Rozella

Rozella is a fungal genus of obligate endoparasites of a variety of hosts, including Oomycota, Chytridiomycota, and Blastocladiomycota. "Rozella" was circumscribed by French mycologist Marie Maxime Cornu in 1872. Considered one of the earliest diverging lineages of fungi, the widespread genus contains 27 species, with the most well studied being "Rozella allomycis". "Rozella" is a member of a large clade of fungi referred to as the Cryptomycota/Rozellomycota. While some can be maintained in dual culture with the host, most have not been cultured, but they have been detected, using molecular techniques, in soil samples, and in freshwater and marine ecosystems. Zoospores have been observed, along with cysts, and the cells of some species are attached to diatoms.
Morphology.
"Rozella" species grow inside their hosts. At first, the thallus is unwalled and indistinguishable from the host. As growth continues, the thallus will either form a zoosporangium using the wall of the host or a thick-walled resting spore that can be smooth or spiny. From its conception, there have been two divergent morphologies within the genus. Monosporangiate species form a single zoosporangium within the host. Polysporangiate species form multiple zoosporangia that are separated with septa.
Ecology.
Most described species are parasites of Oomycota, Chytridiomycota, and Blastocladiomycota. "Rozella itersoniliae" is a parasite of the basidiomycete "Itersonilia perplexans", though some authors doubt its placement in the genus. "Rozella coleochatis" parasitizes a species of the green alga "Coleochaete".
Taxonomy.
French mycologist Marie Maxime Cornu in 1872 circumscribed the genus to accommodate four species: "R. septigena", "R. monoblepharidis-polymorphae", "R. rhipidii-spinosi", and "R. apodyae-brachynematis". Later authors shortened these to "R. septigena", "R. monoblepharidis", "R. rhipidii", and "R. apodyae". Based on the monosporangiate/polysporangiate differences in development and morphology, Fischer circumscribed "Pleolpidium" using "R. monoblepharidis" as the type and leaving "R. septigena" as the type species in "Rozella." Clemonts and Shear also designated "R. setigena" as the type of "Rozella" in 1931. Later, "R. allomycis" and "R. achlyae" were described, and later authors treated "Pleolpidium" as a synonym of "Rozella". Batko later circumscribed "Skirgiella" to accommodate the polysporangiate species and retained the monosporangiate species in "Rozella". However, because this removed the type from the genus, it was nomenclaturally invalid. Additionally, molecular phylogenies consistently group monosporangiate and polysporangiate species together, thus validating the monophyly of the genus.
Traditionally, "Rozella" has been classified as a member of Chytridiomycota, either as a member of Chytridiales or Spizellomycetales. However, molecular phylogenies place it well outside of Chytridiomycota with a plethora of environmental sequences. There is considerable debate over the name of this larger clade: Cryptomycota, Rozellida, Rozellamycota.
Notable Species.
"Rozella allomycis".
"Rozella allomycis" is one of the most extensively studied species; it was first described by Foust in 1937. Foust did not provide a Latin description, which invalidated the name; Doweld, in 2014, validated the name and corrected the specific epithet to "allomycetis".
"Rozella allomycis" can parasitize multiple "Allomyces" species, including "A. macrogynus" and "A. arbuscula". For "A. macrogynus", it is able to parasitize both the sporophyte and the gametophyte. "R. allomycis" zoospores are chemotaxically attached to "Allomyces". Once in contact, the zoospore encysts and germinates. The host cell wall is penetrated with an infection tube, and the contents of the zoospore are injected into the host. The infection tube causes an invagination of the host cell membrane, which then envelopes the "R. allomycis" protoplast. Host mitochondria are recruited to the host-parasite interface. Sometimes, host mitochondria are found within the "R. allomycis" protoplast within three-membrane vacuoles, which is evidence the "R. allomycis" protoplast is phagocytizing the host cytoplasm as it grows. As it grows, the "R. allomycis" protoplast completely fills a portion of the host, which is separated by a host septum. The protoplast develops into a zoosporangium and releases zoospores. As the infection progresses, "R. allomycis" protoplasts will instead form resting spores with thick, spiny walls.
"Rozella polyphagi".
"Rozella polyphagi" was first described in 1938 by F. K. Sparrow as a parasite of "Polyphagus laevis", though it also parasitizes "Polyphagus euglenae". "Rozella polyphagi" infects both the prosporangium and the sporangium of the host and exists as an unwalled protoplast within the host. Host mitochondria could be observed within "R. polyphagi" protoplast vacuoles; cytoplasmic extensions of "R. polyphagi" around host cytoplasm also occur. This suggests that "Rozella polyphagi" phagocytizes host cytoplasm.
"Rozella rhizoclosmatii".
A species of "Rozella" on "Rhizoclosmatium" was first reported in a molecular phylogeny simply as "Rozella" ex "Rhizoclosmatium" and was later named "Rozella rhizoclosmatii". The species causes hypertrophy of infected "Rhizoclosmatium" and completely fills the host. In contrast to other "Rozella" species, infection does not take place when the host is growing. "Rozella rhizoclosmatii" zoospores are attracted to and infect the zoospores of "Rhizoclosmatium".


Citrus leprosis virus C


Staphylococcus hominis

Staphylococcus hominis is a coagulase-negative member of the bacterial genus "Staphylococcus", consisting of Gram-positive, spherical cells in clusters. It occurs very commonly as a harmless commensal on human and animal skin and is known for producing thioalcohol compounds that contribute to body odour.
 Like many other coagulase-negative staphylococci, "S. hominis" may occasionally cause infection in patients whose immune systems are compromised, for example by chemotherapy or predisposing illness.
Description.
Colonies of "S. hominis" are small, usually 1–2 mm in diameter after 24 hours' incubation at 35 °C, and white or tan in colour. Occasionally, strains are resistant to novobiocin and may be confused with other resistant species (e.g. "S. saprophyticus").
It is one of only two species of "Staphylococcus" to display sensitivity to desferrioxamine, the other being "S. epidermidis". Unlike "S. epidermidis", "S. hominis" produces acid from trehalose, so the two tests together serve to identify the species.
Biology.
Numerous coagulase-negative staphylococci appear commonly on the skin of human. Of these species, "S. epidermidis" and "S. hominis" are the most abundant. While "S. epidermidis" tends to colonize the upper part of the body, "S. hominis" tends to colonize in areas with numerous apocrine glands, such as axillae and the pubic region. In a certain study, "S. hominis" was calculated to account for 22% of the total staphylococcal species recovered from individuals, second to "S. epidermidis" at 46%. "S. hominis" is the predominant species on the head, axillae, arms, and legs.
"S. hominis", as well as most other staphylococcal species common on the human skin, is able to produce acid aerobically from glucose, fructose, sucrose, trehalose, and glycerol. Some strains were also able to produce acid from turanose, lactose, galactose, melezitose, mannitol, and mannose. Most strains colonize on the skin for relatively short periods of time compared to other "Staphylococcus" species. They, on average, stay on the skin for only several weeks or months.
The cell wall contains low amounts of teichoic acid and glutamic acid. The cell wall teichoic acid contains glycerol and glucosamine.
"S. hominis" cells are Gram-positive cocci, usually 1.2 to 1.4 μm in diameter. They appear normally in tetrads and sometimes in pairs.
Resistance.
Based on a total of 240 strains, all were resistant to lysozyme, some were slightly resistant to lysostaphin, 77% were susceptible to penicillin G, 97% to streptomycin, 93% to erythromycin, 64% to tetracycline, and 99% to novobiocin.
Multi drug resistant strains of s. hominis have been isolated from blood and wound cultures in humans.
Culturing.
When grown in agar cultures, colonies are usually circular, 4.0 to 4.5 mm in diameter. Agar colonies usually have wide edges and an elevated center. They are commonly smooth with dull surfaces, and are yellow-orange pigmented in the center of the opaque colonies. They grow both in aerobic and anaerobic conditions, but tend to grow significantly less in the latter. Optimal NaCl concentrations of the agar culture for the growth of "S. hominis" seem to be around 7.5%, and a salt concentration of 15% yielded poor growth to no growth at all. The optimal growth temperature range was around 28 to 40 °C, but good growth is still observed at 45 °C, while no growth is observed at 15 °C.
"S. hominis" can be differentiated from staphylococci by its colony morphology and pigmentation patterns, predominant tetrad cell arrangement, poor growth in thioglycolate, low tolerance of NaCl, and carbohydrate reaction pattern. Each species is also significantly different in cell wall composition, lactic acid configuration, temperature extremes of growth, coagulase activity, hemolysis acetylmethylcarbinol production, nitrate reduction, and phosphatase, DNase, and bacteriolytic activities. Similarities in these properties between "S. hominis" and several other species suggest a close relationship between "S. hominis" and "S. epidermidis, S. haemolyticus", and "S. warneri".
Antibiotic-resistant subspecies.
"S. hominis" is normally found on human skin and is usually harmless, but can sometimes cause infections in people with abnormally weak immune systems. Most, if not all, strains are susceptible to penicillin, erythromycin, and novobiocin, but a divergent strain, "S. hominis" subsp. "novobiosepticus" (SHN), was isolated between 1989 and 1996. This strain was named so because of its unique resistance to novobiocin and its failure to produce acid aerobically from trehalose and glucosamine. In addition, the 26 isolated strains of this new subspecies are resistant to nalidixic acid, penicillin G, oxacillin, kanamycin, and streptomycin. They were also somewhat resistant to methicillin and gentamicin, and most strains were resistant to erythromycin, clindamycin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, and ciprofloxacin, as well. In addition, "S. hominis hominis" is commonly found isolated from human skin, but as of 1998, no SHN isolate from human skin had been reported.
The SHN is so similar to the original "S. hominis", now called "S. hominis" subsp. "hominis", that in 2010, a "MicroScan" system that clinical microbiology laboratories used, identified 7 of 31 "S. hominis novobiosepticus" cultures as "S. hominis hominis". The relationship between the two was unknown, but antibiotic-resistant isolates of "S. hominis" belonged only to SHN.
SHN strains seems to have thickened cell walls, which can be the result of a genetic background that also allows for vancomycin resistance. The thickened cell walls exist in subspecies with and without vancomycin resistance which suggests this subspecies did not originate from the acquiring of resistance genes.
Origin.
The combined resistance to novobiocin and oxacillin is hypothesized to have originated from a simultaneous introduction of genes controlling the resistance to the two. These genes were believed to have been acquired originally through heterologous DNA from a methicillin-resistant strain of one of the novobiocin-resistant species belonging to the "S. sciuri" or the "S. saprophyticus" groups. The larger genome size of the SHN compared to that of "S. hominis hominis" may be the result of the acquiring of heterologous DNA. This new, divergent strain was first described in 1998, and was first implicated in causing bacteremia in 2002.
Another hypothesis is the insertion of the "mec A" gene and its flanking sequence into the chromosome of SHN might have affected the expression of a closely linked gene, which converted the host to become novobiocin-resistant.
Recent cases.
In 2002 and 2003, 32 isolates of SHN were found in 21 patients. Twenty-three of these were from blood cultures, six from catheters, one from cerebrospinal fluid, one from a wound, and one from external ear fluid. Eighteen of the 21 patients from whom these isolates were recovered were neonates, one was a 13-year-old boy, and two were adults.
Thirteen of these cases were confirmed as sepsis in neonates resulting from SHN infection. These were the first clinical reports of SHN causing bacterimia in hospitalized patients. SHN infections were high in morbidity, but had a low rate of mortality. More undocumented instances of SHN infections may not have been reported because not all coagulase-negative staphlococcal infections (CONs) are identified to the species level.
Molecular epidemiology was successful in tracing 13 cases of sepsis in neonates to a single clone of SHN during a two-year study period in neonatal ICUs. Formal investigation regarding the mode of transmission this microbe uses were not conducted, but infants are believed to serve as reservoirs for the microorganism, and transmission takes place with contact between health workers and the infants. In addition, staphylococcal isolates from the nasopharynges and hands of health care workers were shown to be genetically similar to those that colonize or cause disease in neonates. This supports the idea that health workers serve as a form of nosocomical transmission of CONs.
If SHN indeed takes residence on human skin, it probably exists in small numbers and would require enrichment for detection.
SHN has also been responsible for nosocomial outbreaks elsewhere. SHN strains have been causing bloodstream infections, but have still been classified as vancomycin-susceptible.
In May 2015, two babies from Simojovel rural communities of Chiapas, Mexico, were killed and about 30 required medical attention after receiving vaccines for Hepatitis B, the Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS) launched an investigation to identify the cause of such events, the preliminary results showed that the cause was external contamination with Staphylococcus hominis.


Hyphopichia

Hyphopichia is a genus of fungi within the Saccharomycetales order. The relationship of this taxon to other taxa within the order is unknown ("incertae sedis"), and it has not yet been placed with certainty into any family.


Thermus thermophilus

Thermus thermophilus is a Gram-negative bacterium used in a range of biotechnological applications, including as a model organism for genetic manipulation, structural genomics, and systems biology. The bacterium is extremely thermophilic, with an optimal growth temperature of about . "Thermus thermophilus" was originally isolated from a thermal vent within a hot spring in Izu, Japan by Tairo Oshima and Kazutomo Imahori. The organism has also been found to be important in the degradation of organic materials in the thermogenic phase of composting.
"T. thermophilus" is classified into several strains, of which HB8 and HB27 are the most commonly used in laboratory environments. Genome analyses of these strains were independently completed in 2004.
Cell Structure.
Thermus thermophilus is a Gram-negative bacteria with an outer membrane that is composed of phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides. This bacteria also has a thin peptidoglycan (also known as murein) layer, in this layer there are 29 muropeptides which account for more than 85% of the total murein layer. The presence of Ala, GLu, Gly, Orn, N-acetyl glucosamine and N-acetylmuramic were found in the murein layer of this bacteria. Another unique feature of this murein layer is that the N-terminal Gly is substituted with phenylacetic acid. This is the first instance of phenylacetic acid found in the murein of bacterial cells. The composition and peptide cross-bridges found in this murein layer are typical of Gram-positive bacterium, but the amount, the degree of the cross-linkage and length of the glycan chain gives this bacterium its Gram-negative properties.
Survival Mechanisms.
Thermus thermophilus was originally found within a thermal vent in Japan. These bacteria can be found in a variety of geothermal environments. These Thermophiles require a more stringent DNA repair system, as DNA becomes unstable at high temperatures. The GC content of this bacteria is about 69%, this contributes to the thermostability of this bacterium’s genome.
Strains.
The two most widely used strains in laboratory settings are HB27 and HB8. The strain HB27 is capable of living in an aerobic or anaerobic environment. It has a genome that consists of a main chromosome (1.89Mb long), as well as a megaplasmid, known as pTT27 (0.23Mb long). The chromosome of HB27 contains 1,968 protein coding genes, with 20% of these genes having no known function. While the megaplasmid contains 230 protein coding genes, about 39% of these genes have no known function.
The strain HB8 is also an aerobic organism and is a model organism for systems biology. It has a genome consisting of a plasmid, known as pTT8 (9.3kb long), that is coupled with a chromosome (1.85Mb), as well as a megaplasmid, also known as pTT27 (0.26Mb). This strain was found to be a polyploid organism, with a chromosome and megaplasmid copy number of about four to five.
Applications.
This organism has been advantageous for industrial biotechnological fields as it is an excellent source of enzymes, more specifically thermozymes. One of these enzymes being the rTth DNA polymerase.
rTth DNA polymerase is a recombinant thermostable DNA polymerase derived from "Thermus thermophilus", with optimal activity at 70-80 °C, used in some PCR applications. The enzyme possesses efficient reverse transcriptase activity in the presence of manganese. This enzyme is beneficial for amplification of GC-rich targets and for crude samples. It can be used in applications of PCR, RT-PCR and also primer extension. This polymerase has been shown to be resistant to DNA polymerase inhibitors present in clinical samples, it also has the capacity to detect RNA in the presence of inhibitors. Under the presence of inhibitors, it was shown to detect this RNA at a comparable level with its capacity to detect DNA.


Anaerobiospirillum

Anaerobiospirillum (or Anaerobiospirillum thomasii) is a Gram-negative anaerobic bacteria recognized as human flora in human gastrointestinal tract, mainly in the human feces.


Ourasphaira giraldae

Ourasphaira giraldae is an extinct process-bearing multicellular eukaryotic microorganism. Corentin Loron argues that it was an early fungus. It existed approximately a billion years ago during the time of the transition from the Mesoproterozoic to Neoproterozoic periods, and was unearthed in the Amundsen Basin in the Canadian Arctic. This fungus may have existed on land well before plants.


Yule Lads


Alicyclobacillus dauci

Alicyclobacillus dauci is a species of Gram positive, strictly aerobic, bacterium. The bacteria are acidophilic and produced endospores. It was first isolated from spoiled mixed vegetable and fruit juice. The species was first described in 2015, and the name is derived from the Latin "dauci" (of the carrot).
The optimum growth temperature for "A. dauci" is 40 °C, and can grow in the 20-50 °C range. The optimum pH is 4.0, and can grow in pH 3.0-6.0.


Flock House virus

Flock House virus (FHV) is in the alphanodavirus genus of the "Nodaviridae" family of viruses. "Flock House virus" was isolated from a grass grub ("Costelytra Zealandica") at the Flock House research station in Bulls, New Zealand. FHV is an extensively studied virus and is considered a model system for the study of other non-enveloped RNA viruses owing to its small size and genetic tractability, particularly to study the role of the transiently exposed hydrophobic gamma peptide and the metastability of the viral capsid. FHV can be engineered in insect cell culture allowing for the tailored production of native or mutant authentic virions or virus-like-particles. FHV is a platform for nanotechnology and nanomedicine, for example, for epitope display and vaccine development. Viral entry into host cells occurs via receptor-mediated endocytosis. Receptor binding initiates a sequence of events during which the virus exploits the host environment in order to deliver the viral cargo in to the host cytosol. Receptor binding prompts the meta-stability of the capsid–proteins, the coordinated rearrangements of which are crucial for subsequent steps in the infection pathway. In addition, the transient exposure of a covalently-independent hydrophobic γ-peptide is responsible for breaching cellular membranes and is thus essential for the viral entry of FHV into host cells.
Genome.
"Flock House virus" is a small, non-enveloped, icosahedral T=3 insect virus containing a bipartite positive sense ssRNA genome comprising two genes: RNA1 (3.1kb) an RNA2 (1.4kb). RNA1 encodes the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and also contains a frame-shifted subgenomic RNA 3 (369 nts) that encodes protein B2, responsible for inhibition of RNAi pathways. RNA2 encodes the capsid precursor, alpha, of which 180 copies form the viral capsid of FHV. Upon maturation, alpha undergoes an autocatalytic cleavage in its C-terminus to form beta, forming the main structural capsid component, and gamma, a short hydrophobic peptide required for endosome penetration that remains associated with the viral capsid. Virus-Like-Particles (VLPs) of FHV spontaneously form in "S. frugiperda" cell lines (e.g. Sf21) when RNA2 is expressed from a baculovirus vector and package cellular RNAs.
Range.
FHV was originally isolated from New Zealand grass grubs (Costelytra zealandica) in the former Flock House agricultural facility in Bulls, Ragnitikei, New Zealand. Isolates were passaged in "Drosophila" cells in culture, which were subsequently shown to exhibit cell-death (cytopathic effect). FHV can also infect live flies. FHV has been shown to infect medically important genera of insects: mosquitos, e.g. Anopheles gambiae; the tsetse fly; and the Chagas vector, Rhodnius prolixus Stal. Infection of these organisms by FHV has been demonstrated to have similar characteristics in terms of viral titre, virus dissemination and mortality as has been shown for fruit fly infections.
Capsid structure.
The structure and biophysical properties of authentic virions of FHV and of virus-like-particles (VLPs) have been extensively studied.
Other studies.
FHV has provided a model system for the study of the emergence and evolution of defective-interfering RNAs (DI-RNAs).


Rhodococcus rhodochrous

Rhodococcus rhodochrous is a bacterium used as a soil inoculant in agriculture and horticulture.
It is gram positive, in the shape of rods/cocci, oxidase negative, and catalase positive.
It is industrially produced to catalyse acrylonitrile conversion to acrylamide. It is also used in the industrial production of nicotinamide (niacinamide), a derivative or active form of niacin, part of the B vitamin complex.
A 2015 study showed that "Rhodococcus rhodochrous" could inhibit the growth of "Pseudogymnoascus destructans", the fungal species responsible for white nose syndrome in bats.


Mallomonas lacuna

Mallomonas lacuna is a species of heterokont algae. It is a tiny free-living cell, about the width of a human hair. It has ornate scales and bristles, as well as long spines. It is a relatively common part of lake or pond plankton. It differs from its cogenerates by the number, distribution, and size of its base plate pores, the secondary structures on the scale surfaces, together with characteristics of its bristles.


Conidiation

Conidiation is a biological process in which filamentous fungi reproduce asexually from spores. Rhythmic conidiation is the most obvious output of fungal circadian rhythms. "Neurospora" species are most often used to study this rhythmic conidiation. Physical stimuli, such as light exposure and mechanical injury to the mycelium trigger conidiation; however, conidiogenesis itself is a holistic response determined by the cell's metabolic state, as influenced by the environment and endogenous biological rhythms.


Chromocyphella

Chromocyphella is a genus of fungi in the family Chromocyphellaceae. The genus is widespread and contains five species.


Cyanolichen

Cyanolichens are lichens that apart from the basic fungal component ("mycobiont"), contain cyanobacteria, otherwise known as blue-green algae, as the photosynthesizing component ("photobiont"). Overall, about a third of lichen photobionts are cyanobacteria and the other two thirds are green algae.
Some lichens contain both green algae and cyanobacteria apart from the fungal component, in which case they are called "tripartite". Normally the photobiont occupies an extensive layer covering much of the thallus, but in tripartite lichens, the cyanobacterium component may be enclosed in pustule-like outgrowths of the main thallus called cephalodia, which can take many forms. Apart from gaining energy through photosynthesis, the cyanobacteria which live in cephalodia may perform nitrogen fixation on behalf of the lichen community. These cyanobacteria are generally more rich in nitrogen-fixing cells called heterocysts than those which live in the main photobiont layer of lichens.


Jotaro Kujo

 is a fictional character in the Japanese manga series "JoJo's Bizarre Adventure", written and illustrated by Hirohiko Araki. The main protagonist of the series' third story arc, "Stardust Crusaders", Jotaro is depicted as a rough delinquent with a kind heart who journeys from Japan to Egypt with his grandfather, Joseph Joestar, and their allies to defeat Dio Brando and save his mother's life. He has a Stand (a physical manifestaion of his fighting spirit) named , whose power is incredible strength, speed, and precision. Later, Star Platinum gains the ability , enabling Jotaro to stop time for a few seconds.
Jotaro returns in subsequent story arcs of the manga as a supporting character. In "Diamond Is Unbreakable", he meets his 16-year old biological uncle Josuke Higashikata. He appears briefly in "Golden Wind" when he sends Koichi Hirose to Italy to spy on Dio's son, Giorno Giovanna, and in "Stone Ocean" to aid his daughter Jolyne Cujoh against the forces of Enrico Pucci.
Jotaro was first conceived by Araki as a lonely hero inspired by American actor Clint Eastwood. In order to make the story more appealing, Araki created characters who would not overlap with Jotaro's characterization. Jotaro was voiced by Jūrōta Kosugi in the original video animation adaptation of "Stardust Crusaders" and by Abie Hadjitarkhani in its English dub. In the later , he was voiced by Daisuke Ono in Japanese and Matthew Mercer in English.
Critic and fan reception to Jotaro's character has been positive, with Araki himself stating that Jotaro has become so well known that he could act as a "synonym" for "JoJo's Bizarre Adventure" as a whole. Critics have praised his stoic personality and heroic actions, and although some reviewers noted Jotaro to be overpowered, others found his fights appealing and unique, such as the gambling battle with Daniel J. D'Arby. Jotaro's return in "Diamond is Unbreakable" as a supporting character helping the new protagonist Josuke was also well received.
Creation and development.
"JoJo's Bizarre Adventure" creator Hirohiko Araki decided to have a Japanese main character for Part 3 around the ending of the manga's first part. Araki modeled Jotaro after American actor Clint Eastwood, including his poses and catchphrases; Jotaro's signature finger-pointing pose came from one of Eastwood's poses with a .44 Magnum. His catchphrase was also an imitation of the type of lines Eastwood would say in his movies. This is why the character might seem "rough" compared to other "Weekly Shonen Jump" protagonists; however, Jotaro fits Araki's own image of a hero perfectly as a "loner" who does not do the right thing for attention. The author said the character wearing his school uniform in the desert has its roots in Mitsuteru Yokoyama's "Babel II". Araki wrote that Jotaro has become "big enough" that he can act as a synonym for "JoJo's Bizarre Adventure" as a whole. He also revealed that he has based the visual designs of subsequent JoJos on Jotaro's and then worked to differentiate them from there.
Other characters in Part 3 were written to contrast with Jotaro. Because Joseph was also the "JoJo" of his own story arc, Araki made sure to make it clear that Jotaro was the main character of "Stardust Crusaders". Araki stated that he had Kakyoin act as a foil to Jotaro. Although they both wear school uniforms, Kakyoin's well-tailored one gives him the feel of an honor student, while Jotaro's loose-fitting uniform and accessories convey that he is a delinquent. He made Kakyoin Jotaro's first real Stand opponent to visually convey the concepts between short-range and long-range Stand abilities. In order to have him not overlap with Jotaro and Joseph, Polnareff was given a distinctive look and personality, which in turn made him stand out in the group.
Casting.
In Japanese, Jotaro was voiced by Jūrōta Kosugi in the OVAs, but has been voiced by Daisuke Ono since "". Ono first learned of the series when he was studying in college during his free time and came to enjoy the manga. He felt pressure when doing Jotaro's voice, stating that "Jotaro's a representative character of the series." The audition process for the "Stardust Crusaders" television series was separate from that of the game he previously worked on. Ono had to re-audition for Jotaro's character. He further said "Jotaro is a character who's cool and collected and on the verge of boiling over all at the same time. He takes those two contradictory elements and makes them work together at a high level."
In English, Jotaro was voiced by Abie Hadjitarkhani in the OVAs, and Matthew Mercer in the television anime. Mercer first learned of the series at an anime convention in 1996, where he was impressed by an episode of Jotaro facing Dio. As a result, Mercer becoming Jotaro's English actor was, according to him, "a huge nerd full circle." In the recording of the early episodes, Mercer was excited with the lines he was given.
Appearances.
In "JoJo's Bizarre Adventure".
"Stardust Crusaders".
A Japanese high school delinquent, Jotaro Kujo, appears as the protagonist of "Stardust Crusaders". Jotaro has been arrested, and refuses to leave his cell, believing he is possessed by an evil spirit. After being called by Holly, Joseph's daughter and Jotaro's mother, Joseph arrives with an associate, Mohammed Avdol. They explain that Jotaro's "evil spirit" is actually a manifestation of his fighting spirit, called a Stand, and reveal that they possess Stands as well. Joseph explains that the sudden appearance of their Stands is caused by the nemesis of his grandfather, Jonathan Joestar: Dio Brando. Soon after, Jotaro defeats the first of these assassins, Noriaki Kakyoin, managing to rescue him from the influence of Dio's parasitic flesh bud. Holly soon becomes gravely ill due to a Stand manifesting in her, which is slowly killing her due to her reserved personality. With little hesitation, Jotaro, Joseph, Avdol, and Kakyoin begin a journey to Egypt to kill Dio and save Holly's life. On the way, they are joined by another reformed assassin named Jean Pierre Polnareff, who seeks to avenge his sister, whose murderer is among Dio's forces and Iggy, a troublesome dog who developed a Stand and was captured by Avdol offscreen.
Jotaro, Joseph, Kakyoin, and Polnareff ultimately encounter Dio, and escape his mansion. A chase across Cairo follows, leading to Kakyoin confronting Dio and his Stand, The World. Though fatally wounded by The World, Kakyoin deduces the Stand's ability to stop time for a few seconds and relays it to Joseph by using Emerald Splash on to a nearby clock tower before dying. Joseph is able to pass that information on to Jotaro, but is fatally wounded by Dio who uses his blood to increase the duration of his ability. Jotaro then fights Dio alone, slowly discovering that he shares Dio's time-stopping ability, due to Star Platinum having similar abilities to The World. The battle ends with Jotaro defeating Dio using the ability and subsequently killing him, before transfusing Dio's blood back into Joseph, and destroying the vampire for good by exposing his remains to the sun. Jotaro and Joseph then bid Polnareff farewell before returning to Japan, as Holly has made a full recovery.
"Diamond is Unbreakable".
In the fourth story arc, "Diamond Is Unbreakable", Jotaro arrives in Morioh, Japan where he meets the new protagonist Josuke Higashikata, who is technically Jotaro's uncle despite Jotaro being older than him. They investigate the crimes of a Stand-using serial killer, Yoshikage Kira, as Josuke becomes involved in Jotaro's search for the Stand-creating Bow and Arrow. After Jotaro, Josuke's classmate Koichi Hirose, and ally Rohan Kishibe arrive on the scene in the final confrontation, Kira attempts to use a paramedic to activate his Stand Bites the Dust and rewind time once more, but is stopped by Koichi and Jotaro. Kira is then accidentally run over by an arriving ambulance and dies. Following the battle, Jotaro leaves Morioh with an older Joseph Joestar who joined him in his adventure earlier.
"Golden Wind".
In "Golden Wind", Jotaro asks Koichi to go on a mission to Italy. His objective was to get a skin sample of a boy named Haruno Shiobana, which would then be given to the Speedwagon Foundation for analyzing. Some time later, Koichi reported back to Jotaro that Haruno Shiobana, who now goes by Giorno Giovanna, was a Stand user. Jotaro then revealed to Koichi that Giorno was the son of Dio and wanted to get the skin sample to confirm this. However, now knowing that he was a Stand user, Jotaro called off the mission.
"Stone Ocean".
In "Stone Ocean", Jotaro comes to visit his imprisoned daughter, Jolyne Cujoh, and informs her that a disciple of Dio's framed her so that he could kill her in prison, and urges her to escape. This plan goes awry when a Stand named Whitesnake uses its power to remove Jotaro's Stand and memories, in the form of discs. Jotaro sinks into a deathlike state, and Jolyne must find a way to recover the discs from Whitesnake's user, the mysterious prison chaplain Enrico Pucci. She succeeds in sending both of Jotaro's discs to the Speedwagon Foundation. Jotaro defends Jolyne and her friends from Pucci. However, Pucci is able to survive and realizes he can use his new Stand C-Moon to replicate the gravitational conditions required for his plan. Unlocking his ultimate stand, Made in Heaven, Pucci speeds up time itself causing the rapid acceleration of the world around Pucci and the Joestar group. Pucci aims Made in Heaven to maneuver Jolyne's Stand Stone Free into successfully killing her ally Narciso Anasui, but Jotaro is able to stop time. Made in Heaven greatly shortens Jotaro's time stop, and upon saving Jolyne from Pucci's attack, Jotaro and Ermes Costello are killed in front of Emporio Alniño, and Jolyne gives her life so Emporio can survive. The universe then promptly collapses, or "runs out of time". Although Pucci accelerates time once more, creating a new universe, where everything is the same but people have precognition and "fate", Emporio uses Weather Report to kill Pucci. The universe collapses, and another cycle of time leads to a new universe with no precognition and no Pucci. In this new universe, Emporio meets alternate versions of Jolyne, Ermes, Anasui, and Weather Report who all go by different names, and with Pucci never existing they never go to jail. They all go together to meet the alternate version of Jotaro.
Other appearances.
In the video game "" Jotaro and his allies, who had just defeated Dio, are attacked by friends and enemies who have either disappeared or died along the way. They are then approached by a young Robert E. O. Speedwagon, who possesses a piece of the Saint's Corpse that allows him to travel through time and space as well as vanquish the evil influence possessing the other characters. He leads Jotaro and his allies on a journey through time, space, and alternate universes, in order to stop another iteration of Dio.
The character of Jotaro is also present in the crossover game "Jump Force".
Reception.
Critical reception to Jotaro's character has been positive. Comic Book Resources regarded Jotaro's character as one of the best elements the his story arc has based on how active he is despite his silent personality, comparing him with heroes from 1980s. At the same time, the writer felt it was "impossible to hate" Jotaro despite early conceptions from the audience that he lacked a personality. Reviewing "Stardust Crusaders" for Anime News Network, Rebecca Silverman enjoyed seeing Part 2's Joseph team up with Jotaro. Another major element in the narrative was Jotaro's responsibility when dealing with an innocent girl which might act as a weak point. There reviewer highlighted the parallel between her and Jotaro and Joseph and Caesar in the previous arc, ultimately Caesar's protection of Joseph cost him his life. Kotaku liked Jotaro's design, and joked about how the hat is always worn. Despite not reaching legal smoking age for Japan in "Stardust Crusaders", Jotaro often smokes in the manga series. When the series was adapted into a television series, Jotaro's face was covered in black when smoking. Kotaku found this censorship as one of the most ridiculous ever done in anime as even though Jotaro's face is covered, his cigar can be clearly seen. THEM Anime Reviews criticized how the OVAs primarily focused on Jotaro rather than his allies and criticized his constant yells he performs when facing Dio.
UK Anime Network praised the premise Jotaro is given due to how "bizarre" is his quest to save his mother who and his great-grandfather's body is being used by the nemesis, Dio. Joel Loynds of The Linc enjoyed the distinct personalities of "Jojo's Bizarre Adventure" pointing Jotaro's stoic, contrasting it from Joseph. The Stand he possesses, Star Platinum, was praised due to how it fights alongside Jotaro in the form in multiple punches while Jotaro constantly yells the Japanese word "Ora". Anime UK News praised the fight Jotaro has with the gambler D'Arby, finding it unique among fight sequences presented in shonen demographic as rather than employing brutality, they instead play poker. On the other hand, Nick Creamer from Anime News Network felt that Jotaro was too overpowered due to how he often defeats enemies using brute force in early episodes of Part 3.
"The Fandom Post" enjoyed Jotaro's inclusion in Part 4, finding that other antistereotypical ways to defeat villains that avoided brute force. Anime News Network praised how Jotaro interacts with the lead of Part 4, Josuke, finding both characters appealing. In a "Diamond is Unbreakable" festival event, Daisuke Ono performed Jotaro's catchphrase, a multiple amount of the yell "ora". Manga.Tokyo described it as "a moment any JoJo fan wouldn't want to miss".
Despite not being a gay character, the manga artist group Clamp wrote a "dojinshi" involving Jotaro having a son with Kakyoin. The one-shot was included in the "xxxHolic" guidebook known as the "The Official xxxHOLiC Guide". The son portrayed in the "dojinshi" was animated in an original video animation known as "Clamp in Wonderland".


Microbispora corallina

Microbispora corallina is a bacterium with type strain DF-32T (= JCM 10267T). Its name comes from its microscopic appearance resembling coral due to spores on the tips of short sporophores branched from aerial hyphae.


EuroFlow

EuroFlow consortium was founded in 2005 as 2U-FP6 funded project and launched in spring 2006. At first, EuroFlow was composed of 18 diagnostic research groups and two SMEs (small/medium enterprises) from eight different European countries with complementary knowledge and skills in the field of flow cytometry and immunophenotyping. During 2012 both SMEs left the project so it obtained full scientific independence. The goal of EuroFlow consortium is to innovate and standardize flow cytometry leading to global improvement and progress in diagnostics of haematological malignancies and individualisation of treatment.
Background.
Since the '90s immunophenotyping (staining cells with antibodies conjugated with fluorochromes and detection with flow cytometer) became the preferred method in diagnostics of haematological malignancies. The advantages of this method are speed and simplicity, possibility to measure more than 6 parameters at a time, precise focusing on malignant population and also broad applicability in diagnostics. Because there is a great progress in development of antibodies, fluorochromes and multicolor digital flow cytometers, it became a question of how to interpret cytometric data and how to achieve comparable results between facilities. Even though a consensus of recommendations and guidelines was established, standardization was only partial because there was no regard of different antibody clones, fluorochromes and their optimal combinations or of sample preparation. On that account cytometry is perceived as method highly dependent on level of expertise and with limited reproducibility in multicentric studies.
Goals of Euroflow.
These goals were set out in the journal "Leukemia" in 2012.
Achievements.
During passed few years EuroFlow achieved most of its goals. Eight-color panels for diagnoses, and classification and follow-up of haematological malignancies were established. Panels, consisting of screening tube and supplementary characterisation tubes, are based on experiences and knowledge from literature but further optimised and tested in multiple research centers on large collection of samples impeaching on selection of fluorochromes and standardization of instrument settings and SOPs. Antibody clones, fluorochromes and other reagencies from different companies underwent detailed testing and comparison. Simultaneously a new software for analysing of more complex and extensive data files was developed, capable of multidimensional statistical comparison of normal data samples and patient samples. Also new antibody clones against rigorously selected epitopes of proteins involved in chromosomal translocations were developed for detection of most frequent fusion proteins in acute leukemia and chronic myeloid leukemia. Also detection of fusion proteins using immunobead assays was introduced.


The Sacred Depths of Nature

The Sacred Depths of Nature is a 1998 book by biologist Ursula W. Goodenough on the history of life on earth within the context of religious naturalism. It has recently been translated into Persian as "Minoo-ye Tabi'at" (Persian: مینوی طبیعت).


Symmorphosis

Symmorphosis is the regulation of biological units to produce an optimal outcome. Symmorphosis is when a quantitative match of design and function within an organism defined within a functional system. Symmorphosis can be broken down into the three predictions that are required for organs to evolve within a species.
This proposes that if organs were matched structurally and functionally, and paired with the correct energy and minerals, the body would create an organ of optimal design. Some examples of this in the human body could be how the respiratory system distributes oxygen, how bones are structured to withstand stress, how blood vessels are designed to distribute blood throughout the body without using a lot of energy, or even how as a person becomes more physically fit or endures more cardio after their body has adjusted to maintain higher functioning demands. The use of symmorphosis can allow for fields of science to work with the field of evolutionary biology to better understand adaptation.
Requirements.
For symmorphosis to occur, there must be three predictions or guidelines in place and functioning at the same time. These three predictions work together to let an organ function or organ system work at full potential.
Structure.
When looking at the theory of symmorphosis, one must consider if the design in the organism is fully optimized. The structural design in terms of symmorphosis means that the organ is designed to allow full capacity of its function and can allow for adjustments to occur when necessary. This design must contain the sufficient amount of economy material for the organ needed. In this circumstance, economy material is the careful management of resources such as tissues.
Capacity.
The functional capacity is when all functional units work together to determine the maximal capacity. Functional capacity is overall determined by the structural design. Once the design is optimized in terms of biological materials, then the structure must be taken into account. The structure of an organ determines the maximal functional capacity and the adjustments required for morphogenesis—the process that causes an organism to create its shape—to occur.
Performance.
The third prediction states that if prediction two works in intermediate steps to create a function of an individual organ, then each step also helps create the upper limit of the function." This means that if multiple units work together in multiple steps, they function together to create an upper limit (e.g., Vo2max) in terms of function or ability.
Within the respiratory system.
A common form of testing symmorphosis between species of mammals is to use comparative biology. The first system to use the proposed theory for symmorphosis is the oxygen pathway for mammals.
The original experimental method for symmorphosis was used to show if the design of the organs were relative to the static demands of the mammalian respiratory system. The respiratory system is a good example to study because it has one main function, the function has a measurable limit, the limit is variable, it has a sequence of structure, and each step of the sequence has functional parameters that are not fixed. A common pathway within the respiratory system is the oxygen pathway. This pathway is used because it is a good representation for mammals within most species—because it involves several organs that link together, and the overall function has a measurable upper limit. In particular, this testing helps identify structural elements that differ so they can carry the maximum amount of oxygen throughout the body.
Vo2max.
The upper limit for the oxygen pathway is called the Vo2max. Vo2max is the maximal oxygen capacity that systems can take in, transport, and use oxygen. Vo2max can vary among individuals due to allometric variation (the differences in body mass) , adaptive variation (differences in lifestyles) , and the induced variation (amount of cardio exercise). Variation of any of the three types of variation should lead researchers to expect different parameters.
The oxygen cascade is one system with clear limits, and can help determine the Vo2max by components such as oxygen supply to the skeletal muscle mitochondria and the demand of oxygen by these skeletal muscle mitochondria. If oxygen is not transferred via skeletal muscle mitochondria, it can then be transferred across muscle capillaries.
Evolutionary implications.
Symmophsis can be use as an analytical advancement that helps other fields of science—such as biochemistry, physiology, and astronomy—work with fields such as cell, molecular, and evolutionary biology. Combining these fields helps researchers better understand past biological adaptions.
In evolution, natural selection can hinder the design when looking at the guidelines for symmorphosis. Natural selection can alter the phenotype to increase fitness of a species. In doing this, natural selection can cause adaptations that can change the optimal structural. When the optimal structural design changes, it changes the amount of economy material that must be used, which changes the predictions.
Critiques.
An issue with symmorphosis is the problem of having an optimal design for an organ if the organ contains multiple functions. An organ that performs multiple functions must compromise optimal performance of one function to perform another optimally. These complex components adding together dramatically decreases the chance that everything will optimally match. An example of this in mammals is the lungs. Researchers now claim that the lungs are an exception when considering the Lungs typically are only partially adjusted to maximal oxygen capacity in terms of adaptive and allometric variation and cause a fluctuation in these values.
In terms of symmorphosis, the capacity of each step of the oxygen cascade should match the demand of Vmax. In most cases this theory holds true with the exception of when an individual exceeds the Vmax. When Vmax is exceeded there then becomes developmental constraints as well as design constraints in terms of symmorphosis. When this occurs there is an unmatched capacity, although they maybe similar they do not aline with the predictions for symmorphosis.


Betapapillomavirus

Betapapillomavirus is a genus of viruses, in the family "Papillomaviridae". Human serve as natural hosts. There are six species in this genus. Diseases associated with this genus include warts, papilloma, and malignant tumours.
Taxonomy.
The following six species are assigned to the genus:
Structure.
Viruses in "Betapapillomavirus" are non-enveloped, with icosahedral geometries, and T=7 symmetry. The diameter is around 60 nm. Genomes are circular, around 8kb in length.
Life cycle.
Viral replication is nuclear. Entry into the host cell is achieved by attachment of the viral proteins to host receptors, which mediates endocytosis. Replication follows the dsDNA bidirectional replication model. Dna templated transcription, with some alternative splicing mechanism is the method of transcription. The virus exits the host cell by nuclear envelope breakdown.
Human serve as the natural host. Transmission routes are contact.


Neosporidesmium malloti

Neosporidesmium malloti is a species of anamorphic ascomycete fungi, first found in tropical forests in Hainan, China, specifically in dead branches of "Mallotus hookerianus", hence its name.


Zeavirus

Zeavirus is a genus of viruses, in the family "Tombusviridae". Monocots plants serve as natural hosts. There is only one species in this genus: "Maize necrotic streak virus".
Structure.
Viruses in "Zeavirus" are non-enveloped, with icosahedral and spherical geometries, and T=3 symmetry. The diameter is around 28-34 nm. Genomes are linear and non-segmented, around 4kb in length.
Life cycle.
Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by penetration into the host cell. Replication follows the positive stranded RNA virus replication model. Positive stranded RNA virus transcription, using the premature termination model of subgenomic RNA transcription is the method of transcription. The virus exits the host cell by tubule-guided viral movement. Monocot plants serve as the natural host.


Truncocolumella

Truncocolumella is a genus of fungi in the family Suillaceae, of the order Boletales. It was circumscribed by American mycologist Sanford Myron Zeller in 1939.


Cryptococcus gattii

Cryptococcus gattii, formerly known as "Cryptococcus neoformans" var. "gattii", is an encapsulated yeast found primarily in tropical and subtropical climates. Its teleomorph is "Filobasidiella bacillispora", a filamentous fungus belonging to the class Tremellomycetes.
"Cryptococcus gattii" causes the human diseases of pulmonary cryptococcosis (lung infection), basal meningitis, and cerebral cryptococcomas. Occasionally, the fungus is associated with skin, soft tissue, lymph node, bone, and joint infections. In recent years, it has appeared in British Columbia, Canada and the Pacific Northwest. It has been suggested that global warming may have been a factor in its emergence in British Columbia. It has also been suggested that tsunamis, such as the 1964 Alaska earthquake and tsunami, might have been responsible for carrying the fungus to North America and its subsequent spread there. From 1999 through to early 2008, 216 people in British Columbia have been infected with "C. gattii", and eight died from complications related to it. The fungus also infects animals, such as dogs, koalas, and dolphins. In 2007, the fungus appeared for the first time in the United States, in Whatcom County, Washington and in April 2010 had spread to Oregon. The most recently identified strain, designated VGIIc, is particularly virulent, having proved fatal in 19 of 218 known cases.
Nomenclature.
"Cryptococcus gattii" has recently been divided into five species. These are "C. gattii", "C. bacillisporus", "C. deuterogattii", "C. tetragattii", and "C. decagattii".
Disease summary.
Cryptococcal disease is a very rare disease that can affect the lungs (pneumonia) and nervous system (causing meningitis and focal brain lesions called cryptococcomas) in humans. The main complication of lung infection is respiratory failure. Central nervous system infection may lead to hydrocephalus, seizures, and focal neurological deficit.
Environmental occurrence.
Soil debris associated with certain tree species has been found frequently to contain "C. gattii" VGIII MATα and MATa, and less commonly VGI MATα, in Southern California. These isolates were fertile, were found to be indistinguishable from the human isolates by genome sequence, and were virulent in "in vitro" and animal tests. Isolates were found associated with Canary Island pine ("Pinus canariensis"), American sweetgum ("Liquidambar styraciflua"), and Pohutukawa tree ("Metrosideros excelsa"). Leading up to the study one of the authors, Scott Filler, sent his daughter Elan to obtain and culture fungal samples in the greater Los Angeles area; one of these turned out to be "C. gattii". Her work was presented at the Los Angeles County Science Fair, and she was credited as an author on the publication.
Lead author Deborah Springer said, "Just as people who travel to South America are told to be careful about drinking the water, people who visit other areas like California, the Pacific Northwest, and Oregon need to be aware that they are at risk for developing a fungal infection, especially if their immune system is compromised."
Epidemiology.
The highest incidences of "C. gattii" infections occur in Papua New Guinea and Northern Australia. Cases have also been reported in other regions, indicating its spread to India, Brazil, Vancouver Island in Canada, and Washington, and Oregon in the United States.
Unlike "Cryptococcus neoformans", "C. gattii" is not particularly associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection or other forms of immunosuppression. The fungus can cause disease in healthy people, potentially due to its ability to grow extremely rapidly within white blood cells.
In the United States, "C. gattii" serotype B, subtype VGIIa, is largely responsible for clinical cases. The VGIIa subtype was responsible for the outbreaks in Canada; it then appeared in the U.S. Pacific Northwest.
According to a CDC summary, from 2004 to 2010, 60 cases were identified in the U.S.: 43 in Oregon, 15 from Washington, and one each from Idaho and California. Slightly more than half of these case were immunocompromised; 92% of all isolates were of the VGIIa subtype. In 2007, the first case in North Carolina was reported, subtype VGI, which is identical to the isolates found in Australia and California. In 2009, one case was identified in Arkansas.
The multiple clonal clusters in the Pacific Northwest likely arose independently of each other as a result of sexual reproduction occurring within the highly sexual VGII population. VGII "C. gattii" have probably undergone either bisexual or unisexual reproduction in multiple different locales, thus giving rise to novel virulent phenotypes.
Transmission.
The infection is caused by inhaling yeasts or spores. The fungus is not transmitted from person to person or from animal to person. A person with cryptococcal disease is not contagious.
Symptoms.
Most people who are exposed to the fungus do not become ill. In people who become ill, symptoms appear many weeks to months after exposure. Symptoms of cryptococcal disease include:
Diagnosis.
Culture of sputum, bronchoalveolar lavage, lung biopsy, cerebrospinal fluid or brain biopsy specimens on selective agar allows differentiation between the five members of the "C. gattii" species complex and the two members of the "C. neoformans" species complex.
Molecular techniques may be used to speciate "Cryptococcus" from specimens that fail to culture.
Cryptococcal antigen testing from serum or cerebrospinal fluid is a useful preliminary test for cryptococcal infection, and has high sensitivity for disease. It does not distinguish between different species of "Cryptococcus".
Treatment.
Medical treatment consists of prolonged intravenous therapy (for 6–8 weeks or longer) with the antifungal drug amphotericin B, either in its conventional or lipid formulation. The addition of oral or intravenous flucytosine improves response rates. Oral fluconazole is then administered for six months or more.
Antifungals alone are often insufficient to cure "C. gattii" infections, and surgery to resect infected lung (lobectomy) or brain is often required. Ventricular shunts and Ommaya reservoirs are sometimes employed in the treatment of central nervous system infection.
People who have "C. gattii" infection need to take prescription antifungal medication for at least 6 months; usually the type of treatment depends on the severity of the infection and the parts of the body that are affected.


Mating type

Mating types are molecular mechanisms that regulate compatibility in sexually reproducing eukaryotes. They occur in isogamous and anisogamous species. Depending on the group, different mating types are often referred to by numbers, letters, or simply "+" and "−" instead of "male" and "female", that refer to "sexes" or differences in size between gametes. Syngamy can only take place between gametes carrying different mating types.
Reproduction regulated by mating types is especially prevalent in fungi. Filamentous ascomycetes usually have two mating types referred to as "MAT1-1" and "MAT1-2", following the yeast mating type locus MAT. Under standard nomenclature, MAT1-1 (which may informally be called MAT1) encodes for a regulatory protein with a high motility-group (HMG) DNA-binding motif, while MAT1-2 (informally called MAT2) encodes for a protein with an alpha box motif, as in the yeast mating type MATα1. The corresponding mating types in yeast, a non-filamentous ascomycete, are referred to as MATa and MATα.
Mating type genes in ascomycetes are called idiomorphs rather than alleles due to the uncertainty of the origin by common descent. The proteins they encode are transcription factors that regulate both the early and late stages of the sexual cycle. Heterothallic ascomycetes produce gametes that present a single Mat idiomorph and syngamy will only be possible between gametes carrying complementary mating types. On the other hand, homothallic ascomycetes produce gametes that can fuse with every other gamete in the population (including its own mitotic descendants) most often because each haploid contains the two alternate forms of the Mat locus in its genome.
Basidiomycetes on the other hand can have thousands of different mating types.
The adaptive function of mating type in the ascomycete "Neurospora crassa" is discussed in the article "Neurospora crassa". That matings in "N. crassa" are restricted to interaction of strains of opposite mating type may be an adaptation to promote some degree of outcrossing. Outcrossing, through complementation, could provide the benefit of masking recessive deleterious mutations in genes that function in the dikaryon and/or diploid stage of the life cycle.


Tony Bradshaw

Anthony David Bradshaw FRS (17 January 1926 – 21 August 2008) was a British evolutionary ecologist.
He was born the son of an architect in Kew, Surrey and educated at St Pauls School, Hammersmith. He read Botany at Jesus College, Cambridge and in 1947 moved to the University College of Wales, first as a research student in Aberystwyth and then as a lecturer in the Department of
Agricultural Botany at Bangor. There he worked on the adaptation of plants to heavy metal pollution, demonstrating the ability of natural selection to bring about rapid evolutionary changes in natural grasses, even in very localised situations.
In 1958 he accepted the Chair of Botany at the University of Liverpool where he pioneered novel ideas of restoration ecology to help recover polluted sites without the need to cover them in imported topsoil. His work on the revegetation of china clay tips in Cornwall formed the basis of the techniques behind the Eden Project.
In 1982 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was President of the British Ecological Society for 1982–83 and the Inaugural President of the Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management in 1991–94. In 1991 he delivered the Croonian Lecture to the Royal Society on "Genostasis and the limits to Evolution".
He married Betty Alliston and had 3 daughters.


Marnavirus


Discomycetes

Discomycetes is a former taxonomic class of Ascomycete fungi which contains all of the cup, sponge, brain, and some club-like fungi. It includes typical cup fungi like the scarlet elf cup and the orange peel fungus, and fungi with fruiting bodies of more unusual shape, such as morels, truffles and the swamp beacon. New taxonomic and molecular data fail to support the monophyly of the discomycetes.


Saksenaea vasiformis

Saksenaea vasiformis is an infectious fungus associated with cutaneous or subcutaneous lesions following trauma. It causes opportunistic infections as the entry of the fungus is through open spaces of cutaneous barrier ranging in severity from mild to severe or fatal. It is found in soils worldwide, but is considered as a rare human pathogen since only 38 cases were reported as of 2012. "Saksenaea vasiformis" usually fails to sporulate on the routine culture media, creating a challenge for early diagnosis, which is essential for a good prognosis. Infections are usually treated using a combination of amphotericin B and surgery. "Saksenaea vasiformis" is one of the few fungi known to cause necrotizing fasciitis or "flesh-eating disease".
Description.
"Saksenaea vasiformis" was initially described as a new mucoraceous fungus in a new genus "Saksenaea" in 1953 by Dr. S. B. Saksena. It was isolated from Patharia forest soil in India and distinguishably different from other species in morphology of sporangia (flask-shaped) and the method of spore discharge. The name "vasiformis" came from the flask-shape of sporangiophore. Since 1953, it has been isolated from various countries including Panama, Israel, Honduras, and the southern United States. This species is the only species belong to genus "Saksenaea", although two new species, which are Saksenaea oblongispora and Saksenaea erythrospora, were proposed in 2010. Detailed microscopic observation displayed similar flask shape of sporangiophores and the phylogenic analysis indicated that these isolates ("S. vasiformis, S. oblongispora" and "S. erythrospora") belong to the same genus "Saksenaea".
This species is associated with "Apophysomyces elegans", a member of family "Mucoraceae". Despite the significant differences of morphological characteristics of sporangia and the manner of sporangium formation, these two species are associated, usually in medical literature, due to similar disease manifestation in human: cutaneous or subcutaneous infections. Infections involving these two species ("S. vasiformis" and "A. elegans") cause rapid necrotizing vasculitis that leads to thrombosis and tissue necrosis in organisms’ vascular lumen.
Cultural characteristics.
"Saksenaea vasiformis" very rapidly grows in growth media, producing sterile hyphae. Induction of sporulation is difficult with routine fungal media used in the most of clinical laboratories, but it can be stimulated to sporulate rapidly (5 to 7 days) by incubating the yeast-malt-dextrose agar at 32 °C. The identification of this species is not problematic after sporulation event because of its characteristic flask-shaped sporangium with spherical venter and a distinct dome-shped columella and dichotomously branched rhizoid complex. On top of the venter, there is a neck with closed apex with a mucilaginous plug. Inside of the neck are the sporangiophores, which are liberated by the dissolution of the mucilaginous plug.
Pathogenesis.
"Saksenaea vasiformis" is normally present in soil and does not cause human infection unless it is introduced to the open site where the cutaneous barrier no longer exists. This is why this species causes an opportunistic infection following a traumatic event that breaks the cutaneous barrier. Infection cases found in various countries including USA, Australia, Norway, New Zealand, Spain, India, French Guyana, France, India, Greece. The first human infection by "S. vasiformis" was reported in 1976 in a 19-year-old male with cranial and facial wounds incurred during an automobile accident.
"Saksenaea vasiformis" usually causes cutaneous or subcutaneous zygomycosis, but can also cause primary sinusitis and rhinocerebral disease. Cutaneous diseases by S. vasiformis present red blisters. with necrotic ulcers or raised red to purple lesions. Infections by "S. vasiformis" are normally localized and indolent, but in some cases infection is disseminated or becomes highly invasive, and these cases were all fatal.
Early diagnosis is the key to survival of the patients, but the diagnosis of the disease is hard due to difficulties in stimulating sporulation. Furthermore, there has been only 38 cases of infections reported as of 2012 and the author of the paper suggested that low number of cases reported can be due to lack of awareness of this species in clinical environment, high mortality rate, and largely, microbiological and clinical bias resulted from difficulties in stimulating sporulation of this species. To ease the identification of fungus producing sterile mycelium such as "S. vasiformis" and "A. elegans", exoantigen test has been developed. For "S. vasiformis", even though exoantigen testing is helpful with positive test, it is rarely used because of the high false-negative rate, requiring confirmation by sporulating morphology with all the negative tests. — see cultural characteristics.
Human hosts are usually immunocompetent with open lesion that acts as a portal entry of the fungus into the body. There has been some reported cases of immunocompromised hosts due to steroid treatment, antibiotic therapy, and compromised immune system due to underlying disease is also known as a risk factor. For example, "S. vasiformis" infection has been seen in some patients with preleukemia, bladder cancer and diabetes mellitus. Moreover, "S. vasiformis" causes infections in bovines and cetaceans such as bottlenose dolphins, killer whales, and Pacific White-sided dolphins in with "A. elegans".
Treatment.
Infections by "S. vasiformis" are mainly treated with drug amphotericin B because this species is resistant to many antifungal agents. The side effect of amphotericin B is renal toxicity, but the chances of side effect can be reduced by administering amphotericin B in incremental doses to reach maximum daily dose of 0.5 to 0.75 mg/kg. Furthermore, amphotericin B deoxycholate is more nephrotoxic than liposomal amphotericin B; however, due to expensive cost of liposomal amphotericin B, many of the patients were unable to afford this therapy, resulting in fatal outcome. In addition, another antifungal agent, posaconazole, was able to successfully treat disseminated infection by "S. vasiformis in vitro", suggesting that it could be used as an alternative to amphotericin B for the treatment of the infections.
Along with the drug treatment, patients are recommended to receive an aggressive surgical debridement or an amputation in some severe cases. This is an important for the infection to be treated efficiently and effectively because necrotic tissues may act as a barrier to penetration of drug to the site of infection.
It is essential to treat infections appropriately and as soon as possible to decrease the mortality rate as mortality rate of untreated cases is almost 100% and that of properly treated cutaneous diseases is only around 10%.


Acaulospora lacunosa

Acaulospora lacunosa is a species of fungus in the family Acaulosporaceae. It forms arbuscular mycorrhiza and vesicles in roots. Originally found in West Virginia in soil associated with "Andropogon virginicus", the fungus was described as new to science in 1986. The specific epithet refers to the outermost wall of the spore, which has a characteristic appearance of the lunar surface.


Chlamydiae

The Chlamydiae are a bacterial phylum and class whose members are remarkably diverse, including pathogens of humans and animals, symbionts of ubiquitous protozoa, and marine forms not yet well understood. All of the Chlamydiae that humans have known about for many decades are obligate intracellular bacteria; in 2020 many additional Chlamydiae were discovered in ocean-floor environments, and it is not yet known whether they all have hosts. Historically it was believed that all Chlamydiae had a peptidoglycan-free cell wall, but studies in the 2010s demonstrated a detectable presence of peptidoglycan, as well as other important proteins.
Among the Chlamydiae, all of the ones long known to science grow only by infecting eukaryotic host cells. They are as small as or smaller than many viruses. They are ovoid in shape and stain Gram-negative. They are dependent on replication inside the host cells; thus, some species are termed obligate intracellular pathogens and others are symbionts of ubiquitous protozoa. Most intracellular Chlamydiae are located in an inclusion body or vacuole. Outside cells, they survive only as an extracellular infectious form. These Chlamydiae can grow only where their host cells grow, and develop according to a characteristic biphasic developmental cycle. Therefore, clinically relevant Chlamydiae cannot be propagated in bacterial culture media in the clinical laboratory. They are most successfully isolated while still inside their host cells.
Of various Chlamydiae that cause human disease, the two most important species are "Chlamydia pneumoniae", which causes a type of pneumonia, and "Chlamydia trachomatis", which causes chlamydia. Chlamydia is the most common bacterial sexually transmitted infection in the United States, and 2.86 million chlamydia infections are reported annually.
History.
Chlamydia-like disease affecting the eyes of people was first described in ancient Chinese and Egyptian manuscripts. A modern description of chlamydia-like organisms was provided by Halberstaedrrter and von Prowazek in 1907. Chlamydial isolates cultured in the yolk sacs of embryonating eggs were obtained from a human pneumonitis outbreak in the late 1920s and early 1930s, and by the mid-20th century, isolates had been obtained from dozens of vertebrate species. The term chlamydia (a cloak) appeared in the literature in 1945, although other names continued to be used, including Bedsonia, Miyagawanella, ornithosis-, TRIC-, and PLT-agents. In 1956, Chlamydia trachomatis was first cultured by Tang Fei-fan, though they were not yet recognized as bacteria.
Nomenclature.
In 1966, Chlamydiae were recognized as bacteria and the genus Chlamydia was validated. The order Chlamydiales was created by Storz and Page in 1971. The class Chlamydiia was recently validly published. Between 1989 and 1999, new families, genera, and species were recognized. The phylum Chlamydiae was established in Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. By 2006, genetic data for over 350 chlamydial lineages had been reported. Discovery of ocean-floor forms reported in 2020 involves new clades.
Taxonomy and molecular signatures.
The Chlamydiae currently contain eight validly named genera, and 14 genera. The phylum presently consist of two orders (Chlamydiales, Parachlamydiales) and nine families within a single class (Chlamydiia). Only four of these families are validly named (Chlamydiaceae, Parachlamydiaceae, Simkaniaceae, Waddliaceae) while five are described as families (Clavichlamydiaceae, Criblamydiaceae, Parilichlamydiaceae, Piscichlamydiaceae, and Rhabdochlamydiaceae).
The Chlamydiales order as recently described contains the families Chlamydiaceae, and the Clanchiamydiaceae, while the new Parachlamydiales order harbors the remaining seven families. This proposal is supported by the observation of two distinct phylogenetic clades that warrant taxonomic ranks above the family level. Molecular signatures in the form of conserved indels (CSIs) and proteins (CSPs) have been found to be uniquely shared by each separate order, providing a means of distinguishing each clade from the other and supporting the view of shared ancestry of the families within each order. The distinctness of the two orders is also supported by the fact that no CSIs were found among any other combination of families.
Molecular signatures have also been found that are exclusive for the family Chlamydiaceae. The Chlamydiaceae originally consisted of one genus, Chlamydia, but in 1999 was split into two genera, Chlamydophila and Chlamydia. The genera have since 2015 been reunited where species belonging to the genus Chlamydophila have been reclassified as Chlamydia species. However, CSIs and CSPs have been found specifically for Chlamydophila species, supporting their distinctness from Chlamydia, perhaps warranting additional consideration of two separate groupings within the family. CSIs and CSPs have also been found that are exclusively shared by all Chlamydia that are further indicative of a lineage independent from Chlamydophila, supporting a means to distinguish Chlamydia species from neighbouring Chlamydophila members.
Phylogenetics.
The Chlamydiae form a unique bacterial evolutionary group that separated from other bacteria about a billion years ago, and can be distinguished by the presence of several CSIs and CSPs. The species from this group can be distinguished from all other bacteria by the presence of conserved indels in a number of proteins and by large numbers of signature proteins that are uniquely present in different Chlamydiae species. Reports have varied as to whether the Chlamydiae are related to the Planctomycetales or Spirochaetes. Genome sequencing, however, indicates that 11% of the genes in Protochlamydia amoebophila UWE25 and 4% in the Chlamydiaceae are most similar to chloroplast, plant, and cyanobacterial genes. Cavalier-Smith has postulated that the Chlamydiae fall into the clade Planctobacteria in the larger clade Gracilicutes. However, phylogeny and shared presence of CSIs in proteins that are lineage-specific indicate that the Verrucomicrobia are the closest free-living relatives of these parasitic organisms. Comparison of ribosomal RNA genes has provided a phylogeny of known strains within Chlamydiae.
Human pathogens and diagnostics.
Three species of Chlamydiae that commonly infect humans are described:
The unique physiological status of the Chlamydiae including their biphasic lifecycle and obligation to replicate within a eukaryotic host has enabled the use of DNA analysis for chlamydial diagnostics. Horizontal transfer of genes is evident and complicates this area of research. In one extreme example, two genes encoding histone-like H1 proteins of eukaryotic origin have been found in the prokaryotic genome of C. trachomatis, an obligate intracellular pathogen.
Phylogeny.
The phylogeny is based on 16S rRNA-based LTP release 123 by The All-Species Living Tree Project.
Taxonomy.
The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) and the NCBI


Vezdaea schuyleriana

Vezdaea schuyleriana is a lichen that is only known to exist on a single boulder near Lewisburg, Pennsylvania. It was discovered by James Lendemer, a doctoral student at the New York Botanical Garden and research associate at the Academy of Natural Sciences, who published his discovery in the March 2011 issue of "Notulae Natureae". He named it in honor of Dr. Alfred "Ernie" Schuyler, emeritus curator of botany at the Academy.


Trichomycetes

Trichomycetes refers to a group of fungi in the division Zygomycota that grow in the guts of arthropods living in aquatic habitats. The name is obsolete, having not been validly published. Species formerly placed in the Trichomycetes are now placed in the orders Harpellales and Asellariales, both in the suborder subdivision Kickxellomycotina, while Amoebidiales and Eccrinales are included in Opisthokonta.


Mycobacterium malmoense

Mycobacterium malmoense is a Gram-positive bacterium from the genus "Mycobacterium".
Etymology.
From the city of Malmö, Sweden where the strain used for the description was isolated from patients.
Description.
Gram-positive, nonmotile, acid-fast and coccoid to short rods.
Colony characteristics
Physiology
Differential characteristics
Type strain.
Strain ATCC 29571 = CCUG 37761 = CIP 105775 = DSM 44163 = JCM 13391 = NCTC 11298.


Mycobacterium branderi

Mycobacterium branderi is a slowly growing, nonchromogenic "Mycobacterium" first isolated from patients in Finland. Etymology: of Brander, referring to Eljas Brander, the former head of the Tuberculosis Laboratory of the National Public Health Institute, Finland, who collected the strains.
Description.
Microscopy
Colony characteristics
Physiology
Differential characteristics


Naegleria gruberi

Naegleria gruberi is a species of "Naegleria". It is famous for its ability to change from an amoeba, which lacks a cytoplasmic microtubule cytoskeleton, to a flagellate, which has an elaborate microtubule cytoskeleton, including flagella. This "transformation" includes "de novo" synthesis of basal bodies (or centrioles).
Background.
It was first characterized in 1899, and the genome sequence published in 2010.
"Naegleria gruberi" is a non-pathogenic biosafety level 1 organism, although it is related to the deadly "Naegleria fowleri".
"Naegleria gruberi" is a free-living organism that can be extracted from wet soil and freshwater The strain NEG-M is the only "Naegleria" species that has a fully sequenced genome. "Naegleria" belongs to the Jakobids, Euglenozoans, and Heteroloboseans (JEH) group. The "Naegleria" genome sequence has indicated that the amoeboflagellate contains actin and microtubule cytoskeletons, mitotic and meiotic machinery, and several transcription factors. "Naegleria"'s mitochondrial genome encodes some components of a mitochondrial c and c1 maturation system.
"Naegleria's" mitochondria resemble the evolutionary intermediate thought to have occurred within the ancestor of all eukaryotes, because of its presence of mitochondrial Fe-hydrogenase and complete aerobic respiration system. The "Naegleria" genome is able to oxidize glucose, various amino acids and fatty acids through the Krebs cycle.
The ancestor of existing eukaryotes have been thought to contain a fair number of introns. Nearly 36% of "Naegleria" genes are assumed to contain at least one intron and 17% contain multiple introns. The position of the introns are conserved, indicating that they are ancient.
"Naegleria" amoeba undergo a closed mitosis, in which the nuclear envelope doesn't break down, but still proceeds through the typical stages. The multitubulin hypothesis predicts that eukaryotes contain multiple tublin genes with distinct properties. "Naegleria" uses different tubulins for mitosis and flagellar assembly.
Observations suggest that "Naegleria" is primarily an asexual organism that reproduces by division of its amoebae to produce substantial clonal populations. However, analysis of the genome strain NEG-M revealed that it is a composite of two distinct haplotypes having arisen from an interbreeding population. Therefore, "Naegleria" is likely to be able to undergo genetic exchange. The NEG-M strain is the heterozygous result of a past mating of two strains, and it appears genetically equipped to mate again. However, further studies still need to be performed.


Acaulospora polonica

Acaulospora polonica is a species of fungus in the family Acaulosporaceae. It forms arbuscular mycorrhiza and vesicles in roots. Found in Poland growing under "Thuja occidentalis", it was described as a new species in 1988.


Tobacco streak virus

Tobacco streak virus (TSV) is a plant pathogenic virus of the family "Bromoviridae", in the genus "Ilarvirus". It has a wide host range, with at least 200 susceptible species. TSV is generally more problematic in the tropics or warmer climates. TSV does not generally lead to epidemics, with the exception of sunflowers in India and Australia, and peanuts in India.
Host and symptoms.
TSV has been reported worldwide in North and South America, Europe, India, Japan, Australia, New Zealand and South America. TSV has a wide host range including both monocots and dicots. Economically important crop hosts include peanuts, sunflower, soybean, cranberry, cotton, chickpea and mung beans. As with many plant viruses, diagnosis is very difficult because TSV has very wide host range and has different effects depending on the host being infected. Symptoms of TSV may include black streaks on stems and leaves, stunted growth, chlorosis, leaf mosaic, lodging, and deformed growing tips, to name a few. On tobacco plants, TSV causes chlorosis, with a unique pattern of white or dark necrotic leaf tissue close to the veins of the leaf. As its name implies, necrotic streaks are found on leaf veins of infected plants. Symptoms are strongly influenced by temperature. For example, plants experiencing a temperature of 20° Celsius will develop small necrotic spots while at temperatures above 30° Celsius, necrotic spots will become large necrotic arcs. Symptoms are not sufficient to correctly identify TSV - serology and PCR techniques are required.
Disease cycle.
TSV purified from infected plants consists of a ss-RNA genome encapsulated by spheroid particles made up of coat protein subunits. The coat protein subunits play a key role in the life cycle of the virus. Once the virus has penetrated into the host cells, it uncoats and releases its viral genomic RNA into the cytoplasm and expressed proteins replicate. After replication, the dsRNA genome is synthesized from genomic ssRNA. Subgenomic RNA4 is translated producing capsid proteins and the new virus particles are assembled. The coat protein of TSV plays an important role in its life cycle. It protects the viral genome and plays a role in cell to cell movement. Once the virus becomes systemic, it can be transmitted by vectors. TSV requires a living plant to survive for a period of time. The virus may be transmitted by thrips vector, mechanical damage, pollen or dodder.
Environment.
Severe outbreaks of TSV typically occur under climatic conditions that allow large thrips populations to develop and when large quantities of pollen are being produced by the host plant. These conditions generally occur in warmer months but are dependent on rainfall and weeds in the field.
Modes of Transmission:
Management.
Control for TSV is difficult, and there are no chemical controls available for the virus. The best management practices are to maintain good sanitation, purchase certified seed, control insects that serve as vectors, and provide barrier crops.
"Sanitation: "Remove plant debris after harvest or any plant material that may serve as a source of inoculum. Due to its wide host range, TSV may also infect many weed species, so keeping fields free of weeds is a good control strategy.
"Chemical Control": Preventative control of disease dispersal may be possible if insecticide is sprayed for the trips vector.
"Barrier Crops:" One common form of management for viruses is to plant a desirable host for thrips around the cropping system. The thrips will insert their stylet and “clean” off any virus on their stylet before moving to the target crop.
"Barrier Crops:" One common form of management for viruses is to plant a desirable host for thrips around the cropping system. The thrips will insert their stylet and “clean” off any virus on their stylet before moving to the target crop.


Sclerophora pallida

Sclerophora pallida is an epiphytic lichen with stipitated acomata. In Europe, it is mostly found on broadleaf deciduous trees (e.g. "Fraxinus excelsior", "Ulmus" spp., "Acer platanoides"). It is rare on young trees and is mostly common only on trees older than 70 years. Because of that, the species is considered to be close to being threatened by extinction in Norway.


Clostridium cellulovorans

Clostridium cellulovorans is an anaerobic, mesophilic, spore-forming cellulolytic bacterium. Its cells are gram-negative and are non-motile rods which form oblong spores. The type strain is 743B (ATCC 35296). Its role as an object of study is based on the latter notion.


Cardinium

""Candidatus" Cardinium" is a genus of Gram-negative parasitic bacteria that reside within cells of some arthropods and nematodes. Although they have not yet been isolated in pure culture (hence the designation "Candidatus"), they are known to negatively influence reproduction in their hosts in order to further their own proliferation. This leads to their classification as a reproductive parasite. One of the only other examples of this type of parasitism is the genus "Wolbachia", which also infects arthropods. These two genera can also co-infect the same animal, as in some nematodes. ""Candidatus" Cardinium" bacteria use many of the same methods to interfere with host reproduction as "Wolbachia," including inducing cytoplasmic incompatibility and distorting the sex ratio in the host population to favor females. The mechanisms by which ""Candidatus" Cardinium" induces these conditions in hosts are thought to be different from the mechanisms used by "Wolbachia". ""Candidatus" Cardinium" bacteria are maternally inherited; infections are maintained through generations through the egg cells (termed vertical transmission). It is estimated that 6-10% of all arthropods are infected with "Cardinium" bacteria.
""Candidatus" Cardinium" were first discovered in 1996 in the cells of deer ticks, although attempts to culture them independently of host cells were unsuccessful.


Physoderma

Physoderma is a genus of chytrid fungi. Described by German botanist Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Wallroth in 1833, the genus contains some species that are parasitic on vascular plants, including "P. alfalfae" and "P. maydis", causative agents of crown wart of alfalfa and brown spot of corn, respectively. Of the chytrid genera, "Physoderma" is the oldest. However, species were confused with the rust fungi, the genus "Synchytrium", and the genus "Protomyces" of Ascomycota. Members of "Physoderma" are obligate parasites of pteridophytes and angiosperms. There are approximately 80 species within this genus (depending on whether one includes those traditionally belonging to "Urophlyctis").
Taxonomic History.
The genus was erected in 1833 on the basis of resting spore development and included 6 species. Unfortunately, his original diagnosis was very similar to that of "Protomyces", which led others to place species in the wrong genus. In 1877, Nowakowski erected the genus "Cladochytrium" in the Chytridiales, which led to the transfer of "Physoderma" to the Chytridiales as well by Schroeter in 1883. Just prior to that (1882), Schroeter added an additional 4 species to the genus and noted, for the first time, epibiotic, ephemeral zoosporangia. He also claimed that sexual reproduction was through the fusion of two cells and resulted in the resting spores. In 1889, Schroeter created the genus "Urophlyctis" for those species with epibiotic, ephemeral zoosporangia and sexually derived resting spores. He placed both in the same subfamily as "Cladochytrium". In 1891, Fischer refuted Schroeter's observations on sexual reproduction and merged "Physoderma" and "Urophlyctis" with "Cladochytrium". In 1897, Schroeter separated them once more. Magnus, in 1901, used characteristics of the resting spore and host plant reaction to distinguish between "Physoderma" and "Urophlyctis". He claimed that resting spores from "Physoderma" were globose and ellipsoidal, and those from "Urophlyctis" were flattened on one side. "Physoderma" species cause discoloration and slight malformation, while "Urophlycits" cause significant malformation and hypertrophy. Sparrow, in numerous publications, expressed concerns over the characters used to distinguish the two genera. In 1943, Sparrow suggested that the genus be merged with "Urophlyctis", which was done by Karling in 1950. He also moved "Physoderma" to its own family, the Physodermataceae. Sparrow, in 1962, decided the genera were distinct based on morphology and host reaction. However, at this time, the two genera are considered synonymous. Typically, it was thought that "Physoderma" was related to the polycentric genera "Cladochytrium" and "Nowakowskiella" Based on the ultrastructure of the zoospore, it was realized that "Physoderma" belongs to the Blastocladiales, which later became the Blastocladiomycota. Recent phylogenetic analyses indicate that "Physoderma" and "Urophlycits" might be separate genera.
Morphology & Life Cycle.
"Physoderma" species are characterized as having a both a monocentric thallus and an endobiotic polycentric thallus. Resting spores germinate in the spring to produce zoospores that will infect the host. The initial infection gives rise to monocentric, epibiotic zoosporangium anchored with endobiotic rhizoids confined to a single host cell. The zoosporangium has been characterized as "Rhizidium" or "Phlyctochytrium" like; it usually has discharge papilla through which the zoospores are released. ("Physoderma" is considered operculate, though some species once in "Urophlyctis" appear to be inoperculate.) The liberated zoospores infect new host cells, and in this fashion, an infection can go through several generations. As well, the sporangia are internally proliferous; that is, they can produce a second round of zoospores after releasing the first one. In late spring and summer, the zoospores will begin to develop into an endobiotic polycentric thallus. This thallus is often extensive, infecting many host cells, with highly branched, fine rhizoids. These rhizoids can bear intercalary cells, which many be once or twice septate (and what Schroeter saw as evidence of sexual reproduction). The endobiotic thallus gives rise to large, thick-walled, dark-colored resting spores that take the shape of the host cell. It appears the resting spores are formed from the intercalary cells. These resting spores will over winter and germinate in the spring.
Ecology.
Many species of "Physoderma" infect marsh plants, and several are confined to the submerged portion of hosts. Infections are usually confined to the leaves and stems, or, less commonly, the petioles of the host plants; however, there are some species that also or specifically infect parts of the flower. A notable example is "Physoderma deformans"; it infects the flower of two species of "Anemone". A curious side effect, flowers infected with "P. deformans" live longer than non-infected flowers. There is at least one known species that infects the roots of the host plant rather than the above-ground parts. Infections can cause discoloration, warts, or galls. "Physoderma" species can be highly specific in both host choice and area of infection. An example is "P. dulichii", which only infects the upper epidermal cells on young leaves of "Dulichium arundinaceum". Another example are two species that infect Sium suave: one infects only the submerged portion of the plant, the other only infects the emergent portion of the plant, but they can be found growing on the same plant. Due to their reliance on zoospores, "Physoderma" species require free water. As an example, "P. dulichii" requires at least an inch of standing water to initiate the infection of a host plant. Once the plant is infected, however, high humidity, dew, or rain is sufficient to keep the infection going through the growing season.