Siamese crocodile

The Siamese crocodile ("Crocodylus siamensis") is a medium-sized freshwater crocodile native to Indonesia (Borneo and possibly Java), Brunei, East Malaysia, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. The species is critically endangered and already extirpated from many regions. Its other common names include Siamese freshwater crocodile, Singapore small-grain, and soft-belly.
Characteristics.
The Siamese crocodile is a medium-sized, freshwater crocodilian, with a relatively broad, smooth snout and an elevated, bony crest behind each eye. Overall, it is an olive-green colour, with some variation to dark-green. Young specimens measure and weigh , growing up to and a weight of as an adult. The largest female specimens can measure and weight Large male specimens can reach and in weight. Most adults do not exceed 3 m (10 ft) in length.
Distribution and habitat.
Siamese crocodiles occur in a wide range of freshwater habitats, including slow-moving rivers and streams, lakes, seasonal oxbow lakes, marshes and swamplands.
Biology and behaviour.
Despite conservation concerns, many aspects of "C. siamensis" life history in the wild remain unknown, particularly regarding its reproductive biology.
Adults feed mainly on fish and snakes, but also eat amphibians and small mammals.
Very little is known about the natural history of this species in the wild, but females build mound-nests constructed from scraped-up plant debris mixed with mud. In captivity, these crocodiles breed during the wet season (April to May), laying between 15 and 50 eggs, which are then guarded until they hatch. After incubation, the female will assist her young as they break out of their eggs and then carry the hatchlings to the water in her jaws.
Pure, unhybridised examples of this species are generally unaggressive towards humans, and there are only four confirmed attacks, none of them fatal. One was defending its young, another was probably defending itself, one was provoked, and the reason for the last is unclear. A fifth attack, in 1928, was fatal, but the victim was a child (i.e., closer to typical prey size than an adult) and the identity of the crocodile species is not entirely certain.
Conservation status and threats.
This crocodile is classified as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List, and is listed on Appendix I of CITES.
It is one of the most endangered crocodiles in the wild, although it is extensively bred in captivity.
Threats.
Siamese crocodiles are under threat from human disturbance and habitat occupation, which is forcing remaining populations to the edges of their former range. Extinct from 99% of its original range, the Siamese crocodile is considered one of the least studied and most critically endangered crocodilians in the world. Although few wild populations remain, more than 700,000 "C. Siamese" are held on commercial crocodile farms in Southeast Asia.
In 1992, it was believed to be extremely close to or fully extinct in the wild until 2000 when scientists from Fauna and Flora International and the Government of Cambodia's Forestry Administration confirmed the presence of Siamese crocodiles in the Cardamom Mountains in Southwest Cambodia. Since then, surveys have identified around 30 sites in Cambodia that contain wild Siamese crocodiles (conservatively estimated to number between 200 and 400 individuals in total), a tiny population in Thailand (possibly as few as two individuals, discounting recent reintroductions), a small population in Vietnam (possibly fewer than 100 individuals), Cat Tien National Park has about 200, and a more sizeable population in Laos. In March 2005, conservationists found a nest containing juvenile Siamese crocodiles in the southern Lao province of Savannakhet. There are no recent records from Malaysia, Burma or Brunei. A small but important population of the crocodiles is also known to live in East Kalimantan, Indonesia.
Habitat degradation.
Factors causing loss of habitat include: conversion of wetlands for agriculture, chemical fertilisers use, use of pesticides in rice production, and an increase in the population of cattle. The effects of warfare stemming from the conflicts in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia during the Vietnam War (from land mines to aerial bombardment) have also been factored.
Many river systems, including those in protected areas, have hydroelectric power dams approved or proposed, which are likely to cause the loss of about half of the remaining breeding colonies within the next ten years. One cause for habitat degradation via hydrological changes, for the Siamese crocodile, is the implementation of dams on the upper Mekong River and its major tributaries. Potential impacts of dam construction include wetland loss and altered flooding cycle with a dry season flow 50% greater than under natural conditions.
Exploitation and fragmentation.
Illegal capture of wild crocodiles for supply to farms is an ongoing threat, as well as incidental capture/drowning in fishing nets and traps. "C. siamensis" currently has extremely low and fragmented remaining populations with little proven reproduction in the wild.
Siamese crocodiles have historically been captured for skins and to stock commercial crocodile farms. In 1945, skin hunting for commercial farms was banned by the French colonial administration of Cambodia. In the late 1940s, populations spurred the development of farms and harvesting wild crocodiles for stocking these farms. Protection was abolished by the Khmer Rouge (1975–79) but later reinstated under Article 18 of the Fishery Law of 1987, which "forbids the catching, selling, and transportation of...[wild] crocodiles..."
Crocodile farming now has a huge economic impact in the provinces surrounding Tonle Sap, where 396 farms held over 20,000 crocodiles in 1998. Also, many crocodiles were exported from Cambodia since the mid-1980s to stock commercial farms in Thailand, Vietnam, and China.
Despite legal protection, a profitable market exists for the capture and sale of crocodiles to farms since the early 1980s. This chronic overharvesting has led to the decline of the wild Siamese crocodile.
Conservation and management.
The current situation of "C. siamensis" represents a significant improvement from the status reported in the 1992 Action Plan (effectively extinct in the wild), but poses major new challenges for quantitative survey and effective conservation action if the species is to survive. While the species remains critically endangered, there is a sufficient residual wild population, albeit severely fragmented across several areas and countries, to provide a basis for recovery.
The Siamese crocodile is relatively unthreatening to people (compared to "C. porosus"), and the possibility of people and crocodiles coexisting in natural settings seems possible. The powerful economic force of the commercial industry based on "C. siamensis" also needs to be mobilised and channelled for conservation advantage. Considerable effort and action is still required, but the species has a reasonable chance of survival if the necessary actions can be implemented.
Yayasan Ulin (The Ironwood Foundation) is running a small project to conserve an important wetland habitat in the area of East Kalimantan which is known to contain the crocodiles. Most of them, though, live in Cambodia, where isolated, small groups are present in several remote areas of the Cardamom Mountains, in the southwest of the country, and also in the Virachey National Park, in the northeast of the country.
In Cambodia Fauna and Flora International and the Government of Cambodia's Forestry Administration have established the Cambodian Crocodile Conservation Programme for the protection and recovery of Siamese crocodiles. This programme works with a network of indigenous villages who are helping to protect key sites such as Veal Veng Marsh (Veal Veng District), the Tatai River (Thmar Bang District) and the Araeng River. The latter is considered to have the second largest population of Siamese crocodiles in the world, but is currently threatened by the proposed construction of a massive dam in the river. During the heavy monsoon period of June–November, Siamese crocodiles take advantage of the increase in water levels to move out of the river and onto large lakes and other local bodies of water, returning to their original habitat once water levels start receding back to their usual levels.
The Cambodian Crocodile Conservation Programme conducted DNA analysis of 69 crocodiles in Phnom Tamao Wildlife Rescue Centre in Cambodia 2009, and found 35 of them were purebred "C. siamensis". Conservationists from the Forestry Administration and Fauna and Flora International subsequently launched a conservation breeding program at the Centre. Since 2012, approximately 50 purebred Cambodian Siamese crocodiles have been released into community-protected areas to reinforce the depleted wild populations.
Poaching is a severe threat to this species, with the value of wild Siamese crocodiles reaching hundreds of dollars in the black market, where they are illegally taken into crocodile farms and hybridized with other, larger species. The total wild population is unknown, since most groups are in isolated areas where access is extremely complicated. A number of captively held individuals are the result of hybridization with the saltwater crocodile, but several thousand "pure" individuals do exist in captivity, and are regularly bred at crocodile farms, especially in Thailand.
Pang Sida National Park in Thailand, near Cambodia, has a project to reintroduce Siamese crocodile into the wild. A number of young crocodiles have been released into a small and remote river in the park, not accessible to visitors.
The Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) is working with the government of Laos on a new programme to save this critically endangered crocodile and its wetland habitat. In August, 2011, a press release announced the successful hatching of a clutch of 20 Siamese crocodiles. These eggs were then incubated at the Laos Zoo. This project represents a new effort by WCS to conserve the biodiversity and habitat of Laos’ Savannakhet Province, promotes conservation of biodiversity for the whole landscape, and relies on community involvement from local residents.
Priority projects.
High priority projects include:
Other projects include:
Cultural references.
A Malay folktale features a crocodile that is outwitted by a mouse-deer and buffaloes.
A Siamese crocodile has been cited in the Thai folklore of Central Thailand's "Krai Thong" ("ไกรทอง") tales have known as well, and was taken to create a television series and movies several times.
A Siamese crocodile stars as the titular monster in the 1978 Thailand film "Crocodile".


Amantis tristis

Amantis tristis is a species of praying mantis native to Borneo.


Zabrus martensi

Zabrus martensi is a species of ground beetle in the "Himalayozabrus" subgenus that is endemic to Nepal.


Ameerega boliviana

Ameerega boliviana, formerly Epipedobates bolivianus, is a species of frog in the family Dendrobatidae endemic to Bolivia. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, rivers, freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marshes, pastureland, rural gardens, and heavily degraded former forests.


Homonota williamsii

Homonota williamsii is a species of gecko. It is endemic to Argentina.


Stripe-crowned spinetail

The stripe-crowned spinetail ("Cranioleuca pyrrhophia") is a species of bird in the family Furnariidae.
It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forest and subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest. The species shows considerable plumage variation following Gloger's rule. It is known to hybridize with "Cranioleuca obsoleta" in Southern Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.


Oreolalax schmidti

Oreolalax schmidti (Schmidt's lazy toad or webless toothed toad) is a species of amphibian in the family Megophryidae. It is endemic to China where it can be found in the Hengduan Mountains in western Sichuan and northern Yunnan provinces. Its natural habitats are temperate forests, subtropical moist shrubland, rivers, swamps, and freshwater marshes. It is threatened by habitat loss. It is named after Karl Patterson Schmidt, American herpetologist.
Male "Oreolalax schmidti" grow to about in snout-vent length and females to about . Tadpoles are in length.


Oryzomys dimidiatus

Oryzomys dimidiatus, also known as the Nicaraguan oryzomys, Thomas's rice rat, or Nicaraguan rice rat, is a rodent in the genus "Oryzomys" of the family Cricetidae. It is known from only three specimens, all collected in southeastern Nicaragua since 1904. Placed in "Nectomys" upon its discovery, it was later classified in its own subgenus of "Oryzomys" and finally recognized as closely related to other species now placed in "Oryzomys", including the marsh rice rat and "Oryzomys couesi", which occurs in the same region.
With a head and body length of 110 to 128 mm (4.3 to 5.0 in), "Oryzomys dimidiatus" is a medium-sized rice rat. The upperparts are gray-brown and the underparts are grayish, not buffy as in "O. couesi". The tail is only slightly darker above than below. All three specimens were caught near water and the species may be semiaquatic, spending some time in the water. Its conservation status is currently assessed as "Least Concern".
Taxonomy.
The first known specimen was obtained by W.G. Palmer in 1904 and the next year, Oldfield Thomas of the British Museum of Natural History described this animal as the holotype of a new species he named "Nectomys dimidiatus". He placed it in the genus "Nectomys", commenting that it was much smaller than but otherwise similar to previously known members of that genus. The species was listed as a "Nectomys" in taxonomic overviews in the next decades, including a 1944 review of the genus by Philip Hershkovitz.
After examining the holotype in London, Hershkovitz instead placed the species in the genus "Oryzomys" in 1948. He remarked that it was an especially distinctive member of that genus, and hence classified it in its own subgenus "Micronectomys". J. Hernández-Camacho described a second species of "Micronectomys", "Oryzomys (Micronectomys) borreroi", from Colombia in 1957. In 1970, Hershkovitz treated "O. dimidiatus" in another publication and conceded that his name "Micronectomys" was a "nomen nudum" ("naked name") because he had not explicitly mentioned characters differentiating it from other taxa in his 1948 publication. Nevertheless, he did not do anything to rectify the situation, and "Micronectomys" remains a "nomen nudum". Hershkovitz also noted that while "O. dimidiatus" resembles a juvenile "Nectomys" in external anatomy, it is otherwise similar to the marsh rice rat ("Oryzomys palustris"). He accepted "O. borreroi" as an "Oryzomys", but did not think it closely related to "O. dimidiatus". Six years later, Alfred Gardner and James Patton instead suggested that "O. borreroi" was a "Zygodontomys", and in his 1991 review of that genus Robert Voss confirmed that it is the same as "Zygodontomys brunneus".
A second specimen was obtained in 1966 and the find was published in 1971 by Hugh Genoways and Knox Jones, who noted that the species is closely similar to "O. palustris". Later workers affirmed the relationship between "O. dimidiatus", "O. palustris" and associated species like "O. couesi". Fiona Reid reported in 1997 that a third specimen had been found. In 2006, Marcelo Weksler and coworkers removed most of the species formerly placed in "Oryzomys" from the genus, because they are not closely related to the type species "O. palustris", but kept "O. dimidiatus" as an "Oryzomys".
"Oryzomys dimidiatus" is now recognized as one of eight species in the genus "Oryzomys". "O. dimidiatus" is further part of the "O. couesi" section, which is centered on the widespread Central American "O. couesi" and also includes six other species with more limited and peripheral distributions. "O. couesi" occurs with "O. dimidiatus" in southeastern Nicaragua. Many aspects of the systematics of the "O. couesi" section remain unclear and it is likely that the current classification underestimates the true diversity of the group. "Oryzomys" is classified in the tribe Oryzomyini ("rice rats"), a diverse assemblage of American rodents of over a hundred species, and on higher taxonomic levels in the subfamily Sigmodontinae of family Cricetidae, along with hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents.
Description.
"Oryzomys dimidiatus" is a medium-sized rice rat, smaller than "O. couesi", with thick, glossy fur and velvety underfur. The hairs on the back are about 6 mm in length. The upperparts are gray-brown with some dark hairs, appearing darker overall than in "O. couesi"; the color becomes more yellowish towards the sides. According to Thomas, a faint buff line extends from the sides to the inner sides of the hindlegs. The underparts are grayish, contrasting with the buffy underparts of "O. couesi". The snout is short and the well-haired ears are partly hidden by the fur. The hands and feet are off-white or brownish above, not white as in "O. couesi". The hindfeet show small interdigital webs, but they lack long tufts of hair on the digits and some of the pads are reduced or absent. The tail is about as long as the head and body and contains about 15 rings per centimeter. It is slightly darker (grayish) above than below (whitish), but the difference in color is much less pronounced than in "O. couesi".
Compared to that of "Nectomys", the skull is lightly built and has narrow nasals and a broad, round braincase without conspicuous ridges on it. The zygomatic plate is broad. The incisive foramina (perforations of the front part of the palate) extend between the first molars and are broadest in their back halves. The broad mesopterygoid fossa, the gap behind the end of the palate, is perforated by sphenopalatine vacuities. The molar crowns are not as simplified as in "Nectomys" species, but the front cusps of the upper (anterocone) and lower first molar (anteroconid) are not divided in two. In addition to the main roots, the upper and lower first molars have smaller additional roots.
Measurements for the first two known examples are as follows (in each case, the first measurement given is from the holotype, taken in 1904, the second, from the specimen taken in 1966): head and body length 125 and 118 mm (4.9 and 4.6 in), tail length 115 and 110 mm (4.5 and 4.3 in), hindfoot length 27 and 28 mm (1.1 and 1.1 in), ear length 13 and 15 mm (0.51 and 0.59 in), skull length 29.8 and 29.0 mm (1.17 and 1.14 in). The 1966 specimen weighed 46.0 g (1.62 oz) and had testes 11 mm (0.43 in) long; these measurements were not recorded in the 1904 specimen. Reid, who mentioned the third specimen, reported a maximum head and body length of 128 mm (5.0 in), tail length of 150 mm (5.9 in), hindfoot length of 31 mm (1.2 in), and ear length of 19 mm (0.75 in).
Distribution, ecology, and behavior.
"Oryzomys dimidiatus" is known from three specimens collected in the lowlands of the South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region in southeastern Nicaragua. The first, an old male, was collected on November 5, 1904, in a banana plantation with very moist red clay on the Río Escondido near El Rama. The second, a young adult male, was caught on July 26, 1966, in dense cane on the south bank of the Río Mico at El Recreo, 15 km (9 mi) west from the location of the first specimen, along with three other rice rats ("O. couesi", "Melanomys caliginosus", and "Oligoryzomys fulvescens"), the cotton rat "Sigmodon hirsutus", and the cottontail rabbit "Sylvilagus brasiliensis". The third was caught at a stream near Bluefields. Reid suggested that the species is semiaquatic, spending some time in the water, like other "Oryzomys".
Conservation status.
The 2009 IUCN Red List assessed the conservation status of "Oryzomys dimidiatus" as "Least Concern", noting that its distribution may be larger than currently known. Its population is presumed to be large and no threats to its habitat are known.


Black-and-yellow grosbeak

The black-and-yellow grosbeak ("Mycerobas icterioides") is a species of finch native to the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent, primarily the lower and middle Himalayas. It is in the family Fringillidae.
The species ranges across Afghanistan, India, Iran, Nepal, and Pakistan where its natural habitat is temperate forests.
Phylogeny.
Eophona genus goes together with Mycerobas genus. Both genera form a single phylogenetic group.


Amphimallon vivesi

Amphimallon vivesi is a species of beetle in the Melolonthinae subfamily that is endemic to Spain.


Ashibusa sinensis

Ashibusa sinensis is a moth of the family Cosmopterigidae. It was described Z.W. Zhang and H.H. Li in 2009 and id endemic to China.


Aparasphenodon arapapa

Asparasphenodon arapapa, also known as the Bahia's broad-snout casque-headed tree frog, is a species of frog endemic to the Atlantic Rainforest of Southern Bahia, Brazil. The frogs of the genus "Asparasphenodon" are distinguished by a bony plate on top of their heads, referred to as "casqueheaded". Casqueheaded frogs are characterized by their phragmotic behavior. "A. arapapa" is further characterized by the long bill-shaped "snout" they possess, similar to that of "Triprion petasatus", a head longer than it is wide, and their small size (male snout-vent length 57.4–58.1 mm). This species, and all species of "Asparasphenodon", use their unique head shape to seal off the leaves of bromeliads, the plant they inhabit solely. This has two known purposes: warding off predators from the frog as well as their young (the male performs this action), and trapping moisture.


Amblyomma nodosum

Amblyomma nodosum is a species of specialized tick, found in three roadkilled giant anteaters from Minas Gerais, Brazil. There are 100 species of "Amblyomma" worldwide, 33 of which are from Brazil. "A. nodosum" is a specialist that lives exclusively on the giant anteater ("Myrmecophaga tridactyla") and the Southern tamandua ("Tamandua tetradactyla").


Anotosaura vanzolinia

Anotosaura vanzolinia, also known commonly as Vanzolini's anotosaura, is a species of lizard in the family Gymnophthalmidae. The species is endemic to Brazil.
Etymology.
The specific name, "vanzolinia", is in honor of Brazilian herpetologist and composer Paulo Vanzolini.
Geographic range.
"A. vanzolinia" is found in extreme eastern Brazil, in the Brazilian states of Bahia, Paraíba, and Pernambuco.
Diet.
The diet of "A. vanzolinia" consists of ants, termites, and other arthropods of the edaphic microfauna. Some arthropods include members of Arachnida, Crustacea, Hexapoda, and Diploda.
Habitat.
The preferred natural habitat of "A. vanzolinia" is sparse shrubby vegetation, dense shrubby vegetation, sparse arboreal vegetation, dense arboreal vegetation, sparse shrubby-arboreal vegetation, and dense shrubby-arboreal vegetation. It dwells within leaf litter around shrubs, leaf litter among bromeliads, leaf litter around rocky outcrops, and isolated leaf litter.
Reproduction.
"A. vanzolinia" is oviparous. Clutch size is two eggs.


Duchess lorikeet

The duchess lorikeet ("Charmosyna margarethae") is a species of parrot in the family Psittaculidae. It is found throughout the Solomon Islands archipelago. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest, subtropical or tropical moist montane forest, and plantations. It is threatened by habitat loss.
Taxonomy.
English naturalist Henry Baker Tristram described the species in 1879.
"Duchess lorikeet" has been designated the official name by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC).
Description.
The duchess lorikeet is 20 cm (8 in) in length, and weighs 40-60 g.
Adult duchess lorikeets are mainly bright red in color, with purple to black hindcrowns and yellow-orange eyes. It has an orange bill. It has a wide yellow chest band along with a thin yellow collar on the mantle bordered by a purple or black line. It has a dull mauve to black lower breast, with dull yellow underwings. Its tail are red, with green upper tail coverts and yellow tips. Females look the same as males, but additionally have yellow patches on the side of the rump.
Juvenile lorikeets have black markings on the head and underparts, along with a dusky black patch on the occiput. The breast band is a faint yellow and the yellow collar on the mantle has a dusky wash. They have a brown to black bill, with grey eyes.
Distribution and habitat.
The species is found only on Bougainville Island and 6 islands in the Solomon Islands. It is a localised species that is absent from large areas of habitat in its range that are potentially suitable for it. It is most often found in lower montane forest and in coconut plantations. It is found from sea level to an elevation of 1,350 m asl. It may be nomadic and inhabit habitats at different altitudes.
Behavior and Ecology.
The calls of the duchess lorikeet are generally more squeaky than that of other species of lorikeets. Their flight calls are loud and high-pitched, while high-pitched screek notes are made while feeding.
Food and feeding.
The lorikeet mostly feed on nectar, pollen, and small fruits, especially "Schefflera".
Threats.
Much of the lowland forest in its range is scheduled to be logged, although it could survive at higher altitudes. Another threat to the species is the possibility of large scale pet trade.
In culture.
It was featured on a stamp for the Solomon Islands made in 1975.
Status.
The species is widespread and relatively common through its range, but the population may decline rapidly in the future if large scale pet trade begins. Consequently, the species is considered to be near-threatened by BirdLife International and the IUCN.
Aviculture.
The species is traded in the pet trade, but there is an export quota of 60 birds per year to avoid population decline.


Wine-throated hummingbird

The wine-throated hummingbird ("Selasphorus ellioti") is a species of hummingbird in the family Trochilidae.
It is found in El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forest.
With a length of 7 cm, it is one of the smallest birds within its range.
Subspecies.
There are two recognized subspecies:


Band-tailed manakin

The band-tailed manakin ("Pipra fasciicauda") is a species of bird in the family Pipridae. It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Peru. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest, subtropical or tropical swamps, and heavily degraded former forest. It forms a superspecies with both the Crimson-hooded manakin ("Pipra aureola") and the Wire-tailed Manakin ("Pipra filicauda").


Tukeit Hill frog

The Tukeit Hill frogs are three species of frog in the genus Allophryne. Originally erected for the species "Allophryne ruthveni", the genus was placed as the only member of the subfamily Allophryninae, which was in turn placed in the family Centrolenidae, but they are now considered as the only genus in the monotypic family Allophrynidae.
These frogs live in Guyana, Venezuela, Surinam, Brazil and Bolivia. The holotype was discovered at Tukeit Hill, below Kaieteur Falls, Guyana, hence the common English name.
Description.
The Tukeit Hill frog is a small frog of variable colouration, either black, with stripes and spots which can be golden or dull yellow, or a dull yellow or golden ventral surface, with black strips and spots. It has a flat body, and small, flat head. It has a single, submandibular vocal sac. The toe pads are enlarged, wider than the fingers, and the tympanum is visible. The Tukeit Hill frog is superficially similar to the tree frogs, but the ends of their phalanges differ in shape.
Taxonomy.
"Allophryne ruthveni" is part of a hitherto (see below) monotypic subfamily of anurans: Allophryninae. The evolutionary relationships of this species have always been controversial. It has been joined to families such as Hylidae, Bufonidae, and Leptodactylidae, but until recently, its closer relatives were unknown.
"Allophryne" is similar in its general shape to tree frogs of the family Hylidae, but differs by having the last phalanges of fingers and toes T-shaped, a character found in glassfrogs, while tree frogs have claw-shaped ones. When herpetologist G. K. Noble examined "Allophryne", he suggested it was closely related to glassfrogs, a hypothesis later confirmed by recent phylogenetic studies, which have found "Allophryne" is the sister taxon of the glassfrog clade Centroleninae.
The glassfrogs differ from "Allophryne" by having much more delicate skulls and by possessing intercalary elements between the last phalanges of fingers, a process on the third metacarpal, and nonexplosive breeding, among other characteristics. Both glassfrogs and the Allophrynidae are closely related to Leptodactylidae.
Recently, an undescribed species of frog, which probably belongs to the genus "Allophryne", was discovered in Peru . This suggests the genus is actually more widespread and more species await discovery. As "A. ruthveni" was assumed to be a northwestern Amazonian endemic, the Peruvian frog indicates the Allophrynidae might have been more widespread in prehistoric times, only later on disappearing from most of the Amazon Basin, and are actually a relict group. Alternatively, they might occur in the western Amazonas lowlands and simply have not been found yet, though this seems less likely.
Behaviour.
The Tukeit Hill frog is semiarboreal, spending some times low in the trees, 1–3 m high, and some of the time on the ground. They are explosive breeders, taking advantage of small water ponds formed on the forest floor after periods of rain. This frog inhabits sparse forest, and may be restricted to forested areas, avoiding cleared land.


Cynodonichthys elegans

Cynodonichthys elegans is a species of killifish from the family Rivulidae which is found in temporary pools in the Cauca River basin and in the San Juan River in the Chocó Department in Colombia.


Benthosuchus

Benthosuchus is an extinct genus of temnospondyl amphibian from the Early Triassic of Russia. The genus was named in 1937, and the type species, "Benthosuchus sushkini", was named in 1940. "Benthosuchus" has traditionally been considered a member of the temnospondyl superfamily Trematosauroidea, and the family Benthosuchidae was established in 1940 to include "Benthosuchus" and the related trematosauroid "Thoosuchus". Some recent phylogenetic studies have removed "Benthosuchus" from Trematosauroidea entirely, placing it as a closer relative of Mastodonsauroidea, another group of Triassic temnospondyls. Other studies retain "Benthosuchus" within Trematosauroidea, but since "Benthosuchus" and "Thoosuchus" have successively basal positions on these trees they form a paraphyletic grouping, not a valid clade. In either case, Benthosuchidae is a monotypic family containing only "Benthosuchus".
Description.
"Benthosuchus" skull is about 0.75 m long (it is comparatively short in young individuals but lengthens with age), and the overall body length is about 2.5 m. It existed in widely overflowing rivers of the East Russian Depression.
Phylogeny.
"Benthosuchus" is traditionally considered a close relative of a group of temnospondyls called capitosaurids. In particular, it bears a close resemblance to the capitosaurid "Wetlugasaurus". Many of the early large-scale phylogenetic analyses of temnospondyls place "Benthosuchus" within a clade called Capitosauria. However, more recent analyses such as that of Fortuny "et al." (2011) recover "Benthosuchus" within another clade called Trematosauria. Occasionally it is grouped near the trematosaurid family Trematosauridae as a basal member of the group Trematosauroidea. Fortuny "et al." found that "Benthosuchus" positioned outside Trematosauroidea as a more basal trematosaurian. Below is a cladogram from Fortuny "et al." (2011) showing the phylogenetic placement of "Benthosuchus":


Gyraulus parvus

Gyraulus parvus is a species of freshwater snail in the family Planorbidae, the ram's horn snails. It is known by the common name ash gyro. It is native to much of North America and the Caribbean, where it occurs in Canada, the United States, Mexico, Cuba, and Puerto Rico. It is also an introduced species in Eurasia, including Austria, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, and Israel.
This common snail occurs in many types of freshwater habitat, such as ponds and lakes. It consumes diatoms and other periphyton that it scrapes off of surfaces. It sometimes rests attached to water plants.
This snail has a thin, transparent, whitish-gray shell measuring 2.5 to 5 millimeters wide. It has 4 to 5 whorls. The upper side is concave and the lower side is flat.
This snail is an intermediate host for schistosomes that cause swimmer's itch.


Incilius luetkenii

Incilius luetkenii (formerly "Bufo luetkenii", common name yellow toad) is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is found in the Mesoamerica along the Pacific versant from central Costa Rica to extreme southern Chiapas, Mexico (including the intervening Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua), as well as dry interior valleys of Guatemala and Honduras and San Juan River drainage in Costa Rica on the Atlantic versant. It occurs in open areas, including disturbed pasturelands in lowland dry forest, and to a lesser extent, in lowland moist and premontane moist forests. It breeds in temporary pools. It is a common species that is not facing major threats.


Oxapampa antpitta

The Oxapampa antpitta ("Grallaria centralis") is a species of bird in the family Grallariidae. It is endemic to Peru. The Oxapampa antpitta was formerly believed to be a population of the chestnut antpitta, but in 2020 was described as its own species by Peter A. Hosner, Mark B. Robbins, Morton L. Isler and R. Terry Chesser.
Taxonomy.
The Oxapampa antpitta was described as a new species based on differences in plumage color, vocalizations and mitochondrial genetic evidence. The birds in the Oxapampa antpitta's range were formerly ascribed to "G. blakei".
The common name reflects the Oxapampa province where specimens of the species were first collected. The specific name, "centralis", reflects its range's proximity to the geographic center of Peru.
Distribution and habitat.
The Oxapampa antpitta is endemic to the eastern slope of the Peruvian Andes in the provinces of Huánaco, Pasco and Junín. They inhabit humid montane forest and frequent the understory and forest floor.
They are separated from the closely related Ayacucho antpitta by the Mantaro river.


Gulf Coast toad

The Gulf Coast toad ("Incilius valliceps") is a species of toad native to eastern and southeastern Mexico and Central America as far south as Costa Rica.
Description.
The Gulf Coast toad is a medium-sized toad species, ranging from in length. Their back varies in color from nearly black, to shades of brown and grey with a distinctive white or yellowish colored stripe down the center, and sometimes lighter colored patches on the sides. Their underside is yellow or cream colored. Their back is covered in small tubercles, while their underside is normally devoid of them.
"I. valliceps" has the most extensive ridging of any toad in its geographic range. The ridges extend from the nose, to the back of the head, and with a branch that wraps around the back side of the eye.
Habitat.
The Gulf Coast toad is found in a wide range of habitats, including open grassland, semi-arid regions, light forest, and even suburban backyards. They are typically found not far from a permanent water source, which they use for breeding in the spring, but they are capable of travelling long distances while foraging for food.
Diet.
Like most toads, the Gulf Coast toad is an opportunistic carnivore. It will eat almost any small arthropod it is able to overpower and swallow.


List of non-marine molluscs of China

The non-marine mollusks of China are a part of the molluscan fauna of China (wildlife of China). A number of species of non-marine mollusks are found in the wild in China.
Freshwater gastropods.
Viviparidae
Pomatiopsidae
Pachychilidae
Thiaridae
Land gastropods.
Arionidae
Philomycidae
Anadenidae
Limacidae
Agriolimacidae
Bradybaenidae
Diapheridae
Plectopylidae
Freshwater bivalves.
Sphaeriidae
Corbiculidae
See also.
Lists of molluscs of surrounding countries:


Garypus titanius

Garypus titanius is a species of pseudoscorpions of the family Garypidae. Individuals of this species may be as large as long, making it the largest pseudoscorpion in the world. "Garypus titanius" is endemic to Boatswain Bird Island, off the coast of Ascension Island, in the British overseas territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha.


Kodkod

The kodkod ("Leopardus guigna") (), also called güiña, is the smallest felid species native to the Americas. It lives primarily in central and southern Chile, as well as marginally in adjoining areas of Argentina. Its area of distribution is small compared to the other South American cats. Since 2002, it has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List as the total population may comprise less than 10,000 mature individuals; it is threatened due to persecution, and loss of habitat and prey base.
Characteristics.
The kodkod's fur color ranges from brownish-yellow to grey-brown. It has dark spots, a pale underside and a ringed tail. The ears are black with a white spot, while the dark spots on the shoulders and neck almost merge to form a series of dotted streaks. Melanistic kodkods with spotted black coats are quite common. It has a small head, large feet, and a thick tail. Adult kodkods are in head to body length with a short tail and a shoulder height of about . Weight ranges between .
Taxonomy.
"Felis guigna" was the scientific name used in 1782 by Juan Ignacio Molina who first described a kodkod from Chile.
"Felis tigrillo" was the name used in 1844 by Heinrich Rudolf Schinz.
The genus "Leopardus" was proposed in 1842 by John Edward Gray, when he described two spotted cat skins from Central America and two from India in the collection of the Natural History Museum, London.
The subgenus "Oncifelis" was proposed in 1851 by Nikolai Severtzov with the Geoffroy's cat as type species.
The kodkod was subordinated to "Leopardus" in 1958, and to "Oncifelis" in 1978.
Today, the genus "Leopardus" is widely recognized as valid, with two kodkod subspecies:
Distribution and habitat.
The kodkod is strongly associated with mixed temperate rainforests of the southern Andean and coastal ranges, particularly the Valdivian and Araucaria forests of Chile, which is characterized by the presence of bamboo in the understory. It prefers evergreen temperate rainforest habitats to deciduous temperate moist forests, sclerophyllous scrub and coniferous forests. It is tolerant of altered habitats, being found in secondary forest and shrub as well as primary forest, and on the fringes of settled and cultivated areas.
It ranges up to the treeline at approximately . In Argentina, it has been recorded from moist montane forest, which has Valdivian temperate rain forest characteristics, including a multi-layered structure with bamboo, and numerous lianas and epiphytes.
Ecology and behavior.
Kodkods are equally active during the day and during the night, although they only venture into open terrain under the cover of darkness. During the day, they rest in dense vegetation in ravines, along streams with heavy cover, and in piles of dead gorse. They are excellent climbers, and easily able to climb trees more than a meter in diameter. They are terrestrial predators of birds, lizards and rodents in the ravines and forested areas, feeding on southern lapwing, austral thrush, chucao tapaculo, huet-huet, domestic geese and chicken.
Male kodkods maintain exclusive territories in size, while females occupy smaller ranges of just .
Reproduction.
The gestation period lasts about 72–78 days. The average litter size is one to three kittens. This species may live to be about 11 years old.
Threats.
The major threat to the kodkod is logging of its temperate moist forest habitat, and the spread of pine forest plantations and agriculture, particularly in central Chile. In 1997 to 1998, two out of five radio-collared kodkods were killed on Chiloé Island while raiding chicken coops.


Historis acheronta

Historis acheronta, the tailed cecropian, is a species of crescents, checkerspots, anglewings, etc. in the butterfly family Nymphalidae.
The MONA or Hodges number for "Historis acheronta" is 4546.


Leptobrachella picta

Leptobrachella picta is a species of frog in the family Megophryidae. It is found in northern Borneo: Crocker Range, Sabah and eastern Sarawak Malaysia as well as adjacent north-eastern Kalimantan, Indonesia. Its type locality is Mount Kinabalu. Its natural habitats are tropical moist lowland forests, moist montane forests, and rivers. It is threatened by habitat loss.


List of birds of Afghanistan

This is a list of the bird species recorded in Afghanistan. The avifauna of Afghanistan include a total of 513 species, of which 4 have been introduced by humans. Of the species in Afghanistan, 25 species are globally threatened.
This list's taxonomic treatment (designation and sequence of orders, families and species) and nomenclature (common and scientific names) follow the conventions of "The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World", 2019 edition. The family accounts at the beginning of each heading reflect this taxonomy, as do the species counts found in each family account. Introduced and accidental species are included in the total counts for Afghanistan.
The following tags have been used to highlight several categories. The commonly occurring native species do not fall into any of these categories.
Ducks, geese, and waterfowl.
Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae
Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These birds are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to an oily coating.
Pheasants, grouse, and allies.
Order: GalliformesFamily: Phasianidae
The Phasianidae are a family of terrestrial birds. In general, they are plump (although they vary in size) and have broad, relatively short wings.
Flamingos.
Order: PhoenicopteriformesFamily: Phoenicopteridae
Flamingos are gregarious wading birds, usually tall, found in both the Western and Eastern Hemispheres. Flamingos filter-feed on shellfish and algae. Their oddly shaped beaks are specially adapted to separate mud and silt from the food they consume and, uniquely, are used upside-down.
Grebes.
Order: PodicipediformesFamily: Podicipedidae
Grebes are small to medium-large freshwater diving birds. They have lobed toes and are excellent swimmers and divers. However, they have their feet placed far back on the body, making them quite ungainly on land.
Pigeons and doves.
Order: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae
Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere.
Sandgrouse.
Order: PterocliformesFamily: Pteroclidae
Sandgrouse have small, pigeon like heads and necks, but sturdy compact bodies. They have long pointed wings and sometimes tails and a fast direct flight. Flocks fly to watering holes at dawn and dusk. Their legs are feathered down to the toes.
Bustards.
Order: OtidiformesFamily: Otididae
Bustards are large terrestrial birds mainly associated with dry open country and steppes in the Old World. They are omnivorous and nest on the ground. They walk steadily on strong legs and big toes, pecking for food as they go. They have long broad wings with "fingered" wingtips and striking patterns in flight. Many have interesting mating displays.
Cuckoos.
Order: CuculiformesFamily: Cuculidae
The family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners and anis. These birds are of variable size with slender bodies, long tails and strong legs.
Nightjars and allies.
Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Caprimulgidae
Nightjars are medium-sized nocturnal birds that usually nest on the ground. They have long wings, short legs and very short bills. Most have small feet, of little use for walking, and long pointed wings. Their soft plumage is camouflaged to resemble bark or leaves.
Swifts.
Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Apodidae
Swifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. Many swifts have long swept-back wings which resemble a crescent or boomerang.
Rails, gallinules and coots.
Order: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae
Rallidae is a large family of small to medium-sized birds which includes the rails, crakes, coots and gallinules. Typically they inhabit dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings and to be weak fliers.
Cranes.
Order: GruiformesFamily: Gruidae
Cranes are large, long-legged and long-necked birds. Unlike the similar-looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Most have elaborate and noisy courting displays or "dances".
Thick-knees.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Burhinidae
The thick-knees are a group of largely tropical waders in the family Burhinidae. They are found worldwide within the tropical zone, with some species also breeding in temperate Europe and Australia. They are medium to large waders with strong black or yellow-black bills, large yellow eyes and cryptic plumage. Despite being classed as waders, most species have a preference for arid or semi-arid habitats.
Stilts and avocets.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Recurvirostridae
Recurvirostridae is a family of large wading birds, which includes the avocets and stilts. The avocets have long legs and long up-curved bills. The stilts have extremely long legs and long, thin, straight bills.
Ibisbill.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Ibidorhynchidae
The ibisbill is related to the waders, but is sufficiently distinctive to be a family unto itself. The adult is gray with a white belly, red legs, a long down curved bill, and a black face and breast band.
Oystercatchers.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Haematopodidae
The oystercatchers are large and noisy plover-like birds, with strong bills used for smashing or prising open molluscs.
Plovers and lapwings.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae
The family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels and lapwings. They are small to medium-sized birds with compact bodies, short, thick necks and long, usually pointed, wings. They are found in open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water.
Painted-snipes.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Rostratulidae
Painted-snipes are short-legged, long-billed birds similar in shape to the true snipes, but more brightly coloured.
Jacanas.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Jacanidae
The jacanas are a group of tropical waders in the family Jacanidae. They are found throughout the tropics. They are identifiable by their huge feet and claws which enable them to walk on floating vegetation in the shallow lakes that are their preferred habitat.
Sandpipers and allies.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae
Scolopacidae is a large diverse family of small to medium-sized shorebirds including the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers and phalaropes. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil. Variation in length of legs and bills enables multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food. There are 27 species which have been recorded in Afghanistan.
Pratincoles and coursers.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Glareolidae
Glareolidae is a family of wading birds comprising the pratincoles, which have short legs, long pointed wings and long forked tails, and the coursers, which have long legs, short wings and long, pointed bills which curve downwards.
Gulls, terns, and skimmers.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae
Laridae is a family of medium to large seabirds, the gulls, terns, and skimmers. Gulls are typically grey or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have stout, longish bills and webbed feet. Terns are a group of generally medium to large seabirds typically with grey or white plumage, often with black markings on the head. Most terns hunt fish by diving but some pick insects off the surface of fresh water. Terns are generally long-lived birds, with several species known to live in excess of 30 years.
Storks.
Order: CiconiiformesFamily: Ciconiidae
Storks are large, long-legged, long-necked, wading birds with long, stout bills. Storks are mute, but bill-clattering is an important mode of communication at the nest. Their nests can be large and may be reused for many years. Many species are migratory.
Cormorants and shags.
Order: SuliformesFamily: Phalacrocoracidae
Phalacrocoracidae is a family of medium to large coastal, fish-eating seabirds that includes cormorants and shags. Plumage colouration varies, with the majority having mainly dark plumage, some species being black-and-white and a few being colourful.
Pelicans.
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Pelecanidae
Pelicans are large water birds with a distinctive pouch under their beak. As with other members of the order Pelecaniformes, they have webbed feet with four toes.
Herons, egrets, and bitterns.
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae
The family Ardeidae contains the bitterns, herons and egrets. Herons and egrets are medium to large wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more wary. Members of Ardeidae fly with their necks retracted, unlike other long-necked birds such as storks, ibises and spoonbills.
Ibises and spoonbills.
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Threskiornithidae
Threskiornithidae is a family of large terrestrial and wading birds which includes the ibises and spoonbills. They have long, broad wings with 11 primary and about 20 secondary feathers. They are strong fliers and despite their size and weight, very capable soarers.
Osprey.
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Pandionidae
The family Pandionidae contains only one species, the osprey. The osprey is a medium-large raptor which is a specialist fish-eater with a worldwide distribution.
Hawks, eagles, and kites.
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Accipitridae
Accipitridae is a family of birds of prey, which includes hawks, eagles, kites, harriers and Old World vultures. These birds have powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons and keen eyesight.
Barn-owls.
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Tytonidae
Barn owls are medium to large owls with large heads and characteristic heart-shaped faces. They have long strong legs with powerful talons.
Owls.
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Strigidae
The typical owls are small to large solitary nocturnal birds of prey. They have large forward-facing eyes and ears, a hawk-like beak and a conspicuous circle of feathers around each eye called a facial disk.
Hoopoes.
Order: BucerotiformesFamily: Upupidae
Hoopoes have black, white and orangey-pink colouring with a large erectile crest on their head.
Kingfishers.
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Alcedinidae
Kingfishers are medium-sized birds with large heads, long, pointed bills, short legs and stubby tails.
Bee-eaters.
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Meropidae
The bee-eaters are a group of near passerine birds in the family Meropidae. Most species are found in Africa but others occur in southern Europe, Madagascar, Australia and New Guinea. They are characterised by richly coloured plumage, slender bodies and usually elongated central tail feathers. All are colourful and have long downturned bills and pointed wings, which give them a swallow-like appearance when seen from afar.
Rollers.
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Coraciidae
Rollers resemble crows in size and build, but are more closely related to the kingfishers and bee-eaters. They share the colourful appearance of those groups with blues and browns predominating. The two inner front toes are connected, but the outer toe is not.
Woodpeckers.
Order: PiciformesFamily: Picidae
Woodpeckers are small to medium-sized birds with chisel-like beaks, short legs, stiff tails and long tongues used for capturing insects. Some species have feet with two toes pointing forward and two backward, while several species have only three toes. Many woodpeckers have the habit of tapping noisily on tree trunks with their beaks.
Falcons and caracaras.
Order: FalconiformesFamily: Falconidae
Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey. They differ from hawks, eagles and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their talons.
Old World parrots.
Order: PsittaciformesFamily: Psittaculidae
Old World parrots are small to large birds with a characteristic curved beak. Their upper mandibles have slight mobility in the joint with the skull and they have a generally erect stance. All parrots are zygodactyl, having the four toes on each foot placed two at the front and two to the back.
Cuckooshrikes.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Campephagidae
The cuckooshrikes are small to medium-sized passerine birds. They are predominantly greyish with white and black, although some species are brightly coloured.
Old World orioles.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Oriolidae
The Old World orioles are colourful passerine birds. They are not related to the New World orioles.
Drongos.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Dicruridae
The drongos are mostly black or dark grey in colour, sometimes with metallic tints. They have long forked tails, and some Asian species have elaborate tail decorations. They have short legs and sit very upright when perched, like a shrike. They flycatch or take prey from the ground.
Monarch flycatchers.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Monarchidae
The monarch flycatchers are small to medium-sized insectivorous passerines which hunt by flycatching.
Shrikes.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Laniidae
Shrikes are passerine birds known for their habit of catching other birds and small animals and impaling the uneaten portions of their bodies on thorns. A typical shrike's beak is hooked, like a bird of prey.
Crows, jays, and magpies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Corvidae
The family Corvidae includes crows, ravens, jays, choughs, magpies, treepies, nutcrackers and ground jays. Corvids are above average in size among the Passeriformes, and some of the larger species show high levels of intelligence.
Tits, chickadees, and titmice.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Paridae
The Paridae are mainly small stocky woodland species with short stout bills. Some have crests. They are adaptable birds, with a mixed diet including seeds and insects.
Penduline-tits.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Remizidae
The penduline-tits are a group of small passerine birds related to the true tits. They are insectivores.
Larks.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Alaudidae
Larks are small terrestrial birds with often extravagant songs and display flights. Most larks are fairly dull in appearance. Their food is insects and seeds.
Bearded reedling.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Panuridae
This species, the only one in its family, is found in reed beds throughout temperate Europe and Asia.
Cisticolas and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cisticolidae
The Cisticolidae are warblers found mainly in warmer southern regions of the Old World. They are generally very small birds of drab brown or grey appearance found in open country such as grassland or scrub.
Reed warblers and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Acrocephalidae
The members of this family are usually rather large for "warblers". Most are rather plain olivaceous brown above with much yellow to beige below. They are usually found in open woodland, reedbeds, or tall grass. The family occurs mostly in southern to western Eurasia and surroundings, but it also ranges far into the Pacific, with some species in Africa.
Grassbirds and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Locustellidae
Locustellidae are a family of small insectivorous songbirds found mainly in Eurasia, Africa, and the Australian region. They are smallish birds with tails that are usually long and pointed, and tend to be drab brownish or buffy all over.
Swallows.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae
The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings and a short bill with a wide gape. The feet are adapted to perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partially joined at the base.
Bulbuls.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Pycnonotidae
Bulbuls are medium-sized songbirds. Some are colourful with yellow, red or orange vents, cheeks, throats or supercilia, but most are drab, with uniform olive-brown to black plumage. Some species have distinct crests.
Leaf warblers.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Phylloscopidae
Leaf warblers are a family of small insectivorous birds found mostly in Eurasia and ranging into Wallacea and Africa. The species are of various sizes, often green-plumaged above and yellow below, or more subdued with grayish-green to grayish-brown colors.
Bush warblers and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Scotocercidae
The members of this family are found throughout Africa, Asia, and Polynesia. Their taxonomy is in flux, and some authorities place some genera in other families.
Long-tailed tits.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Aegithalidae
Long-tailed tits are a group of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They make woven bag nests in trees. Most eat a mixed diet which includes insects.
Sylviid warblers, parrotbills, and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sylviidae
The family Sylviidae is a group of small insectivorous passerine birds. They mainly occur as breeding species, as the common name implies, in Europe, Asia and, to a lesser extent, Africa. Most are of generally undistinguished appearance, but many have distinctive songs.
White-eyes, yuhinas, and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Zosteropidae
The white-eyes are small and mostly undistinguished, their plumage above being generally some dull colour like greenish-olive, but some species have a white or bright yellow throat, breast or lower parts, and several have buff flanks. As their name suggests, many species have a white ring around each eye.
Laughingthrushes.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Leiothrichidae
The members of this family are diverse in size and coloration, though those of genus "Turdoides" tend to be brown or grayish. The family is found in Africa, India, and southeast Asia.
Kinglets.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Regulidae
The kinglets, also called crests, are a small group of birds often included in the Old World warblers, but frequently given family status because they also resemble the titmice.
Wallcreeper.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Tichodromidae
The wallcreeper is a small bird related to the nuthatch family, which has stunning crimson, grey and black plumage.
Nuthatches.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sittidae
Nuthatches are small woodland birds. They have the unusual ability to climb down trees head first, unlike other birds which can only go upwards. Nuthatches have big heads, short tails and powerful bills and feet.
Treecreepers.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Certhiidae
Treecreepers are small woodland birds, brown above and white below. They have thin pointed down-curved bills, which they use to extricate insects from bark. They have stiff tail feathers, like woodpeckers, which they use to support themselves on vertical trees.
Wrens.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Troglodytidae
The wrens are mainly small and inconspicuous except for their loud songs. These birds have short wings and thin down-turned bills. Several species often hold their tails upright. All are insectivorous.
Dippers.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cinclidae
Dippers are a group of perching birds whose habitat includes aquatic environments in the Americas, Europe and Asia. They are named for their bobbing or dipping movements.
Starlings.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sturnidae
Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds. Their flight is strong and direct and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country. They eat insects and fruit. Plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen.
Thrushes and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Turdidae
The thrushes are a group of passerine birds that occur mainly in the Old World. They are plump, soft plumaged, small to medium-sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs.
Old World flycatchers.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Muscicapidae
Old World flycatchers are a large group of small passerine birds native to the Old World. They are mainly small arboreal insectivores. The appearance of these birds is highly varied, but they mostly have weak songs and harsh calls.
Hypocolius.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Hypocoliidae
The grey hypocolius is a small Middle Eastern bird with the shape and soft plumage of a waxwing. They are mainly a uniform grey colour except the males have a black triangular mask around their eyes.
Sunbirds and spiderhunters.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Nectariniidae
The sunbirds and spiderhunters are very small passerine birds which feed largely on nectar, although they will also take insects, especially when feeding young. Flight is fast and direct on their short wings. Most species can take nectar by hovering like a hummingbird, but usually perch to feed.
Waxbills and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Estrildidae
The estrildid finches are small passerine birds of the Old World tropics and Australasia. They are gregarious and often colonial seed eaters with short thick but pointed bills. They are all similar in structure and habits, but have wide variation in plumage colours and patterns.
Accentors.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Prunellidae
The accentors are in the only bird family, Prunellidae, which is completely endemic to the Palearctic. They are small, fairly drab species superficially similar to sparrows.
Old World sparrows.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae
Old World sparrows are small passerine birds. In general, sparrows tend to be small, plump, brown or grey birds with short tails and short powerful beaks. Sparrows are seed eaters, but they also consume small insects.
Wagtails and pipits.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Motacillidae
Motacillidae is a family of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They include the wagtails, longclaws and pipits. They are slender, ground feeding insectivores of open country.
Finches, euphonias, and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Fringillidae
Finches are seed-eating passerine birds, that are small to moderately large and have a strong beak, usually conical and in some species very large. All have twelve tail feathers and nine primaries. These birds have a bouncing flight with alternating bouts of flapping and gliding on closed wings, and most sing well.
Old World buntings.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Emberizidae
The emberizids are a large family of passerine birds. They are seed-eating birds with distinctively shaped bills. Many emberizid species have distinctive head patterns.


Liolaemus fuscus

Liolaemus fuscus (brown tree iguana) is a species of lizard in the family Iguanidae.
It is found in parts of western Argentina and central Chile in the Chilean matorral ecoregion. The conservation status of this iguana is classified as Data Deficient (DD).


Terapon jarbua

Terapon jarbua, the jarbua terapon, crescent grunter, crescent banded grunter, crescent perch, spiky trumpeter, thornfish or tiger perch, is a species of ray-finned fish, a grunter of the family Terapontidae. It occurs in the Indo-Pacific. it is an important commercial species within its range and is may be found in the aquarium trade.
Description.
"Terapon jarbua" is a medium-sized grunter with an oblong body which is moderately laterally compressed. The oblique mouth is oblique with the jaws being of equal length and the maxilla reached the level of the front edge of the eye in juveniles and the centre of the eye in adults. It has conical, slightly recurved teeth which are set in bands with those in the outer rows being much enlarged, there are teeth on the roof of the mouth in juveniles but in many adults these are absent. There are 11 or 12 spines in the dorsal fin and 9 to 11 rays, the spiny portion is strongly arched, with the fourth to sixth spines being the longest and has a deep notch. The anal fin has 3 spines and 7 to 10 soft rays while the caudal fin is emarginate. They have 75-100 pored scales in their lateral line. They have a silvery white body which has 3 or 4 curved stripes from the nape to the rear of the body with the lowest stripe continues through the centre of the caudal fin. There is a black blotch on the spiny part of the dorsal fin between the third and sixth spines and the tail is striped with a black tip to each lobe. This species sexual maturity after attaining a total length of , they are most commonly recorded at total lengths of around and the longest recorded fish was .
Distribution.
"Terapon jarbua" has a wide Indo-Pacific distribution which extends from the Red Sea and the coasts of eastern Africa as far south as South Africa through the Indian Ocean, including the Persian Gulf and into the Pacific Ocean as far east as Samoa, its range extends northwards to Japan and south to the Arafura Sea and Lord Howe Island. It was first recorded in the Mediterranean Sea off Israel in 2010 and most likely entered that sea as a Lessepsian migrant through the Suez Canal.
Habitat and biology.
"Terapon jarbua" is a euryhaline grunter which can tolerate a wide range of salinities from pure freshwater to up to 70% and so can live in a variety of habitats from purely marine areas through costal waters, into estuaries, coastal lagoons and freshwater. It is mainly a marine species but it may move quite far up rivers where the water is fresh. Juveniles of "T. jarbua" can be numerous in intertidal area where there are sandy and are frequently recorded in tidal pools. This is a predatory species which feeds on smaller fishes but which also acts as a cleaner fish eating ectoparasites from larger fishes and is known to eat their scales which are high in calories. The distinctive colour and small scales of "T, jarbua" may be an adaptation to avoid attack by its conspecifics. They will also feed on insects and other invertebrates. The juveniles have been reported as being territorial and to have excavated craters in sand, possibly helping them to keep their position as the tide ebbs and flows. The young fish between standard lengths between are gregarious but become territorial between . They can produce sounds using extrinsic muscles on the swimbladder have been shown to be used for communication and that these sounds to change both as the fish mature and with changes to the fish's environment, Although these fish have been reported as juveniles and adults in freshwater, reproduction takes place in the marine evnvironment.
Fisheries.
"Terapon jarbua" is fished for using all types of inshore fishing gear, including gillnets, traps, handlines and bottom trawls. These fish are sold fresh or in a dried and salted form. This species is infrequently available in the aquarium trade.
Taxonomy.
"Terapon jarbua" was first formally described as "Sciaena jarbua" with the type locality given as Jeddah by the Danish naturalist Johan Christian Fabricius (1745-1808), his description being published in "Descriptiones animalium" by Peter Forsskål who is often cited as the author of the name. The genus "Terapon" was created by Georges Cuvier in 1816 and in 1876 Pieter Bleeker then designated "Holocentrus servus" which had been described by Marcus Elieser Bloch in 1790 as the type species of the genus, this was considered to be a junior synonym of "Terapon jarbua". Some authorities consider that the taxon currently named "Terapon jarbua" which has a wide geographic range is actually likely to be more than one species. One possible split would be between the western Indian Ocean species as originally described by Fabricius and the species Bloch described from Japan which would be "Terapon servus".


Changning slender gecko

The Changning slender gecko ("Hemiphyllodactylus changningensis") is a species of gecko. It is endemic to Yunnan, China.


Black-capped antwren

The black-capped antwren ("Herpsilochmus atricapillus") is a species of bird in the family Thamnophilidae.
It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests and subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.
The black-capped antwren was described by the Austrian ornithologist August von Pelzeln in 1868 and given its current binomial name "Herpsilochmus atricapillus".


Apennine shrew

The Apennine shrew ("Sorex samniticus") is a species of shrew in the family Soricidae. The mammal is endemic to Italy.


Laminacauda peruensis

Laminacauda peruensis is a species of sheet weaver found in Peru. It was described by Millidge in 1985.


Clavagella elegans


Maiestas krameri

Maiestas krameri is a species of bug from the Cicadellidae family that is endemic to India. It was formerly placed within "Recilia", but a 2009 revision moved it to "Maiestas".


Ceromitia schajovskoii

Ceromitia schajovskoii is a moth of the Adelidae family or "fairy longhorn moths". It was described by Pastrana in 1961. It is found in Argentina.


Atelognathus nitoi

Atelognathus nitoi is a species of frog in the family Batrachylidae found in Chile and Argentina. Its natural habitats are subantarctic forests, subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, subantarctic grassland, freshwater marshes, and intermittent freshwater marshes.


Mexican golden trout

The Mexican golden trout ("Oncorhynchus chrysogaster") is a species of fish in the family Salmonidae. The species is endemic to high-elevation headwaters of the Fuerte River, Sinaloa River, and Culiacán River drainages in the Sierra Madre Occidental in Mexico.
Taxonomy.
In 1936, Paul Needham, a fisheries biologist with the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries began a series of explorations (1936, 1937 and 1938) into the Rio Santo Domingo drainage in Baja California seeking to bring back live specimens of the Baja rainbow trout as hatchery stock and further study. Although live specimens reached U.S. hatcheries, none ever survived to spawn. In 1952, 1955 and 1956 Needham again explored the Sierra Madre Occidental tributaries of the Gulf of California. Needham's explorations led to the publication of "Rainbow Trout of Mexico and California" (1959) with coauthor Richard Gard. It contains the first full color drawing of the Mexican golden trout. In 1964, Needham and Gard's proposed binomial name "Salmo chrysogaster" was accepted as the scientific name for a new species of trout, the Mexican golden trout. The specific name "chrysogaster" is derived from the Greek for "golden belly".
In 1989, morphological and genetic studies indicated trout of the Pacific basin were genetically closer to Pacific salmon ("Oncorhynchus" species) than to the "Salmos"–brown trout ("S. trutta") or Atlantic salmon ("S. salar") of the Atlantic basin. Thus, in 1989, taxonomic authorities moved the rainbow, cutthroat and other Pacific basin trout, including the Mexican golden trout into the genus "Oncorhynchus".
Description.
The Mexican golden trout is sexually dimorphic, males can easily be identified from females due to their much longer jaws or kype. Mexican golden trout are brightly colored with blue parr marks on both males and females along the side of the body. Purple scaling is visible along the lateral line. Both sexes also have bright golden-yellow belly coloration. The top of the fish and the tailfin are covered in small black spots with much larger spotting on the dorsal fin. The pectoral fins, pelvic fin and anal fin are light orange in color with white tips. Due to their harsh and small stream habitat the Mexican golden trout remains small even when fully grown. Adults rarely reach over a foot long with the maximum size probably being 10 inches (25 cm). Overall body shape and fin placement nearly identical to Rainbow trout. Juvenile banding ("Parr marks") usually remains distinct throughout the fish's life.
Distribution.
Mexican golden trout have an extremely limited range, being found only in the pristine high-elevation headwaters of the Fuerte River, Sinaloa River, and Culiacán River drainages in the Sierra Madre Occidental. This fish is highly restricted, and only known from 15 localities, one in the Sinaloa, four in the Culiacan, and ten in the Fuerte.
Habitat.
Mexican golden trout are limited to small streams created by small cienegas (spring-fed marshes) above . The surrounding landscape is dominated by deep canyons, scrub forest, evergreens and hardwoods.
Status and threats.
Due to their small range and highly sensitive, isolated habitat, Mexican golden trout are considered vulnerable. The biggest threats are human development and the possibility of competition/interbreeding with introduced rainbow trout.<ref>This trout is also an example of the negative effects of habitat abuse and destruction. The primary use for the Mexican Golden trout is as food by the local indigenous people. Some of the local people use dynamite to stun the fish and collect them as they float to the top of the water. This is especially harming to the golden trout populations because of the mass harvest. Sanitation practices in the region where the golden trout is found is minimal, so much of its home water is polluted with residential sewage and trash. What happens now in Mexican Golden trout water is similar to what happened to so many North American trout waters in the 19th and early 20th centuries as far as decline in populations is concerned.
Economic benefits.
The scenic area and rugged mountainous landscape have started a budding tourism industry for this area. Being able to conserve and promote the sustainable harvesting of these native trout can help the people of the area as well as the Golden Trout. Setting up regulations on the harvesting of the fish and restrictions on polluting the head waters these fish inhabit would greatly improve the region. In Arizona and New Mexico there was 512 million dollars that was spent on trips and equipment for fishing. This revenue could be a major contributor to helping the area grow and being able to conserve the local environment from destruction.


Inape xerophanes

Inape xerophanes is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae and is endemic to Peru.


Montivipera kuhrangica

Montivipera kuhrangica, commonly known as the Kuhrang mountain viper, is a species of venomous viper endemic to Iran.
Geographic range.
The snake is found in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province, Iran in the Zagros Mountains.


Abronia ramirezi

Abronia ramirezi is species of arboreal alligator lizard in the family Anguidae. The species, which was described in 1994 by Campbell, is endemic to Mexico.
Etymology.
The specific name, "ramirezi", is in honor of Mexican herpetologist Antonio Ramirez Velazquez.
Geographic range.
"A. ramirezi" is found in the Mexican state of Chiapas.
Habitat.
The preferred habitat of "A. ramirezi" is forest at an altitude of .
Reproduction.
"A. ramirezi" is oviparous.


White-rumped munia

The white-rumped munia or white-rumped mannikin ("Lonchura striata"), sometimes called striated finch in aviculture, is a small passerine bird from the family of waxbill "finches" (Estrildidae). These are not close relatives of the true finches (Fringillidae) or true sparrows (Passeridae).
It is native to tropical continental Asia and some adjacent islands, and has been naturalized in some parts of Japan. Its domesticated descendant, the society finch or Bengalese finch, is found worldwide as a pet and a biological model organism.
Taxonomy.
In 1760 the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson included a description of the white-rumped munia in his "Ornithologie" based on a specimen that he believed had been collected from the Isle de Bourbon (Réunion). The specimen is now assumed to have come from Sri Lanka. He used the French name "Le gros-bec de l'Isle de Bourbon" and the Latin "Coccothraustes Borbonica". Although Brisson coined Latin names, these do not conform to the binomial system and are not recognised by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. When in 1766 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his "Systema Naturae" for the twelfth edition, he added 240 species that had been previously described by Brisson. One of these was the white-rumped munia. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name "Loxia striata" and cited Brisson's work. The specific name "striata" is Latin for "striated ". This species is now placed in the genus "Lonchura" that was introduced by the English naturalist William Henry Sykes in 1832.
There are six subspecies:
A domesticated hybrid called the society finch, sometimes called "Lonchura domestica" is said by some sources to have "L. s. striata" in its ancestry, although other theories suggest contributions from the white-throated munia. The hybrid with numerous variants in plumage are thought to have been established by aviculturists in Japan.
Description.
The white-rumped munia is approximately 10 to 11 cm in length, with a stubby grey bill and a long black pointed tail. The adults are brown above and on the breast, and lighter below; the rump is white. There is some variation between the subspecies, but the sexes are almost impossible to distinguish in all subspecies; males have a more bulky head and bill.
Habitat and distribution.
The white-rumped munia is a common resident breeder ranging from the Indian subcontinent to southern China east to Taiwan, and through Southeast Asia south to Sumatra; it frequents open woodland, grassland and scrub, and is well able to adapt to agricultural land use. It is a gregarious bird which feeds mainly on seeds, moving through the undergrowth in groups and sometimes accompanying other birds such as puff-throated babblers ("Pellorneum ruficeps"). The nest is a large domed grass structure in a tree, bush or grass into which three to eight white eggs are laid. They are also known to use abandoned nests of "Baya weaver". They are often found near water and have been observed feeding on algae. It has been suggested that they obtain protein from their diet of algae often in the species "Spirogyra", which grows in paddy fields.
It is a common and widespread bird across its large range, and is thus not considered a threatened species by the IUCN. In fact, it may locally become a nuisance pest of millets and similar grains. Even the Nicobar Islands subspecies with its limited range seems to be able to cope well with human settlement. As it is a drab-coloured and rather reclusive bird inhabiting dense undergrowth, the white-rumped munia is not necessarily conspicuous even where it occurs in considerable numbers.
Origin.
Origin and phylogeny has been obtained. Estrildinae may have originated in India and dispersed thereafter (towards Africa and Pacific Ocean habitats).


Baoris pagana

Baoris pagana is a species of skipper butterfly found in Asia.


Craugastor persimilis

Craugastor persimilis is a species of frog in the family Craugastoridae. It is found in the lowlands and premontane Atlantic slopes of central to southeastern Costa Rica.
Its natural habitats are lowland and premontane moist rainforest. It lives in leaf-litter and can persist in moderately disturbed areas, including plantations. It is an adaptable species that is not considered threatened, despite severe habitat fragmentation within its range.
"Craugastor persimilis" are small frogs: males grow to a snout–vent length of and females to .


Red-crested cardinal

The red-crested cardinal ("Paroaria coronata") is a songbird, the species belonging to the family of tanagers (Thraupidae).Notwithstanding its similar name, this bird is not closely related to the true cardinal family (Cardinalidae). It is sometimes known as the Brazilian cardinal.
Etymology.
The genus name "Paroaria" comes from a Brazil's indigenous Tupí people and can be translated as “small red, yellow, and gray bird“, while the Latin species name "coronata" means "crowned".
Distribution.
This species can be found mainly in northern Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil's Rio Grande do Sul and southern part of the Pantanal.
It has also been introduced to Hawaii, Puerto Rico and Chile. In Brazil, it has been introduced to various places outside its historical range, as in the Tietê Ecological Park in São Paulo.
Habitat.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry shrubland and heavily degraded former forest, at an elevation up to above sea level. It often occurs close to rivers, marshes and lakes.
Description.
"Paroaria coronata" is a medium-sized species showing a red head, with a red bib and a short red crest that the bird raises when excited. Belly, breast and undertail are white, with a gray back, wings, and tail. Wing coverts are gray, but the primaries, secondaries, and rectrices show a darker gray. Juveniles are similar to the adults, but they show a dull brownish orange head and bib.
This species is very similar to a close relative, the red-cowled cardinal ("P. dominicana"). It is also similar to the yellow-billed cardinal ("P. capitata"), but the latter bird has a black throat, darker upper parts and a bright yellow bill.
Biology.
This species mainly feed on seeds (of "Chloris virgata", "Eleusine tristachya", "Setaria parviflora" and "Spergula villosa"), fruits (of "Celtis tala", "Grabowskia duplicata", "Holmbergia tweedii", "Morus alba", and "Sapium haematospermum"), insects and small arthropods, generally searched for on the ground in pairs or small groups. Average lifespan is about 3.8 years.


Anostomus longus

Anostomus longus is small species of fish in the family Anostomidae. It is found in the upper Amazon of Peru.


Dibamus ingeri

Dibamus ingeri is a species of legless lizard in the family Dibamidae. The species is endemic to Borneo.
Etymology.
The specific name, "ingeri", is in honor of American herpetologist Robert F. Inger.


White-throated bulbul

The white-throated bulbul ("Alophoixus flaveolus") is a species of songbird in the bulbul family, Pycnonotidae. It is found in south-eastern Asia from the eastern Himalayas to Myanmar and western Thailand. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.
Taxonomy and systematics.
The white-throated bulbul was originally described in the genus "Trichophorus" (a synonym for "Criniger") until moved to the genus "Alophoixus" in 2009. Alternate names for the white-throated bulbul include the ashy-fronted bearded bulbul, ashy-fronted bulbul, white-throated bearded bulbul, and yellow-bellied bulbul. The alternate names 'ashy-fronted bulbul' and 'yellow-bellied bulbul' should not be confused with species of the same name ("Pycnonotus cinereifrons" and "Alophoixus phaeocephalus" respectively). The common name 'white-throated bulbul' is also used as an alternate name for each of the white-throated greenbul, eastern bearded greenbul, puff-throated bulbul and yellow-bellied bulbul. The alternate name 'white-throated bearded bulbul' is also used as an alternate name for the eastern bearded greenbul.
Subspecies.
Two subspecies are recognized:


Blackcap basslet

The blackcap basslet ("Gramma melacara"), or blackcap gramma, is a species of fish inhabiting reefs in the tropical western Atlantic Ocean. It prefers vertical surfaces with crevices in which it can hide. It can be found at depths of from (usually between ). This species can also be found in the aquarium trade.
Appearance.
A small fish, reaching a length of TL, it is purple with a diagonal black cap on its head. The body colour varies from magenta to purple, and there is a jet-black diagonal cap running from the lip to the foredorsal fin. The largest scientifically measured blackcap gramma was 10.0 cm / 3.9 inches.
In the aquarium.
A hardy fish, it is typically peaceful, and can be kept in a reef aquarium. Care should be taken, however, to only add one fish to an aquarium, as they are territorial, and do not accept other members of the same, or similar looking, species in the same aquarium. Small shrimp also may get eaten by this fish. Because it likes to hide, it should only be kept in an aquarium with large amounts of live rock. When these fish are frightened, they hide among rocks.
An aquarium that is 30 gallons or larger is ideal. If it is desired to keep more than one in an aquarium, a tank that is at least 6 feet in length should be used, and they should be added at the same time.
It is not advisable to house the blackcap gramma in an aquarium smaller than 30 gallons (115 litres). A lot of rocks, crevices and caves in the set up is ideal. Since it is commonly found in deep waters, it is best to avoid sharp aquarium lights. The blackcap gramma is considered reef compatible, and is commonly kept in reef aquariums. It should kept in mind, however, that it might devour small invertebrates, such as copepods, amphipods, and isopods. The blackcap gramma can start acting territorially towards other fishes, including members of its own species, once it has settled in an aquarium.
The recommended water temperature for blackcap gramma is 72–78 °F / 22–25.5 °C. Keep the specific gravity at 1.020-1.025 and the pH-value between 8.1 and 8.4.
The blackcap gramma is a carnivore species that needs to be kept on a meaty diet in the aquarium. It will normally accept dead food, and it can be fed mysid shrimp, fish flesh, crustacean flesh, and mixed frozen preparations suitable for marine carnivores.


Argyrotaenia iopsamma

Argyrotaenia iopsamma is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in São Paulo, Brazil.


Glyptotermes ceylonicus

Glyptotermes ceylonicus, is a species of damp wood termite of the genus "Glyptotermes". It is endemic to high elevations Sri Lanka. It is a pest of dead and decaying wood of "Hevea", "Theobroma", "Ficus", and "Acacia species.


Tohoraata

Tohoraata is a genus of eomysticetid baleen whale from the Late Oligocene (Chattian) of New Zealand. There are two recognized species, "T. raekohao" and "T. waitakiensis".
Classification.
"Tohoraata" is a member of the family Eomysticetidae, a family of primitive baleen-bearing mysticetes (chaeomysticetes). The type species, "T. raekohao", is based on OU 22178, a partial skull associated with a thoracic vertebra and five ribs, collected from the Maerewhenua Member of the Otekaike Limestone. On the other hand, "T. waitakiensis", is known from OMC GL 402, a partial skull and five neck vertebrae collected in the Kokoamu Greensand. It was originally described as a species of "Mauicetus", but was eventually recognized as more primitive than the type species of "Mauicetus", being closely related to "Eomysticetus" and "Yamatocetus".
Description.
"Tohoraata" is distinct from all eomysticetid taxa, including "Tokarahia", in having a posterolaterally directed exoccipital. The two species of "Tohoraata" differ from each other in the structure of the tympanic bulla, and differ from "Eomysticetus" and "Yamatocetus" in possessing numerous foramina in the frontal.


Satyr tragopan

The satyr tragopan ("Tragopan satyra") also known as the crimson horned pheasant, is a pheasant found in the Himalayan reaches of India, Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan. They reside in moist oak and rhododendron forests with dense undergrowth and bamboo clumps. They range from 2400 to 4200 meters in summer and 1800 meters in winter. The male is about 70 cm long.
When it is mating season, male satyr tragopans grow blue horns and a gular wattle. When ready to display, they will inflate their horns and hide behind a rock, waiting for females to pass by. When one does, they will perform an elaborate and attractive display in front of the females. At the end of the display, the male will stretch to his full height and show off all of his ornaments.
Females are brown. Males are usually red with blue, black, and white spots and freckles.
Although the least threatened of the tragopans, satyr tragopans still face many threats. The species is thought to have a moderately small population that is subject to hunting and habitat loss throughout most of its range.


Achondrostoma occidentale

Achondrostoma occidentale is a species of freshwater fish in the family Cyprinidae. This fish is from Portugal.


Pristimantis buccinator

Pristimantis buccinator is a species of frog in the family Craugastoridae.
It is found in Peru, and possibly Brazil and Bolivia.
Its natural habitat is tropical moist lowland forests.