Pharyngula

The pharyngula is a stage in the embryonic development of vertebrates. At this stage, the embryos of all vertebrates are similar, having developed features typical of vertebrates, such as the beginning of a spinal cord. Named by William Ballard, the pharyngula stage follows the blastula, gastrula and neurula stages.
Morphological similarity in vertebrate embryos.
At the pharyngula stage, all vertebrate embryos show remarkable similarities, i.e., it is a "phylotypic stage" of the sub-phylum, containing the following features:
The branchial grooves are matched on the inside by a series of paired gill pouches. In fish, the pouches and grooves eventually meet and form the gill slits, which allow water to pass from the pharynx over the gills and out the body.
In the other vertebrates, the grooves and pouches disappear. In humans, the chief trace of their existence is the eustachian tube and auditory canal which (interrupted only by the eardrum) connect the pharynx with the outside of the head.
The existence of a common pharyngula stage for vertebrates was first proposed by German biologist Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919) in 1874.
The hourglass model.
The observation of the conservation of animal morphology during the embryonic phylotypic period, where there is maximal similarity between the species within each animal phylum, has led to the proposition that embryogenesis diverges more extensively in the early and late stages than the middle stage, and is known as the hourglass model. Comparative genomic studies suggest that the phylotypic stage is the maximally conserved stage during embryogenesis.


Axis (anatomy)

In anatomy, the axis (from Latin "axis", "axle") or epistropheus, is the second cervical vertebra (C2) of the spine, immediately posterior to the atlas, upon which the head rests.
The axis' defining feature is its strong odontoid process (bony protrusion) known as the dens, which rises dorsally from the rest of the bone. In some judicial hangings, the odontoid process may break and hit the medulla oblongata, causing death.
Structure.
The body is deeper in front or in the back and is prolonged downward anteriorly to overlap the upper and front part of the third vertebra.
It presents a median longitudinal ridge in front, separating two lateral depressions for the attachment of the longus colli muscles.
Dens.
The dens, also called the odontoid process or the peg, are the most pronounced projecting feature of the axis. The dens exhibit a slight constriction where it joins the main body of the vertebra. The condition where the dens are separated from the body of the axis is called "os odontoideum" and may cause nerve and circulation compression syndrome. On its anterior surface is an oval or nearly circular facet for articulation with that on the anterior arch of the atlas. On the back of the neck, and frequently extending on to its lateral surfaces, is a shallow groove for the transverse atlantal ligament which retains the process in position. The apex is pointed and gives attachment to the apical odontoid ligament. Below the apex, the process is somewhat enlarged and presents on either side a rough impression for the attachment of the alar ligament; these ligaments connect the process to the occipital bone.
The internal structure of the odontoid process is more compact than that of the body. The odontoid peg is the ascension of the atlas fused to the ascension of the axis. The peg has an articular facet at its front and forms part of a joint with the anterior arch of the atlas. It is a non-weight bearing joint. The alar ligaments, together with the apical ligaments, are attached from the sloping upper edge of the odontoid peg to the margins of the foramen magnum. The inner ligaments limit rotation of the head and are very strong. The weak apical ligament lies in front of the upper longitudinal bone of the cruciform ligament and joins the apex of the deltoid peg to the anterior margin of the foramen magnum. It is the fibrous remnant of the notochord.
Other features.
The pedicles are broad and strong, especially in the front, where they coalesce with the sides of the body and the root of the odontoid process. They are covered above by the superior articular surfaces.
The laminae are thick and strong. They play a large role in the stability of the cervical spine alongside the laminae of C7.
The vertebral foramen is large, but smaller than the atlas.
The transverse processes are very small, and each ends in a single tubercle. Each process is perforated by the transverse foramen, which is directed obliquely upward and laterally.
The superior articular surfaces are round, slightly convex, directed upward and laterally, and are supported on the body, pedicles, and transverse processes.
The inferior articular surfaces have the same direction as those of the other cervical vertebrae.
The superior vertebral notches are very shallow, and lie behind the articular processes. The inferior vertebral notches lie in front of the articular processes, as in the other cervical vertebrae.
The spinous process is large, very strong, deeply channelled on its under surface, and presents a bifurcated extremity.
Variation.
Contact sports are contraindicated for individuals with anomalous dens, as any violent impact may result in a catastrophic injury. This is because a malformed odontoid process may lead to instability between the atlas and axis (the C1 and C2 cervical vertebrae).
Development.
The axis is ossified from five primary and two secondary centres.
The body and vertebral arch are ossified in the same manner as the corresponding parts in the other vertebrae, viz., one centre for the body, and two for the vertebral arch.
The centres for the arch appear about the seventh or eighth week of fetal life, while the centres for the body appear in about the fourth or fifth month.
The dens, or odontoid process, consist originally of a continuation upward of the cartilaginous mass, in which the lower part of the body is formed.
During about the sixth month of fetal life, two centres make their appearance in the base of this process: they are placed laterally, and join before birth to form a conical bilobed mass deeply cleft above; the interval between the sides of the cleft and the summit of the process is formed by a wedge-shaped piece of cartilage.
The base of the process is separated from the body by a cartilaginous disk, which gradually becomes ossified at its circumference, but remains cartilaginous in its center until advanced age.
In this cartilage, rudiments of the lower epiphyseal lamella of the atlas and the upper epiphyseal lamella of the axis may sometimes be found.
The apex of the odontoid process has a separate centre that appears in the second and joins about the twelfth year; this is the upper epiphyseal lamella of the atlas.
In addition to these, there is a secondary centre for a thin epiphyseal plate on the undersurface of the body of the bone.
Clinical significance.
Fracture of dens.
Fractures of the dens, not to be confused with Hangman's fractures, are classified into three categories according to the Anderson Alonso system:


Learned non-use

Learned non-use of a limb is a learning phenomenon whereby movement is suppressed initially due to adverse reactions and failure of any activity attempted with the affected limb, which then results in the suppression of behavior. Continuation of this response results in persisting tendency and consequently, the individual never learns that the limb may have become potentially useful. By constraining the less-affected limb there is a change in motivation, which overcomes the learned nonuse of the more-affected limb.
The principles of constraint-induced movement therapy (CIMT) used in stroke patients are based on the idea of the reversal of learned non-use. CIMT uses constrained movement of the less-affected limb and intensive training of the paretic arm to counter-condition the nonuse of the more-affected arm learned in the acute and early sub-acute periods. More recently, clinical versions of CIMT - called "modified constraint induced movement therapy" (mCIT) - have been produced that are administered over a longer time period than CIMT (usually 10 weeks). While offering the same effectiveness and cortical changes as CIMT, these versions are better tolerated, and can be integrated into traditional therapy clinics and reimbursement parameters.


Cornelia Clapp

Cornelia Maria Clapp (March 17, 1849 – December 31, 1934) was an American zoologist and academic specializing in marine biology. She was born in Montague, Massachusetts, the first daughter and oldest child of two teachers, and was rated as one of the top zoologists in the United States in her lifetime.
Clapp attended Syracuse University and the University of Chicago, earning both the first and second Ph.D. degrees awarded to women in the United States, in 1889 from Syracuse and 1896 from Chicago. Mount Holyoke’s Cornelia Clapp Laboratory, built in 1924 to house the school’s biology classes, was named in her honor.
Education and career.
Clapp completed the equivalent of an undergraduate program at Mount Holyoke Female Seminary (the forerunner of today’s Mount Holyoke College) in 1871 before spending one year as a Latin teacher at a boys' boarding school, Potter Hall, in Andalusia, Pennsylvania.
She returned to Mount Holyoke in 1872, teaching mathematics and natural history before becoming the college's gymnastics instructor from 1876 to 1891.
Clapp continued her extensive postgraduate studies at Louis Agassiz’s Anderson School of Natural History on Penikese Island, Buzzard's Bay, MA in 1874. She adopted Agassiz's dictum "Study nature, not books!" and applied it to her own teaching.
She introduced her learned knowledge via an embryology course at Mount Holyoke, supplanted by specimens from alumni abroad. Along with other New England entomologists, Clapp collected insects from the White Mountains of New Hampshire in the summer of 1875 and from the mid-Atlantic states in 1877. (Stops included the Johns Hopkins University marine station in Beaufort, SC and the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C.)
Clapp also completed brief studies on chick embryos and earthworms at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology under W.T. Sedgwick and at Williams College in the early 1880s. Beginning in 1888, Clapp was affiliated with the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, MA. In 2021, the Marine Biological Laboratory renamed their primary lecture hall to be the Cornelia Clapp Auditorium. While at MBL, Clapp conducted laboratory research and later became a lecturer and a trustee. Her doctoral dissertation on toadfish was published in the "Journal of Morphology" in 1889.
When Mount Holyoke made the transition from seminary to college in 1888, Clapp took a three-year leave in order to obtain a doctorate at the University of Chicago. When she returned to Mount Holyoke, she helped organize the department of zoology, and in 1904 she was named professor of zoology. Although she was primarily known as an educator and did not author many scientific research papers, she was named in 1906 as being among the 150 most prominent zoologists in the U.S. by the journal "American Man of Science".
Legacy.
At a time when the world of science was just opening up to women, Cornelia Clapp's influence as a teacher was great and enduring. While she published little during her career, her major influence was to extend scientific knowledge and opportunity to women through education.
Her direct teaching manner can be felt in the experience of Louise Baird Wallace, who arrived at Mount Holyoke in 1891. Her school principal in Ohio told her: “You ought to study under Dr. Clapp. She keeps live frogs in tanks.” Of Clapp, Louise wrote, “I came, I saw; she conquered. I felt then and have felt ever since that I was never fully alive until I knew her.”


Tubuliporina

Tubuliporina is a suborder of bryozoans in the order Cyclostomatida. The earliest possible crown-group fossil date to the upper Triassic.
Families list.
Genera incertae sedis: "Supercytis"


Michel Roos

Michel Roos (27 August 1932 – 7 September 2002), was a French chess player, French Chess Championship winner (1964), French Correspondence Chess Championship winner (1957). By profession – doctor.
Biography.
Michel Roos received a medical degree. He was a professor at University of Strasbourg in Strasbourg. Specialized in histology. He founded the biostatistics laboratory at the University of Strasbourg. For some time he was vice president of the University of Strasbourg.
Michel Roos started playing chess in Strasbourg Chess Club under the leadership of aston Wolf (bronze medalist of the 1956 French Chess Championship). In the 1970-1980s he was the chairman of the club. Due to his main job, Michel Roos played mainly in domestic French competitions or in correspondence chess tournaments. He took part in the individual French Chess Championship finals many times and won five medals: gold (1964), silver (1958) and three bronze (1966, 1971, 1981). In 1957, Michel Roos won French Correspondence Chess Championship.
Michel Roos played for France in the World Student Team Chess Championship:
Michel Roos is the founder of a whole chess dynasty. His wife Jacqueline Roos (died 2016) was International Correspondence Chess Grandmaster (2000), daughter Céline (born 1953) is Women International Master (WIM) but his sons Louis (born 1957) and Daniël (born 1959) are International Master (IM).


Posterior communicating artery

In human anatomy, the left and right posterior communicating arteries are arteries at the base of the brain that form part of the circle of Willis. Each posterior communicating artery connects the three cerebral arteries of the same side. Anteriorly, it connects to the internal carotid artery (ICA) prior to the terminal bifurcation of the ICA into the anterior cerebral artery and middle cerebral artery. Posteriorly, it communicates with the posterior cerebral artery.
The brain is supplied with blood by the internal carotid arteries and also by the posterior cerebral arteries; the posterior communicating arteries connects the two systems. This provides redundancies or collaterals in the cerebral circulation so that, if one system is blocked or narrowed, the other can take over.
Development.
The development of the posterior cerebral artery (PCA) in the fetal brain occurs relatively late and arises from the fusion of several embryonic vessels near the caudal end of the posterior communicating artery.
The PCA begins as a continuation of the posterior communicating artery in 70-90% of fetuses with the remainder of PCAs having a basilar origin. The fetal carotid origin of the PCA usually regresses as the vertebral and basilar arteries become dominant and it finds a new origin in the basilar artery. About 20% of adults retain PCA origin from the posterior communicating artery, and in turn, the internal carotid arteries.
Clinical significance.
Aneurysms of the posterior communicating artery are the third most common circle of Willis aneurysm (the most common are anterior communicating artery aneurysms) and can lead to oculomotor nerve palsy.


Bigfoot Family

Bigfoot Family is a 2020 Belgian-French computer-animated comedy-drama film directed by Ben Stassen and Jeremy Degruson. It is the sequel to the 2017 film "The Son of Bigfoot". The film was also released as Bigfoot Superstar.
Plot.
Two months after convincing his father, Bigfoot, to return home, Adam becomes overwhelmed with the attention his father’s newfound fame has brought the family. He is also struggling to confess his feelings to his crush Emma.
Bigfoot wants to use his fame for a good cause and decides that protecting a large wildlife reserve from a dodgy oil company in Alaska is the perfect opportunity. Adam helps his father by uploading a promotional video to social media. Swathes of protestors arrive to support Bigfoot, who mysteriously disappears one night. Adam and his mother Shelly journey to find and rescue him along with their animal friends.
Arriving in Alaska, Adam and Shelly meet with the protestor who last saw Bigfoot, Arlo Woodstock. Shelly follows Arlo to the last location he saw Bigfoot, while Adam and his animal friends are ambushed by workers from the oil company. He escapes and encounters a wolf, whom he strikes a deal with. The wolf guides him to where the oil company is working before departing. Adam finds out that Arlo actually works for the company, and has taken Shelly; Adam evades capture from him.
Adam infiltrates the company grounds. Tycoon businessman and owner of the company, Conor Mandrake, is preparing to destroy the valley using a bomb, so that he can excavate the present oil easier. After freeing Shelly, as well as his father, who was also kidnapped by the company, Adam escapes the grounds with them. Turning back, they defuse the bomb. Conor confronts them, and Adam records him, exposing the scheme.
Adam uploads the recording of Conor’s confession. Conor and Arlo are arrested. Adam later meets with Emma and she reveals that he accidentally sent a video exposing his feelings to her. He asks Emma out, and she accepts, kissing Adam while his eavesdropping family congratulates him.
Production.
Production for " Bigfoot Family" began shortly before the release of nWave's seventh animated feature film, "The Queen's Corgi". The film follows "The Son of Bigfoot", which came out in theaters in 2018. The animation studio teased the production of the movie at the 2020 Paris Images Digital Summit.
Music.
After collaborating with nWave Pictures on the soundtrack of "The Son of Bigfoot", Belgian music band Puggy agreed to score the soundtrack of "Bigfoot Family". Puggy collaborated with Sylvie Hoarau for the single "Out in the Open", with the authorization of Sony Music, which is featured in the film during Adam's roadtrip to Alaska.
Release.
In June 2020, "Bigfoot Family" premiered at the Annecy International Animated Film Festival. At the festival, it was nominated for Best Animated Feature Film. "Bigfoot Family" premiered on Netflix February 26, 2021. It was the #1 movie on Netflix in the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the UK on its opening weekend, and remained the #1 movie in the USA for 6 days in a row.
Controversy.
In March 2021, the movie was targeted by the Canadian Energy Centre, an agency created and funded by the government of Alberta to promote the oil industry and defend it from critics including environmentalists. The Canadian Energy Centre, also called the "energy war room," published a website that accused the movie and its American distributor, Netflix, of "brainwashing" children with misinformation. The website, which was titled Support Canadian Energy, included a petition.


Cymbastela stipitata

Cymbastela stipitata is a species of marine sponge in the family Axinellidae.
The sponge was first described in 1967 by Patricia Bergquist and Catherine Tizard as "Pseudaxinyssa stipitata", but was assigned to the new genus, "Cymbastela", in 1992 by John Hooper and Patricia Bergquist.
It is found in Australia's coastal waters, from the Gulf of Carpentaria to the north west coasts of Western Australia. It is a sessile filter-feeder, found generally in intertidal waters on coral reefs at depths up to 19 m.


Excretory system of gastropods

The excretory system of gastropods removes nitrogenous waste and maintains the internal water balance of these creatures, commonly referred to as snails and slugs. The primary organ of excretion is a nephridium.
Structure.
The most primitive gastropods retain two nephridia, but in the great majority of species, the right nephridium has been lost, leaving a single excretory organ, located in the anterior part of the visceral mass. The nephridium projects into the main venous sinus in the animal's foot. The circulatory fluid of gastropods, known as haemolymph directly bathes the tissues, where it supplies them with oxygen and absorbs carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste, a necessary waste product of metabolism. From the arterial sinuses bathing the tissues, it drains into the venous sinus, and thus flows past the nephridium.
The main body cavity of most aquatic gastropods also includes pericardial glands, often located above the heart. These secrete waste into the haemolymph, prior to further filtration in the nephridium. Pulmonates lack these glands, so that the nephridium is the only major organ of excretion.
In some gastropods, the nephridium opens directly into the sinus, but more usually, there is a small duct, referred to as the renopericardial canal. In aquatic gastropods, the nephridium is drained by a ureter that opens near the rear of the mantle cavity. This allows the flow of water through the cavity to flush out the excreta. Terrestrial pulmonates instead have a much longer ureter, that opens near the anus.
In addition to the pericardial glands and nephridum, excretory cells are also present in the digestive glands opening into the stomach. These glands have a metabolic function, somewhat similar to that of the vertebrate liver, and excrete waste products directly into the digestive system, where it is voided with the faeces.
Water balance.
In aquatic gastropods, the waste product is invariably ammonia, which rapidly dissolves in the surrounding water. In the case of freshwater species, the nephridium also resorbs a significant amount of salt in order to prevent its loss through osmosis into the surrounding water.
Terrestrial species instead excrete insoluble uric acid, which allows them to maintain their internal water balance. Even so, most species require a somewhat humid environment, and secrete a considerable amount of water in their slime trail. Those few species that dwell in arid environments typically hibernate or aestivate during dry periods to preserve moisture.


Lumbar vertebrae

The lumbar vertebrae are, in human anatomy, the five vertebrae between the rib cage and the pelvis. They are the largest segments of the vertebral column and are characterized by the absence of the foramen transversarium within the transverse process (since it is only found in the cervical region) and by the absence of facets on the sides of the body (as found only in the thoracic region). They are designated L1 to L5, starting at the top. The lumbar vertebrae help support the weight of the body, and permit movement.
Human anatomy.
General characteristics.
The figure on the left depicts the general characteristics of the first through fourth lumbar vertebrae. The fifth vertebra contains certain peculiarities, which are detailed below.
As with other vertebrae, each lumbar vertebra consists of a "vertebral body" and a "vertebral arch". The vertebral arch, consisting of a pair of "pedicles" and a pair of "laminae", encloses the "vertebral foramen" (opening) and supports seven processes.
Body.
The vertebral body of each lumbar vertebra is kidney shaped, wider from side to side than from front to back, and a little thicker in front than in back. It is flattened or slightly concave above and below, concave behind, and deeply constricted in front and at the sides.
Arch.
The pedicles are very strong, directed backward from the upper part of the vertebral body; consequently, the inferior vertebral notches are of considerable depth. The pedicles change in morphology from the upper lumbar to the lower lumbar. They increase in sagittal width from 9 mm to up to 18 mm at L5. They increase in angulation in the axial plane from 10 degrees to 20 degrees by L5. The pedicle is sometimes used as a portal of entrance into the vertebral body for fixation with pedicle screws or for placement of bone cement as with kyphoplasty or vertebroplasty.
The laminae are broad, short, and strong. They form the posterior portion of the vertebral arch. In the upper lumbar region the lamina are taller than wide but in the lower lumbar vertebra the lamina are wider than tall. The lamina connects the spinous process to the pedicles.
The vertebral foramen within the arch is triangular, larger than the thoracic vertebrae, but smaller than in the cervical vertebrae.
Processes.
The "spinous process" is thick, broad, and somewhat quadrilateral; it projects backward and ends in a rough, uneven border, thickest below where it is occasionally notched.
The superior and inferior "articular processes" are well-defined, projecting respectively upward and downward from the junctions of pedicles and laminae. The facets on the superior processes are concave, and look backward and medialward; those on the inferior are convex, and are directed forward and lateralward. The former are wider apart than the latter since in the articulated column, the inferior articular processes are embraced by the superior processes of the subjacent vertebra.
The "transverse processes" are long and slender. They are horizontal in the upper three lumbar vertebrae and incline a little upward in the lower two. In the upper three vertebrae they arise from the junctions of the pedicles and laminae, but in the lower two they are set farther forward and spring from the pedicles and posterior parts of the vertebral bodies. They are situated in front of the articular processes instead of behind them as in the thoracic vertebrae, and are homologous with the ribs.
Three portions or "tubercles" can be noticed in a transverse process of a lower lumbar vertebrae: the lateral or "costiform process", the "mammillary process", and the "accessory process". The costiform is lateral, the mammillary is superior (cranial), and the accessory is inferior (caudal). The mammillary is connected in the lumbar region with the back part of the superior articular process. The accessory process is situated at the back part of the base of the transverse process. The tallest and thickest costiform process is usually that of L5.
First and fifth lumbar vertebrae.
The first lumbar vertebra is level with the anterior end of the ninth rib. This level is also called the important transpyloric plane, since the pylorus of the stomach is at this level. Other important structures are also located at this level, they include; fundus of the gall bladder, celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, termination of spinal cord, beginning of filum terminalis, renal vessels, middle suprarenal arteries, and hila of kidneys.
The fifth lumbar vertebra is characterized by its body being much deeper in front than behind, which accords with the prominence of the sacrovertebral articulation; by the smaller size of its spinous process; by the wide interval between the inferior articular processes, and by the thickness of its transverse processes, which spring from the body as well as from the pedicles.
The fifth lumbar vertebra is by far the most common site of spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis.
Most individuals have five lumbar vertebrae, while some have four or six. Lumbar disorders that normally affect L5 will affect L4 or L6 in these latter individuals.
Segmental movements.
The range of segmental movements in a single segment is difficult to measure clinically, not only because of variations between individuals, but also because it is age and sex dependent. Furthermore, flexion and extension in the lumbal spine is the product of a combination of rotation and translation in the sagittal plane between each vertebra.
Ranges of segmental movements in the lumbar spine (White and Punjabi, 1990) are (in degrees):
Congenital anomalies.
Congenital vertebral anomalies can cause compression of the spinal cord by deforming the vertebral canal or causing instability.
Other animals.
African apes have three and four lumbar vertebrae, (bonobos have longer spines with an additional vertebra) and humans normally five. This difference, and because the lumbar spines of the extinct "Nacholapithecus" (a Miocene hominoid with six lumbar vertebrae and no tail) are similar to those of early "Australopithecus" and early "Homo", it is assumed that the Chimpanzee-human last common ancestor also had a long vertebral column with a long lumbar region and that the reduction in the number of lumbar vertebrae evolved independently in each ape clade.
The limited number of lumbar vertebrae in chimpanzees and gorillas result in an inability to lordose (curve) their lumbar spines, in contrast to the spines of Old World monkeys and "Nacholapithecus" and "Proconsul", which suggests that the last common ancestor was not "short-backed" as previously believed.


Sinus (anatomy)

A sinus is a sac or cavity in any organ or tissue, or an abnormal cavity or passage caused by the destruction of tissue. In common usage, "sinus" usually refers to the paranasal sinuses, which are air cavities in the cranial bones, especially those near the nose and connecting to it. Most individuals have four paired cavities located in the cranial bone or skull.
Etymology.
"Sinus" is Latin for "bay", "pocket", "curve", or "bosom". In anatomy, the term is used in various contexts.
The word "sinusitis" is used to indicate that one or more of the membrane linings found in the sinus cavities has become inflamed or infected. It is however distinct from a fistula, which is a tract connecting two epithelial surfaces. If left untreated, infections occurring in the sinus cavities can affect the chest and lungs.
Paranasal sinuses.
The four paired sinuses or air cavities can be referred to as:
Function.
The function of the sinus cavities within the cranial bone (skull) is not entirely clear. Beliefs about their possible function include:
Sinusitis.
If one or more of the paired paranasal sinuses or air cavities becomes inflamed, it leads to an infection called sinusitis. The term "sinusitis" means an inflammation of one or more of the sinus cavities. This inflammation causes an increase in internal pressure within these areas. The pressure is often experienced in the cheek area, eyes, nose, on one side of the head (temple areas), and can result in a severe headache.
When diagnosing a sinus infection, one can identify which sinus cavity the infection is located in by the term given to the cavity. Ethmoiditis refers to an infection in the ethmoid sinus cavity/ies, frontal sinusitis refers to an infection occurring in the frontal sinus cavity/ies, antritis is used to refer to an infection in the maxillary sinus cavity/ies whilst sphenoiditis refers to an infection in the sphenoid sinus cavity/ies.
Classification.
Sinusitis can be acute, chronic or recurrent.
Causes.
A sinus infection can have a number of causes. Untreated allergies are one of the main contributing factors to the development of sinus infections. A person with a sinus infection often has nasal congestion with thick nasal secretions, fever, and cough (WebMD). Patients can be treated by “reducing the swelling or inflammation in the nasal passages and sinuses, eliminating the infection, promoting drainage from the sinuses, and maintaining open sinuses” (WebMD). Sinusitis can be treated with medications and can also be eliminated by surgery.
Another cause of sinus infections is a result of bacterial invasion within one or more of the sinus cavities. Any bacteria that enter the nasal passages and sinus cavities through the air that is inhaled, are trapped by the mucus secreted by the mucous membranes surrounding these areas. These trapped particles can cause an irritation to these linings resulting in swelling and inflammation. “Bacteria that normally cause acute sinusitis are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis (WebMD). These microorganisms, along with Staphylococcus aureus and some anaerobes (bacteria that live without oxygen), are involved in chronic sinusitis. (WebMD)” Fungi can also cause chronic sinusitis.
Certain abnormalities or trauma related injuries to the nasal cavity can make it difficult for effective drainage of mucus from the sinus cavities. This mucus is then allowed to develop in these areas making the cavity an ideal area in which bacteria can both attach and thrive.
Treatment outlook.
Sinusitis or sinus infections usually clear up if treated early and appropriately. Apart from complications, the outlook for acute bacterial sinusitis is good. People may develop chronic sinusitis or have recurrent attacks of acute sinusitis if they suffer with allergies or if they have any “structural or anatomical causes" which predispose them to developing sinus infections.
Viral sinus infections do not however respond well to conventional treatments such as antibiotics. When treating fungal sinusitis, an appropriate fungicide is usually administered.


Herring gull

Herring gull is a common name for several birds in the genus "Larus", all formerly treated as a single species.
Three species are still combined in some taxonomies:
Additional species formerly included within this species include:
Other large gulls in "Larus" are also similar to herring gulls.


Temporal muscle

In anatomy, the temporal muscle, also known as the temporalis, is one of the muscles of mastication. It is a broad, fan-shaped muscle on each side of the head that fills the temporal fossa, superior to the zygomatic arch so it covers much of the temporal bone.
"Temporal" refers to the head's temples.
Structure.
In humans, it arises from the temporal fossa and the deep part of temporal fascia. It passes medial to the zygomatic arch and forms a tendon which inserts onto the coronoid process of the mandible, with its insertion extending into the retromolar fossa posterior to the most distal mandibular molar. In other mammals, the muscle usually spans the dorsal part of the skull all the way up to the medial line. There, it may be attached to a sagittal crest, as can be seen in early hominins such as "Paranthropus aethiopicus".
The temporal muscle is covered by the temporal fascia, also known as the temporal aponeurosis. This fascia is commonly used in tympanoplasty, or surgical reconstruction of the eardrum.
The muscle is accessible on the temples, and can be seen and felt contracting while the jaw is clenching and unclenching.
Development.
The temporalis is derived from the first pharyngeal arch in development.
Innervation.
As with the other muscles of mastication, control of the temporal muscle comes from the third (mandibular) branch of the trigeminal nerve. Specifically, the muscle is innervated by the deep temporal nerves.
Blood supply.
The muscle receives its blood supply from the deep temporal arteries which anastomose with the middle temporal artery.
Function.
The temporal muscle is the most powerful muscle of the temporomandibular joint. The temporal muscle can be divided into two functional parts; anterior and posterior. The anterior portion runs vertically and its contraction results in elevation of the mandible (closing the mouth). The posterior portion has fibers which run horizontally and contraction of this portion results in retrusion of the mandible. The middle portion which fibers run in an oblique direction towards inferior and anterior are used for both elevation and retraction of the mandible and in a unilateral contraction provoque lateral movement of the mandible.
When lower dentures are fitted, they should not extend into the retromolar fossa to prevent trauma of the mucosa due to the contraction of the temporalis muscle.
Pathology.
The temporalis is likely to be involved in jaw pain and headaches. Bruxism, the habitual grinding of teeth typically while sleeping, and clenching of the jaw while stressed can lead to overwork of the temporalis and results in pain. A myotendinous rupture of the temporalis can occur during a seizure due to extreme clenching of the jaw. During a seizure the contralateral temporalis muscle can enter spastic paralysis, this clenching in extreme cases can lead to a rupture specifically on the myotendinous insertion at the coronoid process of the mandible.


Aaptos kanuux

Aaptos kanuux is a species of sea sponge belonging to the family Suberitidae.
It is named after the Unangan/Aleutian word for heart.
Discovery.
Greenpeace announced the discovery on April 28, 2008. It was discovered in the summer of 2007 while investigating deep sea canyons of the Bering Sea. Kenneth Lowyck discovered the new species while exploring the bottom of the canyon in a Deep Worker. George Pletnikoff, Greenpeace Alaska Ocean's Campaigner and an Aleut/Unangan from St. George Island was given the honor of naming the sponge and subsequently chose the Aleut/Unangan word for heart.


Ergastic substance

Ergastic substances are non-protoplasmic materials found in cells. The living protoplasm of a cell is sometimes called the bioplasm and distinct from the ergastic substances of the cell. The latter are usually organic or inorganic substances that are products of metabolism, and include crystals, oil drops, gums, tannins, resins and other compounds that can aid the organism in defense, maintenance of cellular structure, or just substance storage. Ergastic substances may appear in the protoplasm, in vacuoles, or in the cell wall.
Carbohydrates.
Reserve carbohydrate of plants are the derivatives of the end products of photosynthesis. Cellulose and starch are the main ergastic substances of plant cells. Cellulose is the chief component of the cell wall, and starch occurs as a reserve material in the protoplasm.
Starch, as starch grains, arise almost exclusively in plastids, especially leucoplasts and amyloplasts.
Proteins/Aleurone.
Although proteins are the main component of living protoplasm, proteins can occur as inactive, ergastic bodies—in an amorphous or crystalline (or crystalloid) form. A well-known amorphous ergastic protein is gluten.
Fats and oils.
Fats (lipids) and oils are widely distributed in plant tissues. Substances related to fats—waxes, suberin, and cutin—occur as protective layers in or on the cell wall.
Crystals.
Animals eliminate excess inorganic materials; plants mostly deposit such material in their tissues. Such mineral matter is mostly salts of calcium and anhydrides of silica.


Palatopharyngeus muscle

The palatopharyngeus (palatopharyngeal or pharyngopalatinus) muscle is a small muscle in the roof of the mouth.
It is a long, fleshy fasciculus, narrower in the middle than at either end, forming, with the mucous membrane covering its surface, the palatopharyngeal arch.
Structure.
It is separated from the palatoglossus muscle by an angular interval, in which the palatine tonsil is lodged. It arises from the soft palate, where it is divided into two fasciculi by the levator veli palatini and musculus uvulae.
Passing laterally and downward behind the palatine tonsil, the palatopharyngeus joins the stylopharyngeus and is inserted with that muscle into the posterior border of the thyroid cartilage, some of its fibers being lost on the side of the pharynx and others passing across the middle line posteriorly to decussate with the muscle of the opposite side.
Innervation.
Motor innervation of this muscle is provided through the pharyngeal plexus of the CN X (vagal nerve), SVE (special visceral efferent) fibers.
Function.
The palatine velum is slightly raised by the levator veli palatini and made tense by the tensor veli palatini; the palatopharyngeus muscles, by their contraction, pull the pharynx upward over the bolus of food and nearly come together, the uvula filling up the slight interval between them.
By these means the bolus is prevented from passing into the nasopharynx; at the same time, the palatopharyngeus muscles form an inclined plane, directed obliquely downward and backward, along the under surface of which the bolus descends into the lower part of the pharynx.


Muscle architecture

Muscle architecture is the physical arrangement of muscle fibers at the macroscopic level that determines a muscle’s mechanical function. There are several different muscle architecture types including: parallel, pennate and hydrostats. Force production and gearing vary depending on the different geometries of the muscle. Some parameters used in architectural analysis are muscle length (Lm), fiber length (Lf), pennation angle (θ), and physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA).
Architecture types.
Parallel and pennate (also known as pinnate) are two main types of muscle architecture. A third subcategory, muscular hydrostats, can also be considered. Architecture type is determined by the direction in which the muscle fibers are oriented relative to the force-generating axis. The force produced by a given muscle is proportional to the cross-sectional area, or the number of parallel sarcomeres present.
Parallel.
The parallel muscle architecture is found in muscles where the fibers are parallel to the force-generating axis. These muscles are often used for fast or extensive movements and can be measured by the anatomical cross-sectional area (ACSA). Parallel muscles can be further defined into three main categories: strap, fusiform, or fan-shaped.
Strap.
Strap muscles are shaped like a strap or belt and have fibers that run longitudinally to the contraction direction. These muscles have broad attachments compared to other muscle types and can shorten to about 40%-60% of their resting length. Strap muscles, such as the laryngeal muscles, have been thought to control the fundamental frequency used in speech production, as well as singing. Another example of this muscle is the longest muscle in the human body, the sartorius.
Fusiform.
Fusiform muscles are wider and cylindrically shaped in the center and taper off at the ends. This overall shape of fusiform muscles is often referred to as a spindle. The line of action in this muscle type runs in a straight line between the attachment points which are often tendons. Due to the shape, the force produced by fusiform muscles is concentrated into a small area. An example of this architecture type is the biceps brachii in humans.
Fan-shaped.
The fibers in fan-shaped muscles converge at one end (typically at a tendon) and spread
over a broad area at the other end. Because of this, some consider muscles with this
relative shape to be in a separate architecture type known as convergent muscle.
Fan-shaped muscles, such as the pectoralis major in humans, have a weaker pull on the
attachment site compared to other parallel fibers due to their broad nature. These
muscles are considered versatile because of their ability to change the direction of pull
depending on how the fibers are contracting.
Typically, fan-shaped muscles experience varying degrees of fiber strain. This is largely due to the different lengths and varying insertion points of the muscle fibers. Studies on ratfish have looked at the strain on fan-shaped muscles that have a twisted tendon. It has been found that strain becomes uniform over the face of a fan-shaped muscle with the presence of a twisted tendon.
Pennate.
Unlike in parallel muscles, fibers in pennate muscles are at an angle to the force-generating axis (pennation angle) and usually insert into a central tendon. Because of this structure, fewer sarcomeres can be found in series, resulting in a shorter fiber length. This further allows for more fibers to be present in a given muscle; however, a trade-off exists between the number of fibers present and force transmission. The force produced by pennate muscles is greater than the force produced by parallel muscles. Since pennate fibers insert at an angle, the anatomical cross-sectional area cannot be used as in parallel fibered muscles. Instead, the physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) must be used for pennate muscles. Pennate muscles can be further divided into uni-, bi- or multipennate.
Unipennate.
Unipennate muscles are those where the muscle fibers are oriented at one fiber angle to the force-generating axis and are all on the same side of a tendon. The pennation angle in unipennate muscles has been measured at a variety of resting length and typically varies from 0° to 30°. The lateral gastrocnemius is an example of this muscle architecture.
Bipennate.
Muscles that have fibers on two sides of a tendon are considered bipennate. The stapedius in the middle ear of humans, as well as the rectus femoris of the quadriceps are examples of bipennate muscles.
Multipennate.
The third type of pennate subgroup is known as the multipennate architecture. These muscles, such as the deltoid muscle in the shoulder of humans, have fibers that are oriented at multiple angles along the force-generating axis.
Hydrostats.
Muscular hydrostats function independently of a hardened skeletal system. Muscular hydrostats are typically supported by a membrane of connective tissue which holds the volume constant. Retaining a constant volume enables the fibers to stabilize the muscle’s structure that would otherwise require skeletal support. Muscle fibers change the shape of the muscle by contracting along three general lines of action relative to the long axis: parallel, perpendicular and helical. These contractions can apply or resist compressive forces to the overall structure. A balance of synchronized, compressive and resistive forces along the three lines of action, enable the muscle to move in diverse and complex ways.
Contraction of helical fibers causes elongation and shortening of the hydrostat. Unilateral contraction of these muscles can cause a bending movement. Helical fibers can oriented into either left or right-handed arrangements. Contraction of orthogonal fibers causes torsion or twisting of the hydrostat.
Force generation.
Muscle architecture directly influences force production via muscle volume, fiber length, fiber type and pennation angle.
Muscle volume is determined by the cross-sectional area. Anatomical cross-sectional area is
formula_1
where
In muscles, a more accurate measurement of CSA is physiological CSA (PCSA) which takes into account fiber angle.
formula_4
where
PCSA relates the force produced by the muscle to the summation of the forces produced along the force generating axis of each muscle fiber and is largely determined by the pennation angle.
Fiber length is also a key variable in muscle anatomy. Fiber length is the product of both the number of sarcomeres in series in the fiber and their individual lengths. As a fiber changes length, the individual sarcomeres shorten or lengthen, but the total number does not change (except on long timescales following exercise and conditioning). To standardize fiber length, length is measured at the peak of the length-tension relationship (L0), ensuring all sarcomeres are at the same length. Fiber length (at L0) does not affect force generation, much as the strength of a chain is unaffected by the length. Similarly, increased fiber cross-section or multiple fibers increase the force, like having multiple chains in parallel. Velocity is affected in the reverse manner - because sarcomeres shorten at a certain percentage per second under a certain force, fibers with more sarcomeres will have higher absolute (but not relative) velocities. Muscles with short fibers will have higher PCSA per unit muscle mass, thus greater force production, while muscle with long fibers will have lower PCSA per unit muscle mass, thus lower force production. However, muscles with longer fibers will shorten at greater absolute speeds than a similar muscle with shorter fibers.
The type of muscle fiber correlates to force production. Type I fibers are slow oxidative with a slow rise in force and an overall low force production. The type I fibers have a smaller fiber diameter and exhibit a slow contraction. Type IIa fibers are fast oxidative which exhibit fast contraction and a fast rise in force. These fibers have fast contraction times and maintain some, though not a great amount of their force production with repeated activity due to being moderately fatigue resistant. Type IIb fibers are fast glycolytic which also exhibit fast contraction and fast rise in force. These fibers display extremely large force production, but are easily fatigued and therefore unable to maintain force for more than a few contractions without rest.
Pennation angle.
The pennation angle is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the entire muscle and its fibers. The longitudinal axis is the force generating axis of the muscle and pennate fibers lie at an oblique angle. As tension increases in the muscle fibers, the pennation angle also increases. A greater pennation angle results in a smaller force being transmitted to the tendon.
Muscle architecture affects the force-velocity relationship. Components of this relationship are fiber length, number of sarcomeres and pennation angle. In pennate muscles, for example, as the fibers shorten, the pennation angle increases as the fibers pivot which effects the amount of force generated.
Architectural gear ratio.
Architectural gear ratio (AGR) relates the contractile velocity of an entire muscle to the contractile velocity of a single muscle fiber. AGR is determined by the mechanical demands of a muscle during movement. Changes in pennation angle allow for variable gearing in pennate muscles. Variable pennation angle also influences whole-muscle geometry during contraction. The degree of fiber rotation determines the cross-sectional area during the course of the movement which can result in increases of the thickness or width of the muscle. Pennation angle can be modified through exercise interventions
A high gear ratio occurs when the contraction velocity of the whole muscle is much greater than that of an individual muscle fiber, resulting in a gear ratio that is greater than 1. A high gear ratio will result in low force, high velocity contractions of the entire muscle. The angle of pennation will increase during contraction accompanied by an increase in thickness. Thickness is defined as the area between the aponeuroses of the muscle. A low gear ratio occurs when the contraction velocity of the whole muscle and individual fibers is approximately the same, resulting in a gear ratio of 1. Conditions resulting in a low gear ratio include high force and low velocity contraction of the whole muscle. The pennation angle typically shows little variation. The muscle thickness will decrease.


Occipital condyles

The occipital condyles are undersurface protuberances of the occipital bone in vertebrates, which function in articulation with the superior facets of the atlas vertebra.
The condyles are oval or reniform (kidney-shaped) in shape, and their anterior extremities, directed forward and medialward, are closer together than their posterior, and encroach on the basilar portion of the bone; the posterior extremities extend back to the level of the middle of the foramen magnum.
The articular surfaces of the condyles are convex from before backward and from side to side, and look downward and lateralward.
To their margins are attached the capsules of the atlanto-occipital joints, and on the medial side of each is a rough impression or tubercle for the alar ligament.
At the base of either condyle the bone is tunnelled by a short canal, the hypoglossal canal.
Clinical significance.
Fracture of an occipital condyle may occur in isolation, or as part of a more extended basilar skull fracture. Isolated condyle fracture is a type of craniocervical injury. The classification of Anderson and Montesano distinguishes three types of occipital condyle fracture:
Minimally displaced fractures are treated conservatively. Surgery may become necessary if there is significant compression of the brainstem, spinal cord, the lower cranial nerves or cervical arteries. Bilateral condyle fractures (e.g. as part of an atlanto-occipital dislocation or the "occipital ring fracture") are rare, but often fatal.
Symptoms of an isolated occipital condyle fracture resemble those of other craniocervical injuries, including high cervical pain, reduced range of motion, unusual head / neck posture, prevertebral swelling, and possibly lower cranial nerve (IX, X, XI, XII) deficits, tetraparesis or abnormal breathing. Among these, cranial nerve deficits are the most characteristic due to the proximity of the injury to the jugular foramen and hypoglossal canal. Onset of neurologic symptoms may be immediate or delayed.
The prevalence of occipital condyle fractures is not definitely known. Once thought to be a rare injury, it is nowadays believed to constitute 1-3% of all blunt craniocervical traumas. It is most commonly seen in high-energy trauma, often associated with other skull and/or cervical spine injuries.
In reptiles.
The occipital condyle is a rounded projection that is present on the posterior (rear) of the dinosaur's skull. It articulates with the first cervical (neck) vertebra and, in effect, attaches the head of the dinosaur to its body. Functionally it allows the head to move from side to side, up and down, as well as to rotate. A combination of a number of smaller bones (such as the basioccipital and exoccipitals) participate in the formation of this structure. The presence of a single occipital condyle in dinosaurs (including birds) and crocodilians is contrasted with the condition in amphibians and synapsids (including mammals such as "Homo sapiens"), where two occipital condyles are present. In most dinosaurs the occipital condyle is situated at the rear part of the skull, below the "foramen magnum", and points toward the posterior of the animal. Some exceptions to this exist, such as in the iguanodontian "Anabisetia saldiviai" where the condyle points downward. In some dinosaurs, where the skull was not preserved, the presence of a small occipital condyle suggests to some paleontologists that the skull of the dinosaur was relatively small.


Face distortion

Face distortion derived from the term "distorting the face," refers to the condition of the human face when it comes into contact with an object moving at high enough speed to distort the face. This could result in anything from a concussion, to a broken jaw, to a fractured skull depending on the force of the object while it's moving to when it comes into contact with the face. Most face distortions are shown to be visible only in slow motion, as seen in popular showings of the event.
Uses in popular culture.
Several movies, as well as some anime, involving boxing, martial arts, or other styles of fighting have scenes involving face distortion. Movies like "Cinderella Man", which involves American boxing, has a few of these moments. Anime like "Bleach" and "Naruto" contain moments of face distortion as well.
Medical.
The medical aspect of a face distortion is usually the case involving the skull, neck, or brain. Whatever treatment for the aftermath of a face distortion depends on the condition of the receiver after the event occurs.


Karl Wilhelm Verhoeff

Karl (or Carl) Wilhelm Verhoeff (25 November 1867 – 6 December 1944) was a German myriapodologist and entomologist, specialising in myriapods (millipedes, centipedes, and related species) as well as woodlice and to a lesser extent insects.
Biography.
Karl W. Verhoeff was born on 25 November 1867 in Soest in Westphalia, the son of the apothecary Karl M. Verhoeff and his wife Mathilde (born Rocholl). He completed his "Abitur" examination in Soest in 1889 and completed his doctoral thesis in zoology in Bonn in 1893. In 1902 he married Marie Kringer, who died in 1937 during surgery. The marriage produced three children, two daughters and a son, the son dying in 1942 on the Russian front.
He was briefly employed (1900–1905) at the "" in Berlin, but for the remainder of his long career, he worked privately. Verhoeff undertook a number of collecting trips, including visits to the French Riviera, and Romania and Bulgaria down through Bosnia and into Greece. Some of these trips were financed by the Prussian Academy of Science. He financed himself partly by selling his collections, with Munich and Berlin holding large amounts of his material.
Verhoeff was one of the most prolific authors of myriapod taxa in history. He described thousands of taxa, including over a thousand species of millipede alone. Verhoeff ranks among Ralph Vary Chamberlin and Carl Attems as the three most prolific millipede taxonomists. The 1962 compilation of Gisela Mauermayer records 670 scientific works by Verhoeff, including major contributions to the series "".
Contemporary taxonomists did not appreciate his early, groundbreaking work on Dermaptera, mainly due to his obscure expression and scarcity of illustrations and explanations, but his achievements in this group – as well as in Diplopoda and Chilognatha – were later recognized.
Verhoeff received a number of awards towards the end of his life, including the silver "Leibniz Medal" of the Prussian Academy of Science (1933), the ' of the August Forel foundation (1942) and a ' from the University of Bonn on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of his thesis (1943). In 1942, shortly before his 75th birthday, he was elected to the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina. He died in Munich from wounds sustained during an air-raid on 6 December 1944.
Verhoeff's botanical writing concerned plant-insect interactions.


Isis (genus)

Isis is a genus of deep-sea bamboo coral in the family Isididae.


Yungia

Yungia is a genus of flatworms.


Peripatus darlingtoni

Peripatus darlingtoni is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatidae family. The type locality is in Haiti.


Clathrina chrysea

Clathrina chrysea is a species of calcareous sponge from New Caledonia. The species epithet refers to the light yellow colour of the sponge.
Description.
Cormus formed of thin, regularly anastomosed tubes. There are no water-collecting tubes. The skeleton of the tubes has no special organisation, comprising a thin meshwork of equiangular and equiradiate triactines. Actines are straight and conical, with a sharp distal tip. They are slightly undulated at the tip. Biochemical studies separated "Clathrina clathrus" from
another yellow clathrina earlier named as "Clathrina aurea", suggesting that "C. clathrus" is not widespread. Based on this result, Borojevic & Klautau (2000) recognized a specimen from New Caledonia as a new species. The main difference between this and other yellow clathrinas relates to the tip of the actines of the triactines, which is sharp in "C. chrysea" and rounded in "C. clathrus" and "C. aurea". The yellow colour of the cormus and the skeleton composed only of triactines with cylindrical and undulated actines suggest that these clathrinas constitute a group of closely related species. Breitfuss (1897) reported a yellow clathrina he called "C. clathrus" in the Indo-Pacific region (Ternate). Borojevic & Klautau (2000) commented that he was probably referring to "C. chrysea". In the original description of "C. chrysea", the micrometry
of the triactines was 105 mm (±9 mm)/10 mm (±1 mm).
References.
World Register of Marine Species entry


Pseudostomum

Pseudostomum is a genus of flatworms in the family Pseudostomidae.


Josephine Rich

Josephine Gordon Rich later Haswell (1866–1940) was a New Zealand zoologist and one of only four New Zealand women who published results of her scientific work before 1901.
Early life and education.
Rich was born in 1866 in Spaxton, England, the youngest of five children of William Gordon Rich (1829–1912) and his wife. Her father was a runholder and Justice of the Peace in Southland, but Gordon Rich was born in England, where the family may have travelled for the education of Josephine's older brothers.
Scientific work.
In 1891, Rich achieved the highest grade in all her first year classes in zoology, botany, general biology, and practical biology from the University of Otago. Rich does not appear to have graduated despite her high grades, but this may be because she was not eligible to graduate, having been homeschooled. In 1889/1890, Dunedin hosted the New Zealand and South Seas Exhibition, for which Parker designed an exhibit on animal evolution. Rich contributed, among other drawings, five wall diagrams on extinct animals, which were described by a reporter as "instructive". The Otago Museum collection contains a set of 32 scientific water-colour and pen-and-ink drawings that Rich donated in 1893. Rich's drawings were informed by her dissections and preparation of specimens in the laboratory. She presented eleven stuffed fish to the Canterbury Museum in 1893, and supplied mollusc specimens to zoologist Henry Suter, who almost named a new species after her.
Rich was one of only four New Zealand women who published results of her scientific work before 1901. Her work on spiny lobsters ("Palinurus edwardsii") was co-authored by her teacher Thomas Jeffery Parker in 1893. The paper described in detail the entire musculature of the animal; it was read before the Otago Institute in 1892 and published in the "Maclay Memorial Volume" of the New South Wales Linnean Society in 1893. Rich provided 25 of the 27 images in the paper, which were described as "remarkably clear" by a reviewer in the London review journal "Natural Science".
Later life.
On 28 August 1894, Josephine married the Australian William Aitcheson Haswell (1854–1925), a friend of Thomas Jeffrey Parker, in Christchurch, New Zealand, and subsequently moved to Australia. Haswell was a professor of biology at the University of Sydney, and although Rich does not appear to have published after her marriage, she assisted her husband in his work. She contributed nine drawings to the "Textbook of Zoology", co-authored by Parker and Haswell and published in 1897. Parker described Rich's drawing of a rabbit as "magnificent".
The Haswells had a son in 1897, who died at 5 months old, and a daughter, Mary Margaret, born 1899. Rich died in a private hospital in Darlinghurst on 6 September 1940. She was survived by her daughter.
In 2017, she was featured as one of the Royal Society Te Apārangi's 150 women in 150 words.


Membranipora

Membranipora is a genus of bryozoans in the family Membraniporidae. A typical example is the widely distributed species "Membranipora membranacea" that commonly encrusts seaweeds, particularly fronds of the kelps "Laminaria digitata", "L. hyperborea", and "Saccorhiza polyschides".
Colonies of "M. membranacea" show different forms of polyphenism as spines, tower zooids, chimneys and stolons.
Reproduction.
The eggs of "M. membranipora" develop into planktonic cyphonautes larvae which is strongly triangular in outline and about 850μm x 600μm big.


Pseudotrisauropus

Pseudotrisauropus is an ichnogenus of reptile footprint.


Peripatopsis lawrencei

Peripatopsis lawrencei is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. The type locality is in South Africa.


Chalimus


Lepidoptera Indica

Lepidoptera Indica was a 10 volume work on the butterflies of the Indian region that was begun in 1890 and completed in 1913. It was published by Lovell Reeve and Co. of London. It has been considered the "magnum opus" of its author, Frederic Moore, assistant curator at the museum of the East India Company. Frederic Moore described a number of new species through this publication. Moore was a splitter, known for careless creation of synonyms, sometimes placing the same species in more than one genus.
History.
The series was based on a large collection of butterflies that were under the care of the curator of the Asiatic Museum, Dr Thomas Horsfield. The museum was closed in 1879 and the collection was transferred to the British Museum. Moore in his preface defined the Indian region as being roughly bounded by the Himalayan mountains in the north, Suleiman and Hala mountains in the northwest, Ceylon to the South and Burma in the East and including the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Moore however died before the work could be completed and the work was then taken over by Colonel Charles Swinhoe, brother of Robert Swinhoe and one of the founders of the Bombay Natural History Society.
The butterfly collections that were described in this work, many of which were previously undescribed had been made by additions from numerous correspondents and collectors in the Civil and Military services from across India. The first catalogue of these collections was prepared by Arthur Grote in 1857-1859. Grote also took notes on the life histories, making use of a Munshi Zynulabdin, a local artist. Moore also noted the contributions of Sir Walter Elliot from the Madras region, S. Nevill(e) Ward for notes from the Malabar coast, W. S. Atkinson, A E Russell, Colonel A M Lang (Oudh, Kashmir, Simla), Captain T. Hutton (Mussoorie), Captain H. L. de la Chaumette (Lucknow), C. Horne, Dr Francis Day, W. Forsyth Hunter, Major J. Le Mesurier, Major-Gen. G. Ramsay, Lt.-Col. H H G Godwin-Austin (sic), Captain R. Bayne Reed, W. B Farr, G. H. Wilkinson, Dr. A. Leith, Dr. J. Shortt, Capt. H. B. Hellard, W C Hewitson for material from the Atkinson collection, J. O Westwood for material collected by R. Hunter at Saugor, J. Anderson, James Wood-Mason, Rev. J. H. Hocking, Mrs. F. A. de Roepstorff (for collections from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands made by her husband who was killed in 1883), A. Lindsay, G.A.J. Rothney, Colonel C. Swinhoe, Major J W Yerbury, Lionel de Niceville, H J Elwes, Hon. L. W. de Rothschild, G F Hampson (Nilgiris). Moore also thanks W F Kirby and A G Butler of the British Museum for nomenclature and bibliographic help. He also thanks private collectors including W L Distant, Godman and Salvin, H. Druce, Henley Grose-Smith and J J Weir, J H Leech and P. Crowley.
The delineation and lithography for the first few volumes was done mainly by Moore's son F. C. Moore but later made use of other artists including John Nugent Fitch and E. C. Knight.
Volumes.
Moore died in 1907 and from volume 7, the work was taken over by Colonel Charles Swinhoe
By the 8th volume, there were photographs of the genitalia of some species.
Taxonomic commentary.
Moore was a splitter and did not follow the concept of subspecies for polytypic forms. Moore often created multiple genera for members of the same species, often in the same volume, leading to difficulties for early taxonomists to establish priority. The treatment was much improved after Swinhoe took over.


Stephenospongia

Stephenospongia is a genus of sponge known from a single specimen in the Trilobite beds of the Burgess Shale.


Harry Forbes Witherby

Harry Forbes Witherby, MBE, FZS, MBOU (7 October 1873 – 11 December 1943) was a noted British ornithologist, author, publisher and founding editor (in 1907) of the magazine "British Birds".
Personal life.
Harry was the second surviving son of Henry Forbes Witherby (1836–1907) of Holmehurst, Burley, Hants, a law stationer employing 169 men who retired from the family business in 1899 to focus on his interests in painting and ornithology, leaving it to be run by his sons. After leaving school Witherby entered the old family publishing firm of Witherby and Co, from which he retired in 1936, but resumed work again after the outbreak of the second world war. The family firm of H F and G Witherby, originally printers, began to publish bird books early in the 20th century. From an early age Witherby devoted himself to the study of ornithology, travelling extensively, including visits to Iran, the Kola Peninsula, and the White Nile. He described the latter in his book "Bird Hunting on the White Nile" (1902). He married Lilian Gillson in 1904. Lilian joined him on his travels and even learnt to skin birds on their honeymoon. They had two sons and three daughters.
Career.
He started one of the world's first two bird ringing schemes in 1909 (they merged in the late 1930s), transferring responsibility, in 1937, to the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO), who continue to run it. Witherby was Hon Secretary and Treasurer (1904–14), and Chairman (1924–27) of the British Ornithologists' Club (1924–1927) and President of the Council of the British Ornithologists' Union (BOU) (1933–1938). In 1933 he was one of eleven people, involved in the appeal that led to the foundation of the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO), an organisation for the study of birds in the British Isles., becoming a founding member and early vice-chairman. The BTO survived through his financial generosity, not least in donating the proceeds of the sale of his extensive collection of stuffed birds to the British Museum - this is now at the Natural History Museum, Tring.
Witherby's crowning glory was "The Handbook of British Birds" (1938–1941). Spanning five volumes, it was reprinted a number of times, the later editions having a few pages devoted to corrections and additions to previous editions, but few of these are of great significance and the main text was left untouched. He was made an Honorary Fellow of the American Ornithologists' Union in 1928 and was awarded the Godman-Salvin Medal by the BOU in 1937. Witherby's lark ("Alaemon hamertoni") was named for him, in 1905, but is now more commonly known as the lesser hoopoe-lark. Two other bird sub-species have been named after him: "Emberiza schoeniclus witherbyi" (common reed bunting) and "Erithacus rubecula witherbyi" (European robin).
During World War I he was a lieutenant in the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve. He was mentioned in dispatches and was awarded the Military MBE for his service as an intelligence officer in Dunkirk.


Neurovascular bundle

A neurovascular bundle is a structure that binds nerves and veins (and in some cases arteries and lymphatics) with connective tissue so that they travel in tandem through the body.
Structure.
There are two types of neurovascular bundles: superficial bundles and deep bundles. As arteries do not travel within the superficial fascia (loose connective tissue under the skin), superficial neurovascular bundles differ from deep neurovascular bundles in both composition and function.
Superficial bundles.
Superficial neurovascular bundles do not include arteries, and consist primarily of capillaries and nerves. Because capillaries function as the sites for substance exchange between interstitial fluid and blood, they tend to have large surface area and short diffusion path. Normally, capillaries consist of a central lumen lined with an endothelium, a single layer of smooth epithelial cells.
Deep bundles.
Deep neurovascular bundles, which often include arteries, have a more complicated structure than superficial neurovascular bundles. Since arteries have high intraluminal blood pressure relative to capillaries and veins, these bundles have smooth muscle and connective tissue structures outside the endothelium. This structure allows arteries to contract, relax and remain flexible and transfer blood when under pressure.
Function.
Neurovascular bundles are useful for axons, ensuring a continuous supply of oxygenated blood to important nerves.
Clinical significance.
Both superficial and deep neurovascular bundles are at risk during surgical incisions.
Leg surgery.
In surgeries, the principle superficial neurovascular bundles at risk are, medially, the great saphenous vein and its accompanying nerve, and, laterally, the superficial peroneal nerve. The superficial peroneal nerve originates from the common peroneal nerve near the neck of the fibula and passes between the peroneus longus and brevis muscles, supplying motor branches to these muscles. The superficial branch then continues onto the dorsum of the foot to supply sensory fibers to the skin there.
The main deep neurovascular bundle at risk is the posterior tibial. It lies on the posterior aspect of the tibialis posterior and flexor digitorum longus muscles, and medial to the belly of flexor hallucis longus. It also gives rise to medial plantar artery and lateral plantar artery.
During surgery, these neurovascular bundles, both superficial and deep, should be protected in order to prevent neurological damage. A common anatomically informed, surgical technique to avoid damaging neurovascular bundles is to undermine anteriorly to the posterior tibial margin after reaching the fascia, in order to avoid the saphenous vein and nerve. The deep posterior compartment here is superficial and readily accessible. The fascia of the deep posterior compartment is carefully opened distally and proximally, under the belly of the soleus muscle, paying special attention to the posterior tibial neurovascular bundle. Through the same incision, the fascia of the superficial posterior compartment is opened widely, two centimeters posterior and parallel to the incision in the fascia of the deep compartment.
Prostate surgery.
The preservation of both neurovascular bundles during nerve-sparing (NS) radical prostatectomy improves urinary continence and erectile function. Consequently, NS is recommended in elderly men and those with pre-existing erectile dysfunction, whom many surgeons would previously have only offered non-NS surgery. It was also found that during surgeries in which neurovascular bundles are preserved, the frequency of positive margins were only 5.8 percent.


Frontoparietal scale

In reptiles, the frontoparietal scales are scales located behind the eyes, between the frontal scales to the front and the parietal scales to the back.


List of authors of names published under the ICZN

This is a list of notable zoologists who have published names of new taxa under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.


Cotylea (worm)

Cotylea is a suborder of free-living marine turbellarian flatworms in the order Polycladida.


Oliver Payne Pearson

Oliver Payne Pearson (October 21, 1915 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania – March 4, 2003 in Walnut Creek, California), or "Paynie" to many that knew him, was an American zoologist and ecologist. Over a very active 50-year career, he served as professor of zoology at UC Berkeley and curator of mammals at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. Pearson is best known for his work on the role of predation on vole demography and population cycles, and for his piercing contributions to the biology of South American mammals, but his earlier studies on reproductive and physiological ecology are highly regarded as well.
Background.
Pearson graduated from Swarthmore College in 1937. He attended Harvard University for both his M.S. (1939) and Ph.D. (1947), and was then hired by UC Berkeley as an instructor in zoology (1947–48). He was an assistant professor of zoology (Department of Zoology) and assistant curator of mammals (Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, MVZ) from 1949 to 1955, gaining tenure and advancing to associate professor of zoology and associate curator of mammals in the MVZ in 1955. In 1957 he resigned his tenured position, maintaining status at UC Berkeley as a lecturer in zoology and as a research associate at the museum. This allowed him to focus his attentions on his studies of voles and predation, and to spend a year as a visiting professor of ecology at the University of Buenos Aires (1964–65). When Alden Miller, director of the MVZ, died in 1965, Pearson returned to the tenure series, this time as full professor of zoology (which he retained until his real and very active retirement in 1971), and as acting director of the MVZ (1966–67) and then director (1967–71).
South America.
In 1937 he traveled to Panama, then to Peru (1938, 1939–40, 1946, 1952, 1955, 1967, 1972), Colombia (1950) and Argentina (1955, 1964–65, and yearly from 1978 to 1999). He was honorary member of the American Society of Mammalogists (ASM), Cooper Ornithological Society (COS), Sociedad Argentina para el Estudio de los Mamíferos (SAREM) and the Comité Argentino de Conservación de la Naturaleza. He was an elected director for the ASM over 17 years between 1952 and 1990 and received the Hartley H. T. Jackson Award “for long and outstanding service to ASM” in 1984. After his death in 2003, the ASM established the Oliver Pearson Award, which offers financial support to young professional mammalogists who hold academic or curatorial positions in Latin America, to help them establish or consolidate their research programs.
Marriage.
In 1944 he married Anita Kelley, who was to be his companion in all his subsequent travels, with whom he had four children. When awarded an honorary doctoral degree (“Doctor Honoris Causa”) from the University of La Plata, Argentina in 2000, Pearson famously stated “Yo soy un simple atrapador de ratones, y nada hubiese sido posible sin Anita” (“I am a simple mouse-trapper, and nothing would have been possible without Anita”).
Recognitions.
Three rodent taxa were named after him: the species "Ctenomys pearsoni" (Lessa & Langguth, 1983) and "Andalgalomys pearsoni" (Myers, 1977), in addition to the genus "Pearsonomys" Patterson, 1992.


Inferior labial vein

The inferior labial vein is the vein receiving blood from the lower lip.


Domestication of the Syrian hamster

The domestication of the Syrian hamster began in the late 1700s when naturalists cataloged the Syrian hamster, also known as "Mesocricetus auratus" or the golden hamster. In 1930 medical researchers captured Syrian hamster breeding stock for animal testing. Further domestication led this animal to become a popular pet.
The Syrian hamster's natural habitat is in a small region of Northwest Syria near the city of Aleppo. It was first described by science in the 1797 second edition of "The Natural History of Aleppo", a book written and edited by two Scottish physicians living in Syria. The Syrian hamster was first recognized as a distinct species in 1839. In 1930, a scientist seeking animal subjects for medical research had the first Syrian hamsters captured to become laboratory animals. Scientists bred those hamsters and during the 1930s sent their descendants to various other laboratories around the world. By the late 1940s in the United States, a commercial hamster industry had begun to provide hamsters for laboratory use and at the same time to popularize hamsters as pets. In later years, further expeditions back to Syria captured other hamsters to increase genetic diversity among the populations of hamsters shared among breeders.
Wild Syrian hamsters become tame in a matter of days after being captured and handled by humans. Wild hamsters are quick to adapt to captivity and thrive in a laboratory setting.
Cataloging as a species.
The earliest known publication describing the Syrian hamster was in Patrick Russell's 1797 revision and second edition of his half-brother Alexander Russell's 1756 "The Natural History of Aleppo". Alexander Russell was a Scottish physician who had been living in Syria from 1740 till 1750 or 55, and while in Aleppo, he documented the natural history of the region. Patrick Russell moved to Aleppo in 1750 and stayed there till 1781, and like his brother documented natural history. It is uncertain which brother wrote the description of the hamster for the book. Perhaps Patrick took it from Alexander's unpublished notes or perhaps it was Patrick's own addition to the book in the second edition.
In the Russell's book, the Syrian hamster is referenced as "Mus Cricetus Linn. S.N. p 82: Hamster, Buffon (H.N. XIII. p177)", which means that the Russells incorrectly cataloged the Syrian hamster to be the same species as the European hamster as described by the Comte de Buffon and Carl Linnaeus.
In 1839 at a meeting of the London Zoological Society George Robert Waterhouse described the Syrian hamster as a new species. His identification of the animal happened after his 1835 appointment as a curator of the museum of the London Zoological Society, where his job was to process mammal specimens. The body in the museum became the type specimen for the new species. There is no record of who collected the specimen nor is there any record of who donated the body to that museum. In 1853 the British Museum purchased the collections of the London Zoological Society, so now, this original hamster is in the British Museum as specimen BM(NH) 1855.12.24.120. Some derivative works of the Waterhouse publication which also presented the existence of the hamster were Louis Fraser's 1849 "Zoologia Typica", Christoph Gottfried Andreas Giebel's 1855 "Säugetiere", and Henry Baker Tristram's 1884 "Fauna and Flora of Palestine".
In 1902 Alfred Nehring studied a preserved female Syrian hamster specimen at the Beirut Museum. In 1898 he defined and established the genus "Mesocricetus" and redefined the Syrian hamster as "Mesocricetus auratus". Publication in 1940 confirmed that "Mesocricetus" was a well-characterized genus different from "Cricetus".
Capture of live hamsters.
After Waterhouse identified the hamster there seems to be no original scientific study of the Syrian hamster until 1930. In 1930, Israel Aharoni captured the first live hamsters known to science and in 1942 published his notes and a narrative of the experience in an autobiography, "Memoirs of a Hebrew Zoologist" ("זכרונות זואולוג עברי").
Sometime before Aharoni's 1930 hamster expedition, parasitologist Saul Adler was having trouble doing his research because of lack of animal testing subjects. Leishmaniasis was a regional problem and it was common to infect Chinese hamsters as a model organism to study the disease.
 However, he was having problem breeding those hamsters in captivity, and had difficulty also getting regular shipments of Chinese hamsters from China. Because of these problems, he wished to find a Middle Eastern hamster that would be easy to capture locally and have potential in animal testing. Adler may or may not have known of the existence of the Syrian hamster from the Waterhouse publication or others copying information from that work. Whatever he knew, he contacted Israel Aharoni for advice, as both were researchers at Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Aharoni was the head of the zoology department.
Aharoni already knew of the Syrian hamster and when he made his plan to respond to Adler's request, he planned to capture Syrian hamsters and provide them to Adler. Aharoni took assistance from a local Syrian guide, Georgius Khalil Tah'an, who on his behalf got information from a local leader Sheik El-Beled about where hamsters might be found. On 12 April 1930, the sheik called Aharoni and Georgius to a meeting which led to the capture of hamsters and which Aharoni described as follows:
After starting with a mother and 11 babies, Aharoni was left with 10. At the time of capture the babies' eyes were not yet opened due to their age. Aharoni and his wife cared for the hamsters as they carried them back to the university. Somehow before returning the hamsters to the university, all of the hamsters escaped, and when Aharoni recovered them, one had escaped permanently leaving 9 babies. Aharoni delivered these to Heim Ben-Menachen, who was the head of the Hebrew University animal facilities and that department's founder. Ben-Menachen put the hamsters in a wooden box on the floor, and Aharoni recorded this account of what happened next:
The most thorough search was unable to find the escaped hamsters, leaving three females and a male. The male hamster then killed one of the females. Aharoni doubted that the remaining hamsters would breed. Ben-Menachen tried a new breeding technique, described as follows:
Aharoni wrote this conclusion:
Within one year, these three hamster siblings were the origin of a colony of 150 hamsters. Adler was the first recipient of hamsters from this colony. Adler and another scientist published the first research using Syrian hamsters in 1931. Adler was known for his generosity and modesty and often did not make a record of his work, so some of what happened next is uncertain. Aharoni made no mention of further hamster expeditions in his memoir, but the Museum für Naturkunde has three female hamster specimens in their collection attributed to him and noted as having been caught 27 and 29 April 1930.
Establishment in laboratories.
Israel.
Among his many scientific projects and recognition, Saul Adler took particular pleasure in distributing Syrian hamsters to researchers in other laboratories. His motivation was the usefulness of the hamster and because he recognized the fragile nature of the single colony.
United Kingdom.
In 1931 Adler did wildlife smuggling of hamsters through customs into England by hiding them in his coat pockets. He gave the hamsters to Edward Hindle, then of the London Zoological Society, who himself established a colony for researchers. The hamsters eventually came to the laboratory of Leonard Goodwin whose hamsters became the stock of pet hamsters in the UK.
United States.
There is agreement that Syrian hamsters must have come to the United States in 1938. Beyond that, it is unclear how many colonies of hamsters came, why they were sent, or where they went. The available evidence identifies three colonies of hamsters arriving in that year, with two colonies said to have come from Saul Adler, and another colony which could have come from him or otherwise which came from Israel Jacob Kligler, who himself got his hamsters from Adler. In 1939 scientists at Case Western Reserve University published a paper on inoculating Syrian hamsters with leprosy, and in that paper, they said, "Our original colony of 13 animals was secured from stock at the Hebrew University on July 26, 1938 through the kindness of Dr. Adler." There are records that Guy Henry Faget of the United States Public Health Service in Carville, Louisiana received a shipment of Syrian hamsters from Adler in 1938. Faget's laboratory has notes that they received 12 hamsters in July 1938, and another record says that both Adler sent both Faget and Case Western similar shipments of hamsters at the same time. A 1950 publication says that two shipments of hamsters arrived to America in 1938, one to Case Western and the other to Rockefeller Foundation. In 1940 and 41 the Rockefeller Foundation and one of its partner laboratories in Berkeley published several papers based on Syrian hamsters as test subjects, so definitely they had hamsters at that time. In 1948 Adler wrote that before World War II he sent hamsters to India and that Kligler sent animals to America. Since in other notes Adler is known to have sent two colonies to America but not more than that, the available information suggests that the hamsters to Rockefeller came from Kligler and the others were the shipment from Adler.
Hamsters in the United States may have all proliferated from these three colonies.
Popularization as pets.
United Kingdom.
In 1880 as British Consul to Syria James Henry Skene was retiring back to Edinburgh, he returned from Syria with Syrian hamsters. He died in 1886. The colony of hamsters remained alive until 1910.
When Adler's hamsters passed through the laboratory of Leonard Goodwin, those hamsters became the stock of pet hamsters in the UK. From the UK these hamsters also spread throughout Europe.
United States.
Albert Marsh of Mobile, Alabama established the commercial hamster industry in the United States in the 1940s. Marsh first got a hamster when he was gambling and won it in a wager. Somehow he got more hamsters after this one, perhaps from the breeding stock managed by Guy Henry Faget in Carville, Louisiana. At the time, Marsh was a highway engineer but unemployed. After getting his hamsters, he learned to breed them and founded Marsh Enterprises and the Gulf Hamstery, which promoted Syrian hamsters as pets, for laboratory use, and in business schemes. Marsh took advertisements in magazines, comics, and livestock trade journals which praised hamsters as pets and presented the idea that breeding hamsters was a good business investment. In his business, he shipped hamsters to people who would be breeders, then he coordinated the shipment of various breeders' hamsters to other breeders or to laboratories.
Marsh was successful in part because of the professionalism he brought to the art of hamster husbandry. He authored a book, "The Hamster Manual", which had a distribution of 80,000 copies by its 6th edition in 1951. In 1946, Marsh began a campaign to legalize the ownership of hamsters in California, which were prohibited. On 10 February 1948, with the help of the governor of Alabama and others, Marsh was successful in convincing the California State Department of Agriculture to designate Syrian hamsters as "normally domesticated animals".
The hamstery business peaked from 1948-1951 then profitability dropped to almost nothing in the early 1950s. The market changed when small hamsteries, most of which started with hamsters from Marsh, became available everywhere and satisfied local demand for pet hamsters. Marsh's Gulf Hamstery closed in the 1950s.


Paralarva

Paralarvae (singular: "paralarva") are young cephalopods in the planktonic stages between hatchling and subadult. This stage differs from the larval stage of animals that undergo true metamorphosis. Paralarvae have been observed only in members of the orders Octopoda and Teuthida.
The term was first introduced by Richard E. Young and Robert F. Harman in 1988.
Paralarvae usually spend an uncertain amount of time in the plankton and then typically descend to an adult habitat in the mesopelagic or bathypelagic zone. Their population abundance is dependent on the variation of mortality rates during the planktonic period.


Dendrobaena veneta

The European nightcrawler ("Eisenia hortensis" or "Dendrobaena veneta") is a medium-small earthworm averaging about 1.5 g when fully grown. Generally blueish, pink-grey (cf. Latin "veneta" meaning "sea-blue") in color with a banded or striped appearance, the tips of their tails are often cream or pale yellow. When the species has not been feeding, it is pale pink. The species is usually found in deep woodland litter and garden soils that are rich in organic matter in European countries. "E. hortensis" is sold primarily as a bait worm, but its popularity as a composting worm is increasing.
Etymology.
The genus "Eisenia" is named after Swedish scientist Gustav Eisen. According to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, the specific name "hortensis" ("of the garden") is derived from Latin "hortus" meaning "garden".
Usage.
Compared to "Eisenia fetida", "E. hortensis" does best in an environment with a higher carbon to nitrogen ratio. This makes it well suited to compost pits high in fibrous materials commonly known as browns. European nightcrawlers can be invasive and should be used only in contained compost systems in parts of the world with northern deciduous and boreal forest ecosystems.
Reproduction.
"E. hortensis", as a hermaphrodite, has both male and female reproductive organs. In mating, the weaker partner is forced into the female role, which is more expensive in terms of biological reproduction costs, for a sperm cell is generally less massive and energy-demanding than an ovum (egg cell), which is the female reproductive cell (gamete) in anisogamous organisms. Two worms join clitella, the large, lighter-colored bands that contain the worms' reproductive organs, and are only prominent during the reproduction process. The two worms exchange sperm. Both worms may secrete cocoons that contain an egg each. These cocoons are lemon-shaped and are pale yellow at first, becoming more brownish as the worms inside become mature. These cocoons are clearly visible to the naked eye.


Rosa Lee

Rosa Mabel Lee (1884-1976) was a statistician, the first woman scientist to be employed by the Marine Biological Association and the first woman to work as a government fishery scientist in the United Kingdom.
Lee studied the growth of fish using the growth rings on their scales. In 1920, she discovered the effect now known as the 'Lee phenomenon' or 'Rosa Lee Phenomenon', and her results are still cited in modern publications.
Early years.
Lee was born in Conwy, Caernarvonshire in 1884. Her father, George Henry Payne Lee was a civil servant, born in Exeter, Devon. Her mother was Maria Agnes, born in St Pancras, London. In 1894, her father worked in Conwy as a postal telegraph inspector. Rosa had two older brothers (Harold and Albert) and two older sisters (Amy and Florence).
She graduated from Bangor University in 1904 with a BA in mathematics (Class: II), its first woman graduate in mathematics.
Working life.
Lee was employed by the Marine Biological Association (MBA) in their laboratory at Lowestoft, the first woman scientist to be employed by the MBA. Lee became the first woman to work as a government fishery scientist when she was employed as an assistant naturalist in 1905. In 1910, all of the staff at Lowestoft were transferred to the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries and during the original transfer, Lee was not offered a job. The board reportedly stated that they 'did not employ women scientists'. However, after protests from the MBA and Garstang, she was allowed to start work as a civil servant. She continued her research and stayed on with the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries in London until 1919. She worked at the office in Delahay Street, Westminster.
In the 1911 census she was recorded as living in London with her sister, Amy Lee at 2 Avenue House, St Johns Wood, London. The street is now renamed Allison Street but Avenue House still exists.
Rosa Lee married Thomas Lewis Williams in 1917, but had to leave the Civil Service in 1919 as the marriage bar rules at the time did not allow married women to continue in employment
Rosa and Thomas subsequently moved to Abergavenny, Monmouthshire, where Rosa stayed, until after her husband's death in 1946. Rosa herself died in Greenwich (London) in 1976, aged 92.
Scientific work.
Lee published a number of important scientific papers in her working life, including an article that appeared in "Nature" in 1920. However, her most cited work is not one published in a prestigious journal, but is a report for the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.
Rosa Lee phenomenon.
Fish scales have growth rings and are used to age fish, in the same way that tree rings can be used to age trees. Fishery scientists try and understand the fish populations by modelling. They need to know how old and how big the fish are and how each ‘cohort’ of the population will grow as it matures. Each catch of fish has fish of different ages, i.e. fish that were born in different years. The size and growth of these fish can be linked to environmental variables. Predicting future stock of fish is necessary for good management, and to do this, accurate estimates of growth rates and 'length at age' are required. By measuring the rings of a fish its possible to say how long it was for every year of its life.
Lee observed that you may get different results for growth rates by 'back calculating' from an older fish, than you would when calculating growth rates from younger fish. This phenomenon occurs when individuals in a population with slower growth rates suffer less mortality when young. The older population is skewed by more slower growing fish, as the faster growing fish died at a younger age. There can be a number of reasons for this, one reason can be selective mortality, e.g. fishing gear that selects for a particular size of fish will catch the larger young fish and the smaller old fish. It can also occur when the sampling is biased.
Rosa Lee's work is still relevant today and her paper is frequently cited, however her actual influence is greater than indicated by the number of citations, because some scientific authors simply refer to 'Rosa Lee's phenomenon' rather than correctly citing her publication.


Tigerfish

Tigerfish can refer to fish from various families, and derives from official and colloquial associations of these with the tiger ("Panthera tigris"). However, the primary species designated by the name "tigerfish" are African and belong to the family Alestidae.
African tigerfish.
Several species belonging to the genus "Hydrocynus" of the family Alestidae are referred to as "tigerfish", and are particularly prized as game fish. These African fish are found in many rivers and lakes on the continent and are fierce predators with distinctive, proportionally large teeth.
The goliath tigerfish ("Hydrocynus goliath") is among the most famous tigerfish. The largest one on record is said to have weighed . It is found in the Congo River system and Lake Tanganyika and is the largest member of the family Alestidae. Another famous species, simply called the tigerfish ("Hydrocynus vittatus"), is commonly found in the southernly Okavango Delta, and the Zambezi River, and also in the two biggest lakes along the Zambezi, Lake Kariba which borders Zimbabwe and Zambia, Kabombo River in Zambia and Cabora Bassa in Mozambique, and finally in the Jozini dam in South Africa. Both the goliath tigerfish and its smaller relative the tigerfish are found in Africa.
Behavior.
In the western gamefishing world, "Hydrocynus vittatus" is considered Africa's equivalent of the South American piranha, though it belongs to a completely different zoological family. Like the piranha, individual tigerfish have interlocking, razor-sharp teeth, along with streamlined, muscular bodies, and are extremely aggressive and capable predators who often hunt in groups.
The African tigerfish is the first freshwater fish recorded and confirmed to attack and catch birds in flight.
Cichlids.
The name "tigerfish" has occasionally been used for a species of cichlid in the genus "Rhamphochromis". The species is large, silver-coloured, and individuals typically have one or more black lines running the length of either flank. These fish are native to Lake Malawi in Africa. Like the other African tigerfish species, they are famed for possessing large, prominent teeth, and they are known to attack humans.
Datnioididae.
Several species of "Coius" (or "Datnioides", depending on the taxonomic authority) have been referred to as "tigerfish", particularly in fishkeeping books and magazines. They are large, wide-bodied fish whose flanks are covered by vivid black stripes.
Erythrinidae.
The large South American characins of the family Erythrinidae have also sometimes been called "tigerfish".


Gubernaculum

The paired gubernacula (from Ancient Greek κυβερνάω = pilot, steer) also called the caudal genital ligament, are embryonic structures which begin as undifferentiated mesenchyme attaching to the caudal end of the gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females).
Structure.
The gubernaculum is present only during the development of the urinary and reproductive organs. It is later replaced by distinct vestiges in males and females.
Development.
As the scrotum and labia majora form in males and females respectively, the gubernaculum aids in the descent of the gonads (both testes and ovaries).
The testes descend to a greater degree than the ovaries and ultimately pass through the inguinal canal into the scrotum. The mechanism of this movement is still debated.
History.
The gubernaculum was first described by John Hunter in 1762. The term comes from Ancient Greek meaning to steer, or the rudder or helm.


Sinularia flexibilis

Sinularia flexibilis is a species of soft coral in the family Alcyoniidae. It is known commonly as the spaghetti finger leather coral. This species is widespread throughout the western Pacific and eastern Indian Oceans. It is usually found in large colonies at depths between one and fifteen meters.


Corycaeidae

Corycaeidae is a family of cyclopoid copepods in the order Cyclopoida. There are about 10 genera and more than 70 described species in Corycaeidae.
Genera.
These 10 genera belong to the family Corycaeidae:


Lissopholidisis

Lissopholidisis is a genus of deep-sea bamboo coral in the family Isididae.