European water vole

The European water vole or northern water vole ("Arvicola amphibius"), is a semi-aquatic rodent. It is often informally called the water rat, though it only superficially resembles a true rat. Water voles have rounder noses than rats, deep brown fur, chubby faces and short fuzzy ears; unlike rats their tails, paws and ears are covered with hair.
In the wild, on average, water voles only live about five months. Maximum longevity in captivity is two and a half years.
Appearance.
Water voles reach in length, plus a tail which is about half the length of the body. Weights reported for adults are variable. It is possible for large, optimal adults to weigh as much as However, these are peak weights. Elsewhere, the mean body mass has been reported as , although this figure includes immature water voles. The minimum weight to successfully breed as well as to survive winter is reportedly in females and in males. As a species the mean body mass is claimed as .
Overall, European water voles are a uniform dark brown colour, with slightly paler coloration on the underside. Their pelage is quite thick and they are furred over their entire body, including their tail, unlike rats. Their dark colour allows them to blend in well in the densely vegetated areas they inhabit.
Taxonomy.
The binomial applied to the European water vole is "Arvicola amphibius"; it was formerly known by the junior synonym "A. terrestris". The confusion stems from the fact that Linnaeus described two species of water vole on the same page of the same work. Those two forms are now universally considered the same species. It has been recognized as "A. amphibius" (Linnaeus, 1758) because the first source to unite the two forms, which Linnaeus had treated separately, into a single species chose "A. amphibius" as the valid name. The species is widely known by the synonym "A. terrestris", which for many decades was treated as the valid name.
Some authorities consider the southwestern water vole ("Arvicola sapidus") to be the same species, but it is now generally considered distinct.
Range.
The European water vole ("Arvicola amphibius") is found in most of Europe, Russia, West Asia and Kazakhstan.
Habitat.
In Britain, water voles live in burrows excavated within the banks of rivers, ditches, ponds, and streams. Burrows are normally located adjacent to slow moving, calm water which they seem to prefer. They also live in reed beds where they will weave ball-shaped nests above ground if no suitable banks exist in which to burrow.
Water voles prefer lush riparian vegetation which provides important cover to conceal animals when they are above ground adjacent to the water body. Areas of heavily grazed and trampled riparian habitats are generally avoided. Water voles may be displaced by the introduction of riparian woodland and scrub as they prefer more open wetland habitats away from tree cover.
As well as frequenting typical lowland wetland habitats dominated by rank marginal aquatic vegetation, water voles are also just as at home in areas upland 'peatland' vegetation where they utilize suitable small ditches, rivers, and lochs surrounded by moorland up to 1,000 m asl (e.g., northern Scotland).
In Europe and Russia, they may venture into woods, fields, and gardens. They live under the snow during the winter.
Water voles are currently being reintroduced as a threatened species in Yorkshire, England. In the Massif Central area of France, however, farmers are campaigning for action to be taken against water voles, where plagues of these rodents are causing major damage to crops.
Diet.
Water voles mainly eat grass and other vegetation near the water, but will also consume fruits, bulbs, twigs, buds, and roots when given the opportunity. In Europe, rich harvest periods can cause water vole "plagues" to take place, during which the voles eat ravenously, destroying entire fields of grass and leaving the fields full of burrows. Water voles in some parts of England have been shown to occasionally prey on frogs and tadpoles; it has been speculated that this is to make up for a protein deficiency in the voles' diet.
Food remains alone are not a reliable indicator of the presence of this species, as other smaller voles can also leave remains of large grasses and rushes.
Breeding.
The mating period lasts from March into late autumn. The female vole's pregnancy lasts for approximately 21 days. Up to 8 baby voles can be born, each weighing around . The young voles open their eyes three days after their birth. They are half the size of a full grown water vole by the time they are weaned.
Behaviour.
Water voles are expert swimmers and divers. They do not usually live in large groups. Adult water voles each have their own territories, which they mark with fecal latrines located either near the nest, burrow and favoured water's edge platforms where voles leave or enter the water. Latrines are known to be a good survey indicator of this species, and can be used to gauge abundance of animals. They also scent-mark by using a secretion from their bodies (a flank gland), although this is not normally detectable during a field survey. They may attack if their territory is invaded by another water vole.
Predation.
As a large and common microtine rodent, the range of predators faced by the European water vole is extensive. However, many species of predator prefer other rodents, such as "Microtus" voles and wood mice, due to their greater numerical abundance. Wildcats, red foxes, most species of hawk (especially common buzzards), owl (especially the barn owl, genus "Strix", and Eurasian eagle-owl) and falcon (in large numbers by the common kestrel) in their range are among their reported predators. A very large number are also taken by mustelids. Reportedly small "Mustela" weasels as well as European and introduced American mink may take the largest number of water voles of any predator due in part to aligning habitat preferences. The rarely checked invasive population of American mink has reportedly caused a decline of water voles in Britain.
Conservation.
United Kingdom.
The water vole population in the U.K. has fallen from its estimated pre-1960 level of around 8 million to 2.3 million in 1990 and to 354,000 (other source: 750,000) in 1998. This represents a 90–95% loss. It is still declining dramatically: the most recent estimate for 2004 is around 220,000. This decline is partly attributed to the American mink, an aggressive predator of the vole, together with unsympathetic farming and watercourse management which destroyed parts of the water vole's habitat.
On 26 February 2008, the U.K. Government announced full legal protection for water voles would be introduced from 6 April 2008. This makes it an offence to disturb, damage or obstruct their breeding places.
The water vole is the U.K.'s fastest declining mammal and efforts are under way to protect it and its habitat from further destruction. One aspect of water vole conservation in the U.K. is focused on non-linear habitats such as reed beds which support extensive networks or metapopulations. Other areas supporting healthy populations of water voles are large conurbations such as Birmingham and London and some upland areas where American mink are scarce. Across the U.K., the Wildlife Trusts and other organisations are undertaking many practical projects to conserve and restore water vole populations.
Water voles have recently returned to Lindow Common nature reserve in Cheshire, after many years of absence. The reserve rangers credit this to conservation management, which included thinning of woodland.
In September 2019, the Box Moor Trust re-introducted 177 Water Voles in to the River Bulbourne in Hemel Hempstead as part of a three-year plan. There is an existing population in nearby Sarratt, and it is hoped that in time the two groups will breed.
Wetlands West (formerly the Severn and Avon Vales Wetlands Partnership) reports on work done as part of the Water Vole Recovery Project in the Berkeley Vale. In Gloucestershire a new nature reserve for water voles was created in 2009/2010 at Nind (a former trout farm).
Glasgow has recently been identified as a stronghold for water voles, including a distinct population of 'fossorial' water voles, which have been reported as inhabiting brownfield sites, road verges and urban parks.
The European otter has been known to attack mink preying upon water voles. There are also indications that the water vole is increasing in numbers in U.K. areas where the European otter has made a return.
National Water-Vole Monitoring Programme (NWVMP).
In 2015, People's Trust for Endangered Species launched a new project to try to coordinate conservation efforts for the water-vole in the U.K. The National Water-Vole Monitoring Programme (NWVMP) is the first ongoing monitoring scheme for this species in the U.K. and aims to bring together data from several hundred sites to allow the status of this animal to be assessed year-on-year.
Literary appearances.
A water-vole named "Ratty" is a leading character in the 1908 children's book "The Wind in the Willows" by Kenneth Grahame: the locality used in the book is believed to be Moor Copse in Berkshire, England, and the character's name "Ratty" has become widely associated with the species and their riverbank habitat, as well as the misconception that they are a species of rat.
In the comic novel and film "Cold Comfort Farm" by Stella Gibbons, one of the characters, Urk, refers to the subject of his unrequited love, Elfine Starkadder, as his little water-vole. Throughout the story, Urk spends a lot of time talking to the water-voles on the farm.
C. S. Calverley a 19th-century writer of (among other things) light verse, in his poem "Shelter", beginning:
<poem>By the wide lake's margin I mark'd her lie—
The wide, weird lake where the alders sigh—</poem>
Tells of an apparently shy, easily frightened young female by a lakeside, who in the last line of the poem, it is revealed that:
For she was a water-rat.


Anolis agassizi

Anolis agassizi is a species of lizard in the family Dactyloidae. The species is endemic to Malpelo Island, which is part of Colombia.
Etymology.
The specific name, "agassizi", is in honour of Alexander Agassiz, who was an American zoologist and mining engineer.
Habitat.
The preferred natural habitat of "A. agassizi" is moist rocky areas, at altitudes from sea level to .
Description.
Males of "A. agassizi" grow to snout-to-vent length (SVL), while females may reach SVL. The females and some of the males have spotted heads and grey-brown colouration. The remainder of the males have black nuptial crests, grow larger, and have larger testes. The reason for this is unknown, but may be related to the reduced predation on larger males.
Ecology.
"Anolis agassizi" is less territorial than other anoles, sharing perches and food sources without dispute. Their territories often overlap. Malpelo Island is quite barren of vegetation, and the anoles mainly eat insects, especially beetles. Based on an attraction to the colour orange, they may also eat bird eggs, as large numbers of boobies nest on the island. Their main predator is "Diploglossus millepunctatus".
Reproduction.
"A. agassizi" is oviparous.


Craugastor angelicus

Craugastor angelicus, commonly known as the angel robber frog, is a species of frog in the family Craugastoridae.
It is endemic to Costa Rica.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests and rivers.


Hydrodynastes gigas

Hydrodynastes gigas is a New World species of large, rear-fanged, colubrid snake endemic to South America. It is commonly and alternatively known as the false water cobra and the Brazilian smooth snake. The false water cobra is so named because when the snake is threatened it "hoods" as a true cobra ("Naja" species) does. However, unlike a true cobra, it does not rear up, but remains in a horizontal position. There are no subspecies which are currently recognized as being valid.
Common names.
"Hydrodynastes gigas" is commonly referred to as the false water cobra, false cobra, South American water cobra, and Brazilian smooth snake. It is often referred to within the reptile hobby more simply as either a "falsy" or "falsie" or a "FWC", which is an abbreviation of the common name false water cobra.
In South America, it is sometimes referred to as "boipevassu". Additional South American common names include "mboi-peba, ñacaniná, surucucu-do-pantanal, vibora ladradora" (barking snake), and "yacanina".
Description.
"H. gigas" is a large colubrid that may exceed 3 m (9 to 10 ft) in total length (including tail) when adult. However most "H. gigas" reach approximately 2 m (6 to 7 ft) in total length. It is of medium body, and is therefore neither particularly heavy nor slender-bodied, but is one of the heaviest colubrid species when full adult size is attained. Males are much smaller than females in this species. The common name false water cobra is an allusion to its ability to flatten its neck, similar to a cobra as a defensive reaction to make it look larger and more intimidating. Unlike the true cobra, though, the false water cobra stays in a horizontal position when it hoods, rather than rearing into a vertical position. "H. gigas" can flatten not only its neck, but also lower down the body, which is not possible for a true cobra.
Additionally, the pattern and coloration of this "Hydrodynastes" species superficially resemble those of true water cobras ("Boulengerina").
The false water cobra has large eyes with circular pupils, allowing good daytime vision. The tongue is black, and of the typical snake fashion.
The background colour of a mature specimen is an olive green or brown, with dark spots and bands covering much of its body. The background coloring and banding generally become darker towards the end tail. This colouring gives the false water cobra effective camouflage in its natural rainforest environment. The ventral scales are yellow or brown, spotted with dark flecks that make three dotted lines which appear to merge towards the tail. Mehrtens, 1987, suggested females are brown ventrally, whilst males are yellow. Females are suggested to have lighter bands and markings on their bodies. This is not an effective way of judging the sex of "H. gigas", as coloring will differ slightly between all individuals. Hatchling and juveniles are much darker in coloration and do not have the typical dark eyes of the adults. They more resemble a garter or water snake than their mature counterparts. In captivity, hypomelanstic animals have been produced. These animals vary in coloration, from some having only slightly lighter colored saddles, to those that are almost patternless.
Geographic range.
In South America "H. gigas" is found from eastern Bolivia to southern Brazil, and in Paraguay and Argentina.
Habitat.
"H. gigas" generally lives in wet, humid areas, and marshlands, typically within the tropical rainforests that are common within its range. However, the false water cobra has also been observed in dryer areas, although this is not its preferred habitat. The preference of wet land as a habitat for "H. gigas" contributes to its common name of false "water" cobra.
Behavior.
"H. gigas" is primarily a diurnal species. It is also a very active and inquisitive snake, which will spend much of the day climbing, burrowing and even swimming. Their temperaments can vary considerably between specimens; some are very docile and reluctant to bite, whilst others are very defensive and even aggressive or intimidating. Captive-bred specimens can become quite tame and trusting and many exhibit a high level of intelligence.
Feeding.
In the wild, "H. gigas" primarily feeds on fish and amphibians, but will take small mammals, rodents, birds and even other reptiles. In captivity, they can be introduced to other types of food, as well.
Venom.
The posterior maxillary teeth of "H. gigas" are enlarged, and the Duvernoy's gland produces a secretion with high proteolytic activity. Besides the ability of this large and powerful snake to inflict mechanical trauma, numerous cases of local envenomation and perhaps hypersensitivity have occurred, most of which have gone unreported. Prolonged, chewing bites may result in painful (sometimes extensive and persistent) swelling, as well as bruising. Nevertheless, the species is regularly kept as a pet, becoming increasingly popular in recent years.
Manning et al. (1999) described a case in which an 18-year-old male pet store employee was bitten on the wrist by a specimen that hung on for 1.5 minutes. Some mild swelling resulted, but after nine hours, the victim claimed to have experienced three bouts of muscle paralysis, during which he fell and was unable to move or speak. However, a medical examination did not produce any unusual results. The symptoms described possibly were the result of anxiety.
Taxonomy.
This species, "H. gigas", was once considered to constitute a single monotypic genus, "Cyclagras"


Trichodes suturalis

Trichodes suturalis is a beetle species of "checkered beetles" belonging to the family Cleridae, subfamily Clerinae. It was described by Georg Karl Maria Seidlitz in 1891 and is endemic to Spain.


Labicymbium dentichele

Labicymbium dentichele is a species of sheet weaver found in Peru. It was described by Millidge in 1991.


Common wood pigeon

The common wood pigeon ("Columba palumbus") is a large species in the dove and pigeon family. It belongs to the genus "Columba" and, like all pigeons and doves, belongs to the family Columbidae. It is locally known in southeast England as the "culver"; This name has given rise to several areas known for keeping pigeons to be named after it, such as Culver Down.
Taxonomy.
The common wood pigeon was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his "Systema Naturae". He placed it with all the other pigeons in the genus "Columba" and coined the binomial name "Columba palumbus". The specific epithet "palumbus" is from the Latin "palumbes" for a wood pigeon.
Five subspecies are recognised, one of which is now extinct:
† = extinct
Description.
The three Western European "Columba" pigeons, common wood pigeon, stock dove and rock dove, though superficially alike, have very distinctive characteristics; the common wood pigeon may be identified at once by its larger size at and weight , and the white on its neck and wing. It is otherwise a basically grey bird, with a pinkish breast. The wingspan can range from and the wing chord measures . The tail measures , the bill is and the tarsus is . Adult birds bear a series of green and white patches on their necks, and a pink patch on their chest.
Juvenile birds do not have the white patches on either side of the neck. When they are about 6 months old (about three months out of the nest) they gain small white patches on both sides of the neck, which gradually enlarge until they are fully formed when the bird is about 6–8 months old (approx. ages only). Juvenile birds also have a greyer beak and an overall lighter grey appearance than adult birds.
The call is a characteristic cooing, "coo-COO-coo-coo-coo".
Distribution and habitat.
In the colder northern and eastern parts of Europe and western Asia the common wood pigeon is a migrant, but in southern and western Europe it is a well distributed and often abundant resident. In Great Britain wood pigeons are commonly seen in parks and gardens and are seen with increasing numbers in towns and cities.
Behaviour.
Its flight is quick, performed by regular beats, with an occasional sharp flick of the wings, characteristic of pigeons in general. It takes off with a loud clattering. It perches well, and in its nuptial display walks along a horizontal branch with swelled neck, lowered wings, and fanned tail. During the display flight the bird climbs, the wings are smartly cracked like a whiplash, and the bird glides down on stiff wings. The common wood pigeon is gregarious, often forming very large flocks outside the breeding season. Like many species of pigeon, wood pigeons take advantage of trees and buildings to gain a vantage point over the surrounding area, and their distinctive call means that they are usually heard before they are seen.
This species can be an agricultural pest, and it is often shot, being a legal quarry species in most European countries. It is wary in rural areas, but often quite tame where it is not persecuted.
Breeding.
 It breeds in trees in woods, parks and gardens, laying two white eggs in a simple stick nest which hatch after 17 to 19 days. Wood pigeons seem to have a preference for trees near roadways and rivers. Males exhibit aggressive behaviour towards each other during the breeding season by jumping and flapping wings at each other. Their plumage becomes much darker, especially the head, during hot summer periods. Breeding can happen year round if there is food abundant however breeding season most commonly occurs in autumn usually in the months of August and September.
The nests are vulnerable to attack, particularly by crows, because they live in the countryside, the more so early in the year when the leaf cover is not fully formed. The young usually fly at 33 to 34 days; however, if the nest is disturbed, some young may be able to survive having left the nest as early as 20 days from hatching.
In a study carried out using ring-recovery data, the survival rate for juveniles in their first year was 52 per cent, and the adult annual survival rate was 61 per cent. For birds that survive the first year the typical lifespan is thus only three years, but the maximum recorded age is 17 years and 8 months for a bird ringed and recovered on the Orkney Islands.
Diet.
Most of its diet is vegetable, round and fleshy leaves from Caryophyllaceae, Asteraceae, and cruciferous vegetables taken from open fields or gardens and lawns; young shoots and seedlings are favoured, and it will take grain, pine nuts, and certain fruits and berries. In the autumn they also eat figs and acorns, and in winter buds of trees and bushes. They will also eat larvae, ants, and small worms. They need open water to drink and bathe in. Young common wood pigeons swiftly become fat, as a result of the crop milk they are fed by their parents. This is an extremely rich fluid that is produced in the adult birds' crops during the breeding season.
Predators.
Predators include:


Raorchestes menglaensis

Raorchestes menglaensis (Zhishihe's bubble-nest frog or Mengla small treefrog) is a species of frog in the family Rhacophoridae. Only known from its type locality, Zhishihe in Mengla County, it is endemic to Yunnan, China, although it is expected to occur more widely, including adjacent Laos.
"Raorchestes menglaensis" are small frogs: males measure only in snout-vent length, whereas females are slightly larger at SVL. It is a very rare species known from fewer than 10 specimens. It inhabits streamside shrubland. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Red-legged cormorant

The red-legged cormorant ("Phalacrocorax gaimardi") also known as the red-legged shag, red-footed cormorant, red-footed shag, Gaimard's cormorant and grey cormorant, is a resident of the coastline of South America. It is non-colonial unlike most seabirds. The red-legged cormorant has not been observed wing-spreading, which is unusual among cormorant species.
Taxonomy.
The red-legged cormorant is placed within the genus "Phalacrocorax", but it has been debated that it should be placed within "Notocarbo" as phylogenetic studies suggest that it is most closely related to other southern-hemisphere shags, such as the spotted shag. It has been suggested that the population of red-legged cormorants on the Atlantic coast are a separate subspecies. They are slightly smaller and have marginally paler plumage compared to the birds of the Pacific coast.
Description.
The red-legged cormorant is a medium-sized seabird, with a long neck, streamlined body, webbed feet and a long, thin hooked bill. Its body length is , with an average wingspan of . It weighs . There is no sexual dimorphism between the male and female birds.
The red-legged cormorant's appearance is unmistakable. Breeding adults have a smoky grey body, with a slightly paler underside. They have scattered areas of white filoplumes behind the eyes and down the neck. The wing coverts have a speckled, silvery grey appearance, followed by broad black wing tips. The tail is also black. The eyes are green, surrounded by sixteen tiny blue marks. The bill is yellow, shading to orange toward the base, the gular skin is a vibrant orange or red. The legs and feet are a striking coral red.
Non-breeding adults look similar to breeding adults. They lack the white filoplumes, the wing coverts appear less silvery, but more dark grey, and the bill and gular skin are duller in colouration.
Juvenile red-legged cormorants usually possess paler, brown plumage with a speckling of white around the throat. Juvenile plumage colouration can be highly variable between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Their eyes are grey and their bills and gular skin range from black to orange. The legs and feet can be a dull orange to a reddish black.
Distribution and habitat.
The red-legged cormorant is native to the coast of South America. On the Pacific coast it ranges from Macabi Island, Peru to Chiloe Island, Chile. There are small isolated populations on the Atlantic coast scattered across Santa Cruz, Argentina. It rarely occurs further south than the Strait of Magellan.
Red-legged cormorants nest sparsely on steep rock faces, including coastal cliffs, rocky islets, and sea caverns. They become virtually undetectable against these rocky outcrops by their speckled grey plumage, with the exception of their colourful bills and feet. They forage within inshore bodies of water and in shallow offshore waters.
Behaviour.
Breeding.
The red-legged cormorant is a non-colonial seabird, instead living in pairs or small groups. Courtship typically occurs in January and February. The males can engage in elaborate mating displays, which include darting and throwback postures. During darting, males chirp quietly while moving the head back and forth exposing the interior of the mouth. When the female advances, the male displays a throwback posture; outstretching the neck and pointing the bill towards the tail. The female may respond to the male's display by hopping and throat clicking. When the female selects a male, periods of allopreening ensue, followed by copulation. Red-legged cormorant pairs are observed to be monogamous for at least one season.
Nests are constructed on steep cliffs and are usually isolated from other birds, but can form small colonies on rare occasions. They are composed of feathers, guano, seaweed, the cases of tube-dwelling worms and even garbage. They have been observed diving 8 to 10 meters collecting billfulls of various nesting materials. Egg laying takes place between October and January, with clutch sizes averaging three eggs. After hatching, the nestlings initially have no feathers, but are quickly covered in brownish down. As with all cormorants, nestlings are altricial, incubation period averages 30 days and the chick-rearing period is 60–70 days.
Feeding.
Red-legged cormorants are generally solitary foragers, but hunting in pairs or small flocks may occur. Most red-legged cormorants forage no further than 3 km away from their nest. They hunt in inshore waters, including estuaries, and in shallow offshore waters. They never enter exclusively fresh water. Many red-legged cormorants forage at low tide, presumably to minimize their travel time to and from the surface and to maximize time searching for food. They can dive below the surface in pursuit of prey. Their diet mainly consists of fish, specifically including eels and anchovies, and planktonic crustaceans.
Voice.
The red-legged cormorants calls are unlike most seabirds; they consist of high-pitched chirps and chirrups more like a songbird.
Status and conservation.
The cormorant is considered to be Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Predation.
Due to the birds' habit of nesting on cliffs with sheer rock faces and no ground approach, they are inaccessible to most predators. Their main predators are kelp gulls, as well as humans, who consume adults, nestlings and eggs. The red-legged cormorant's threat display appears to be underdeveloped, consisting only of gaping and thrusting the bill towards the intruder. This could be due to its solitary life and lack of predators.


Dusky warbler

The dusky warbler ("Phylloscopus fuscatus") is a leaf warbler which breeds in the east Palearctic. The genus name "Phylloscopus" is from Ancient Greek "phullon", "leaf", and "skopos", "seeker" (from "skopeo", "to watch"). The specific "fuscatus" is from Latin "fuscus" "dark".
This warbler is strongly migratory and winters in South Asia and South-east Asia. It sometimes occurs in North America in Alaska, and has also occurred in California.
This is an abundant bird of taiga bogs and wet meadows. The nest is built low in a bush, and 5-6 eggs are laid. Like most Old World warblers, this small passerine is insectivorous.
The dusky warbler is prone to vagrancy as far as western Europe in October, despite a 3000 km distance from its breeding grounds. It has wintered in Great Britain.
This is a warbler similar in size and shape to a chiffchaff. The adult has an unstreaked brown back and buff underparts. There is a prominent whitish supercilium, and the bill is fine and pointed. The sexes are identical, as with most warblers, but young birds are more olive-tinged above. Like most warblers, it is insectivorous, but will take other small food items, including berries.
The song is a monotonous whistle, and the call is a harsh "check". The call is often the first clue that this typically skulking species is present, away from the breeding grounds.


Vipera berus

Vipera berus, the common European adder or common European viper, is a venomous snake that is extremely widespread and can be found throughout most of Western Europe and as far as East Asia. The species is also the only venomous snake native to Great Britain.
Known by a host of common names including common adder and common viper, adders have been the subject of much folklore in Britain and other European countries. They are not regarded as especially dangerous; the snake is not aggressive and usually bites only when really provoked, stepped on, or picked up. Bites can be very painful, but are seldom fatal. The specific name, "berus", is New Latin and was at one time used to refer to a snake, possibly the grass snake, "Natrix natrix".
The common adder is found in different terrains, habitat complexity being essential for different aspects of its behaviour. It feeds on small mammals, birds, lizards, and amphibians, and in some cases on spiders, worms, and insects. The common adder, like most other vipers, is ovoviviparous. Females breed once every two or three years, with litters usually being born in late summer to early autumn in the Northern Hemisphere. Litters range in size from three to 20 with young staying with their mothers for a few days. Adults grow to a total length (including tail) of and a mass of . Three subspecies are recognized, including the nominate subspecies, "Vipera berus berus" described here. The snake is not considered to be threatened, though it is protected in some countries.
Taxonomy.
The species has three recognised subspecies:
The subspecies "V. b. bosniensis" and "V. b. sachalinensis" have been regarded as full species in some recent publications.
The name 'adder' is derived from "nædre", an Old English word that had the generic meaning of serpent in the older forms of many Germanic languages. It was commonly used in the Old English version of the Christian Scriptures for the devil and the serpent in the Book of Genesis. In the 14th century, 'a nadder' in Middle English was rebracketed to 'an adder' (just as 'a napron' became 'an apron' and 'a "nompere" changed into 'an umpire').
In keeping with its wide distribution and familiarity through the ages, "Vipera berus" has a large number of common names in English, which include:
In Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the snake is known as "hugorm", "hoggorm" and "huggorm", roughly translated as 'striking snake'. In Finland, it is known as "kyykäärme" or simply "kyy" (one of the municipalities of the country, Kyyjärvi, means 'adder lake'), in Estonia it is known as "rästik", while in Lithuania it is known as "angis". In Poland the snake is called "żmija zygzakowata," which translates as 'zigzag viper', due to the pattern on its back.
Description.
Relatively thick-bodied, adults usually grow to in total length (including tail), with an average of . Maximum size varies by region. The largest, at over , are found in Scandinavia; specimens of have been observed there on two occasions. In France and Great Britain, the maximum size is . Mass ranges from to about .
The head is fairly large and distinct and its sides are almost flat and vertical. The edge of the snout is usually raised into a low ridge. Seen from above, the rostral scale is not visible, or only just. Immediately behind the rostral, there are two (rarely one) small scales.
Dorsally, there are usually five large plates: a squarish frontal (longer than wide, sometimes rectangular), two parietals (sometimes with a tiny scale between the frontal and the parietals), and two long and narrow supraoculars. The latter are large and distinct, each separated from the frontal by one to four small scales. The nostril is situated in a shallow depression within a large nasal scale.
The eye is relatively large—equal in size or slightly larger than the nasal scale—but often smaller in females. Below the supraoculars are six to 13 (usually eight to 10) small circumorbital scales. The temporal scales are smooth (rarely weakly keeled). There are 10–12 sublabials and six to 10 (usually eight or 9) supralabials. Of the latter, the numbers 3 and 4 are the largest, while 4 and 5 (rarely 3 and 4) are separated from the eye by a single row of small scales (sometimes two rows in alpine specimens).
Midbody there are 21 dorsal scales rows (rarely 19, 20, 22, or 23). These are strongly keeled scales, except for those bordering the ventral scales. These scales seem loosely attached to the skin and lower rows become increasingly wide; those closest to the ventral scales are twice as wide as the ones along the midline. The ventral scales number 132–150 in males and 132–158 in females. The anal plate is single. The subcaudals are paired, numbering 32–46 in males and 23–38 in females.
The colour pattern varies, ranging from very light-coloured specimens with small, incomplete, dark dorsal crossbars to entirely brown ones with faint or clear, darker brown markings, and on to melanistic individuals that are entirely dark and lack any apparent dorsal pattern. However, most have some kind of zigzag dorsal pattern down the entire length of their bodies and tails. The head usually has a distinctive dark V or X on the back. A dark streak runs from the eye to the neck and continues as a longitudinal series of spots along the flanks.
Unusually for snakes, the sexes are possible to tell apart by the colour. Females are usually brownish in hue with dark-brown markings, the males are pure grey with black markings. The basal colour of males will often be slightly lighter than that of the females, making the black zigzag pattern stand out. The melanistic individuals are often females.
Distribution and habitat.
"Vipera berus" has a wide range. It can be found across the Eurasian land-mass; from northwestern Europe (Great Britain, Belgium, Netherlands, Scandinavia, Germany, France) across southern Europe (Italy, Serbia, Albania, Croatia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Bulgaria, and northern Greece) and eastern Europe to north of the Arctic Circle, and Russia to the Pacific Ocean, Sakhalin Island, North Korea, northern Mongolia and northern China. It is found farther north than any other snake species. The type locality was originally listed as 'Europa'. Mertens and Müller (1940) proposed restricting the type locality to 'Upsala, Schweden' (Uppsala, Sweden) and it was eventually restricted to Berthåga, Uppsala by designation of a neotype by Krecsák & Wahlgren (2008).
In several European countries, it is notable as being the only native venomous snake. It is one of only three snake species native to Britain. The other two, the barred grass snake and the smooth snake, are non-venomous.
Sufficient habitat complexity is a crucial requirement for the presence of this species, in order to support its various behaviours—basking, foraging, and hibernation—as well as to offer some protection from predators and human harassment. It is found in a variety of habitats, including: chalky downs, rocky hillsides, moors, sandy heaths, meadows, rough commons, edges of woods, sunny glades and clearings, bushy slopes and hedgerows, dumps, coastal dunes, and stone quarries. It will venture into wetlands if dry ground is available nearby and thus may be found on the banks of streams, lakes, and ponds.
In much of southern Europe, such as southern France and northern Italy, it is found in either low lying wetlands or at high altitudes. In the Swiss Alps, it may ascend to about . In Hungary and Russia, it avoids open steppeland; a habitat in which "V. ursinii" is more likely to occur. In Russia, however, it does occur in the forest steppe zone.
Conservation status.
In Great Britain, it is illegal to kill, injure, harm or sell adders under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. The same situation applies to Norway under the "" (The Wildlife Act 1981) and Denmark (1981). The common viper is categorised as 'endangered' in Switzerland, and is also protected in some other countries in its range. It is also found in many protected areas. This species is listed as protected (Appendix III) under the Berne Convention.
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species describes the conservation status as of 'least concern' in view of its wide distribution, presumed large population, broad range of habitats, and likely slow rate of decline though it acknowledges the population to be decreasing. Reduction in habitat for a variety of reasons, fragmentation of populations in Europe due to intense agriculture practices, and collection for the pet trade or for venom extraction have been recorded as major contributing factors for its decline. A citizen science based survey in the UK found evidence of extensive population declines in the UK, especially affecting smaller populations. A combination of public pressure and disturbance, habitat fragmentation and poor habitat management were considered the most likely causes of the decline. The release of 47 million non-native pheasants and 10 million partridges each year by countryside estates has also been suggested to have a significant impact on adder populations across the UK, with the possibility the reptile could be extinct within 12 years.
Behaviour.
This species is mainly diurnal, especially in the north of its range. Further south it is said to be active in the evening, and it may even be active at night during the summer months. It is predominantly a terrestrial species, although it has been known to climb up banks and into low bushes in order to bask or search for prey.
Adders are not usually aggressive, tending to be rather timid and biting only when cornered or alarmed. People are generally bitten only after stepping on them or attempting to pick them up. They will usually disappear into the undergrowth at a hint of any danger, but will return once all is quiet, often to the same spot. Occasionally, individual snakes will reveal their presence with a loud and sustained hissing, hoping to warn off potential aggressors. Often, these turn out to be pregnant females. When the adder is threatened, the front part of the body is drawn into an S-shape to prepare for a strike.
The species is cold-adapted and hibernates in the winter. In Great Britain, males and females hibernate for about 150 and 180 days, respectively. In northern Sweden hibernation lasts 8–9 months. On mild winter days, they may emerge to bask where the snow has melted and will often travel across snow. About 15% of adults and 30–40% of juveniles die during hibernation.
Feeding.
Diet consists mainly of small mammals, such as mice, rats, voles, and shrews, as well as lizards. Sometimes, slow worms are taken, and even weasels and moles. Adders also feed on amphibians, such as frogs, newts, and salamanders. Birds are also reported to be consumed, especially nestlings and even eggs, for which they will climb into shrubbery and bushes. Generally, diet varies depending on locality. Juveniles will eat nestling mammals, small lizards and frogs as well as worms and spiders. Once they reach about in length, their diet begins to resemble that of the adults.
Reproduction.
In Hungary, mating takes place in the last week of April, whilst in the north it happens later (in the second week of May). Mating has also been observed in June and even early October, but it is not known if this autumn mating results in any offspring. Females often breed once every two years, or even once every three years if the seasons are short and the climate is not conducive.
Males find females by following their scent trails, sometimes tracking them for hundreds of metres a day. If a female is found and then flees, the male follows. Courtship involves side-by-side parallel 'flowing' behaviour, tongue flicking along the back and excited lashing of the tail. Pairs stay together for one or two days after mating. Males chase away their rivals and engage in combat. Often, this also starts with the aforementioned flowing behaviour before culminating in the dramatic 'adder dance'. In this act, the males confront each other, raise up the front part of the body vertically, make swaying movements and attempt to push each other to the ground. This is repeated until one of the two becomes exhausted and crawls off to find another mate. Appleby (1971) notes that he has never seen an intruder win one of these contests, as if the frustrated defender is so aroused by courtship that he refuses to lose his chance to mate. There is no record of any biting taking place during these bouts.
Females usually give birth in August or September, but sometimes as early as July, or as late as early October. Litters range in size from 3 to 20. The young are usually born encased in a transparent sac from which they must free themselves. Sometimes, they succeed in freeing themselves from this membrane while still inside the female.
Neonates measure in total length (including tail), with an average total length of . They are born with a fully functional venom apparatus and a reserve supply of yolk within their bodies. They shed their skins for the first time within a day or two. Females do not appear to take much interest in their offspring, but the young have been observed to remain near their mothers for several days after birth.
Venom.
Because of the rapid rate of human expansion throughout the range of this species, bites are relatively common. Domestic animals and livestock are frequent victims. In Great Britain, most instances occur in March–October. In Sweden, there are about 1,300 bites a year, with an estimated 12% that require hospitalisation. At least eight different antivenoms are available against bites from this species.
Mallow et al. (2003) describe the venom toxicity as being relatively low compared to other viper species. They cite Minton (1974) who reported the values for mice to be 0.55 mg/kg IV, 0.80 mg/kg IP and 6.45 mg/kg SC. As a comparison, in one test the minimum lethal dose of venom for a guinea pig was 40–67 mg, but only 1.7 mg was necessary when "Daboia russelii" venom was used. Brown (1973) gives a higher subcutaneous LD50 range of 1.0–4.0 mg/kg. All agree that the venom yield is low: Minton (1974) mentions 10–18 mg for specimens in length, while Brown (1973) lists only 6 mg.
Relatively speaking, bites from this species are not highly dangerous. In Britain there have been only 14 known fatalities since 1876—the last a 5-year-old child in 1975—and one nearly fatal bite of a 39-year-old woman in Essex in 1998. An 82-year-old woman died following a bite in Germany in 2004, although it is not clear whether her death was due to the effect of the venom. Even so, professional medical help should always be sought as soon as possible after any bite. Very occasionally bites can be life-threatening, particularly in small children, while adults may experience discomfort and disability long after the bite. The length of recovery varies, but may take up to a year.
Local symptoms include immediate and intense pain, followed after a few minutes (but perhaps by as much as 30 minutes) by swelling and a tingling sensation. Blisters containing blood are not common. The pain may spread within a few hours, along with tenderness and inflammation. Reddish lymphangitic lines and bruising may appear, and the whole limb can become swollen and bruised within 24 hours. Swelling may also spread to the trunk, and with children, throughout the entire body. Necrosis and intracompartmental syndromes are very rare.
Systemic symptoms resulting from anaphylaxis can be dramatic. These may appear within 5 minutes post bite, or can be delayed for many hours. Such symptoms include nausea, retching and vomiting, abdominal colic and diarrhoea, incontinence of urine and faeces, sweating, fever, vasoconstriction, tachycardia, lightheadedness, loss of consciousness, blindness, shock, angioedema of the face, lips, gums, tongue, throat and epiglottis, urticaria and bronchospasm. If left untreated, these symptoms may persist or fluctuate for up to 48 hours. In severe cases, cardiovascular failure may occur.


Scrobipalpa samadensis

Scrobipalpa samadensis, the buck's-horn groundling, is a moth of the family Gelechiidae. It is found in most of Europe and Russia (the southern Urals).
The wingspan is .The head is grey, face whitish. Terminal joint of palpi as long as second. Forewings brown ; veins and costa grey-whitish, suffusedly irrorated withdark fuscous ; dorsum sometimes lighter ; stigmata blackish,indistinct, first discal beyond plical ; sometimes dark costal spots near base, or a dark central longitudinal suffusion ; faint
costal and tornal whitisli spots at 3/4, sometimes obsolete blackish terminal spots between veins. Hindwings 1, pale grey.The larva dull yellowish ; dorsal, subdorsal, and spiracular lines sometimes faintly pinkish ; dots black ; head brown ; plate of 2 black.
Adults have been recorded on wing from June to August.
The larvae feed on "Plantago coronopus", "Plantago lanceolata" and "Plantago maritima". The young larvae mine the leaves of their host plant. The mine has the form of a short, narrow gallery, made in the young leaves. Older larvae bore in the rhizome of their host plant. The larvae have a yellowish white body with salmon coloured length lines and a blackish brown head. Mining larvae can be found in autumn. The species overwinters in the larval stage in the rhizome.


Manipur bush rat

The Manipur bush rat ("Hadromys humei"), also known as Hume's rat or Hume's hadromys, is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is found in northeastern India, and is listed as endangered.
Range and habitat.
The species is endemic to northeast India, and has been recorded from several localities. These are: Angarakhata in Kamrup district (Assam), Bishnupur, Imphal, Senapati and Karong (specimen FMNH 76562) in Manipur.
Originally thought to occur in Yunnan in China also, the Chinese animals have been reclassified as "Hadromys yunnanensis" Yang & Wang 1987. The fossil record shows that populations of the Manipur Bush Rat existed all over Thailand right down to the Thai-Malay border during the Pleistocene. During that time, the Indo-Malayan region may have had a cooler and drier climate with savanna-like regions. A related species is known from the Siwalik fossils from northern Pakistan. These findings indicate that "Hadromys humei" is probably a "relict" species.
The Manipur bush rat occurs at medium altitudes from above sea level. It inhabits tropical evergreen, moist deciduous and evergreen forests and also found in secondary forests in northeastern India.
Discovery.
The murid was described by Oldfield Thomas in 1886 from specimens in the Manipur collection of Allan Octavian Hume, which was donated to the British Museum (Natural History) after Hume's life's work in ornithological notes were sold by a servant as waste paper. The Manipur Bush Rat was named in his honour. The collection has two male and two female specimens, recorded to be collected on 23 March 1881 from "Moirang" (in Manipur), the type locality for this species.
Description.
The specimen has been described by Thomas (1886) as:
The head and body length of the largest specimen, a female, was long while the tail is long. Elsewhere, the head and body length has been given as head and body length as , the tail length as . The weight has been recorded as ranging from .
Conservation status.
The species has been given conservation status of "Endangered - B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)" in IUCN Red List ver 3.1. The criteria for this assessment include:
The principal threats to this species are assessed to be loss of and degradation of habitat, fragmentation, and encroachment. Besides these, hunting and fire are also considered to be contributing causes.


Invertebrates of the Indiana Dunes

Indiana Dunes National Park is a National Park Service unit on the shore of Lake Michigan in Indiana, United States. A BioBlitz took place there on May 15 and 16, 2009. During that time, a list of organisms was compiled which included invertebrates.
List of invertebrates other than insects and arachnids.
Mollusks
For the list of mollusk species - snails, slugs, clams and mussels - please see List of non-marine mollusks of the Indiana Dunes.
Millipedes
Other invertebrates


Bazaria expallidella

Bazaria expallidella is a species of snout moth in the genus "Bazaria". It was described by Ragonot in 1887, and is known from Algeria.


Usina tree frog

The Usina tree frog ("Boana lundii") is a species of frog in the family Hylidae endemic to Brazil. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, moist savanna, rivers, and plantations .


Gecatogomphius

Gecatogomphius is an extinct genus of Middle Permian captorinid with multiple tooth rows known from the Kirov Oblast and the Republic of Tatarstan of Russia.
Description.
"Gecatogomphius" is known from the holotype PIN 1156/1, a three-dimensionally preserved nearly complete lower jaw found on the bank of the Vyatka River near the town of Gorki in the Kirov Oblast, and from PIN 4310/1 a single maxillary tooth plate from Berezovye Polyanki in Tatarstan. The preserved part of the jawbone fragment has a length of 80 millimeters and is posteriorly expanded to form a very broad shelf that bears five rows of bulbous teeth.
"Gecatogomphius" is part of the biostratigraphic Ocher Assemblage which is characteristic for sediments of the East European Platform with an uppermost Lower Permian (Upper Kungurian) and lower Middle Permian (Roadian) age.
Etymology.
"Gecatogomphius" was first named by B. P. Vjushkov and Pjotr K. Chudinov in 1957 and the type species is "Gecatogomphius kavejevi". The generic name is derived from "hecato", Greek for "hundred", and "gomphos", Greek for "peg", "nail" or "wedge", referring to the large number of teeth in the jaw. The specific name "kavejevi" is in honour of the finder of the type specimen, the Soviet geologist Mazit S. Kaveev.


Alytes maurus

Alytes maurus (common name: Moroccan midwife toad, ) is a species of frog in the family Alytidae (formerly Discoglossidae).
It is endemic to Morocco.
Its natural habitats are temperate forests, Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation, rivers, freshwater marshes, freshwater springs, rocky areas, and rural gardens.
Phenomena such as habitat fragmentation, water pollution, climate change, and the introduction of chytrid fungus into ecosystems all pose threats to the well-being of these organisms.
Sources.
(Amphibia; Alytidae) from Morocco


Phyllocnistis cornella

Phyllocnistis cornella is a moth of the family Gracillariidae, known from the Kuril Islands, Kunashir, Russia. The hostplant for the species is "Cornus controversa".


Coleophora kabulensis

Coleophora kabulensis is a moth of the family Coleophoridae. It is found in Afghanistan and Pakistan.


Cromarcha stroudagnesia

Cromarcha stroudagnesia is a species of snout moth. It was described by Solis in 2003 and is endemic to Costa Rica.
The length of the forewings is for females and for males. There are two forms, with either a white or light brown ground colour. In both forms, the antemedial and postmedial lines are prominent. Both the upper- and underside of the hindwings have dark brown scales. There are two successive generations, one beginning in May and one in September.
The larvae bore in shoots of "Tabebuia ochracea" and "Handroanthus impetiginosus". There is generally only one larva per shoot. Pupation takes place at the base of the tunnel.


Black-chinned siskin

The black-chinned siskin ("Spinus barbatus") is a species of finch in the family Fringillidae. Found in Argentina, Chile and the Falkland Islands, its natural habitats are temperate forests and heavily degraded former forest.
Description.
The black-chinned siskin grows to a length of about . The male has the crown and the centre of the upper throat black. The rest of the head and the upper parts of the body are yellowish-olive streaked with black. The rump is yellow and the wings are black with two yellowish bars and a yellow patch on the primary feathers. The underparts are greenish-yellow and the belly is white. The appearance of the female is similar to the male but the colouring is more muted. She lacks the black on head and throat. The head and back are a greyish-olive above with pale yellowish-olive underparts and a whitish belly. The only other bird with which it is likely to be confused is the hooded siskin ("Spinus magellanica"); however, that bird is not found so far south, the male has a larger area of black on head and throat, and the female has a yellow rump.
Distribution and habitat.
The black-chinned siskin is native to southern Chile and southern Argentina as far south as Tierra del Fuego, and also the Falkland Islands. It ranges up to about in altitude and inhabits the edges of forests, light woodland and bushy areas, including gardens and urban areas; it is usually seen in flocks and often feeds on the ground.
Phylogeny.
The phylogeny of this species has been researched by Antonio Arnaiz-Villena et al. Evidence of hybridization was found between "Serinus canaria domestica" and "S. barbatus" in captivity.
Status.
The black-chinned siskin is a common species with a very wide range and the population seems to be stable, so the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its conservation status as being of 'least concern'.


Mexican narrow-mouthed toad

The Mexican narrow-mouthed toad ("Hypopachus variolosus") is a species of sheep frog native to the Pacific and Caribbean lowlands from southern Texas to Costa Rica. Sheep frogs make a distinctive call that resembles a sheep's bleat during and after rainfall in warm months.
This species occurs in variety of habitats: tropical humid forests, open disturbed habitats, and various humid sites in more arid areas. There are no major threats to this widespread species.


Hellinsia powelli

Hellinsia powelli is a moth of the family Pterophoridae that is endemic to Costa Rica.
The wingspan is . The forewings are dark brown, but the costal area above the base of the cleft is white. The hindwings are dark brown. Adults are on wing in June.


Ovis ammon ammon


San Luis tuco-tuco

The San Luis tuco-tuco ("Ctenomys pontifex") is a species of rodent in the family Ctenomyidae.
It is endemic to Argentina.


Bothriechis aurifer

Bothriechis aurifer is a venomous pit viper species found in Mexico and Guatemala. No subspecies are currently recognized.
Description.
Adults generally grow to less than in length, but sometimes to over . The body is relatively slender with a prehensile tail.
The scalation includes 1-5 intersupraocular scales, 8-12 supralabials, 9-13 infralabials and 18-21 (mode 19) rows of dorsal scales at midbody. The second supralabial is fused with the prelacunal to form a lacunolabial and the interrictals number 16-21. Males have 148-167 ventral scales and 58-64 subcaudals (mostly undivided), while females have 152-162 ventrals and 48-61 subcaudal scales.
The color pattern consists of a green ground color overlaid dorsally with a series of yellow blotches that are bordered in black. Between the botches, an irregular, often broken, dorsal stripe can be seen. The yellowish green belly is often lighter than the dorsum. On the head, a dark postocular stripe is present. The iris is usually yellowish-green, sometimes bronze, with black specks or reticulations. Over 90% of all specimens have the usual dark dorsal pattern, but a few are uniform green and have no postocular stripes. The juvenile coloration includes a pale lime green ground color and a colorful tail tip.
Geographic range.
Found in Mexico in the mountains of eastern Chiapas, and in northern Guatemala. Occurs in cloud forest at 1200–2300 m altitude. The type locality given is "Cobán, [Alta] Vera Paz, Guatemala."
Conservation status.
This species is classified as Vulnerable (VU) on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species with the following criteria: B1ab(iii,v) (v3.1, 2001). A species is listed as such when the best available evidence indicates that the extent of occurrence is estimated to be less than 20,000 km², the population to be severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than 10 locations, and that a continuing decline has been observed, inferred or projected in the area, extent and/or quality of habitat and in the number of mature individuals. It is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.


Dolichoderus inermis

Dolichoderus inermis is a species of ant in the genus "Dolichoderus". Described by Mackay in 1993, the species is endemic to Costa Rica.


Anadia antioquensis

Anadia antioquensis is a species of lizard in the family Gymnophthalmidae. It is endemic to Colombia and has been recorded in the Antioquia and Caldas Departments.


Proceratium vinaka

Proceratium vinaka is a species of ant from Fiji, and the third species of its genus to be identified there.
Etymology.
The specific name is derived from the Fijian word meaning "thank you" or "hello".
Description.
Workers of the species measure 2.41 mm long, making it one of the smaller species of its clade. The species has small eyes. The legs are long. The body is a yellowish or light orange brown, densely covered in short hairs, but with longer, erect hairs interspersed.
Range and habitat.
The species is only known from Mount Tomanivi on the Fijian island of Viti Levu, but is believed to also inhabit the islands of Taveuni and Vanua Levu.
Individuals were collected from leaf litter and decaying wood from undisturbed rainforest half way up the mountain.
Phylogeny.
"P. vinaka" is part of the "P. silaceum" clade.


Japalura kumaonensis

Japalura kumaonensis (common names: Kumaon mountain lizard, Kumaon forest agama) is an agamid lizard found in northern India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Tibet (China). It was described based on specimens from Mussoorie and from Nainital in the Kumaon division, the latter reflected in the specific name "kumaonensis".


Salilota australis

Salilota australis, the Patagonian cod or tadpole codling, is a species of morid cod found in the waters around the southern tip of South America and the Falkland Islands. It occurs at depths from and is of minor importance to local commercial fisheries. This species grows to in total length.


Rhegmatophila ricchelloi

Rhegmatophila ricchelloi is a moth of the family Notodontidae. It is found in Sardinia.
The wingspan is about 17 mm. The moth flies in July.
The larvae feed on "Prunus spinosa" and "Quercus ilex".


Greater stripe-backed shrew

The greater stripe-backed shrew or stripe-backed shrew ("Sorex cylindricauda") is a species of mammal in the family Soricidae. It is endemic to China. It is threatened by habitat loss. The Greater stripe-backed shrew also shares 97% of its DNA with humans.


Acrocercops leucographa

Acrocercops leucographa is a moth of the family Gracillariidae. It is known from Argentina.


Tytthoscincus butleri

Butler's forest skink ("Tytthoscincus butleri") is a species of skink. It is found in Malaysia and Thailand.


Abronia ornelasi

Abronia ornelasi is a species of arboreal alligator lizard in the family Anguidae. The species, which was originally described in 1984 by Jonathan A. Campbell, is endemic to southern Mexico.
Etymology.
The specific name, "ornelasi", is in honor of Julio Ornelas Martinez who assisted Campbell in fieldwork in Mexico.
Geographic range.
"A. ornelasi" is found in the Mexican state of Oaxaca.
Habitat.
The natural habitat of "A. ornelasi" is cloud forest at altitudes of .
Reproduction.
"A. ornelasi" is viviparous.


Opisthoteuthis hardyi

Opisthoteuths hardyi is a lesser-known octopus species. It was described in 2002 from a male caught off the Shag Rocks, which are far south in the Atlantic Ocean near the Falkland Islands.
The specimen was medium-sized, with a mantle of long. The whole body was long. It had some enlarged suckers, which is typical for male octopuses belonging to "Opisthoteuthis". It also had a web connecting its long arms, which is common for cirrate octopuses and some incirrate octopuses.
The specimen was found in the open ocean between and deep. However, the true depth range is wider. After 2002, dozens more specimens, likely "O. hardyi", were discovered on the Patagonian Shelf from deep.


Micropterix renatae

Micropterix renatae is a species of moth belonging to the family Micropterigidae that was described by Michael A. Kurz, Marion E. Kurz and Hans Christof Zeller-Lukashort in 1997. It is known from the Ligurian Alps, as well as the northern Apennine Mountains (the provinces of Liguria, Tuscany and Emilia-Romagna).
The habitat consists of edges of dense, deciduous shrubland and tall herb vegetation.
The length of the forewings is for males and for females.


Asiatic long-tailed climbing mouse

The Asiatic long-tailed climbing mouse ("Vandeleuria oleracea") is a species of rodent found in South and Southeast Asia. It is known as ගස් මීයා by Sinhalese people.
Description.
Head and body length is 7–9 cm. Tail is 10–12 cm. Reddish brown upperparts grading on the sides to light yellowish brown. Underparts are light brownish white. Long tail is dark, and slender with no tuft at tip. Largish hind feet with nails instead of claws on the outer toes, which are opposable.


Long-tailed reed finch

The long-tailed reed finch ("Donacospiza albifrons") is a species of South American bird in the tanager family Thraupidae. It is the only member of its genus Donacospiza.
It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.
Its natural habitats are temperate grassland, subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland, and swamps.
Taxonomy.
The long-tailed reed finch was formally described in 1817 by the French ornithologist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot under the binomial name "Sylvia albifrons". Vieillot based his description on the "Cola Aguda del Vientre de Canela" that had been described by the Spanish naturalist Félix de Azara in 1805 based on a specimen obtained in Paraguay. The long-tailed reed finch is now the only member of the genus "Donacospiza" that was introduced in 1851 by the German ornithologist Jean Cabanis. The genus name combines the Ancient Greek "donax" meaning "reed" or "cane" with "spiza" meaning "finch". The specific epithet combines the Latin "albus" meaning "white" with "frons" meaning "forehead" or "front". The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised.


Corades enyo

Corades enyo, the Enyo satyr, is a species of butterfly found in the high elevations of the Andes in Colombia and Peru. It is found in the cloud forests at altitudes of . They belong to subtribe Pronophilina of the subfamily Satyrinae. The caterpillars grow on "Chusquea" species of bamboo.


Banded toadfish

The banded toadfish (Aphos porosus) is a species of toadfish found along the Pacific coast of South America where it is found in Chile, Ecuador and Peru. This species grows to a length of TL. It is the only member of the monotypic genus "Aphos". Unlike the other genus, "Porichthys" in this subfamily the banded toadfish lacks photophores.


Rufous-eyed brook frog

The rufous-eyed brook frog or rufous-eyed stream frog ("Duellmanohyla rufioculis)", is a species of frog in the family Hylidae. It is endemic to the mountains of Costa Rica. Its natural habitats are premontane wet forests and rainforests. Tadpoles are found in pools with standing water. Habitat loss is posing some threat to the species, although the overall population is stable.
Description.
These frogs grow to long; males are smaller than females. Color is extremely variable, ranging from brown to mottled mossy green. A distinct white stripe along the upper lip, flanks, and groin expands beneath the eyes to form a prominent white mark. All specimens have a distinctive red iris with horizontal pupils.
Habitat.
The rufous-eyed brook frog is endemic to the mountainous regions of Costa Rica, and can be found on the Caribbean and Pacific slopes from asl. This species favors humid forests, and lives in foliage alongside streams. Though threatened by habitat destruction and uncommon within its range, the overall population is believed to be stable.


Akodon affinis

Akodon affinis, also known as the Colombian grass mouse or Cordillera Occidental akodont, is a species of rodent in the family Cricetidae.
It is found only in the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia.


Myrmica winterae

Myrmica winterae is a species of ant in the genus "Myrmica". It is native to Switzerland.


Xerocrassa poecilodoma

Xerocrassa poecilodoma is a species of air-breathing land snail, a pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Hygromiidae, the hairy snails and their allies. This species is endemic to the island of Antikythira in Greece.


Screaming cowbird

The screaming cowbird ("Molothrus rufoaxillaris") is an obligate brood parasite belonging to the family Icteridae and is found in South America. It is also known commonly as the short billed cowbird.
Description.
The screaming cowbird has mildly iridescent black plumage; the lesser under-wing coverts are rufous. The female is slightly duller in colour than the male. The legs are black and the iris is reddish brown. Adult body length is 18–21 cm and mean adult weight is 58 g for males and 48 g for females. The call of the screaming cowbird was first described as "impetuous screaming notes"; however, a more useful description for field identification is noisy, explosive and piercing with rasp like calls also produced
Screaming cowbirds are mostly seen in pairs or small flocks.
Distribution and habitat.
Within South America, the screaming cowbird is found in north east and central Argentina, south east Bolivia, central Brazil and throughout Paraguay and Uruguay. Its natural habitat is pastureland where it forages amongst grazing animals such as cows, hence the name "cowbird". Similar to other cowbirds, it forages predominantly on the ground, eating invertebrates that have been disturbed by grazing stock. The distribution of the screaming cowbird has increased significantly in recent decades due to habitat alteration caused by deforestation and by following its hosts into new areas. Both female and male screaming cowbirds show high fidelity in roosting locations.
Reproduction.
Host species.
The screaming cowbird is a specialist brood parasite, predominantly parasitizing the nests of baywings ("Agelaidoides"). In 1874, W H Hudson was first to observe this parasitic relationship when he witnessed what he believed to be baywing chicks morph into screaming cowbird plumage.
The screaming cowbird also parasitizes the nests of the chopi blackbird ("Gnorimopsar chopi") and the brown-and-yellow marshbird ("Pseudoleistes virescens"). Parasitism of these other two species generally occurs in areas where baywings are absent but can also occur in its presence. The three host species that can successfully raise screaming cowbirds are all cooperative breeders. "Helpers" at the nest provide assistance with chick feeding and with predator defense.
Parasite behaviour.
Screaming cowbirds are monogamous and form stable pairs for the duration of the breeding season. As obligate brood parasites, they do not build their own nests, and instead, parasitize the nests of other species, predominantly baywings.
Most baywing nests are parasitized by the screaming cowbird with parasitism rates of 74-100% recorded.
Parasitism rates of 5-20% have been recorded for the brown and yellow marsh bird and 46% for the Chopi blackbird.
Screaming cowbird eggs are spotted like those of their main host, the baywing, but do vary in shape, background colour and markings. Although this may be obvious when they appear in the host nest during pre-laying, they can be difficult to detect in a nest full of eggs.
Screaming cowbirds can lay 6-20 eggs in a baywing nest but usually one pair will lay only 2 eggs in the host nest. Up to 12 female screaming cowbirds can parasitize the same baywing nest.
Screaming cowbird adults frequently pierce the eggs of their hosts as well as previously laid parasite eggs. One study found 22.5% of baywing eggs were punctured by the screaming cowbird. Screaming cowbirds can distinguish between their eggs and those of other species and laboratory trials have shown that screaming cowbirds will puncture shining cowbird ("Molothrus bonariensis") eggs more frequently than their own. The purposes of egg puncture behavior are not clearly understood but may provide the parasite with information on the embryonic development of the host eggs and therefore whether or not to parasitize. Egg puncturing may also be practiced to reduce nestling competition and to enhance survival of parasitic offspring. Heavy predation in the form of egg punctures, which result in total nest failure and nest abandonment, may also create new opportunities for screaming cowbirds in the form of new nests to parasitize.
Screaming cowbirds deceive their main host, the baywing, with superb visual chick mimicry. In fact, screaming cowbirds are the only avian brood parasite to exhibit this trait. There are slight differences in skin and bill colour of nestlings but this is only present for the first 4–5 days. They then remain almost identical in size and appearance until they become nutritionally independent.
Screaming cowbird chicks also mimic the begging calls of their baywing nest mates and, in addition, beg for longer and at a higher intensity. This more intense begging does not reflect greater hunger demands; instead, reflects a hard-wired behavior to ensure adequate nourishment and survival. Although the rearing environment can influence begging call parameters, Screaming Cowbird nestlings develop the acoustic cues required for offspring recognition by the baywings independently of social experience. Due to the mimicry of nestlings and fledglings, it has been suggested that screaming cowbirds and baywings are closely related; however, molecular research has shown the species are not each other's closest relatives.
Host response.
The screaming cowbird frequently parasitizes its main host, the baywing, during the pre-laying period. Screaming cowbirds lay 31% of their eggs before the first baywing egg but most of the eggs laid are ejected, and often within 24 hours. By ejecting parasitic eggs with their feet, baywings can reduce the parasitic egg load by 75%. Host species can eject an entire clutch and commence egg laying again in the same nest or abandon the nest and start afresh. Chopi blackbirds and brown and yellow marsh birds have not been observed to eject screaming cowbird eggs.
The pre-laying period (the time between nest making and egg laying) of the baywing exhibits great variability in length (1–19 days). It is suggested that this behavior may act as an antiparasitic/defense mechanism to reduce the chances of successful parasitism. Such behaviours are a fascinating element to the co-evolutionary arms race that exists between avian brood parasites and their hosts.
Once hatched, baywings treat parasitic chicks as their own, not only by providing food and protection but also by removing ecto-parasites such as botfly larvae.
Reproductive success.
The main host, the baywing, can successfully fledge 1 screaming cowbird for 3 of its own. Reproductive success, as the number of fledgling per egg laid, has been recorded to be 0.14 for the screaming cowbird when hosted by the baywing. When hosted by the chopi blackbird, a reproductive success rate of 0.17 was found In addition, the brown-and-yellow marshbird is also able to successfully rear screaming cowbird chicks.
The main host species, the baywing, clearly suffers losses through intense parasitism by the screaming cowbird; however, they are able to successfully raise their young with little overall impact in terms of hatching success, survival of nestlings and fledgling body mass.


Echis carinatus astolae

Echis carinatus astolae is a venomous viper subspecies endemic to Astola Island off the coast of Pakistan.
Description.
The color pattern consists of a series of dark brown dorsal blotches on a whitish background. Laterally, there are 1-3 rows of dark brown spots with no light arcs. On the head, there is a three-pronged, light mark directed towards the snout. From the temporals, a light lateral line meets at the frontal region, with a branch to the snout.
Geographic range.
"Echis carinatus astolae" is found only on Astola Island, off the coast of Makran, Pakistan.
The type locality is therefore the same: "Insel Astola, Makranküste, West-Pakistan" [Astola Island (25o 07' N; 63o 51' E) off the Makran coast, Pakistan].


Assiminea mesopotamica

Assiminea mesopotamica is a species of minute, salt-tolerant snail with an operculum, an aquatic gastropod molluscs, or micromolluscs, in the family Assimineidae.
Distribution and habitat.
This species is endemic to the Shatt al-Arab in Iraq. It is found amongst submerged vegetation in slow-flowing waters close to coastal regions, and is tolerant of brackish waters.


Ypthima watsoni

Ypthima watsoni, the looped three-ring, is a species of Satyrinae butterfly.


Tosena dives

Tosena dives is a cicada species from Southeast Asia. The type was collected in Sylhet, Bangladesh. This species has also been recorded from Sikkim and Darjeeling in India.


Leptodactylus silvanimbus

Leptodactylus silvanimbus is a species of frog in the family Leptodactylidae.
It is endemic to Honduras.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, intermittent rivers, pastureland, and ponds.
It is threatened by habitat loss.


Greater fat-tailed jerboa

The greater fat-tailed jerboa ("Pygeretmus shitkovi") is a species of rodent in the family Dipodidae. It is endemic to Kazakhstan. Its natural habitat is temperate desert.


Squalius valentinus

Squalius valentinus, commonly known as the Valencia chub and the Levantine bagra, is a species of freshwater fish in the carp family Cyprinidae. It was first isolated from the Turia River in Valencia, hence its name. It is considered endangered. This species is differentiated from its cogeneratesa by having eight branched rays in its dorsal fin; eight branched rays in its anal fin; two rows of pharyngeal teeth on both sides possessing 2 and 5 teeth (); a wide caudal peduncle; its number of gill rakers; the number of
scales in its lateral line; the number of scale rows above the latter; by possessing three scale rows below it; by having thirty-nine vertebrae (twenty-two of them abdominal and seventeen of them caudal); showing large 4th and 5th infraorbital bones; a maxilla with a very distinctlt marked anterior process; exhibiting a frontal bone expanded at the middle; a wide neurocranium bone; the lower branch of the pharyngeal bone being robust; a large and narrow urohyal; as well as genetic differences (allozymes).
Description.
"Squalius valentinus" is a small sized species that is usually shorter than ; its head is large and similar to the maximum body depth. Its preorbital distance is similar to its eye's diameter, exhibiting a long interorbital distance. Its ventral fin is inserted at the origin of the dorsal fin, on its same axis. Its predorsal length is somewhat larger than its preventral length. It possesses a high caudal peduncle. It shows a large fin size, with a pectoral fin that is larger than the height of its dorsal fin.
Pigmentation.
Its body is silver, somewhat darker dorsally; its scales have a big black spot at their base and several small black spots on its distal border. Its peritoneum also carries small black spots. Its scales are deciduous in juveniles.
Osteology.
It possesses a wide and short supraethmoid, parietal and frontal bones. The posterior process of its pterotic bone is wide and robust, while the pharyngeal bone's lower branch is very robust. Its urohyal bone is large and thin. The maxilla's anterior process is pointed, and its 4th and 5th infraorbital bones are very wide. The posterior lamina of its cleithrum is widened. It shows a short maxilla with a relatively developed coronoid process. Itd 3rd, 4th and 5th pharyngeal teeth in its external row are small or even lack a masticatory area.
Distribution and habitat.
"Squalius valentinus" inhabits rivers in the Spanish Mediterranean, between the Mijares and Vinalopó basins. The Júcar basin is inhabited by both this species and "S. pyrnaicus", although both species are allopatry, the latter inhabiting the upper basin while former is distributed throughout rivers of the lower basin. The species usually is found to inhabit streams with clear waters and gravel bottoms. In streams such as the Gorgos River it is the only endemic fish. In the Turia and Mijares basins it occurs in sympatry with other native cyprinids: "Barbus guiraonis", "Chondrostoma turiense" and "Chondrostoma arcasii". "S. valentinus" inhabits the Júcar, Serpis and Vinalopó basins along with "B. guiraonis".
Status.
The IUCN lists this fish as being a vulnerable species because of its limited range which covers less than , and due to water abstraction for the construction of dams as well as the introduction of foreign species. It is a rare species and has a restricted distribution range. The population is currently declining. "S. valentinus" is frequently dominant as a species in small rivers, however in wide rivers the species is local and rare.


Austrolebias adloffi

Austrolebias adloffi is a species of fish that can be found in the Santa Catarina region in Brazil.
Physical description.
The male is blue with a bar across the eye. 9 to 12 bars go down vertically. The fins are blue with slightly dark margins. The female looks different from the male and is brown with bars that can barely be seen.
Life span.
44 specimens hatched at 22 degrees Celsius had a mean life span of 11 to 11 1/2 months. Out of the 44 specimens, the maximal life span was less than 14 months. The February 1965 study concluded that annual fish live short lives and that if "Cynolebias" species are at 16 degrees Celsius, the fish have decreased aging.
Another experiment showed that "Cynolebias elongatus", "Cynolebias wolterstoffi", and this species can have a longer life span if their body temperature is lowered 3 to 5 degrees. The scientists came to this result by putting different specimens in different temperatures to show a survival rate.
Naming.
"Austrolebias adloffi" was described as "Cynolebias adloffi" in 1922 by Ernst Ahl. The specific name honours the German-born Brazilian artist Alfred Adloff, who discovered it. It is the type species of the genus "Austrolebias".


Diplodon fontaineanus

Diplodon fontaineanus is a species of bivalve in the family Hyriidae. It is endemic to Brazil.


White-throated magpie-jay

The white-throated magpie-jay ("Calocitta formosa") is a large Central American species of magpie-jay. It ranges in Pacific-slope thorn forest from Jalisco, Mexico to Guanacaste, Costa Rica. Magpie-jays are noisy, gregarious birds, often traveling in easy-to-find flocks, mobbing their observers.
Taxonomy.
The white-throated magpie-jay was formally described in 1827 by the English naturalist William John Swainson from a specimen that had been collected by the naturalist William Bullock in Temascaltepec, Mexico. Swainson coined the binomial name "Pica formosa". The specific epithet is from the Latin "formosus" meaning "beautiful". The white-throated magpie-jay is one of two magpie-jays now placed in the genus "Calocitta" that was introduced in 1841 by the English zoologist George Robert Gray with the white-throated magpie-jay as the type species.
The white-throated magpie-jay hybridizes in Jalisco with the black-throated magpie-jay ("C. colliei"), with which it forms a superspecies. There are three recognised subspecies, the nominate race, which is only found in southern Mexico; "C. f. azurea", which is found in south eastern Mexico and western Guatemala, and "C. f. pompata", which runs from south eastern Mexico to Costa Rica.
Description.
The white-throated magpie-jay is between in length and weighs . The species has a particularly long tail and a slightly curved crest of feathers on the head. The crest is black in the nominate race, but has blue or white margins on the other two subspecies. The nominate race has a white face with a black crown and margin to the face, forming a narrow band around the throat, as well as a small drop below the eye. The black is less extensive in the other subspecies. The breast, belly and underside of the rump are white, and the wings, mantle and tail are blue (with whitish margins on the tail). The legs and eye are black, and the bill is grey. The plumage of the females is mostly as that of the male but duller on the top, with a narrower band across the chest, and the tail is shorter.
Distribution and habitat.
The white-throated magpie-jay is associated with a wide range of habitats from arid environments to semi-humid woodlands, from sea level up to , although only occasionally higher than . It occurs rarely in columnar cacti forest, but is common in thorn forest, gallery forest, deciduous woodland, forest edges and cultivated areas like coffee plantations. The species does not undertake any migratory movements, although males disperse away from their natal territories a few years after fledging. It is a common species across its range, and is not considered threatened by human activities.
Behaviour.
White-throated magpie-jays are omnivorous, consuming a wide range of animal and plant matter. Items included in the diet include invertebrates such as insects and caterpillars, frogs, lizards, eggs and nestlings of other birds, seeds, fruits, grain, and nectar from "Balsa" blossoms. Younger birds take several years to acquire the full range of foraging skills of their parents.


Dendropsophus robertmertensi

Dendropsophus robertmertensi (vernacular name: Mertens' yellow treefrog) is a species of frog in the family Hylidae. It is found in the Pacific lowlands of El Salvador, Guatemala, and southeastern Mexico (eastern Oaxaca, Chiapas). A separate population exists in the Cintalapa Valley in Chiapas.
Etymology.
The specific name "robertmertensi" honors Robert Mertens, a German zoologist and herpetologist.
Description.
Adult males can grow to and adult females to in snout–vent length. The body is slender. The snout is truncate and short. The tympanum is faintly visible. The fingers are short and broad, slightly webbed, and have small discs. The toes are slender and long, about three-fourths webbed, and have discs that are smaller than the finger discs. At night, overall coloration is pale yellow with a white dorsolater line and a pale brown lateral stripe. By day, dorsal coloration is yellowish tan or pale reddish tan. The dorsolateral line is creamy white, and the sides are brown. The venter is white. Breeding males have yellow vocal sac.
Habitat and conservation.
"Dendropsophus robertmertensi" inhabit sub-humid and humid lowlands and foothills at elevations up to above sea level. It persists in cutover forests and low scrubby forest, and is not found in primary forest. Breeding takes place in small temporary and permanent ponds. This species is common and or abundant in large parts of its range. Water pollution is only a localized threat. It is present in the El Imposible National Park in El Salvador.


Remelana jangala

Remelana jangala, the chocolate royal, is a lycaenid or blue butterfly found in South Asia. The species was first described by Thomas Horsfield in 1829.
Subspecies.
The subspecies of "Remelana jangala" which are found in India are:
Behavioral patterns.
Only short flights of the butterfly can be seen. Male chocolate royal are seen sitting on wet ground and drinking water. They are seldom seen sitting on flowers to suck nectar. However, they are seen sitting on bird faeces and extracting mineral salt. They are usually seen basking in the sun with their upper wings opened.


Amolops hainanensis

Amolops hainanensis is a species of frog in the family Ranidae that is endemic to southwestern and central Hainan, China. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and rivers.
It is threatened by habitat loss.


Agdistis desertorum

Agdistis desertorum is a moth of the family Pterophoridae. It is found in Libya.
The wingspan is about 14 mm for males and females. Males are dark grey, while females are somewhat lighter. Adults have been recorded in August.


Rhinella gallardoi

Rhinella gallardoi is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae that is endemic to Argentina. Its natural habitat is temperate forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Microhyla superciliaris

Microhyla superciliaris is a species of frog in the family Microhylidae. It is found in Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra (Indonesia). Its type locality is Batu Caves, which have given it its common name, Batu Cave rice frog. The type locality is a limestone crag area surrounded by lowland forest. In Sumatra it is found in forested areas. Breeding presumably takes place is slow-flowing rivers.


Colobosaura modesta

Colobosaura modesta, the Bahia colobosaura, is a species of lizard in the family Gymnophthalmidae. It is found in Brazil and Paraguay.


Rhinella justinianoi

Rhinella justinianoi is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae that is endemic to Bolivia. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests and rivers. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Ichthyophis sikkimensis

Ichthyophis sikkimensis, the Sikkimese caecilian or Darjeeling caecilian, is a species of caecilian found in India (Sikkim and West Bengal), Nepal and possibly Bhutan. It was described by Edward Harrison Taylor in 1960.


Southern antpipit

The southern antpipit ("Corythopis delalandi") is a species of bird in the family Tyrannidae, the tyrant flycatchers. It is one of two species in the genus "Corythopis". It is found in southern Brazil and the pantanal of Paraguay, Bolivia and Brazil; also extreme north-eastern Argentina. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.
Distribution.
Range: Pantanal, Cerrado and southeast Brazil.
The range of the southern antpipit is a 3200 km by 3000 km contiguous area of southern Brazil bordered on the west by the pantanal and the southern cerrado. The range covers extreme eastern Bolivia, and extends eastward including the eastern half of Paraguay with the northeast tongue region of Argentina.
Coastal ranges on the southern Atlantic extend from central Rio de Janeiro south to central São Paulo.
There is no intersecting in the northern or western Cerrado with its other "Corythopis" species, the ringed antpipit, though its range extends upstream in the southern Amazon Basin into the northwestern Cerrado.


Scutiger sikimmensis

Scutiger sikimmensis is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is found in northeastern India (West Bengal, Sikkim, and Meghalaya), Nepal, Bhutan, and Tibet. Many common names have been coined for this species: Sikkim lazy toad, Sikimmese pelobatid toad, Sikkim high altitude toad, Sikkim spade foot frog, Blyth's short-limbed frog, and Sikkim snow toad. It is very common in the high altitudes of Sikkimese Himalaya.
Description.
Males measure and females in snout–vent length. The dorsum is olive green, brown, or greyish-brown with numerous warts and variable patterning. The underparts are yellowish, uniform and smooth. The head is wider than long; the tympanum is hidden. The parotoid gland are present. The fingers have no webbing whereas the toes have rudimentary webbing. Tadpoles are up to in length.
Habitat and conservation.
"Scutiger sikimmensis" is an alpine toad living near streams, oxbow lakes, seepages, and stream-fed marshes as well as the surrounding forest and grassland habitats. Breeding takes place in streams in May–June or June–August; males call from under the rocks at night. The altitudinal range differs between sources; the lower limit is about and the upper limit above sea level.
The species is common in the Indian part of its range but rare in Tibet. Major threats are diversion of water from breeding streams for irrigation and water pollution from agrochemicals. However, it is not considered threatened overall.


Noblella duellmani

Noblella duellmani is a species of frog in the family Craugastoridae. It is endemic to Peru and only known from its type locality, Cillapata, at asl in the Paucartambo District, Pasco Region.
"Noblella duellmani" is only known from the holotype, which was collected from a seldom used or abandoned pasture, surrounded by secondary and primary forest. Later searches at the type locality and neighbouring areas have not resulted in new findings. Threats to this species that is either rare or difficult to find are unknown.


Big-head schizothoracin

The big-head schizothoracin ("Aspiorhynchus laticeps") is a species of fish in the family Cyprinidae. It is found only in Bosten Lake and the Yarkand River in Xinjiang, China. It is the only member of its genus.


Ceratophora erdeleni

Ceratophora erdeleni, also known as Erdelen's horned lizard or Erdelen's horn lizard, is a species of lizard in the family Agamidae. The species is endemic to Sri Lanka. It has only a rudimentary "horn", that is occasionally missing altogether.
Etymology.
The specific name, "erdeleni", is in honor of German biologist Walter R. Erdelen.
Geographic range.
"C. erdeleni" is known only from Morningside Forest Reserve in Sri Lanka at an elevation of .
Description.
The head of "C. erdeleni" is oval, and longer than wide. The rostral appendage is oval and rudimentary (less than 18% snout length), and occasionally missing in both sexes. The tympanum is hidden under the skin. A weak dorso-nuchal crest is confined to the neck region. Lamellae under fourth toe are 24–28 in number.
The dorsum is yellow, light brown, or reddish brown in color, with 17 broad dark brown crossbands on the body and tail that are separated by light narrow interspaces. The venter is yellowish green. Juveniles are green with black transverse bands.
Habitat and behavior.
"C. erdeleni" inhabits rainforests in the midhills and is arboreal and diurnal.
Reproduction.
An adult female of "C. erdeleni" may produce 2 to 3 eggs at a time, each egg measuring .


Cephalopholis urodeta

Cephalopholis urodeta, the darkfin hind, flagtail rockcod, chevron rockcod, duskyfin hind, duskyfin rockcod, flagtail grouper or V-tail grouper, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a grouper from the subfamily Epinephelinae which is in the family Serranidae which also includes the anthias and sea basses. This fish occurs in the Western Pacific Ocean and the far eastern Indian Ocean.
Description.
"Cephalopholis urodeta" has a body which is less deep than the head is long with the body being around a third as deep as the standard length. The profile between the eyes is convex and the rounded preopercle has a serrated edge and a fleshy lower edge. The maxilla extends beyond the eye. The dorsal fin has 9 spines and 14-16 sodt rays while the anal fin has 3 spines and 8-9 soft rays. The caudal fin is rounded and the pelvic fins do not extend to the anus. Te overa;; colour of this fish is reddish-brown to pale greyish-brown, darkening towards the tail, with obvious whitish to pale blue diagonal lines across both lobes of the caudal fin. They frequently show six faint bars along the flanks, these fork towards the abdomen, and there are small orange-red spots on the head and nape, as well as a pair of dark spots near the tip of the lower lip. The pectoral fin are yellowish and there is normally a large reddish to brownish spot on the edge of the gill cover. This is a small species of grouper which attains a maximum total length of .
Distribution.
"Cephalopholis urodeta" is found at Christmas Island in the eastern Indian Ocean but it is mainly a species of the Western Pacific Ocean. It extends as far north as Okinawa and the Ryukyu Islands of southern Japan and as far south as the southern Great Barrier Reef of Queensland in Australia. Its range extends east as far as French Polynesia and Pitcairn Island. It has also been recorded from Phoenix Islands, Jarvis Island, Palmyra Atoll, and Kingman Reef, as well as Brunei. In 1958 over 1,800 specimens of "C. urodeta" sourced in the South Pacific were released near Oahu in Hawaii but they failed to become established.
Habitat and biology.
"Cephalopholis urodeta" is found in clear, shallow waters in the outer areas of reefs, in lagoons, behind the reef and over the top of reefs. They are solitary and prefer healthy coral reefs in areas of shallow water where they feed on largely on small fishes, which make up 68% of its diet, and crustaceans. It occurs down to depths of . A single male will have a territory which includes that of up to six females. The male will court the females in the afternoons.
Taxonomy.
This species was once regarded as widespread in the Indian Ocean, nowadays the Indian Ocean form is regarded to be "Cephalopholis nigripinnis". The two species are known to hybridise at Christmas Island where intermediate individuals have been recorded.
Utlisation.
"Cephalopholis urodeta" is too small to be of interest to commercial fisheries, although it is taken by subsistence fishermen. It sometimes appears in the aquarium trade.