at the beginning of this era was of strong Indo-Aryan dominance.
Modern era.
Due to the large number of Punjabi people distributed throughout the world, especially Pakistan and India, many people are increasingly experiencing the culture and becoming influenced by it. Glimpses of traditional Punjabi culture can be seen in the Western world (e.g. the U.S., the UK, the EU, Canada, Australia, Africa and the Middle East). Naturally people influence each other wherever they settle and live. Punjabi culture is evident from Punjabi philosophy, poetry, spirituality, education, artistry, music, cuisine, and architecture.
Similar migrations by or invasions into the Punjab, in the past many centuries, were by the Aryans, Dravidians, Scythians, Portuguese, Spaniards, Armenians, Greeks or Alexander the Great which reached as far as the Beas River in the Punjab , Mongols Arabs, Persians, Afghans, Turko-Persians (Mughals) and then the Europeans (British) came to Punjab for various economic reasons of their own and its fertile agricultural lands and abundance of water resources in its five large rivers flowing down from the Himalayas through the Punjab valley. These immigrants influenced the people of Punjab and, in turn, were influenced by the then prevailing culture of the Punjab.
Art.
Sobha Singh and Amrita Sher-Gil are famous punjabi painting artists.
Music.
Bhangra is one of the many Punjabi musical art forms that is increasingly listened to in the west and is becoming a mainstream favourite. Punjabi music is used by western musicians in many ways, such as mixing it with other compositions to produce award-winning music. In addition, Punjabi classical music is increasingly becoming popular in the west.
Devotional songs are played by dhaddi jatha groups, with instruments like sarangi and dhadd drums.
Dance.
Owing to the long history of the Punjabi culture and of the Punjabi people there are many dances, normally performed at times of celebration, including harvests, festivals and weddings. The particular background of the dances can be non-religious and religious. The overall style can range from the high energy "bhangra" men's dance to the more reserved "jhumar," the "gidha" women's dance and "Malwayi Gidha" is a form of dance can be performed by both men and women together.
Weddings.
Punjabi wedding traditions and ceremonies are traditionally conducted in Punjabi and are a strong reflection of Punjabi culture. While the actual religious marriage ceremony among Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists and Christians may be conducted in Arabic, Urdu, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Hindi or Pali by the Qazi, Pundit, Granthi or Priest, there are commonalities in ritual, song, dance, food, and dress. The Punjabi wedding has many rituals and ceremonies that have evolved since traditional times.
Crafts.
The city of Amritsar in the Punjab state of India is home to the craft of brass and copper metalwork done by the Thatheras of Jandiala Guru, which is enlisted on the UNESCO's List of Intangible Cultural Heritage. Years of neglect had caused this craft to die out, and the listing prompted the Government of Punjab to undertake a craft revival effort under Project Virasat.
Language and literature.
The Punjabi language is written with the Gurmukhi alphabet in India and with the Shahmukhi alphabet in Pakistan. Approximately 130 million people speak the Punjabi language.
In Punjabi literature has three major Punjabi romantic epic poems based on folktales: "Heer Ranjha" by the poet Waris Shah (1722-1798), "Sohni Mahiwal" and "Mirza Sahiban" (sung by late Alam Lohar). By the 10th century, many Hindu Nath poets were associated with earlier Punjabi works. among the major Punjabi poets are Baba Fariduddin Ganjshakar (1179-1266), Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539) and Bulleh Shah (1680-1757).
Dress.
The traditional dress for Punjabi men is the kurta and tehmat, which is being replaced by the kurta and pajama, especially the popular muktsari style in India. The traditional dress for women is the salwar suit which replaced the traditional Punjabi ghagra. The patiala salwar is also very popular.
Festivals.
Punjabis celebrate cultural, seasonal and religious festivals, which include Maghi, Mela Chiraghan in Lahore, Lohri, Holi, Eid ul Adha, Eid ul Fitr, Baisakhi, Teeyan, Diwali, Dussehra, and Guru Nanak Jayant.


Administrative divisions of Somalia

Somalia is officially divided into thirteen administrative regions ("gobollo", singular "gobol") and five claimed but uncontrolled regions in Somaliland. These are in turn subdivided into seventy-two districts (plural "degmooyin"; singular "degmo") and eighteen claimed but uncontrolled districts in Somaliland.
On a "de facto" basis, northern Somalia is now divided up among the autonomous region of Puntland (which considers itself an autonomous state) and Somaliland (a self-declared but unrecognized sovereign state). In central Somalia, Galmudug is another regional entity that emerged south of Puntland. For these civil war divisions, see "States and regions of Somalia".
Historical divisions.
Pre-independence.
In 1931, Italian Somaliland consisted of seven commissariats.
Following the 1935–36 Second Italo-Abyssinian War, Italian Somaliland became part of Italian East Africa with Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and Eritrea. Italian Somaliland was one of six governorates of the new colony, the Somalia Governorate, and incorporated Somali-inhabited parts of the former Abyssinia. The governorate was subdivided into 10 commissariats, which were themselves divided into residencies.
Following World War II, the Italian-administered Trust Territory of Somalia consisted of six Regions.
The British Somaliland protectorate also consisted of two Regions.
Somalia.
Upon independence in 1960, the Somali Republic maintained the 12 districts of the former Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland that merged to form the new country. In 1964, a new Northeastern (Burao) Province was established by merging Burao, Erigavo, and Las Anod and a Northwestern (Hargeisa) Province was formed from Berbera, Borama, and Hargeisa districts. In 1968, the capital of Basso Giuba was moved from Kismayo to Jamame. The 8 provinces at this time were:
In 1982, Somalia reorganized from eight provinces into 16 regions. In June 1984, Awdal was split from Woqooyi Galbeed and Sool was split from Nugaal to form the current 18 regions.


Subdivisions of Eritrea

Eritrea is divided into six regions ("zobas") and subdivided into subregions ("sub-zobas"). The geographical extent of the regions is based on their respective hydrological properties. This a dual intent on the part of the Eritrean government: to provide each administration with sufficient control over its agricultural capacity, and to eliminate historical intra-regional conflicts.
The regions, followed by the subregions, are:


Island of Vukovar

The Island of Vukovar (, or ) is a disputed island on the river Danube. It is situated close to the city of Vukovar, Croatia.
During the existence of SFR Yugoslavia the island was part of SR Croatia. In 1991 Croatia declared independence. It was the opinion of the Badinter Arbitration Committee that the borders between the republics should become the borders between the countries, but it was under Serbian control like other parts of Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Srem (east Croatia) at the time. In the Croatian War of Independence, the Yugoslav People's Army and Serbian paramilitary forces occupied the island. After the Erdut Agreement in 1998, Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Srem were rejoined with Croatia, but the island of Vukovar was left under Serbian military occupation, as was the Šarengrad island.
In 2004 Serbia largely withdrew its army from the island, but the police completely took over border control in 2006.
In 2006, the island's beaches were opened to the public for the first time since the war. The island is maintained by Vukovar's "Sports Recreation Society Dunav". Croatian citizens, for the first time in 16 years, were allowed on the island without passports or border permits. This border regime applies during summer months (until 15 September) between 7 am and 8 pm.
One part of the peace agreements has been the short-term deal that Croatia will control the western part and Serbia eastern part of the Danube. The official Serbian position is that the Badinter Arbitration Committee opinion is invalid and that this short-term deal between Croatia and Serbia is to be the future border between the states thus Vukovar island is part of Serbia as it is closer to the Serbian shoreline.
In a statement to the Croatian daily newspaper "Novi list" in February 2012, Croatia's then-President, Ivo Josipović, said both countries needed a flexible solution for the border disputes on the Danube river which would be a combination of solutions proposed by both countries. The Croatian president said that whatever the adopted solution, it would be good if the Island of Vukovar eventually remained on the Croatian side of border.


Kataja

Kataja, the easternmost point of Sweden, is an islet south of Haparanda in Norrbotten.
It is part of the Haparanda archipelago. The islet has an area of . It is about long and wide.
The name "Kataja" is Finnish for juniper.
The island is divided between Sweden and Finland. The border was established in 1809 between two islands, a larger Swedish one called Kataja and a smaller Finnish one called Inakari. In the years since then post-glacial rebound has caused the land in the region to rise relative to sea level, joining the two islands.
The border now crosses the southeastern part of the combined island, and is marked by two national cairns.
Kataja's beaches are mostly boulders with some sand. The eastern peninsula is covered in deciduous trees such as rowan, alder and willow, while the remainder is covered by coniferous trees.
References.
Citations
Sources


Kongo Central

Kongo Central (Kongo: ), formerly Bas-Congo is one of the 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its capital is Matadi.
History.
At the time of independence, the area now encompassing Kongo Central was part of the greater province of Léopoldville, along with the capital city of Kinshasa and the districts of Kwango, Kwilu and Mai-Ndombe. Under Belgian colonial rule, the province was known as Bas-Congo (as in "Lower Congo River") and was renamed Kongo Central after independence.
Under the regime of Mobutu Sese Seko from 1965 to 1997, the Congo river was renamed as "Zaire". The province was named as Bas-Zaïre. The name was later reverted to Bas-Congo. It was subsequently renamed as Kongo Central in 2015.
Geography.
Kongo Central is the only province in the country with an ocean coastline; it has narrow frontage on the Atlantic Ocean. It borders the provinces of Kinshasa to the north-east, Kwango to the east, and the Republic of Angola to the south as well as the Republic of the Congo and Cabinda to the north.
Divisions.
The provincial capital is Matadi.
The only other official city is Boma.
The remainder of the province is divided into the districts of Bas-Fleuve, Cataractes and Lukaya.
Towns with their 2010 populations are:
Notable residents.
Writer Zamenga Batukezanga was born in Kongo Central.


Kalimantan

Kalimantan is the Indonesian portion of the island of Borneo. It comprises 73% of the island's area. The non-Indonesian parts of Borneo are Brunei and East Malaysia. In Indonesia, "Kalimantan" refers to the whole island of Borneo. In 2019, the Indonesian President Joko Widodo proposed that Indonesia's capital be moved to Kalimantan.
Etymology.
The name "Kalimantan", was derived from the Sanskrit word "Kalamanthana", which means "burning weather island", or island with a very hot temperature, to describe its hot and humid tropical climate. It consists of the two words "kal[a]" ("time, season, period") and "manthan[a]" ("boiling, churning, burning"). The indigenous people of the eastern region of Borneo referred to their island by the term "Pulu K'lemantan" or "Kalimantan" by the time the Portuguese explorer Jorge de Menezes made contact with them. Its association with the island and its peoples has also been attributed to British scientist and colonial administrator Charles Hose from the early 20th century. However, the use of this term to refer to a supposed Klemantan people has since been discontinued, as it has been deemed to be an invented term of convenience that does not properly represent the people it claims to describe.
Area.
The Indonesian territory makes up 73% of the island by area, and 69.5% (13,772,543 at the 2010 Census of Indonesia, and 16,379,977 according to the mid-2019 official estimates) by population. The non-Indonesian parts of Borneo are of Brunei (400,000) and East Malaysia (5,625,000), the latter comprising the states of Sabah, Sarawak and the federal territory of Labuan. The region within Indonesia is also known as Indonesian Borneo.
Kalimantan's total area is .
Administration.
Kalimantan is now divided into five provinces. It was administered as one province between 1945 and 1956, but in 1957 the province of Central Kalimantan was created by being split away from the existing South Kalimantan. There were four provinces until 25 October 2012, when North Kalimantan was split off from East Kalimantan.
Demographics.
Ethnic groups.
Number of the largest population of ethnic groups according to the 2010 census:
Religion.
Number of the largest population of religious groups according to the 2010 census:


Operation Golden Flow

Operation Golden Flow is an unofficial term that was coined during the Nixon era for the mandatory drug testing of all military service members returning from Vietnam, a program that was headed by Dr. Jerome Jaffe, head of the White House drug office.
In June 1971, the U.S. military announced that they would begin urinalysis of all returning servicemen. The program went into effect in September with favorable results that only 4.5% of the soldiers tested positive for heroin.
American soldiers in Vietnam were not permitted to board a plane home until they passed a urine drug test. If they failed, the soldiers would be forced to stay in Vietnam, undergo detoxification, and try again.
The term had evolved to mean random urinalysis testing and also nicknamed "Lemonade Party".


Awantipora railway station

Awantipora railway station is situated in notified area of Awantipora in the Pulwama district. It is the headquarters of Pulwama division of Northern railway zone. It is one of the four stations in Pulwama district, the others being Pampore railway station, Kakapora railway station and Panchgam railway station respectively.
History.
The station has been built as part of the Jammu–Baramulla line megaproject, intending to link the Kashmir Valley with Jammu Tawi and the rest of the Indian railway network.
Design.
Like every other station in this mega project, this station also features Kashmiri wood architecture, with an intended ambience of a royal court which is designed to complement the local surroundings to the station. Station signage is predominantly in Urdu, English and Hindi.


Pratas Island


Hispanidad

Hispanidad (, ) is a term alluding to the group of people, countries, and communities that share the Spanish language and Hispanic culture. The term can have various, different implications and meanings depending on country of origin, socio-political views, and cultural background.
Early use.
The term has been used in the early modern period and is in the by Alejo Venegas, printed in 1531, to mean "style of linguistic expression". It was used, with a similar meaning, in the 1803 edition of the "Dictionary of the Spanish Royal Academy" as a synonym of "Hispanismo" (Hispanism), which, in turn, was defined as "the peculiar speech of the Spanish language".
Revival.
In the early 20th century, the term was revived, with several new meanings. Its reintroduction is attributed to Unamuno in 1909, who used the term again on 11 March 1910, in an article, "La Argentinidad", published in a newspaper in Argentina, "La Nación". He compared the term to other similar expressions: ', ', ' and '.
Unamuno linked the concept to the multiplicity of peoples speaking the Spanish language, which encompassed in turn his idea of La Raza, gave it an egalitarian substrate and questioned the very status of motherland for Spain; he claimed the need of approaching Hispanic American republics in terms of sisterhood (opposing "primacies" and "maternities").
Further development of the concept had to wait for the 1920s, when a group of intellectuals was influenced by the ideas of ultranationalist French thinker Charles Maurras and rescued the term. As a precedent, the Spanish writer José María Salaverría, who lived in Argentina between 1910 and 1913, would have implicitly the idea of an Hispanic community, comparable to Hispanidad, but the leading status of Spain in the community is however a moot point in his work. The term was used by Spanish priest Zacarías de Vizcarra, who was living in Buenos Aires. He proposed in 1926 that the expression "Fiesta de la Raza" should be changed to "Fiesta de la Hispanidad".
During the reign of King Alfonso XIII of Spain, the Virgin of Guadaloupe was proclaimed "Queen of the Hispanidad" in Spain. In the later years of the decade, vanguard writer Ernesto Giménez Caballero began to elaborate a neo-imperialist narrative of the Hispanidad in "". The doctrine of Hispanidad would also become a core tenet of the reactionary thought in Spain in the coming years.
During the Second Spanish Republic, Spanish monarchist author Ramiro de Maeztu, who had been the ambassador to Argentina between 1928 and 1930, considered the concept of Hispanidad, motivated by the interests aroused on him by Argentine-related topics, and the meetings between him and the attendants to the courses of Catholic culture as nationalist, Catholic and anti-liberal. Maeztu explained his doctrine of Hispanidad in his work "Defensa de la Hispanidad" (1934); he thought it was a spiritual world that united Spain and its former colonies by the Spanish language and Catholicism. He attributed the concept to Vizcarra, instead of Unamuno. In the Hispanidad of Maeztu, the Christian and humanist features that would identify Hispanic peoples would replace rationalism, liberalism and democracy, which he called alien to the Hispanic "ethos". His work "relentlessly" linked Catholicism and Hispanidad and was highly influential with Argentine nationalists and the Spanish far right, including Francoism. Although declaredly antiracist because of its Catholic origin, the sense of racial egalitarianism in the Maeztu's idea of the Hispanidad was restricted to the scope of heavenly salvation.
Spanish Primate Isidro Gomá y Tomás issued in Argentina, on 12 October 1934, a Maeztu-inspired manifesto, "Apology of the Hispanidad":
According to Stephen G. H. Roberts, Gomá linked the ideas of Maeztu and the ideology that was developed by the dictatorship of Franco.
According to the philosopher and writer Julián Marías, the Spanish American territories were not only colonies but also extensions of Spain that mixed with the native American peoples, with whom Europeans intermarried, creating a multicultural society.
Francoist Spain.
That narrative was heavily featured in Nationalist propaganda during the Spanish Civil War, being used as war tool. Spanish philosopher and Francoist propagandist would make Francisco Franco the saviour of the legacy of the Hispanidad from an "invisible army" that was sent by the Communist International of Moscow. García Morente would synthetize the essence of Hispanidad in the archaistic ideal of "Christian knight", half-monk and half-soldier; that figure was used in the pages of student books during the beginning of the Francoist dictatorship.
After the Spanish Civil War, the Our Lady of the Pillar became a symbol of Hispanidad in Spain and was linked to the National Catholicism of the Franco´s regime to the ideas of patriotism and "Hispanic essences".
Franco created the Council of the Hispanidad on 2 November 1940. It was thought at first to be a sort of supranational institution, and it ended up being a council of 74 members, charged with the task of coordinating the relations with Latin America. The Hispanidad became the source of an expansive nationalism (first imperialist and then cultural). Besides its character both as national identity element and as stalwart of Catholicism, Francoism used the Hispanidad in international relations.
The Council of the Hispanidad would become the in 1946 and change from a more Falangist profile to a more Catholic one. That happened within a framework of a general change in the doctrine of the Hispanidad between 1945 and 1947, with Alberto Martín-Artajo at the helm of the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The message then became more defensive and less aggressive, with fewer mentions of "empire" and "race" (biological). Afterwards, later in the Francoist dictatorship, the regime, then less constrained by the international community, recovered more aggressive rhetorics, but it failed to reach the full extent of when Ramón Serrano Suñer was Minister of Foreign Affairs.
In 1958, the Day of the Race was renamed to Day of the Hispanidad in Spain.
Mexico.
Already in the 1930s, conservative Mexican writer had become an active propagandist of the Hispanidad. One of the key parts of the ideology of "Panista" Mexican politician , who strongly supported miscegenation, was the Hispanidad, which he conceived in terms of a united community of sovereign states that defended their own values from foreign threats like communism. Other opponents of post-revolutionary Mexico, who spread the doctrine of the Hispanidad were , , Salvador Abascal, and Salvador Borrego. The National Synarchist Union saw in the Hispanidad a key component of the vitality of the Mexican nation.
Spanish exiles.
The idea of Hispanidad was also featured with new meanings in authors of the Spanish Republic in exile, such as Fernando de los Ríos, Joaquín Xirau, Eduardo Nicol and Américo Castro. Salvador de Madariaga, also exiled, defended the Hispanidad as a positive factor towards cultural ontogeny; he believed its miscegenation was much better than the Anglo-Saxon example.
Argentina.
In Argentina, one of the few countries with good relations with Francoist Spain after the end of World War II, President Juan Domingo Perón defended the concept of Hispanidad by highlighting the Hispanic roots of Argentina. However, Peronism began to detach itself from the idea from 1950 to 1954 period to replace it with (Latinity).
Other countries.

Jail tree

A jail tree is any tree used to incarcerate a person, usually by chaining the prisoner up to the tree. Jail trees were used on the American frontier, in the Territory of Arizona, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. A few of which survive to this day. Jail trees were also used in Australia, for example Boab Prison Tree, Derby and Boab Prison Tree, Wyndham.


Beaman Oak

The Beaman Oak was the largest white oak tree in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. It stood in the front yard of a colonial era three-story house in the town of Lancaster. It was so named because Gamaliel Beaman had originally settled the spot in 1659. The oak became known as a prominent landmark in Central Massachusetts and is featured prominently on the town seal of West Boylston.
In 1970, the Beaman Oak's circumference at its base was , with a circumference above the base of , and its height was and spread was .
The oak's trunk was partially hollow towards the end of its life. After a storm severely damaged it, the tree was cut down in 1989.


Aristotelia (plant)

Aristotelia is a genus with 18 species, of tree in the family Elaeocarpaceae. It is named in honor of the Greek philosopher Aristotle.


Alniphyllum eberhardtii

Alniphyllum eberhardtii is a species of flowering plant in the family Styracaceae. It is found in southernmost China (southern Guangxi and southeast Yunnan), Thailand, and Vietnam.
It is a deciduous tree growing to 30 m tall. The leaves are alternate, simple, 10–18 cm long and 5–8 cm broad, oblong-lanceolate, with a serrated margin.


Solanum adscendens

Solanum adscendens, the sonoita nightshade, is a plant native to the Americas. It has been found in Mexico, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Corrientes in Argentina, Bahia and Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil, and Texas and Arizona in the United States. In addition, this plant has also been naturalized in parts of Africa.
"S. adscendens" is a predominantly selfing species with very small white flowers that mature into fruits that disperse their seeds by exploding.


Pterocissus

Pterocissus is a plant genus in the family Vitaceae.


Cephalaria leucantha

Cephalaria leucantha is a species of flowering plants in the family Caprifoliaceae.
Description.
"Cephalaria leucantha" grows to in height. This hardy perennial plant has a long stem with divided, fern-like leaves. It produces white or pale lemon flowers from July to November.
Distribution.
This species is present in northern Africa and in southern Europe (Albania, former Yugoslavia, Greece, Italy, France, Portugal, and Spain).


Carpobrotus quadrifidus

Carpobrotus quadrifidus (commonly known as west-coast sourfig, ) is a succulent perennial of the family Aizoaceae, native to the west coast of South Africa. <br>
It has also been classed as "Carpobrotus sauerae".
The flowers of this "Carpobrotus" ("sour-fig") species range in colour from bright pink to white, and are the largest flowers produced by any species in its Mesembryanthemaceae family. The flowers appear in spring.
Its leaves are grey in colour. They are also stout, straight and have an isosceles triangle shape to their cross-section.
Their natural habitat is the low-lying coastal strip along the west coast of South Africa, as far south as Saldanha.
Its fruits are edible and are grazed by tortoises and other southern African animals.


Betula recurvata

Betula recurvata is a species of plant in the Betulaceae family. It is endemic to Turkey.


Solanum triflorum

Solanum triflorum is a species of nightshade known by the common names cutleaf nightshade and small nightshade. It is native to Argentina, but it is known on other continents, including Europe and Australia, as an introduced species and sometimes a weed. It is present throughout much of North America, where it is possibly non-native as well. It grows in many types of habitat, including disturbed areas. It is an annual herb producing spreading, decumbent stems up one meter long. It is hairy, the hairs sometimes associated with glands. The leaves are a few centimeters long and are deeply cut into toothlike lobes. The inflorescence bears two or three flowers each just under a centimeter wide when fully open. The flower is usually white, but is occasionally purple-tinged. The fruit is a berry roughly a centimeter wide.


Acer latahense

Acer latahense is an extinct maple species in the family Sapindaceae described from series of isolated fossil leaves. The species is known from the latest early to middle Miocene sediments exposed in the states of Oregon and Washington, USA. It is one of several extinct species placed in the living section "Macrantha".
History and classification.
"Acer latahense" is represented by a group of fossil specimens from three different geologic formations. Three of the leaves were recovered from the early Miocene to late Miocene aged outcrops of the Latah Formation near Spokane in Washington state. Another leaf is from the similarly aged Mascall formation near Tipton, Oregon, while the last fossil is from the middle Miocene age Succor Creek Formation near Nyssa, Oregon. Both the Latah and Mascall Formations are composed of temporary lake beds which are interbedded with lava flows belonging to the Columbia River Basalt Group. While the very similar floral composition of the two formations has resulted in both occasionally being termed the Latah Flora, currently the Mascall and Latah are considered separate though coeval formations.
The type specimens for "Acer latahense" are located in three different repositories. The holotype leaf type specimen, a part and counterpart numbered USNM 396136A, B, and two paratype leaves are currently preserved in the paleobotanical collections housed in the National Museum of Natural History, part of the Smithsonian. One other paratype leaf is housed at the University of California Museum of Paleontology in Berkeley, California, while the last paratype leaf is part of the University of Michigan Museum of Paleontology collections in Ann Arbor, Michigan. The specimens were studied by paleobotanists Jack A. Wolfe of the United States Geological Survey, Denver office and Toshimasa Tanai of Hokkaido University. Wolfe and Tanai published their 1987 type description for "A. latahense" in the "Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University". The etymology of the chosen specific name "latahense" is in recognition of the type location for the species at the "Brickyard site" outcrop, part of the Latah Formation in Washington State.
Description.
Leaves of "Acer latahense" are simple in structure with a perfectly actinodromous vein structure in which the primary veins originate at the base of the lamina and run out towards the margin. The leaves are three-lobed with the lateral lobes being about one-third the length of the median lobe. The leaves have three or five primary veins and an estimated size range of long by wide in overall dimensions. The morphology of "A. latahense" suggests placement into the "Acer" section "Macrantha". This is based on the overall vein structure and small uniformly sized teeth and the structuring of the veins. The combination of leaf morphology characters is most similar to the living maple species "Acer rufinerve", commonly called the redvein or Honshū maple. "A. latahense" is distinguishable by the lower number of teeth, which tend to be blunter, and by the structuring of the tertiary veins structure. The extinct species "Acer palaeorufinerve" is also notably similar to "A. latahense" but has a broader medial lobe. Wolfe and Tanai suggest "A latahense" may be a descendant species of "A. palaeorufinerve".


Passiflora subpurpurea

Passiflora subpurpurea is a species of plant in the family Passifloraceae. It is endemic to Ecuador.


Eriogonum microthecum

Eriogonum microthecum is a species of wild buckwheat known by the common name slender buckwheat. It is native to the western United States where it is found in a variety of habitats, particularly in dry areas such as deserts.
Description.
This is a shrub which is quite variable in appearance. There are many varieties, some of which are isolated to small geographical distributions. It may be a low clumping plant or a sprawling shrub to one and a half meters in height and width. It has small, woolly leaves with rolled edges scattered about its branches.
The upper portion of the plant makes up its inflorescence, which often has a flat top. The tiny clustered flowers are white to yellow or sometimes pinkish.
Varieties.
Varieties include, but are not limited to:


Geminella (alga)

Geminella is a genus of green algae in the phylum Chlorophyta.


Conringia

Conringia is a genus of plants in the mustard family known commonly as hare's ear mustards. These herbs are native to Eurasia, although one species "Conringia orientalis", is known on many continents as a common weed. The genus was named for the German philosopher Hermann Conring.
Species include:


Laricoideae

The Laricoideae are a subfamily of the Pinaceae, a Pinophyta division family. They take their name from the genus "Larix" (larches), which contains inside most of the species of the group and is one of only two deciduous genera of the pines complex (together with "Pseudolarix", which however belongs to a different subfamily, the Abietoideae). Ecologically important trees, the Laricoideae form pure or mixed forest associations often dominant in the ecosystems in which they are present, thanks also to their biological adaptations to natural disturbances, to reproductive strategies put in place and high average longevity of the individuals. Currently are assigned to this subfamily three genera ("Larix", "Pseudotsuga" and "Cathaya") and its members can be found only in Northern Hemisphere. The various species live for the most part in temperate or cold climates and are the more northerly conifers; some constitute an important source of timber and non-timber forest products.
Description.
The species of the subfamily Laricoideae are evergreen or deciduous trees that can reach the greater heights in the Pinaceae family (over 100 meters with "Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii"). The leaves are needle-like and have primary stomatal bands only on the abaxial surface (below the phloem vessels). All members are monoecious, with separate sexes on the same plant but in different reproductive structures. The annual cones ("strobili") have no distinct umbo and the scales show a broad base which, at observation, completely hides the seeds from the abaxial view. These last are whitish and firmly fixed to the wing (this thin membrane also keeps the seed well attached to the scale during maturation); furthermore, among the typical distinctive features of the group, we have the micropylar fluid of the strobilus absent, no resin vesicles on the seeds and the presence, in the vascular cylinder of the young root, of two characteristic small resiniferous canals. The bark and the wood of the genera "Larix" and "Pseudotsuga" have a similar anatomy and morphology: the reddish color of the heartwood and the white-yellowish of the sapwood, the high specific weight compared to other conifers, the distribution of late and earlywood, the presence of resiniferous channels and their localization in the tissuets, the molecules that form the resin and extractives, the chemical, physical and mechanical properties as well as the class of resistance to the attack of pathogens such as fungi and insects are a clue of a common ancestral origin. Similar between the two genera are also some aspects of the phenology, the degree of shade tolerance, the fire-resistant marbled bark and the appearance of the young shoots.
Taxonomy.
The subfamily Laricoideae was described with the actual name by Robert Knud Friedrich Pilger and Hans Melchior in late 1954 and subsequently modified by other authors in the course of time as regards the taxa of belonging. Before that, the genera "Larix", "Pseudotsuga" and "Cedrus" were gathered in a provisional subfamily called Laricinae, defined for the first time by Melchior and Werdermann always in 1954 (..."“trees that have both short and long shoots, monomorphic leaves, and strobili borne on the short shoots”"...) and rechristened immediately after with the current term. The grouping in this form was confirmed by Hart (1987) through cladistic analysis, but already in 1988 Frankis replaced "Cedrus" with "Cathaya" (a genus described for the first time in 1962) in a new classification (now obsolete) that saw Larix as a distinct twin group compared to "Cathaya" - "Pseudotsuga".
Historically the Laricoideae were the subfamily of the Pinaceae comprising the trees with needles inserted both on the macroblasts and on the brachiblasts; for this reason in the past they have been also included in it the genera "Pseudolarix" (for a short time) and "Cedrus", subsequently eliminated following the most recent systematic updates developed on the basis of molecular genetic phylogeny, reproductive morphology, chromosome numbers and immunology. Currently, based on these studies, there are three genera in the subfamily Laricoideae, of which one of which is monotypic as it consists of only one species:
Within the subfamily the genera "Larix" and "Pseudotsuga" are more closely correlated to each other ("sister taxa") than "Cathaya". This evidence is demonstrated by numerous biological and macro-micro morphological similarities between the larches and the Douglas-firs including, but not only, a various tissues common anatomy, immunology of seed protein and the absence of the two air sacs in the pollen, typicals instead of the other Pinaceae. The similarities between the pollen grains of the genera "Larix" and "Pseudotsuga" however do not stop here and include other aspects as: granules not buoyant, atectate, with external wall ("exospore") granular, pollination drop containing xylose and the presence of an exine shell during microgametophyte germination.
Doyle and O'Leary (1935) furthermore described a pollination process very similar in "Larix" and "Pseudotsuga" where the granule, which lacks air sacs, lands on an almost stigmatic extension of the integument, the margins of which tend to inroll. The contact with the nucellus may ("Larix") or may not ("Pseudotsuga") be needed for pollen tubes to develop, but the mechanism is almost analogous. The time from pollination to fertilization in these two genera may be over a year and the granules germination can take months (Little et al., 2014).
Price et al. he supposed in 1977 that the Laricoideae were a subfamily sister of the Abietoideae rather than the Pinoideae - Piceoideae group and this version was confirmed by Hart (1987), Frankis (1988), Farjon (1990), Wang et al. (2000) and Gernandt et al. (2008), although it has not yet found application in the literature.
Dichotomous key.
The dichotomous key to recognizing the genera included to the subfamily Laricoideae is relatively simple, since only three of them belong to it and one of these is deciduous. Below is reported the taxonomic identification scheme in the form of a table:
Revisions and research.
According to the latest research still in progress, the genus "Cathaya" would be attributed to the grouping of pines (subfamily Pinoideae), leaving therefore only "Larix" and "Pseudotsuga" to forming the subfamily Laricoideae. Furthermore, studying the "mitochondrial rps3 gene", Ran et al. (2010) found that "Larix" and "Pseudotsuga" are evolutionarily sister genera to all other Pinaceae, highlighting a different (sub-parallel) origin compared than the remaining species. Spellenberg, Earle and Nelson (2014) report that the larches and Douglas firs evolved from the Pinaceae 135 million years ago and they kept a common ancestor until 7 million years ago, thus forming a divided and closely related taxonomic line between them compared to the rest of the group, while maintaining a strong degree of kinship with it. For Wang et al (2000), instead, "Pseudotsuga" differentiated himself from "Larix" in Western North America about 65 million years ago, in an era between the late Cretaceous and the Paleocene. These revisions and interactions, which would find evidence in genetics, however are not universally accepted and many botanics, researchers and scientists still use the previous classification waiting for further developments.
For other authors, finally, the subfamily Laricoideae would have no taxonomic dignity of its own, recognizing only two large multi-group clades (Pinoid and Abietoid) or subfamilies (Pinoideae and Abietoideae) in their cladistics systems. "Larix", "Pseudotsuga" and "Cathaya" would be included in the pines complex.


Copernicia tectorum

Copernicia tectorum is a palm which is native to Colombia and northern Venezuela, where it is known as palma llanera.


Atrichum

Atrichum is a genus of mosses belonging to the family Polytrichaceae.
The genus was first described by Palisot de Beauvois.
The genus has cosmopolitan distribution.
Species:


Marsupiomonas

Marsupiomonas is a genus of green algae in the family Marsupiomonadaceae.


List of Khmu plant common names

The following list of Khmu (Kammu Yuan dialect of Luang Namtha Province, Laos) plant names is from Svantesson et al. (2013).


Oncocalyx quinquenervius

Oncocalyx quinquenervius is a parasitic plant species in the family Loranthaceae native to South Africa. It is also known as banded matchflower.
Description.
"Oncocalyx quinquenervius" is a hemiparasite.
Morphology.
The flowers are tubular, splitting down one side and have red to pink and white bands. Mainly flowering from June to September (in the southern hemisphere). The leaves are green, succulent and simple in shape, elliptic with margin entire. Usually 5 veined from the leaf base. It grows to a height of 50 cm to 100 cm. The fruit is a red berry about 10mm in diameter.
Taxonomy.
This species was previously placed in the genus Tieghemia.
Distribution and habitat.
"Oncocalyx quinquenervius" is endemic to the Eastern Cape and KwaZuluNatal in South Africa.
Ecology.
A stem parasite on trees.
Conservation.
The plant is listed as Least Concern in the SANBI Redlist.


Centropogon trachyanthus

Centropogon trachyanthus is a species of plant in the family Campanulaceae. It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Coriaria nepalensis

Coriaria nepalensis is a shrub of the genus "Coriaria". It grows in the foot hills of Himalayas. It blooms in spring and has bright yellow flowers and red fruits in summer.
The plant is also known in English as masuri berry, tanner's tree, or mansur shrub. In Hindi it is known as masuri (), makola, or masurya (); and in Nepali as macchaino ().
Description.
"C. nepalensis" is a shrub, growing around 1.5-2.5 metres tall. Flowers, yellow in colour, are in groups (inflorescences) and they are male or female but in the same plant. It blooms from February to May.
Fruits are red to dark purple when mature. They resemble berries, but they are actually achenes protected by enlarged and colored petals. The fruits are produced from May to August, but they are inedible as their seeds are poisonous.
The number of chromosomes the plant has is 40.
Distribution.
"C. nepalensis" grows on the southern slopes of the Himalayas (in Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan), usually between 800 and 2500 metres.
This species was also found in southern China in mountain slopes at 200–3200 m high. It has been found in the Chinese provinces of Gansu, Guangxi, Guizhou, Henan, Hong Kong, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Xizang, Yunnan.


Ceratozamia alvarezii

Ceratozamia alvarezii is a species of plant in the family Zamiaceae. It is endemic to Mexico, where it is known only from Chiapas. It is found near Rizo de Oro in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas.
There are only two known subpopulations of this species, one of which comprises about 300 individuals. The species is threatened by habitat loss as land is cleared for agriculture.


Strombosia nana

Strombosia nana is a tree in the family Olacaceae. It is endemic to Sri Lanka. Its taxonomic description is unresolved yet.
Ecology.
It is found in the rain forest understory of wet zone Sri Lanka and widely found in the Sinharaja Rainforest.
Culture.
Known as "හොර කහ - hora kaha" by Sinahalese people.


Grisollea thomassetii

Grisollea thomassetii is a species of plant in the Stemonuraceae family. It is endemic to Seychelles.


Bonnet orchid

Bonnet orchid may refer to:


Pythium tracheiphilum

Pythium tracheiphilum is a plant pathogen infecting lettuce.


Gentiana asclepiadea

Gentiana asclepiadea, the willow gentian, is a species of flowering plant of the genus "Gentiana" in the family Gentianaceae, native to central and eastern Europe from primarily mountain (montane) woodland though it does occur in less wooded open pasture in some areas, perhaps persisting after woodland clearance.
One of the larger species within the genus, it produces pairs of leaves, sometimes whorled in threes or fours around particularly vigorous shoots on stems that generally arch elegantly outward from the base of the plant between in length. Trumpet-shaped, deep blue flowers occur in late summer into autumn.
Like many members of the genus and indeed the family Gentianaceae, the roots have a close association with certain fungi in a similar way to the Orchidaceae and Ericaceae though of course completely unrelated to both of these families. This particular species is relatively easy to grow in most garden situations as long as it has plenty of organic material added to the soil.
"Gentiana asclepiadea" likes moist, rich, well-drained soil in full sun or partial shade. The plant can be divided after flowering, however it seldom needs this. Propagate by seed sown as soon as the seed is ripe into a cold frame. If sowing the seed indoors then cold treatment is needed.
This plant is susceptible to spider mites, slugs, snails and aphids.
"Gentiana asclepiadea" has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Salsola vermiculata

Salsola vermiculata, commonly known as Mediterranean saltwort, is a perennial plant in the family Amaranthaceae. It is native to arid and semi-arid regions of the Middle East, North Africa and southern Europe where it is used as a fodder plant for livestock.
Description.
"Salsola vermiculata" is a small, greyish, much-branched shrub ranging in height from . The branches themselves branch repeatedly and are wiry and woody at the base. The leaves are tiny and scale-like, clasping the stem and covered with minute hairs. The inflorescence is a leafy spike with solitary flowers in the axils of the leaves. The flowers have persistent, pinkish, winged sepals and no petals and are about in diameter.
Distribution and habitat.
This plant is native to Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan and Saudi Arabia, as well as Egypt and Morocco. It is also native to southern Europe, including Italy, Spain and Portugal. Its natural habitat is semi-arid and arid grassland, and it has been introduced to Pakistan and to California to provide forage in arid locations. In California it has become a weed and is regarded as an invasive species.
Ecology.
"Salsola vermiculata" is part of the climax community in the Syrian steppe where it grows alongside "Artemisia herba-alba", "Atriplex leucoclada" and "Stipa barbata". It also grows on the Jordanian steppe along with "Artemisia herba-alba" and "Achillea fragrantissima", but all three of these useful fodder species are becoming increasingly rare because of overgrazing. Exclusion of livestock from an area produces a large increase in the biomass of these species. It has a high protein content and is of high value as a forage crop in arid areas. It is planted in the Middle East for grazing by cattle, sheep, goats and camels.
Natural regeneration occurs in both spring and autumn, but plants germinating in autumn are more drought tolerant and more likely to become established. Rainwater harvesting, in the form of contouring furrows that prevent run-off, increases the successful establishment and growth of "S. vermiculata". Planting this and other native species, such as "Atriplex halimus", shows high potential for the improvement of the Badia rangelands in Syria. Prolonged drought sometimes caused the plants to shed their leaves.
In California, "S. vermiculata" has been shown to be an alternate host for the plant viruses that cause curly top, a disease of sugar beet, tomatoes and cucurbits.
Systematics.
"Salsola vermiculata" was first published in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus in "Species Plantarum". Phylogenetic research led to the re-circumscription of the genus "Salsola", and in 2007, the species was transferred to "Caroxylon vermiculatum" . In 2015, it was transferred to "Nitrosalsola vermiculata" .


Alsophila gigantea

Alsophila gigantea, synonym Cyathea gigantea, is a species of tree fern native to northeastern to southern India, Sri Lanka, Nepal to Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, the Malay Peninsula, as well as central Sumatra and western Java. It grows in moist open areas at an altitude of 600–1000 m. The trunk of this species is erect and may be as tall as 5 m or more. Fronds are bi- or tripinnate and usually 2–3 m long. The rachis is long, dark to black in colouration and rough in appearance after the fall of scales. These scales are dark brown, glossy and have a narrow paler margin and fragile edges. Sori are round and indusia absent.
Large and Braggins (2004) note that "A. gigantea" is very similar to "Alsophila glabra" and appears to form part of a complex that also includes "Alsophila podophylla" and "Alsophila subdubia". Further study is needed to determine the nature of the relationship between these taxa.
The specific epithet "gigantea" refers, at least in part, to the large fronds.


Cyanea longiflora

Cyanea longiflora (formerly "Rollandia longiflora") is a rare species of flowering plant in the bellflower family known by the common name ridge rollandia. It is endemic to Oahu where there are only three remaining occurrences in the northern Waianae Mountains for a total of under 300 individuals. It is a federally listed endangered species. Like other "Cyanea" it is known as haha in Hawaiian.
This Hawaiian lobelioid is a shrub appearing palm-like in form and reaching 3 meters in maximum height. The inflorescence produces magenta flowers. The fruit is a berry which is purple to red when small and ripens to orange.
The US Fish and Wildlife Service stated in 2009 that a recent count revealed a total of 76 mature plants, plus 84 immature plants and 28 seedlings. The plant appears to be limited to the northern Waianae Mountains today and no longer survives in the Koʻolau Range, where a few populations had been known.
Threats to this species include its small numbers, destruction and degradation of its habitat by feral pigs, feral goats, exotic plant species, military exercises, and vandalism. The habitat is prone to erosion and landslides, which can destroy the plants. Slugs and rats damage similar species and may threaten this one.


Acioa

Acioa is a genus of plants in the family Chrysobalanaceae described as a genus in 1775. It is native to northeastern South America.


Sown Biodiverse Pastures

The definition of Sown Biodiverse Pastures is already well documented, Teixeira et al. (2011) and Teixeira (2010).
Sown Biodiverse Pastures (SBP) were developed in Portugal in the 70’s decade. They have been installed throughout some regions of the country in the past decade, as well as in some minor areas in Spain and Italy.
These pastures consist of diverse mixes of up to twenty different species or varieties of seeds, and are rich in legumes. Commonly SBP are more productive than natural grasslands, and are also richer in number of species. The seed mix is designed specifically for each location after soil analysis. Species in the mix is adapted to soil physical and chemical characteristics, as well as to local climate conditions, and therefore there is no single representative mix. However, some very common sown species in SBP are "Trifolium subterraneum", "Trifolium incarnatum", "Trifolium resupinatum", "Ornithopus" spp., "Biserrula pelecinus", annual "Medicago" spp., and grass species of the genera "Lolium", "Dactylis" and "Phalaris". The mixes of sown species are often enriched with seeds from spontaneous plants such as "Plantago" spp., "Vulpia" spp. and "Bromus" spp.. Legumes are thus very common in these mixtures and cover more than 50% of first-year SBP. As pasture settlement progresses, legumes increase and eventually dominate. Percentage of legumes in the plant cover of a mature SBP (more than 5 years) is around 25–30%. Legumes are inoculated with bacteria of the genus "Rhizobium" which induce nitrogen-fixing nodules in the roots of legumes. The fixated atmospheric nitrogen is then used by grasses thus making the overall system self-sufficient in terms of nitrogen.
Given the species variability, there are fewer gaps in plant cover throughout the plots (it is ensured that the species most suited for each spatial condition will thrive). The higher plant productivity of SBP implies increased atmospheric carbon capture through photosynthesis. Part of the biomass produced is stored in soils due to the high density of yearly renewed roots. Storage is in the form of non-labile soil organic carbon (SOC), which is part of the soil organic matter (SOM) pools. SOM pools are also increased by leaves’ senescence, and by animals returning undigested fibre to the soil.


Nekemias arborea

Nekemias arborea, commonly known as pepper vine, is native to the Southeastern United States, Texas, and New Mexico. It spreads rapidly, climbing up trees and bushes. Although it is attractive, its rapid growth and ability to pull down trees makes it a nuisance if not strictly confined.
Synonyms.
Its synonyms include: "Ampelopsis arborea" (L.) Koehne, "Ampelopsis bipinnata" Michx., "Ampelopsis pinnata" DC., "Cissus arborea" (L.) Des Moul., "Cissus bipinnata" Elliott, "Cissus orientalis" Lam., "Cissus stans" Pers., "Hedera arborea" (L.) Walter, "Nekemias bipinnata" Raf., "Vitis arborea" L., "Vitis bipinnata" Torr. & A.Gray, and "Vitis orientalis" (Lam.) Boiss.
Cultivation.
"Nekemias arborea" is used as an ornamental plant in gardens.


Amaranthoideae

The Amaranthoideae are a subfamily of the Amaranthaceae. The stamens have anthers with two lobes (locules) and four pollen sacs.
The main distribution of the subfamily is in tropical America, in tropical and Southern Africa, and in Australia.
The genera "Amaranthus" (the amaranths) and "Celosia" (the cockscombs) contain many ornamental species, as well as species whose seeds are used as pseudocereals and leaves as leaf vegetables.
Systematics.
The subfamily Amaranthoideae comprises about 57 genera with about 330 species. Phylogenetical research revealed that the subfamily is polyphyletic and its traditional classification (tribe Amarantheae Rchb. with two subtribes Amaranthinae und Aervinae) does not reflect the phylogenetic relationship. Therefore, a new taxonomical grouping is required. Müller & Borsch (2005) recognized several clades:


Delarbrea balansae

Delarbrea balansae is a species of flowering plant of family Myodocarpaceae. It is endemic to New Caledonia. It has previously been classified as the sole member of genus Pseudosciadium, but molecular and morphological studies point to its inclusion in the genus "Delarbrea".


Ceuthostoma

Ceuthostoma is a genus of two species of trees, constituting part of the plant family Casuarinaceae.
They grow naturally only in Malesia, in the islands of Palawan, Borneo, Halmahera and New Guinea.


Solanum aculeatissimum

Solanum aculeatissimum, known as Dutch eggplant, and love-apple, is a weedy shrub that bears small, 2–3 cm pale yellow fruit following white flowers with characteristic "Solanum" yellow stamens.
Origin and range.
Where "S. aculeatissimum" is native to has yet to be conclusively determined. Despite its common name suggesting a South-Asian origin, however, the plant's origin is most likely either Africa or South America; while specimens have been identified in Asia, it is rare there and believed to be the result of accidental or deliberate introduction. It is closely related to other "Solanum" species native to both sub-Saharan Africa and Central America. Africa was the first continent in which "S. aculeatissimum" was documented. Scottish-born botanist Francis Masson found the plant near the Cape of Good Hope either during the years 1772–1774, or during a subsequent expedition when he remained in southern Africa from 1786 until 1795. In South America, the plant was first described in 1816-1821 by Augustin Saint-Hilaire.
Properties and uses.
The fruit are considered toxic, and force-feeding of either ripe or unripe fruit has led to deaths in cattle. Free-ranging cattle apparently avoid feeding on the fruit. The highest concentration of alkaloids (4.4%) is found in the seeds. Nevertheless a fruit decoction, fruit sap, or sap of roasted fruit, has been recorded as traditional remedies in Africa. Solasonine is the major glycoalkaloid in its foliage, stems, fruit and seeds, besides minor alkaloids which include solamargine, solanine and solasodine.


Collomia larsenii

Collomia larsenii is a species of flowering plant in the phlox family known by the common name talus collomia. It is native to the Olympic Mountains of Washington and the Cascade Range from Washington to northern California, where it grows in high exposed mountainside talus. It is a perennial herb forming a clump in the volcanic rocks. The branching stem is covered in fleshy, glandular, hairy leaves, each divided into many lobes. The inflorescence is a cluster of 6 to 9 tubular purple flowers, each with a face up to 1.5 centimeters wide.


Oenothera speciosa

Oenothera speciosa is a species of evening primrose known by several common names, including pinkladies, pink evening primrose, showy evening primrose, Mexican primrose, amapola, and buttercups (not to be confused with true buttercups in the genus "Ranunculus").
Distribution.
It is a herbaceous perennial wildflower. Originally native to the grasslands of Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, northeastern New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas, it has been naturalized in 28 of the lower 48 U.S. states as well as Chihuahua and Coahuila in Mexico. It frequently escapes from gardens. The specific name, "speciosa", means "showy".
The plant's wild habitat includes rocky prairies, open woodlands, slopes, roadsides, meadows and disturbed areas. While it makes an attractive garden plant, care should be taken with it as it can become invasive, spreading by runners and seeds. This drought-resistant plant prefers loose, fast-draining soil and full sun.
Habit.
The pink primrose has glabrous (smooth) to pubescent stems that grow to in height. The pubescent leaves are alternate with very short or no petiole (sessile), reaching long to broad. They are variable in shape, from linear to obovate, and are toothed or wavy-edged. It produces single, four-petaled, cup-shaped flowers on the upper leaf axils. These fragrant shell-pink flowers bloom throughout the summer into early autumn. The flowers start out white and grow pink as they age.
The flower throats, as well as the stigmas and stamens, have a soft yellow color. It blooms both day and night, but typically in the pre-dawn hours, closing when the full sun hits them. They bloom from March to July, and occasionally in the fall. The flowers are frequented by several species of insect, but moths are the most common as the flowers are mostly open at night.
This plant is also frequently referred to as a buttercup, though it is not a true buttercup (genus "Ranunculus"), or even in the buttercup family Ranunculaceae.
Usage.
The pink evening primrose is used in the temperate latitudes as an ornamental plant. However, it does not survive a severe winter. It is a ground cover. With the USDA climates 4 to 9, the pink evening primrose in most areas of Central Europe should be sufficiently hardy. The green plant parts can be cooked or eaten as a salad; Harvest, if possible, before flowers develop, because then the taste is pleasant.


Guadua paraguayana

Guadua paraguayana is a species of clumping bamboo found in northern Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Venezuela.
This bamboo is used for posts, fences, flooring and decorative work.


Nepenthes monticola

Nepenthes monticola is a tropical pitcher plant known from a number of mountains in the west central highlands of West Papua, New Guinea, where it grows at elevations of 1400–2620 m above sea level. Prior to its description as a species in 2011, "N. monticola" was lumped with the closely related "N. lamii".


Ardisia zakii

Ardisia zakii is a species of plant in the family Primulaceae. It is endemic to Ecuador. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Ammannia verticillata

Ammannia verticillata is a species in the family Lythraceae. It is found in central and southeast Asia, and is naturalized in southern Europe. It grows in wet places such as marshes, river banks and rice fields.


Downingia bicornuta

Downingia bicornuta is a species of flowering plant in the bellflower family known by the common name doublehorn calicoflower. This showy wildflower is native to the western United States from California to Idaho, where it is a resident of lakesides and vernal pool ecosystems. This annual grows on a branching erect stem with small leaves at intervals. At the top of each stem branch is one or more flowers, each between one and two centimeters wide. The flower has two long, narrow, pointed upper lobes which may be blue or purple. The three lower lobes are fused into one three-lobed surface, which is blue or purple with two bright yellow blotches rimmed with white in the center. The mouth of the flower tube is surrounded by knobby projections of the sepals. The fruit is a dehiscent capsule three to seven centimeters long.


Hymenasplenium

Hymenasplenium is one of three genera of ferns in the Aspleniaceae (spleenwort family), in the eupolypods II clade of the order Polypodiales. The others are "Hemidictyum" and "Asplenium". "Hymenasplenium" was segregated because it is a natural grouping with differing rhizome morphology – dorsiventral v. radial for the rest of Asplenium, differing chromosome count – x=39 v. x=36 for the rest of Asplenium, and a clear monophyletic grouping based on genetic analysis. It was confirmed as a sister group to "Asplenium" in a 2015 molecular study of the genera.


Ilex praetermissa

Ilex praetermissa is a species of plant in the family Aquifoliaceae. It is endemic to Klang Gates Quartz Ridge, Malaysia. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Nepenthes justinae

Nepenthes justinae is a tropical pitcher plant known only from Mount Hamiguitan on the Philippine island of Mindanao, where it grows at elevations of 1000–1620 m above sea level.
The specific epithet "justinae" honours Justina Yu, the mayor of San Isidro, Davao Oriental, Mindanao, whose efforts helped get the Mount Hamiguitan Range Wildlife Sanctuary inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2014.
"Nepenthes justinae" has no confirmed natural hybrids, although certain plants from Mount Hamiguitan may represent crosses involving it and "N. hamiguitanensis", "N. micramphora", and "N. peltata", the three species with which it is sympatric.


Hookeria lucens

Hookeria lucens, the shining hookeria, is a species of moss in the family Hookeriaceae. It is native to Europe, east to the Caucasus, Turkey and China, as well as Scandinavia and the Faeroe Islands and western North America.


Muraltia

Muraltia is a genus of plants in the milkwort family (Polygalaceae) which is native to Southern and Eastern Africa. Most species are endemic to South Africa and 1 species is naturalized in Australia. It is named after Johnnes von Muralt, a Swiss botanist and surgeon.
In 2006, the genus "Nylandtia", which contained 2 species, was merged into Muraltia. The 2 species formerly part of Nylandtia, "Muraltia scoparia" and "Muraltia spinosa". Nylandtia are commonly known as "Tortoise berry" plants ("skilpadbessie"). This is because of the bright edible berries that they produce, which are relished by the tortoise species of the fynbos.
Description.
Muraltia are perennial, ericoid shrublets or shrubs. Their small flowers and sessile or have short stalks. usually have 3 petals and 5 sepals which are usually subequal. Their fruits contain 2 seeds. Their capsules are flat, membranous, and usually 4-horned. Its seeds are pubescent.
Species.
As of July 2020, there are 118 accepted "Muraltia" species:


Chrysosplenium

Chrysosplenium (golden saxifrage or golden-saxifrage) is a genus of 57 species of flowering plants in the family Saxifragaceae. Species can be found throughout the arctic and northern temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, with the highest species diversity in eastern Asia; two species are found disjunctly in South America.
They are soft herbaceous perennial plants growing to 20 centimeters tall, typically growing in wet, shady locations in forests. The leaves are rounded, palmately veined, with a lobed margin; they may be arranged either alternately or opposite, depending on the species. The flowers are small, yellow or yellowish-green, with four petals; they are produced in small clusters at the apex of the shoots surrounded by leafy bracts. Most of the growth and flowering is in early spring, when more light is available under deciduous trees.
Culinary uses.
The leaves and stems of golden saxifrage ("C. alternifolium" and "C. oppositifolium") can be eaten in salads or as cooked greens.


Paradisea liliastrum

Paradisea liliastrum (or St Bruno's lily) is a species of flowering plant in the family Asparagaceae. It is native to the Alps, the Pyrenees and the Apennines.
History.
This species was mentioned by the Greek physician Dioscorides in his book, De Materia Medica.
The common name is named after the 11th century founder of the Carthusian order.
In 1610, The English naturalist John Tradescant ordered this plant from Brussels for the Hatfield House.
Description.
Their trumpet-shaped, white flowers are bunched in racemes of white flowers 4–6 cm in length.
They can be found at elevations between 1000 - 2300m.
Cultivation.
This species has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
This plant is propagated by seed. They should be grown in partial or full sunlight in moist, but well-drained soil.


Viola culminis

Viola culminis is a plant in the family Violaceae, endemic to Northern Italy where it grows in Lombardy and Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol.


Hemigenia scabra

Hemigenia scabra is an open, sprawling shrub with white flowers, hairy stems and foliage and is endemic to Western Australia.
Description.
"Hemigenia scabra" is an open, wiry, small shrub high. The stems in cross section may be more or less round or square and bracteoles long. The leaves long, wide, arranged opposite, rounded or squared at the apex and the margins smooth. Both stems and foliage have rough to smooth soft hairs or short coarse hairs. The bracteoles long, flowers sometimes with a pedicel long and simple hairs. The 5 calyces are long with occasional simple hairs. The flower petals may be white, cream or shades of purple, long, spot or stripes in the throat and 4 stamens. Flowering occurs from August to October.
Taxonomy and naming.
The species was first formally described in 1870 by George Bentham and the description was published in "Flora Australiensis". The specific epithet "(scabra)" is derived from the Latin "scaber" meaning "rough", referring to the leaves and stems.
Distribution and habitat.
"Hemigenia scabra" is found growing in the Avon wheatbelt, Geraldton and the Shire of Yalgoo on and near sandplains in gravelly white or yellow sands.


Echinodorus horizontalis

Echinodorus horizontalis is a species of plants in the Alismataceae. It is native to northern South America (Venezuela, Colombia, Guyana, Ecuador, Peru, northern Brazil).
Description.
Leaves 25 – 40 cm long, blades join the petiole at an obtuse angle so that they stand nearly horizontally, they are ovate or cordate, on the tip acuminate, the base truncate or shortly lobate, usually with 7 veins, 10 – 17 cm long x 5 – 8 cm wide. Stem recurved, proliferous, 25 – 60 cm long. Inflorescence racemose, having 2 – 4 whorls containing only 3 – 6 flowers each. Bracts shorter than pedicels. Pedicels 1 – 1.5 cm long, sepals ovate, membraneous, 4 – 6 mm long, having 18 – 24 ribs. During ripening the sepals enlarge and cover partly the aggregate fruit. Petals white, ovate, corolla 1.5 – 1.8 cm in diameter, stamens 26 – 30. Anthers oblong, 5 – 10 x shorter than filaments. Aggregate fruit globular, 0.7 – 0.9 cm in diameter, achenes 3 mm long x 1 mm wide, having 3 – 4 ribs and usually 6 glands in 2 rows. Young leaves are red and brown, older leaves green.
Cultivation.
Deep, bed of rich substrate. Plenty of light and water on the soft, acid side. Tropical temperatures. It will grow well emerse or submerse. Propagate by adventitious plantlets which form on the inflorescence. A rather demanding species, now rarely seen.
The flowers open in the later morning hours only for about 2 hours. After this, it closes completely. "E. horizontalis" opens its flowers even under water. The plant is self-fertile.
Seed germination seems variable, but Rataj & Horemann report most success at higher temperatures (28 C).
Without flowers it can be confused with other species such as "E. tunicatus", and rarely seems to be offered as the true species in the trade.