Liostenogaster vechti

Liostenogaster vechti is a type of eusocial hover wasp within the family Vespidae. They are typically brown and yellow in color and are considered a passive aggressive species. Their stings are less painful to humans than other social wasps, and they engage in associative nest foundation. They are mostly found on the Malaysian peninsula and are known for living in large clusters of small ring-shaped nests.
Taxonomy and phylogeny.
"Liostenogaster vechti "was first classified by Stefano Turillazzi in 1988. These wasps are part of the subfamily Stenogastrinae and are often referred to as hover wasps due to their manner of flying. Stenogastrinae has many other groups that are distributed across the Oriental region, but the species most closely associated with "L. vechti" is "L. flavolineata" due to similar coloring, behavioral patterns, and the similar locations of the two species.
Description and identification.
The adult females are 14 to 16 mm in length with dark brown coloring and yellow markings all over the body. The abdomen has brown and yellow stripes with the tip being mostly dark brown, and the legs are typically lighter at the bottom and browner near the top. Their mandibles are also yellow and each have three teeth (tridentate) which are not yellow. The antennae are partially dark brown and the eyes are dark brown and hairless unlike the hairy eyes of "L. flavolineata". The top of the thorax is usually dark brown with the rest of the thorax having yellow and brown intermediate patches, and the petiole (slender stalk connecting the abdomen to the thorax) is usually a reddish brown. They also have two sets of wings, two posterior and anterior.
The adult males look very similar to the females. They have about the same body length, and the main differences include their antennae being completely dark brown, and having hair on the broad yellow plate (clypeus) at the front of their heads. They have more hair in other places as well. Also, their upper hind limbs (femora) on their median legs are brown with a thin, long, yellow stripe. Lastly, the aedeagus (reproductive organ which is used to secrete sperm) is flattened and inflated at the apex.
Habitat and distribution.
Along with most other members of the Stenogastrinae, "L. vechti" are only located in Southeast Asian rainforests. These wasps along with "L. flavolineata "are mostly distributed in the Malaysian peninsula. Their nests are located in large clusters and are usually found on flat, vertical, or horizontal substrates.
Colony cycle.
Colonies are often founded by a group of "L. "vechti females using what is known as associative foundation. They begin by constructing small nests in the center, and eventually other wasps join the colony and build nests around the initial central one. The nests last for multiple years, and colonies grow and contain up to 600 nests or more. Temperature does not play a serious limiting factor in the lives of these wasps, and there is no particular season during which the colonies of these wasps are not present and active. However, brood rearing and reproduction is more likely to occur during the dry season, and the population of the nest tends to increase during that time as well, although brood rearing and reproduction also occurs during the wet season.
Nests are sometimes destroyed by predators or by other environmental factors such as floods and earth slides, but new nests are continually built around the old nests. Each nest usually contains relatively few individuals (usually no more than 10) and there are usually more females than males. There is typically one dominant reproductive female per nest, and after her daughters mature, they stay with their mother in her nest for a short while and engage in nest defense, brood care, or foraging activities. After this period ends, daughters often leave and join other colonies. Occasionally, dominant females are usurped by other visiting dominants. A new reproductive female may arrive, fight the current dominant female, and take over the nest if she (the
newcomer) wins.
Nests.
Nest building.
"L. vechti" build their nests in sheltered areas on flat, vertical, or horizontal surfaces (such as on the faces of overhanging rocks). They begin by building cells one next to the other in a row by using bits of vegetation. Once they have finished the initial row, they will often build a second row atop the first one and possibly even a third row if conditions are especially crowded. The wasps occasionally build nests that form a complete ring which have no more than 40 cells in one row, but usually the nests resemble an open ring with the open cells facing the center. This has caused the nests to be characterized as "bracket-like" or "horseshoe-like." The cells also face slightly downward to prevent raindrops from landing inside of the nests, and the nests usually contain a couple of protruding points which the wasps use as locations upon which to land. Most nests are small, but the nests are built in clusters that range from only having a few nests to containing hundreds.
Nests are also built to take advantage of camouflage and concealment techniques to avoid predation. Old nests that are no longer used are not completely torn down or abandoned but combined with other functioning nests to form a pattern that often contributes to predator confusion.
Colony behavior.
At sunrise, the population of wasps currently on the nest drops to around 60%. This percentage remains about the same throughout the day as different wasps return and leave for various reasons, and the number increases to about 90% as night falls. However, the number never reaches 100% because some individuals do not return during the night.
When on the nest, the majority of the wasps spend their time resting. This posture usually includes holding the abdomen to one side, and individuals will often lie on top of each other while resting. Most activity seems to be concentrated in the middle of the day, including egg-laying and abdominal pap collection.
Throughout the day, some wasps return to their own nests, while others appear to "visit" or "inspect" other nests. They do this by either approaching other nests, touching other nests, or directly landing on the nests. Responses to these visitors by wasps that actually reside on these nests range from ignoring the newcomers, accepting the newcomers, or threatening and attacking the intruders. Falling fights and other more aggressive defensive maneuvers are more frequent on nests located in the center of the clusters. This suggests that while all the nests are
defended, central nests are defended more aggressively, even against visitors.
Spatial arrangement.
Clusters are often built in an oval shape starting from the center. The center is the most coveted space, so the nests tend to be more concentrated and often smaller and older in these areas. These central nests are also more likely to have completely closed rings rather than open rings. Many nests on the periphery are larger, younger, and contain more cells, and foundations are also mainly found near the peripheries. Also, because clusters last for more than one year and some nests are destroyed during that time, signs of older nests are also more concentrated near the middle.
Costs and benefits of group living.
Unlike wasps in the subfamily Polistinae, Stenogastrinae are unable to construct peduncles for their nests. Being forced to choose sites with already made suspensions severely limits their options for suitable nesting sites. This also provides a reasonable explanation for why wasps belonging to this family tend to nest in clusters. When one suitable site is located, many wasps can benefit from the same site.
However, there are obvious costs to group living as well. The larger the cluster, the more visible the cluster becomes and the more obvious it is to predators. While the nests do tend to blend in well with the surrounding environment, predators notice the nests, return repeatedly to the same clusters, and use them as a ready food source.
Also, the nests located near the periphery are more likely to be attacked than the ones in the center which are usually completely surrounded by other nests. This is an example of the selfish herd theory and demonstrates how individuals may cluster together for protection against predators, but the ones in the middle tend to be safer than those on the outside. However, each colony is more prone to attack if the colony next to it is attacked. This is an example of the attacked neighbor risk and reduces some of the benefit gained by participating in selfish herd tactics.
Reproduction.
Egg-laying.
As is characteristic of Stenogastrinae, "L. vechti" secrete a type of gelatinous substance (which is produced by the Dufour’s gland) from their abdomens, which they use to care for the offspring and to lay their eggs. The females collect the pap with their front legs and then hold it in their mouths while they lay eggs, and pap collection is performed before and after each egg is laid.
Egg-laying is done by bringing the abdomen close to the mouthparts where the pap is being held. The female holds her front legs up and open and appears to use them to touch her abdomen. Her antennae are completely still and her wings are closed during the operation. Then her abdomen begins to vibrate, and her sting is turned inside and out and folded backwards. During this process, the egg is expelled and placed directly on the pap that the female is holding in her mouth. She does not touch it with her legs at all. Then her abdomen relaxes and the female places the egg inside the cell. The average length of the eggs laid by "L. vechti" is 1.36 mm, and ovarian eggs are considered ready to be laid once they reach 1.16 mm.
Development.
"L. vechti" go through four larval instars (developmental stages), with possibly a 5th initial instar, and the total developmental period lasts over 100 days. As the larvae mature, they develop salivary glands, and afterwards they enter a pupal stage which can last for over 36 days. After individuals emerge from their cells, they spend a few days residing on their nests before engaging in normal nest behavior such as nest defense, or before becoming foragers and retrieving food for the colony.
Genetic relatedness.
Like most hover wasps, "L. vechti "reproductive females mate singly and are therefore more closely related to the brood than any of the other nestmates are. This is especially true considering that most of the daughters leave the nest, and the current nestmates are often not related to the queen.
Behavior.
Feeding.
"L. vechti" frequently request trophallaxis from other members within their colonies. This behavior is most exhibited whenever a forager returns to the colony. A fellow colony member may solicit food from the individual in a variety of ways. The solicitor may approach the forager and bite her on her clypeus or her mouthparts. The two wasps may also push their heads against each other as if they are fighting. While this happens, they either do not move their antennae or hold them quivering to one side, and their abdomens are pointed downwards slightly. A wasp might also solicit food by rubbing the sides of the other individual's head with her front legs and flapping her wings vigorously. Trophallaxis usually happens too quickly to be observed, and a forager will often leave the nest a few seconds after arriving because she is often rushed by many wasps at the same time. Foragers also often return with insects (such as ants or termites) which they have chewed up and feed to the larvae.
Signaling.
Nestmate recognition and the establishment of reproductive status and dominance are often maintained through facial markings and chemical signaling. The bodies of "L. vechti" are covered by a mixture of cuticular lipids and long hydrocarbons. Females with ovarian development have much more of a particular hydrocarbon on their cuticles than females with undeveloped ovaries. This hydrocarbon appears to be a type of fertility signal which fertilized females use to show their status.
The size of the brown facial markings on the heads of females also serves as a visual cue for members of the colony and serves as a badge of higher ranking status and reproductive status. Females with larger brown facial markings also have larger ovaries. These visual cues help other wasps to not only determine if a wasp is of the same species, but also to determine what to do and how to distribute themselves around the nests. Visiting females that lack these brown visual marks are more likely to be accepted into foreign nests. Acts of aggressions are much more likely to be exhibited towards a female with these distinctive markings in order to maintain a control system within the nest.
Division of labor.
Each individual nest usually contains one dominant female with well-developed ovaries. This female spends the majority of time on the nest and engages in egg-laying and abdominal pap collection. Other females act as foragers and spend most of their time away from the nest. These females are usually not fertilized and have very poor ovarian development.
Dominance.
The most acts of dominance are usually performed by females with the highest ovarian indices. They will sometimes bite a subordinate’s face and sometimes flap their wings. The subordinate will often lower its head, cease voluntary movement, and sometimes even release a drop of liquid from its abdomen as a deferential act. The dominant wasp ceases movement of her own
antennae and may or may not accept the drop.
Fighting.
When disputes occur within the nests, individuals may fight each other to determine dominance. Two wasps may engage in this activity by holding their antennae out-stretched, grasping each other, and falling from the nest. The wasps never actually hit the ground. Instead they separate in mid-air, return to the nest, and repeat this process until a winner is determined. This behavior is especially likely in the event that a stranger attempts to take over a nest while the dominant female is away. When the dominant female returns, she will "fight" this individual, often for several hours and possibly even a couple days, to determine who will be in charge of the nest.
Predators and defense.
When an individual of "L. vechti "feels threatened, it will assume a menacing stance by bending its abdomen to one side and pointing the tip in the direction of its challenger. It does this so that it is prepared to sting its opponent if necessary and thrust its abdomen toward the intruder in what is known as an abdominal slap.
The main predators of these wasps are hornets (especially "Vespa tropica"), ichneumonid flies, and ants. The hornets attack and damage the nests by ripping the cells apart with their mandibles and then extracting portions of the brood. Raided nests can easily be identified by locating cells that have been ripped or torn. When a hornet or other flying predator approaches, the wasps engage in aerial attacks by throwing themselves into the air in the direction of the potential danger. They actually engage in this behavior very frequently and do so in response to any insect of similar size to hornets that approaches the nests in a questionable manner. When ants approach or invade the nests, the wasps will either grab the ants and drag them away from the nests, or, if the ants are especially large, the wasps will first assume a defensive posture, seize the ants, and then purposely fall out of the nests to ensure the ants are removed. Spiders may also prey on these wasps, but they are much more likely to catch solitary individuals away from the nest.
Venom.
Although they have effective stingers, these wasps and other members of Stenogastrinae are typically passive aggressive. Their stings are less painful for humans than those of many other social wasps, and often when faced with a large threat, these wasps will simply fall passively out of their nests. This behavior actually makes it harder for the potential predator to determine the location of the nest.


Chilean flicker

The Chilean flicker ("Colaptes pitius") is a species of bird in the family Picidae.
It is found in Argentina and Chile.
Its natural habitats are temperate forests, subtropical or tropical high-altitude shrubland, and heavily degraded former forest.


Apostolepis assimilis

Apostolepis assimilis (common name: Reinhardt's burrowing snake) is a species of snake in the family Colubridae. It is found in central and southwestern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, Bolivia, and northern Argentina; the Reptile Database, however, does not mention Bolivia and treats Argentina as uncertain.


Clear-winged woolly bat

The clear-winged woolly bat ("Kerivoula pellucida") is a species of vesper bat in the family Vespertilionidae.
It is found in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. Members of this species are relatively small, typically weighing about 4.5g and mainly forages in the understory of tropical forests. This species also presents a unique variant of echolocation that is a higher intensity and lower frequency than most other kerivoula calls. The sort range calls are distinguishable from the long range orientational echolocation calls by peak frequency and duration.
Appearance.
As the name suggests, this bat has relatively translucent wings that are approximately 30-32 millimeters long. Translucent wings are a unique feature for this bat that allow for easy identification. The body length is 44-48 millimeters with a 41-47 millimeter long posterior tail. This is not a traditional tail, as the skin flaps that make up the wings attach behind the animal here. The bats dorsal and ventral fur ranges in color, with the dorsal portion being primarily a range of pale grey to dark brown. No fur is found on the wings of this bat. The fur color exhibits a smooth transition to white on the ventral side of the animal. No nose leaf is present on the muzzle of the bat. The ears are a pinkish-yellow color.
Biology.
Clear-winged woolly bats typically inhabit the understory and lower canopy, typically roosting in dead leaves. Mating occurs year-round and the mothers give birth to single pups at a time that generally weigh about a quarter of the mothers weight. Until they are able to fly, the pups cling to their mothers belly as she forages. Once they are able to fly, they will forage alongside the mother. Sexual maturity is reached at one year of age. As with many other species, habitat destruction is the primary threat to this species.


Alrausuchus

Alrausuchus is an extinct genus of biarmosuchian therapsids from Russia. It was named by M.F. Ivakhnenko in 2008, as a reclassification of the species "Biarmosuchus tagax" that Ivachnenko had named in 1990. Ivachnenko erected the monotypic family Alrausuchidae for the genus.


Aliger gigas

Aliger gigas, originally known as Strombus gigas or more recently as Lobatus gigas, commonly known as the queen conch, is a species of large sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusc in the family of true conches, the Strombidae. This species is one of the largest molluscs native to the Caribbean Sea, and tropical northwestern Atlantic, from Bermuda to Brazil, reaching up to in shell length. "A. gigas" is closely related to the goliath conch, "Lobatus goliath", a species endemic to Brazil, as well as the rooster conch, "Lobatus gallus".
The queen conch is herbivorous. It feeds by browsing for plant and algal material growing in the seagrass beds, and scavenging for decaying plant matter. These large sea snails typically reside in seagrass beds, which are sandy plains covered in swaying sea grass and associated with coral reefs, although the exact habitat of this species varies according to developmental age. The adult animal has a very large, solid and heavy shell, with knob-like spines on the shoulder, a flared, thick outer lip, and a characteristic pink or orange aperture (opening). The outside of the queen conch is sandy colored, helping them blend in with their surroundings. The flared lip is absent in juveniles; it develops once the snail reaches reproductive age. The thicker the shell's flared lip is, the older the conch is. The external anatomy of the soft parts of "A. gigas" is similar to that of other snails in the family Strombidae; it has a long snout, two eyestalks with well-developed eyes, additional sensory tentacles, a strong foot and a corneous, sickle-shaped operculum.
The shell and soft parts of living "A. gigas" serve as a home to several different kinds of commensal animals, including slipper snails, porcelain crabs and a specialized species of cardinalfish known as the conchfish "Astrapogon stellatus". Its parasites include coccidians. The queen conch's natural predators include several species of large predatory sea snails, octopus, starfish, crustaceans and vertebrates (fish, sea turtles, nurse sharks). It is an especially important food source for large predators like sea turtles and nurse sharks. Human capture and consumption dates back into prehistory.
Its shell is sold as a souvenir and used as a decorative object. Historically, Native Americans and indigenous Caribbean peoples used parts of the shell to create various tools.
International trade in the Caribbean queen conch is regulated under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) agreement, in which it is listed as "Strombus gigas". This species is not endangered in the Caribbean as a whole, but is commercially threatened in numerous areas, largely due to extreme overfishing.
Taxonomy and etymology.
History.
The queen conch was originally described from a shell in 1758 by Swedish naturalist and taxonomist Carl Linnaeus, who originated the system of binomial nomenclature. Linnaeus named the species "Strombus gigas", which remained the accepted name for over 200 years. Linnaeus did not mention a specific locality for this species, giving only "America" as the type locality. The specific name is the ancient Greek word "" (), which means "giant", referring to the large size of this snail compared with almost all other gastropod molluscs. "Strombus lucifer", which was considered to be a synonym much later, was also described by Linnaeus in "Systema Naturae".
In the first half of the 20th century, the type material for the species was thought to have been lost; in other words, the shell on which Linnaeus based his original description and which would very likely have been in his own collection, was apparently missing, which created a problem for taxonomists. To remedy this, in 1941 a neotype of this species was designated by the American malacologists William J. Clench and R. Tucker Abbott. In this case, the neotype was not an actual shell or whole specimen, but a figure from a 1684 book "", published 23 years before Linnaeus was born by the Italian Jesuit scholar Filippo Buonanni (1638–1723). This was the first book that was solely about seashells. In 1953 the Swedish malacologist Nils Hjalmar Odhner searched the Linnaean Collection at Uppsala University and discovered the missing type shell, thereby invalidating Clench and Abbott's neotype designation.
Strombidae's taxonomy was extensively revised in the 2000s and a few subgenera, including "Eustrombus", were elevated to genus level by some authors. Petuch and Petuch and Roberts recombined this species as "Eustrombus gigas", and Landau and collaborators (2008) recombined it as "Lobatus gigas". In 2020, it was recombined as "Aliger gigas" by Maxwell and colleagues, which is the current valid name according to the World Register of Marine Species.
Phylogeny.
The phylogenetic relationships among the Strombidae were mainly studied by Simone (2005) and Latiolais (2006), using two distinct methods. Simone proposed a cladogram (a tree of descent) based on an extensive morpho-anatomical analysis of representatives of Aporrhaidae, Strombidae, Xenophoridae and Struthiolariidae, which included "A. gigas" (there referred to as "Eustrombus gigas").
With the exception of "Lambis" and "Terebellum", the remaining taxa were previously allocated in the genus "Strombus", including "A. gigas". However, according to Simone, only "Strombus gracilior", "Strombus alatus" and "Strombus pugilis", the type species, remained within "Strombus", as they constituted a distinct group based on at least five synapomorphies (traits that are shared by two or more taxa and their most recent common ancestor). The remaining taxa were previously considered subgenera and were elevated to genus level by Simone. Genus "Eustrombus" (now considered a synonym of "Lobatus"), in this case, included "Eustrombus gigas" (now considered a synonym of "Aliger gigas") and "Eustrombus goliath" (= "Lobatus goliath"), which were thus considered closely related.
In a different approach, Latiolais and colleagues (2006) proposed another cladogram that attempts to show the phylogenetic relationships of 34 species within the family Strombidae. The authors analysed 31 "Strombus " species, including "Aliger gigas" (there referred to as "Strombus gigas"), and three species in the allied genus "Lambis". The cladogram was based on DNA sequences of both nuclear histone H3 and mitochondrial cytochrome-c oxidase I (COI) protein-coding gene regions. In this proposed phylogeny, "Strombus gigas" and "Strombus gallus" (= "Lobatus gallus") are closely related and appear to share a common ancestor.
Common names.
Common names include "queen conch" and "pink conch" in English, ' and ' in Mexico, ', ', ' and ' in Venezuela, ', ' in the Dominican Republic and Grenada, and "" in Puerto Rico.
Anatomy.
Shell.
The mature shell grows to in length in three to five years while the maximum reported size is . However, even though they only grow to be this maximum length, the thickness of the shell is constantly increasing. The shell is very solid and heavy, with 9 to 11 whorls and a widely flaring and thickened outer lip. The thickness is highly important because the thicker the shell, the better protected it is. Additionally, instead of increasing in size once it reaches its maximum, the outside shell thickens as time goes on- an important indicator of how old the queen conch is. Although this notch is not as well developed as elsewhere in the family, the shell feature is nonetheless visible in an adult dextral (normal right-handed) specimen, as a secondary anterior indentation in the lip, to the right of the siphonal canal (viewed ventrally). The animal's left eyestalk protrudes through this notch.
The spire is a protruding part of the shell that includes all of the whorls except the largest and final whorl (known as the body whorl). It is usually more elongated than in other strombid snails, such as the closely related and larger goliath conch, "Lobatus goliath" that is endemic to Brazil. In "A. gigas", the glossy finish or glaze around the aperture of the adult shell is primarily in pale shades of pink. It may show a cream, peach or yellow colouration, but it can also sometimes be tinged with a deep magenta, shading almost to red. The periostracum, a layer of protein (conchiolin) that is the outermost part of the shell surface, is thin and a pale brown or tan colour.
The overall shell morphology of "A. gigas" is not solely determined by the animal's genes; environmental conditions such as location, diet, temperature and depth, and biological interactions such as predation, can greatly affect it. Juvenile conches develop heavier shells when exposed to predators. Conches also develop wider and thicker shells with fewer but longer spines in deeper water.
The shells of juvenile queen conches are strikingly different in appearance from those of the adults. Noticeable is the complete absence of a flared outer lip; juvenile shells have a simple sharp lip, which gives the shell a conical or biconic outline. In Florida, juvenile queen conches are known as "rollers", because wave action very easily rolls their shells, whereas it is nearly impossible to roll an adult specimen, due to its shell's weight and asymmetric profile. Subadult shells have a thin flared lip that continues to increase in thickness until death.
Conch shells are about 95% calcium carbonate and 5% organic matter.
Historic illustrations.
" (published in 1742 by the Italian physician and malacologist Niccolò Gualtieri) contains three illustrations of adult shells from different perspectives. The knobbed spire and the flaring outer lip, with its somewhat wing-like contour expanding out from the last whorl, is a striking feature of these images. The shells are shown as if balancing on the edge of the lip and/or the apex; this was presumably done for artistic reasons as these shells cannot balance like this.
One of the most prized shell publications of the 19th century, a series of books titled " (published by the French naturalist Jean-Charles Chenu from 1842 to 1853), contains illustrations of both adult and juvenile "A. gigas" shells and one uncoloured drawing depicting some of the animal's soft parts. Almost forty years later, a colored illustration from the "Manual of Conchology" (published in 1885 by the American malacologist George Washington Tryon) shows a dorsal view of a small juvenile shell with its typical brown and white patterning.
Soft parts.
Many details about the anatomy of "Aliger gigas" were not well known until Colin Little's 1965 general study. In 2005, R. L. Simone gave a detailed anatomical description. "A. gigas" has a long extensible snout with two eyestalks (also known as ommatophores) that originate from its base. The tip of each eyestalk contains a large, well-developed lensed eye, with a black pupil and a yellow iris and a small, slightly posterior sensory tentacle. Amputated eyes completely regenerate. Inside the mouth of the animal is a radula (a tough ribbon covered in rows of microscopic teeth) of the taenioglossan type. Both the snout and the eyestalks show dark spotting in the exposed areas. The mantle is darkly coloured in the anterior region, fading to light gray at the posterior end, while the mantle collar is commonly orange. The siphon is also orange or yellow. When the soft parts of the animal are removed from the shell, several organs are distinguishable externally, including the kidney, the nephiridial gland, the pericardium, the genital glands, stomach, style sac and the digestive gland. In adult males, the penis is also visible.
Foot/locomotion.
The species has a large and powerful foot with brown spots and markings towards the edge, but is white nearer to the visceral hump that stays inside the shell and accommodates internal organs. The base of the anterior end of the foot has a distinct groove, which contains the opening of the pedal gland. Attached to the posterior end of the foot for about one third of its length is the dark brown, corneous, sickle-shaped operculum, which is reinforced by a distinct central rib. The base of the posterior two-thirds of the animal's foot is rounded; only the anterior third touches the ground during locomotion. The columella, the central pillar within the shell, serves as the attachment point for the white columellar muscle. Contraction of this strong muscle allows the animal's soft parts to shelter in the shell in response to undesirable stimuli.
"Aliger gigas" has an unusual means of locomotion, first described in 1922 by George Howard Parker (1864–1955). The animal first fixes the posterior end of the foot by thrusting the point of the sickle-shaped operculum into the substrate, then it extends the foot in a forward direction, lifting and throwing the shell forward in a so-called leaping motion. This way of moving is considered to resemble that of pole vaulting, making "A. gigas" a good climber even of vertical concrete surfaces. This leaping locomotion may help prevent predators from following the snail's chemical traces, which would otherwise leave a continuous trail on the substrate.
Life cycle.
"Aliger gigas" is gonochoristic, which means each individual snail is either distinctly male or distinctly female. Females are usually larger than males in natural populations, with both sexes existing in similar proportion. After internal fertilization, the females lay eggs in gelatinous strings, which can be as long as . These are layered on patches of bare sand or seagrass. The sticky surface of these long egg strings allows them to coil and agglutinate, mixing with the surrounding sand to form compact egg masses, the shape of which is defined by the anterior portion of the outer lip of the female's shell while they are layered. Each one of the egg masses may have been fertilized by multiple males. The number of eggs per egg mass varies greatly depending on environmental conditions such as food availability and temperature. Commonly, females produce 8–9 egg masses per season, each containing 180,000–460,000 eggs, but numbers can be as high as 750,000 eggs. "A. gigas" females may spawn multiple times during the reproductive season, which lasts from March to October, with activity peaks occurring from July to September.
Queen conch embryos hatch 3–5 days after spawning. At the moment of hatching, the protoconch (embryonic shell) is translucent and has a creamy, off-white background color with small, pustulate markings. This coloration is different from other Caribbean "Lobatus", such as "Lobatus raninus" and "Lobatus costatus", which have unpigmented embryonic shells. Afterwards, the emerging two-lobed veliger (a larval form common to various marine and fresh-water gastropod and bivalve mollusks) spend several days developing in the plankton, feeding primarily on phytoplankton. Metamorphosis occurs some 16–40 days from the hatching, when the fully grown protoconch is about 1.2 mm high. After the metamorphosis, "A. gigas" individuals spend the rest of their lives in the benthic zone (on or in the sediment surface), usually remaining buried during their first year of life.
The queen conch reaches sexual maturity at approximately 3 to 4 years of age, reaching a shell length of nearly 180 mm and weighing up to 5 pounds. Individuals may usually live up to 7 years, though in deeper waters their lifespan may reach 20–30 years and maximum lifetime estimates reach 40 years. It is believed that the mortality rate tends to be lower in matured conchs due to their thickened shell, but it could be substantially higher for juveniles. Estimates have demonstrated that its mortality rate decreases as its size increases and can also vary due to habitat, season and other factors.
Ecology.
Distribution.
"Aliger gigas" is native to the tropical Western Atlantic coasts of North and Central America in the greater Caribbean tropical zone. Although the species undoubtedly occurs in other places, this species has been recorded within the scientific literature as occurring, in: Aruba, (Netherlands Antilles); Barbados; the Bahamas; Belize; Bermuda; North and northeastern regions of Brazil (though this is contested); Old Providence Island in Colombia; Costa Rica; the Dominican Republic; Panama; Swan Islands in Honduras; Jamaica; Martinique; Alacran Reef, Campeche, Cayos Arcas and Quintana Roo, in Mexico; Puerto Rico; Saint Barthélemy; Mustique and Grenada in the Grenadines; Pinar del Río, North Havana Province, North Matanzas, Villa Clara, Cienfuegos, Holguín, Santiago de Cuba and Guantánamo, in the Turks and Caicos Islands and Cuba; South Carolina, Florida, with the Florida Keys and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary, in the United States; Carabobo, Falcon, Gulf of Venezuela, Los Roques archipelago, Los Testigos Islands and Sucre in Venezuela; all islands of the United States Virgin Islands.
Habitat.
"Aliger gigas" lives at depths from 0.3–18 m to 25–35 m. Its depth range is limited by the distribution of seagrass and algae cover. In heavily exploited areas, the queen conch is more abundant in the deepest range. The queen conch lives in seagrass meadows and on sandy substrate, usually in association with turtle grass (species of the genus "Thalassia", specifically "Thalassia testudinum" and also "Syringodium" sp.) and manatee grass ("Cymodocea" sp.). Juveniles inhabit shallow, inshore seagrass meadows, while adults favor deeper algal plains and seagrass meadows.
The critical nursery habitats for juvenile individuals are defined by a series of characteristics, including tidal circulation and macroalgal production, which together enable high rates of recruitment and survival. "A. gigas" is typically found in distinct aggregates that may contain several thousand individuals.
Diet.
Strombid gastropods were widely accepted as carnivores by several authors in the 19th century, a concept that persisted until the first half of the 20th century. This erroneous idea originated in the writings of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, who classified strombids with other supposedly carnivorous snails. This idea was subsequently repeated by other authors, but had not been supported by observation. Subsequent studies have refuted the concept, proving beyond doubt that strombid gastropods are herbivorous animals. In common with other Strombidae, "Aliger gigas" is a specialized herbivore, that feeds on macroalgae (including red algae, such as species of "Gracilaria" and "Hypnea"), seagrass and unicellular algae, intermittently also feeding on algal detritus. The green macroalgae "Batophora oerstedii" is one of its preferred foods.
Interactions.
A few different animals establish commensal interactions with "A. gigas", which means that both organisms maintain a relationship that benefits (the commensal) species but not the other (in this case, the queen conch). Commensals of this species include certain mollusks, mainly slipper shells ("Crepidula" spp.) The porcelain crab "Porcellana sayana" is also known to be a commensal and a small cardinalfish, known as the conch fish ("Astrapogon stellatus"), sometimes shelters in the conch's mantle for protection.
"A. gigas" is very often parasitized by protists of the phylum Apicomplexa, which are common mollusk parasites. Those coccidian parasites, which are spore-forming, single-celled microorganisms, initially establish themselves in large vacuolated cells of the host's digestive gland, where they reproduce freely. The infestation may proceed to the secretory cells of the same organ. The entire life cycle of the parasite typically occurs within a single host and tissue.
"Aliger gigas" is a prey species for several carnivorous gastropod mollusks, including the apple murex "Phyllonotus pomum", the horse conch "Triplofusus papillosus", the lamp shell "Turbinella angulata", the moon snails "Natica" spp. and "Polinices" spp., the muricid snail "Murex margaritensis", the trumpet triton "Charonia variegata" and the tulip snail "Fasciolaria tulipa". Crustaceans are also conch predators, such as the blue crab "Callinectes sapidus", the box crab "Calappa gallus", the giant hermit crab "Petrochirus diogenes", the spiny lobster "Panulirus argus" and others. Sea stars, vertebrates, horse conch, octopus eagle ray, nurse shark, fish (such as the permit "Trachinotus falcatus" and the porcupine fish "Diodon hystrix"), loggerhead sea turtles ("Caretta caretta") and humans also eat the queen conch.
Uses.
Conch meat has been consumed for centuries and has traditionally been an important part of the diet in many islands in the West Indies and Southern Florida. It is consumed raw, marinated, minced or chopped in a wide variety of dishes, such as salads, chowder, fritters, soups, stew, pâtés and other local recipes. In both English and Spanish-speaking regions, for example in the Dominican Republic, "Aliger gigas" meat is known as "". Although conch meat is used mainly for human consumption, it is also sometimes employed as fishing bait (usually the foot). "A. gigas" is among the most important fishery resources in the Caribbean: its harvest value was US$30 million in 1992, increasing to $60 million in 2003. The total annual harvest of meat of "A. gigas" ranged from 6,519,711 kg to 7,369,314 kg between 1993 and 1998, later production declined to 3,131,599 kg in 2001. Data about US imports shows a total of 1,832,000 kg in 1998, as compared to 387,000 kg in 2009, a nearly 80% reduction twelve years later.
Queen conch shells were used by Native Americans and Caribbean Indians in a wide variety of ways. South Florida bands (such as the Tequesta), the Carib, the Arawak and Taíno used conch shells to fabricate tools (such as knives, axe heads and chisels), jewelry, cookware and used them as blowing horns. In Mesoamerican history, Aztecs used the shell as part of jewelry mosaics such as the double-headed serpent. The Aztecs also believed that the sound of trumpets made from queen conch shells represented divine manifestations, and used them in religious ceremonies. In central Mexico, during rain ceremonies dedicated to Tlaloc, the Maya used conch shells as hand protectors (in a manner similar to boxing gloves) during combat. Ancient middens of "L. gigas" shells bearing round holes are considered an evidence that pre-Columbian Lucayan Indians in the Bahamas used the queen conch as a food source.
Brought by explorers, queen conch shells quickly became a popular asset in early modern Europe. In the late 17th century they were widely used as decoration over fireplace mantels and English gardens, among other places. In contemporary times, queen conch shells are mainly utilized in handicraft. Shells are made into cameos, bracelets and lamps, and traditionally as doorstops or decorations by families of seafaring men. The shell continues to be popular as a decorative object, though its export is now regulated and restricted by the CITES agreement. In modern culture, queen conch shells are often represented in everyday objects such as coins and stamps.
Very rarely (about 1 in 10,000 conchs), a conch pearl may be found within the mantle. Though these pearls occur in a range of colors corresponding to the colors of the interior of the shell, pink specimens are the most valuable. These pearls are considered semi-precious, and a popular tourist curio. The best specimens have been used to create necklaces and earrings. A conch pearl is a non-nacreous pearl (formerly referred to by some sources as a 'calcareous concretion'); it differs from most pearls that are sold as gemstones in that it is not iridescent. The specific weight of the conch pearl is 2.85, notably heavier than any other type. Due to the sensitive nature of the animal and the location of the pearl-forming portion of the snail within the spiral shell, commercial cultivation of pearls is considered virtually impossible.
Research into the conch shell's unique architecture is currently under way at MIT.
Status.
Threats.
Queen conch populations have been rapidly declining throughout the years and have been mostly depleted in some areas in the Caribbean due to the fact that they are highly sought after for their meat and their value. Within the conch fisheries, one of the threats to sustainability stems from the fact that there is almost as much meat in large juveniles as there is in adults, but only adult conchs can reproduce, and thus sustain a population. In many places where adult conchs have become rare due to overfishing, larger juveniles and subadults are taken before they ever mate.
In the United States (Florida), it is currently illegal to gather or pick the queen conch either recreationally or commercially. In other parts of the world where it is legal, only adult conchs can be fished. The rule is to let each conch have ample time to reproduce before taken out of its habitat, potentially leading to a more stable population. However, this rule has not been followed by countless fishers. On a number of islands, subadults provide the majority of the harvest.
The abundance of "Aliger gigas" is declining throughout its range as a result of overfishing and poaching. Especially because of overfishing, many pockets of conch communities fall below the critical level needed for reproducing. A 2019 study predicted overfishing could lead to the extinction of queen conchs in as little as ten years. Additionally, if the conch fishery collapses, it could potentially leave over 9,000 Bahamian fishers out of work. Trade from many Caribbean countries, such as the Bahamas, Antigua and Barbuda, Honduras, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, is known or thought to be unsustainable. As of 2001, queen conch populations in at least 15 Caribbean countries and states were overfished or overexploited. Illegal harvest, including fishing in foreign waters and subsequent illegal international trade, is a common problem in the region. The Caribbean "International Queen Conch Initiative" is an international attempt at managing this species. On 13 January 2019, the Bahamas' Department of Marine Resources announced it would be making official recommendations to better protect the conch, including ending exports and increasing regulatory staff.
Presently, ocean acidification is another serious threat to the queen conch. Acidity levels are rising and adversely affecting shellfish larvae. Rising atmospheric CO2 levels result in rising levels of carbonic acid in seawater, which is particularly harmful to organisms with calcium carbonate shells and structures. Certain larval stages of shellfish are very sensitive to lower seawater pH.
Conservation.
The queen conch fishery is usually managed under the regulations of individual nations. In the United States all taking of queen conch is prohibited in Florida and in adjacent Federal waters. No international regional fishery management organization exists for the whole Caribbean area, but in places such as Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, queen conch is regulated under the auspices of the Caribbean Fishery Management Council (CFMC). In 2014, the Parties to the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) included queen conch in Annex III of its Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW Protocol). Species included in the Annex III require special measures to be taken to ensure their protection and recovery, and their use is authorised and regulated accordingly.
This species has been mentioned in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) since 1985. In 1992 the United States proposed queen conch for listing in CITES Appendix II, making queen conch the first large-scale fisheries product to be regulated by CITES (as "Strombus gigas"). In 1995 CITES began reviewing the biological and trade status of the queen conch under its "Significant Trade Review" process. These reviews are undertaken to address concerns about trade levels in an Appendix II species. Based on the 2003 review, CITES recommended that all countries prohibit importation from Honduras, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, according to Standing Committee Recommendations. Queen conch meat continues to be available from other Caribbean countries, including Jamaica and Turks and Caicos, which operate well-managed queen conch fisheries. For conservation reasons, the Government of Colombia currently bans the commercialisation and consumption of the conch between the months of June and October. The Bahamas National Trust is building awareness by educating teachers and students through workshops and an awareness campaign which includes the catchy pop song "Conch Gone".


Amphisbaena tiaraju

Amphisbaena tiaraju is a worm lizard species in the family Amphisbaenidae. It is endemic to Brazil.


Limnonectes selatan

Limnonectes selatan is a species of fanged frogs in the family Dicroglossidae. It is endemic to peninsular Malaysia, in the states of Pahang and Selangor.


Anolis nietoi

Anolis nietoi is a species of anole lizard first found in the Mexican states of Oaxaca, Guerrero, and Puebla. The species has keeled ventral scales.


Heliconius aoede

Heliconius aoede, the Aoede longwing, is a species of butterfly of the family Nymphalidae. It was described by Jacob Hübner in 1813. It is found in the Amazon basin. The habitat consists of deep forests.
The larvae feed on "Dilkea" and "Mitostemma" species.
Subspecies.
Listed alphabetically:


Scotinotylus levii

Scotinotylus levii is a species of sheet weaver found in Russia. It was described by Marusik in 1988.


List of mammals of Croatia

This list shows the IUCN Red List status of the 59 mammal species occurring in Croatia. Seven of them are vulnerable and four are near threatened.
The following tags are used to highlight each species' conservation status as assessed on the respective IUCN Red List published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature:
Some species were assessed using an earlier set of criteria. Species assessed using this system have the following instead of near threatened and least concern categories:
Order: Rodentia (rodents).
Rodents make up the largest order of mammals, with over 40% of mammalian species. They have two incisors in the upper and lower jaw which grow continually and must be kept short by gnawing. Most rodents are small though the capybara can weigh up to .
Order: Lagomorpha (lagomorphs).
The lagomorphs comprise two families, Leporidae (hares and rabbits), and Ochotonidae (pikas). Though they can resemble rodents, and were classified as a superfamily in that order until the early 20th century, they have since been considered a separate order. They differ from rodents in a number of physical characteristics, such as having four incisors in the upper jaw rather than two.
Order: Erinaceomorpha (hedgehogs and gymnures).
The order Erinaceomorpha contains a single family, Erinaceidae, which comprise the hedgehogs and gymnures. The hedgehogs are easily recognised by their spines while gymnures look more like large rats.
Order: Soricomorpha (shrews, moles, and solenodons).
The "shrew-forms" are insectivorous mammals. The shrews and solenodons closely resemble mice while the moles are stout-bodied burrowers.
Order: Chiroptera (bats).
The bats' most distinguishing feature is that their forelimbs are developed as wings, making them the only mammals capable of flight. Bat species account for about 20% of all mammals.
Order: Cetacea (whales).
The order Cetacea includes whales, dolphins and porpoises. They are the mammals most fully adapted to aquatic life with a spindle-shaped nearly hairless body, protected by a thick layer of blubber, and forelimbs and tail modified to provide propulsion underwater.
Order: Carnivora (carnivorans).
There are over 260 species of carnivorans, the majority of which eat meat as their primary dietary item. They have a characteristic skull shape and dentition.
Order: Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates).
The even-toed ungulates are ungulates whose weight is borne about equally by the third and fourth toes, rather than mostly or entirely by the third as in perissodactyls. There are about 220 artiodactyl species, including many that are of great economic importance to humans.


Geophagus altifrons

Geophagus altifrons is a freshwater eartheater cichlid fish native to the Amazon River Basin, Brazil.
Introduced to Singapore, it thrives in slow-moving streams and reservoirs. Its ecological impact on its adopted habitat is still unknown.
A member of the family Cichlidae, it can grow up to in standard length. It is benthophagous by nature, taking mouthfuls of substrate (hence its common name) and sifting for edible items, with the remaining materials being expelled via the mouth and gill openings. It prefers clear and blackwater environments as opposed to turbid white waters.


Northern bat

The northern bat ("Eptesicus nilssonii") is the most abundant species of bat in northern Eurasia. It is found from England to Hokkaidō and down to northern India. It is closely related to the serotine bat ("Eptesicus serotinus").
Description.
The northern bat is a medium-sized animal with short and rounded ears. Specimens range from 8 to 16 g in weight depending on the season, 54 to 64 mm in body length and 240 to 280 mm in wing span, which is a moderate size for a bat. The nose, ears, tail and wings are black or blackish brown. Most of the body is coated with dark brown or black with some gold touched at the tip of the hairs in the head and back region. The coat on the ventral side is yellowish brown. Like other dental structures of "Eptesicus" genus, there is no presence of peculiarities, but the dental structure of the northern bat is large compared to the size of the skull.
Distribution and habitat.
It is widespread throughout Eurasia, and is the most common bat in the northern part of the continent. It is found from northern Scandinavia (beyond the Arctic Circle) to northern Italy, and eastern England to northern Japan. The bat mostly favours forest uplands about 200–2000 m above sea level.
Behaviour.
It was thought that the northern bat is a sedentary species, but research shows colonies have moved as far as 450 km. It does not migrate seasonally but over a period of years.
Breeding season is in late autumn, and the females stores the male sperm over the winter. Hibernation begins in early winter (November and December), and lasts until March or April; only then do the females become pregnant, pregnancy lasting for 50–60 days. In summer, males dwell alone, but females form a colony of 10-80 adults. A colony is formed in early summer and disbanded in August, when young bats are able to fly. Winter colonies are often found in houses, and natural or artificial underground habitats.
Hunting.
Northern bats are nocturnal and fast flying, adapted to hunting airborne insects using echolocation. For example, northern bats commonly hunt ghost moths while the moths are hovering above ground to attract a mate. The species hunts in open spaces at a speed of 5–6 m/s. The sound pulse consists of 10-13 ms in normal foraging habitats, sometimes up to 18 ms of steeply frequency-modulated (FM) component (about 40–30 kHz). The bats send out the pulse approximately once every 200 ms, and the steep FM are used to locate obstacles or targets, allowing them to fly indoors.
In high latitude areas, female northern bats fly during daytime because of the short nights, but their foraging peaks after dusk and sometime before dawn. Females select small feeding territories where their food source is abundant, and sometimes can be used by the same individual over a period of years.
Genetics.
Serotine bats ("Eptesicus serotinus") are cryptic species of northern bats. They are distinguishable by appearance but research shows that there is little genetic difference between the two species (only difference of intraspecific variation).


Spot-breasted parrotbill

The spot-breasted parrotbill ("Paradoxornis guttaticollis") is a species of bird in the family Sylviidae.
It is found in Bangladesh, China, India, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.


Azure-rumped tanager

The azure-rumped tanager or Cabanis's tanager ("Poecilostreptus cabanisi") is a species of bird in the family Thraupidae. It is a local resident in humid broadleaf forests and adjacent plantations of the Pacific slope of western Guatemala and southern Chiapas, Mexico. It has been reported at elevations of .
Description.
Its plumage is mostly pale blue, with a purplish-blue crown, distinctive dark spots across the chest, dark lores and lower auriculars. The mantle is mottled greenish-blue and black. The wings and tail are black with blue edgings. The bill is gray with a dark tip. Cabanis's tanagers utter several sibilant vocalizations, hard trill and twitters.
The azure-rumped tanager is omnivorous, feeding on fruit and arthropods. In Guatemala, abundance was positively correlated with the density of "Ficus aurea" trees. Figs of that tree are a main food source. The nesting season ranges from April to September, during which azure-rumped tanagers move in pairs or family groups. Cooperative breeding has been reported. Outside the breeding season, larger flocks of up to 18 birds have been reported.
The azure-rumped tanager is Vulnerable because of deforestation to clear the way for coffee plantations. In Guatemala, only 21% or of the potential area of distribution are still covered with broadleaf forest, the tanager's prime habitat. 80000 ha or 68% of the potential area of distribution is covered with coffee plantations. It is estimated that there are 8250–23250 birds left in Guatemala. For Chiapas, there is no recent estimate, but in the 1980s there were 112000 ha of suitable habitat, which is expected to be much smaller now due to a growing human population and increased pressure by agricultural activities
Its closest relative appears to be the similarly-patterned grey-and-gold tanager.


Decimiana bolivari

Decimiana bolivari is a species of praying mantis in the family Acanthopidae. It is native to South America.


List of butterflies of the Federated States of Micronesia

This is a list of butterflies of the Federated States of Micronesia.


Lottia argrantesta

Lottia argrantesta is a species of limpet in the family Lottiidae. It was first described in 2003. It is native to the Gulf of California.


Alcidion apicalis

Alcidion apicalis is a species of longhorn beetles of the subfamily Lamiinae. It was described by Henry Walter Bates in 1864, and is known from Brazil.


Ummidia algarve

Ummidia algarve is a spider species found in Portugal. Unlike other known "Ummidia" species, it creates a trapdoor at the entrance of the burrow.
Taxonomy and etymology.
"U. algarve" was misidentified by three authors, (O. Pickard-Cambridge (1908), Frade & Amelia Bacelar (1931) and Bacelar again (1937)), before Arthur Decae gave it its present (August, 2016) name, "Ummidia algarve".
Its specific name means "of Algarve", the region and Moorish medieval kingdom in South Portugal it was found in. The geographically inspired name was chosen because ctenizids are often endemic to certain specific regions.
Biology.
"Ummidia algarve" is very common in Algarve, often in close association with nemesiid spiders. It has a burrow structure unique to the species (other than "Conothele varvarti" in India): a trapdoor at the entrance of the burrow and an inverted trapdoor near the bottom of the burrow. Females might be the only ones to do this. All other known "Ummidia" species have no internal structures other than the silk lining of the burrow.
Description.
Female "Ummidia algarve" have short, straight, "mushroom-shaped" spermathecae and a warty texture to the abdominal cuticle. These warts are the individual sockets of bristles on the abdomen. The cephalothorax is smooth and shining. The chelicerae are large and dorsally black (ventrally orange-brown), with the fang serrated on the inner ridge. The cephalic area is smoothly elevated. The ocelli are arranged in two rows, near the anterior edge of the cephalothorax, set compactly around a small ocular process, the anterior row is strongly procurved and the posterior row is slightly recurved. Its total body length is 14.5 mm.
Males have a relatively short, strong and smoothly curved embolus with a subapical fishhook tooth and low ocular quadrangle ratio. The cephalothorax is black with shades of red; it is also granulated. The opisthosoma is warty as in the female. The chelicerae are black dorsally and ventrally orange-brown.


Synaphe glaisalis

Synaphe glaisalis is a species of moth of the family Pyralidae. It was described by Daniel Lucas in 1933. It is found in Morocco.


Pinktail triggerfish

The pinktail triggerfish ("Melichthys vidua") is a species of triggerfish from reefs in the Indo-Pacific. It is very dark green (often appears almost black) with translucent whitish-pink dorsal and tail fins. They can grow up to . It is also found in the aquarium trade.


Elk

The elk ("Cervus canadensis"), also known as the wapiti, is one of the largest species within the deer family, Cervidae, and one of the largest terrestrial mammals in North America, as well as Central and East Asia. It is often confused with the larger "Alces alces", which is called moose in North America, but called elk in British English, and related names in other European languages (German "Elch", Swedish "älg", French "élan"). The name "wapiti" is used in Europe for "Cervus canadensis". It originates from the Shawnee and Cree word waapiti, meaning "white rump".
Elk range in forest and forest-edge habitat, feeding on grasses, plants, leaves, and bark. Male elk have large antlers which they shed each year. Males also engage in ritualized mating behaviors during the rut, including posturing, antler wrestling (sparring), and "bugling", a loud series of vocalizations that establishes dominance over other males and attracts females.
Although it is currently native to North America and eastern Asia, it had a much wider distribution in the past. Populations were present across Eurasia into Western Europe during the Late Pleistocene and survived into the early Holocene in southern Sweden and the Alps. The elk has adapted well to countries where it has been introduced, including Argentina and New Zealand. Its adaptability may in fact threaten endemic species and the ecosystems into which it has been introduced.
Elk are susceptible to a number of infectious diseases, some of which can be transmitted to livestock. Efforts to eliminate infectious diseases from elk populations, largely by vaccination, have had mixed success. Some cultures revere the elk as having spiritual significance. In parts of Asia, antlers and their velvet are used in traditional medicines. Elk are hunted as a game species. Their meat is leaner and higher in protein than beef or chicken. Elk were long believed to belong to a subspecies of the European red deer ("Cervus elaphus"), but evidence from many mitochondrial DNA genetic studies beginning in 1998 shows that the two are distinct species. Key morphological differences that distinguish "C. canadensis" from "C. elaphus" are the former's wider rump patch and paler-hued antlers.
Naming and etymology.
By the 17th century, "Alces alces" (called "elk" in Europe) had long been extirpated from the British Isles, and the meaning of the word "elk" to English-speakers became rather vague, acquiring a meaning similar to "large deer". English-speaking people arriving in North America during the European colonization of the Americas lacked familiarity with "Alces alces" on either side of the Atlantic Ocean, but familiar with the smaller red deer ("Cervus elaphus") of the British Isles, thought that the larger North American "C. canadensis" resembled the even larger "Alces alces", and thus gave to it the name "elk".
The name "wapiti" is from the Shawnee and Cree word "waapiti", meaning "white rump". There is a subspecies of wapiti in Mongolia called the Altai wapiti ("Cervus canadensis sibiricus"), also known as the Altai maral. The Asian subspecies are sometimes referred to as the "maral", but this name applies primarily to the Caspian red deer ("Cervus elaphus maral"), a subspecies of red deer.
According to the "Oxford English Dictionary", the etymology of the word "elk" is "of obscure history". In Classical Antiquity, the European "Alces alces" was known as and , words probably borrowed from a Germanic language or another language of northern Europe. By the 8th century, during the Early Middle Ages, the moose was known as derived from the Proto-Germanic: "*elho-", "*elhon-" and possibly connected with the . Later, the species became known in Middle English as "elk", "elcke", or "elke", appearing in the Latinized form "alke", with the spelling "alce" borrowed directly from . Noting that "elk" "is not the normal phonetic representative" of the Old English "elch", the "Oxford English Dictionary" derives "elk" from , itself from .
The American "Cervus canadensis" was recognized as a relative of the red deer ("Cervus elaphus"), of Europe, and so "Cervus canadensis" was referred to as "red deer". Richard Hakluyt, in his 1584 "Discourse Concerning Western Planting", mentioned the continent's plentiful red deer (). Similarly, John Smith's 1616 "A Description of New England" referred to red deer. Sir William Talbot's 1672 English translation of John Lederer's Latin "Discoveries" likewise called the species "Red Deer", but noted in parentheses that they were "for their unusual largeness improperly termed Elks by ignorant people". Both Thomas Jefferson's 1785 "Notes on the State of Virginia" and David Bailie Warden's 1816 "Statistical, Political, and Historical Account of the United States" used "red deer" to refer to "Cervus canadensis".
Taxonomy.
Members of the genus "Cervus" (and hence early relatives or possible ancestors of the elk) first appear in the fossil record 25 million years ago, during the Oligocene in Eurasia, but do not appear in the North American fossil record until the early Miocene. The extinct Irish elk ("Megaloceros") was not a member of the genus "Cervus" but rather the largest member of the wider deer family (Cervidae) known from the fossil record.
Until recently, red deer and elk were considered to be one species, "Cervus elaphus", with over a dozen subspecies. But mitochondrial DNA studies conducted in 2004 on hundreds of samples from red deer and elk subspecies and other species of the "Cervus" deer family, strongly indicate that elk, or wapiti, should be a distinct species, namely "Cervus canadensis". DNA evidence validates that elk are more closely related to Thorold's deer and even sika deer than they are to the red deer.
Elk and red deer produce fertile offspring in captivity, and the two species have freely inter-bred in New Zealand's Fiordland National Park. The cross-bred animals have resulted in the disappearance of virtually all pure elk blood from the area. Key morphological differences that distinguish "C. canadensis" from "C. elaphus" are the former's wider rump patch and paler-hued antlers.
Subspecies.
There are numerous subspecies of elk described, with six from North America and four from Asia, although some taxonomists consider them different ecotypes or races of the same species (adapted to local environments through minor changes in appearance and behavior). Populations vary in antler shape and size, body size, coloration and mating behavior. DNA investigations of the Eurasian subspecies revealed that phenotypic variation in antlers, mane and rump patch development are based on "climatic-related lifestyle factors".
Of the six subspecies of elk known to have inhabited North America in historical times, four remain, including the Roosevelt's ("C. canadensis roosevelti"), tule ("C. canadensis nannodes"), Manitoban ("C. canadensis manitobensis") and Rocky Mountain elk ("C. canadensis nelsoni"). The eastern elk ("C. canadensis canadensis") and Merriam's elk ("C. canadensis merriami") subspecies have been extinct for at least a century.
Four subspecies described in Asia include the Altai wapiti ("C. canadensis sibiricus") and the Tianshan wapiti ("C. canadensis songaricus"). Two distinct subspecies found in China, Mongolia, the Korean Peninsula and Siberia are the Manchurian wapiti ("C. canadensis xanthopygus") and the Alashan wapitis ("C. canadensis alashanicus"). The Manchurian wapiti is darker and more reddish in coloration than the other populations. The Alashan wapiti of north central China is the smallest of all subspecies, has the lightest coloration and is the least studied.
Recent DNA studies suggest that there are no more than three or four subspecies of elk. All American forms, aside from possibly the tule and Roosevelt's elk, seem to belong to one subspecies ("Cervus canadensis canadensis"). Even the Siberian elk ("Cervus canadensis sibiricus") are more or less identical to the American forms and therefore may belong to this subspecies, too. However, the Manchurian wapiti ("Cervus canadensis xanthopygus") is clearly distinct from the Siberian forms, but not distinguishable from the Alashan wapiti. The Chinese forms the Sichuan deer, Kansu red deer, and Tibetan red deer belong also to the wapitis and were not distinguishable from each other by mitochondrial DNA studies. These Chinese subspecies are sometimes treated as a distinct species, namely the Central Asian red deer ("Cervus wallichi"), which also includes the Kashmir stag.
Characteristics.
Elk have thick bodies with slender legs and short tails. They have a shoulder height of with a nose-to-tail length of . Males are larger and weigh while females weigh . The largest of the subspecies is the Roosevelt elk ("C. c. roosevelti"), found west of the Cascade Range in the U.S. states of California, Oregon and Washington, and in the Canadian province of British Columbia. Roosevelt elk have been reintroduced into Alaska, where the largest males are estimated to weigh up to . More typically, male Roosevelt elk weigh around , while females weigh . Male tule elk weigh while females weigh .
Antlers are made of bone, which can grow at a rate of per day. While actively growing, a soft layer of highly vascularized skin known as velvet covers and protects them. This is shed in the summer when the antlers have fully developed. Bull elk typically have around six tines on each antler. The Siberian and North American elk carry the largest antlers while the Altai wapiti has the smallest. Roosevelt bull antlers can weigh . The formation and retention of antlers are testosterone-driven. In late winter and early spring, the testosterone level drops, which causes the antlers to shed.
During the fall, elk grow a thicker coat of hair, which helps to insulate them during the winter. Both male and female North American elk grow thin neck manes; females of other subspecies may not. By early summer, the heavy winter coat has been shed. Elk are known to rub against trees and other objects to help remove hair from their bodies. All elk have small and clearly defined rump patches with short tails. They have different coloration based on the seasons and types of habitats, with gray or lighter coloration prevalent in the winter and a more reddish, darker coat in the summer. Subspecies living in arid climates tend to have lighter colored coats than do those living in forests. Most have lighter yellow-brown to orange-brown coats in contrast to dark brown hair on the head, neck, and legs during the summer. Forest-adapted Manchurian and Alashan wapitis have red or reddish-brown coats with less contrast between the body coat and the rest of the body during the summer months. Calves are born spotted, as is common with many deer species, and lose them by the end of summer. Adult Manchurian wapiti may retain a few orange spots on the back of their summer coats until they are older. This characteristic has also been observed in the forest-adapted European red deer.
Behavior and ecology.
Elk are among the most gregarious deer species. During the summer group size can reach 400 individuals. For most of the year, adult males and females are segregated into different herds. Female herds are larger while bulls form small groups and may even travel alone. Young bulls may associate with older bulls or female groups. Male and female herds come together during the mating season, which may begin in late August. During this time, bulls enter the rut and compete for females to include in their harems. Males try to intimidate rivals by vocalizing and displaying with their antlers. If neither bull backs down, they engage in antler wrestling, sometimes sustaining serious injuries. Bulls also dig holes in the ground called wallows, in which they urinate and roll their bodies. A male elk's urethra points upward so that urine is sprayed almost at a right angle to the penis. The urine soaks into their hair and gives them a distinct smell which attracts cows.
Dominant bulls follow groups of cows during the rut from August into early winter. A bull will defend his harem of 20 cows or more from competing bulls and predators. A bull interacts with cows in his harem in two ways: herding and courtship. When a female wanders too far away from the harem's range, the male will rush ahead of her, block her path and aggressively rush her back to the harem. Herding behavior is accompanied a stretched out and lowered neck and the antlers laid back. A bull may get violent and hit the cow with his antlers. During courtship, the bull is more peaceful and approaches her with his head and antlers raised. The male signals his intention to test the female for sexual receptivity by flicking his tongue. If not ready, a cow will lower her head and weave from side to side while opening and closing her mouth. The bull will stop in response in order not to scare her. Otherwise, the bull will copiously lick the female and then mount her.
Younger, less dominant bulls, known as "spike bulls" because their antlers have not yet forked, will harass unguarded cows. These bulls are impatient and will not perform any courtship rituals and will continue to pursue a female even when she signals him to stop. As such, they are less reproductively successful, and a cow may stay close to the big bull to avoid harassment. Dominant bulls are intolerant of spike bulls and will chase them away from their harems.
Bulls have a loud, high-pitched, whistle-like vocalization known as "bugling", which advertise the male's fitness over great distances. Unusual for a vocalization produced by a large animal, buglings can reach a frequency of 4000 Hz. This is achieved by blowing air from the glottis through the nasal cavities. Elk can produce deeper pitched (150 Hz) sounds using the larynx.
Reproduction and lifecycle.
Female elk have a short estrus cycle of only a day or two, and matings usually involve a dozen or more attempts. By the autumn of their second year, females can produce one and, very rarely, two offspring. Reproduction is most common when cows weigh at least . The gestation period is 240 to 262 days and the offspring weigh between . When the females are near to giving birth, they tend to isolate themselves from the main herd, and will remain isolated until the calf is large enough to escape predators.
Calves are born spotted, as is common with many deer species, and they lose their spots by the end of summer. After two weeks, calves are able to join the herd, and are fully weaned at two months of age. Elk calves are as large as an adult white-tailed deer by the time they are six months old. Elk will leave their natal (birth) ranges before they are three years old. Males disperse more often than females, as adult cows are more tolerant of female offspring from previous years. Elk live 20 years or more in captivity but average 10 to 13 years in the wild. In some subspecies that suffer less predation, they may live an average of 15 years in the wild.
Migration.
As is true for many species of deer, especially those in mountainous regions, elk migrate into areas of higher altitude in the spring, following the retreating snows, and the opposite direction in the fall. Hunting pressure impacts migration and movement. During the winter, they favor wooded areas for the greater availability of food to eat. Elk do not appear to benefit from thermal cover. The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem elk herds comprise as many as 40,000 individuals. During the spring and fall, they take part in the longest elk migration in the continental U.S., traveling as much as between summer and winter ranges. The Teton herd consists of between 9,000 and 13,000 elk and they spend winters on the National Elk Refuge, having migrated south from the southern portions of Yellowstone National Park and west from the Shoshone and Bridger–Teton National Forests.
Diet.
Elk are ruminants and therefore have four-chambered stomachs. Unlike white-tailed deer and moose, which are chiefly browsers, elk are similar to cattle in that they are primarily grazers. But like other deer, they also browse. Elk have a tendency to do most of their feeding in the mornings and evenings, seeking sheltered areas in between feedings to digest. Their diets vary somewhat depending on the season, with native grasses being a year-round supplement, tree bark being consumed in winter, and forbs and tree sprouts during the summer. Elk consume an average of of vegetation daily. Particularly fond of aspen sprouts which rise in the spring, elk have had some impact on aspen groves which have been declining in some regions where elk exist. Range and wildlife managers conduct surveys of elk pellet groups to monitor populations and resource use.
Predators and defensive tactics.
Predators of elk include wolves, coyotes, brown and black bears, cougars, and Siberian tigers. Coyote packs mostly prey on elk calves, though they can sometimes take a winter- or disease-weakened adult. In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, which includes Yellowstone National Park, bears are the most significant predators of calves while healthy bulls have never been recorded to be killed by bears and such encounters can be fatal for bears. The killing of cows in their prime is more likely to affect population growth than the killing of bulls or calves.
Elk may avoid predation by switching from grazing to browsing. Grazing puts an elk in the compromising situation of being in an open area with its head down, leaving it unable to see what is going on in the surrounding area. Living in groups also lessens the risk of an individual falling to predation. Large bull elk are less vulnerable and can afford to wander alone, while cows stay in larger groups for protection for their calves. Bulls are more vulnerable to predation by wolves in late winter, after they have been weakened by months of chasing females and fighting. Males that have recently lost their antlers are more likely to be preyed upon.
Parasites and disease.
At least 53 species of protist and animal parasites have been identified in elk. Most of these parasites seldom lead to significant mortality among wild or captive elk. "Parelaphostrongylus tenuis" (brainworm or meningeal worm) is a parasitic nematode known to affect the spinal cord and brain tissue of elk and other species, leading to death. The definitive host is the white-tailed deer, in which it normally has no ill effects. Snails and slugs, the intermediate hosts, can be inadvertently consumed by elk during grazing. The liver fluke "Fascioloides magna" and the nematode "Dictyocaulus viviparus" are also commonly found parasites that can be fatal to elk. Since infection by either of these parasites can be lethal to some commercial livestock species, their presence in elk herds is of some concern.
Chronic wasting disease, transmitted by a misfolded protein known as a prion, affects the brain tissue in elk, and has been detected throughout their range in North America. First documented in the late 1960s in mule deer, the disease has affected elk on game farms and in the wild in a number of regions. Elk that have contracted the disease begin to show weight loss, changes in behavior, increased watering needs, excessive salivation and urinating and difficulty swallowing, and at an advanced stage, the disease leads to death. No risks to humans have been documented, nor has the disease been demonstrated to pose a threat to domesticated cattle. In 2002, South Korea banned the importation of elk antler velvet due to concerns about chronic wasting disease.
The Gram-negative bacterial disease brucellosis occasionally affects elk in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, the only place in the U.S. where the disease is still known to exist. In domesticated cattle, brucellosis causes infertility, abortions, and reduced milk production. It is transmitted to humans as undulant fever, producing influenza-like symptoms that may last for years. Though bison are more likely to transmit the disease to other animals, elk inadvertently transmitted brucellosis to horses in Wyoming and cattle in Idaho. Researchers are attempting to eradicate the disease through vaccinations and herd-management measures, which are expected to be successful. Nevertheless, research has been ongoing since 2002, and a successful vaccine has yet to be developed .
A recent necropsy study of captive elk in Pennsylvania attributed the cause of death in 33 of 65 cases to either gastrointestinal parasites (21 cases, primarily "Eimeria" sp. and "Ostertagia" sp.) or bacterial infections (12 cases, mostly pneumonia).
Elk hoof disease was first noticed in the state of Washington in the late 1990s in the Cowlitz River basin, with sporadic reports of deformed hooves. Since then, the disease has spread rapidly with increased sightings throughout southwest Washington and into Oregon. The disease is characterised by deformed, broken, or missing hooves and leads to severe lameness in elk. The primary cause is not known, but it is associated with treponeme bacteria, which are known to cause digital dermatitis in commercial livestock. The mode of transmission is also not known, but it appears to be highly contagious among elk. Studies are being undertaken by government departments to determine how to halt or eliminate the disease.
Distribution.
Modern subspecies are descended from elk that once inhabited Beringia, a steppe region between Asia and North America that connected the two continents during the Pleistocene. Beringia provided a migratory route for numerous mammal species, including brown bear, camel, horse, caribou, and moose, as well as humans. As the Pleistocene came to an end, ocean levels began to rise; elk migrated southwards into Asia and North America. In North America they adapted to almost all ecosystems except for tundra, true deserts, and the U.S. Gulf Coast. The elk of southern Siberia and central Asia were once more widespread. Today they are restricted to the mountain ranges west of Lake Baikal including the Sayan and Altai Mountains of Mongolia and the Tianshan region that borders Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and China's Xinjiang Province. The habitat of Siberian elk in Asia is similar to that of the Rocky Mountain subspecies in North America. During the Late Pleistocene their range was much more extensive, being distributed across Eurasia, with remains being found as far west as France. These populations are most closely related to modern Asian populations of the elk. Their range collapsed at the start of the Holocene, because they were specialized to cold periglacial tundra-steppe habitat. This was replaced largely by closed forest where red deer outcompeted the elk. Relictual populations survived into the early Holocene in southern Sweden and the Alps, where the environment remained favorable.
Introductions.
The Rocky Mountain elk subspecies was reintroduced by hunter-conservation organizations in the Appalachian region of the eastern U.S., where the now extinct eastern elk once lived. Since the late 1990s, elk were reintroduced and recolonized in the states of Kentucky, North Carolina and Tennessee, Georgia, Virginia and West Virginia. In 2017, a male elk, likely from the Smoky Mountains population, was sighted in South Carolina for the first time in nearly 300 years. In 2015 Elk have also been reintroduced in a number of other states, including Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, Missouri, and introduced to the islands of Etolin and Afognak in Alaska. Reintroduction of the elk into Ontario began in the early 20th century and is ongoing with limited success. As of 1989, population figures for the Rocky Mountain subspecies were 782,500, and estimated numbers for all North American subspecies exceeded one million. Prior to the European colonization of North America, there were an estimated 10 million elk on the continent.
Outside their native habitat, elk and other deer species, especially white-tailed deer, were introduced in areas that previously had few, if any, large native ungulates. Brought to these countries for hunting and ranching for meat, hides and antler velvet, they have proven highly adaptable and have often had an adverse impact on local ecosystems. Elk and red deer were introduced to Argentina in the early 20th century. There they are now considered an invasive species, encroaching on Argentinian ecosystems where they compete for food with the indigenous Chilean huemul and other herbivores. This negative impact on native animal species has led the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) to identify the elk as one of the world's 100 worst invaders.
The introduction of deer to New Zealand began in the middle of the 19th century, and current populations are primarily European red deer, with only 15 percent being elk. There is significant hybridization of elk with the more numerous red deer to the extent that pure elk may no longer exist in the wild in New Zealand. These deer have had an adverse impact on forest regeneration of some plant species, as they consume more palatable species, which are replaced with those that are less favored by the elk. The long-term impact will be an alteration of the types of plants and trees found, and in other animal and plant species dependent upon them. As in Chile and Argentina, the IUCN has declared that red deer and elk populations in New Zealand are an invasive species.
Cultural references.
Elk have played an important role in the cultural history of a number of peoples. Neolithic petroglyphs from Asia depict antler-less female elk, which have been interpreted as symbolizing life and sustenance. They were also frequently overlaid with boats and associated with rivers, suggesting they also represented paths to the underworld. Petroglyphs of elk were carved into cliffs by the Anasazi of the southwestern U.S. hundreds of years ago. The elk was of particular importance to the Lakota and played a spiritual role in their society. The male elk was admired for its ability to attract mates, and Lakota men will play a courting flute imitating a bugling elk to attract women. Men used elks' antlers as love charms and wore clothes decorated with elk images.
The Rocky Mountain elk is the official state animal for Utah. An image of an elk and a moose appear on the state seal and flag of Michigan. The Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks (B.P.O.E.) chose the elk as its namesake because a number of its attributes seemed appropriate for cultivation by members of the fraternity. A representation of the majestic head of the male, with its spreading antlers, was adopted as the first badge of the Order; it is still the most conspicuous element of its copyrighted fraternal emblem. A prized possession of many members of the B.P.O.E. are jewel encrusted, gold mounted elk teeth—which are actually ivory.
Commercial uses.
Although breakdown figures for each game species are not available in the 2006 National Survey from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, hunting of wild elk is most likely the primary economic impact.
While elk are not generally harvested for meat production on a large scale, some restaurants offer the meat as a specialty item and it is also available in some grocery stores. The meat has a taste somewhere between beef and venison and is higher in protein and lower in fat and cholesterol than beef, pork, and chicken. Elk meat is a good source of iron, phosphorus and zinc.
A male elk can produce of antler velvet annually and on ranches in the United States, Canada and New Zealand, it is collected and sold to markets in East Asia, where it is used in medicine. Some cultures consider velvet to be an aphrodisiac. However, consuming velvet from elk in North America may be risky since velvet from animals infected with chronic wasting disease may contain prions that could result in a human getting variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.
Antlers are also used in artwork, furniture and other novelty items. All Asian subspecies, along with other deer, have been raised for their antlers in central and eastern Asia by Han Chinese, Turkic peoples, Tungusic peoples, Mongolians, and Koreans. Elk farms are relatively common in North America and New Zealand. Native Americans have used elk hides for tepee covering, clothing and footwear.
Since 1967, the Boy Scouts of America have assisted employees at the National Elk Refuge in Wyoming by collecting the antlers which are shed each winter. They are then auctioned, with 80% of the proceeds returned to the refuge. In 2010, of antlers were auctioned, bringing in over $46,000.


Tytthoscincus panchorensis

Tytthoscincus panchorensis, the Bukit Panchor forest skink, is a species of skink. It is endemic to Malaysia.


Goniurosaurus liboensis

Goniurosaurus liboensis is a species of geckos endemic to China.


Typhlops capitulatus

Typhlops capitulatus, commonly known as the Haitian pale-lipped blind snake or Richmond's worm snake, is a species of snake in the family Typhlopidae. The species is endemic to Haiti. There are no subspecies that are recognized as being valid.
Geographic range.
In Haiti, "T. capitulatus" is known from the Tiburon Peninsula.
Habitat.
The preferred habitats of "T. capitulatus" are forest and shrubland, at altitudes of .
Description.
"T. capitulatus" is small-headed and slender-bodied. Dorsally, it is light brown. Ventrally, it is paler, with scattered white scales. The anal region and the ventral surface of the tail are white. The total length (including tail) of the holotype is , and the diameter at midbody is .
Reproduction.
"T. capitulatus" is oviparous.


Scepastopyga

Scepastopyga is a genus of flies in the family Dolichopodidae from Papua New Guinea. There is only one described species, Scepastopyga semiflava, described by Patrick Grootaert and Henk J. G. Meuffels in 1997. It is small, with a body length of about 2 mm, and is coloured yellow or brown without a metallic gloss.
The generic name is derived from the Greek words skepastós ("covered") and pygè ("rump").


Mexican musk turtle

The Mexican musk turtle ("Staurotypus triporcatus"), also known commonly as the narrow-bridged musk turtle, is a species of turtle in the family Kinosternidae. The species is endemic to Central America and Mexico.
Geographic range.
"S. triporcatus" is found in Belize, northeastern Guatemala, western Honduras, and Mexico. In Mexico it is found in the Mexican states of Campeche, Chiapas, Oaxaca, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, and Veracruz.
Description.
"S. triporcatus" is typically much larger than other species of Kinosternidae, attaining a straight carapace length of up to 36 cm (14 in), with males being significantly smaller than females. It is typically brown, black, or green in color, with a yellow underside. The carapace is distinguished by three distinct ridges, or keels, which run the length.
"S. triporcatus" exhibits XX/XY sex determination, in contrast to the temperature-dependent sex determination of most turtles.
Diet.
Like other musk turtle species, "S. triporcatus" is carnivorous, eating various types of aquatic invertebrates, as well as fish and carrion..


Mongolian short-toed lark

The Mongolian short-toed lark or Sykes's short-toed lark ("Calandrella dukhunensis") is a species of lark in the family Alaudidae. It breeds in China and Mongolia and winters in southern Asia.
Taxonomy and systematics.
The Mongolian short-toed lark was originally placed in the genus "Alauda". It was then considered as a subspecies of the morphologically similar greater short-toed lark, but recent analyses of both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA showed that it was more closely related to Hume's short-toed lark. It was split in 2016 by the IOC, although not all other authorities have recognized this re-classification to date. Additionally, some authorities considered the Mongolian short-toed lark to be a subspecies of the red-capped lark. The name 'Mongolian short-toed lark' is also used as an alternate name for the Asian short-toed lark. The alternate name short-toed lark may also be used for three other species in the genus "Calandrella".
Description.
The Mongolian short-toed lark is darker and has a shorter bill than the greater short-toed lark. The Mongolian short-toed lark breeds on the Tibetan plateau and winters mainly in peninsular India.


Cascade mountain wolf

The Cascade Mountains wolf ("Canis lupus fuscus") is an extinct subspecies of the gray wolf that was once found in the Pacific Northwest (British Columbia, Oregon, and Washington), but became extinct in 1940.
Taxonomy.
It was originally identified as a separate species by Richardson in 1839 and from other wolves in the area by Edward Goldman in 1945. It is recognized as a subspecies of "Canis lupus" in the taxonomic authority "Mammal Species of the World (2005)".
Description.
It was described as a cinnamon-coloured wolf, measuring 165 cm and weighing 36–49 kg.
Resettlement.
Recently another subspecies, the British Columbia wolf ("Canis lupus columbianus"), has established itself in the Cascade mountain wolf's past territory by following the Cascade Range through Washington and is now west of the Cascade crest, expanding across Oregon, and into northern California to Lassen Peak, where in 2019 the Lassen pack produced 3 wolf pups.


Potamites ocellatus

Potamites ocellatus is a species of lizard in the family Gymnophthalmidae. It is endemic to Bolivia.


Ctenomys andersoni

Ctenomys andersoni, also called Anderson's cujuchi, is a species of tuco-tuco native to Bolivia. Found only in Cerro Itahuaticua, Department of Santa Cruz, at an elevation of around , the species measures in length and has coarse brown and grey hair. It was named after Sydney Anderson, curator of the Department of Mammalogy at the American Museum of Natural History.


Limnonectes hascheanus

Limnonectes hascheanus is a species of frog in the family Dicroglossidae. It is found in the Malay Peninsula (from southern Myanmar and Thailand to Peninsular Malaysia); its occurrence in the Andaman Islands requires confirmation. It is a small frog, males being and females snout-vent length.
Taxonomy.
Taxonomic work by Robert F. Inger and in 2010 on "Limnonectes hascheanus" and "L. limborgi" has led to better understanding of these similar species — "L. limborgi" has been considered a junior synonym of "L. hascheanus". While the species are morphologically similar, mainly differing in body size ("L. hascheanus" is smaller), they are genetically distinct. This taxonomic work has also led to redefinition of ranges of both species, and the range of "L. hascheanus" (as presently defined) is much more restricted than what was reported in the latest (2004) IUCN assessment for this species.
Life cycle.
The life cycle of "Limnonectes hascheanus" has earlier been reported to have direct development (no free-swimming tadpole stage, which instead hatch as tiny full-formed frogs). Notice that the original observations of this phenomenon came from outside the range of "L. hascheanus" and probably apply to "L. limborgi". More importantly, careful observations have showed that "L. limborgi" has free-swimming but endotrophic larvae; this probably applies to "L. hascheanus" too.


Incilius coccifer

Incilius coccifer (common name: southern round-gland toad or southern roundgland toad) is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is found in southern Mexico and southeastward in the Central America through Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua to northwestern Costa Rica. Several species that were formerly included in this species have been named as distinct species: "Incilius porteri", "Incilius ibarrai", "Incilius pisinnus", and "Incilius signifer". Its natural habitats are lowland dry and moist forests, and it occurs also in disturbed areas such as pastures, roadside ditches, gardens, and vacant lots in urban areas. It is an abundant and widespread species that is not facing significant threats.


Cyrtodactylus tripuraensis

Cyrtodactylus tripuraensis is a species of gecko endemic to Tripura, Northeast India.


Plateau brown frog

The plateau brown frog or plateau wood frog ("Rana kukunoris") is a species of frog in the family Ranidae, endemic to the plateau region of western China (northwestern Sichuan, eastern Qinghai, Gansu, and very northeastern Tibet). It was previously included in "Rana chensinensis" but it now considered a valid species. It is a common frog in suitable habitats that include alpine meadows, marshland and grassland. It hibernates in streams. It is not considered threatened by the IUCN.


Andean poison frog

The Andean poison frog (Andinobates opisthomelas) is a species of frog in the family Dendrobatidae. It is endemic to Colombia. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Agorius constrictus

Agorius constrictus is a species of ant mimicking jumping spider from Singapore.
Description.
Both sexes are about 6 mm long. The orange-brown cephalothorax is about twice as long as wide, with its posterior edge forming a transverse depression behind the rear eyes. The very long opisthosoma mimicks the shape of certain ants, with a small dark oval anterior part, a slender whitish "waist" and a large dark oval posterior part. The long slender legs are lightish orange.


Leptynia caprai

Leptynia caprai is a species of stick insect from Heteronemiidae family which is endemic to Spain. In 1998 the species was studied by Anna Paola Bianchi and Patrizia Meliado who discovered that the species have 40 chromosomes.


Helladia imperialis

Helladia imperialis is a species of longhorn beetle in the subfamily Lamiinae that is endemic to Iran. The species is in length and is blackish-orange coloured. Adults are on wing from May to July, and it feeds on "Centaurea imperialis".