Eodromaeus

Eodromaeus (meaning "dawn runner") was an extinct genus of probable basal theropod dinosaurs from the Late Triassic of Argentina. Like many other of the earliest-known dinosaurs, it hails from the Carnian-age (~230 Ma) Ischigualasto Formation, within the Ischigualasto-Villa Unión Basin of northwestern Argentina. Upon its discovery, it was argued to be one of the oldest true theropods, supplanting its contemporary "Eoraptor", which was reinterpreted as a basal sauropodomorph.
Discovery.
Fossils from "Eodromaeus" were first discovered in 1996 by Argentinean paleontologist Ricardo N. Martinez and Earthwatch volunteer Jim Murphy, and it was first believed that the fossils were a new species of "Eoraptor". However, as the researchers started to take a closer look at the fossils, they found that it had many skeletal features which were absent in "Eoraptor", and they understood that it came from a new genus.
"Eodromaeus" is known from six specimens found at various levels of the Ischigualasto Formation of San Juan Province, Argentina. By far the most complete specimen is the holotype, PVSJ 560, a crushed but nearly complete articulated skeleton recovered from the base of the Valle de la Luna Member. The Valle de la Luna Member is the thick third-oldest member of the formation. It overlies the thinner Cancha de Bochas and La Peña Members, the second-oldest and oldest members of the formation, respectively. Other referred specimens include PVSJ 561, 562, and 563 from the Valle de la Luna Member, PVSJ 534 from the La Peña Member, and PVSJ 877 from the Cancha de Bochas Member. Every "Eodromaeus" specimen lived within the humid "Scaphonyx"-"Exaeretodon"-"Herrerasaurus" biozone of the first half of the Ischigualasto Formation. A bentonite deposit in the La Peña Member has been dated to 231 ± 0.4 Ma, indicating that the Ischigualasto Formation corresponds to part of the Carnian stage of the early Late Triassic.
"Eodromaeus" was named by Ricardo N. Martínez, Paul C. Sereno, Oscar A. Alcober, Carina E. Colombi, Paul R. Renne, Isabel P. Montañez and Brian S. Currie in 2011 and the type species is "Eodromaeus murphi". The generic name is derived from the Greek words "Eos" ("Dawn", "Early") and "Dromaeus" ("Runner"). The specific name honors Jim Murphy, who used to work the area nearby where the fossils were found.
Description.
"Eodromaeus" was a relatively small dinosaur, like most Carnian dinosaurs apart from herrerasaurids. A press release estimated that its total length reach about 1.2 meters (4.0 feet) from nose to tail, with a weight of about 4.5 to 6.8 kilograms (10-15 pounds). Benson "et al." (2018) estimated that "Eodromaeus" had a mass of 7.1 kg (~16 lbs). The animal was lightly-built and had long hindlimbs, suggesting that it was well-built for running even by the standards of most early dinosaurs. Kubo & Kubo (2012) found that, among 23 sampled Triassic archosaurs, only "Eocursor" and "Marasuchus" exceeded "Eodromaeus" in adaptations for cursoriality. Paul Sereno has estimated that it could run about 32 km per hour (20 miles per hour). "Eodromaeus" has been cited by Sereno as resembling a supposed common ancestor to all dinosaurs, the "Eve" of the dinosaurs.
The skull was low and rectangular, about 12 cm (4.7 inches) in length. It had an expansive antorbital fenestra edged from below by a sharp ridge. The antorbital fenestra was preceded a promaxillary fenestra, an additional hole in the skull characteristic of theropods and "Herrerasaurus". The braincase had deep depressions on its side like many theropods, and connected to the palate via thin and blade-like basipterygoid processes. The cranium had a relatively low number of knife-shaped teeth (fifteen in total) which were longest in the front half of the maxilla. There was also a row of tiny teeth on the pterygoid bone of the palate. Palatal teeth are very rare in dinosaurs (and true archosaurs in general), though they have also been found in "Eoraptor". The lower jaw was slender, with widely spaced teeth extending to the tip of the snout as in early theropods.
The cervicals (neck vertebrae) were significantly more elongated than those of "Eoraptor", and those near the shoulders had large pits which would have housed air sacs. The shorter but more numerous dorsals (trunk vertebrae) were reinforced by hyposphene-hypantrum articulations, while the caudals (tail vertebrae) were connected by elongated prezygapophyses, as seen in other theropods. The shoulder girdle had a deep coracoid connecting to a long and rod-shaped scapula. The large forelimbs had closely-appressed forearm bones and strongly-developed wrist and elbow joints. The manus (hand) had five fingers, with the second and third elongating towards their tips. In contrast, the fourth and fifth fingers were very thin and short. The pelvis (hip) had a tall ilium which connected to three sacrals (hip vertebrae). It also included an elongated ischium and pubis, the latter of which tapers before expanding into a small pubic boot similar to that of other theropods. The hindlimb possessed several muscle scars characteristic of theropods, such as a depression on the femur for extensor muscles, and a flange for tibial ligaments on the fibula.
Classification.
When originally described in 2011, "Eodromaeus" was regarded as the earliest member of Theropoda. Theropods include the vast majority of carnivorous dinosaurs, such as "Tyrannosaurus", "Allosaurus", and "Velociraptor", as well as the only living dinosaurs, birds. "Eodromaeus" was considered one of most basal theropod and placed outside of the group Neotheropoda, which contains coelophysoids and post-Triassic theropods. The only putative theropods found to be more basal were the herrerasaurids, a group of relatively large early carnivorous dinosaurs with an unstable relationship to other dinosaurs. The discovery of "Eodromaeus" also lead to scrutiny regarding the contemporary early dinosaur "Eoraptor. Eoraptor" had previously been regarded as a theropod, but Martinez "et al." (2011) instead concluded that it likely represented one of the most basal sauropodomorphs, the group that includes animals like "Apatosaurus". There is still a small amount of debate over the position of "Eoraptor", with a few studies reclaiming it as a theropod alongside "Eodromaeus". Most studies since 2011 have continued to place "Eodromaeus" as a basal theropod akin to the results of Martinez "et al". There are some disagreements; many subsequent studies consider "Eodromaeus" to lie crownward (i.e. more 'advanced') relative to "Tawa" and/or "Chindesaurus." A few also reject the notion of herrerasaurids being theropods.
An alternative hypothesis, first presented by Cabreira "et al." (2016)"," argues that "Eodromaeus" was not a theropod, but rather a more basal saurischian. This means that its lineage would have evolved prior to the split between sauropodomorphs and true theropods. Other putative theropods such as "Tawa", "Chindesaurus", "Daemonosaurus", and herrerasaurids fall even further stemwards than "Eodromaeus" according to this study and derived works. A few other unusual placements have been found in studies relating to the controversial Ornithoscelida hypothesis of Baron "et al". (2017). Although Baron "et al".'s original paper did place "Eodromaeus" as a theropod, a critique and recoding by Langer "et al." (2017) recovered Saurischia and moved "Eodromaeus" out of Theropoda. A subsequent response to that critique, by Baron "et al." (2017), placed "Eodromaeus" as a basal herrerasaurid and simultaneously shifted the entire family Herrerasauridae outside of Dinosauria.
The following cladogram represents the original theropodan placement of "Eodromaeus" found by Martinez "et al.", 2011:
The following cladogram represents the alternative hypothesis of Cabreira "et al." (2016), placing "Eodromaeus" as a basal saurischian:


Chimpa

Chimpa is a volcano in Argentina, close to the border between the Jujuy Province and the Salta Province. The volcano is of Miocene age, one date given being 12 million years ago.
Chimpa has two summits, the high Cerro Chimpa and the high Cerro Cajón. The volcanic edifice was constructed in two stages, the first consisting of explosive and the second of effusive activity. The explosive activity generated ignimbrites and pyroclastic flows. On top of these, many poorly preserved lava flows were emplaced in a radial pattern and constitute three separate formations.
The volcanic rocks are of basaltic andesite to andesite composition, defining a potassium-rich calc-alkaline suite. They contain phenocrysts of biotite, hornblende, ilmenite, magnetite, orthopyroxene, plagioclase and quartz. Mafic inclusions occur in some eruption products.
The basement of the region is formed by various formations of Precambrian to Tertiary age, some of which crop out around the volcano. This basement is cut by various faults, which mark an uplift that forms the Creston Alto de La Aguada east of Chimpa volcano, as well as the Calama-Olacapato-El Toro lineament and associated faults which runs south of the Chimpa volcano and has localized the formation of volcanoes along its path and also influenced the activity of Chimpa. Cerro Rumio is another volcano which crops out south of Chimpa and is in part buried by Chimpa's deposits.


Happy Valley Forest

Happy Valley Forest is a 6.48 square kilometre provincially significant ecological area, classified as an Area of Natural and Scientific Interest by the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. It consists of an upland forest on steeply rolling topography, various wooded swamps, and minor wetland areas (wet meadows, thickets and cattail swamps). A few small kettle ponds are also present.
Located on Ordovician bedrock over the Oak Ridges Moraine, the forest attains elevations between 122 and 152 m, increasing westward. The majority of the area is composed of overburden of ice-contract stratified drift of sand, gravel and silt of varying origin (kame, outwash or collapse). Soil types in the forests are predominantly pontytool sandy loam; Brighton sandy loam, King clay loam (southern and western steep areas), and bottomland (along stream banks) are present in small areas.
The upland forest is dominated by sugar maple in most areas, and sugar maple and American beech in others, though species such as paper birch, white ash, eastern hemlock, black cherry and red oak are found throughout. The eastern portion is instead dominated by red maple and red oak, interspersed by American beech, paper birch, eastern hemlock and largetooth aspen.
In the valleys of this forest can be found largetooth aspen with white birch, red maple and occasional beech, red oak and trembling aspen. Moreover, several kettle depressions and small kettle ponds are present in the area.
Supporting over 100 bird species, and numerous other wildlife species, the Happy Valley Forest is recognized for its size and the presence of various rare species. Native and rare species include:
The red-shouldered hawk was a vulnerable species, but as a result of conservation efforts, was reclassified in 2006 and is no longer at risk. Note that the status of the species listed above is for Canada only. None of these species is currently facing global extinction.
The forest is also home to the northern flying squirrel and the southern flying squirrel, which depend on trees with holes for nesting and food storage. The southern flying squirrel is at the northern extent of its range in Happy Valley Forest.
Happy Valley Infiltration Area.
The Happy Valley Infiltration Area is the source for the "Happy Valley Tributary", which merges with the "Schomberg River". It has an area of 9.45 km².
Politics.
In addition to the politics of the Oak Ridges Moraine, Happy Valley Forest faces a number of political and social issues. Since the late 1990s, ATV use throughout the forest became a concern, both because the vehicles create noise, and because they cause damage to various plants; some indigenous plants are in danger of extirpation, while similar, hardier invasive species take over their habitat. To address the issue, in 2007 the township passed a bylaw mandating that all concession roads in the forest be closed, and erected fences around the property to eliminate access to ATVs.
The Nature Conservancy of Canada (NCC) has a long-term goal to protect 500 acres (2 km²) of Happy Valley Forest. Over of land are currently protected by the NCC and its partners via land purchases, land donations and conservation easements. In May 2013, NCC announced that 90 acres of conservation lands named Love Mountain in the Happy Valley Forest Natural Area were donated by a family that acquired the land in 1930, and funding for its conservation was obtained from private parties, the Government of Canada, and the Regional Municipality of York.


Ananta (Arequipa)

Ananta is a mountain in the Arequipa Region in the Andes of Peru, about high. It is situated in the Caylloma Province, on the border of the districts Achoma and Yanque. Ananta lies east of the dormant volcano Ampato and south-west of the mountain Warank'anthi.


Maurice A. F. Breistroffer

Maurice Andrè Frantz Breistroffer (15 July 1910, Paris – 17 February 1986, Grenoble) was a French paleontologist and botanist.
He worked as a curator at the natural history museum in Grenoble. He was recognized as a leading authority in the study of ammonites, of which, he circumscribed numerous taxa; e.g. the families Oosterellidae (1940) and Leymeriellidae (1951). As a botanist, he conducted investigations of plants native to southeastern France. He described "Scilla litardierei" (amethyst meadow squill) and dozens of other botanical species. Taxa with the specific epithet of "breistrofferi" commemorate his name. In the field of entomology, he studied Coleoptera species found in the department of Drôme.


Torgugas Formation

The Torgugas Formation is a geologic formation in Mexico. It preserves fossils dating back to the Neogene period.


Caves of Namibia

Namibia, a country in south-western Africa, has a total of 124 known caves, 41 of which are situated in the Otjozondjupa Region.
In several of these caves research has been done and published in various journals, but of a variety of caves the location is not commonly known, as the information got lost over the years. Some locations are also deliberately kept secret to protect the caves.
History.
The caves known to local people were reported by early explorers and travelers. The caves of Namibia are not reported for their beauty, but for their practical and curiosity reasons.
A very common belief is that caves were used as shelter places by the San people (Bushmen). However, San did not use caves to shelter in, as most caves of Namibia have vertical entrances and also are situated on top of elevations. Caves were only used when they were accessible and allowed observation over approaching and surrounding area and also room was provided at entrance to shelter. Resources like water, bird’s eggs and honey were indeed used by the local people.
Throughout 1882 to 1915, the Imperial German colonial administration troops were interested in caves, as they provided in remote areas water supply for transport animals. Cave pools which were accessible were used as water points for police patrols and resistance fighters alike.
As years passed, landowners became interested in caves, as due to WW1 and WW2 nitrate was regarded a strategic resource and could no longer be used in fertilizers. Nitrate minerals were replaced by bird guano, but only a small quantity was used locally, the rest was exported. As no fertilizer was available, farmers searched caves and used bat guano as alternative. In the period of 1935 to 1942 more than 10 000 tons of bat guano was extracted from Arnhem cave, but also smaller caves like Nooitgedacht, Otgrot, Valle and others, were mined.
From 1963 research was done on various caves all over Namibia. It was done by local people, but also a variety of researchers from Australia, Austria, France, Germany and many more countries. A problem with researchers from other countries is that they do not ensure that their results and reports are available in Namibia and so valuable information is then lost.


Umhausen

Umhausen is a municipality in the Imst district of state of Tyrol in western Austria. It and is located 17 km southeast of Imst at the Ötztaler Ache in the Ötztal. It has 3078 inhabitants.
Geography.
The municipality consists of six villages:
Umhausen is located at the intersection of the Stubai Alps and the Ötztal Alps. The lowest point is in Tumpen (920m), the highest peak of the municipality is the Strahlkogel, at . Its name comes from its great, white, light-reflecting, quartz layers, which allegedly cause the mountain to "radiate" ("strahlen"). It has the shape of a well-proportioned, steep and pointed pyramid. Ascending the Strahlkogel is difficult and it is thus only rarely visited, unlike the neighbouring 3,287-metre-high Breiter Grieskogel.
Economy.
Umhausen was once a centre for cultivation of flax.
Today the main source of income is tourism. In the area of the community lies the tallest waterfall of Tyrol at 150 metres of height.
Landslide.
The Köfels landslide was a gigantic landslide, known as a sturzstrom, that occurred in the Ötz valley approximately 9800±100 years ago according to radiocarbon dating of trees buried by the event. It involved a 2.5 km horizontal displacement and 800 m vertical displacement of 3.2 km3 of rock and mud along the Ötz valley floor, making it the third largest known sturzstrom.
The British rocket engineer Alan Bond linked this geological evidence to Sumerian astronomical observations and hypothesised an asteroid impact as its cause.
Hedwig von Trapp / The Sound of Music.
Hedwig von Trapp, member of the Trapp family, lived and worked after the dissolution of the family choir in Farst, above Umhausen. This workplace, located at 1470 meter above sea level was designed to alleviate the asthma-related Hedwig von Trapp. Hedwig von Trapp was known from the film and musical The Sound of Music, in this film the experiences of the Trapp family have been filmed. Hedwig von Trapp was portrayed by the character "Brigitta" in the film. The school, Hedwig von Trapp worked, is still in its original condition.


Mount Bosavi

Mount Bosavi is a mountain in the Southern Highlands province, Papua New Guinea. It is the collapsed cone of an extinct volcano on the Great Papuan Plateau, part of the Kikori River basin. The crater is approximately 4 km wide and 1 km deep; it is home to a number of endemic species.
Part of the mountain is included in the Sulamesi Wildlife Management Area, established in 2006. It forms part of the proposed UNESCO World Heritage Site Kikori River Basin/Great Papuan Plateau.
The people living just north of the mountain refer to themselves as "Bosavi kalu" (people of Bosavi) and divide into four culturally identical but linguistically marked groups, the Kaluli, Ologo, Walulu, and Wisesi. Collectively they are often referred to as Bosavi kalu ("men of Bosavi").
Fauna and flora.
A 2009 expedition by an international team of scientists and a television crew from the BBC Natural History Unit filming "Lost Land of the Volcano", a BBC wildlife documentary, discovered more than 40 previously undescribed species, including 16 frogs, at least 3 fish, several insects and spiders, a bat, and a giant rat, measuring 82 cm in length and weighing approximately 1.5 kg.
Mount Bosavi is also the type locality for "Pseudohydromys pumehanae", a recently described species of moss-mouse.


Canardia

Canardia is an extinct genus of aralosaurin lambeosaurine dinosaur known from the Late Cretaceous Marnes d'Auzas Formation (late Maastrichtian stage) of Haute-Garonne department, in Occitanie region, southwestern France. The type species "Canardia garonnensis" was first described and named by Albert Prieto-Márquez, Fabio M. Dalla Vecchia, Rodrigo Gaete and Àngel Galobart in 2013. The name of the genus comes from “canard”, the French word for “duck”, an allusion to the fact that this animal belongs to the hadrosaurids which are also known as duck-billed dinosaurs. The specific epithet "garonnensis" refers to the Haute-Garonne department where this dinosaur has been found. "Canardia" was one of the last non-avian dinosaurs and lived between 67,5 and 66 my on the former Ibero-Armorican Island, which included much of France and Spain.
Discovery and naming.
"Canardia" is known by various cranial and postcranial remains found in several sites in southwestern France (Haute-Garonne Department). The type locality of Tricouté 3, near the village of Marignac-Laspeyres, was discovered in 1999 by a team of The Musée des Dinosaures d’Espéraza. This site is located in the basal part of the Marnes d’Auzas Formation, which corresponds to a laguno-continental environment. The hadrosaur remains were preserved in a small lenticular marly-sandstone level within a thick sandstone bed. They belong to at least two different individuals as indicated by the presence of two left scapulae among the samples. The cranial elements include a nearly complete right maxilla (the holotype), a partial left maxilla, a right prefrontal, an incomplete right postorbital, a left quadrate, a right pterygoid, a partial left surangular, a right articular, an isolated dentary tooth crown, and a partial dental battery of the lower jaw. The postcranial material is represented by two partial left scapulae, an incomplete left sternal plate, a left humerus, and a partial right pubis. In 2003, these specimens were provisionally attributed to "Pararhabdodon" sp., a Spanish genus that at the time was the only known lambeosaurin in Europe. It was not until 2013 that Prieto-Márquez and colleagues recognized these bones as those of a new genus. All bones are of relatively small sizes (the holotype maxilla is 16,9 cm, the scapula is 21,8 cm, and the humerus is only 19,4 cm) and belong to immature individuals.
The same authors have also attributed to "Canardia" an associated maxilla and quadrate found in marine deposits of the Marly Limestone of Gensac Formation in Larcan quarry, about twenty km west of Marignac-Laspeyres. The two bones, first described in 2010 by Bilotte et al., were located approximately 1 m under an iridium level marking the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary. This level is a lateral equivalent to the uppermost part of the Marne d’Auzas Formation. This shows that the Larcan individual is geologically younger than the Marignac-Laspeyres specimens. This discovery also indicates that "Canardia" was one of the last non-avian dinosaurs to exist in Europe just before the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event. The Larcan specimen belongs to a juvenile individual (the length of the maxilla is 11,5 cm), whose remains were carried by a river to the sea.
Description.
The main feature of "Canardia" is the maxilla characterized by an enlarged rostrodorsal region that forms a prominent subrectangular flange that rises vertically above the rostroventral process. This character is also known in "Aralosaurus tuberiferus" from Kazakhstan that lived 20 million years before "Canardia". However, the maxilla of "Canardia" differs from that of "Aralosaurus" in its subhorizontal ectopterygoid shelf (it is parallel to the posterior segment of the dental row) whereas it is clearly inclined in "Aralosaurus". The maxilla of "Canardia" shows at least 26 teeth positions against 30 in "Aralosaurus", but the entire tooth row is not preserved in the French form. The maxillary teeth have a single median carina while the dentary teeth have an accessory ridge in front of the sub-central carina, as is the case in "Aralosaurus" and in many other hadrosaurs. "Canardia" differs also from "Aralosaurus" by the shape of the prefrontal in dorsal view. In "Canardia", the rostroventral process of the prefrontal is rostrocaudally narrow, whereas in "Aralosaurus", the same bone process is broad and laterally well-exposed. In addition, the prefrontal of "Canardia" has a dorsomedial flange that is absent in "Aralosaurus". "Canardia" and "Aralosaurus" are closely related, and Prieto-Márquez and colleagues brought them together in a new group of basal lambeosaurines which they call Aralosaurini.
It is not known if "Canardia" had a hollow bony crest on the skull like most lambeosaurines. Its close relative "Aralosaurus" appears to have had a hollow structure in front of the orbits. However, as only a fragment of this structure has been preserved, its size and shape are unfortunately unknown. Maybe "Canardia" had a similar structure, but the discovery of more complete cranial remains is necessary to make comparisons.
Phylogeny.
With its sister group "Aralosaurus tuberiferus", "Canardia garonnensis" form a small clade, the tribe of Aralosaurini. These two genera are the most basal Lambeosaurinae.
The phylogenetic analyzes carried out by Prieto-Márquez and his colleagues led to the following cladogram:
Palaeoecology.
Paleobiogeography.
The close relationship of "Canardia" with "Aralosaurus" confirms the existence of faunal exchange in the Late Cretaceous between the islands of the European archipelago and the Asian continent. "Canardia" and "Aralosaurus" are temporally distant for at least 20 million years. As no lambeosaurines were known in the rich localities of late Campanian and early Maastrichtian ages of the Ibero-Armorican Island, it was suggested that the ancestors of "Canardia" had to reach this island rather late, perhaps at the end of the early Maastrichtian or during the late Maastrichtian. The discovery later in Spain of numerous lambeosaurines remains in the highest levels of the lower Maastrichtian argues for the first hypothesis. This migration was probably carried out in several stages, firstly by temporary terrestrial links between the landmass of Western Asia and the eastern islands of the European archipelago, then between the different European islands up to the Ibero-Armorican Island. A similar scenario probably applies to the presence on this island during the late Maastrichtian of another lambeosaurine with Asian affinity, the genus "Pararhabdodon" which is close to the Chinese "Tsintaosaurus" (which lived 15 million years earlier). Both "Canardia" and "Pararhabdodon" belong to lambeosaurines groups that are rather archaic for their time (Aralosaurini and Tsintaosaurini respectively) and the Ibero-Armorican Island was perhaps an ultimate refuge for these ancient groups of lambeosaurines hadrosaurs.
Palaeoenvironment.
The Marnes d’Auzas Formation is 100 m thick. It corresponds to sediments whose depositional environment evolved from the paralic domain (coastal lagoons, tidal marsh, tidal muddy channel) at the base of the formation, towards a more continental domain (alluvial plain, fluvial channels) in its upper part. From a paleogeographic point of view, the sites of the Marnes d’Auzas Formation were located on the west coast of the Ibero-Armorican Island (which included much of France and Spain), facing the Atlantic Gulf.
Few other vertebrates fossils have been found with the "Canardia" remains. The type locality of Tricouté 3, in the basal part of the Marnes d’Auzas Formation, has yielded only a crocodilian tooth, whereas the marine Marly limestone of Gensac Formation (the lateral equivalent of the top of the Marnes d’Auzas) has not yet yielded other terrestrial vertebrates remains. However, a more diverse fauna is known from the Cassagnau localities, in the middle part of the Marnes d’Auzas Formation. The Cassagnau's fauna is also located near Marignac-Laspeyres and includes several fish (Lepisosteidae, Phyllodontidae, Sparidae), Amphibians (Albanerpetontidae), several turtles including a complete carapace of "Iberoccitanemys convenarum", various crocodylians including teeth of a "Musturzabalsuchus"-like form and a complete skull attributed to "Thoracosaurus neocesariensis", two squamates (an indeterminate lizard and a varanoid form which is probably a freshwater mosasauroid), a probable enantiornithe bird, an indeterminate dromaeosaurid (known only by teeth), an indeterminate theropod of larger size (only known by a tooth characterized by its anterior carina running on the lingual side of the teeth), an indeterminate titanosaurian sauropod represented by teeth and a metacarpal (the shape of the teeth suggests that they belong to an "Atsinganosaurus"-like form), and an indeterminate lambeosaurine hadrosaur. The latter is exclusively represented by juvenile individuals and includes an articulated postcranial skeleton, teeth, and two left dentaries, one of them being associated with a predentary. No maxilla is preserved in these specimens, so it is not possible to know if this hadrosaur belongs to "Canardia" or to another lambeosaurine. The Marnes d’Auzas Formation is also present in the department of Ariège, notably near the village of Mérigon. There, a coarse sandstone bed at the top of the formation, has yielded a tooth and a dentary fragment of an indeterminate hadrosaur, as well as a cervical vertebra of a giant Azhdarchid pterosaur of 9 meters wingspan.


Ocepechelon

Ocepechelon is an extinct genus of giant protostegid sea turtle known from Late Cretaceous (late Maastrichtian stage, 67 Myr) phosphatic deposits of the Oulad Abdoun Basin, Khouribga Province of Morocco. It is known from the holotype OCP DEK/GE 516, a complete but isolated 70-cm-long skull, making it one of the largest marine turtles ever described. It was first named by Nathalie Bardet, Nour-Eddine Jalil, France de Lapparent de Broin, Damien Germain, Olivier Lambert and Mbarek Amaghzaz in 2013 and the type species is "Ocepechelon bouyai". The feeding apparatus of "Ocepechelon", a bony pipette-like snout, is unique among tetrapods and shares unique convergences with both syngnathid fishes (unique long tubular bony snout ending in a rounded and forward directed mouth) and beaked whales (large size and elongated edentulous jaws).
Description.
"Ocepechelon" is known solely from an isolated yet complete skull, 70 cm in length. From the size of the skull, it must have been one of the largest turtles that ever lived. The skull of this genus was not only exceptional in size, but also in appearance: large at the back, it narrowed at the front to form a sort of elongated, narrow, bony funnel. The lower jaw and hyoid remain unknown, but from the skull itself, which is 70 cm in length, a wide range of information can be determined.
Its longirostrine snout has been compared to a pipette, and is unique among all tetrapods. Its flattened, streamlined skull, as well as the dorsal position of its orbits and nares, suggest it was a seagoing species which hunted close to the water's surface. This hypothesis is supported by sedimentological analysis and its skull anatomy. Several aspects of "Ocepechelon"'s skull anatomy suggest it may have been a suction feeder, namely the tube-like upper jaw. In general, the skull must have looked something like a toothless crocodile: there were no teeth, but the eyes were upturned, as were the nostrils, which were set far back. It is the only tetrapod to have developed an evolutionary convergence with both syngnathid fishes and beaked whales, since it possessed a large head but a long, narrow, toothless snout.
Like other genera in the Panchelonioidea, it likely possessed limbs that had evolved into flippers, allowing an active swimming lifestyle. Material which may be preferable to "Ocepechelon" supports this hypothesis.
Phylogeny.
Due to the limited fossil material available, numerous methods were used to assess the phylogenetic position of the animal. The removal of outgroup taxa, except for the hypothetical taxon, deliberated some relationships and showed that "Ocepechelon" and "Bouliachelys" could be basal dermochelyoids, forming a polytomy with the Dermochelyidae and Protostegidae. The inclusion of Chelomacryptodira resolved this polytomy, and suggested that "Ocepechelon" was the most basal dermochelyid known.
Below is a cladogram from the description of "Ocepechelon", by Bardet et al., (2013).
However, Scavezzoni & Fischer (2018),<ref name="scavezzoni&fisher2018"/ in their phylogentic analysis, showed that Dermatochelyidae and Protostegidae did not form a clade, and classified "Ocepechelon" within Protostegidae, as a sister taxon to "Alienochelys". Below is a subsequent phylogeny based on Scavezzoni & Fischer's cladogram and Evers et al. (2019)<ref name="eversetal2019"/, who both recovered it as a protostegid.
Paleobiology.
The remarkable similarities between "Ocepechelon" and beaked whales (as well as syngnathid fishes) have led paleontologists to speculate about "Ocepechelon"'s possible mode of feeding. Since both beaked whales and syngnathids are organisms that feed by sucking (i.e., creating a vacuum to suck in small prey), paleontologists believe that "Ocepechelon" may have also fed in this way. This animal probably swam near the surface of the warm oceans it inhabited, swallowing large quantities of small fish, cephalopods and jellyfish. From comparison with other present-day turtles, it is also speculated that "Ocepechelon" may have been equipped with small spiny structures within its throat. These papillae are currently present in the leatherback sea turtle (one of "Ocepechelon"'s closest relatives), and not only filter water, but also create a sharp barrier to prey trying to get out. "Ocepechelon" may have had a similar structure, as well as other papillae along the edges of the mouth.


Principiala

Principiala is an extinct genus of lacewing in the moth lacewings family Ithonidae. The genus is known from Cretaceous fossils found in South America, Europe, and possibly Asia. The genus is composed of two species, the type species Principiala incerta, and Principiala rudgwickensis.
History and classification.
"Principiala" is known only from three fossils assigned to the two species and an additional fossil tentatively assigned to the genus. The holotype adult of "P. incerta", specimen number SMNK PAL 5352 is housed in the collections of the State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart, while the partial paratype adult, specimen number SMNS 66000/255, is part of the State Museum of Natural History Karlsruhe, Germany. The specimens are preserved as compression fossils in finely laminated siltstones, which were recovered from outcrops of the Nova Olinda Member of the Late Aptian Crato Formation in Northeastern Brazil. "P. rudgwickensis" was described from a single part and counterpart holotype, "BMB 025005, -6" that is part of the Booth Museum of Natural History in Brighton and Hove, England. The species is older than "P. incerta", having been recovered from Rudgwick Brickworks which mined sediments of the Barremian Upper Weald Clay Formation. A single wing has been recovered from the Yixian Formation in China which was noted as probably belonging to the genus by Makarkin "et al" in 2012.
The Brazilian fossils were first studied by the paleoentomologists Vladimir N. Makarkin of the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences and Federica Menon from the University of Manchester in England. Their 2007 type description of the new genus and species was published in the journal "Cretaceous Research". The genus name "Principiala" was coined by the researchers as a combination of "Principi", in honor of Italian entomologist Maria Principi and the Latin word "ala" meaning "wing". The specific epithet "incerta" is derived from the Latin "incertus", in reference to the uncertain relationship of the genus within Ithonidae.
Two years later a group of researchers led by paleoentomologist James Jepson described the second species "P. rudgwickensis". The team chose the species name "rudgwickensis" as a reference to the Rudgwick Brickworks where the fossil was found.
Overall the vein structure of "Principiala" is most similar to the genus "Allorapisma", known from Ypresian fossils found in the northwestern United States. The wings of both genera show the apical end of the Rs vein fused to the MA vein. Both have similar positioning and shaping of the MP vein and the CuA vein running parallel to the MP vein. As such, Makarkin and Archibald suggested the two be grouped in an informal suprageneric group called the "Principiala" group. This group is one of three possibly monophyletic groups in Ithonidae, the others two being the "Ithone" group and the "Rapisma" group.
Description.
The genus is identified by the short length of the antennae. Being approximately long, they are the shortest of the described neuropterans, with "Rapisma" having the shortest of the extant genera. The costal region of the fore-wing shows a regular series of cross-veins which gives the appearance of a longitudinal vein in the base area of the region. In contrast to the cross-veins of the costal area, the cross-veins in the subcostal area of the fore-wing are there are irregularly spaced and uneven. The area between the radius and median veins is notably narrow near the fore-wing base, and narrows towards the wing tip until the two veins merge. As with many Ithonidea genera, the head is pulled most of the way under the pronotal shield. "P. incerta" and "P. rudgwickensis" are distinguished by the characters of the species fore-wings, with an approximate length of for the former and only an estimated in the latter. In addition the last branch of the Rs vein in "P. rudgwickensis" is distinctly longer than that seen in "P. incerta" before the branches merge with the Median vein. "P. rudgwickensis" also shows a number of crossveins between the Rs branches of the Radial vein and the tip sections of the Rs branches are straight, both features absent or not preserved in "P. incerta".


Daptocephalus Assemblage Zone

The "Daptocephalus" Assemblage Zone is a tetrapod assemblage zone or biozone found in the Adelaide Subgroup of the Beaufort Group, a majorly fossiliferous and geologically important geological Group of the Karoo Supergroup in South Africa. This biozone has outcrops located in the upper Teekloof Formation west of 24°E, the majority of the Balfour Formation east of 24°E, and the Normandien Formation in the north. It has numerous localities which are spread out from Colesberg in the Northern Cape, Graaff-Reniet to Mthatha in the Eastern Cape, and from Bloemfontein to Harrismith in the Free State. The "Daptocephalus" Assemblage Zone is one of eight biozones found in the Beaufort Group and is considered Late Permian (Lopingian) in age. Its contact with the overlying "Lystrosaurus" Assemblage Zone marks the Permian-Triassic boundary.
Previously known as the "Dicynodon" Assemblage Zone, the name of the biozone refers to "Daptocephalus", a medium-sized dicynodont therapsid. It is characterized by the presence of this species in co-occurrence with "Theriognathus microps", and "Dicynodon lacerticeps."
History.
The first fossils to be found in the Beaufort Group rocks that encompass the current eight biozones were discovered by Andrew Geddes Bain in 1856. However, it was not until 1892 that it was observed that the geological strata of the Beaufort Group could be differentiated based on their fossil taxa. The initial undertaking was done by Harry Govier Seeley who subdivided the Beaufort Group into three biozones, which he named (from oldest to youngest):
These proposed biozones Seeley named were subdivided further by Robert Broom between 1906 and 1909. Broom proposed the following biozones (from oldest to youngest):
These biozone divisions were approved by paleontologists of the time and were left largely unchanged for several decades. The "Daptocephalus" Assemblage Zone was first named after the dicynodont "Daptocephlaus leoniceps" by James Kitching due to the high prevalence, and localized appearance, of this species. However, the name of the biozone was changed to the "Dicynodon" Assemblage Zone as it was argued that "Daptocephalus" was in fact a juvenile of "Dicynodon". In addition it was thought that "Dicynodon" was a more suitable taxon for global biostratigraphic correlation of other Karoo-aged basins, namely to those in Zambia, Tanzania, China, and Russia. In recent years, with new paleontological finds and updated logging of geological formations and biostratigraphy of the Karoo Basin, it was found that there has been some taxonomic confusion with "Dicynodon" fossils. In addition, recent taxonomic studies have shown that "Daptocephalus" is indeed its own species, and is only found within the confines of the biozone. Subsequently it was renamed the "Daptocephalus" Assemblage Zone.
Lithology.
The "Daptocephalus" Assemblage Zone is located only in the upper Balfour formation and lower Normandien formation east of 24°E. These formations all fall within the Adelaide Subgroup of the Beaufort Group, sediments of which were formed in a large retroarc foreland basin in south-western Gondwana. The biozone is subdivided into the lower "Daptocephalus-Theriognathus" subzone and the upper "Lystrosaurus-Moschorhinus" subzone. This satisfies the appearance of "Lystrosaurus maccaigi" below the "Lystrosaurus" Assemblage Zone boundary, and the disappearance of the lower subzone taxa "Theriognathus", "Dicynodon", and "Procynosuchus delaharpeae".
At the time of sedimentary deposition, the Karoo retroarc foreland system was in an overfilled phase, and purely terrestrial sediments occupied the Karoo Basin at this time. Two fining-upward sequences are observed in the sedimentary stratigraphy of "Daptocephalus" biozone, bounded by a second-order subaerial unconformity. These sedimentary rocks comprise greenish-grey mudrock with siltstone lenses in the lower to middle sections of the biozone, which are indicative of a low-energy fluvial environments with meandering rivers. It is in these rocks that fossils are most commonly found. As the biozone reaches its termination, its contact with the overlying Katberg Formation marks a sharp change in the lithology. The sedimentary rocks change to being sandstone-rich with these sandstone bodies commonly appearing within outcrops of brownish-red shale and reddish mudstone. The appearance and proliferation of these sandstone deposits marks the change to braided river systems where sands were only deposited with the finer sediments being washed further downstream.
Fossil abundance and preservation quality does not change across the boundary, however, species abundance does due to the extinction event, and also the preservational style of the fossils. More isolated skulls are found in the Permian, whereas in the earliest Triassic, curled up complete skeletons are more common as are bonebeds. These lithological and taphonomic changes are used as evidence for the sudden drying of the climate associated with the Permian-Triassic extinction event.
Paleontology.
The lower to middle zones of the "Daptocephlaus" Assemblage Zone display a great diversity of vertebrate fauna. These include its current type species "Daptocephalus" and other dicynodonts such as the ubiquitous "Diictodon", "Dinanomodon", and "Pristerodon". Various species of burnetiamorph Biarmosuchians and Rubidgenae Gorgonopsians are also found. Therocephalian species such as "Moschorhinus kitchingi" and the earliest cynodont "Charassognathus gracilis" also appear. Parareptile species, namely captorhinids, the Younginiforme "Youngina", and a variety of temnospondyl amphibians, fishes, and plant fossils such as "Glossopteris" are likewise found. The upper zones as the Permian-Triassic boundary approaches, there is a marked drop in species diversity as the Permian-Triassic extinction event began to take its course.
Age and correlations.
The "Daptocephalus" Assemblage Zone dates to approximately 254.5 to 251 Ma, and correlates with the Kutuluksaya and Kulchomovskaya Formations of Russia, and with the lower Buena Vista Formation of the Paraná Basin, South America.


Cerro El Muerto

Location.
Cerro el Muerto (sometimes El Muerto fully translated as "The Dead One" ") is a range or area at the border of Argentina and Chile. It has a height of . It's located at Atacama Region, Copiapó Province, at the Puna de Atacama. It only receives a handful of climbing attempts every year and most are from the chilean side.
Elevation.
It has an official height of 6488 meters, however, based on the elevation provided by the available Digital elevation models, SRTM (6490m), ASTER (6488m), SRTM filled with ASTER (6490m), TanDEM-X(6533m), and also a handheld GPS survey by Maximo Kausch on 12/2010 (6519 meters), Muerto is about 6510 meters above sea level.
The height of the nearest key col is 4414 meters. so its prominence is 2096 meters. Muerto is listed as range or area, based on the Dominance system and its dominance is 32.2%. Its parent peak is Ojos del Salado and the Topographic isolation is 8 kilometers. This information was obtained during a research by Suzanne Imber in 2014.


Farallon Negro (volcano)

Farallon Negro is a volcano in the Catamarca province of Argentina. Active between about 9-8 million years ago, it was formerly a stratovolcano or a multi vent volcano. Eventually, erosion removed most of the volcano and exposed the underlying structure including subvolcanic intrusions.
The remnants of the volcano are the sites of mining operations.
Geography and structure.
Farallon Negro is located in the Argentine Catamarca province, in the Sierra de Belén and north of the Pipanaco basin. It may be the largest volcanic field in the Argentine foreland. Nearby towns are Andalgala approximately south of the Agua Rica deposit, Belen approximately southwest of the volcano and Tucuman approximately northeast. The local climate is arid and temperatures range .
It is located between the tectonic region of the Sierras Pampeanas and the Puna. Volcanic activity in this region east of the principal volcanic arc is of unknown origin and was widespread in the past. Said volcanism took place between 12 and 5 mya ago.
Farallon Negro probably is a stratovolcano which has been degraded by erosion, resulting in the exposure of intrusive bodies. Before the erosion, the volcano may have been over high and covering a surface area of . Another theory suggests that Farallon Negro was a multi-vent complex. The basement altitude is about . These include the Agua Rica and Bajo de la Alumbrera porphyry centres and the Agua Tapada and Bajo el Durazno intrusion. Most of the volcanic products of Farallon Negro are lava flows and breccia. The volcanic vent for most of the Farallon Negro products appears to be in the general area of Alto de la Blenda, suggesting that it is the location of the vent. Volcanic units at Durazno are somewhat different from those in the main complex. Lava domes are sometimes surrounded by ash and block flows.
Intrusive volcanics form much of the exposed complex. In Bayo de la Alumbrera, a dacite complex is embedded within pyroclastic rocks and trachyandesites. Bayo de la Alumbrera was originally buried beneath a high volcanic pile. Around the Alto de la Blenda monzonite a number of stocks ( wide) and dikes originate, which indicates it may be a remnant of the conduit. In some stocks magma mixing appears to have occurred during formation; in Alto de la Alumbrera first felsic and at the end mafic rocks were formed. Several dykes and stocks were injected into andesite during the formation of Bajo de la Alumbrera. Many of these stocks have suffered hydrothermal alteration extending into surrounding rocks shortly after their formation including propylitic alteration, but the later stocks show no evidence of alteration. This pattern probably occurred because strong volcanic activity during the earliest intrusions did leak away fluids before they could trigger alteration. When volcanic activity dropped, trapped fluids could then initiate hydrothermal alteration. This probably coincided with a change in the local stress regime that reduced volcanic activity. Faults and fractures have influenced the alteration. In Bajo de la Alumbrera, this alteration has given place to magnetite and anhydrite inclusions which indicated the rocks were highly oxidized. Phyllic (pyrite-quartz-sericite) and potassic (biotite-orthoclase) alteration is noticeable in satellite images of Bajo de la Alumbrera. Agua Rica, another exposed deposit, is cut by the Quebradas Mina valley. It is subdivided in the Seca and Trampeadero porphyries. Two diatremes are also found, one of which is named El Espanto.
Rock chemistry and isotope analysis suggests that at first the Farallon Negro system was not underpinned by a magma chamber. Starting in 8.5 mya then a heterogeneous magma chamber was probably established, with an increasing content of felsic rocks at its roof. A minimum volume of is required to explain the formation of the Alumbrera deposit. This magma chamber probably had a heterogeneous composition.
Geology.
Subduction of the Nazca plate between 28° and 33° southern latitude flattened starting 18 million years ago, causing arc volcanism to propagate to the Sierras Pampeanas. Subduction of a segment of the Juan Fernandez Ridge may have triggered this shallowing. 10 million years ago, volcanism ceased in the main Andean chain in this segment, probably because the mantle wedge was thinned by the flattening of the subduction. North and south of this segment subduction is steeper and volcanism persists to the present day.
Farallon Negro is located in the border zone between the flat subduction zone and the zone of steeper subduction farther north that has generated the Central Volcanic Zone. A number of volcanoes in this transitional zone are found on northwest trending lineaments; this includes Cerro Negro de Chorillos, Farallon Negro, Galan and Cerro Tuzgle. The Tucuman fault zone is located in the area.
Local.
The basement in the Farallon Negro area of the Sierras Pampeanas are schists and gneisses of deep water origin with an intruded batholith of Ordovician-Silurian age. This plutonic activity coincided with the collision of South America with eastern North America during that time. The Sierras Pampeanas are formed by several chains of mountains of Proterozoic-Paleozoic age with valleys separating them. During the Pliocene-Pleistocene separate basement blocks were upfolded. These geological patterns are similar to the Laramide orogeny in North America and may be a general pattern of mountain building over flat subduction. During the Miocene, red beds were deposited in the area forming the El Morterito Formation that reaches a thickness of . This formation was probably formed in episodic events such as flash floods. Rocks of the Paleozoic basement beneath Farallon Negro contain amphibolite, mica schist, phyllite and quartzite.
Farallon Negro itself is found between the Sierra de Aconquija in the east and the Sierra de Quilmes in the north. Both of these are Paleozoic basement blocks with Farallon Negro found in a depression between these. The formation of this depression may have occurred after the deposition of red bed sediments, seeing as they form thin layers while the Farallon Negro volcanics are over . The volcanites were erupted through a crystalline basement including batholits and metasedimentary rock.
Geologic record.
Farallon Negro is extensively eroded, almost down to its Paleozoic basement. Erosion took place between the Miocene and the Pliocene considering that volcanic rocks are buried beneath Pliocene conglomerates.
Composition.
Basaltic andesite and andesite constitute the bulk of Farallon Negro volcanisms. Dacites and basalt also occur. The Bajo de la Alumbrera porphyry deposit is found in shoshonite. They are heterogeneous in composition, with several phases dominated by hornblende, plagioclase and pyroxene. Magnetite and biotite are also present. Generally, early rocks are mafic and the late ones intermediate or silicic. Magma mixing may have played a role in the formation of the rocks; specifically andesites formed from the mixing of basaltic-lamprophyric melts with dacitic-rhyolitic ones within andesitic rocks. Overall composition is potassium-rich calc-alkaline. Isotope compositions are typical for a mature volcanic arc. The total quantity of produced magma is about .
The bottom of the volcanic pile forms breccias that were presumably emplaced by flood-like flows. Sedimentary rocks, dykes and lava flows are also found. In the upper layers, lava flows and lava domes are found. Again there are also sedimentary rocks. Some deposits may be debris flow deposits, phreatomagmatic deposits are also found.
Alteration products have been analyzed at Bajo de la Alumbrera. Gold-containing pyrite and chalcopyrite, bornite and enargite are the main gold containing minerals. Hydrothermal orthoclase and quartz as well as hydrothermal assemblages of anhydrite, biotite and magnetite are also found. An earlier argyllic (clay) cap over the deposit was eroded away. Alto de la Blenda has shown the presence of chalcopyrite, galena, pyrite, sphalerite, tennantite-tetrahedrite. Agua Rica displays covellite, enargite, galena, marcasite, molybdenite, pyrite, sphalerite, sulfur and tetrahedrite, formed first as a porphyry that was subsequently modified by hydrothermal piping.
Some mineralization was directed by fluids which exhaled from the magma chamber into surrounding rocks after a period of volcanic rest. Inclusions in rocks demonstrate that these fluids included brine and sulfide-rich fluids. These sulfide containing brines and fluids extracted much of the gold and copper from the bulk rocks, causing them to be poorer in Au and Cu than the melts. These fluids probably had temperatures of over and formed under rocks about thick.
Eruptive history.
The oldest age reported is 9.4±0.3 mya for a lava flow in Bayo el Durazno, but undateable units stratigraphically older than this flow are present. Until 8.05±0.37 mya activity in the central cone occurred, between 8.0±0.2 and 7.27±0.35 mya Cerro Durazno was active.
Of the intrusions, the Tampa Tampa andesites between Alto de la Blenda and Bajo el Durazno formed first at 9.0±0.2 mya. Bajo el Durazno formed a porphyry at 8.39±0.18 mya. The Las Casitas rhyolite and the Chilca andesite porphyry have comparable ages of 8.0±0.12 and 8.0±0.11 mya. The Alto de la Blenda stock was formed 7.55±0.3 mya. Agua Tapada was formed 7.35±0.16 mya. Las Pampitas was emplaced 7.22±0.28 mya. Bajo de San Lukas was emplaced 7.1 mya. 6.98±0.08–6.78±0.15 the Bajo de la Alumbrera intrusion was formed. 6.18±0.05 and 6.04±0.07 mya the Loma Morada and Macho Muerto rocks were emplaced. The Quebrada de los Leones rhyolites are the youngest intrusions but aren't dated isotopically.
Evidence indicates that in the beginning the Farallon Negro volcano grew rapidly, at least in the northwest sector and then growth petered out. Towards the end of activity around 7.3 mya a caldera collapse may have occurred. Composition of the eruptive products changed over the lifespan of the system. The main volcanism (9.2–6.8 mya) was andesitic-dacitic. During the intrusive phase (8.0–6.2 mya) magma was initially basaltic andesite and later rhyolite.
Mining.
A mine of copper and gold is found within Bajo de la Alumbrera, opened in July 1997. It is estimated that it will be one of the ten largest copper mines in the world in full production, and one of the largest gold mines in South America. Some copper mining began already in 1970s but a major open pit mine was opened in February 1998. Two mines are also operated in Alto de la Alumbrera, the Farallon Negro mine opened in 1978 and Alto de la Alumbrera opened in 1986.
It is estimated that Bajo de la Alumbrera contains of copper. The mineralization may have originated in mafic magmas. The formation process of these deposits is insofar different from that of other Andean porphyry deposits as it was formed by several hydrothermal systems that were separated only by a few million years, while e.g. the copper porphyry El Salvador formed during episodic magmatic activity.


Pleuroceras (ammonite)

Pleuroceras is a genus of ammonite from the lower Jurassic, upper Pliensbachian.
Description.
Pleuroceras has a planulate shell with a quadrate whorl section, bearing strong radial ribs ending in ventro-lateral tubercles. The venter is tabulate with a strong serrated keel.
Distribution.
Species of this genus were fast-moving nektonic carnivore. Its fossils have been found in Canada and Europe (France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Serbia, Montenegro, Spain and United Kingdom).


Cayesh

Cayesh is a mountain in the Cordillera Blanca in the Andes of Peru, about high. It is located between Huaraz and Huari provinces in Ancash. Cayesh lies at the head of the Cayesh valley, northwest of Artisa and southeast of Andavite.


Biu Plateau

The Biu Plateau is a highland area in Northeastern Nigeria containing many recently extinct volcanoes. It covers about and has an average elevation of . The plateau lies between the Upper Benue Basin to the south and the Chad Basin to the north. High points are Wade Hill at above sea level and Wiga Hill, at well over . The plateau is the source of many tributaries of the Gongola River, which have cut deep gorges. To the north the plateau slopes gently to the Bauchi plains and the Chad Basin.
There is evidence of early volcanic activity in the area during the Cretaceous, which ended about 66 million years ago. However, the plateau was built around the end of the Miocene, and the bulk of the rocks are Pliocene basalts that have erupted from small vents or fissures, and then spread in a thin layer over wide areas. Activity resumed in the Quaternary with thin flows of lava issuing from small cinder cones and filling the valleys. Most of the basalts date between 7 and 2 million years ago, but some are less than a million years old. The plateau includes many small pyroclastic cones caused by explosions when water penetrated downward and came into contact with fresh lava. There are a number of well-preserved volcanic cones rising above the Plateau along a NNW-SSE axis in the Miringa volcanic zone.
Some geologists consider that the volcanic activity in the Biu Plateau is associated with the activity in the Cameroon line to the south.


Dolichoderus heeri

Dolichoderus heeri is a recently discovered extinct species of Miocene ant in the genus "Dolichoderus". Described by Dlussky and Putyatina in 2014, the fossils were found in Radoboj in Croatia.


Windermeria

Windermeria aitkeni is a Precambrian organism from the Blueflower Formation of Sekwi Brook North, in the Northwest Territories of Canada. Only one specimen has been found. "Windermeria" is a small (16.4 × 7.9 mm) segmented elongated oval fossil with eight nearly equal-sized segments arranged transverse to medial furrow in opposite arrangement. "Windermeria" superficially resembles a diminutive "Dickinsonia" and as such is the only possible dickinsoniid proarticulatan known exclusively from outside of Australia and East Europe.


Korallenoolith Formation

The Korallenoolith Formation is a geologic formation in Germany. It preserves fossils dating back to the Jurassic period. It predominantly consists of oolitic limestone.


Farallon Basin

The Farallon Basin is a submarine depression located on the seabed at the southern end of the Gulf of California. The basin results from the activity of one of the several spreading centers in the Gulf. The basin is linked to the Atl Fault to the south, and the Farallon Fault in the north.
The Farallon Basin has a spreading axis at its center, so the seafloor here is oceanic crust, transitioning into thin, rifted continental crust at the basin's edges. Spreading centers in the Gulf, like this one in Farallon, are different from more well known spreading axes like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and East Pacific Rise, since they form as deep rift valleys rather than bathymetric highs.
One familiar source of terrigenous input to the Gulf is the Colorado River, which empties into the northern Gulf (though no longer consistently, as a result of overuse for irrigation). Further south, especially in the eastern Gulf, the Sierra Madre Occidental are a more important source of sediment.


Val Pola landslide

The Val Pola landslide (Val Pola rock avalanche) happened in Valtellina, Lombardy, Northern Italian Alps, on July 28, 1987 and resulted in the Valtellina disaster (destruction of villages, road closure, flooding threat) with the total cost of 400 million euros. The calamity affected the provinces of Sondrio, Brescia, Bergamo, Lecco, and Como.
In June–July 1987, Valtellina witnessed an exceptionally high rainfall accompanied with rapid glacier melting due to relatively high altitude of the 0 degree isotherm. As a result, the Val Pola Creek significantly eroded its valley flanks, including the area of debris accumulation of post-glacial landslides. This resulted in a fracture which detached an estimated volume 35–45 million cubic metres of old debris from the Northern slope of the Mount Zandila (Eastern side of Pizzo Coppetto) first detected on July 25. On July 26 evacuations of local villages started. The fracture eventually produced a rapid rock avalanche with subsequent shallow landslides of the Val Pola sides and a debris flow along the Val Pola thalweg. The flow entrained estimated 5–8 million cubic meters of debris. The created alluvial fan dammed the Adda River and created a lake. The mass ran about 1.5 km downstream and generated an upstream mud wave 35m high which traveled about 2.7 km.
Twenty-two people were killed by the main landslide, which created a huge wave in the temporary lake caused by a previous, smaller landslide.
The landslide resulted in 35 m deepening of the Val Pola canyon.
The debris from the Val Pola rock avalanche and landslide impounded on the Adda River creating a lake with 6 million cubic meters of water. The landslide itself obliterated 5 villages and six hamlets with 43 people died of various disaster-related causes. The total cost of the disaster and several months of its mitigation was about 400 million euros.
The resulting lake created the floodability threat, because the accumulated huge amount of water threatened to breach the debris dam and flood the Adda valley. Efforts to mitigate the threat included evacuation of about 25,000 people downstream, works to stabilize the debris tongue to prevent spill-over with subsequent dam breach, and works to drain the lake in controllable manner.
The disaster coincided with the change of the government of Italy, including the replacement of the Minister of Civil Protection, which resulted in certain amount of policy vacuum and non-optimal decisions.
By appointment of the Ministry of Civil Protection, a large monitoring system was installed on many different sites throughout the Valtellina, to check the progress of the landslide phenomena. The data gathered by the monitoring system are processed by a software that integrates a geographic information system and a data interpreter based on artificial intelligence techniques.
In July 2007, a civil protection national exercise "Valtellina 2007" was carried out which simulated hydraulic and hydrogeological risk similar to that of the 1987 disaster.


Eurysaurus

Eurysaurus (meaning "wide lizard") is an extinct genus of plesiosaur, originally classed as a nothosaur, from the Early Jurassic of Echenoz-la-Meline, France, named in 1878. The type material, consisting of a cranium, teeth and five vertebrae, is now lost. The type species is "E. raincourti", and a second species, "E. schafferi", was named in 1924 but it has since been absorbed into the unrelated genus "Germanosaurus".
History.
The holotype, first described in 1878 by Albert Gaudry, has since been lost. A new study based essentially on illustrations of the type material by Noah (2001) has considered "Eurysaurus" a "nomen dubium", probably congeneric with the pliosaur "Simolestes". However, due to the stratigraphic difference of the two forms, it is possible that "Eurysaurus" was a separate genus in its own right.
Classification.
Gaudry in 1878 originally classified "Eurysaurus" as a nothosaur. In 2001, Noah reclassified "Eurysaurus" as a plesiosaur, possibly belonging to the Pliosauroidea.


Masradapis

Masradapis is an extinct genus of caenopithecine primate from the Priabonian Birket Qarun Formation of the Fayum Depression, Egypt. The type and only species, "Masradapis tahai", was named and described by Erik R. Seiffert "et al.", in 2017. Bayesian tip-dating, when combined with Bayesian biogeographic analysis, suggests that a common ancestor of known caenopithecines dispersed to Afro-Arabia from Europe between 49.4 and 47.4 Ma, and that a trans-Tethyan back-dispersal explains "Caenopithecus"’ later presence in Europe.


Dindymene (trilobite)

Dindymene is an extinct genus of trilobites in the order Phacopida. It contains two species, "D. didymograpti", and "D. hughesiae".


Vogar

Vogar () is a small town in the southwest of Iceland. It is the seat of the municipality of Vogar (Sveitarfélagið Vogar).
Overview.
The population of the municipality of Vogar is 1,161 as of 2011.


Dadadon

Dadadon is an extinct genus of traversodontid cynodonts which existed in Madagascar during the late Middle Triassic. The only species in the genus is "Dadadon isaloi".


2002 Molise earthquakes

The 2002 Molise earthquakes hit the Italian regions of Molise and Apulia on 31 October at 10:32:58 (UTC) and 1 November at 15:09:00 (UTC). The shocks had magnitudes of 5.9 and 5.8 respectively. Most of the victims were killed and injured when a school collapsed in the town of San Giuliano di Puglia: 26 of the 51 schoolchildren died, together with one of their teachers. In particular, none of the nine children in the school's 4th Year (mostly born in 1996) survived.
Tectonic setting.
Molise and Apulia lie above a series of thrust sheets that were emplaced northeastwards on top of the foreland of the Adriatic Plate due to continental collision during the Neogene. In the southern part of the Apennines, the thrusting is no longer active, but it continues in northern Italy along the southern margin of the Po Plain. The foreland to the east is characterised by zones of active west–east trending dextral (right-lateral) strike-slip faulting. The best described of these zones is the Mattinata Fault, which has a clear topographic expression on the south side of the Gargano Peninsula and has been traced offshore into the Adriatic Sea. The estimated epicentre of the 1627 Gargano earthquake lies just beyond the western end of the known extent of the Mattinata Fault, although the link between the two remains uncertain.
The Molise and Apulia regions are areas of low historical seismicity and relatively few earthquake records are available from the instrumental era.
Damage.
First shock.
During the night of 30–31 October there had already been three minor foreshocks, with the strongest at 03:27 (a magnitude of 3.5 on the Richter Scale, IV–V on the Mercalli intensity scale). The strongest tremor took place at 11:32 on 31 October 2002 in the area of lower Molise, which is situated in the north-east of the Province of Campobasso. It reached from the Frentani Mountains to the Fortore valley. It lasted for 60 seconds and could be felt distinctly in the centre of Molise, in the Capitanata, the Province of Chieti, and could be felt in Marche, Bari, Benevento, Matera, Brindisi, Rome, Naples, Potenza, Salerno, Taranto and Pescara.
San Giuliano di Puglia was near the epicentre (located between Campobasso, Larino and the Apennine Dauno). Due to the quake part of the roof of the school building "Francesco Jovine" collapsed. The school included a kindergarten, a primary school and a middle school. The roof landed on the lower part of the school. There were 57 children, 8 teachers and 2 caretakers trapped under the rubble.


Lyrapyge

Lyrapyge is an extinct genus from a well-known class of fossil marine arthropods, the trilobites. It lived during the later part of the Arenig stage of the Ordovician Period, approximately 478 to 471 million years ago.


Twillingodden Formation

The Twillingodden Formation is a geologic formation in Svalbard, Norway. It preserves fossils dating back to the Smithian (Early Triassic) period.


2006 Greece earthquake

The 2006 Greece earthquake – also known as the Kythira earthquake – occurred on January 8 at 13:34:53 local time and was felt throughout the entire eastern Mediterranean basin. The earthquake an magnitude 6.7 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII ("Very strong"). Its epicentre was located just off the island of Kythira about south of Athens.
One person was injured and a number of buildings and roads in Kythira were heavily damaged as a result. Several older houses on the island completely collapsed while the central square of the village of Mitata partially fell into the valley as a result of a subsequent landslide. Few buildings were damaged on the mainland closest to the epicentre (Cape Malea). On the island of Crete, two people were slightly injured in their attempt to abandon their homes. Damage to 146 buildings was recorded in western Crete, including the old town hall of Chania, the third Venetian arsenal, nine schools and many of the houses in the old Venetian town center.
Nevertheless, despite the magnitude and the duration of the tremor (buildings in Athens swayed for almost 40 seconds) no other significant injury or damage was reported in the country's strongest earthquake in decades. This was mainly because the quake had a focal depth of approximately . The tremor was felt as far away as in Bari on the Adriatic Sea, Naples and much of southern Italy, Malta, Cairo and even along the Lebanese, Syrian and Israeli shorelines. No tsunami was associated with this event.
References.
Sources


Palaeopsychops

Palaeopsychops is an extinct genus of lacewing in the moth lacewings family Ithonidae. The genus is known from Early Eocene fossils found in Europe, and North America and is composed of ten species. The ten species can be informally separated into two species groups based on veination of the forewings, the "European" and "North American" groups. When first described, the genus was placed in the family Psychopsidae, but later was moved to Polystoechotidae, which itself is now considered a subgroup of the moth lacewings.
Distribution & age.
The European species of "Palaeopsychops" are all known from the Early Eocene Fur Formation along the western Limfjord coast of Denmark. Most of the thick formation is diatomites with an interspersed sequence of approximately 179 ash layers. Argon–argon radiometric dating of ash layer "+19", which is slightly lower in the strata then the "insect beds", has determined a age.
"Palaeopsychops" species have been recovered from three locations in the Okanagan highlands, the Horsefly shales near Horsefly, British Columbia, the Coldwater Beds Quilchena site near Quilchena, British Columbia and the Klondike Mountain Formation in Republic, Washington, northern Ferry County, Washington. The Okanagan highlands are aged between for the Quilchena site to for the Klondike Mountain Formations Tom Thumb Tuff member.
Archibald and Makarkin (2006) suggested the Turgai Sea which separated western Europe and Asia from the Cretaceous to Oligocene prevented the spread of polystoechotid group lacewings into Asia from Europe. The disjunct distribution of "Palaeopsychops" between Denmark and the Okanagan highlands may have been enabled by rising crust elevations in the northern Atlantic region and subsequent increase in landmass during the Late Paleocene which linked Northern Europe with Greenland until at least the Early Eocene. Several land bridge routes may have acted as migration corridors for biotic interchange, the northern De Geer land bridge from Fennoscandia to North America via northern Greenland, and the southern Thulean land bridge from northern Britain though the Faroe Islands and then Greenland and North America. Other insect genera that share a similar disjunct distribution include the mecopteran "Cimbrophlebia", the green lacewing "Protochrysa" and the bull dog ant "Ypresiomyrma".
Paleoenvironment.
The Fur formation represents a marine depositional environment of the inland water body which is ancestral to the North Sea. While the ancestral water body had an occasional opening to the Atlantic, it was entirely or almost entirely enclosed by land. The Fur formation outcrop is of a site that is an undetermined distance from the paleoshoreline with the preserved terrestrial flora and fauna suggested to have been carried from a shoreline to the north of the site by winds or drifting. Analysis of the δ18O/δ16O isotope ratio found in mollusc shells in the formation indicates paleotemperatures were of a low megathermal mean annual temperature, though the presence in the paleobiota of thermophilic taxa could indicate a lower mean annual temperature combined with a higher coldest month mean temperature.
All three Okanagan Highlands sites represent upland lake systems that were surrounded by a warm temperate ecosystem with nearby volcanism. The highlands likely had a mesic upper microthermal to lower mesothermal climate, in which winter temperatures rarely dropped low enough for snow, and which were seasonably equitable. The paleoforest surrounding the lakes have been described as precursors to the modern temperate broadleaf and mixed forests of Eastern North America and Eastern Asia. Based on the fossil biotas the lakes were higher and cooler then the coeval coastal forests preserved in the Puget Group and Chuckanut Formation of Western Washington, which are described as lowland tropical forest ecosystems. Estimates of the paleoelevation range between higher than the coastal forests. This is consistent with the paleoelevation estimates for the lake systems, which range between , which is similar to the modern elevation , but higher.
Estimates of the mean annual temperature have been derived from climate leaf analysis multivariate program (CLAMP) analysis of the Republic and Quilchena paleofloras, and leaf margin analysis (LMA) of all three paleofloras. The CLAMP results after multiple linear regressions for Republic gave a mean annual temperature of approximately , with the LMA gaving . CLAMP results from Quilchena returned the higher which was supported by the returned from the LMA. LMA of the Horsefly flora returned a mean annual temperature of . These are lower than the mean annual temperature estimates given for the coastal Puget Group, which is estimated to have been between . The bioclimactic analysis for Republic, Quilchena, and Horsefly suggest mean annual precipitation amounts of and respectively.
History and classification.
The genus was first described by Andersen (2001) from a series of 31 fore and hind wing part-counterpart fossils plus three partial body fossils found in the Fur Formation. Andersen chose the genus name as a combination of the psychopsid families nominal genus "Psychops", itself a combination of the Greek words "psyche" and "opsis" meaning "butterfly" and "appearance", with the Latin word "palaeo" meaning "old". Andersen designated Palaeopsychops latifasciatus as the type species, and named three other species in the same paper, Palaeopsychops abruptus, Palaeopsychops angustifasciatus, and Palaeopsychops maculatus. Of the study material, the holotype specimens of all four species, along with paratypes for "P. abruptus" and " P. angustifasciatus" were deposited in the Geological Museum, University of Copenhagen. The four holoytypes plus "P. abruptus" paratype 1 were all declared by Andersen as danekræ, specimens of high scientific value to the Danish. Additional paratype fossils were spread out between a number of collections including the Fur Museum on Fur Island, the Moler Museum on Mors Island and private collections in Nykøbing Mors Denmark and in Germany.
The fifth species, Palaeopsychops dodgeorum, was described by Makarkin and Archibald (2003) two years later . The holotype hindwing was found at the Coldwater Beds Quilchena site in British Columbia. The only known specimen of the species, was included in the University of Alberta collections at the time of study. Archibald and Makarkin (2006) added five additional species in the genus, bringing to known species count to ten with one additional Danish species Palaeopsychops quadratus, and four Okanagan Highlands species. Palaeopsychops douglasae added a second species from Quilchena, while one species Palaeopsychops setosus was described from the more northern Horsefly shales site and two species Palaeopsychops marringerae and Palaeopsychops timmi were detailed from the southern most Klondike Mountain Formation in Washington.
Andersen (2001) placed the new genus into the family Psychopsidae based on the large size of the wings, the dense vein structure, and his interpretation that the subcosta (Sc), anterior radial trace (R1), and anterior sectoral trace (R2) veins merged near the wing apex forming a vena triplica structure. As such, Andersen placed the genus within the psychopsids, while noting at the time the species were larger than any other member species and notably similar to the Florissant Formation species "Polystoechotites piperatus", which was placed in the psychopsid family at the time as ""Propsychopsis" piperatus". Makarkin and Archibald (2003) called the psychopsid into question based on examination of the "P. latifasciatus" images in the type description and the venation of "P. douglasae". While the R1 and Sc veins do merge into a single vein, they determined the R2 did not merge with them. Instead the R2 runs parallel to the other two and then to the fused vein and separately terminates at the wing margin. As such, it lacked the key venation character that unites the psychopsids. After examining all described neuropteran families they tentatively placed the genus within the "giant lacewing" family Polystoechotidae. With the addition of the 2006 species and description of the form genus "Polystoechotites" Archibald and Makarkin reaffirmed the placement of "Palaeopsychops" within the family Polystoechotidae and noted the fore-wing species fall into two informal groups the "European" and "North American" groups. They were hesitant to place strong weight on the groupings as the scattered crossveins uniting the three North American species is a character seen in other Ithonid genera from North America. Winterton and Makarkin (2010) documented phylogenetic and morphological analysis of the families Ithonidae and Polystoechotidae in which the two families were found to form a monophyletic clade. Due to several of the traditional ithonidae genera forming a sister group within the polystoechotid genera and a lack of characters specific to only one family or the other, Winterton and MAkarkin merged the two into a single expanded Ithonidae family. Subsequent to the expansion of Ithionidae an overview of the family was given by Zheng "et al" (2016) in which they informally grouped the genera into three genus groups, the Ithonid genus group, the Polystoechotid genus-group, and the Rapismatid genus group, with "Palaeopsychops" placed in the Polystoechotid genus-group.
Species.
"Paleopsychops" is distinguished from other polystoechotid group genera by a number of characters mainly seen in the fore-wings, though one character is distinct to the hind-wings. The fore-wings of "Paleopsychops" have a broadly subtriangular outline, while other genera are more elongated and have a length to width ratio of greater than 2.5. The rear margins of the fore-wings are not falcate, while the genus "Fontecilla" does have a falcate rear margin. Most genera have a MA vein which forks, but in "Paleopsychops" the basal end of the MA is fused with the Rs1. The MP vein pf both the fore and hind-wings notably forks into multiple closely spaced elongate branches, a feature seen in the extinct Jurassic "Pterocalla" fore-wing, but rare in other genera. The fore-wings range between in length and between in width resulting in length/width ratios between 2.14 and 2.40. As with many neuropteran genera, trichosors are often present along the rear margins of the wings though preservation makes it hard to identify if it is specific to certain "Paleopsychops" species or uniform for the genus. None of the specimens described have a sufficiently preserved basal area of the wing to detect the absence or presence of a basal nygma, however in at least some of the species an apical nygma is present, located between the Rs1 and Rs2 veins. The hind-wings range between long and wide, giving a less subtriangular outline than the forewings. While the hind-wings do not show nygmata, there are trichosors and a coupling apparatus near the wing base typical of polystoechotid group species. The apparatus, used for gripping to the fore-wings in flight, has a frenulum composed of long setae.
Archibald and Makarkin (2006) made note of the possibility that some of the perceived species diversity found in "Paleopsychops" could be a result of species description from isolated wings combined with sexual dimorphism in wing colorpatterning. They noted specifically the Okanagan Highlands species pair "P. dodgeorum" + "P. marringerae" along with the Danish pairs "P. latifasciatus" + "P. abruptus" and "P. angustifasciatus" +"'P. quadratus". Given the incomplete nature of the fossils however and that dimorphic color pattering is not known in the polystoechotid group genera, the likelihood of this possibility is small.
"P. abruptus".
"P. abruptus", of the Fur Formation, is the only "Paleopsychops" in which body material has been found. The name chosen by Andersen (2001) is from the Latin "abruptus" which means disconnected, a reference to the dark color bands which are interrupted by the clear subcostal space as it runs the wing length. The antennae as preserved show a short scape but the full length and additional structures of the antennae are missing. The maxillary palpi are preserved, consisting of five segments that terminate in a pointed fifth segment. The legs have coatings of short dense setae on the coxa and fore femurs. There are also short upright setae on the upper surface of the thorax. The forewings are estimated to be between long and , while the length of the hind wings is unreported. The coloration of the wings is mostly clear, with three narrow longitudinal dark bands that are interrupted by a hyaline subcostal space. The wings also have numerous small setae running along the wing venation, a feature not seen in the other Danish species, though Archibald and Makarkin (2006) note the lack of setae is possibly due to the preservation of specimens in courser or finer sediments. Both the "P. abruptus" paratype which has setae, and the "P. setosus" holotype are fossilized in "unusually" fine grain matrix, allowing for finer details to be preserved.
"P. angustifasciatus".
"P. angustifasciatus" is one of the Fur Formation fore-wing species whos holotype was recovered from the cementstone at Ejerslev Molergrav, Mors. Andersen (2001) coined the species name "angustifasciatus" as a combination of the Latin words "angustus" for "narrow" plus "fasciatus" meaning banded. Known from at least 11 specimens, the wings range between approximately long and wide. as with other Danish species, there are no crossveins present in the costal space. The Rs vein branches between 22 and 24 times before termination at the wing margin. The wing coloration is that of a primarally clear membrane with four thin dark stripes. As with "P. quadratus" three stripes run width wise from fore margin to hind margin and one stripe runs length wise over the outer gradate series of crossveins. However unlike "P. quadratus", the inner gradate crossveins are not highlighted with a dark stripe, distinguishing the two species. Within "P. angustifasciatus" there is variation in the relative distances between the three longitudinal stripes.
"P. dodgeorum".
"P. dodgeorum" is the first of two species described from the Quilchena site in British Columbia, having first been mentioned without formal description by Archibald and Mathewes (2000) and again being referenced without description by Andersen (2001). Makarkin and Archibald (2003) chose the specific name "dodgeorum" as a patronym in honor of Ken Dodge and his son Kenneth Dodge the collectors of the type specimen, which they subsequently donated to Simon Fraser University. At the tine of description the two major characters separating it from the 4 European species were its lack of an inner gradate series of crossveins, a feature in all the Danish species, and its slightly more elongated outline. The wing is long with faintly preserved dark toned spots throughout the membrane becoming distinct oblique banding in the costal margin and the over the outer gradate series. The hind margin sports faintly preserved trichorsors and a distal nygma is present between the forks of the Rs vein, as seen in other species.
"P. douglasae".
"P. douglasae" was described from the holotype hindwing collected by paleoichthyologist Mark Wilson from the Quilchena locality. Archibald & Makarkin (2006) picked the specific epithet as a matronym honoring Sheila Douglas for her paleoentomology work on British Columbian fossils. The part side of the holotype is broken into two sections with areas of the midwing and wing base missing, and little color patterning visible. The couterpart is better preserved, showing distinct color patterning and more of the cross-venation in the dark-colored area of the color-pattern. The dark coloration is centered as a u-shaped patch in the central portion of the wing, lightening in tone near the rear wing margin, lacking any coloration at the wing base and apex excepting a very thin strip of darkening along the apical margin. The wing is by at the widest point, with a distinctly undulant rear margin, a trait that appears rarely in neuropteran species. The undulations of the rear margin give a slightly falcate outline to the wing apex.
"P. latifasciatus".
"P. latifasciatus" is one of the Fur Formation species group, being described by Andersen (2001) from a holotype and several paratype forewings. The name was derived from a combination of the Latin words "latus" meaning "broad" and "fasciatus" meaning "banded". The forewings range between in length, and are just over twice as long as they are at the widest point. The preserved color pattering shows a trio of broad straight dark toned stripes crossing the wing at an oblique angle. A fourth dark stripe is present near the wing apex, though it is not distinctly separated from the dark patterning of the posteroapical border. Additional dashes and spots of dark tone are spread across the wing, with the heaviest concentration in the costal space between the larger color bands. While the wings are similar to those of "P. abruptus" the crossveins in the costal space and the broad dark tone stripes passing through the subcostal and R1 spaces.
"P. maculatus".
"P. maculatus" is the only Danish species described from a hindwing, though it was first interpreted as a fore wing by Andersen (2001). The holotype was collected by Henrik Madsen from the Ejerslev Molergrav locality of the Fur Formation on Mors, and is complete though indistinctly preserved. Andersen (2001) selected the Latin "maculata", meaning "spotted" for the origin of the specific name noting the distinctly different color patterning if it compared to the other three Danish species at the time. The darkened area is concentrated in the center region of the wing with the lower margin following the outer gradate series and narrow dark stripes extending from the central region upwards towards the upper margin crossing the subcostal space. The remainder of the wing lightens to clear along the base, margins, and apex. The wing is wide by long with no visible trichosors or nygmata. While the wing is similar in color pattern and proportions to "P. setosus", the inner gradate crossveins are placed closer to the outer gradate series, and the basal area of the wing is notably wider then that of "P. setosus". Archibald and Makarkin (2006) noted that "P. maculatus" and "P. latifasciatus" might one species, based on the similar coloration of the darkened stripes when they cross the subcostal space. However since "P. latifasciatus" is kown only from fore wings while "P. maculatus" is known only from a hind wing, the species status remains speculative until articulated fore and hind wings are found.
"P. marringerae".
"P. marringerae" was described from a partial fore-wing collected by Regina Marringer from the Klondike Mountain Formation site, B4131. Archibald and Makarkin (2006)chose the species epithet as a matromyn recognizing Marringer for finding the fossil and donating it to the Stonerose Interpretive Center. A fore-wing species, it is known from the apical 2/3 of the wing with the fossil being by wide. It is estimated the complete wings would have been approximately and . The wing shows very distinct color patterning, with alternating bands of clear and dark bands running across the wing at a perpendicular angle to the upper wing margin. The color pattern is the most notable distinguishing feature between the species and "P. dodgeorum" which has similar venation and shape. "P. marringerae" is notable for the inner gradate series of crossveins not being present, with scattered crossveins present in the radial space instead. As preserved the trichorsors are indistinctly visible, and no nygmata are present.
"P. quadratus".
"P. quadratus" is known from a Fur Formation part and counterpart fore-wing fossil found on Ejerslev Molergrav, Mors which was originally designated by Andrsen (2001) as "paratype 1" of the species "P.angustifasciatus". Archibald and Makarkin (2006) separated the specimen out as a new species based on color patterning and wing size, choosing the specific name based on the Latin adjective "quadratus", which means "square", in reference to the distinct shape formed by the dark stripes. The wing is incomplete, with a preserved length of , an estimated total size of approximately by wide. the wing shows faintly preserved trichorsors, and a distal nygma between the Rs1 and Rs2 veins. The majority of the wing membrane is clear with five thin dark stripes for colorpatterning, three stripes running width wise from front margin to hind margin, and two running across the inner and outer gradate series crossveins, forming a square window of hyaline or light toned membrane in the center of the wing. There are also scattered dark spots and small stripes between the inner gradate series and the wing edge. The distinct latitudinal striping on the crossveins combined with the longer overall size of the "P. quadratus" wing distinguish the species.
"P. setosus".
"P. setosus" is described from a single hindwing found in the Horsefly Shales and described by Archibald and Makarkin (2006), who named the species from the Latin "setosus" meaning bristly or hairy. the wing is wide by long with a length/width ratio of 2.35. Overall the wing membrane is dark in color tone lightening along the margins and at the apex and preserved section of the base. The color patterning and proportions of the wing are notably similar to the Danish "P. maculatus", though "P. setosus" has a larger distance between the inner gadate crossavein series, and the outer gradate series, and also by the narrower basal section of the wing. The wing does not have preserved nygmata or marginal trichosors, but a dense region of the wings basal area is covered in a setose band. The band is dominated by long macrotrichia which uniformally cover the region with no differentiation when crossing veins. The upper margin of the bands is indistinct grading from sparse to denser setal covering, while the lower band margin ends abruptly with the longest setae present of the band. The "P. setosus" setae band is distinct among the ithonids, and long setation is only seen in the living families Ascalaphidae and Sialidae. Within the Neuropteran fossil record, long dense setae is seen in the families Parakseneuridae and Kalligrammatidae. Only one other "Palaeopsychops" species, "P. abruptus" is noted for having wing setation, though in that species the hairs are confined to the wing ventation.
"P. timmi".
"P. timmi" was described from a partial left fore-wing collected by Thomas Timm from site B4131 of the Klondike Mountain Formation site. Archibald and Makarkin (2006) chose the species epithet as a patromyn recognizing Timm for finding the fossil and donating it to the Stonerose Interpretive Center. A fore-wing species, it is known from the basal 2/3 of the wing with the fossil being by wide. It is estimated the complete wings would have been approximately and . The wing shows very distinct color patterning, having a uniformly dark apical wing area, with scattered spots and two short stripes present in the upper region of the basal area, the majority of the wing base being clear. The color pattern is the most notable distinguishing feature between the species and all of the other described fore-wing species. "P. timmi" is notable for the inner gradate series of crossveins not being indistinctly formed and with numerous scattered crossveins present in the radial space. The outer gradate series of crossveins are well aligned from the hind margin though the wing before scattering in the cubital space. As preserved the trichorsors are indistinctly visible, and no nygmata are present.


Paratarpon

Paratarpon is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the Campanian.


Tinajas Altas Mountains

The Tinajas Altas Mountains (O'odham: Uʼuva:k or Uʼuv Oopad) are an extremely arid northwest-southeast trending mountain range in southern Yuma County, Arizona, approximately 35 mi southeast of Yuma, Arizona. The southern end of the range extends approximately one mile into the northwestern Mexican state of Sonora on the northern perimeter of the Gran Desierto de Altar. The range is about 22 mi in length and about 4 mi wide at its widest point. The highpoint of the range is unnamed and is 2,766 feet (843 meters) above sea level and is located at 32°16'26"N, 114°02'48"W (NAD 1983 datum). Aside from the portion of the range in Mexico, the entirety of the range lies within the Barry M. Goldwater Air Force Range. They lie at the heart of the traditional homeland of the Hia C-eḍ O'odham people.
Geology and geography.
Geologically, the Tinajas Altas Mountains are a southeastward extension of the block faulted Gila Mountains, and what are now the Tinajas Altas Mountains were actually considered part of the Gila Mountains until about the middle of the 20th century. The two ranges are separated by Cipriano Pass, also referred to as "Smugglers Pass," about two miles northwest of Raven Butte, which is a notable dark-colored volcanic feature on the eastern flank of the otherwise light-colored granitic range.
The range is named for the "Tinajas Altas" ("High Tanks"), which are a series of perched waterholes on the range's eastern side approximately four miles north of the international boundary. The waterholes figured prominently in the history of the area as they were for many years the only reliable source of water for many miles. Native Americans, principally the Hia C-eḍ O'odham, also utilized the waterholes as an important camp prior to European settlement.
The range lies in the Lower Colorado subdivision of the Sonoran Desert. This subdivision is sometimes referred to as the Colorado Desert and encompasses much of southeastern California, southwestern Arizona, northwestern Sonora, and northeastern Baja California. The subdivision is characterized by minimal precipitation, and the area around the Tinajas Altas Mountains averages only about three inches of rainfall per year.
Mexican topographic maps and United States Geological Survey (USGS) maps of the region disagree on the name of an adjacent range lying to the southeast of the Tinajas Altas Mountains. In the United States this small range is referred to as the Sierra de la Lechuguilla, but in Mexico they are called the Sierra Tinajas Altas which would suggest that they are a longer extension of the Tinajas Altas Mountains into Mexico. The two ranges, however, share no surface connection so they are not the same. The Sierra de la Lechuguilla/Sierra Tinajas Altas range are instead on a parallel alignment to the southeast of the Tinajas Altas Mountains proper.
The closest community to the Tinajas Altas Mountains is Fortuna Foothills in the east of the Yuma Valley adjacent to the Gila Mountains.
Ecology.
The Tinajas Altas Mountains exhibit a variety of flora and fauna species. Among the notable flora present is the elephant tree, ("Bursera microphylla"), which species exhibits a contorted multi-furcate architecture.


Ancachita

Ancachita (possibly from Quechua "anka" eagle, "chita" young domesticated sheep / a little animal which follows its owner) is a mountain in the Andes of Peru, about high. It is situated in the Arequipa Region, Caylloma Province, on the border of the districts Callalli and Chivay, east of Chivay. Ancachita lies north of the higher mountains Huarancante and Jello Jello.


Lycopsis

Lycopsis is an extinct genus of South American metatherian, that lived during the Miocene in Argentina and Colombia.
Taxonomy.
The cladogram after the analysis of Suárez "et al"., 2015, looks as follows:
Distribution.
Fossils of "Lycopsis" have been found in:


Acratophorus argentinensis

Acratophorus is an extinct genus of kannemeyeriid dicynodont that lived during the Anisian age of the Middle Triassic-aged Río Seco de la Quebrada Formation in what is now Argentina. The type species, A. argentinensis, was originally placed in the genus "Kannemeyeria" by Jose Bonaparte in 1966, and later sometimes referred to "Vinceria", before being transferred to a new, distinct genus, "Acratophorus", in 2021 by Christian Kammerer and Angi Ordoñez. The species "Vinceria vieja" was also made a synonym of "A. argentinensis" in 2021. The holotype is PVL 3645, a partial skeleton discovered near a farm house in Puesto Viejo.


Francesco Bassani

Francesco Bassani (29 October 1853 – 26 April 1916) was an Italian geologist and paleontologist who was among the first to identify ichthyosaur fossils from northern Italy.
Bassani was born in Thiene and studied at Vicenza and graduated from the University of Padua where he studied under Giovanni Omboni. He also studied in Paris under Albert Gaudry, Melchior Neumayr and Edward Suess in Vienna and Karl Alfred von Zittel in Munich between 1877 and 1879. He worked for a while in Padua and then moved to Milan in 1883 and collaborated with Antonio Stoppani between 1882 and 1885. He became a director of the institute of geology in Naples in 1887 and worked there until his death. He described numerous fossils from Italian localities including an ichthyosaur from Besano, and described fossil fish from Chiavon with illustrations made by his Dutch-origin wife Everdina Douwes Dekker who he married in 1880. A mineral from Vesuvius was named after him as bassanite in 1906. He died at Capri.


Ampay

Ampay is a mountain in the Andes of Peru. It is located in the Apurímac Region, Abancay Province, on the border of the districts of Abancay, Huanipaca and Tamburco. The mountain lies in the Ampay National Sanctuary.
An intermittent stream named Q'illu Yakuyuq (Quechua for "the one with yellow water", also spelled "Ceelloyacuyoc") originates west of the mountain. It flows to the northwest.