Changes in the taxonomy of gastropods since 2005

This overview lists proposed changes in the taxonomy of gastropods at the family level and above since 2005, when the taxonomy of the Gastropoda by Bouchet & Rocroi (2005) was published. In other words, these are recent updates in the way various groups of snails and slugs are classified.
Changes in subfamilies are outlined in the respective articles about each particular family. Unchanged taxa are not listed here.
In one of the largest recent changes (affecting the most species of gastropods), Klussmann-Kolb "et al." (2008) showed that the traditional classification of the Euthyneura needed to be reconsidered. The change was subsequently made by Jörger "et al." (2010), who redefined the major groups within the Heterobranchia.
A great number of major changes have been made within the classification of the Conoidea since 2011.
In the 2017 issue of "Malacologia" journal (available online from 4 January 2018) new much updated version of 2005 "Bouchet & Rocroi" taxonomy was published: "Revised Classification, Nomenclator and Typification of Gastropod and Monoplacophoran Families".
Helcionelloida (not gastropods).
It has become clear that the fossil taxon Helcionelloida does "not" belong to the class Gastropoda; it is now a separate class within the Mollusca. P. Yu. Parkhaev (2006, 2007) created the class Helcionelloida, whose members were previously treated as "Paleozoic molluscs of uncertain systematic position" "sensu" Bouchet & Rocroi.
Subclass Archaeobranchia Parkhaev, 2001
Subclass Divasibranchia Minichev & Starobogatov, 1975
Subclass Dextrobranchia Minichev & Starobogatov, 1975
Patellogastropoda.
This revised taxonomy of the Patellogastropoda (the true limpets) is based on research by Nakano & Ozawa (2007). The Acmaeidae is treated as a synonym of Lottiidae; the subfamily Pectinodontinae is elevated to Pectinodontidae; a new family Eoacmaeidae with the new type genus "Eoacmaea" is established. The remaining three families (Neolepetopsidae, Daminilidae, Lepetopsidae) are moved into the Lottioidea, like this:
Vetigastropoda.
Geiger (2009) elevated the subfamily Depressizoninae to family level as Depressizonidae. Also two subfamilies (the Larocheinae from the Scissurellidae, and the Temnocinclinae from the Sutilizonidae) were upgraded to family level as the Larocheidae and the Temnocinclidae.
The superfamily Trochoidea was redefined by Williams "et al." (2008) and the superfamily Turbinoidea is no longer used. Phasianelloidea and Angarioidea were created as new superfamilies.
Trochoidea
Phasianelloidea
Angarioidea
Neomphalina.
The superfamily Neomphaloidea was previously regarded as belonging within the clade Vetigastropoda. Molecular phylogeny has shown however that it belongs in its own clade, Neomphalina, which is endemic to deep-sea hydrothermal vent habitat. The clade Neomphalina appears to be basal to the Vetigastropoda. Neomphalina is a monophyletic clade, however, its exact relationship among the gastropods is uncertain.
Neritimorpha.
Bandel (2007) described four new families within the Neritopsoidea. He classified Neritopsoidea in the order Neritoina within the superorder Cycloneritimorpha and within the subclass Neritimorpha. Bandel (2007) recognizes Natisopsinae (in Neritopsidae by Bouchet & Rocrois 2005) at the family level, as Naticopsidae. Bandel's classification looks like this:
superfamily Neritopsoidea
Caenogastropoda.
The family Provannidae was moved to the superfamily Abyssochrysoidea Tomlin, 1927. In addition, a new family Hokkaidoconchidae Kaim, Jenkins & Warén, 2008 was named.
The subfamily Semisulcospirinae, within the Pleuroceridae, was elevated to the family level Semisulcospiridae by Strong & Köhler (2009).
Bandel (2006) made numerous changes in the following clades: Cerithimorpha/Cerithioidea, Turritellimorpha/Turritelloidea, Murchisonimorpha/Orthonematoidea, Campanilimorpha/Campaniloidea and Ampullinoidea, Vermetimorpha/Vermetoidea.
Fehse (2007) elevated both the subfamily Pediculariinae and the tribe Eocypraeini (which were previously in the family Ovulidae) to family level, based on both morphological research and molecular phylogeny research. Families within Cypraeoidea are now as follows:
Within the Tonnoidea, Beu (2008) raised the subfamily Cassinae to the rank of family: Cassidae Latreille, 1825.
Bouchet et al. (2011) updated the taxonomy of the superfamily Conoidea:
In 2012, within the Conoidea, a new family Bouchetispiridae that includes one genus "Bouchetispira" Kantor, Strong & Puillandre, 2012 and one species "Bouchetispira vitrea" Kantor, Strong & Puillandre, 2012, was discovered.
In 2015, in the "Journal of Molluscan Studies", Puillandre, Duda, Meyer, Olivera & Bouchet presented a new classification for the old genus "Conus". Using 329 species, the authors carried out molecular phylogenetic analyses. The results suggested that the authors should place all cone snails in a single family, Conidae, containing four genera: "Conus", "Conasprella", "Profundiconus" and "Californiconus". The authors group 85% of all known cone snail species under "Conus", They recognize 57 subgenera within "Conus", and 11 subgenera within the genus "Conasprella". .
Heterobranchia.
Janssen (2005) established a new family, Praecuvierinidae.
Gosliner "et al." (2007) elevated the subfamily Babakininae to the family level as Babakinidae.
Golding "et al." (2007) established new families within the Amphiboloidea:
Uit de Weerd (2008) moved two families Urocoptidae and Cerionidae to the newly established superfamily Urocoptoidea, based on molecular phylogeny research as follows:
superfamily Urocoptoidea
Other authors also made numerous taxonomic changes within Orthalicoidea in 2009-2012.
Schrödl & Neusser (2010) rearranged the taxonomy of the Acochlidiacea.
Swennen & Buatip (2009) described a new family Aitengidae, which was later moved to Acochlidiacea by Jörger et al. (2010).
Malaquias "et al." (2009) rearranged the taxonomy of the Cephalaspidea "sensu lato": reinstated Architectibranchia, reinstated Runcinacea, reinstated Scaphandridae as a valid family, but they did not use superfamilies.
Subsequently, Malaquias (2010) moved "Bullacta exarata" (formerly the only member of Bullactidae) into the family Haminoeidae.
Sutcharit "et al." (2010) established a new family Diapheridae within the Streptaxoidea in 2010.
Jörger et al. (2010) redefined major groups of Heterobranchia and created the new clades Euopisthobranchia and Panpulmonata.
Maeda "et al." (2010) confirmed the placement of "Cylindrobulla" within the Sacoglossa.
Thompson (2010) redefined subfamilies in Spiraxidae, moving Euglandininae and Streptostylinae (from where they had been in the Oleacinidae per Bouchet & Rocroi (2005)) so that they became subfamilies of Spiraxidae.
Johnson (2011) resurrected the family Cadlinidae.
Thompson (2012) established a new family, Epirobiidae.
Thompson & Naranjo-García (2012) described a new family Echinichidae within Xanthonychoidea.
Prestonellinae was formally described as a new subfamily within Bothriembryontidae in 2016.


Triangular interval

The triangular interval (also known as the lateral triangular space, lower triangular space, and triceps hiatus) is a space found in the axilla. It is one of the three intermuscular spaces found in the axillary space. The other two spaces are: quadrangular space and triangular space.
Borders.
Two of its borders are as follows:
Some sources state the lateral border is the humerus, while others define it as the lateral head of the triceps. (The effective difference is relatively minor, though.)
Contents.
The radial nerve is visible through the triangular interval, on its way to the posterior compartment of the arm.
Profunda Brachii also passes through the triangular interval from anterior to posterior.
Triangular Interval Syndrome.
Triangular Interval Syndrome (TIS) was described as a differential diagnosis for radicular pain in the upper extremity. It is a condition where the radial nerve is entrapped in the triangular interval resulting in upper extremity radicular pain. The radial nerve and profunda brachii pass through the triangular interval and are hence vulnerable. The triangular interval has a potential for compromise secondary alterations in thickness of the teres major and triceps. It is described based on cadaveric studies that fibrous bands were commonly present between the teres major and triceps. When these bands were present, rotation of the shoulder caused a reduction in cross sectional area of the space. Normal resting postures of humeral adduction and internal rotation with scapular protraction may be speculated as a precedent for teres major contractures owing to the shortened position of this muscle in this position. In addition, hypertrophy of this muscle can occur secondary to weight training and potentially compromise the triangular interval with resultant entrapment of the radial nerve. Shoulder dysfunctions have a potential for shortening and hypertrophy of the teres major. Shoulders that exhibit stiffness, secondary to capsular tightness, contribute to contracture and hypertrophy of the teres major. Hence, restricted external rotation can encourage adaptive shortening and thickening of the internal rotators of the shoulder principally the teres major and subscapularis. One may speculate that the lateral arm pain presented in shoulder dysfunctions may be of a nerve origin secondary to adverse neural tension of the radial nerve. The triceps brachii has a potential to entrap the radial nerve in the triangular interval secondary to hypertrophy. The presence of a fibrous arch in the long head and lateral head further complicates the situation. Repeated forceful extension seen in weight training and sport involving punching may be a precedent to this scenario. The radial nerve is vulnerable as it passes through this space, for all of the reasons mentioned above.


Argentine fat-tailed mouse opossum

The Argentine fat-tailed mouse opossum ("Thylamys sponsorius") was formerly considered a species opossum in the family Didelphidae. It is found in the eastern foothills of the Andes in northern Argentina and southern Bolivia. Its dorsal fur is gray brown to dark brown. Its ventral fur is gray-based except for the white to yellowish chest hairs. It has been distinguished from "T. cinderella" by its postorbital ridges. "T. cinderella" has well-developed postorbital ridges in both juveniles and adults that extend laterally behind the eye sockets. Only adults of "T. sponsorius" have fully developed postorbital ridges, and these do not extend laterally behind the eye sockets. However, mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis does not support the population being distinct from "T. cinderella".


Telolecithal

Telolecithal (Greek: "τέλος" (telos) = end, "λέκιθος" (lekithos) = yolk), refers to the uneven distribution of yolk in the cytoplasm of ovums found in birds, reptiles, fish, and monotremes. The yolk is concentrated at one pole of the egg separate from the developing embryo.
This type of egg undergoes discoidal meroblastic cleavage, where yolk is not incorporated in the cells during cell division.


Crania (brachiopod)

Crania is an extinct genus of brachiopods that lived during the Upper Cretaceous.
Description.
"Crania" has small (up to in diameter) circular shells. The dorsal valve is smooth or has slight pustules. The ventral valve is only attached posteriorly and has a thickened flat grainy rim.
Reassigned species.
As the genus "Crania" was erected early on in paleontology, many species have since be reassigned.


Secondary palate development

The development of the secondary palate commences in the sixth week of human embryonic development. It is characterised by the formation of two palatal shelves on the maxillary prominences, the elevation of these shelves to a horizontal position, and then a process of palatal fusion between the horizontal shelves. The shelves will also fuse anteriorly upon the primary palate, with the incisive foramen being the landmark between the primary palate and secondary palate. This forms what is known as the roof of the mouth, or the hard palate.
The formation and development of the secondary palate occurs through signalling molecules SHH, BMP-2, FGF-8 among others.
Failure of the secondary palate to develop correctly may result in a Cleft palate disorder.
Formation of palatal shelves.
The formation of the vertical palatal shelves occurs during week 7 of embryological development, on the maxillary processes of the head of embryo, lateral to the developing tongue.
Palatal shelf elevation.
The elevation of the palatal shelves from a vertical position to a horizontal one occurs during week 8 of embryological development. It is unknown as to what exactly is the direct cause of this movement is, but a number of possibilities have been identified as follows:
Suggested mechanisms for palatal fusion.
Fusion between the two palatal shelves occurs during week 9 of embryonic development. In this time, the elevated palatal shelves join together to form one continuous structure, with the medial edge epithelium (the shelf surfaces which are closest to each other) disappearing.
The specific mechanism by which the medial edge epithelium disappears has been differed over by academics. The three most distinguished theories related to the explanation of palatal fusion are as follows:


Hypothallus

In true slime molds, the myxogastria, the hypothallus is the layer on which the fruit body sits, lying in contact with the substrate. Roughly translated, it means "under the thallus".
The hypothallus is produced by the plasmodium at the beginning of fructification. Depending on the species, it can be membranous to thick or tender to solid and nearly transparent to brightly coloured. It may surround an individual fruit body, or may form a contiguous connection between multiple fruit bodies. In some rare cases it is missing entirely.
In some taxa the hypothallus may be involved in the formation of the fruit body. In the "epihypothallic" Stemonitida, the hypothallus forms hollow, tubular stems and a columella, up which the remaining plasmodium then rises, producing the spores. In all other myxogastria "subhypothallic" development takes place. Here, the hypothallus produces a layer on the plasmodium, which creates the rooms of the single fruit bodies during fructification. As the surrounding plasmodium flows in the fruit body, the hypothallus will lie directly on the substrate, shrinking and creating the edge of the mature fruit body. Here, the hypothallus is part of a morphological unit with peridium and stem, which serves as a membranous surface of the whole structure with the spores. Epihypothaly is an autapomorphy of the stemonitida and is, in comparison to subhypothaly, a primitive feature.


Orbicularis oris muscle

In human anatomy, the orbicularis oris muscle is a complex of muscles in the lips that encircles the mouth.
It is a sphincter, or circular muscle, but it is actually composed of four independent quadrants that interlace and give only an appearance of circularity.
It is also one of the muscles used in the playing of all brass instruments and some woodwind instruments. This muscle closes the mouth and puckers the lips when it contracts.
Anatomy.
The orbicularis oris is not a simple sphincter muscle like the orbicularis oculi; it consists of numerous strata of muscular fibers surrounding the orifice of the mouth, but having different direction.
It consists partly of fibers derived from the other facial muscles which are inserted into the lips, and partly of fibers proper to the lips. Of the former, a considerable number are derived from the buccinator and form the deeper stratum of the orbicularis.
Some of the buccinator fibers—namely, those near the middle of the muscle—decussate at the angle of the mouth, those arising from the maxilla passing to the lower lip, and those from the mandible to the upper lip.
The uppermost and lowermost fibers of the buccinator pass across the lips from side to side without decussation.
Superficial to this stratum is a second, formed on either side by the caninus and triangularis, which cross each other at the angle of the mouth; those from the caninus passing to the lower lip, and those from the triangularis to the upper lip, along which they run, to be inserted into the skin near the median line.
In addition to these, fibers from the quadratus labii superioris, the zygomaticus, and the quadratus labii inferioris intermingle with the transverse fibers above described, and have principally an oblique direction.
The proper fibers of the lips are oblique, and pass from the under surface of the skin to the mucous membrane, through the thickness of the lip.
Finally, fibers occur by which the muscle is connected with the maxilla and the septum of the nose above and with the mandible below. In the upper lip, these consist of two bands, lateral and medial, on either side of the middle line; the lateral band m. incisivus labii superioris arises from the alveolar border of the maxilla, opposite the lateral incisor tooth, and arching lateralward is continuous with the other muscles at the angle of the mouth; the medial band m. nasolabialis connects the upper lip to the back of the septum of the nose.
The interval between the two medial bands corresponds with the depression, called the philtrum, seen on the lip beneath the septum of the nose. The additional fibers for the lower lip constitute a slip m. incisivus labii inferioris on either side of the middle line; this arises from the mandible, lateral to the Mentalis, and intermingles with the other muscles at the angle of the mouth.
Clinical significance.
Babies are occasionally born without one or both sides of this particular muscle, resulting in a slight droop to the affected side of the face.


Pterygoid notch

Pterygoid notch (incisura pterygoidea) is a notch on the inferior portion of the pterygoid processes of the sphenoid bone, between the medial and lateral plates into which the pyramidal process of the palatine bone is fitted.


Caminus

Caminus is a genus of sea sponges belonging to the family Geodiidae.


Aricidea

Aricidea is a genus of small paraonid worms, which are sub-surface deposit feeders and bioturbators. "Aricidea" worms have a prostomial antenna, with all "Aricidea" species (except those in the subgenus Aedicira) possessing neuropodial thickened chaetae.


Peripatopsis purpureus

Peripatopsis purpureus is a species of velvet worm in the family Peripatopsidae.


Endocranium

The endocranium in comparative anatomy is a part of the skull base in vertebrates and it represents the basal, inner part of the cranium. The term is also applied to the outer layer of the dura mater in human anatomy.
Structure.
Structurally, the endocranium consists of a boxlike shape, open at the top. The posterior margin exhibit the "foramen magnum", an opening for the spinal cord. The floor of the endocranium has several paired openings for the cranial nerves, and the anterior margin holds a spongy construction, allowing for the external nasal nerves to pass through. All bones of the structure derive from the cranial neural crest during fetal development.
Endocranial elements in humans.
In humans and other mammals, the endocranium forms during fetal development as a cartilaginous neurocranium, that ossifies from several centers. Several of these bones merge, and in the adult primates (including humans), the endocranium is composed of only five bony elements (from front to back):
Other animals.
Endocranial components in other tetrapods.
The endocranium in mammals is much reduced in relative size and number of bones compared to the condition in the ancestral land vertebrates, though the occipital bone occur as one or more stout bony elements in several mammal groups. The occipital bone is also found as several bony elements in birds and reptiles, while the skull of modern amphibians is generally reduced with a simplified endocranium. The skull of early labyrinthodonts were rather complex, and contained in addition to the bones mentioned above several small cartilaginous components that are fused to temporal and occipital bones in mammals:
The endocranium in fish.
While the endocranium is an integral part of the skull in mammals, birds and reptiles, its connection to the roofing parts of the skull is more loose in the lower vertebrates. In Agnathans and Chondrichthyes, the skull lacks the skull roof dermal elements, their whole cranium being composed of the endocranium, properly called a chondrocranium. In most Osteichthyes, the skull is only loosely joined, and the endocranial elements do not form a unit with the skull roof.
Fossilization.
An endocast or endocranial cast is a cast made of the mold formed by the impression the brain makes on the inside of the neurocranium (braincase), providing a replica of the brain with most of the details of its outer surface. Endocasts can also form naturally, when sediments fill the empty skull, after which the skull is destroyed and the cast fossilized. Scientists are increasingly utilizing computerized tomography scanning technology to create digital endocasts without damaging valuable specimens. This gives a 3D representation of the brain. Brain size and complexity can then be determined.
Endocasts were used for looking at the brains of "Homo sapiens" to find hemispheric specialization.


Eunice (annelid)

Eunice is a genus in the polychaete family Eunicidae. Individuals grow to a length of between . Their bodies have multiple segments. They have two eyes and five tentacles. They have well-developed sense organs and relatively large brains. Their color is dark purple-brown to red-brown with a white ring at the fourth segment. They are found in oceans and seas around the world. They have an evertible proboscis with distinctive mouthparts, some of which comprise two rows of maxilliary plates in a radula-like fashion.


Pterygoid hamulus

The pterygoid hamulus is a hook-like process at the lower extremity of the medial pterygoid plate of the sphenoid bone. Around it glides the tendon of the tensor veli palatini. As well, it is the superior origin of the pterygomandibular raphe.


Romankenkius

Romankenkius is a genus of freshwater planarian in the family Dugesiidae.
Species.
"Romankenkius" comprises the following species:


Agagus agagus

Agagus agagus is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Trochidae, the top snails.
Description.
The shell grows to a length of 9 mm, its diameter 10 mm. The umbilicate shell has a depressed conical shape with a swollen base. Its color is a vivid white with green spots. It contains 6½ sharp declining whorls with longitudinal oblique striae and spiral ribs. The aperture is subquadrangular. The outer lip is sharp.
Distribution.
This species occurs in the Red Sea and in the Indian Ocean off Tanzania and South Africa.


Aequornithes

Aequornithes (, from Latin "aequor", expanse of water + Greek "ornithes", birds), or core water birds are defined as "the least inclusive clade containing Gaviidae and Phalacrocoracidae".
The monophyly of the group is currently supported by several molecular phylogenetic studies.
Aequornithes includes the clades Gaviiformes, Sphenisciformes, Procellariiformes, Ciconiiformes, Suliformes and Pelecaniformes. It does not include several unrelated groups of aquatic birds such as flamingos and grebes (Mirandornithes), shorebirds and auks (Charadriiformes), or the Anseriformes.
Based on a whole-genome analysis of the bird orders, the kagu and sunbittern (Eurypygiformes) and the three species of tropicbirds (Phaethontiformes) together styled as the Eurypygimorphae are the closest sister group of the Aequornithes in the clade Ardeae.
Cladogram based on Burleigh, J.G. et al. (2015) with some names after Sangster, G. & Mayr, G. (2021).


Eugen Korschelt

Eugen Korschelt (28 September 1858, in Zittau – 28 December 1946, in Marburg) was a German zoologist. He is known for his research in the field of comparative embryology and his work involving biological regeneration and transplantation.
He served as a lecturer at the Universities of Freiburg and Berlin. becoming a professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at the University of Marburg in 1892. At Marburg, he succeeded Richard Greeff as director of the zoological institute, and twice served as university rector (1904/05, 1914/15). In 1912/13 he was president of the "Deutsche Zoologische Gesellschaft" (German Zoological Society).
Organisms with the specific epithet of "korschelti" are named after him, an example being the ribbon worm species "Amphiporus korschelti".
Published works.
With Austrian zoologist Karl Heider, he co-wrote an important textbook on comparative embryology called "Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Entwicklungsgeschichte der wirbellosen Thiere". It was later translated into English and published as "Text-book of the embryology of invertebrates" (several volumes). In 1907 he published "Regeneration und Transplantation", a work that was also translated into English; "Regeneration and transplantation". With physiologist Max Verworn, chemist Karl Schaum and others, he was editor of the 10-volume "Handwörterbuch der Naturwissenschaften" (1912-1915).


Columbimorphae

Columbimorphae is a clade discovered by genome analysis that includes birds of the orders Columbiformes (pigeons and doves), Pterocliformes (sandgrouse), and Mesitornithiformes (mesites). Previous analyses had also recovered this grouping, although the exact relationships differed. Some studies indicated a sister relationship between sandgrouse and pigeons (the traditional view) while other studies favored a sister grouping of mesites and sandgrouse instead.


C5orf46

"C5orf46" is a protein coding gene located on chromosome 5 in humans. It is also known as "sssp1", or skin and saliva secreted protein 1. There are two known isoforms known in humans, with isoform 2 (analyzed throughout this page) being the longer of the two. The protein encoded is predicted to have one transmembrane domain, and has a predicted molecular weight of 9,692 Da, and a basal isoelectric point of 4.67.
Gene.
Found on the minus strand of chromosome 5, the c5orf46 isoform X2 is 4679 nucleotides in length and has 4 exons.
Evolution and orthologs.
C5orf46 orthologs are only found in Chordata, with the earliest instance being found in the "Ornithorhynchus anatinus" around 177 million years ago. Highly conserved regions include the signal peptide sequence found towards the N-terminus of the protein. There are no paralogs found in humans.
Promoters.
A Genomatix ElDorado promoter database search predicted one promoter for c5orf46. This promoter has the ID number of GXP_123762 and transcript ID number GXT_22785522. The promoter is located on the minus strand of chromosome 5, and was predicted to range from nucleotides 147906451 to 147908007, making it 1557 nucleotides in length.
Transcription factors.
A total of 428 transcription factor binding sites were predicted to be located within the predicted promoter sequence. The predictions included the following transcription factors:
Expression.
"C5orf46" is largely expressed in salivary glands and skin tissue, though some expression in heart tissue, testis, and placenta is also observed.
Microarray data measuring c5orf46 expression in psoriasis patients revealed a trend of low expression in patients with lesional psoriasis. Samples from lesional psoriasis patients had significantly lower c5orf46 expression compared to non-lesional psoriasis patients and healthy control samples.
Protein.
Primary structure.
C5orf46 is 102 amino acids in length. The protein has a signal peptide sequence at its N-terminus. The signal peptide sequence is highly conserved in orthologs. The amino acid sequence includes a DDKPD sequence that is repeated, with an aspartate and lysine rich region.
Secondary structure.
Through prediction software including the Chou and Fasman Secondary Structure Prediction server and Prabi GOR IV Prediction analysis, two alpha-helical segments were predicted.
Tertiary structure.
Predictive models made by Phyre2 and SWISS-Model have shown two alpha-helical domains with a bend between them.
Protein regulation.
C5orf46 has multiple predicted post-translation modification sites, and one modification identified through mass spectrometry. Mass spectrometry analysis of extracts from a NCI-H2228 lung cancer cell line have identified an acetylation site at K42. C5orf46 has predicted phosphorylation sites at T14, S52, S84, and S86. Predicted sumoylation sites are present at K41, K44, K48, K54, and K57. There are two predicted O-GlcNAcylation sites found at S100 and S101.
Localization.
An analysis of the c5orf46 amino acid sequence revealed that the protein is likely to be secreted. Further sequence analyses have predicted that the protein has one transmembrane domain, with an intracellular N-terminal domain.
Interactions.
C5orf46 has been predicted to interact with phosphopantothenoylcysteine synthetase (PPCS) and transmembrane BAX inhibitor motif containing 6 (TMBIM6) through affinity purification-mass spectrometry methods.
Clinical significance.
C5orf46 has been shown to be a prognostic marker in renal and cervical cancer, with high expression being linked to unfavorable outcomes. These conclusions were based on Human Protein Pathology Atlas gene expression analyses and survival outcomes of 651 and 291 patients with renal and cervical cancer respectively. In these analyses, patients that were classified with high expression of c5orf46 were shown to have a 50% lower survival rate after 10 years than patients with low expression.


Limnodriloidinae

Limnodriloidinae is a subfamily of clitellate oligochaete worm.
Species.
The following genera are currently recognized within Limnodriloidinae:


Norman Wallace Lermond

Norman Wallace Lermond (July 27, 1861 – Spring 1944) was an American naturalist and socialist activist. Lermond helped found the People's Party (the so-called "Populists") in Maine. and in 1892, Lermond ran for the U.S. Congress from Maine's 2nd congressional district for the Populists, finishing in third place with 3.63% of the vote. In 1900, Lermond ran for Governor of Maine, becoming the first socialist candidate for governor in Maine history. He lost to Republican John Fremont Hill.
Biography.
Lermond was born on July 27, 1861, in Warren, Maine to Omar W. and Rebecca (Todd) Lermond. His family moved to Boston, Massachusetts in 1872 and he was sent to a religious boarding school in Hartford, Connecticut. He later attended Dudley Grammar School in Roxbury and English High School of Boston. After his schooling he worked in the Bartlett book store and then worked a year for a trade journal "The Boston Telegram" in New York. He worked for the New York and New England Railroad for several years as an accountant.
He was noted to be a farmer and helped found the Thomaston Farmers' Exchange in 1880 and helped organize the New England Milk Association.
Lermond started to write an autobiography but died before it was completed. His papers were found with the Department of Mollusks of Harvard University's Museum of Comparative Zoology and was published with annotations.
Lermond was buried, at his request, in a pine box under a large pine tree in an unmarked grave at the entrance to his arboretum in Maine.
Socialist.
Lermond was notable as a founder of the Socialist Party of Maine in the 1890s. He envisioned "local unions" (communities) establishing the first one at what became the Knox Arboretum. He helped create the Brotherhood of the Co-operative Commonwealth and the Equality Colony in the state of Washington with the intent of socialism taking over the state and then the country. According to the Maine Historical Society he called his local union Utopia Park. He was inspired by Edward Bellamy's "Equality" and in the five months he spent in Edison, Washington helping establish the Equality Colony, he helped found the socialist newspaper "Equality".
Naturalist.
Lermond remained an amateur naturalist but was noted as being the "...foremost naturalist in New England and labored tirelessly to interest and organize both professionals and amateurs alike to study the natural history of Maine." In addition to his observations around Boston and Maine, "He studied flora and fauna of the Pacific Coast, and in the states of Arkansas and Tennessee, and dredged for shells off the coast of Florida. He studied nature in the Bahamas and Cuba, and camped in the Everglades for a period of three weeks with a party of eminent scientists doing research work. For several months at two different times, he was assistant in the Department of Mollusks at Harvard College."
The Knox Arboretum, Knox Academy of Arts and Sciences, and "Maine Naturalist".
Lermond organized and directed the Knox Academy of Arts and Sciences, established in 1913, and established the Knox Arboretum which was roughly sixty acres of land with approximately 3500' of tidal frontage and a large brick house at the junction the St. George and Oyster Rivers in Warren, Maine. The arboretum also housed a library and herbarium. Also a Charles Creighten's collection of birds, local Indian relics, butterflies, minnows, and tourmaline. The property was offered to the State of Maine and was accepted at first and funded but in 1937 the eighty-eighth state legislature declined acceptance of the deed to the Knox Arboretum writing that the arboretum "...is one of the outstanding attractions in the state..." but would cause expenses at a time the citizens demanded no unnecessary expenses and there was a question about the quality of the title.
The Knox Academy has such members as John Harvey Lovell, and Marie Curie became an honorary Life Member on June 18, 1921.
Lermond founded and edited the Knox Academy's journal, "The Maine Naturalist". Upon his death in 1944 the arboretum and Knox Academy ended.
American Malacological Union.
Lermond was the founder of the American Malacological Union in 1931. Lermond initially called the group the American Association of Conchologists but that name had been used previously by a group started by John Campbell of Philadelphia in 1890. The name was changed at the first meeting April 1931 in Philadelphia. Today the group is the American Malacological Society.
In his study of mollusks, Lermond collect enough shells to fill "100 cases" and was estimated by the Smithsonian Institution in 1940s to be valued at $50,000. One type was a new discovery and was named in honor of him, "caecum lermondi" but was found to have been previously identified as meioceras nitidum. The Lermond shell collection was acquired by Colby College in Waterville, Maine to be put on display, but then went to the Museum of Comparative Zoology (Harvard University) and the Delaware Museum of Natural History.


Cilium

The cilium (; the plural is cilia) is an organelle found on eukaryotic cells in the shape of a slender protuberance that projects from the much larger cell body.
There are two types of cilia: "motile" and "non-motile" cilia. Non-motile cilia are also called "primary cilia" which serve as sensory organelles. Most mammalian cell types possess a single non-motile, primary cilium, which functions as a cellular antenna. Exceptions include olfactory neurons which possess several non-motile cilia and cells of the transient embryonic node, which possess singular motile cilia known as "nodal cilia", critical for the establishment of left to right body asymmetry.
In eukaryotes, motile cilia and flagella (together known as undulipodia) are structurally similar, although distinctions are sometimes made according to function or length. Immotile cilia (called primary cilia) communicate signals from the environment or from other cells.
Types.
Primary cilia.
In animals, non-motile primary cilia are found on nearly every type of cell, blood cells being a prominent exception. Most cells only possess one, in contrast to cells with motile cilia, an exception being olfactory sensory neurons, where the odorant receptors are located, which each possess about ten cilia. Some cell types, such as retinal photoreceptor cells, possess highly specialized primary cilia.
Although the primary cilium was discovered in 1898, it was largely ignored for a century and considered a vestigial organelle without important function. Recent findings regarding its physiological roles in chemosensation, signal transduction, and cell growth control, have revealed its importance in cell function. Its importance to human biology has been underscored by the discovery of its role in a diverse group of diseases caused by the dysgenesis or dysfunction of cilia, such as polycystic kidney disease, congenital heart disease, mitral valve prolapse, and retinal degeneration, called ciliopathies. The primary cilium is now known to play an important role in the function of many human organs.
Cilia are assembled during the g1 phase and are disassembled before mitosis occurs. Disassembly of cilia requires the action of the Aurora A kinase.
The current scientific understanding of primary cilia views them as "sensory cellular antennae that coordinate many cellular signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or alternatively to cell division and differentiation."
The cilium is composed of subdomains and enclosed by a plasma membrane continuous with the plasma membrane of the cell. For many cilia, the basal body, where the cilium originates, is located within a membrane invagination called the ciliary pocket. The cilium membrane and the basal body microtubules are connected by distal appendages (also called transition fibers). Vesicles carrying molecules for the cilia dock at the distal appendages. Distal to the transition fibers form a transition zone where entry and exit of molecules is regulated to and from the cilia. Some of the signaling with these cilia occur through ligand binding such as Hedgehog signaling. Other forms of signaling include G-coupled receptors including the somatostatin receptor 3 in neuronal cells.
Motile cilia.
Larger eukaryotes, such as mammals, have motile cilia as well. Motile cilia are usually present on a cell's surface in large numbers and beat in coordinated waves.
Motile cilia are also found on the epithelial cells of the choroid plexus epithelial cells. They are present in large numbers on each cell and move relatively slowly, making them intermediate between motile and primary cilia. In additional to 9+0 cilia that are mobile, there are also 9+2 cilia that stay immobile found in hair cells.
The functioning of motile cilia is strongly dependent on the maintenance of optimal levels of periciliary fluid bathing the cilia. Epithelial sodium channels ENaC that are specifically expressed along the entire length of cilia apparently serve as sensors that regulate fluid level surrounding the cilia.
Ciliates are microscopic organisms that possess "motile" cilia exclusively and use them for either locomotion or to simply move liquid over their surface.
Nodal cilia.
The third type of cilium is a motile 9+0 cilium known as a nodal cilium. The nodal cilia are only present in the early development of the embryo. It is of similar structure to the primitive cilium in having no central apparatus, but it does possess dynein arms that enable it to move or spin in a circular direction. The spin of a nodal cilium is clockwise, and this causes a flow of extraembryonic fluid to move across the nodal surface, directed to the left. Primary cilia around the nodal cilia sense the directional flow — which activates nodal signaling, establishing left to right sidedness.
Structure.
Inside cilia and flagella is a microtubule-based cytoskeleton called the axoneme. The axoneme of a primary cilium typically has a ring of nine outer microtubule doublets (called a 9+0 axoneme), and the axoneme of a motile cilium has, in addition to the nine outer doublets, two central microtubule singlets (called a 9+2 axoneme). The axoneme acts as a scaffold for axonemal inner and outer dynein arms that move motile cilia, and provides tracks for molecular motor proteins, such as Kinesin II, that carry proteins along the length of the cilium through a process called intraflagellar transport (IFT). IFT is bi-directional and retrograde IFT employ the cytoskeletal dynein motor 2 to move back toward the cell body. The cilium is surrounded by a membrane contiguous with, but compositionally distinct from, the plasma membrane.
The foundation of the cilium is the basal body, a term applied to the mother centriole when it is associated with a cilium. Mammalian basal bodies consist of a barrel of nine triplet microtubules, subdistal appendages and nine strut-like structures, known as distal appendages, which attach the basal body to the membrane at the base of the cilium. Two of the basal body's triplet microtubules extend to become the doublet microtubules of the ciliary axoneme.
Ciliary rootlet.
The ciliary rootlet is a cytoskeleton-like structure that originates from the basal body at the proximal end of a cilium. Rootlets are typically 80-100 nm in diameter and contain cross striae distributed at regular intervals of approximately 55-70 nm. A prominent component of the rootlet is Rootletin.
Transition zone.
To achieve its distinct composition, the proximal-most region of the cilium consists of a transition zone that controls which proteins can enter and leave the cilium. At the transition zone, Y-shaped structures connect the ciliary membrane to the underlying axoneme. Control of selective entry into cilia may involve a sieve-like function of transition zone. Inherited defects in components of the transition zone cause ciliopathies, such as Joubert syndrome. Transition zone structure and function is conserved across diverse organisms, including vertebrates, C. elegans, D. melanogaster and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. In mammals, disruption of the transition zone reduces the ciliary abundance of membrane-associated ciliary proteins, such as those involved in Hedgehog signal transduction, compromising Hedgehog-dependent embryonic development of digit number and central nervous system patterning.
Cilia versus flagella.
Though they have been given different names, motile cilia and flagella have nearly identical structures and have the same purpose: motion. The movement of the appendage can be described as a wave. The wave tends to originate from the cilium base and can be described in terms of frequency (ciliary beat frequency or CBF), amplitude and wave length. The beating motion is created by dynein arm structures the sliding of outer doublets, and originates in the axoneme, not at the basal body. A key difference between the two structures is that in a eukaryotic organism such as humans, flagella are used to propel the cell, while cilia are used to move substances across a surface. An example of each would be the flagellum present on a sperm cell and the cilium on the epithelial tissue of the lungs that clears out foreign particles. Motile cilia and flagella possess the same 9+2 axoneme structure. The 9 indicates the number of doublets present around the outer edge of the appendage while the 2 refers to a central pair of independent microtubules. In primary and other non-motile cilia, the axoneme lacks a central pair, resulting in a 9+0 axoneme structure.
Cilium production.
Cilia are formed through the process of ciliogenesis. An early step is docking of the basal body to the growing ciliary membrane, after which the transition zone forms. The building blocks of the ciliary axoneme, such as tubulins, are added at the ciliary tips through a process that depends partly on intraflagellar transport (IFT). Exceptions include Drosophila sperm and "Plasmodium falciparum" flagella formation, in which cilia assemble in the cytoplasm.
At the base of the cilium where it attaches to the cell body is the microtubule organizing center, the basal body. Some basal body proteins as CEP164, ODF2
and CEP170, are required for the formation and the stability of the cilium.
In effect, the cilium is a nanomachine composed of perhaps over 600 proteins in molecular complexes, many of which also function independently as nanomachines. Flexible linkers allow the
mobile protein domains
connected by them to recruit their binding partners and induce
long-range allostery via
Function.
The dynein in the axoneme forms bridges between neighbouring microtubule doublets. When ATP activates the motor domain of dynein, it attempts to walk along the adjoining microtubule doublet. This would force the adjacent doublets to slide over one another if not for the presence of nexin between the microtubule doublets. And thus the force generated by dynein is instead converted into a bending motion.
Sensing the extracellular environment.
Some primary cilia on epithelial cells in eukaryotes act as "cellular antennae", providing chemosensation, thermosensation and mechanosensation of the extracellular environment. These cilia then play a role in mediating specific signalling cues, including soluble factors in the external cell environment, a secretory role in which a soluble protein is released to have an effect downstream of the fluid flow, and mediation of fluid flow if the cilia are motile. Some epithelial cells are ciliated, and they commonly exist as a sheet of polarized cells forming a tube or tubule with cilia projecting into the lumen. This sensory and signalling role puts cilia in a central role for maintaining the local cellular environment and may be why ciliary defects cause such a wide range of human diseases. In the mouse embryo, cilia are used to direct the flow of extracellular fluid. This leftward movement is used by the mouse embryo to generate left-right asymmetry across the midline of the embryo. Central cilia coordinate their rotational beating while the immotile cilia on the sides sense the direction of the flow.
Clinical significance.
Ciliary defects can lead to a number of human diseases. Genetic mutations compromising the proper functioning of cilia, ciliopathies, can cause chronic disorders such as primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD), nephronophthisis or Senior–Løken syndrome. In addition, a defect of the primary cilium in the renal tubule cells can lead to polycystic kidney disease (PKD). In another genetic disorder called Bardet–Biedl syndrome (BBS), the mutant gene products are the components in the basal body and cilia.
Lack of functional cilia in the fallopian tubes can cause ectopic pregnancy. A fertilized ovum may not reach the uterus if the cilia are unable to move it there. In such a case, the ovum will implant in the fallopian tubes, causing a tubal pregnancy, the most common form of ectopic pregnancy.
As noted above, epithelial sodium channels ENaC that are expressed along the length of cilia regulate fluid level surrounding the cilia. Mutations that decrease the activity of ENaC result in multisystem pseudohypoaldosteronism, that is associated with fertility problems. In cystic fibrosis that results from mutations in the chloride channel CFTR, ENaC activity is enhanced leading to a severe reduction of the fluid level that causes complications and infections in the respiratory airways.
Since the flagellum of human sperm is actually a modified cilium, ciliary dysfunction can also be responsible for male infertility.
Of interest, there is an association of primary ciliary dyskinesia with left-right anatomic abnormalities such as situs inversus (a combination of findings known as Kartagener's syndrome) and other heterotaxic defects. These left-right anatomic abnormalities can also result in congenital heart disease. It has been shown that proper cilial function is responsible for the normal left-right asymmetry in mammals.
Ciliopathies as exemplars of multi-organ inherited diseases.
Early 2000s findings in genetic research have suggested that many genetic disorders, both genetic syndromes and genetic diseases, that were not previously related in the medical literature, may be, in fact, highly related in the root cause of the widely varying set of medical symptoms that are clinically visible in the disorder. These have been grouped as an emerging class of diseases called ciliopathies. The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary/immotile cilia, organelles which are present in many diverse cellular types throughout the human body.
Cilia defects adversely affect numerous critical signaling pathways essential to embryonic development and adult physiology, and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often multi-symptom nature of diverse ciliopathies. Known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet–Biedl syndrome, polycystic kidney and liver disease, nephronophthisis, Alström syndrome, Meckel–Gruber syndrome, Sensenbrenner syndrome and some forms of retinal degeneration.
The diverse outcomes caused by ciliary dysfunction may result from alleles of different strengths that compromise ciliary functions in different ways or to different extents. Many ciliopathies are inherited in a Mendelian manner, but specific genetic interactions between distinct functional ciliary complexes, such as transition zone and BBS complexes, can alter the phenotypic manifestations of recessive ciliopathies.
Extracellular changes.
Reduction of cilia function can also result from infection. Research into biofilms has been increasing and has shown how bacteria can alter cilia. A biofilm is a community of bacteria of either the same or multiple species of bacteria. The cluster of cells secretes different factors which form an extracellular matrix. Cilia in the respiratory system is known to move mucus and pathogens out of the airways. It has been found that patients with biofilm positive infections have impaired cilia function. The impairment may present as decreased motion or reduction in the number of cilia. Though these changes result from an external source, they still effect the pathogenicity of the bacteria, progression of infection, and how it is treated.


Elephas beyeri

Elephas beyeri is an extinct species of dwarf elephant belonging to the Elephantidae family. It was named after the anthropologist H. Otley Beyer. The type specimen was discovered on Cabarruyan Island in The Philippines but has since been lost. Further fossils were found in Visayas and at a number of sites in Luzon. It is unclear if these belonged to "Elephas beyeri" or "Elephas namadicus" due to their fragmented nature and the missing holotype.


Boto

Boto is a Portuguese name given to several types of dolphins and river dolphins native to the Amazon and the Orinoco River tributaries. A few botos exist exclusively in fresh water, and these are often considered primitive dolphins.
Classification.
The botos are a paraphyletic group, defined largely by their evolutionary convergences.
The genus "Sotalia" is divided into two species. The costero ("S. guianensis") is distributed in the Atlantic, from Florianópolis in Santa Catarina, Brazil, and northwards. The tucuxi ("S. fluviatilis") lives in the rivers of the Amazon.
Burmeister's porpoise is marine and lives from Santa Catarina to the south.
The Amazon river dolphin ("Inia geoffrensis") thrives in fresh water, is endemic to the Amazon basin, and is placed in the Endangered category of the IUCN.
The Araguaian river dolphin ("I. araguaiaensis") is a newly identified species native to the Araguaia-Tocantins basin of Brazil.
The La Plata dolphin ("Pontoporia blainvillei"), another vulnerable Brazilian denizen, is a marine river dolphin that ranges from Espírito Santo, Brazil, to the south.
Folklore.
The 'boto' of the Amazon River regions of northern Brazil, are described according to local lore as taking the form of a human or merman, also known as "encantado" ("enchanted one" in Portuguese) and with the habit of seducing human women and impregnating them.


Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis

Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis is a long-term fungal infection caused by members of the genus "Aspergillus"—most commonly "Aspergillus" "fumigatus". The term describes several disease presentations with considerable overlap, ranging from an aspergilloma—a clump of "Aspergillus" mold in the lungs—through to a subacute, invasive form known as chronic necrotizing pulmonary aspergillosis which affects people whose immune system is weakened. Many people affected by chronic pulmonary aspergillosis have an underlying lung disease, most commonly tuberculosis, allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, asthma, or lung cancer.
Classification.
Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis as a term encompasses a number of different presentations of varying severity. There is considerable overlap between disease forms which adds to confusion during diagnosis. The primary differentiation comes from radiological findings and serology.
Aspergilloma.
An aspergilloma is a fungus ball composed of "Aspergillus" hypha - the long filamentous strands which extend from the fungus to enable growth and reproduction. They can arise within any bodily cavity, though in chronic pulmonary aspergillosis they form within pulmonary cavities that have been colonized by "Aspergillus spp". If there is a single, stable cavity that provides minimal symptoms, the term 'simple aspergilloma' is commonly used to distinguish it from more severe forms of chronic pulmonary aspergillosis.
Aspergillus nodule.
"Aspergillus" can form single or multiple nodules which may or may not form a cavity. Whilst usually benign in nature, they can sometimes cause symptoms such as cough or an exacerbation of existing disease such as asthma. Histologically, there is necrosis surrounded by granulomatous inflammation with some multinucleated giant cells present.
Chronic cavitary pulmonary aspergillosis.
When people without immunocompromise undergo formation of one or more pulmonary cavities, this is called chronic cavitary pulmonary aspergillosis. Historically it was also known as "complex aspergilloma" in contrast to a "simple aspergilloma"; this is now considered inaccurate as many cases do not have a visible aspergilloma on imaging. In contrast to aspergilloma and "Aspergillus" nodules, the vast majority of people with chronic cavitary pulmonary aspergillosis have positive tests for IgG antibodies.
Chronic fibrosing pulmonary aspergillosis.
When chronic cavitary pulmonary aspergillosis is left untreated, it can progress to a form of aspergillosis known as chronic fibrosing pulmonary aspergillosis). As a result of the ongoing inflammation over an extended period of time, extensive fibrosis of the lung parenchyma occurs. This leads to a state known colloquially as "destroyed lung", and has features resembling treated pulmonary tuberculosis.
Chronic necrotizing pulmonary aspergillosis.
Also known as subacute invasive pulmonary aspergillosis, this form of chronic pulmonary aspergillosis leads to progressive features over the course of one to three months—usually in people with some degree of immunocompromise. It is more common in people who are elderly or dependent on alcohol, or with diseases such as diabetes, malnutrition, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or HIV/AIDS. In contrast to chronic cavitary pulmonary aspergillosis, for example, IgG antibodies for "Aspergillus" or an antigen called galactomannan may be found in the blood as well as in sputum samples.
Signs and symptoms.
People with chronic pulmonary aspergillosis typically present with a prolonged, several month history of unintentional weight loss, chronic cough which is normally productive of sputum, shortness of breath and haemoptysis. One small case series of 18 people found these to be the most common presenting symptoms. Less common symptoms include severe fatigue or malaise, chest pain, sputum production without cough, and fever. Fever would not typically be expected unless they had the subacute invasive subtype. Furthermore, it is possible for less severe subtypes to be asymptomatic. Beyond the direct symptoms, it is possible to have general signs of underlying lung pathology such as digital clubbing—especially when there has been an underlying disease such as tuberculosis or where disease has caused heart failure (known as cor pulmonale).
Complications.
Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis can cause bleeding into the lung parenchyma which can range from mild to life-threatening. If left untreated, as the disease progresses the fungus can spread into the bloodstream causing a state known as fungemia. This widespread infection can distribute fungal spores to other parts of the body, and lead to areas of infarction, and cause haemorrhages.
Causes.
Aspergillosis is an infection caused by fungi from the genus "Aspergillus". The vast majority of cases are caused by "Aspergillus fumigatus—"a filamentous fungus found ubiquitously on every continent including Antarctica. Other species of "Aspergillus" include A. flavus and A. terreus.
The major risk factors for chronic pulmonary aspergillosis are previous cavity formation from other respiratory conditions. Examples include collapsed lungs which have formed bullae, chronic obstructive lung disease, lung cancer, and fibrocavitary sarcoidosis. Another risk factor is immunosuppression; most commonly, this includes allogeneic stem cell transplantation, prolonged neutropaenia, immunosuppressive drug therapy, chronic granulomatous disease and haematological malignancies. Certain demographics are also at higher risk, including the elderly, male gender and those with a low body mass index.
There appears to be increasing evidence for complex genetic factors increasing the risk of developing chronic pulmonary aspergillosis, such as defects to toll-like receptor (TLR) 4, IL1 and IL15, TLR3, TLR10, TREM1, VEGFA, DENND1B, and PLAT.
Mechanism.
The full underlying pathogenesis is not completely understood. Most people with chronic pulmonary aspergillosis have functional immune status, but usually have underlying structural damage to the lungs from an underlying process or disease. Most commonly, pre-existing pulmonary cavities from other diseases such as tuberculosis become colonised with "Aspergillus" conidia which have been inhaled—humans inhale between 1,000 and 10 billion spores per day, of which "A. fumigatus" is the most common.
Aspergillomas themselves usually form in existing cavities but the cavities may form directly from chronic pulmonary aspergillosis. People with pulmonary tuberculosis with a cavity larger than 2 cm appear to have a 20% increased risk of developing chronic pulmonary aspergillosis.
It is postulated that conidia, once inhaled, are attacked by the host immune defences—specifically phagocytes and alveolar macrophage resident in the small airways. It is unknown whether these defences are sufficient to clear conidia or whether they are directly responsible for the inflammation leading to chronic pulmonary aspergillosis. Some "Aspergillus" have the ability to inhibit phagocyte nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase activation which is one of the core defence systems against filamentous fungi, which may increase susceptibility of the host to chronic pulmonary aspergillosis.
Diagnosis.
The diagnosis of chronic pulmonary aspergillosis is often initially considered when patients present with a history of unintentional weight loss and fatigue. Confirmation of this suspicion is normally achieved with a combination of radiological imaging and serological testing, with the goal of excluding other diagnoses like tuberculosis and finding evidence of fungus present. Whilst cavities seen on chest X-rays can raise suspicion, positive IgG testing for "Aspergillus" is required for confirmation.
Sputum samples can be sent for culture, but where these return negative patients should undergo bronchoscopy and bronchoalveolar lavage for further culture samples. Concurrent infections with non-tuberculous mycobacteria, or atypical infections such as MRSA or "Pseudomonas aeruginosa" are common and these can also form cavities.
To confirm the presence of an aspergilloma, there needs to be radiological evidence of a round mass in the lungs with confirmatory evidence either from culture or IgG testing. The distinction between simple aspergilloma, and more advanced chronic cavitary pulmonary aspergillosis, will depend on the severity of inflammation, radiological evidence, and changes over time. To confirm chronic pulmonary aspergillosis, the current criteria is one large cavity or more than two small cavities, either with or without aspergilloma. This must be accompanied by at least one symptom of fever, weight loss, fatigue, cough, sputum production, haemoptysis or shortness of breath for at least 3 months. Furthermore, as with aspergilloma, there must be positive IgG testing but this can be with or without culture. To confirm "Aspergillus" nodules as opposed to aspergilloma, these must be seen directly on imaging or confirmed by percutaneous or surgical biopsy.
The fibrosing form—chronic fibrosing pulmonary aspergillosis—has similar criteria to chronic cavitary pulmonary aspergillosis but will be accompanied by significant fibrosis seen on either biopsy, tomosynthesis, or high resolution computed tomography.
If chronic pulmonary aspergillosis has progressed to subacute invasive pulmonary aspergillosis, there must be a degree of immunosuppression. The microbiological criteria are similar to those of invasive aspergillosis but normally slower in progression, i.e. months rather than weeks. Furthermore, there must be evidence of IgG or galactomannan in the blood and a confirmatory biopsy of affected tissue.
Treatment.
People with single aspergillomas generally do well with surgery to remove the aspergilloma, and are best given pre-and post-operative antifungal medications. Often, no treatment is necessary; however, if a person coughs up blood (haemoptysis), treatment may be required using surgery or injection of dye to locate the bleeding combined with embolisation using chemicals or tiny material meant to block the bleeding blood vessel. Studies of tranexamic acid for treating haemoptysis do not provide strong evidence for long term benefit.
For chronic cavitary pulmonary aspergillosis and chronic fibrosing pulmonary aspergillosis, lifelong use of antifungal medications is commonplace. Itraconazole and voriconazole are first- and second-line antifungal agents respectively. Posaconazole or isavuconazole can be used as third-line agent for people with chronic pulmonary aspergillosis who are intolerant of or developed resistance to the first- and second-line agents. Regular chest X-rays, serological and mycological parameters, and quality of life questionnaires are used to monitor treatment progress. It is important to monitor the blood levels of antifungals to ensure optimal dosing as individuals vary in their absorption levels of these medications.


Louis J. Guillette Jr

Louis J. Guillette Jr., Ph.D. (died 2015) was an American professor of embryology. Dr. Guillette received the 17th Annual Heinz Award with special focus on the environment in 2011.


Planipapillus biacinaces

Planipapillus biacinaces is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. It is found in Victoria, Australia.


Farrea omniclavata

Farrea omniclavata is a species of sea sponge first found at the bottom of shelf, canyon and seamounts of the west coast of Washington, British Columbia and the Gulf of Alaska.


Turtle classification

Turtles have been classified in different ways by different authors. While they were previously considered anapsids, they are now considered more derived. Recent analyses of molecular evidence have strongly suggested that they belong in the clade Archosauromorpha (also known as Archelosauria). Below are many of the possible classifications of Testudines and Testudinata:
Thomson and Shaffer, 2010.
Below is a cladogram of living testudines found by Thomson and Shaffer in 2010:
Sterli 2010.
Below is a cladogram found by Sterli in 2010 in a phylogenetic analysis of Pleurodira:
Joyce, 2007.
Below is a cladogram found by Joyce in 2007 in his publication on turtle phylogeny:
See also.
Wikipedia category tree of Testudines taxonomy


Morulina

Morulina is a genus of springtails in the family Neanuridae. There are about 11 described species in "Morulina".
Species.
These 11 species belong to the genus "Morulina":


Pancornus

Pancornus is an extinct genus from the nautiloid order Discosorida that lived during the Late Devonian. "Pancornus" was named by F.A. Zhuravleva in 1972, and is contemporary with other late discosorids such as "Parevlanoceras" and "Raphanites".


Pelvis

The pelvis (plural pelves or pelvises) is either the lower part of the trunk of the human body between the abdomen and the thighs (sometimes also called pelvic region of the trunk) or the skeleton embedded in it (sometimes also called bony pelvis, or pelvic skeleton).
The pelvic region of the trunk includes the bony pelvis, the pelvic cavity (the space enclosed by the bony pelvis), the pelvic floor, below the pelvic cavity, and the perineum, below the pelvic floor. The pelvic skeleton is formed in the area of the back, by the sacrum and the coccyx and anteriorly and to the left and right sides, by a pair of hip bones.
The two hip bones connect the spine with the lower limbs. They are attached to the sacrum posteriorly, connected to each other anteriorly, and joined with the two femurs at the hip joints. The gap enclosed by the bony pelvis, called the pelvic cavity, is the section of the body underneath the abdomen and mainly consists of the reproductive organs (sex organs) and the rectum, while the pelvic floor at the base of the cavity assists in supporting the organs of the abdomen.
In mammals, the bony pelvis has a gap in the middle, significantly larger in females than in males. Their young pass through this gap when they are born.
Structure.
The pelvic region of the trunk is the lower part of the trunk, between the abdomen and the thighs. It includes several structures: the bony pelvis, the pelvic cavity, the pelvic floor, and the perineum. The bony pelvis (pelvic skeleton) is the part of the skeleton embedded in the pelvic region of the trunk. It is subdivided into the pelvic girdle and the pelvic spine. The pelvic girdle is composed of the appendicular hip bones (ilium, ischium, and pubis) oriented in a ring, and connects the pelvic region of the spine to the lower limbs. The pelvic spine consists of the sacrum and coccyx.
Pelvic bone.
The pelvic skeleton is formed posteriorly (in the area of the back), by the sacrum and the coccyx and laterally and anteriorly (forward and to the sides), by a pair of hip bones.
Each hip bone consists of 3 sections, ilium, ischium, and pubis. During childhood, these sections are separate bones, joined by the triradiate cartilage. During puberty, they fuse together to form a single bone.
Pelvic cavity.
The pelvic cavity is a body cavity that is bounded by the bones of the pelvis and which primarily contains reproductive organs and the rectum.
A distinction is made between the lesser or true pelvis inferior to the terminal line, and the greater or false pelvis above it. The pelvic inlet or superior pelvic aperture, which leads into the lesser pelvis, is bordered by the promontory, the arcuate line of ilium, the iliopubic eminence, the pecten of the pubis, and the upper part of the pubic symphysis. The pelvic outlet or inferior pelvic aperture is the region between the subpubic angle or pubic arch, the ischial tuberosities and the coccyx.
Alternatively, the pelvis is divided into three planes: the inlet, midplane, and outlet.
Pelvic floor.
The pelvic floor has two inherently conflicting functions: One is to close the pelvic and abdominal cavities and bear the load of the visceral organs; the other is to control the openings of the rectum and urogenital organs that pierce the pelvic floor and make it weaker. To achieve both these tasks, the pelvic floor is composed of several overlapping sheets of muscles and connective tissues.
The pelvic diaphragm is composed of the levator ani and the coccygeus muscle. These arise between the symphysis and the ischial spine and converge on the coccyx and the anococcygeal ligament which spans between the tip of the coccyx and the anal hiatus. This leaves a slit for the anal and urogenital openings. Because of the width of the genital aperture, which is wider in females, a second closing mechanism is required. The urogenital diaphragm consists mainly of the deep transverse perineal which arises from the inferior ischial and pubic rami and extends to the urogenital hiatus. The urogenital diaphragm is reinforced posteriorly by the superficial transverse perineal.
The external anal and urethral sphincters close the anus and the urethra. The former is surrounded by the bulbospongiosus which narrows the vaginal introitus in females and surrounds the corpus spongiosum in males. Ischiocavernosus squeezes blood into the corpus cavernosum penis and clitoridis.
Variation.
Modern humans are to a large extent characterized by bipedal locomotion and large brains. Because the pelvis is vital to both locomotion and childbirth, natural selection has been confronted by two conflicting demands: a wide birth canal and locomotion efficiency, a conflict referred to as the "obstetrical dilemma". The female pelvis, or gynecoid pelvis, has evolved to its maximum width for childbirth—a wider pelvis would make women unable to walk. In contrast, human male pelvises are not constrained by the need to give birth and therefore are more optimized for bipedal locomotion.
The principal differences between male and female true and false pelvis include:
Development.
Each side of the pelvis is formed as cartilage, which ossifies as three main bones which stay separate through childhood: ilium, ischium, pubis. At birth the whole of the hip joint (the acetabulum area and the top of the femur) is still made of cartilage (but there may be a small piece of bone in the great trochanter of the femur); this makes it difficult to detect congenital hip dislocation by X-raying.
There is preliminary evidence that the pelvis continues to widen over the course of a lifetime.
Functions.
The skeleton of the pelvis is a basin-shaped ring of bones connecting the vertebral column to the femora.
Its primary functions are to bear the weight of the upper body when sitting and standing, transferring that weight from the axial skeleton to the lower appendicular skeleton when standing and walking, and providing attachments for and withstanding the forces of the powerful muscles of locomotion and posture. Compared to the shoulder girdle, the pelvic girdle is thus strong and rigid.
Its secondary functions are to contain and protect the pelvic and abdominopelvic viscera (inferior parts of the urinary tracts, internal reproductive organs), providing attachment for external reproductive organs and associated muscles and membranes.
As a mechanical structure.
The pelvic girdle consists of the two hip bones. The hip bones are connected to each other anteriorly at the pubic symphysis, and posteriorly to the sacrum at the sacroiliac joints to form the pelvic ring. The ring is very stable and allows very little mobility, a prerequisite for transmitting loads from the trunk to the lower limbs.
As a mechanical structure the pelvis may be thought of as four roughly triangular and twisted rings. Each superior ring is formed by the iliac bone; the anterior side stretches from the acetabulum up to the anterior superior iliac spine; the posterior side reaches from the top of the acetabulum to the sacroiliac joint; and the third side is formed by the palpable iliac crest. The lower ring, formed by the rami of the pubic and ischial bones, supports the acetabulum and is twisted 80–90 degrees in relation to the superior ring.
An alternative approach is to consider the pelvis part of an integrated mechanical system based on the tensegrity icosahedron as an infinite element. Such a system is able to withstand omnidirectional forces—ranging from weight-bearing to childbearing—and, as a low energy requiring system, is favoured by natural selection.
The pelvic inclination angle is the single most important element of the human body posture and is adjusted at the hips. It is also one of the rare things that can be measured at the assessment of the posture. A simple method of measurement was described by the British orthopedist Philip Willes and is performed by using an inclinometer.
As an anchor for muscles.
The lumbosacral joint, between the sacrum and the last lumbar vertebra, has, like all vertebral joints, an intervertebral disc, anterior and posterior ligaments, ligamenta flava, interspinous and supraspinous ligaments, and synovial joints between the articular processes of the two bones. In addition to these ligaments the joint is strengthened by the iliolumbar and lateral lumbosacral ligaments. The iliolumbar ligament passes between the tip of the transverse process of the fifth lumbar vertebra and the posterior part of the iliac crest. The lateral lumbosacral ligament, partly continuous with the iliolumbar ligament, passes down from the lower border of the transverse process of the fifth vertebra to the ala of the sacrum. The movements possible in the lumbosacral joint are flexion and extension, a small amount of lateral flexion (from 7 degrees in childhood to 1 degree in adults), but no axial rotation. Between ages 2–13 the joint is responsible for as much as 75% (about 18 degrees) of flexion and extension in the lumbar spine. From age 35 the ligaments considerably limit the range of motions.
The three extracapsular ligaments of the hip joint—the iliofemoral, ischiofemoral, and pubofemoral ligaments—form a twisting mechanism encircling the neck of the femur. When sitting, with the hip joint flexed, these ligaments become lax permitting a high degree of mobility in the joint. When standing, with the hip joint extended, the ligaments get twisted around the femoral neck, pushing the head of the femur firmly into the Acetabulum, thus stabilizing the joint.
 The zona orbicularis assists in maintaining the contact in the joint by acting like a buttonhole on the femoral head. The intracapsular ligament, the ligamentum teres, transmits blood vessels that nourish the femoral head.
Junctions.
The two hip bones are joined anteriorly at the pubic symphysis by a fibrous cartilage covered by a hyaline cartilage, the interpubic disk, within which a non-synovial cavity might be present. Two ligaments, the superior and inferior pubic ligaments, reinforce the symphysis.
Both sacroiliac joints, formed between the auricular surfaces of the sacrum and the two hip bones. are amphiarthroses, almost immobile joints enclosed by very taut joint capsules. This capsule is strengthened by the ventral, interosseous, and dorsal sacroiliac ligaments.
 The most important accessory ligaments of the sacroiliac joint are the sacrospinous and sacrotuberous ligaments which stabilize the hip bone on the sacrum and prevent the promonotory from tilting forward. Additionally, these two ligaments transform the greater and lesser sciatic notches into the greater and lesser foramina, a pair of important pelvic openings.
 The iliolumbar ligament is a strong ligament which connects the tip of the transverse process of the fifth lumbar vertebra to the posterior part of the inner lip of the iliac crest. It can be thought of as the lower border of the thoracolumbar fascia and is occasionally accompanied by a smaller ligamentous band passing between the fourth lumbar vertebra and the iliac crest. The lateral lumbosacral ligament is partly continuous with the iliolumbar ligament. It passes between the transverse process of the fifth vertebra to the ala of the sacrum where it intermingle with the anterior sacroiliac ligament.
The joint between the sacrum and the coccyx, the sacrococcygeal symphysis, is strengthened by a series of ligaments. The anterior sacrococcygeal ligament is an extension of the anterior longitudinal ligament (ALL) that run down the anterior side of the vertebral bodies. Its irregular fibers blend with the periosteum. The posterior sacrococcygeal ligament has a deep and a superficial part, the former is a flat band corresponding to the posterior longitudinal ligament (PLL) and the latter corresponds to the ligamenta flava. Several other ligaments complete the foramen of the last sacral nerve.
Shoulder and intrinsic back.
The inferior parts of latissimus dorsi, one of the muscles of the upper limb, arises from the posterior third of the iliac crest. Its action on the shoulder joint are internal rotation, adduction, and retroversion. It also contributes to respiration (i.e. coughing). When the arm is adducted, latissimus dorsi can pull it backward and medially until the back of the hand covers the buttocks.
In a longitudinal osteofibrous canal on either side of the spine there is a group of muscles called the erector spinae which is subdivided into a lateral superficial and a medial deep tract. In the lateral tract, the iliocostalis lumborum and longissimus thoracis originates on the back of the sacrum and the posterior part of the iliac crest. Contracting these muscles bilaterally extends the spine and unilaterally contraction bends the spine to the same side. The medial tract has a "straight" (interspinales, intertransversarii, and spinalis) and an "oblique" (multifidus and semispinalis) component, both of which stretch between vertebral processes; the former acts similar to the muscles of the lateral tract, while the latter function unilaterally as spine extensors and bilaterally as spine rotators. In the medial tract, the multifidi originates on the sacrum.
Abdomen.
The muscles of the abdominal wall are subdivided into a superficial and a deep group.
The superficial group is subdivided into a lateral and a medial group. In the medial superficial group, on both sides of the centre of the abdominal wall (the "linea alba"), the rectus abdominis stretches from the cartilages of ribs V-VII and the sternum down to the pubic crest. At the lower end of the rectus abdominis, the pyramidalis tenses the "linea alba". The lateral superficial muscles, the transversus and external and internal oblique muscles, originate on the rib cage and on the pelvis (iliac crest and inguinal ligament) and are attached to the anterior and posterior layers of the sheath of the rectus.
Flexing the trunk (bending forward) is essentially a movement of the rectus muscles, while lateral flexion (bending sideways) is achieved by contracting the obliques together with the quadratus lumborum and intrinsic back muscles. Lateral rotation (rotating either the trunk or the pelvis sideways) is achieved by contracting the internal oblique on one side and the external oblique on the other. The transversus' main function is to produce abdominal pressure in order to constrict the abdominal cavity and pull the diaphragm upward.
There are two muscles in the deep or posterior group. Quadratus lumborum arises from the posterior part of the iliac crest and extends to the rib XII and lumbar vertebrae I–IV. It unilaterally bends the trunk to the side and bilaterally pulls the 12th rib down and assists in expiration. The iliopsoas consists of psoas major (and occasionally psoas minor) and iliacus, muscles with separate origins but a common insertion on the lesser trochanter of the femur. Of these, only iliacus is attached to the pelvis (the iliac fossa). However, psoas passes through the pelvis and because it acts on two joints, it is topographically classified as a posterior abdominal muscle but functionally as a hip muscle. Iliopsoas flexes and externally rotates the hip joints, while unilateral contraction bends the trunk laterally and bilateral contraction raises the trunk from the supine position.
Hip and thigh.
The muscles of the hip are divided into a dorsal and a ventral group.
The dorsal hip muscles are either inserted into the region of the lesser trochanter (anterior or inner group) or the greater trochanter (posterior or outer group). Anteriorly, the psoas major (and occasionally psoas minor) originates along the spine between the rib cage and pelvis. The iliacus originates on the iliac fossa to join psoas at the iliopubic eminence to form the iliopsoas which is inserted into the lesser trochanter. The iliopsoas is the most powerful hip flexor.
The posterior group includes the gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, and gluteus minimus. Maximus has a wide origin stretching from the posterior part of the iliac crest and along the sacrum and coccyx, and has two separate insertions: a proximal which radiates into the iliotibial tract and a distal which inserts into the gluteal tuberosity on the posterior side of the femoral shaft. It is primarily an extensor and lateral rotator of the hip joint, but, because of its bipartite insertion, it can both adduct and abduct the hip. Medius and minimus arise on the external surface of the ilium and are both inserted into the greater trochanter. Their anterior fibers are medial rotators and flexors while the posterior fibers are lateral rotators and extensors. The piriformis has its origin on the ventral side of the sacrum and is inserted on the greater trochanter. It abducts and laterally rotates the hip in the upright posture and assists in extension of the thigh.
 The tensor fasciae latae arises on the anterior superior iliac spine and inserts into the iliotibial tract. It presses the head of the femur into the acetabulum and flexes, medially rotates, and abducts the hip.
The ventral hip muscles are important in the control of the body's balance. The internal and external obturator muscles together with the quadratus femoris are lateral rotators of the hip. Together they are stronger than the medial rotators and therefore the feet point outward in the normal position to achieve a better support. The obturators have their origins on either sides of the obturator foramen and are inserted into the trochanteric fossa on the femur. Quadratus arises on the ischial tuberosity and is inserted into the intertrochanteric crest. The superior and inferior gemelli, arising from the ischial spine and ischial tuberosity respectively, can be thought of as marginal heads of the obturator internus, and their main function is to assist this muscle.
The muscles of the thigh can be subdivided into adductors (medial group), extensors (anterior group), and flexors (posterior group). The extensors and flexors act on the knee joint, while the adductors mainly act on the hip joint.
The thigh adductors have their origins on the inferior ramus of the pubic bone and are, with the exception of gracilis, inserted along the femoral shaft. Together with sartorius and semitendinosus, gracilis reaches beyond the knee to their common insertion on the tibia.
The anterior thigh muscles form the quadriceps which is inserted on the patella with a common tendon. Three of the four muscles have their origins on the femur, while rectus femoris arises from the anterior inferior iliac spine and is thus the only of the four acting on two joints.
The posterior thigh muscles have their origins on the inferior ischial ramus, with the exception of the short head of the biceps femoris. The semitendinosus and semimembranosus are inserted on the tibia on the medial side of the knee, while biceps femoris is inserted on the fibula, on the knee's lateral side.
In pregnancy and childbirth.
In later stages of pregnancy the fetus's head aligns inside the pelvis. Also joints of bones soften due to the effect of pregnancy hormones. These factors may cause "pelvic joint pain" (symphysis pubis dysfunction or SPD). As the end of pregnancy approaches, the ligaments of the sacroiliac joint loosen, letting the pelvis outlet widen somewhat; this is easily noticeable in the cow.
During childbirth (unless by Cesarean section) the fetus passes through the maternal "pelvic opening".
Clinical significance.
Hip fractures often affect the elderly and occur more often in females, and this is frequently due to osteoporosis. There are also different types of pelvic fracture often resulting from traffic accidents.
Pelvic pain generally, can affect anybody and has a variety of causes; endometriosis in women, bowel adhesions, irritable bowel syndrome, and interstitial cystitis.
There are many anatomical variations of the pelvis. In the female the pelvis can be of a much larger size than normal, known as a "giant pelvis" or pelvis justo major, or it can be much smaller, known as a "reduced pelvis" or "pelvis justo minor". Other variations include an "android pelvis" the normal shape of the male pelvis, in women this shape can prove problematic in childbirth.
History.
Caldwell–Moloy classification.
Throughout the 20th century pelvimetric measurements were made on pregnant women to determine whether a natural birth would be possible, a practice today limited to cases where a specific problem is suspected or following a caesarean delivery. William Edgar Caldwell and Howard Carmen Moloy studied collections of skeletal pelves and thousands of stereoscopic radiograms and finally recognized three types of female pelves plus the masculine type. In 1933 and 1934 they published their typology, including the Greek names since then frequently quoted in various handbooks: Gynaecoid ("gyne", woman), anthropoid ("anthropos", human being), platypelloid ("platys", flat), and android ("aner", man).
However, Caldwell and Moloy then complicated this simple fourfold scheme by dividing the pelvic inlet into posterior and anterior segments. They named a pelvis according to the anterior segment and affixed another type according to the character of the posterior segment (i.e. anthropoid-android) and ended up with no less than 14 morphologies. Notwithstanding the popularity of this simple classification, the pelvis is much more complicated than this as the pelvis can have different dimensions at various levels of the birth canal.
Caldwell and Moloy also classified the physique of women according to their types of pelves: the gynaecoid type has small shoulders, a small waist and wide hips; the android type looks square-shaped from behind; and the anthropoid type has wide shoulders and narrow hips. Lastly, in their article they described all non-gynaecoid or "mixed" types of pelves as "abnormal", a word which has stuck in the medical world even though at least 50 per cent of women have these "abnormal" pelves.
The classification of Caldwell and Moloy was influenced by earlier classifications attempting to define the ideal female pelvis, treating any deviations from this ideal as dysfunctions and the cause of obstructed labour. In the 19th century anthropologists and others saw an evolutionary scheme in these pelvic typologies, a scheme since then refuted by archaeology. Since the 1950s malnutrition is thought to be one of the chief factors affecting pelvic shape in the Third World even though there are at least some genetic component to variation in pelvic morphology.
Nowadays obstetric suitability of the female pelvis is assessed by ultrasound. The dimensions of the head of the fetus and of the birth canal are accurately measured and compared, and the feasibility of labor can be predicted.
Other animals.
The pelvic girdle was present in early vertebrates, and can be tracked back to the paired fins of fish that were some of the earliest chordates.
The shape of the pelvis, most notably the orientation of the iliac crests and shape and depth of the acetabula, reflects the style of locomotion and body mass of an animal. In bipedal mammals, the iliac crests are parallel to the vertically oriented sacroiliac joints, where in quadrupedal mammals they are parallel to the horizontally oriented sacroiliac joints. In heavy mammals, especially in quadrupeds, the pelvis tend to be more vertically oriented because this allows the pelvis to support greater weight without dislocating the sacroiliac joints or adding torsion to the vertebral column.
In ambulatory mammals the acetabula are shallow and open to allow a wider range of hip movements, including significant abduction, than in cursorial mammals. The lengths of the ilium and ischium and their angles relative to the acetabulum are functionally important as they determine the moment arms for the hip extensor muscles that provide momentum during locomotion.
In addition to this, the relatively wide shape (front to back) of the pelvis provides greater leverage for the gluteus medius and minimus. These muscles are responsible for hip abduction which plays an integral role in upright balance.
Primates.
In primates, the pelvis consists of four parts - the left and the right hip bones which meet in the mid-line ventrally and are fixed to the sacrum dorsally and the coccyx. Each hip bone consists of three components, the ilium, the ischium, and the pubis, and at the time of sexual maturity these bones become fused together, though there is never any movement between them. In humans, the ventral joint of the pubic bones is closed.
Larger apes, such as "Pongo" (orangutans), "Gorillas" (gorillas), "Australopithecus afarensis", and "Pan troglodytes" (chimpanzees), have longer three-pelvic planes with a maximum diameter in the sagittal plane.
Evolution.
The present-day morphology of the pelvis is inherited from the pelvis of our quadrupedal ancestors. The most striking feature of evolution of the pelvis in primates is the widening and the shortening of the blade called the ilium. Because of the stresses involved in bipedal locomotion, the muscles of the thigh move the thigh forward and backward, providing the power for bi-pedal and quadrupedal locomotion.
The drying of the environment of East Africa in the period since the creation of the Red Sea and the African Rift Valley saw open woodlands replace the previous closed canopy forest. The apes in this environment were compelled to travel from one clump of trees to another across open country. This led to a number of complementary changes to the human pelvis. It is suggested that bipedalism was the result.


The Mighty Kong

The Mighty Kong is a 1998 American direct-to-video animated, musical adaptation of the classic "King Kong" story, produced by Lana Productions. Jodi Benson and Dudley Moore (in his final role before his death in 2002) headed its cast of voice actors. The film was animated overseas by the South Korean animation studios including Hahn Shin Corporation, and by Jade Animation in Hong Kong. It features original songs by the Sherman Brothers. The film was released on VHS on June 16, 1998 by Warner Home Video and Warner Bros. Family Entertainment as a part of their "75th Anniversary" promotion. It was released on DVD by Tri-Coast Entertainment in 2019 as a Manufacture-on-Demand (MOD) release that is only available through online stores. The film is currently available on multiple streaming platforms such as Tubi and Vimeo.
Plot summary.
Ann Darrow, a down-on-her-luck actress looking for work, meets film director Carl Denham, who offers her a job in a new film. They board the Venture to leave for the film shoot. The monkey that lives on board causes trouble throughout the trip. They arrive on the island and after a run-in with the natives, Ann then sacrificed to the giant ape King Kong who makes off with her into the jungle. Together they fight a Tyrannosaurus, Pterodactylus and a Gigantophis.
The film then follows Kong's rampage of New York City. Kong takes Ann up on top of the Empire State Building. The biplanes come and attack Kong with guns, but miss most of the time. When all the planes have been knocked down the army sends two blimps with a net in between them to catch Kong. They catch him successfully. Kong tries to get out of the net, but the net rips and when Kong reaches for Ann, he falls from the net. He bangs into a balcony and plummets to the ground. During his fall he is shown crying. Kong's "mightyness" ends when he slams into the streets of New York and ends up unconscious for a while.
Cast.
Additional voices are: William Sage III, Don Brown, Ian James Corlett, Michael Dobson, Paul Dobson


Central spindle

The central spindle is a microtubule based structure, which forms in between segregating chromosomes during anaphase where the two sets of microtubules, emanating from opposite halves of the cell, overlap, and become arranged into antiparallel bundles by various microtubule associated proteins (MAPs) and motor proteins. The central spindle is widely regarded as a key regulating center for cytokinesis, recruiting proteins for successful cleavage furrow positioning and membrane abscission. For these important roles to be achieved successfully the central spindle has to be carefully regulated to control the size of the overlap region, the alignment of those overlaps and the overall length and symmetry of the structure. Without this regulation, signaling faults in cytokinesis can occur, resulting in unequal chromosome segregation or polyploid cells, greatly increasing the risk of cancer.


Callyspongia johannesthielei

Callyspongia" ("Cladochalina") "johannesthielei is a species of demosponge in the family Callyspongiidae. It is found in Indonesia.


Eunoe subfumida

Eunoe subfumida is a scale worm described from the Philippines.
Description.
Number of segments 37; elytra 15 pairs. Dorsum brown with two white longitudinal lines. Notochaetae distinctly thicker than neurochaetae. Bidentate neurochaetae absent.


Orchesella adriatica

Orchesella adriatica is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae.


Micropilina wareni

Micropilina wareni is a species of monoplacophoran, a superficially limpet-like marine mollusk. It is found off the coast of New Zealand.


Osteopoikilosis

Osteopoikilosis is a benign, autosomal dominant sclerosing dysplasia of bone characterized by the presence of numerous bone islands in the skeleton.
Presentation.
The radiographic appearance of osteopoikilosis on an X-ray is characterized by a pattern of numerous white densities of similar size spread throughout all the bones. This is a systemic condition. It must be differentiated from blastic metastasis, which can also present radiographically as white densities interspersed throughout bone. Blastic metastasis tends to present with larger and more irregular densities in less of a uniform pattern. Another differentiating factor is age, with blastic metastasis mostly affecting older people, and osteopoikilosis being found in people 20 years of age and younger.
The distribution is variable, though it does not tend to affect the ribs, spine, or skull.
Epidemiology.
Men and women are affected in equal number, reflecting the fact that osteopoikilosis attacks indiscriminately. Additionally, the disease is often associated with melorheostosis, despite the apparent lack of correlation between melorheostosis and genetic heritability. It has been tied to LEMD3. Buschke–Ollendorff syndrome is a similar condition, which is also associated with LEMD3.


Typhina

Typhina is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Muricidae, the murex snails or rock snails.
It was first described by Félix Pierre Jousseaume in 1880.
Species.
Species within the genus "Typhina" include:


Zygomatico-orbital artery

The middle temporal artery occasionally gives off a zygomatico-orbital branch, which runs along the upper border of the zygomatic arch, between the two layers of the temporal fascia, to the lateral angle of the orbit.
This branch, which may arise directly from the superficial temporal artery, supplies the orbicularis oculi, and anastomoses with the lacrimal and palpebral branches of the ophthalmic artery.


Dorcopsis

The dorcopsises are the marsupials of the genera "Dorcopsis" and "Dorcopsulus". They are found in the tropical forests of New Guinea and Southeast Indonesia. They are placed in the subfamily Macropodinae, along with other Australasian marsupials such as wallabies, kangaroos, tree-kangaroos, pademelons, and quokkas.


Oparinisis

Oparinisis is a genus of deep-sea bamboo coral in the family Isididae.


Arthur H. Harris

Arthur H. Harris is an American mammalogist and paleontologist.
Education.
Arthur H. Harris spent his academic career at the University of New Mexico where he earned a Bachelor's degree in biology with a minor in anthropology (1958), a Master of Science in zoology with a minor in botany (1959) and a Ph.D. in vertebrate zoology with a minor in geochronology in 1965.
Professional career.
Harris began his career as an Assistant Professor of Zoology at Ft. Hays Kansas State College. From there he relocated to The University of Texas at El Paso where he held the positions of Assistant Professor of Biological Sciences, Associate Professor of Biological Sciences, and Professor of Biological Sciences. After his retirement from teaching, Harris was honored as Professor Emeritus, Biological Sciences.
Harris is Past Director of the Laboratory for Environmental Biology (now the UTEP Biodiversity Collections), Curator of Higher Vertebrates, and Curator of Vertebrate Paleobiology. He is a Research Associate in the Museum of Southwestern Biology Division of Mammals.
Research.
Harris's research is focused primarily on Pleistocene vertebrate faunal remains from the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico.
Pendejo Cave.
Harris completed a preliminary report on the fauna of the Pendejo Cave in 1991. Subsequently, he prepared a review of the vertebrate fauna of the cave and contributed this research for a section of "Pendejo Cave". Subsequently, both Harris and others have reworked the faunal list for the cave extensively to better reflect the time units and modifications of identifications since "Pendejo Cave" was published.
Selected publications.
Harris has published extensively. See external links for more comprehensive sources.
Service.
Harris communicated his research to the public through writing episodes of Desert Diaries, a series of radio shorts presented by the Centennial Museum and National Public Radio for the Southwest (KTEP) from 2001 to 2005.
He served as Managing Editor of "The Southwestern Naturalist" a publication of the Southwestern Association of Naturalists from 1978 to 1982.


Troponin C

Troponin C is a protein which is part of the troponin complex. It contains four calcium-binding EF hands, although different isoforms may have fewer than four functional calcium-binding subdomains. It is a component of thin filaments, along with actin and tropomyosin. It contains an N lobe and a C lobe. The C lobe serves a structural purpose and binds to the N domain of troponin I (TnI). The C lobe can bind either Ca2+ or Mg2+. The N lobe, which binds only Ca2+, is the regulatory lobe and binds to the C domain of troponin I after calcium binding.
Isoforms.
The tissue specific subtypes are:
Mutations.
Point mutations can occur in troponin C inducing alterations to Ca2+ and Mg2+ binding and protein structure, leading to abnormalities in muscle contraction. In cardiac muscle, they are related to dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM).
These known point mutations are: