William Wardlaw Thompson

William Wardlaw Thompson (date of birth unknown - died 1917) was a South African ichthyologist and zoologist. It is known that he was educated at the South African College in Cape Town between 1858 and 1863 and that he obtained a post on the civil service of the Cape Colony in 1877 in the Railway Department as a temporary clerk. In January 1878 he secured a permanent post as a clerk in the Public Works Department, where he was promoted to First Clerk in 1882. In January 1885 he was transferred to the position of Chief records Clerk at the Crown Lands Office being promoted in July 1889 to first class clerk at the Department of Agriculture attaining the post of acting chief clerk there in November 1897. Prior to this he had taken and passed his Civil Service Law examinations and he also served with the Duke of Edinburgh's Own Volunteer Rifles in the Transkei during the 9th Frontier War in February to May 1879 and in Basutoland in September 1880 to March 1881 during the Basuto Gun War. Thompson was appointed to the Cape Colony's Fisheries Board in October 1897.
In 1905 he vacated his clerical post to take up the position of the assistant of the Scots zoologist John D.F. Gilchrist, who was the government biologist of the Cape Colony and the honorary curator of marine invertebrates at the South African Museum. Over the next decade he contributed to a number of important publications as Gilchrist's co-author. They had jointly completed a study of the local Klip fishes of the family Blenniidae in 1907. This was based on the large collection of specimens gained mainly by the South African Museum's aquarium at St James, Cape Town. This results of the study were published as "The Blenniidae of South Africa" 1908 in Part 2 of Volume 6 of the "Annals of the South African Museum" and two years after that Gilchrist and Thompson jointly presented a paper on "The Cape Klipfishes" at the annual congress of the South African Association for the Advancement of Science.
Also in 1907 Gilchrist and Thompson had commenced compiling a descriptive catalogue of the marine fishes of Natal and this was published as "Descriptions of fishes from the Natal coast", over four parts, also in the "Annals of the South African Museum" between 1908 and 1914 and ran to 190 pages. They also published the descriptions in the "Annals of the Durban Museum" between 1914 and 1917 entitled "A catalogue of the sea fishes recorded from Natal". In 1916 they also described four new species of South African fishes in the Marine Biological Report (No. 3) compiled by Gilchrist. Gilchrist and Thompson were the first South African zoologists to study the freshwater fish fauna of South Africa and to draw up a comprehensive catalogue. In 1911 they described three new species of freshwater fish in the "Annals and Magazine of Natural History", and their catalogue, "The Freshwater Fishes of South Africa" included some 200 engravings, was published in three parts in Volume 11 parts 5-7 of the "Annals of the South African Museum" between 1913 and 1918.
Thompson wrote a book called "The sea fisheries of the Cape Colony from Van Riebeeck's days to the eve of the Union" which was published in 1913, this included chapters on the whale and seal fisheries, trout and other freshwater fishes, and oysters. He was a Fellow of both the Zoological Society of London and the Linnean Society, he was one of the founding members of the South African Association for the Advancement of Science in 1902 and by 1910 he was a member of the Royal Society of South Africa.


Parascaris

Parascaris is a genus of nematodes in the family Ascarididae. It contains two species, "Parascaris equorum" and "Parascaris univalens", which are morphologically identical, but can be distinguished by chromosome number. Both species parasitize horses.


Astatumen

Astatumen is a genus of tardigrades in the class Eutardigrada found in Romania. Species of this genus were originally categorized in the genus "Itaquascon" until 1997.


Pulmonary toxicity

Pulmonary toxicity is the medical name for side effects on the lungs.
Although most cases of pulmonary toxicity in medicine are due to side effects of medicinal drugs, many cases can be due to side effects of radiation (radiotherapy). Other (non-medical) causes of pulmonary toxicity can be chemical compounds and airborne particulate matter.
Presentation.
Side effects on the lungs can be very varied, and can include signs and symptoms that are either clinical, or radiological (i.e., seen on chest X-ray or CT), or both. They can include lung inflammation (pneumonitis), secondary (in this context, indirectly caused) lung infection (pneumonia), lung fibrosis, organising pneumonia (bronchiolitis obliterans organising pneumonia, BOOP), ARDS (acute respiratory distress syndrome), solitary pulmonary mass (even including lung cancer in some cases, mainly in cases of asbestos-related lung disease, but today this is very rare, because asbestos is now completely prohibited by law in most countries), or lung nodule. The diagnosis should be made by a specialist, if possible.
Cause.
Pulmonary toxicity due to medicinal drugs.
Within all classes of medicinal drugs that possibly can lead to pulmonary toxicity as a side effect, most pulmonary toxicity is due to chemotherapy for cancer.
Many medicinal drugs can lead to pulmonary toxicity. A few medicinal drugs can lead to pulmonary toxicity frequently (in medicine defined by international regulatory authorities such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the EMEA [European Union] as > 1% and < 10%) or very frequently (defined as > 10%). These medicinal drugs can include gold and nitrofurantoin, as well as the following drugs used in chemotherapy for cancer: Methotrexate, the taxanes (paclitaxel and docetaxel), gemcitabine, bleomycin, mitomycin C, busulfan, cyclophosphamide, chlorambucil, and nitrosourea (e.g., carmustine).
Also, some medicinal drugs used in cardiovascular medicine can lead to pulmonary toxicity frequently or very frequently. These include above all amiodarone, as well as beta blockers, ACE inhibitors (however, pulmonary toxicity of ACE inhibitors usually lasts only 3–4 months and then usually disappears by itself), procainamide, quinidine, tocainide, and minoxidil.
Both oncologists and cardiologists are well aware of possible pulmonary toxicity.
Pros and cons of medicinal drugs.
The "medical benefit-cost ratio" for the patient should be kept in mind. Medicinal drugs should not be ruled out completely right from the start just because they possibly could cause pulmonary toxicity. A number of medicinal drugs that could cause pulmonary toxicity can be life-saving for certain patients with specific diseases. For example, amiodarone falls into this category. Ideally, the pros and cons should be weighed at the start of therapy and in regular intervals thereafter, based on the available scientific/medical evidence, by an expert physician, together with an informed patient.
Pulmonary toxicity due to radiation (radiotherapy).
Radiation (radiotherapy) is frequently used for the treatment of many cancer types, and can be highly effective. Unfortunately, it also can lead to pulmonary toxicity as a side effect.
Radiotherapists are well aware of possible pulmonary toxicity, and take a number of precautions to minimise the incidence of this side effect. There are research efforts to possibly eliminate this side effect in the future.
Pulmonary toxicity due to chemical compounds.
Pulmonary toxicity is possible due to many chemical compounds. However, the most famous (infamous) example is pulmonary toxicity due to asbestos. Asbestos can lead to a highly dangerous (i.e., highly malignant) lung cancer called malignant pleural mesothelioma, sometimes also simply called mesothelioma. As a consequence, the use of asbestos is now completely prohibited by law in most countries.
Particulate matter leading to pulmonary toxicity.
Atmospheric particulate matter is part of air pollution. Particulate matter is produced mainly by car traffic, overland traffic (trucks), industrial production facilities, and cigarette smoking. More and more data were gathered in recent years. The data showed that particulate matter can be a major cause of cardiovascular disease, and can also cause pulmonary toxicity. As a consequence, laws, by-laws and guidelines that regulate the amount of particulate matter that can be emitted in a given time period were issued in the European Union.
Diagnosis.
Lung symptoms in a patient who is taking a medicinal drug that can cause pulmonary toxicity should not automatically lead to a diagnosis of "pulmonary toxicity due to the medicinal drug", because some patients can have another (i.e., simultaneous) lung disease, e.g. an infection of the lungs "not" related to the medicinal drugs the patient is taking. But if the patient is taking such a medicinal drug, this should not be overlooked. Diagnostic care should be executed. The correct diagnosis is an exclusion diagnosis and can require some tests.
Treatment.
The treatment of pulmonary toxicity due to medicinal drugs is to discontinue (= to stop taking) the medicinal drug in question. A dose reduction (instead of discontinuation) can be attempted in selected cases only, only under the guidance of an expert physician. Discontinuation (or, if possible, dose reduction under the guidance of an expert physician) should be done in all cases. This approach has been published for many individual medicinal drugs, but it is principally valid for all cases pulmonary toxicity due to medicinal drugs.
As an example to illustrate what can be done, the use of the medicinal drug amiodarone: a) Prescribing the lowest possible dose of amiodarone leads to a lower incidence of pulmonary toxicity. b) Regular monitoring, in order to diagnose any possible pulmonary toxicity early. c) Discontinuation as soon as pulmonary toxicity is detected.
One publication summarises the most important points about amiodarone-induced pulmonary toxicity (AIPT) as follows: "The most serious adverse reaction of amiodarone is pulmonary toxicity (AIPT). AIPT may manifest as chronic interstitial pneumonitis, organising pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome, pulmonary mass, or nodules. On radiological imaging, pulmonary infiltrates induced by amiodarone are usually high in attenuation. On biopsy, the presence of foamy macrophages confirms exposure to amiodarone but not necessarily proves that amiodarone is the responsible cause. Most patients with AIPT respond well to the withdrawal of amiodarone and to the addition of corticosteroid treatment, which is usually given for two to six months."


Plagioeciidae

Plagioeciidae is a family of bryozoans, containing many genera once assigned to Diastoporidae. Extant representatives include "Microecia".


Suprameatal spine

The inner end of the external acoustic meatus is closed, in the recent state, by the tympanic membrane; the upper limit of its outer orifice is formed by the posterior root of the zygomatic process, immediately below which there is sometimes seen a small spine, the suprameatal spine also called the spine of Henle, situated at the upper and posterior part of the orifice.


William Powell

William Horatio Powell (July 29, 1892 – March 5, 1984) was an American actor. A major star at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, he was paired with Myrna Loy in 14 films, including the "Thin Man" series based on the Nick and Nora Charles characters created by Dashiell Hammett. Powell was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor three times: for "The Thin Man" (1934), "My Man Godfrey" (1936), and "Life with Father" (1947).
Early life.
An only child, Powell was born in Pittsburgh to Nettie Manila (née Brady) and Horatio Warren Powell, on July 29, 1892.
In 1907, he moved with his family to Kansas City, Missouri, where he graduated from Central High School in 1911. The Powells lived just a few blocks away from the Carpenters, whose daughter Harlean also went to Hollywood under the name Jean Harlow, although she and he did not meet until both were established actors.
Career.
After high school, he left home for New York and the American Academy of Dramatic Arts at the age of 18. In 1912, Powell graduated from the AADA, and worked in some vaudeville and stock companies. After several successful experiences on the Broadway stage, he began his Hollywood career in 1922, playing a small role as an evil henchman of Professor Moriarty in a production of "Sherlock Holmes" with John Barrymore. He later performed as Francis I in "When Knighthood Was in Flower" with Marion Davies, which was considered the most expensive film ever produced at the time.
Under contract to Paramount throughout most of the 1920s, Powell played heels and villains in the early part of his career. As he gained experience, he gradually shifted into leading-man roles paired with such leading ladies as Bebe Daniels, Evelyn Brent, and Kay Francis. When Powell left Paramount to sign with Warner Bros., Francis joined him. One of their most successful films together was "One Way Passage". Between Paramount and Warner Bros., Powell and Francis made seven films together.
His most memorable role in silent movies was as a vengeful film director opposite Emil Jannings' Academy Award-winning performance as a fallen general in "The Last Command" (1928). This success, along with Powell's commandingly pleasant speaking voice, led to his first starring role as amateur detective Philo Vance in the "talkie" "The Canary Murder Case" (1929). He played Philo Vance at Paramount Pictures three more times, and once at Warner's in his final appearance in the role in "The Kennel Murder Case".
Powell was loved by many people in Hollywood. Actress Marion Shilling worked with him in "Shadow of the Law", and called him, "Self-effacing, deferential, exceedingly thoughtful of other people, he was one of the kindest human beings I have ever met. He sensed that I was in awe of him, so from the start, he did what he could to put me at ease."
Powell's most famous role was that of Nick Charles in six "Thin Man" films, beginning with "The Thin Man" in 1934, based upon Dashiell Hammett's novel. The role provided a perfect opportunity for Powell, with his resonant speaking voice, to showcase his sophisticated charm and witty sense of humor, and he received his first Academy Award nomination for "The Thin Man." Myrna Loy played his wife, Nora, in each of the "Thin Man" films. Their on-screen partnership, beginning alongside Clark Gable in 1934 with "Manhattan Melodrama", was one of Hollywood's most prolific, and they appeared in 14 films together.
Loy and Powell starred in the Best Picture of 1936, "The Great Ziegfeld", with Powell in the title role and Loy as Ziegfeld's wife Billie Burke. That same year, he also received his second Academy Award nomination, for the comedy "My Man Godfrey".
In 1935, he starred with Jean Harlow in "Reckless". A serious romance developed between them, and in 1936, they were reunited on screen and with Loy and Spencer Tracy in the screwball comedy "Libeled Lady". Harlow became ill soon after, and died from uremia at the age of 26 in June 1937 before they could marry. His distress over her death, as well as a cancer diagnosis of his own, caused him to accept fewer acting roles. Powell's career slowed considerably in the 1940s, although he received his third Academy Award nomination in 1947 for his role as the formidable Clarence Day, Sr., in "Life with Father". His last film was 1955's "Mister Roberts", playing "Doc" alongside Henry Fonda in the title role, James Cagney as the ship's perfectionist captain, and Jack Lemmon in his Oscar-winning performance as Ensign Pulver.
Personal life.
In 1915, he married Eileen Wilson (1894–1942), who was born Julia Tierney, by whom he had his only child, William David Powell, before an amicable divorce in 1930. Powell's son became a television writer and producer before a period of ill health led to his suicide in 1968.
On June 26, 1931, Powell married actress Carole Lombard. The marriage lasted just over two years. They were divorced in 1933, though they, too, remained on good terms, even starring together in the screwball comedy "My Man Godfrey" three years later. Powell was devastated by her death in an airplane crash in 1942. He was engaged to marry Jean Harlow, his co-star in "Reckless" (1935), until her sudden death in 1937. On January 6, 1940, three weeks after they met, Powell married his third wife, actress Diana Lewis, to whom he remained married until his death in 1984.
Powell supported Thomas Dewey in the 1944 United States presidential election.
Cancer.
In 1937, Powell was diagnosed with rectal cancer. He underwent surgery and experimental radium treatment, which put the disease in full remission within two years. Given his own health and sorrow over Jean Harlow's death, Powell did not undertake any film roles for over a year during this period.
Death.
Powell died in Palm Springs, California, on March 5, 1984, at the age of 91 from heart failure, nearly 30 years after his retirement. He is buried at the Desert Memorial Park in Cathedral City, California, near his third wife Diana Lewis, and his only child, son William David Powell.
Honors.
Other awards.
New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor in 1947 for "Life with Father" and "The Senator Was Indiscreet".
William Powell has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1636 Vine Street.
In 1992, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs, California, Walk of Stars was dedicated to him.


Lamellibrachia barhami

Lamellibrachia barhami is a large pogonophore.
Description.
Its tentacular crown is formed of several, fused, horseshoe-shaped tentacle lamellae. The second segment has two body folds, near which open the genital ducts. The trunk, which comprises 89% of its total body length, is undifferentiated. The true metasoma is without setae. The heart is a simple muscular elaboration of the anterior end of the ventral blood vessel. The brain is large, and from it arises a pair of intraepidermal nerve cords, which extend the full length of the vestimental region; thereafter, they join and form the a nerve cord of the trunk. Associated with the brain and the nerve cords are the dorsal tubes.


Aonyx

Aonyx is a genus of otters, containing three species, the African clawless otter, the Congo clawless otter, and the Asian small-clawed otter.
The word "aonyx" means "clawless", derived from the prefix "a-" ("without") and "onyx" ("claw/hoof").
Species.
Three species are currently recognised:
Zoologists differ as to whether or not to include the Asian small-clawed otter in this genus, or in its own genus "Amblonyx". They also differ as to whether the Congo clawless otter is its own species, or conspecific with the African clawless otter.


Peripatopsis cederbergiensis

Peripatopsis cederbergiensis is a species of velvet worm in the family Peripatopsidae.


Elaphoidella slovenica

Elaphoidella slovenica is a species of harpacticoid copepod in the family Canthocamptidae. It is found in Europe.


Fabriciidae

Fabriciidae is a family of annelid worm in the class Polychaeta.
Genera.
Genera within Fabriciidae include:
Genera brought into synonymy:


Arthrotardigrada

Arthrotardigrada are an order of tardigrades, first described by Marcus in 1927. It consists of the following families:


Bohemian Fairy Swallow pigeon

The Bohemian Fairy Swallow is a breed of fancy pigeon. Bohemian Fairy Swallows, along with other varieties of domesticated pigeons, are all descendants from the Rock Pigeon ("Columba livia").


Pronephric duct

The pronephric duct is the predecessor of the mesonephric duct (Wolffian duct).
Development.
The development of the pronephric duct is a part of the development of the urinary system, and the development of the reproductive system.
In the outer part of the intermediate mesoderm, immediately under the ectoderm, in the region from the fifth cervical segment to the third thoracic segment, a series of short evaginations from each segment grows dorsally and extends caudally, fusing successively from before backward to form the pronephric duct. This continues to grow caudalward until it opens into the ventral part of the cloaca; beyond the pronephros it is termed the mesonephric duct. Thus, the mesonephric duct remains after the atrophy of the pronephros.


Pernerocrinus

Pernerocrinus is an extinct genus of crinoids from the Devonian.


Callosity

A callosity is another name for callus, a piece of skin that has become thickened as a result of repeated contact and friction.
Monkeys.
When occurring on an animal's buttocks, as with baboons, they are specifically called ischial callosities. Ischial relates to the ischium: it forms the lower and back part of the hip bone.
The pads enable the monkeys to sleep sitting upright on thin branches, beyond reach of predators, without falling.
The ischial callosities are one of the most distinctive pelvic features which separates Old World monkeys from New World monkeys.
Right whales.
In whales, the term "callosity" refers to the rough, calcified skin patches found on the heads of the three species of right whales. These callosities are a characteristic feature of the whale genus "Eubalaena"; because they are found on the head of the whale and appear white against the dark background of the whale's skin, they make it very easy to identify these species. The callosities themselves are grey; the white appearance is due to large colonies of whale lice, whale barnacles and parasitic worms which reside on them. Young whales and diseased individuals are often infested with a different species of cyamid, which gives an orange hue rather than white on these whales. Callosities arise naturally and are present even in late-term whale fetuses, although the work of lice digging into the surface of the skin may make them more jagged and hard over time.
Callosities are found on the upper surface of the whale's head, above the eyes, on the jawline and chin and surrounding the blowholes. Callosities form a unique pattern on every right whale and though callosities which are overgrown break off, the patterns do not change over a lifetime. This makes them a very useful tool for the purposes of photo-identification and conservation.
The evolutionary purpose of callosities is unknown. Male right whales have a higher density of callosities than females. Males have been observed scratching one another with their callosities and it has been suggested by Payne & Dorsey (1983) that this is a sexually dimorphic feature used for intra-specific sexual aggression. This explanation is not entirely satisfactory, as it does not account for the appearance of callosities in females. Alternative natural role of callosities has been considered as being optional tools against predators, and declines of right whales might have consequenced in declines of barnacles as well.


Leonard Robert Brightwell

Leonard Robert Brightwell (17 May 1889 - 1962) was a British animal painter, etcher, illustrator, and author.
Biography.
Brightwell studied at Lambeth School of Art in London and visited the Zoological Gardens. He became a Fellow of the Zoological Society of London in 1906 as well as a member of the Marine Biological Association in 1922 and was commissioned by both and other institutions to make scientific drawings of various creatures including extinct animals.
His first illustrated book was "A British Dog in France" in 1913 after which he served in the British Army during World War I. He then continued work as an illustrator and author. He had signed editions of his etchings of animals published by James Connell & Sons in London.
He illustrated an aquarium guide, bringing "individuality to each creature he draws" according to a review in "Nature". His cartoons were published in "Punch (magazine).


Ornithurae

Ornithurae (meaning "bird tails" in Greek) is a natural group which includes the common ancestor of "Ichthyornis", "Hesperornis", and all modern birds as well as all other descendants of that common ancestor.
Classification.
Ernst Haeckel coined the name in 1866 and included in the group all "true birds" with the "characteristic tail morphology of all extant birds" (translation by Jacques Gauthier). This distinguishes the group from "Archaeopteryx", which Haeckel placed in another new group called Sauriurae. Said simply, modern birds have short, fused pygostyle tails, while "Archaeopteryx" retained the long tail characteristic of non-avian theropod dinosaurs.
Gauthier converted Ornithurae into a clade, giving it a branch-based definition: "extant birds and all other taxa, such as "Ichthyornis" and Hesperornithes, that are closer to extant birds than is "Archaeopteryx"". Later he and de Queiroz redefined it as an apomorphy-based clade more in keeping with Haeckel's original usage, including the first pan-avian with a "bird tail" homologous with that of "Vultur gryphus", and all of its descendants. They defined "bird tail" as a tail that is shorter than the femur, with a pygostyle that is a ploughshare-shaped, compressed element, with the bones fused in the adult, composed of less than six caudal vertebrae, and shorter than the free part of the tail, which itself is composed of less than eight caudal vertebrae. They included Aves (which they defined as the "crown group" of modern birds), "Ichthyornis", Hesperornithes, and "Apsaravis" in Ornithurae.
Neornithes was originally proposed as a replacement for Ornithurae by Gadow in 1892 and 1893. Gauthier and de Queiroz, therefore, consider Neornithes a junior synonym of Ornithurae, though many other scientists use Neornithes to refer to the much more restrictive crown group consisting only of modern birds (a group for which Gauthier uses the name Aves). Alternately, some researchers have used Ornithurae to refer to a more restrictive node-based clade, anchored on "Hesperornis" and modern birds.
Relationships.
The cladogram below is the result of a 2014 analysis by Michael Lee and colleagues that expanded on data from an earlier study by O’Connor & Zhou in 2012. The clade names are positioned based on their definitions.


Milaculum

The genus Milaculum was erected to contain isolated plates that have since been identified as components of palaeoscolecid worms. They are adorned with regularly arranged humps that recall the arrangement of holes in "Microdictyon". The plates are sometimes found in association with palaeoscolecid cuticle.


Orchesella capreana

Orchesella capreana is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae.


Glyptoria

Glyptoria is a genus of protorthid brachiopod with a ventral spondylium. It is characterized by a free apical plate in the ventral valve interior and a distinctive coarse, lamellose ornament.


Pecten oculi

The pecten or pecten oculi is a comb-like structure of blood vessels belonging to the choroid in the eye of a bird. It is a non-sensory, pigmented structure that projects into the vitreous humor from the point where the optic nerve enters the eyeball. The pecten is believed to both nourish the retina and control the pH of the vitreous body. High level of enzyme alkaline phosphatase activity in pecten oculi has been linked to transport of nutrient molecules from highly vascularized pecten oculi into vitreous and then into retinal cells for nourishment. It is present in all birds and some reptiles.
In the vertebrate eye, blood vessels lie in front of the retina, partially obscuring the image. The pecten helps to solve this problem by greatly reducing the number of blood vessels in the retina and leading to the extremely sharp eyesight of birds such as hawks. The pigmentation of the pecten is believed to protect the blood vessels against damage from ultraviolet light. Stray light absorption by melanin granules of pecten oculi is also considered to give rise to small increments in temperature of pecten and eye; this may offer increased metabolic rate to optimize eye physiology in low temperatures at high-altitude flights. The structure varies across bird species and is conical in the kiwi, vaned in the ostrich and pleated in most other birds.


Perineum

The perineum in humans is the space between the anus and scrotum in the male, or frenulum labiorum pudendi in the female. The perineum is the region of the body between the pubic symphysis (pubic arch) and the coccyx (tail bone), including the perineal body and surrounding structures. There is some variability in how the boundaries are defined. The perineal raphe is visible and pronounced to varying degrees. The perineum is an erogenous zone.
The word perineum entered English from late Latin via Greek περίναιος ~ περίνεος "perinaios, perineos", itself from περίνεος, περίνεοι ‘male genitals’ and earlier περίς "perís" 'penis' through influence from πηρίς "pērís" ‘scrotum’. The term was originally understood as a purely male body-part with the perineal raphe seen as a continuation of the scrotal septum since masculinization causes the development of a large anogenital distance in men, in comparison to the corresponding lack of distance in women. As a result of folk etymologies (such as ἰνάω ináō, “to carry off by evacuations”), it is contemporaneously extended both sexes.
Structure.
The perineum is generally defined as the surface region between the pubic symphysis and the coccyx. The perineum is below the pelvic diaphragm and between the legs. It is a diamond-shaped area ending with the anus and, in females, now defined by the frenulum labiorum pudendi. Its definition varies: it can refer to only the superficial structures in this region, or it can be used to include both superficial and deep structures. The perineum corresponds to the outlet of the pelvis.
A line drawn across the surface connecting the ischial tuberosities divides the space into two triangles:
The formal anatomical boundaries of the perineum may be said to be:
Perineal body.
The perineal body (or central tendon of perineum) is a pyramidal fibromuscular mass in the middle line of the perineum at the junction between the urogenital triangle and the anal triangle. In males, it is found between the bulb of the penis and the anus; in females, it is defined between the frenulum labiorum pudendi and anus, and about 1.25 cm in front of the latter.
The perineal body is essential for the integrity of the pelvic floor, particularly in females. Its rupture during vaginal birth leads to widening of the gap between the anterior free borders of levator ani muscle of both sides, thus predisposing the woman to prolapse of the uterus, rectum, or even the urinary bladder. Perineal tears and episiotomy often occur in childbirth with first-time deliveries, but the risk of these injuries can be reduced by preparing the perineum, often through massage.
At this point, the following muscles converge and are attached:
Fascia.
The terminology of the perineal fascia can be confusing, and there is some controversy over the nomenclature. This stems from the fact that there are two parts to the fascia, the superficial and deep parts, and each of these can be subdivided into superficial and deep parts.
The layers and contents are as follows, from superficial to deep:
Areas.
The region of the perineum can be considered a distinct area from pelvic cavity, with the two regions separated by the pelvic diaphragm. The perianal area ("peri-" and "anal") is a subset of the perineum. The following areas are thus classified as parts of the perineal region:
Clinical significance.
Extensive deformation of the pelvic floor occur during a vaginal delivery. Approximately 85% of women have some perineal tear during a vaginal delivery and in about 69% suturing is required. Obstetric perineal trauma contributes to postpartum morbidity and frustration of women after delivery. In many women the childbirth trauma is manifested in advanced age when the compensatory mechanisms of the pelvic floor become weakened making the problem more serious among the aged population.
The anogenital distance is a measure of the distance between the midpoint of the anus and the underside of the scrotum or the vagina. Studies show that the human perineum is twice as long in males as in females. Measuring the anogenital distance in neonatal humans has been suggested as a noninvasive method to determine male feminisation and thereby predict neonatal and adult reproductive disorders.
There are claims that sometimes the perineum is excessively repaired after childbirth, using a so-called "husband stitch" and that this can increase vaginal tightness or result in pain during intercourse.
Society and culture.
The most common slang terms used for this area of the body are "gooch" or "taint". Other less frequently used slang include 'chode' and 'aintcha', as in "well it aintcha balls, or your arse".


Frank Finn

Frank Finn FZS, MBOU (1868 – 1 October 1932) was an English ornithologist.
Finn was born in Maidstone and educated at Maidstone Grammar School and Brasenose College, Oxford. He went on a collecting expedition to East Africa in 1892, and became First Assistant Superintendent of the Indian Museum, Calcutta in 1894, and Deputy Superintendent from 1895 to 1903. He then returned to England, and was editor of the "Avicultural Magazine" in 1909–10.
Finn was a prolific author, his works including "Garden and Aviary Birds of India", "How to Know the Indian Ducks" (1901), "The Birds of Calcutta" (1901), "How to Know the Indian Waders" (1906), "Ornithological and other Oddities" (1907), "The Making of Species" (1909, with Douglas Dewar), "Eggs and Nests of British Birds" (1910) and "Indian Sporting Birds" (1915). He also edited Robert A. Sterndale's on the mammals of India and Ceylon and brought out a new and abridged edition titled "Sterndale's Mammalia of India" (1929), which included an appendix on reptiles.
The weaver bird "Ploceus megarhynchus" was originally described from a specimen collected by A. O. Hume from Kaladhungi near Nainital in 1869. It was rediscovered near Calcutta by Finn, and E. C. Stuart Baker called it Finn's Weaver in the second edition of the "Fauna of British India" (1925).
Finn also described three new species of reptiles in collaboration with British naturalist Alfred William Alcock.
Finn was editor of "The Zoologist" during the last two years of its existence, from 1915 to 1916.


Paraperipatus vanheurni

Paraperipatus vanheurni is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. The type locality is in Western New Guinea, Indonesia.


Primnoa wingi

Primnoa wingi is a species of soft coral in the family Primnoidae.


Microgastrura

Microgastrura is a genus of springtails in the family Hypogastruridae. There are about seven described species in "Microgastrura".
Species.
These seven species belong to the genus "Microgastrura":


List of recently extinct mammals

Recently extinct mammals are defined by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as any mammals that have become extinct since the year 1500 CE. Since then, roughly 80 mammal species have become extinct.
Extinction of taxa is difficult to confirm, as a long gap without a sighting is not definitive, but before 1995 a threshold of 50 years without a sighting was used to declare extinction.
One study found that extinction from habitat loss is the hardest to detect, as this might only fragment populations to the point of concealment from humans. Some mammals declared as extinct may very well reappear. For example, a study found that 36% of purported mammalian extinction had been resolved, while the rest either had validity issues (insufficient evidence) or had been rediscovered.
As of December 2015, the IUCN listed 30 mammalian species as "critically endangered (possibly extinct)".
Conventions.
All species listed as "Extinct" are classified as being extinct (no known remaining individuals left) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). All species listed as Extinct in the wild are classified as being extinct in the wild, meaning that all remaining individuals of the species reside in captivity. All species listed as "Possibly extinct" are classified as being critically endangered, as it is unknown whether or not these species are extinct. Extinct subspecies such as the Javan tiger ("Panthera tigris sondaica") are not listed here as the species, in this case "Panthera tigris", is still extant. The IUCN Redlist classification for each species serves as a citation, and the superscripted "IUCN" by the date is a link to that species' page. A range map is provided wherever available, and a description of their former or current range is given if a range map is not available.
Causes of extinction.
Habitat degradation is currently the main anthropogenic cause of species extinctions. The main cause of habitat degradation worldwide is agriculture, with urban sprawl, logging, mining and some fishing practices close behind. The physical destruction of a habitat, both directly (deforestation for land development or lumber) and indirectly (burning fossil fuels), is an example of this.
Also, increasing toxicity, through media such as pesticides, can kill off a species very rapidly, by killing all living members through contamination or sterilizing them. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), for example, can bioaccumulate to hazardous levels, getting increasingly more dangerous further up the food chain.
Disease can also be a factor: white nose syndrome in bats, for example, is causing a substantial decline in their populations and may even lead to the extinction of a species.
Overhunting also has an impact. Terrestrial mammals, such as the tiger and deer, are mainly hunted for their pelts and in some cases meat, and marine mammals can be hunted for their oil and leather. Specific targeting of one species can be problematic to the ecosystem because the sudden demise of one species can inadvertently lead to the demise of another (coextinction) especially if the targeted species is a keystone species. Sea otters, for example, were hunted in the maritime fur trade, and their drop in population led to the rise in sea urchins—their main food source—which decreased the population of kelp—the sea urchin's and Steller's sea cow's main food source—leading to the extinction of the Steller's sea cow. The hunting of an already limited species can easily lead to its extinction, as with the bluebuck whose range was confined to and which was hunted into extinction soon after discovery by European settlers.
Australia.
Island creatures are usually endemic to only that island, and that limited range and small population can leave them vulnerable to sudden changes. Australia and its unique fauna have suffered an extreme decline in mammal species, 10% of its 273 terrestrial mammals, since European settlement (a loss of one to two species per decade); in contrast, only one species in North America has become extinct since European settlement. Furthermore, 21% of Australia's mammals are threatened, and unlike in most other continents, the main cause is predation by feral species, such as cats.
Extinct species.
A species is declared extinct after exhaustive surveys of all potential habitats eliminate all reasonable doubt that the last individual of a species, whether in the wild or in captivity, has died. Recently extinct species are defined by the IUCN as becoming extinct after 1500 CE.
Extinct in the wild.
A species that is extinct in the wild is one which has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as only known by living members kept in captivity or as a naturalized population outside its historic range due to massive habitat loss. A species is declared extinct in the wild after thorough surveys have inspected its historic range and failed to find evidence of a surviving individual.
Possibly extinct.
Extinction of taxa is difficult to detect, as a long gap without a sighting is not definitive. Some mammals declared as extinct may very well reappear. For example, a study found that 36% of purported mammalian extinction had been resolved, while the rest either had validity issues (insufficient evidence) or had been rediscovered. As of December 2015, the IUCN listed 30 mammalian species as "critically endangered (possibly extinct)".


Corbitella elegans

Corbitella elegans is a species of glass sponges (Hexactinellids) belonging to the family Euplectellidae. It is found in the Banda Sea in the Maluku Islands of Indonesia.
The type specimen is number ZMA 01039, found in Indonesia (Maluku).


Chondrillida

Chondrosiida is an order of sea sponges within the subclass Verongimorpha.


Contractile vacuole

A contractile vacuole (CV) is a sub-cellular structure (organelle) involved in osmoregulation. It is found predominantly in protists and in unicellular algae. It was previously known as pulsatile or pulsating vacuole.
Overview.
The contractile vacuole is a specialized type of vacuole that regulates the quantity of water inside a cell. In freshwater environments, the concentration of solutes is hypotonic, lesser outside than inside the cell. Under these conditions, osmosis causes water to accumulate in the cell from the external environment. The contractile vacuole acts as part of a protective mechanism that prevents the cell from absorbing too much water and possibly lysing (rupturing) through excessive internal pressure.
The contractile vacuole, as its name suggests, expels water out of the cell by contracting. The growth (water gathering) and contraction (water expulsion) of the contractile vacuole are periodical. One cycle takes several seconds, depending on the species and the environment's osmolarity. The stage in which water flows into the CV is called diastole. The contraction of the contractile vacuole and the expulsion of water out of the cell is called systole.
Water always flows first from outside the cell into the cytoplasm, and is only then moved from the cytoplasm into the contractile vacuole for expulsion. Species that possess a contractile vacuole typically always use the organelle, even at very hypertonic (high concentration of solutes) environments, since the cell tends to adjust its cytoplasm to become even more hyperosmotic than the environment. The amount of water expelled from the cell and the rate of contraction are related to the osmolarity of the environment. In hyperosmotic environments, less water will be expelled and the contraction cycle will be longer.
The best understood contractile vacuoles belong to the protists "Paramecium", "Amoeba", "Dictyostelium" and "Trypanosoma", and to a lesser extent the green alga "Chlamydomonas". Not all species that possess a contractile vacuole are freshwater organisms; some marine, soil microorganisms and parasites also have a contractile vacuole. The contractile vacuole is predominant in species that do not have a cell wall, but there are exceptions (notably "Chlamydomonas") which do possess a cell wall. Through evolution, the contractile vacuole has typically been lost in multicellular organisms, but it still exists in the unicellular stage of several multicellular fungi, as well as in several types of cells in sponges (amoebocytes, pinacocytes, and choanocytes).
The number of contractile vacuoles per cell varies, depending on the species. "Amoeba" have one, "Dictyostelium discoideum", "Paramecium aurelia" and "Chlamydomonas reinhardtii" have two, and giant amoeba, such as "Chaos carolinensis", have many. The number of contractile vacuoles in each species is mostly constant and is therefore used for species characterization in systematics. The contractile vacuole has several structures attached to it in most cells, such as membrane folds, tubules, water tracts and small vesicles. These structures have been termed the spongiome; the contractile vacuole together with the spongiome is sometimes called the "contractile vacuole complex" (CVC). The spongiome serves several functions in water transport into the contractile vacuole and in localization and docking of the contractile vacuole within the cell.
"Paramecium" and "Amoeba" possess large contractile vacuoles (average diameter of 13 and 45 µm, respectively), which are relatively comfortable to isolate, manipulate and assay. The smallest known contractile vacuoles belong to "Chlamydomonas", with a diameter of 1.5 µm. In "Paramecium", which has one of the most complex contractile vacuoles, the vacuole is surrounded by several canals, which absorb water by osmosis from the cytoplasm. After the canals fill with water, the water is pumped into the vacuole. When the vacuole is full, it expels the water through a pore in the cytoplasm which can be opened and closed. Other protists, such as "Amoeba", have CVs that move to the surface of the cell when full and undergo exocytosis. In "Amoeba" contractile vacuoles collect excretory waste, such as ammonia, from the intracellular fluid by both diffusion and active transport.
Water flow into the CV.
The way in which water enters the CV had been a mystery for many years, but several discoveries since the 1990s have improved understanding of this issue. Water could theoretically cross the CV membrane by osmosis, but only if the inside of the CV is hyperosmotic (higher solute concentration) to the cytoplasm. The discovery of proton pumps in the CV membrane and the direct measurement of ion concentrations inside the CV using microelectrodes led to the following model: the pumping of protons either into or out of the CV causes different ions to enter the CV. For example, some proton pumps work as cation exchangers, whereby a proton is pumped out of the CV and a cation is pumped at the same time into the CV. In other cases, protons pumped into the CV drag anions with them (carbonate, for example), to balance the pH. This ion flux into the CV causes an increase in CV osmolarity and as a result water enters the CV by osmosis. Water has been shown in at least some species to enter the CV through aquaporins.
Acidocalcisomes have been implied to work alongside the contractile vacuole in responding to osmotic stress. They were detected in the vicinity of the vacuole in "Trypanosoma cruzi" and were shown to fuse with the vacuole when the cells were exposed to osmotic stress. Presumably the acidocalcisomes empty their ion contents into the contractile vacuole, thereby increasing the vacuole's osmolarity.
Unresolved issues.
The CV indeed does not exist in higher organisms, but some of its unique characteristics are used by the former in their own osmoregulatory mechanisms. Research on the CV can therefore help us understand how osmoregulation works in all species. Many issues regarding the CV remain, as of 2010, unsolved:


Preventral scales

Preventral scales are snake scales positioned anterior to the ventral scales and are wider than they are long, but do not come into contact with the paraventral row of dorsal scales on either side of the body.


Sternocleidomastoid branches of occipital artery

The two sternocleidomastoid branches of the occipital artery (sternocleidomastoid artery) arise directly from the occipital artery and are the initial two branches of this artery. Uncommonly, the lower sternocleidomastoid branch can branch directly from the external carotid.
The lower sternocleidomastoid branch passes inferio-external to the hypoglossal nerve before descending into the substance of the muscle to which its name is derived. The upper sternocleidomastoid branch diverts from the main trunk at the deep border of the proximal end of the posterior digastric muscle belly, coursing with the spinal accessory nerve prior to arborising into the sternocleidomastoid.


Lanuginellinae

Lanuginellinae is a subfamily of glass sponges belonging to the family Rossellidae.


Nevill Willmer

(Edward) Nevill "E.N." Willmer, FRS (15 August 1902 – 8 April 2001) was a British academic who was Professor of Histology at Cambridge University from 1966-69.
Biography.
Willmer was born in Birkenhead in 1902. He was the son of Arthur Washington Willmer, a cotton broker, and married Henrietta "Penny" Rowlatt in 1939; they had two sons and two daughters. He was educated at Birkenhead School and Corpus Christi College, Oxford (B.A. 1924). Then he became a demonstrator at Manchester University before being elected a Fellow of Clare College in 1936. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1960 and became Professor Emeritus in 1969.
Willmer's major work was a three-volume treatise on tissue culture, ""Cells and Tissue in Culture: methods, biology and physiology" "(1965). This was a significant based on an immense amount of labour that went into the process of exploring and satisfying the dietary and other requirements of cells and tissues that were grown in the laboratory. Other books he wrote included "Waen and the Willmers", The Sallow Bush and several books on Grantchester, to where he retired in 1969.
He was also an artist of oil paintings detailing landscapes, mainly in Cambridgeshire and Mid Wales. He designed the Fellows' Garden in Clare College as well as one or two others in Cambridge but the Fellows' Garden is a lasting legacy of his vision. Willmer died in April 2001 at the age of 98 in Grantchester.
His brother, Gordon Willmer, was a judge. His eldest brother, Arthur Willmer, was a first-class cricketer and British Army officer was killed during the Battle of the Somme.


Pacu

Pacu () is a common name used to refer to several species of omnivorous South American freshwater serrasalmid fish that are related to the piranha. Pacu and piranha do not have similar teeth, the main difference being jaw alignment; piranha have pointed, razor-sharp teeth in a pronounced underbite, whereas pacu have squarer, straighter teeth and a less severe underbite, or a slight overbite. Pacu, unlike piranha, mainly feed on plant material and not flesh or scales. Additionally, the pacu can reach much larger sizes than piranha, at up to in total length and in weight.
Name.
The common name "pacu" is generally applied to fish classified under the below listed genera. Among these, several genera contain species where commonly used English names include the word "pacu", as listed.
Each of these groups contains one or more separate species. For example, the fish often found in pet stores known as the black pacu and red-bellied pacu typically belong to the species "Colossoma macropomum" and "Piaractus brachypomus", respectively. A species popular among fish farmers is "Piaractus mesopotamicus", also known as Paraná River pacu or small-scaled pacu.
Pacu is a term of Tupi/Guaraní origin. When the large fish of the genus "Colossoma" entered the aquarium trade in the U.S. and other countries, they were labeled pacu. In the Brazilian Amazon, the term "pacu" is generally reserved to smaller and medium-sized fish in the "Metynnis", "Mylossoma", "Mylesinus" and "Myleus" genera. "Colossoma macropomum" are known as tambaqui, whereas "Piaractus brachypomus" is known as pirapitinga. In Peru, both of the species ("Colossoma macropomum" and "Piaractus brachypomum") are called pacú and gamitana. "Piaractus mesopotamicus" of the Paraná-Paraguay basin is also called pacú in Paraguay and Argentina.
Classification.
Pacu, along with their piranha relatives, are a characin fish, meaning a kind of tetra, belonging to the Characiformes order. The ongoing classification of these fish is difficult and often contentious, with ichthyologists basing ranks according to characteristics that may overlap irregularly. DNA research sometimes confounds rather than clarifies species ranking. Ultimately, classifications can be rather arbitrary.
Pacu, along with piranha, are currently further classified into the family Serrasalmidae (formerly a subfamily of Characidae). Serrasalmidae means "serrated salmon family" and refers to the serrated keel running along the belly of these fish. However, dental characteristics and feeding habits further separate the two groups from each other.
Native distribution and habitat.
Pacus are native to tropical and subtropical South America. They inhabit rivers, lakes, floodplains and flooded forests in the Amazon, Orinoco, São Francisco River and Río de la Plata Basins, as well as rivers in the Guianas. Here they form part of the highly diverse Neotropical fish fauna. Their habitat preferences varies significantly depending on the exact species. Several species are migratory.
As exotic species.
Pacus have been introduced to the wild in many places outside their native range, both in South America and other continents. They are sometimes released to increase the local fishing, but others are released by aquarists when they outgrow their aquarium. This is illegal in many countries and strongly advised against. When becoming established they can be invasive species that damage the local ecosystem. In many regions where individuals have been seen they are unlikely to survive long-term because of temperature. Among the large pacu species ("Colossoma" and "Piaractus"), the most cold-adapted species is "Piaractus mesopotamicus", which tolerates water down to , but stops feeding below .
United States.
Pacus have become established in Puerto Rico and singles have been caught in numerous U.S. states. Discoveries have been reported in Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Iowa, Idaho,
Illinois,
Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky,
Maine,
Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri,
Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina,
Texas, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. Among the numerous recent records are a pacu caught in the California Delta, near Stockton in 2015, two in Lake St. Clair in 2016 and a single in Lake Huron in 2016.
Some state wildlife authorities have advised home aquarists who wish to get rid of overgrown pacu to cut the heads off the fish and dispose of them as garbage. Habitattitude, a U.S. national initiative led by the Aquatic Nuisance Species (ANS) Task Force, recommends humanely disposing the fish through a veterinarian or pet retailer, returning them to retailers, or donating them to a local aquarium society, school, or aquatic business. Additionally, aquarium-raised fish can be eaten (see "Food fish").
Europe.
In August 2013, a pacu was discovered in Scandinavian waters; a fisherman pulled a specimen from the Øresund, a semi-brackish strait between Sweden and Denmark.
An angler fishing on the river Seine in Paris, France caught a pacu in August 2013.
In June 2016, a pacu was caught in a city pond in Tula, Russia.
In June 2017, a pacu was accidentally caught during a fishing contest at the Port of Drobeta Turnu Severin, Romania. The fish bit one of the fishermen, leading to a general warning being issued in the region, until the origin of the fish can be determined.
In August 2017, a pacu was caught in the stream Motala Ström in Norrköping, Sweden.
In July 2019, two pacus were caught near Baia Mare, Romania.
In September 2020, a pacu weighing approx. was caught in Zegrze Reservoir in Poland.
Asia.
Pacus have become established in tropical Asia, including Thailand and India.
New Guinea.
Pacu were introduced in 1994 to the Sepik River, and in 1997 to the Ramu river as a food source, due to overfishing of native species. Local people blame the fish for outcompeting native species, including juvenile crocodiles, as well as for several attacks on humans. As a primarily vegetarian fish, red-bellied pacu, have also consumed the floating mats of vegetation in the Sepik River, which operated as fish nurseries and crocodile and bird nesting sites. Thus the entire ecosystem has become impoverished and local people cannot subsist as easily as they once did.
Importance to humans.
In their native range, pacus are widely fished and farmed. Based on a study by IBAMA, "Colossoma macropomum", "Piaractus brachypomus" and "Mylossoma" spp. are all in the top-15 of the most caught fish (by weight) in the Brazilian Amazon.
Aquaria.
Pacu are commonly sold as "vegetarian piranhas" to home aquarium owners. With the proper equipment and commitment, pacu have been known to make responsive pets. One such example was Swish, a 75-cm (30-inch) pacu owned for over 20 years by a Chinese restaurant (Kau Kau) in the Chinatown district in Seattle, Washington; one aquarium technician said of Swish, "He'd rub his body on your arms, kind of like a dog."
However, there is some question of whether the fish are a good choice for the typical aquarist. While they are not aggressive carnivores like the piranha, their crushing jaw system, used primarily for eating seeds and nuts, can be hazardous. One toddler needed surgery after a pacu (misreported as a piranha) bit her finger at Edinburgh Butterfly and Insect World in Scotland. Commenting on the incident, Deep Sea World zoological manager Matthew Kane warned, "Pacus will eat anything, even children's wiggling fingers."
If a large population of pacu enters an ecosystem to which it is not native, the fish can have a very adverse effect. Pet stores sell pacu as small as long and neglect to warn customers that fish growth is not inhibited by tank size, contrary to popular fish lore. "Most UK dealers now refuse to stock this species due to the large size and expensive aquarium requirements it demands," according to Practical Fishkeeping magazine's Matt Clarke. Incapable of maintaining large aquaria, overwhelmed hobbyists are suspected of illegally releasing their pacu into wild waterways. As tropical fish, pacu will die in cold weather; as newcomers to an ecosystem, pacu may out-compete native species for available food, habitat, and other resources, or displace them by introducing exotic parasites or diseases. Most wildlife resource authorities prohibit releasing exotic fish, including pacu, into the wild. Officials of one Texas lake have put a $100 bounty on the pacu caught there.
Game fish.
In Appendix B of "Through the Brazilian Wilderness" (see also online version), Theodore Roosevelt advised, "For small fish like the pacu and piranha an ordinary bass hook will do." Concerning the pacu, he added:
"A light rod and reel would be a convenience in catching the pacu. We used to fish for the latter variety in the quiet pools while allowing the canoe to drift, and always saved some of the fish as bait for the big fellows. We fished for the pacu as the native does, kneading a ball of mandioc farina with water and placing it on the hook as bait. I should not be surprised, though, if it were possible, with carefully chosen flies, to catch some of the fish that every once in a while we saw rise to the surface and drag some luckless insect under."
More recently, South American rivers including the Amazon have become a popular destination for recreational anglers, who go to fly fish for pacu. The International Game Fish Association has sponsored fly-fishing courses for native Brazilian fishermen, typically accustomed to subsistence fishing, so they can work as guides to fishing tourists.
When bait-fishing in pacu-stocked ponds, anglers in Malaysia are advised to use circle hooks, size 2 or larger, and braided leather rather than nylon leaders which are easily broken by the pacu's teeth. Since pond pacu often nibble at the bait before taking it, anglers should let them swim away with the bait. If the angler simply allows the line to tighten, the circle hook will slide to the side of the fish's mouth and embed its point there.
Food fish.
Theodore Roosevelt wrote of catching and eating pacu in his book "Through the Brazilian Wilderness". He described them as "good-sized, deep-bodied fish," and noted, "They were delicious eating."
Today, the Amazon river is experiencing a crisis of overfishing. Both subsistence fishers and their commercial rivals compete in netting large quantities of pacu, which bring good prices at markets in Brazil and abroad.
Aquaculture may relieve the overfishing crisis, as well as improve food security by boosting fish supplies. Various species of pacu are increasingly being used for warm-water farm fishing around the world. Pacu are considered ideal for their tolerance of the low-oxygen water in farm ponds. They also don't require a lot of expensive protein in their diet, and can be raised year-round in warm or temperature-controlled environments.
Research shows that the "flavor of [farmed] pacu is comparable to that of hybrid striped bass, tilapia, and rainbow trout, but superior to catfish." In South America, pacu are prized for their sweet, mild flavor.
Aquarium-raised pacu can be cooked and eaten, but care should be taken to ensure that no toxic medications were used in the aquarium. A recipe and preparation instructions are provided on the Greater Seattle Aquarium Society's Web site.
Incorrect claim of testicle-biting.
In 2013, a pacu was caught in the Øresund, a strait between Sweden and Denmark. This led to media reports mistakenly warning that the fish could attack testicles. The reports were based on a joke (referring to their actual feeding on tree nuts) that was not meant to be taken seriously. Nevertheless, their very strong jaws made for crushing plant seeds and the like means that fishermen and aquarists sometimes are warned about the powerful bite that may cause traumatic injuries.


Nuclear organization

Nuclear organization refers to the spatial distribution of chromatin within a cell nucleus. There are many different levels and scales of nuclear organisation. Chromatin is a higher order structure of DNA.
At the smallest scale, DNA is packaged into units called nucleosomes. The quantity and organisation of these nucleosomes can affect the accessibility of local chromatin. This has a knock-on effect on the expression of nearby genes, additionally determining whether or not they can be regulated by transcription factors.
At slightly larger scales, DNA looping can physically bring together DNA elements that would otherwise be separated by large distances. These interactions allow regulatory signals to cross over large genomic distances—for example, from enhancers to promoters.
In contrast, on a large scale, the arrangement of chromosomes can determine their properties. Chromosomes are organised into two compartments labelled A ("active") and B ("inactive"), each with distinct properties. Moreover, entire chromosomes segregate into distinct regions called chromosome territories.
Importance.
Each human cell contains around two metres of DNA, which must be tightly folded to fit inside the cell nucleus. However, in order for the cell to function, proteins must be able to access the sequence information contained within the DNA, in spite of its tightly-packed nature. Hence, the cell has a number of mechanisms in place to control how DNA is organized.
Moreover, nuclear organization can play a role in establishing cell identity. Cells within an organism have near identical nucleic acid sequences, but often exhibit different phenotypes. One way in which this individuality occurs is through changes in genome architecture, which can alter the expression of different sets of genes. These alterations can have a downstream effect on cellular functions such as cell cycle facilitation, DNA replication, nuclear transport, and alteration of nuclear structure. Controlled changes in nuclear organization are essential for proper cellular function.
History and methodology.
The organization of chromosomes into distinct regions within the nucleus was first proposed in 1885 by Carl Rabl. Later in 1909, with the help of the microscopy technology at the time, Theodor Boveri coined the termed chromosome territories after observing that chromosomes occupy individually distinct nuclear regions. Since then, mapping genome architecture has become a major topic of interest.
Over the last ten years, rapid methodological developments have greatly advanced understanding in this field. Large-scale DNA organization can be assessed with DNA imaging using fluorescent tags, such as DNA Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and specialized microscopes. Additionally, high-throughput sequencing technologies such as Chromosome Conformation Capture-based methods can measure how often DNA regions are in close proximity. At the same time, progress in genome-editing techniques (such as CRISPR/Cas9, ZFNs, and TALENs) have made it easier to test the organizational function of specific DNA regions and proteins. There is also growing interest in the rheological properties of the interchromosomal space, studied by the means of Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy and its variants.
Architectural proteins.
Architectural proteins regulate chromatin structure by establishing physical interactions between DNA elements. These proteins tend to be highly conserved across a majority of eukaryotic species.
In mammals, key architectural proteins include:
Levels of nuclear organisation.
Linear DNA and chromosome basics.
The first level of genome organization concerns how DNA is arranged linearly, and how it is packaged into chromosomes. DNA is composed of two antiparallel strands of nucleic acids, with two bound and opposing nucleic acids referred to as DNA base pairs. In order for DNA to pack inside the tiny cell nucleus, each strand is wrapped around histones, forming nucleosome structures. These nucleosome pack together to form chromosomes. Depending on the eukaryote, there are multiple independent chromosomes of varying sizes within each nucleus – for example, humans have 46 while giraffes have 30.
Within regions of the chromosome, the order of the DNA base pairs makes up specific elements for gene expression and DNA replication. Some of the more common elements include protein coding genes (containing exons and introns), noncoding DNA, enhancers, promoters, operators, origins of replication, telomeres, and centromeres. As of yet, there is not much evidence towards the importance of specific order of these elements along or between individual chromosomes. For example, the distance between an enhancer and a promoter, interacting elements that form a basis of gene expression, can range from a few hundred base pairs to hundreds of kb away. As well, individual enhancers can interact with a number of different promoters and the same is true for a single promoter interacting with multiple different enhancers.
However, on a larger scale, chromosomes are heterogeneous in the context of euchromatin and heterochromatin composition. As well, there is evidence of gene rich and poor regions and various domains associated with cell differentiation, active or repressed gene expression, DNA replication, and DNA recombination and repair. All of these help determine chromosome territories.
DNA looping.
DNA looping is the first level of nuclear organization that involves chromosomal folding. In a DNA looping event, chromatin forms physical loops, bringing DNA regions into close contact. Thus, even regions that are far apart along the linear chromosome can be brought together in three-dimensional space. The process is facilitated by a number of factors including architectural proteins (primarily CTCF and Cohesin), transcription factors, co-activators, and ncRNAs. Importantly, DNA looping can be used to regulate gene expression – looping events can repress or activate genes, depending on the elements involved. Approximately 50% of human genes are believed to be involved in long range chromatin interactions through the process of DNA looping.
Looping was first observed by Walther Flemming in 1878 when he was studying amphibian oocytes. It was not until the late 20th century when DNA looping was correlated with gene expression. For example, in 1990, Mandal and colleagues showed the importance of DNA looping in repressing the galactose and lactose operons in "E coli". In the presence of galactose or lactose, repressor proteins form protein-protein and protein-DNA interactions to loop the DNA. This in turn connects the gene promoters with upstream and downstream operators, effectively repressing gene expression by blocking transcription preinitiation complex (PIC) assembly at the promoter and therefore preventing transcription initiation.
In gene activation, DNA looping typically brings together distal gene promoters and enhancers. Enhancers can recruit a large complex of proteins, such as the mediator complex, PIC, and other cell specific transcription factors, involved in initiating the transcription of a gene.
Chromosomal domains.
Self-interacting domains.
Self-interacting (or self-associating) domains are found in many organisms – in bacteria, they are referred to as Chromosomal Interacting Domains (CIDs), whereas in mammalian cells, they are called Topologically Associating Domains (TADs). Self-interacting domains can range from the 1–2 mb scale in larger organisms to 10s of kb in single celled organisms. What characterizes a self-interacting domain is a set of common features. The first is that self-interacting domains have a higher ratio of chromosomal contacts within the domain than outside it. They are formed through the help of architectural proteins and contain within them many chromatin loops. This characteristic was discovered using Hi-C techniques. Second, self-interacting domains correlate with regulation of gene expression. There are specific domains that are associated with active transcription and other domains that repress transcription. What distinguishes whether a domain takes a particular form is dependent on which associated genes need to be active/inactive during particular phase of growth, cell cycle stage, or within a specific cell type. Cellular differentiation is determined by particular sets of genes being on or off, corresponding with the unique makeup of an individual cell's self-interacting domains. Lastly, the outside boundaries of these domains contain a higher frequency of architectural protein binding sites, regions and epigenetic marks correlated to active transcription, housekeeping genes, and short interspaced nuclear elements (SINEs).
An example of a subset of self-interacting domains is active chromatin hubs (ACHs). These hubs were discovered during observation of activated alpha- and beta-globin loci. ACHs are formed through extensive DNA looping to form a "hub" of regulatory elements in order to coordinate the expression of a subset of genes.
Lamina-associating domains and nucleolar-associating domains.
Lamina-associating domains (LADs) and nucleolar-associating domains (NADs) are regions of the chromosome that interact with the nuclear lamina and nucleolus, respectively.
Making up approximately 40% of the genome, LADs consist mostly of gene poor regions and span between 40kb to 30Mb in size. There are two known types of LADs: constitutive LADs (cLADs) and facultative LADs (fLADs). cLADs are A-T rich heterochromatin regions that remain on lamina and are seen across many types of cells and species. There is evidence that these regions are important to the structural formation of interphase chromosome. On the other hand, fLADs have varying lamina interactions and contain genes that are either activated or repressed between individual cells indicating cell-type specificity. The boundaries of LADs, like self-interacting domains, are enriched in transcriptional elements and architectural protein binding sites.
NADs, which constitutes 4% of the genome, share nearly all of the same physical characteristics as LADs. In fact, DNA analysis of these two types of domains have shown that many sequences overlap, indicating that certain regions may switch between lamina-binding and nucleolus-binding. NADs are associated with nucleolus function. The nucleolus is the largest sub-organelle within the nucleus and is the principal site for rRNA transcription. It also acts in signal recognition particle biosynthesis, protein sequestration, and viral replication. The nucleolus forms around rDNA genes from different chromosomes. However, only a subset of rDNA genes is transcribed at a time and do so by looping into the interior of the nucleolus. The rest of the genes lay on the periphery of the sub-nuclear organelle in silenced heterochromatin state.
A/B compartments.
A/B compartments were first discovered in early Hi-C studies. Researchers noticed that the whole genome could be split into two spatial compartments, labelled "A" and "B", where regions in compartment A tend to interact preferentially with A compartment-associated regions than B compartment-associated ones. Similarly, regions in compartment B tend to associate with other B compartment-associated regions.
A/B compartment-associated regions are on the multi-Mb scale and correlate with either open and expression-active chromatin ("A" compartments) or closed and expression-inactive chromatin ("B" compartments). A compartments tend to be gene-rich, have high GC-content, contain histone markers for active transcription, and usually displace the interior of the nucleus. As well, they are typically made up of self-interacting domains and contain early replication origins. B compartments, on the other hand, tend to be gene-poor, compact, contain histone markers for gene silencing, and lie on the nuclear periphery. They consist mostly of LADs and contain late replication origins. In addition, higher resolution Hi-C coupled with machine learning methods has revealed that A/B compartments can be refined into subcompartments.
The fact that compartments self-interact is consistent with the idea that the nucleus localizes proteins and other factors such as long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) in regions suited for their individual roles. An example of this is the presence of multiple transcription factories throughout the nuclear interior. These factories are associated with elevated levels of transcription due to the high concentration of transcription factors (such as transcription protein machinery, active genes, regulatory elements, and nascent RNA). Around 95% of active genes are transcribed within transcription factories. Each factory can transcribe multiple genes – these genes need not have similar product functions, nor do they need to lie on the same chromosome. Finally, the co-localization of genes within transcription factories is known to depend on cell type.
Chromosome territories.
The last level of organization concerns the distinct positioning of individual chromosomes within the nucleus. The region occupied by a chromosome is called a chromosome territory (CT). Among eukaryotes, CTs have several common properties. First, although chromosomal locations are not the same across cells within a population, there is some preference among individual chromosomes for particular regions. For example, large, gene-poor chromosomes are commonly located on the periphery near the nuclear lamina while smaller, gene-rich chromosomes group closer to the center of the nucleus. Second, individual chromosome preference is variable among different cell types. For example, the X-chromosome has shown to localize to the periphery more often in liver cells than in kidney cells. Another conserved property of chromosome territories is that homologous chromosomes tend to be far apart from one another during cell interphase. The final characteristic is that the position of individual chromosomes during each cell cycle stays relatively the same until the start of mitosis. The mechanisms and reasons behind chromosome territory characteristics is still unknown and further experimentation is needed.


Great spotted kiwi

The great spotted kiwi, great grey kiwi or roroa ("Apteryx haastii") is a species of kiwi endemic to the South Island of New Zealand. The great spotted kiwi, as a member of the ratites, is flightless. It is the largest of the kiwi. The rugged topography and harsh climate of the high altitude alpine part of its habitat render it inhospitable to a number of introduced mammalian predators, which include dogs, ferrets, cats, and stoats. Because of this, populations of this species have been less seriously affected by the predations of these invasive species compared to other kiwi. Nonetheless, there has been a 43% decline in population in the past 45 years, due to these predators and habitat destruction. This has led it to be classified as vulnerable. There are less than 16,000 great spotted kiwis in total, almost all in the more mountainous parts of northwest Nelson, the northwest coast, and the Southern Alps. A minority live on island reserves.
This kiwi is highly aggressive, and pairs will defend their large territories against other kiwi. Great spotted kiwi are nocturnal, and will sleep during the day in burrows. At night, they feed on invertebrates and will also eat plants. Great spotted kiwi breed between June and March. The egg is the largest of all birds in proportion to the size of the bird. Chicks take 75 to 85 days to hatch, and after hatching, they are abandoned by their parents.
Taxonomy and etymology.
This large kiwi is one of five species of kiwis residing in New Zealand. The other four are the tokoeka ("Apteryx australis"), Okarito brown kiwi ("Apteryx rowi"), little spotted kiwi ("Apteryx owenii"), and North Island brown kiwi ("Apteryx mantelli"). Great spotted kiwis are most closely related to the little spotted kiwi. The kiwi genus, "Apteryx", is endemic to New Zealand; 44% of the bird species native to New Zealand are endemic. Kiwis are placed in the ratite family, which also includes the emu, ostrich, rhea, and cassowary, as well as the extinct moa of New Zealand and elephant birds of Madagascar. All ratites are flightless. While it was long presumed that kiwi were closely related to moa, recent DNA research identified elephant birds as kiwi's closest relatives. Additionally, kiwi are more closely related to emus and cassowaries than to moa; the latter are actually closest to the weakly flying tinamous of South America.
Before the great spotted kiwi was known to science, several stories circulated about the existence of a large kiwi called the Maori roaroa. In 1871, two specimens were brought to the Canterbury Museum, where they were identified as a new species and were named after the museum's curator, Dr. Haast.
The great spotted kiwi was first described as "Apteryx haastii" by Thomas Potts, in 1872, based on a specimen from Westland, New Zealand. It is a monotypic species.
The genus name, "Apteryx", comes from the Ancient Greek words "a" "without" or "no", and "pteryx", "wing" and "haasti" is the Latin form of the last name of Sir Julius von Haast.
Description.
Great spotted kiwis are the largest of the kiwis; the male is tall, while the female is tall. Bill length ranges from , while weight ranges between for males and for females. The body is pear-shaped, while the head and neck is small with a long slender ivory bill. The great spotted kiwi, along with the other kiwi species, is the only bird with nostrils at the end of its bill. The eyes are small and do not see well, as it relies mostly on its sense of smell. The legs are short, with three toes per foot. It has a plumage composed of soft, hair-like feathers, which have no . The plumage can range from charcoal grey to light brown. They have large vibrissae around the gape, and they have no tail, only a small pygostyle. The common name of this bird comes from black spots on its feathers. They use their powerful legs and claws for defence against predators like stoats or ferrets. Kiwis are flightless birds, and hence lack hollow bones, lack a keel to which wing muscles anchor, and have tiny wings. This species also has a low body temperature compared to other birds. Average lifespan is 30 to 40 years.
Distribution and habitat.
Greater spotted kiwis once lived in numerous areas throughout the South Island, but because of predation by invasive species, the remaining kiwi are now restricted to three localities. These kiwi live in higher altitude areas. Populations are present from northwestern Nelson to the Buller River, the northwest coast (Hurunui River to Arthur's Pass), and the Paparoa Range, as well as within the Lake Rotoiti Mainland Island. The Southern Alps population is particularly isolated. Great spotted kiwis reside in complex, maze-like burrows that they construct. Up to fifty burrows can exist in one bird's territory. They will often move around, staying in a different burrow every day. Bird's Nest Fungus sometimes grows in these burrows. Their habitat ranges in elevation from sea level to , but the majority are concentrated in a range from in a subalpine zone. These kiwis will live in tussock grasslands, scrubland, pasture, and forests.
Behaviour.
The great spotted kiwi is nocturnal in behaviour. If the kiwis live in an area lacking predators, they will come out in the day. At night, they come out to feed. Like other species of kiwi, they have a good sense of smell, which is unusual in birds. Males are fiercely territorial. At most, four to five kiwis live in a square kilometre. One pair's territory can be in size. It is not known how they defend such a large territory in proportion to their size. They will call, chase, or fight intruders out. Vocalisations of the great spotted kiwi include growls, hisses, and bill snapping. Great spotted kiwi males have a call that resembles a warbling whistle, while the female call is harsh raspy, and also warbling.
Breeding and nesting.
Great spotted kiwis are monogamous, with pairings sometimes lasting twenty years. Nests are made in burrows. The breeding season begins in June and ends in March, as this is when food is plentiful. Males reach sexual maturity at 18 months in captivity, while females are able to lay eggs after three years. In the wild, sexual maturity for both sexes is between ages three and five. Great spotted kiwi males chase females around until the females either run off or mate. The pair mates about two to three times during peak activity. The gestation period is about a month. Females do not eat during this period, as the eggs will take up a fourth of a kiwi's body mass. The yolk takes up 65% of the egg. In most bird eggs, the yolk takes up about 35 to 40% of the egg. This makes the kiwi egg the largest in proportion to the body. Females must rely on fat stored from the previous five months to survive. Because of the large size of the egg, gestation is uncomfortable for the female, and they do not move much. To relieve the pain, females soak themselves in water when they come out of the burrows by dipping their abdomens into puddles. The egg-laying season is between August and January.
After the female lays the egg, the male incubates the egg while the female guards the nest. Males only leave the nest for a few hours to hunt, and during this time, the female takes over. It takes 75 to 85 days for the egg to hatch. The kiwi chick takes 2 to 3 days simply to get out of its egg. Kiwi chicks are superprecocial, and are abandoned by their parents after hatching. After ten days, chicks venture out of the burrow to hunt. Most chicks are killed by predators in the first six months of their life. Great spotted kiwis reach full size at year six. Unlike most birds, female great spotted kiwis have two ovaries. Most birds have only one. Great spotted kiwis are distinguishable from other kiwi species by the fact that they can only produce one egg a year, as it takes so much energy to produce the massive egg.
Feeding.
In the ground, they dig for earthworms and grubs, and they search for beetles, cicada, crickets, flies, wētā, spiders, caterpillars, slugs and snails on the ground. They will also feed on berries and seeds. To find prey, the great spotted kiwi use their scenting skills or feel vibrations caused by the movement of their prey. To do the latter, a kiwi would stick its beak into the ground, then use its beak to dig into the ground. As they are nocturnal, they do not emerge until thirty minutes after sunset to begin the hunt. Kiwis will also swallow small stones, which aid in digestion.
Survival.
Because adult great spotted kiwis are large and powerful, they are able to fend off most predators that attack them, such as stoats, ferrets, weasels, pigs, brush possums and cats, all of which are invasive species in New Zealand. However, dogs are able to kill even adults. Stoats, ferrets, possums, cats and dogs will feed on the eggs and chicks, meaning most chicks die within their first five months of life. Before the arrival of mammalian predators, the great spotted kiwi's natural predators would have been birds of prey like the extinct Haast's eagle and Eyles' harrier and the extant Swamp harrier.
Diseases.
The great spotted kiwi is the sole host of a species of feather mite, "Kiwialges haastii", described in 1985.
Status.
The great spotted kiwi population started declining when European settlers first arrived in New Zealand. Before settlers arrived, about 12 million great spotted kiwis lived in New Zealand. This bird is often preyed upon by invasive pigs, dogs, ferrets and stoats, leading to a 5% chick survival rate. It has more of an advantage than other kiwi species over these predators because it lives in high altitude areas, where the wet upland population thrives. However, there has been a decrease in population of 43% in the past 45 years, and has declined 90% since 1900. Humans have also endangered the species by destroying their habitat by logging forests and building mines. Previously, humans hunted these kiwis for feathers and food. In 1988, the species was listed as Least Concern species. It is currently classified by the IUCN as a vulnerable species. This kiwi has an occurrence range of , and in 2000 an estimated 22,000 adult birds remained. They have been trending down about 5.8% a year. The main threat is from invasive predators including mustelids, brush-tailed possum "Trichosurus vulpecula", feral cats, dogs and pigs The most threatened populations are in the southern areas of the species' range. Less than 16,000 great spotted kiwis remain. Movements for saving the kiwi are in place, and sanctuaries for the great spotted kiwi have been made. Thanks to intensive trapping and poisoning efforts the chick survival rate has been raised to about 60% in areas where mammalian pest control is undertaken.


Ichthyosauromorpha

The Ichthyosauromorpha are an extinct clade of marine reptiles consisting of the Ichthyosauriformes and the Hupehsuchia, living during the Mesozoic.
The node clade Ichthyosauromorpha was first defined by Ryosuke Motani "et. al." in 2014 as the group consisting of the last common ancestor of "Ichthyosaurus communis" and "Hupehsuchus nanchangensis", and all its descendants. Their synapomorphies, unique derived traits, include: the presence of an anterior flange on the humerus and radius; the lower end of the ulna being as wide as or wider than the upper end, the forelimb being as long as or longer than the hindlimb, the hand having at least three quarters of the length of the upper arm and lower arm combined, the fibula extending behind the level of the thighbone, and the transverse process of the vertebral neural arch being reduced or absent.
The Ichthyosauromorpha probably originated in China during the upper Lower Triassic period, about 248 million years ago. One branch consisted of the Hupehsuchia, and the other of the Ichthyosauriformes, of which "Cartorhynchus" was a basal member. Other ichthyosauriforms were the Ichthyopterygia, containing the Ichthyosauria and allies. The last ichthyosaurs probably became extinct in the middle Cretaceous.
Phylogeny.
The internal phylogenetic structure of the Ichthyosauromorpha is shown by this cladogram:


Stratified cuboidal epithelium

Stratified cuboidal epithelium is a type of epithelial tissue composed of multiple layers of cube-shaped cells.
Only the most superficial layer is made up of cuboidal cells, and the other layers can be cells of other types.
Structure.
This type of tissue can be observed in sweat glands, mammary glands, circumanal glands, and salivary glands. They protect areas such as the ducts of sweat glands, mammary glands, and salivary glands.


Salpinx in anatomy

In anatomical contexts, salpinx is used to refer to a type of tube. Per Terminologia Anatomica, the Latin term "tuba" is usually used to describe most tubes (after the Roman tuba, not the modern Tuba), but the term "salpinges" and its adjectival derivatives are still sometimes used to describe the following two "tubes":


Cupitheca

Cupitheca is a genus of Cambrian hyolith with the unusual distinction of shedding the apex of its camerate conical shell. As with "Triplicatella" and "Hyptiotheca", its designation to the hyolithids or orthrothecids is not straightforward, exhibiting as it does a mixture of the characters that would normally demark the two subtaxa of Hyolitha.


Masseter muscle

In human anatomy, the masseter is one of the muscles of mastication. Found only in mammals, it is particularly powerful in herbivores to facilitate chewing of plant matter. The most obvious muscle of mastication is the masseter muscle, since it is the most superficial and one of the strongest.
Structure.
The masseter is a thick, somewhat quadrilateral muscle, consisting of two heads, superficial and deep. The fibers of the two heads are continuous at their insertion.
Superficial head.
The superficial head, the larger, arises by a thick, tendinous aponeurosis from the temporal process of the zygomatic bone, and from the anterior two-thirds of the inferior border of the zygomatic arch. Its fibers pass inferior and posterior, to be inserted into the angle of the mandible and inferior half of the lateral surface of the ramus of the mandible.
Deep head.
The deep head is much smaller, and more muscular in texture. It arises from the posterior third of the lower border and from the whole of the medial surface of the zygomatic arch. Its fibers pass downward and forward, to be inserted into the upper half of the ramus as high as the coronoid process of the mandible. The deep head of the muscle is partly concealed, anteriorly, by the superficial portion. Posteriorly, it is covered by the parotid gland.
Innervation.
Along with the other three muscles of mastication (temporalis, medial pterygoid, and lateral pterygoid), the masseter is innervated by the anterior division of the mandibular division (V3) of the trigeminal nerve. The innervation pathway is:
gyrus precentralis > genu capsula interna > nucleus motorius nervi trigemini > nervus trigeminus > nervus mandibularis > musculus masseter.
Function.
The action of the muscle during bilateral contraction of the entire muscle is to elevate the mandible, raising the lower jaw. Elevation of the mandible occurs during the closing of the jaws. The masseter parallels the medial pterygoid muscle, but it is stronger and superficial fibres can cause protrusion.
Clinical significance.
Examination.
To perform an extraoral examination, stand near the patient and visually inspect and bilaterally palpate the muscle. Place the fingers of each hand over the muscle and ask the patient to clench his or her teeth several times.
Pathology.
The masseter muscle can become enlarged in patients who habitually clench or grind (with bruxism) their teeth and even in those who constantly chew gum. This masseteric hypertrophy is asymptomatic and soft; it is usually bilateral but can be unilateral. Even if the hypertrophy is bilateral, asymmetry of the face may still occur due to unequal enlargement of the muscles. This extraoral enlargement may be confused with parotid salivary gland disease, dental infections, and maxillofacial neoplasms. However, no other signs are present except those involved in changes in occlusion intraorally such as pain, and the enlargement corresponds with the outline of the muscle. Most patients seek medical attention because of comments about facial appearance, and this situation may be associated with further pathology of the temporomandibular joint.
Finally, the muscle undergoes spasm with malignant hyperthermia as do other skeletal muscles, but this one is easily noted, since it is on the face.


Amphogona

Amphogona is a genus of deep-sea hydrozoans of the family of Rhopalonematidae.


Palaeoephippiorhynchus

Palaeoephippiorhynchus is an extinct genus of large stork from the Oligocene of Africa: its closest living relative is the Saddle-billed stork.


Thomas Cheeseman

Thomas Frederic Cheeseman (8 June 184515 October 1923) was a New Zealand botanist. He was also a naturalist who had wide-ranging interests, such that he even described a few species of sea slugs (marine gastropod molluscs).
Biography.
Cheeseman was born at Hull, in Yorkshire on 8 June 1845, the eldest of five children. He came to New Zealand at the age of eight with his parents on the "Artemesia", arriving in Auckland on 4 April 1854. He was educated at Parnell Grammar School and then at St John's College, Auckland. His father, the Rev. Thomas Cheeseman, had been a member of the old Auckland Provincial Council.
Cheeseman started studying the flora of New Zealand, and in 1872 he published an accurate and comprehensive account of the plant life of the Waitākere Ranges. In 1874, he was appointed Secretary of the Auckland Institute and Curator of the Auckland Museum, which had only recently been founded. For the first three decades, Cheeseman was the only staff member who worked at the museum, other than the museum's janitor. Under his curatorship, the museum's collections were formed. His botanical studies were valuable not just academically, but were of importance to agriculture, horticulture, and forestry. He published papers almost every year until his death.
When Cheeseman's research began, the botany of New Zealand was quite poorly known. Cheeseman made many collecting trips including areas such as the Nelson Provincial District, the Kermadec and Three Kings Islands, and the area from Mangonui to the far north. He sometimes travelled with his friend Mr. J. Adams, of the Thames High School, after whom he named the species "Senecio adamsii" and "Elytranthe adamsii".
Cheeseman also visited Polynesia. He published in the "Transactions of the Linnean Society" a full account of the flora of Rarotonga, the chief island of the Cook Islands.
Hundreds of bird specimens added to Auckland Museum's collections by Cheeseman were shot by his younger brother, William Joseph, and their labels bear the tag "W.J.C." The museum could not afford a taxidermist, but Cheeseman's sister Emma learnt the skill and prepared many of the specimens. Her initials "E.C." appear.on the backs of many labels. His two other sisters, Ellen, a watercolour painter and botanist, and Clara, a novelist, also accompanied him on field trips.
Cheeseman married Rosetta Keesing, of a notable Jewish family of Auckland city, in November 1889. Together, they had two children: Dorothy (later Dorothy Grant-Taylor) and Guy. Cheeseman died on 15 October 1923.
Bibliography.
Out of his 101 papers and books, twenty-two are on zoological or ethnological subjects, as opposed to botany.
Many of Cheeseman's botanical publications paved the way for the publication of a complete "Flora" of New Zealand. In 1906 he produced the "Manual of the New Zealand Flora," illustrated by his sister Clara Cheeseman. In 1914 he, Hemsley, and Matilda Smith created "Illustrations of the New Zealand Flora" (1914). In some of his publications, Cheeseman speculated as to the possible origins of the New Zealand sub-Antarctic flora. He also had written an early paper on the naturalised plants of the Auckland Provincial District. Some of his early papers were about the pollination of certain species.
As well as his botanical research, Cheeseman developed the Auckland Museum, including what is probably the most extensive collection extant illustrating Māori ethnology. He donated his own herbarium of the flowering plants and vascular cryptogams to the Auckland Institute.
He published 79 articles in the "Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand."
Cheeseman also named ten sea snails, half of which have become synonyms. Eight marine species were named "cheesemanii" after him.
Membership.
Cheeseman was a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, and the Zoological Society. He was made a Corresponding Membership of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, and awarded the Gold Linnean Medal of the Linnean Society, the botanical equivalent to a Nobel Medal. He served as the President of the New Zealand Institute from 1911 to 1913. In 1918, he was awarded the Hector Memorial Medal and Prize, and in 1919 he was made an original Fellow of the New Zealand Institute.


Median umbilical ligament

The median umbilical ligament is an unpaired ligamentous structure in human anatomy. It is covered by the median umbilical fold.
Structure.
It extends from the apex of the bladder to the umbilicus, on the deep surface of the anterior abdominal wall. It is a fibrous piece of tissue that represents the remnant of the fetal urachus.
Lateral to this structure are the medial umbilical ligament and the lateral umbilical ligament.
Development.
The median umbilical ligament begins as the allantois in the embryonic period. It then becomes the urachus in the fetus. This later develops into the median umbilical ligament at birth. It is also formed from the cloaca in utero.
Function.
The median umbilical ligament has no known function.
Clinical significance.
The median umbilical ligament may be used as a landmark for surgeons who are performing laparoscopy, such as laparoscopic inguinal hernia repair. Other than this, it has no function in a born human and may be cut or removed with impunity.
It contains the urachus, which is the obliterated form of the allantois. The allantois forms a communication between the cloaca (terminal part of hindgut) and the amniotic sac during embryonic development. If the urachus fails to close during fetal life, it can result in anatomical abnormalities such as a urachal cyst, urachal fistula, urachal diverticulum or urachal sinus.
Society and culture.
The median umbilical ligament was jokingly referred to as "Xander's ligament" in a YouTube video, and this name was subsequently used on Wikipedia for a short time. This term was later used in a paper published in Mayo Clinic Proceedings. The term has also appeared in a medical textbook of obstetrics and gynaecology.


List of birds by flight speed

This is a list of the fastest flying birds in the world. A bird's velocity is necessarily variable; a hunting bird will reach much greater speeds while diving to catch prey than when flying horizontally. The bird that can achieve the greatest air speed is the peregrine falcon, able to exceed 320 km/h (200 mph) in its dives. A close relative of the common swift, the white-throated needletail ("Hirundapus caudacutus"), is commonly reported as the fastest bird in level flight with a reported top speed of 169 km/h (105 mph). This record remains unconfirmed as the measurement methods have never been published or verified. The record for fastest confirmed level flight by a bird is 111.5 km/h (69.3 mph) held by the common swift.


Pteronisis

Pteronisis is a genus of deep-sea bamboo coral in the family Isididae.


Antechiniscus

Antechiniscus is a genus of tardigrades in the family Echiniscidae. The genus was first described by Reinhardt Kristensen in 1987.
Species.
The genus includes six species: