Aulacomya atra

Aulacomya atra, called also the Magellan mussel or the ribbed mussel, is a southern species of edible saltwater mussel, a marine bivalve mollusk in the family Mytilidae, the true mussels. Note that the common name "ribbed mussel" is also used of the Northern Hemisphere mussel "Geukensia demissa".
"Aulacomya atra" is native in South America - in Peru, Chile (where it grows up to 170 mm in length), the Falkland Islands and Argentina. It is also found on the coasts of New Zealand and Southern Africa, from Namibia to Port Alfred, South Africa, from the intertidal to 40 m. Introduced specimens have been found in Moray Firth, Scotland, Europe.
In Southern Africa the species grows up to 90 mm in length. It usually lives in crowded intertidal beds. Individual animals have brown ribbed shells, which darken to black with age.


Argentine tuco-tuco

The Argentine tuco-tuco ("Ctenomys argentinus") is a species of rodent in the family Ctenomyidae. It is endemic to Argentina.


Dahira klaudiae

Dahira klaudiae is a moth of the family Sphingidae which is endemic to China.
The forewing length is . It is very similar to "Dahira yunnanfuana" but distinguishable by the reddish-brown rather than greyish-brown ground colour of the hindwing upperside.


Indian nuthatch

The Indian nuthatch ("Sitta castanea") is a species of bird in the family Sittidae. It is found in Bangladesh, India and Nepal.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests, subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests.
This species has been split by Rasmussen and Anderton (2005) from the chestnut-bellied nuthatch. The Indian nuthatch (including the older "prateri" of the Eastern Ghats) is found South of the Ganges river. It is the only grey-backed, rufous-bellied nuthatch in the peninsula. Similar to the next but has a smaller bill and a frosty crown that is paler than the mantle. The wing and tail patterns lack contrast and has grey centres to the chestnut undertail coverts. Resident in the Terai and Gangetic plain extending into Central India, the Eastern Ghats, Sunderbans and a disjunct population in the Western Ghats. Breeds from February to July. Different in vocalization from the next.


Hylarana luctuosa

Hylarana luctuosa, also known as the Malaysian frog, mahogany frog or purple frog, is a species of true frog. It is found in the Malay Peninsula (Malaysia and southernmost Thailand) and in Borneo (Indonesia, Malaysia).
"Hylarana luctuosa" is a leaf-litter frog from lowland and submontane primary rainforests, including somewhat disturbed habitats. Adult frogs disperse widely through the forest and breed in rain pools.
It is reddish to chocolate brown, bordered by a narrow cream dorsolateral line on each side, beginning at the tip of the snout to above the vent.


Brettus adonis

Brettus adonis, is a species of jumping spider of the genus "Brettus". It is endemic to Sri Lanka.
Diet and behaviour.
"Brettus adonis" preys upon other spiders, mainly web-building ones. Members of this species do not stick to any kind of spider silk, and will invade the webs of other spiders to feed on them. To capture a web-building spider, they typically pluck upon the silken strings at the edge of the web with their pedipalps, varying how they pluck until an effective rhythm is found. Then, they repeat this manner of plucking and lure the spider over(aggressive mimicry), capturing or stabbing their prey in a lunging attack.
Apart from spiders, "Brettus adonis" will also prey on insects, although they prefer to eat web-building spiders. They usually capture insects via close range lunging attacks.


Oxyothespis maroccana

Oxyothespis maroccana is a species of praying mantis in the family Toxoderidae.


Obama maculipunctata

Obama maculipunctata is a species of Brazilian land planarian in the subfamily Geoplaninae.
Description.
"Obama maculipunctata" is a medium-sized land planarian with a lanceolate body. The largest specimens reach more than 70 mm in length. The color of the dorsum is composed by a light-brown background covered with numerous fine black spots, as well as irregular grey flecks more concentrated at the sides, giving it a marbled aspect. The ventral side pale-yellow in the anterior third and orange in the middle and posterior thirds.
The several eyes of "O. maculipunctata" are distributed marginally in the first millimeters of the body and posteriorly become dorsal, occupying around 20% of the body width at the median third of the body.
Etymology.
The specific epithet "maculipunctata" (Latin for "spotted and punctate") refers to the numerous flecks and dots covering the animal's dorsum.
Distribution.
The habitat of "O. maculipunctata" includes moist forests in northeast Rio Grande do Sul and east Santa Catarina, southern Brazil, as well as plantations of "Araucaria angustifolia" and "Pinus" spp.


Empress cicada

The empress cicada ("Megapomponia imperatoria") is a species of cicada from Southeast Asia. It is the largest species of cicada with a head-body length of about and a wingspan of .


Ameiva ameiva

Ameiva ameiva, also known as the giant ameiva, green ameiva, South American ground lizard, or Amazon racerunner, is a species of lizard in the family Teiidae found in Central and South America and some Caribbean Islands.
Geographic range.
It is widespread in Central America and South America, including: Panama, Brazil, Colombia, Surinam, French Guiana, Guyana, Venezuela, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Argentina, and Paraguay. It is also found on the Caribbean islands of Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, the Grenadines, Barbados, Margarita, Swan Island, and Isla de la Providencia. It was also once present on Saint Vincent but has since been extirpated.
Description.
"Ameiva ameiva" has a streamlined body, pointed head, slightly forked tongue, and muscular hind legs. They grow to approximately . Both sexes have random black specs and mottling along the sides. Females usually have much less green than males and a more dusty of a green color. Males have vibrant green coloration and more bold mottling. Males also have more expanded jowls. They are popular as a pet because of the male's striking green coloration.
Habitat.
They live on the forest floor, often sheltering underneath logs and in leaf litter. Captive individuals have been observed making tunnels spanning out from under a log or rock when given enough soil.
Diet.
Its diet consists of mainly insects, frogs, and spiders.
In captivity, mealworms are a favorite of the ameiva along with crickets.
Reproduction.
The female lays several clutches of eggs from March to December.
Invasive species.
This species has been introduced into the United States with thriving populations in South Florida.
Parasites.
This species is infected by a number of protist parasites including:


Bufoides kempi

Bufoides kempi is a species of true toad, family Bufonidae. This poorly known species is endemic to Meghalaya, Northeast India. It is only known with certainty from its type series (two syntypes) collected "above Tura" at in the Garo Hills no later than 1919; there is also a possible record collected at around 2009. Its common names are Kemp's Asian tree toad, Garo Hills toad, and Garo Hills tree toad. The specific name "kempi" honours Stanley Wells Kemp, an English zoologist and anthropologist.
Taxonomy and systematics.
The species was described in 1919 by George Albert Boulenger as "Nectophryne kempi". Thomas Barbour placed it in "Pedostibes" instead. In 2016, Chandramouli and Amarasinghe transferred it to "Bufoides" based on shared morphological characteristics with "Bufoides meghalayanus". They might even represent the same species; however, new material would be needed to settle this question.
Description.
The types measure in snout–vent length; the smaller one is a sub-adult and both are unsexed. The snout is rounded. No tympanum is visible. The parotoid glands are oval. The fingers have basal webbing and the toes moderate webbing. Both the fingers and the toes bare small terminal discs. Skin is granular with small, scattered warts. The granulation is most intense on the flanks; the dorsal granules are larger than ventral ones. The preserved specimens are black ventrally; the larger one has olive brown dorsum whereas the smaller one is black throughout.
If the 36-mm specimen collected from Tura at around 2009 is "Bufoides kempi", then it represents the largest known specimen and a recent record of this species.
Habitat and conservation.
Little is known about the ecology and population status of this species. It is arboreal or and associated with semi-evergreen forest. It probably breeds in streams. It is not known to occur in any protected area.


Craugastor pozo

Craugastor pozo is a species of frog in the family Craugastoridae. It is endemic to Mexico and known from the western foothills and highlands of Chiapas. The specific name "pozo" refers to the local name of the area near its type locality, El Pozo (sometimes also known as Pozo Turipache and Pozo La Pera). Common name Pozo Turipache rainfrog has been coined for it.
Description.
Males measure and females in snout–vent length. The canthus rostralis is sharp and tympanum is distinct. The dorsum is brown, typically with a few black streaks or spots associated with the poorly developed parietal and suprascapular ridges. The prefrontal area is pale brown, separated from the back of the head by an interorbital bar. There are usually conspicuous dark lip and limb bars. The supratympanic ridge has black lower edge. The flanks are cream with bold dark brown mottling or marbling. Large adult males have vocal slits.
Before being recognized as representing a separate species, "Craugastor pozo" were identified as "Craugastor brocchi".
Habitat and conservation.
The species' natural habitats are wet forest areas at elevations of above sea level. They occur on the forest floor under leaf-litter among limestone boulders and limestone caves. They hide by day and are active on the forest floor and in low vegetation by night. This rare species is threatened by habitat loss. It is not known to occur in any protected area.


Goniurosaurus luii

Goniurosaurus luii is a species of gecko, a lizard in the family Eublepharidae. The species is endemic to China and Vietnam.
Etymology.
The specific name, "luii", is in honor of Chinese herpetologist Wai Lui.
Description.
Dorsally, "G. luii" is dark bluish brown, with widely spaced, narrow white crossbands on the head, body, and tail. The first white crossband begins at one corner of the mouth and continues around the back of the head to the other corner of the mouth.
Reproduction.
"G. luii" is oviparous.


Apotomops spomotopa

Apotomops spomotopa is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae that is endemic to Peru.
The length of the forewings is about for males and about for females. The ground colour of the forewings is white, mottled with grey overscaling distally. The hindwings are white, but pale beige in the apical region.
Etymology.
The species name is the genus name spelled backwards, creating a palindrome.


Black Sea field mouse

The Black Sea field mouse ("Apodemus ponticus") is a species of rodent in the family Muridae.
It is found in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, possibly Iran, Iraq, Russian Federation, and Turkey.


Paraplatyptilia vacillans

Paraplatyptilia vacillans is a moth of the family Pterophoridae that is found in Russia (Amur region).
The wingspan is .


Micropterix fenestrellensis

Micropterix fenestrellensis is a species of moth belonging to the family Micropterigidae. It was described by John Heath and T. Kaltenbach in 1984. It is known from Italy.
The length of the forewings is for males and for females.


Chilean swallow

The Chilean swallow ("Tachycineta leucopyga") is a species of bird in the family Hirundinidae. It breeds in Chile and Patagonia, migrating north as far as Bolivia, Paraguay, and Rio Grande do Sul.
Taxonomy and etymology.
The new genus "Tachycineta" was created for this group of swallows by German ornithologist Jean Cabanis in 1850. The current genus name "Tachycineta", is from Ancient Greek "takhukinetos", "moving quickly", and the specific "meyeni" commemorates Prussian botanist and collector Franz Meyen. Some consider the species name to be "leucopyga", which is what the species name originally was. This species, along with the white-rumped swallow, "T. leucorrhoa", form a superspecies. This species is monotypic.
Description.
The Chilean swallow is about in length and weighs . It is glossy blue-black above and white below with a white rump. Its wings and tail are black, with white tips on its inner secondaries and its tertials. Their underwing coverts and auxiliaries are both grey. The Chilean swallow's bill and legs are black. The sexes are alike, and the juveniles are duller and browner.
It is similar to the white-rumped swallow, but lacks the white forehead of that species and has bluer upperparts and grey underwing-coverts. In addition to this, the breeding ranges of the two have almost no overlap.
Distribution.
This swallow is native to Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Falkland Islands, Paraguay, and Uruguay. It is vagrant to South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. This swallow can also be found in Peru, but its origin is uncertain. Its breeding range is from the Atacama Desert in Chile and most of Argentina to the southern tip of South America. It is a year-round resident to the northern part of its range, but it is known to be migratory in the southern part. It is not well known where this population winters, but it seems to winter in northern Argentina, southern Brazil, Uruguay, and possibly Bolivia.
Behaviour.
Breeding.
This species has been seen to nest in both artificial and natural cavities, usually near water. They are usually solitary, although they will occasionally nest in loose groups if nest sites are near each other. Their nests are made from mud or dry grass and are lined with feathers.
This swallow is a seasonal breeder. It usually breeds from September and sometimes early October, especially near the tip of South America, to February. In Chile, it usually raises two to three broods.
The Chilean swallow usually has a clutch of four to six white eggs. The eggs usually measure and usually weigh around .
After the breeding season, it is found that the Chilean swallow forms flocks.
Diet.
These birds are insectivores, usually feeding on flying insects. They usually forage alone or in small groups. When foraging, their flight paths are low and direct.
Status.
The Chilean swallow is evaluated to be least concern by the IUCN. The justification for this is the fact that the species is believed to have a range of about , its population is increasing, and the population is not believed to be small enough to be vulnerable under the population size criterion.


Balearean boc

The Balearean boc ("Capra hircus var. majorcan") also known as the Majorcan wild goat, is a caprid native to the Balearic Islands in Spain. Being the only big game species that exists in the Balearic Islands, it has attracted attention from international hunters, particularly from the United States, where the SCI included it as a game species in 2004. The CIC and the National Board of Trophy Hunting Homologation included it in 2009 and 2008 respectively.
Taxonomy.
Natural range.
Barbary sheep naturally occur exclusively in the Balearic Islands, and in no other area in the globe.
Habitats.
Balearean bocs are found in arid mountainous areas where they graze and browse grasses, bushes, and lichens. They are able to obtain some of their metabolic water from food, but if liquid water is available, they drink and wallow in it. They are well adapted to their habitat, which consist of steep, rocky mountains and canyons. They often flee at the first sign of danger, typically running uphill, contrary to the common misconception that views them as tame. They are particularly abundant in Alcúdia and Formentor.


Andean mountain cavy

The Andean mountain cavy (Microcavia niata) is a species of rodent in the family Caviidae. It is found in Bolivia, Chile and Peru.
Feeding.
The Andean mountain cavy's diet consists of herbs typically of the genus Eleocharis, Distichlis, Verbena, and Deyeuxia, which are common in bog areas, which suggest that this species of Microcavia only live in bog areas.
Characteristics.
The Andean mountain cavy is usually seen with fur described as pale and soft, with yellow undertones. The dorsal hairs are multicouloured with a grey base, a dark grey middle and yellow tip. The back hairs are measured around 16-18mm and the animals cheeks, throat and belly are white with a grey base.


Compsoctenus elegans


Cratera nigrimarginata

Cratera nigrimarginata is a species of land planarian from Brazil.
Description.
"Cratera nigrimarginata" is a medium-sized land planarian with an elongate and flat body, with parallel margins, reaching about in length. The dorsum has a light-brownish color forming a broad band and is bordered by greyish or black margins. The venter is pale yellow.
The several eyes of "C. nigrimarginata" are distributed marginally in the first millimeters of the body and posteriorly become dorsal, occupying almost the whole dorsal surface on the anterior third of the body, becoming less numerous towards the anterior tip.
Etymology.
The specific epithet "nigrimarginata" comes from Latin "niger", black + "marginata", bordered, thus meaning "black-bordered" and refers to the black margins of the body.
Distribution.
"Cratera nigrimarginata" is known only a private reserve, the Araucaria Natural Heritage Private Reserve, in the municipality of General Carneiro, Paraná, Brazil.


Clitaetra thisbe

Clitaetra thisbe, is a species of spider of the genus "Clitaetra". It is endemic to Sri Lanka.


Asaphocrita aulae

Asaphocrita aulae is a moth in the family Blastobasidae that is endemic to Costa Rica.


Craugastor amniscola

Craugastor amniscola is a species of frogs in the family Craugastoridae. It is found in western Guatemala and in Chiapas, Mexico. The specific name "amniscola" is derived from Latin "amnis" for rivulet and "-cola" for dweller and refers to the habitat of this species. Accordingly, common name rivulet rainfrog has been coined for it.
Description.
Adult males can reach at least and adult females at least in snout–vent length. The snout is subacuminate in dorsal view and round in lateral view. Males have a few scattered, large, flat or rounded tubercles in their upper eyelids. The tympanum is distinct. The finger and toe discs are weakly developed. The fingers have weak lateral keels while the toes have lateral flanges and moderate webbing. The upper parts are medium to olive brown, with heavy black mottling on the back. The limbs have moderately distinct crossbars. The flanks and the groin are whitish with irregular brown or black mottling. The venter is whitish or cream.
Habitat and conservation.
"Craugastor amniscola" inhabits premontane dry forests along small tributary streams at elevations of above sea level. Development is direct, i.e., there is no free-living larval stage.
This species is threatened by habitat loss and water pollution. Chytridiomycosis is a potential threat.


List of fish in Sweden

List of fish encountered in Swedish waters; both fresh water (lakes and streams) and in the marine salt water.
The table denotes species native to Sweden, as well as those introduced from a neighbouring country and those that have only occurred occasionally. There are approximately 140 species which are native and common in Sweden, plus another 90 which are sporadic, not established or extinct.
The IUCN Red List is a set of certain criteria of the fish population status in Sweden. The following terminology is used: extinct, critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, near threatened, least concern, disappeared, data deficient and not evaluated.
List.
Aulopiformes.
The Aulopiformes, or "grinners", are marine fish, most of which live in deep-sea waters in the Atlantic. Only sporadically encountered in Swedish waters, e.g. the "Magnisudis atlantica" has to date been found eight times, the first in 1960 and the last in 1978.
Acipenseriformes (sturgeon-like fish).
The Acipenseriformes are an order of primitive ray-finned fishes that includes the sturgeons and paddlefishes. There have been occasional finds in Swedish waters. Some species, such as the Beluga sturgeon are heavily desired for its roe, or caviar.
Some species of sturgeons are known to have populated Swedish waters in the 19th century along the coast lines of the Baltic Sea and in some inland streams. The population has now probably disappeared, and the red list denotes it as disappeared (RE). Stuffed specimens are commons in museums.
Anguilliformes (eel fish).
The European eel ("Anguilla anguilla") in Swedish waters has radically diminished in the latest decades, and is now listed as critically endangered. The population is estimations to be 1–10% of that in the 1970s. Eels are sensitive of environmental pollution, but the fishing of eel have also increased, especially in French waters. As eels migrate long distances, overfishing and pollution in one location may radically endanger the population and little is known of all possible causes for the diminishing population.
The eel is a popular dish, especially in southern Sweden, and is economically of importance with catches of around 1,000 tonnes (1,200 in 1983). It is prepared by being smoked.
Carcharhiniformes (ground sharks).
The order Carcharhiniformes, or ground sharks, are the largest order of sharks and include many well-known types such as the blue shark and the sandbar shark.
Beryciformes.
The Beryciformes are an order of ray-finned fishes. They live solely in the marine, in deep-waters usually in tropical areas, and are only sporadically seen in Nordic waters.
Beloniformes.
The Beloniformes are an order of "horned" fishes. The most notable species here is the garfish ("Belone belone") which swims in large shoals during the summer along the coasts of south and west Sweden, and caught for food or sport. The total catch during 1983 was 44 tonnes.
Batrachoidiformes.
The order Batrachoidiformes, or toadfish, are a type of ray-finned fish normally found on the sand and mud bottoms of coastal waters worldwide. The only example of a fish from this order caught in Swedish water was a specimens of the "Halobatrachus didactylus"—a fish native to the coasts of Africa—caught by the shore of southern Sweden in 1820 (specimens preserved).
Chimaeriformes (ghost sharks).
The order Chimaeriformes is common in tropical waters. The only species found in Swedish water is the "Chimaera monstrosa" which is somewhat common in the westernmost waters of Sweden, the Skagerrak. This fish is unsuitable as a food fish, but its large liver is used to produce a lubricant.
Clupeiformes (herring-like fish).
Clupeiformes is the order of ray-finned fish that includes the herring family, Clupeidae, and the anchovy family, Engraulidae.
The herring is common around the coasts of Sweden where it is periodically the most commons fish—the population in the shoals fluctuates greatly every year. The herring has been of historical importance for Swedish economy and indeed for food since the Middle Ages. It is still today the economically most important Swedish fish. The total catch of herring in Swedish waters in 1996 was 132,153 tonnes, of which 74,293 tonnes became fish meal and 57,860 tonnes was sold to consumers.
The Swedes have two names for herring, "sill" or "strömming", depending on where they have been caught, west or east of the island of Bornholm.
The herring is also an important part of the Swedish cuisine. It is served pickled both at Christmas and at Midsummer, and in northern Sweden the fermented herring is popular treat.
Shoals of anchovies are denoted as native and commons, but the anchovy is primarily native to southern Europe, and the shoals in Nordic waters varies between years. As such, fishing of it is not systematical.
A third economically important fish of this order is the European sprat ("Sprattus sprattus"). The total catch in Swedish waters in 1996 was 168,582 tonnes. It is often flavoured and put in cans labeled as anchovy, which is incorrect from a zoological point of view, but fairly accurate in terms of usage. This pickled "anchovy" is a main ingredient of the Swedish traditional dish Janssons frestelse.
Cypriniformes.
The order Cypriniformes consists of several families of carp-like fishes, the most important being the cyprinids—the carps and minnows.
The carp bream ("Abramis brama"), the largest of the breams, is of note in Swedish fresh waters. Once an important source of food (which is still the case in parts of Europe), it is today only of economical importance in Sweden's southern parts (Skåne, etc.). However it is still common in other waters in Sweden, where it is a popular game fish.
Esociformes (pike fish).
There is only one fish of the Esox family in Europe: the "Esox lucius", epox, also known as northern pike. This fish is common in lakes in the whole of Sweden, with the exceptions of the northernmost regions where it is only sporadic.
Commercial fishing is practically non-existent. Most epox are caught by sport-fishers; it is the largest fish in fresh waters, with the official record weight (in Swedish fresh waters) being 31 kg.
Gadiformes (cod-like fish).
The order Gadiformes includes many important food fish. For Sweden, the Atlantic cod "Gadus morhua" is in fact, together with the herring, the most important food fish. The catches of cod in Swedish waters are conducted both west of Sweden in the Skagerrak and east in the Baltic Sea. Cod in the Baltic does not migrate to the Atlantic, and has even been considered belonging to a separate species: "Gadus morhua callarias", but this view is generally abandoned today.
The Baltic cod has been subjected to heavy fishing in the latest decades and is now endangered. Fishing stops have at times been called for, but the cod is of importance to many countries around the Baltic and is of such economical importance to a frigate of trawlers that a complete stop has not been carried through.
The Haddock ("Melanogrammus aeglefinus") is another important food fish of Gadiformes. It is, in Swedish view, less important than the cod as it does not populate the Baltic. Like the cod it has been subjected to tough fishing to a degree that has diminished the population.
Burbot, the only fresh water fish of this order, is common in the whole of Sweden. It is the provincial fish of Västergötland in west Sweden.
Gasterosteiformes (pipefish or sticklebacks).
The most notable families of the order Gasterosteiformes are the sticklebacks. On the northern hemisphere, the three-spined stickleback ("Gasterosteus aculeatus") is common in all oceans including the Swedish coasts, and in adjacent fresh water lakes and streams. It was once caught in large quantities to make fish oil; today it is still caught in some extent for the purpose of fish meal.
Lamniformes (makerell sharks).
The Lamniformes include some of the most familiar species of sharks, such as the great white shark. For this list, the Basking shark ("Cetorhinus maximus") is of note, as it is the largest fish in Nordic water, occasionally encountered on the Swedish west coast ("Västergötland"). As the finds have become more sparse in recent years it is now listed as Endangered.
Myxiniformes.
The Myxiniformes, or hagfish, are a family of primitive eel-like fish. They live in marine waters, and in Swedish waters they are encountered west of Sweden in the Skagerrak and Kattegat. It lacks economical importance as it is not eaten.
Lampriformes (seep sea ray finned fish).
The Lampriformes are an order of primitive, often rope-like, fishes. Living in deep-sea in tropical and temperate waters, they are rarely encountered in Nordic waters.
Myctophiformes.
The order Myctophiformes, which includes the family Myctophidae, or lanternfishes, consists of deep-sea fish common on the southern hemisphere and only rarely caught in Swedish waters.
Lophiiformes.
The Lophiiformes, or angler fish, are deep-water fish with big heads. Of these, the Angler or Sea-Devil ("Lophius piscatorius") is common in Sweden in the waters west of Sweden in the Skagerrak and Kattegat. It is a tasty fish and therefore common in the fish dishes, usually with its head removed. The Swedish catch in 1983 was 26 tonnes.
Osmeriformes.
The order Osmeriformes is generally encountered in the Atlantic Ocean as well as other oceans. A few species of the family Argentinidae extend their habitat to the Skagerrak where it is caught by Swedish ships. The catches are not food fish, but processed into fish meal.
Perciformes (perch-like fish).
The Perciformes include about 40% of all fish. The name Perciformes means perch-like.
One of the best known types is the Zander ("gös" in Swedish), commons and native in Sweden and indeed in most of Europe. It is a popular game fish because of its tastfulness. In Sweden it is common in all regions except the northernmost mountains and on the island Gotland, and it is the provincial fish of the province Västmanland. The Swedish record weight is 12.007 kg.
The arguably most popular fish in Swedish fresh water is the European perch, and the annual catch is around 2,000 tonnes. It is commons in the whole country—with the exception of the mountain regions in the north—and commonly encountered around the coast of the brackish Baltic Sea.
Petromyzontiformes (lampreys).
A lamprey is a jawless fish with a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth, with which most species bore into the flesh of other fishes to suck their blood. In zoology, lampreys are not considered to be true fish because of their vastly different morphology and physiology.
In Sweden, the European river lamprey ("Lampetra fluviatilis"), living in fresh waters, is the most usual usage of the term lamprey. The "Lampetra planeri" is a closely related species living in small streams, possibly even the same species.
The lamprey is the provincial fish of Västerbotten in northern Sweden.
Pleuronectiformes (flatfish).
The family of flatfish are common as food fish.
Some notable specimens are the Turbot which is common both on Sweden's east and west coasts. The Swedish catch was as much as 82 tonnes in the 1950s, but had decreased to 10–20 tonnes by the 1980s.
The Plaice ("Pleuronectes platessa") is one of Sweden's most important food fishes. It is common around the shores on both the east and west coast. The catch in 1983 was 540 tonnes.
The Atlantic halibut ("Hippoglossus hippoglossus") was also once a major food fish, but overfishing in recent decades has endangered the population in Swedish waters. The fish was in Sweden eaten during the weekends when meat was prohibited, which explains the Swedish name "Helgeflundra", literally "Holy Flounder".
Scorpaeniformes.
The Scorpaeniformes are also known as mail-cheeked fishes due to their suborbital stay. Their head is armoured with bone plates. The families of this order are generally small, bottom living, and unsuited as food fish. As such, they lack commercial value.
An exception is the family Sebastidae, which contains appreciated food fish
but as they are rare in Swedish waters they are not subjected to systematic fishing.
Of the family Triglidae, most species are uncommon in Swedish waters, but the small "Chelidonichthys gurnardus" (25–30 cm) has in recent decades attracted attentions as a food fish. It is common in both the Skagerrak and Kattegat, and the total amount of fish caught in 1983 was 9 tonnes.
Rajiformes.
The family of Rajiformes include ten families of ray-like fishes such as skates and stingrays.
Of the Rajiformes, three species are common in Nordic waters. The largest is the Blue skate, which is commons in the Skagerrak and Kattegatt west of Sweden but otherwise only sporadic. It is together with the Thumback ray ("Raja clavata") the only cartilaginous fish of economical importance in Sweden.
Squaliformes (dogsharks).
Squaliformes is an order of sharks that includes the smooth dogfish and spiny dogfish. The most notable species here is the Greenland shark, "Somniosus microcephalus", the second largest fish in Swedish waters.
Salmoniformes (salmon-like fish).
The Salmoniformes, salmon fish, are of important both as food fish but also as for sport fishers. For sport fishers, the salmon has the foremost position due to its strength and size. In popularity, it is followed by the Brown trout ("Salmo trutta").
Salmons are usually native to the marine, but a notable exception is the lake population in lake Vänern. As the salmon requires access to its native birth places through the streams, it is sensitive to power stations and other modifications of the streams. As a result, the salmon population has become extinct in some areas, but by stocking fish the population has been upheld. However, the artificial cultivation of salmon has also led to the negative side effects of diseases that have further threatened the salmon population.
The Brown Trout is conveniently divided into three species: Marine, Lake, and Stream Trouts. It was previously thought that the three species were genetically different, but recent studies are now more in favour of attributing the differences to environmental differences. The marine population is endangered for the same reasons as the salmon, but in fresh water it is still common.
Stomiiformes (dragon-like fish).
Fish of this order are deep-sea ray-finned fishes of very diverse morphology, including dragonfish, lightfish, marine hatchetfish and viperfish. Primarily residing in temperate waters they are uncommon in Swedish waters.
Siluriformes (catfish).
Siluriformes, or catfish, are a diverse order of fish distinguished by prominent "barbels", which give the image of cat-like whiskers. In Swedish waters, the only species of this order is the Wels catfish ("Siluris glanis"). This very large freshwater fish is common over much of continental Europe, and was once well known in Sweden. Today, its presence is only confirmed in the streams Helgeån, Emån and Båven.
Squatiniformes (angel sharks).
The order of angel sharks are uncommon in Nordic waters. A sporadic visitor is however the Angelshark ("Squatina squatina"), encountered on a few occasions between 1875 and 1961.
Tetraodontiformes.
Tetraodontiformes are ray-finned fish, most of which are marine and dwell around tropical coral reefs. As such, they are only rarely encountered in Nordic waters. The large Sunfish ("Mola mola") has however in recent decades been seen with more regularly in Swedish waters, almost on a yearly basis.
Zeiformes.
The order Zeiformes is best known for the dories. Generally not native in Nordic waters, but the John Dory ("Zeus faber") became an occasional visitor around Swedish coasts by the late 19th century, and has in the latest decades been seen with annual regularity, although not in such quantities that systematical fishing of it is conducted. The fish is otherwise an attractive food fish in southern Europe and other parts of the world.


Pervushovisaurus

Pervushovisaurus is a genus of platypterygiine ichthyosaur from the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian, ~100-94 Ma) of the Saratov region in western Russia and the Cambridge area of the UK. It was originally described as a subgenus of "Platypterygius", but later work showed that it was distinct from the type species of "Platypterygius", "P. platydactylus", to be elevated to full generic rank.
The type species of "Pervushovisaurus", "P. bannovkensis", is known only from the holotype, SSU 104a/24, a partial skull. In 2016, an additional species of "Platypterygius", "P. campylodon", was also referred to "Pervushovisaurus".
Description.
Fishcer (2016) gave the emended diagnosis of "Pervushovisaurus" as follows, based on that of Fischer et al. (2014): "Platypterygiine ophthalmosaurid characterized by the following autapomorphies [...]: presence of foramina along the ventral premaxillary–maxillary suture; presence of a semi-oval foramen on the lateral surface of the premaxilla, anteroventral to the external naris; presence of lateral ridges on the maxilla; presence of wide supranarial ‘wing’ of the nasal (a similar structure, although much smaller, is present in ‘Platypterygius’ "australis" and "Acamptonectes densus") (see Kear, 2005; Fischer et al., 2012, respectively); robust splenial markedly protruding from the external surface of the mandible; root with quadrangular cross-section, with the cementum forming prominent 90° angles.
"Pervushovisaurus" is also characterized by the following unique combination of features: secondarily closed naris surrounded by foramina (as in ‘Platypterygius’ "sachicarum" and ‘Platypterygius’ "australis" (see Paramo, 1997; Kear, 2005, respectively), and in "Simbirskiasaurus birjukovi", although the ‘anterior’ naris is still present in this taxon (Maisch & Matzke, 2000; Fischer et al., 2014a)); elongated anterior process of the maxilla, reaching anteriorly the level of the nasal (unlike in "Aegirosaurus leptospondylus", "Sveltonectes insolitus" and "Muiscasaurus catheti") (Bardet & Fernández, 2000; Fischer et al., 2011a; Maxwell et al., 2015, respectively); rostrum straight (unlike in ‘Platypterygius’ "americanus", ‘Platypterygius’ "sachicarum", ‘Platypterygius’ "australis" and possibly "Muiscasaurus catheti", where it is slightly curved anteroventrally Romer, 1968; Paramo, 1997; Kear, 2005; Maxwell et al., 2015, respectively); straight, non-recurved tooth crowns (unlike in "Sveltonectes insolitus", "Muiscasaurus catheti") (Fischer et al., 2011a; Maxwell et al., 2015, respectively)."


Great piebald horned toad

The great piebald horned toad ("Megophrys gigantica"), or giant spadefoot toad, is a species of frog in the family Megophryidae, endemic to China. It is known only from Jingdong Yi Autonomous County and Yongde County in southwestern Yunnan.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests and rivers.
It is threatened by habitat loss.


Rishaschia

Rishaschia is a monotypic genus of South American jumping spiders containing the single species, Rishaschia mandibularis. It was first described by D. Makhan in 2006, and is found in Suriname, Ecuador, Guyana, Brazil, and French Guiana.


Sparkling-tailed woodstar

The sparkling-tailed woodstar ("Tilmatura dupontii"), also known as the sparkling-tailed hummingbird, is a species of hummingbird in the family Trochilidae. It is found in Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, and Nicaragua. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forest and heavily degraded former forest.


Pachyiulus marmoratus

Pachyiulus marmoratus is a species of millipede from Julidae family that is endemic to Greece.


Bachia panoplia

Bachia panoplia is a species of lizard in the family Gymnophthalmidae. It is endemic to Brazil.


Mundo Novo tree frog

The Mundo Novo tree frog ("Boana marginata") is a species of frog in the family Hylidae. It is endemic to south-eastern Brazil where it is known from the easternmost Rio Grande do Sul and adjacent southeastern Santa Catarina. Its natural habitats are forested mountain slopes near streams with clear running water. The eggs are deposited on vegetation hanging into the water. It is a common species although habitat loss and water pollution are threats.


Melodious blackbird

The melodious blackbird ("Dives dives") is a New World tropical bird.
Description.
The adult is a medium-sized blackbird with a rounded tail. The male is long and weighs . The slightly smaller female is long and weighs . The adult plumage is entirely black with a bluish gloss, and the bill, legs and feet are also black. The iris is brown. Females are identically plumaged to the males; young birds are brownish black and lack iridescence. There are no subspecies.
Voice.
The song is a duet between pairs, with a "see" note, followed by a "whit" and a northern cardinal-like whistle. The call is a metallic .
Distribution and habitat.
"D. dives" is a resident breeder from coastal eastern and south-eastern Mexico to Costa Rica. Its range is expanding. El Salvador was colonized in the 1950s, and eastern Guatemala in the 1960s. Prior to 1989 there was only one Costa Rican record, but it is now easily seen at least as far south as San José, and it is expected to colonize Panama.
The melodious blackbird inhabits a wide range of habitats, but avoids dense forest and thick undergrowth. It has adapted to human habitation and can be seen in gardens and on lawns. The melodious blackbird forages mainly on the ground for insects but will also take nectar and ripening maize ears as well as other plants, such as the fruits of the gumbo-limbo ("Bursera simaruba") and "Trophis racemosa".
Behaviour.
Breeding.
Breeding birds are highly territorial, and adults will attack predators like the brown jay, but small flocks form outside the nesting season. A breeding pair will give a display in which each bird spreads its tail, extends its wings, and ruffles its plumage.
Both sexes build a cup nest of plant material high in a bush or tree and line it with mud and dung. The female lays three or four brown-blotched blue eggs, which she incubates alone, although the male helps with feeding the chicks. This species is not known to be parasitised by cowbirds, which presumably has also contributed to its success.
Status.
This species has benefited from deforestation, which has allowed its rapid range expansion through the creation of suitable habitat.


Forficula abrutiana

Forficula abrutiana is a species of earwig in the family Forficulidae. They can be found in the Palearctic realm, especially in Italy.


Cnemaspis anamudiensis

Cnemaspis anamudiensis is a species of gecko found in India.


Amphisbaena hoogmoedi

Amphisbaena hoogmoedi is a species of worm lizard in the family Amphisbaenidae. The species is endemic to Brazil.
Etymology.
The specific name, "hoogmoedi", is in honor of Dutch herpetologist .
Geographic range.
"A. hoogmoedi" is found in the state of Pará, Brazil.
Description.
Medium-sized for an amphisbaenid, the maximum recorded snout-to-vent length (SVL) for "A. hoogmoedi" is .


Iraq babbler

The Iraq babbler ("Argya altirostris") is a species of bird in the family Leiothrichidae, native to reed beds of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley. It is found in Iraq and south-western Iran.
This species was formerly placed in the genus "Turdoides" but following the publication of a comprehensive molecular phylogenetic study in 2018, it was moved to the resurrected genus "Argya".


Cryptoparachtes fedotovi

Cryptoparachtes fedotovi is a spider species found in Georgia and Azerbaijan.


Xerogyra spadae

Xerogyra spadae is a species of air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Geomitridae.
The specific name "spadae", "Spada's", Pietro Calcara commemorated Giovanni Jacopo Spada (1680 — 1774), an Italian naturalist and pioneering geologist of Verona.
Distribution.
"Candidula spadae" is native to Central Italy. The species in sparsely distributed. It is found in the central Apennines. However, the IUCN asserts that the species is also found in extension to Gargano. It is found in the Sibillini Mountains, including Monte Vettore, and then southward to the Monti Reatini, the Gran Sasso d'Italia, and the Monti della Meta.
Description.
The shell of "Xerogyra spadae" is pale white in color. Often, there are narrow light brownish color bands on the shell. The shell is almost smooth.
The whorls are, to some extent, convex in shape. The number of whorls range between 5.5 and 6. The last two whorls increase more rapidly. The last whorl is weakly angulated. It does not descend near the main opening of the shell, the aperture. The aperture is clearly visible and large. The color inside the aperture is white or light yellowish. There is a lip inside the aperture which is white in color.
The umbilicus is initially narrow, but at the last whorl it increases to one-fourth of the shell diameter.
The width of the shell is 10–16 mm. The height of the shell is 6.5-8.5 mm.
Habitat.
"Xerogyra spadae" is a terrestrial species. It lives on pebbly grassland in the alpine tundra and subalpine zone up to the summit region.
Population.
According to the IUCN, the size of the population, despite being not properly known, is showing a decreasing trend. The population declined remarkably in the decades 1990s and 2000s. This population decline was caused by an overall dryness in Central Italy's climate.
Interaction with humans and conservation status.
"Xerogyra spadae" faces risk from the tourism industry and grazing activity. Activities associated with tourism, such as skiing, mountain biking, hiking, as well as rock climbing and mountaineering result in degradation of this snail's habitat quality. With the intensity of land-use in the Apennines described by the IUCN as "stable or even increasing", grazing activity such as pasturing also results in change of the natural vegetation with adverse effects.


Calosima fallaciae

Calosima fallaciae is a moth in the family Blastobasidae which is endemic to Costa Rica.


Chromis limbata

The Azores chromis or Atlantic chromis ("Chromis limbata") is a species of damselfish from the family Pomacentridae which is found in the Macaronesian Islands of the temperate eastern Atlantic Ocean and has been reported from coastal regions of western Africa.
Description.
"Chromis limbata" is greyish-brown in colour with a dark dorsal fin, anal fin and distal margin of the caudal fin, with its proximate part being whitish. When spawning, the male develops a slightly purple hue as its courtship colours. It has a large eye and a strongly protractile mouth which reaches the vertical from eye. There are three rows of small canine-like teeth on the jaws. The dorsal fin has 14 spines and 11-12 soft rays while the anal fin has 2 spines and 10-12 soft rays. It grows to 12 cm standard length.
Distribution.
"Chromis limbata" occurs in the Azores and Madeira which are part of Portugal and in the Canary Islands, Spain. It has also been reported off the coast of western Africa from Senegal to Pointe Noire, Congo. It is apparently replaced in the Cape Verde Islands by the endemic Lubbock's chromis "Chromis lubbocki". Small numbers of "C. limbata" have been recorded off islands in Santa Catarina in southern Brazil and these may be vagrants or may have been introduced through discharge of ships' ballast water.
Biology.
The adults of "Chromis limbata" occur in rocky reefs and sandy-weedy areas, with a depth range of 5–45 meters. They are oviparous and form pairs to breed, the male clears a space on the substrate for the female to lay the eggs in, the eggs adhere to the substrate and the male guards and aerates them. It is commonest between depths of 5m to 50 m. It can either be found close to the sea bed or it forms pelagic schools. It feeds on small benthic or planktonic invertebrates.
Taxonomy.
It was formerly considered conspecific with "Chromis chromis" but in some areas the two species are sympatric.
Uses.
"Chromis limbata" is a valued food fish in Madeira and is subject to a small scale artisanal fishery, especially off the south and east of the island.


Italian wolf

The Italian wolf ("Canis lupus italicus" or "Canis lupus lupus"), also known as the Apennine wolf, is a subspecies of grey wolf native to the Italian Peninsula. It inhabits the Apennine Mountains and the Western Alps, though it is undergoing expansion towards the north and east. As of 2019, the Italian wolf population is estimated to consist of 1500–2000 individuals. It has been strictly protected in Italy since the 1970s, when the population reached a low of 70–100 individuals. The population is increasing in number, though illegal hunting and persecution still constitute a threat. Since the 1990s, the Italian wolf's range has expanded into southwestern France and Switzerland. Although not universally recognised as a distinct subspecies, it nonetheless possesses a unique mtDNA haplotype and a distinct skull morphology.
Taxonomy.
The modern Italian wolf was first recognised as a distinct subspecies in 1921 by zoologist , who noted that its colour and skull differed from that of the common European wolf. He described the Italian population's skull as being rounder in form than that of the typical European wolf, with smaller teeth closely approaching those of dogs and golden jackals in appearance. Altobello's classification was later rejected by several authors, including Reginald Innes Pocock, who synonymised "C. l. italicus" with "C. l. lupus". In 2002, the noted paleontologist R.M. Nowak reaffirmed the morphological distinctiveness of the Italian wolf in a study on grey wolf skulls from Italy, other Eurasian localities, and dog skulls. The results of this assessment showed no overlap in the skull morphology of Italian wolves and other grey wolves and dogs. Among the discovered characteristics distinguishing the Italian wolf were its relatively narrow palate between the first premolars, a broad frontal shield, and shallow Jugal bone. The study recommended the recognition of "Canis lupus italicus".
, it is classed by MSW3 as synonymous with "C. l. lupus". Nevertheless, the National Center for Biotechnology Information does list and publish research papers recognising its distinctiveness.
Lineage.
In Italy, the earliest remains of a wolf ("Canis lupus") have been found in 1984 at the Middle Pleistocene site of La Polledrara di Cecanibbio, 20 km north-west of Rome in deposits dated 340-320 thousand years ago. The genetic analysis of Apennine wolves indicates that they went through a population decline of 100–1,000 fold between the past 4,700–23,800 years, which indicates genetic isolation south of the alps from other wolf populations for many thousands of years.
In 1992, an examination of the mitochondrial DNA (mDNA) of 26 grey wolf populations worldwide revealed that the Italian wolf has a unique mitochondrial haplotype (a mutation) not shared by any other grey wolf population. Further tests on grey wolf mDNA revealed that, unlike several European grey wolf populations, Italian wolves do not share haplotypes with either other grey wolves or domestic dogs. In 2010, a study compared the mDNA haplotypes of 24 ancient wolf specimens from Western Europe dated between 44,000 and 1,200 YBP with those of modern gray wolves. The phylogenetic tree indicated that the haplotypes represented two haplogroups that were separated by five mutational steps. The ancient wolf samples from Western Europe all belonged to haplogroup 2, indicating haplogroup 2 predominance in this region for over 40,000 years before and after the last glacial maximum. A comparison of current and past frequencies indicated that in Europe, haplogroup 2 became outnumbered by haplogroup 1 over the past several thousand years, but in North America, haplogroup 2 became extinct and was replaced by haplogroup 1 after the last glacial maximum. The Italian wolf is the only remaining grey wolf subspecies included in this ancient haplogroup since the extinction of the Honshu wolf.
In 2016, a study of mDNA sequences of both modern and ancient wolves indicated that in Europe, the two most genetically distinct haplotypes form the Iberian wolf and separately the Italian wolf. The phylogenetic tree generated from the sequences showed the Italian wolf positioned close to the ancient wolves of the Late Pleistocene. In 2017, a study found a second mDNA haplotype that belonged to the Italian wolf, and called for the morphologically and genetically distinct Italian wolf to be considered as a subspecies.
In 2019, an mDNA study of 19 Late Pleistocene-Holocene wolf samples from northern Italy found that these fell within mitochondrial haplogroup 2 except for one sample. Four out of the six detected haplotypes matched ancient Beringian wolves, ancient wolves from northern Europe, some modern European and Chinese wolf populations, and are closely related to the two haplotypes currently found in the Italian wolves. The Italian wolf haplotypes were only one or two mutations away from those of the Pleistocene wolves, indicating mutation in their Italian glacial refuge. The Italian wolf population represents genetic uniqueness highlighted in several mitochondrial and nuclear DNA studies. It is the only remaining wolf population in Europe which belongs exclusively to an mDNA haplogroup that was once widespread in central and western Europe for over 40,000 years, and in North America until the Last Glacial Maximum. Additionally, one canid specimen from the archaeological site of San Lazzaro di Savena, Bologna fell within the domestic dog clade A haplotype — it was radio-carbon dated to be 24,700 years old.
"Canis lupus maximus".
"Canis lupus maximus" (Boudadi-Maligne, 2012) was a species larger than all other known fossil and extant wolves from Western Europe. The fossilized remains of this Late Pleistocene subspecies were found across a wide area of south-western France at Jaurens cave, Nespouls, Corrèze dated 31,000 YBP; Maldidier cave, La Roque-Gageac, Dordogne dated 22,500 YBP; and Gral pit-fall, Sauliac-sur-Célé, Lot dated 16,000 YBP. The wolf's long bones are 10% longer than those of extant European wolves and 20% longer than its probable ancestor, "C. l. lunellensis". The teeth are robust, the posterior denticules on the lower premolars p2, p3, p4 and upper P2 and P3 are highly developed, and the diameter of the lower carnassial (m1) were larger than any known European wolf. Wolf body size in Europe has followed a steady increase from their first appearance up to the peak of the last glacial maximum. The size of these wolves is thought to be an adaptation to a cold environment (Bergmann's rule) and plentiful game, as their remains have been found in association with reindeer fossils.
In a 2017 study, the dimensions of the upper and lower carnassial teeth of the Italian wolf are close to those of "C. l. maximus". Fluctuations in the size of "C. lupus" carnassial teeth correlate with the spread of megafauna. The Italian wolf underwent a reduction in body size with the loss of the red deer during the Italian Renaissance only centuries ago.
Description.
The Italian wolf typically weighs , though some large males have been weighed at . It measures 110–148 cm in body length and 50–70 cm in shoulder height. The pelt is generally of a grey-fulvous colour, which reddens in summer. The belly and cheeks are more lightly coloured, and dark bands are present on the back and tail tip, and occasionally along the fore limbs. Black wolves have been reported in the north-central Apennines, though their origin is unknown, as some melanistic individuals show no sign of wolf-dog hybridisation. It typically lives in packs of two to seven individuals.
Range and legal status.
Wolf populations strongly declined across Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries largely due to human persecution, and by the end of the Second World War they had been eradicated from all of Central Europe and almost all of Northern Europe. Their population decline continued until the 1960s, with isolated populations surviving in Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece, and Finland. Wolf populations have commenced recovering naturally since then.
In Italy.
The Italian wolf was widespread in the Italian Peninsula, including Sicily, until the mid-1800s. The extermination of the grey wolf in Italy was not as complete as in Northern Europe, due to greater cultural tolerance of the species. It was largely extirpated in the Alps during the 1920s, and disappeared from Sicily in the 1940s. Its range along the south-central Apennines was still relatively continuous by the 1950s, though this population was reduced in the decades after World War II because of widespread poisoning campaigns. At least 400 wolves were killed between 1960 and 1970, with the population reaching an all-time low in the early 1970s. The last documented wolf in the northern Apennines was killed in Santo Stefano d'Aveto, Genoa, in 1946, though this was an isolated individual, as the local wolf population had long been extinct.
The Italian wolf was first given legal protection on 23 July 1971, with a nationwide population census being taken in 1973. This census was funded by the Italian branch of the World Wide Fund for Nature as part of a conservation plan dubbed "Operazione San Francesco” (Operation Saint Francis, linked to the traditional legend of peace set by the saint between wolf and men of Gubbio in Umbria region). The census revealed that the Italian wolf population consisted of 100–110 individuals distributed throughout a fragmented range in the main mountainous areas of south-central Italy, from the Sibillini to La Sila. In 1983, the population had reached 200–220 individuals inhabiting two unconnected areas in central and southern Italy. By the late 1990s, the Italian wolf population had increased to an estimated 400–500 individuals with a continuous distribution along the entire Apennines, from Aspromonte to the Maritime Alps, with some isolated populations in Tuscany and Lazio. In 2008, a wolf carcass was discovered in the Fiemme Valley in Trentino, and by 2010, 45–55 wolves were estimated to have recolonised Piedmont.
IUCN assessment information about peninsular population is as follows: “The Italian wolf population is estimated to be 500-800 individuals distributed along the Apennines. The shape of the range is narrow and elongated, restricted to the Apennines. The population has limited exchanges with the population of the Western Alps and recent genetic evidence indicates a flux of genes only in the direction toward the Alps. In spite of the recent increase in numbers and range, the Italian wolf population is still highly vulnerable to local extermination from human pressures (poison, shooting, car accidents) and the stochastic nature of these events suggest to maintain a cautionary assessment. The population does not qualify for the category Endangered, but it may easily reverse its current favorable status.”
Elsewhere.
The Italian wolf was first sighted in southwestern France in 1992. In the two decades following its initial recolonisation, the wolf has expanded its range at the west of the Rhône, in the Massif Central, the eastern Pyrenees, and the Jura and Vosges Mountains. At least 13 transient Italian wolves (12 males and a female) were counted in Catalonia between 2000 and 2011, a century after the local Iberian wolf ("C. l. signatus") was extirpated from the area. One of these was reported in the media to have been killed on the road and identified in Baix Empordà, Catalonia in 2018. Technicians and veterinarians of the Torreferrussa Wildlife Center identified the body as being of the subspecies "Canis lupus italicus".
The first evidence of grey wolf expansion into Switzerland occurred in 1995–1996 in the southern Canton of Valais, where around 100 sheep were killed. In 1998–1999, 40 sheep were killed and two wolves were found dead from poaching and car collisions. Italian, French and Swiss wolves share the same mtDNA haplotype, a haplotype that has never been found in any other wolf population worldwide, which corroborate the scenario of a natural expansion of wolves from the Italian source population.
In Latin and Italian culture.
The animal features prominently in pre-Roman, Roman, and later Italian cultures. In Roman mythology, the wolf played a role in the founding of Rome by suckling the twins Romulus and Remus. According to Terry Jones, "The Romans did not see [the tale of Romulus, Remus and the she-wolf] as a charming story; they meant to show that they had imbibed wolfish appetites and ferocity with their mother's milk". The wolf was also considered sacred to Mars, and to see a wolf before going into battle was considered a good omen. The origin of the myth can be traced back to a wolf cult among the neighbouring Sabines. The Sabines had two words for wolf: "hirpus" (used in religious contexts) and "lupus", the latter of which was incorporated into Latin.
Although the Romans did not worship wolves, killing them was likely considered taboo; unlike the Etruscans, the Romans very rarely sacrificed wolves in rituals, and no records have been found of wolves being used in the amphitheatres, despite being more numerous and easily accessible compared to other, more exotic animals used. The use of wolves in Roman folk medicine, while attested by Pliny the Elder, was minimal compared to other animals such as snakes or bears and, contrary to popular imagery, Roman standard bearers did not wear wolf skins, with the only units attested to have worn them being the velites, who were the poorest and youngest warriors using the wolf skins to distinguish themselves. Wolves entering cities or temples were usually only killed when the animal had no means of escape, unlike the case with wasps, oxen, and owls, which were quickly eliminated if they entered sacred areas. Negative attitudes towards wolves in Italy largely began with the invasion of the Lombards, who zoomorphically described their raids and invasions as wolf raids, bringing wolves into disrepute. The belief in werewolves was still widespread in Italy during the early 1920s, and covering their faces when resting outside at night was once traditional among rural people, as sleeping whilst facing the full moon was thought to transform the sleeper into a wolf. The wolf also featured prominently in Italian folk medicine. Baby colic was treated by tying a sack filled with a piece of wolf gut around the child's neck, while miscarriages were prevented by tying a wolf's intestine around the mother's abdomen. Rheumatism and tonsillitis were treated with wolf fat, while a tooth or tuft of fur was worn as a talisman against the evil eye.
The Romans apparently did not consider wolves overly dangerous to people, with the only references to them attacking people being proverbial or mythological. Although Italy has no records of wolf attacks on humans after World War II and the eradication of rabies in the 1960s, historians examining church and administrative records from northern Italy's central Po Valley region (which includes a part of modern-day Switzerland) found 440 cases of wolves attacking people between the 15th and 19th centuries. The 19th-century records show that from 1801–1825, 112 attacks occurred, 77 of which resulted in death. Of these cases, only five were attributed to rabid animals.


Orculella cretiminuta

Orculella cretiminuta is a species of air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusc in the family Orculidae.
Geographic distribution.
"O. cretiminuta" is endemic to Greece, where it occurs on the island of Crete and the neighbouring islets of Gavdos, Paximadia, Gianysada and Pseira.


Zacapa salamander

The Zacapa salamander ("Bolitoglossa zacapensis") is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae.
It is endemic to Guatemala.


Carabus maurus osculatii

Carabus maurus osculatii is a subspecies of beetle from family Carabidae, that is endemic to Iran. The species are steel coloured, and are named after its discoverer Gaetano Osculati.


Alopoglossus embera

Alopoglossus embera is a species of lizard in the family Alopoglossidae. The species is endemic to western Colombia.
Etymology.
The specific name, "embera", is in honor of the Emberá, an indigenous people of Colombia and Panama.
Geographic range.
In Colombia, "A. embra" is found in Cauca Department and Valle del Cauca Department.


Harp seal

The harp seal ("Pagophilus groenlandicus"), also known as saddleback seal or Greenland seal, is a species of earless seal, or true seal, native to the northernmost Atlantic Ocean and Arctic Ocean. Originally in the genus "Phoca" with a number of other species, it was reclassified into the monotypic genus "Pagophilus" in 1844. In Greek, its scientific name translates to "ice-lover from Greenland," and its taxonomic synonym, "Phoca groenlandica" translates to "Greenlandic seal."
Description.
The mature harp seal has pure black eyes. It has a silver-gray fur covering its body, with black harp or wishbone-shaped markings dorsally. Adult harp seals grow to be long and weigh from . The harp seal pup often has a yellow-white coat at birth due to staining from amniotic fluid, but after one to three days, the coat turns white and stays white for 2–3 weeks, until the first molt. Adolescent harp seals have a silver-gray coat spotted with black.
Physiology.
Harp seals are considered sexually dimorphic, as the males are slightly larger, and more decorated. Males weigh an average of , and reach a length up to , while females weigh an average of and reach up to . Males generally have a more defined dorsal harp marking and a darker head, while some females never develop the marking and remain spotted.
Diving.
Compared to other phocid seals, the harp seal dives from shallow to moderately deep depths. Dive depth varies with season, time of day and location. In the Greenland Sea sub-population, the average dive rate is around 8.3 dives per hour and dives range from a depth of less than 20 to over 500m. Dive duration ranges from less than 2 minutes to just over 20 minutes. During the spring and summer when seals forage along the pack ice in the Greenland Sea, most dives are less than 50m. In the late fall and winter, dive depth has been found to increase, particularly in the Denmark Strait, where the mean dive depth was found to be 141m.
Lactating female harp seals spend about 80% of the time in the water and 20% of the time on the fast-ice weaning or near their pups. However, almost half of the time spent in the water is at the surface, well beyond what is expected to recover from dives. This behavior allows the mother harp seal to conserve energy and avoid the harsh conditions of the fast-ice while remaining near her pup. As with most phocids, she requires vast amounts of energy to ensure sufficient mass transfer to her growing, weaning pup. Harp seals remain within their aerobic dive limit for 99% of dives.
Thermoregulation.
Harp seals combine anatomical and behavioral approaches to managing their body temperatures, instead of elevating their metabolic rate and energy requirements. Their lower critical temperature is believed to be under −10 degrees Celsius in air. Blubber insulates the Harp seal's core but does not insulate the flippers to the same extent. Instead, the flippers have circulatory adaptations to help prevent heat loss. A thick coat of blubber insulates its body and provides energy when food is scarce or during fasting. Blubber also streamlines its body for more efficient swimming. Brown fat warms blood as it returns from the body surface as well as providing energy, most importantly for newly weaned pups.
Flippers act as heat exchangers, warming or cooling the seal as needed. On ice, the seal can press its fore-flippers to its body and its hind-flippers together to reduce heat loss. They can also redirect blood flow from the periphery to minimize heat loss.
Senses.
The harp seal's eyes are large for its body size and contain a large spherical lens that improves focusing ability. Its mobile pupil helps it adapt to the intense glare of the Arctic ice. Its retina is rod-dominated and backed by a cat-like and reflective tapetum lucidum, enhancing its low light sensitivity. Its cones are most sensitive to blue-green spectra, while its rods help sense light intensity and may provide some color discrimination. Its cornea is lubricated by lacrimal glands, to protect the eye from sea water damage. The lack of tear ducts to drain secretions to the nasal passages contribute to the harp seals "eye rings" on land. This can be an indication of the hydration level of the seal.
On ice, the mother identifies her offspring by smell. This sense may also warn of an approaching predator. Underwater, the seal closes its nostrils, disabling its sense of smell.
Its whiskers, called vibrissae, lie in horizontal rows on either side of its snout. They provide a touch sense with labeled line coding, and underwater, also respond to low-frequency vibrations, such as movement.
Diet.
Like most pinnipeds, harp seals are carnivorous. They have a diverse diet including several dozen fish and invertebrate species. The White Sea population migrates northward in the summer to forage extensively in the Barents Sea, where common prey items include krill, capelin ("Mallotus villosus)," herring ("Clupea harengus)," flat fish and Gadiform fish. Harp seals prefer some prey, though their diet depends largely on prey abundance. Diet and abundance analysis of the Svalbard population found that this population predominantly eats krill, followed closely by polar cod ("Arctogladus glacialis)". Some individuals from the Greenland Sea sub-population have foraged in the Barents Sea alongside the White Sea sub-population during late summer and fall. Barents Sea harp seals eat mostly herring and polar cod but less krill or amphipods, likely because these seals usually dive deeper than such prey.
Western N. Atlantic harp seals forage both near and offshore of Newfoundland, most preferring such prey as Arctic cod ("Boreogadus saida)", capelin, Greenland halibut ("Reinhardtius hippoglossoides)" and American plaice ("Hippoglossoides platessoides"). As in other populations and foraging areas, diet varies with distance from shore, with arctic cod comprising more of it nearshore and capelin more of it offshore. However, capelin is the preferred prey in both locales.
Life history.
Harp seals spend relatively little time on land compared with time at sea. They are social animals and can be quite vocal in groups. Within their large colonies, smaller groups with their own hierarchies form. Groups of several thousand form during pupping and mating season. Harp seals can live over 30 years in the wild.
On the ice, pups call their mothers by "yelling," and "mumble" while playing with others. Adults "growl" and "warble" to warn off conspecifics and predators. Underwater, adults have been recorded using more than 19 types of vocalization during courting and mating.
Reproduction and Development.
The harp seal is a fast ice breeder and is believed to have a promiscuous mating system. Breeding occurs between mid-February and April. Courtship peaks during mid-March and involves males performing underwater displays, using bubbles, vocalizations, and paw movements to court females. Females, who remain on the ice, will resist copulation unless underwater.
Females mature sexually between ages five to six. Annually thereafter, they may bear one pup, usually in late February. The gestation period lasts about 11.5 months, with a fetal development phase of 8 months. There have been reported cases of twin births, but singletons are vastly more common. The fertilized egg grows into an embryo which remains suspended in the womb for up to three months before implantation, to delay birth until sufficient pack ice is available.
Harp seal births are rapid, with recorded lengths as short as 15 seconds in duration. In order to cope with the shock of a rapid change in environmental temperature and undeveloped blubber layers, the pup relies on solar heating, and behavioral responses such as shivering or seeking warmth in the shade or even water.
Newborn pups weigh on average and are long. After birth, the mother feeds only her own pup. During the approximately 12-day long nursing period, the mother does not hunt, and loses up to per day. Harp seal milk initially contains 25% fat (this number increases to 40% by weaning as the mother fasts) and pups gain over per day while nursing, quickly thickening their blubber layer. During this time, the juvenile's "greycoat" grows in beneath the white neonatal coat, and the pup increases its weight to . Weaning is abrupt; the mother turns from nursing to promiscuous mating, leaving the pup behind on the ice. While courtship starts on the ice, mating usually takes place in the water.
After abandonment, in the post-weaning phase, the pup becomes sedentary to conserve body fat. Within a few days, it sheds its white coat, reaching the "beater" stage. This name comes from the sound a beater's tail makes as the seal learns to swim. Pups begin to feed at 4 weeks of age, but still draw on internal sources of energy, relying first on energy stored in the body core rather than blubber. During this time the ice begins to melt leaving them vulnerable to polar bears and other predators. This fast can reduce their weight up to 50%. As many as 30% of pups die during their first year, due in part to their early immobility on land.
Around 13–14 months old, the pups molt again, becoming "bedlamers". Juveniles molt several times, producing a "spotted harp", before the male adults' harp-marked pelt fully emerges after several years. In females, it does not emerge.
Seals congregate annually on the ice to molt, pup and breed before migrating to summer feeding grounds. Their lifespan can be over 30 years.
Distribution.
Global harp seal population estimates total around 7.6 million individuals. The number of pups born in the traditional pupping area of the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence was greatly reduced, with an estimated pup production of only 18,300 (95% CI, 15,400-21,200 rounded to the nearest hundred). Another 13,600 (95% CI, 7,700-19,500) pups were born in the northern Gulf. An estimated 714,600 (95% CI, 538,800-890,400) pups were born off the northeastern coast of Newfoundland (Front); accounting for 96% of all pupping in 2017. Combining the estimates from all areas resulted in an estimated total pup production of 746,500 (95% CI, 570,300-922,700). Due to their dependence on pack ice for breeding, the harp seal range is restricted to areas where pack ice forms seasonally. The western North Atlantic stock, which is the largest, is located off eastern Canada. This population is further divided into two separate herds based on the breeding location. The Front herd breeds off the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland, and the Gulf herd breeds near the Magdalen Islands in the middle of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. A second stock breeds on the "West Ice" off eastern Greenland. A third stock breeds on the "East Ice" in the White Sea, which is off the north coast of Russia below the Barents ea. Breeding occurs between mid-February and April, and varies somewhat for each stock. The three stocks are allopatric and don't interbreed.
There are two recognised subspecies:
Migration and vagrancy.
Harp seals are strongly migratory. The northwest population regularly moves up to northeast outside of the breeding season; one individual was located off the north Norwegian coast, east northeast of its tagging location. Their navigational accuracy is high, with good eyesight an important factor. They are occasionally found as vagrants, south of their normal range. In Great Britain, a total of 31 vagrants were recorded between 1800 and 1988,
More recently, they reached Lindisfarne in Northumberland in September 1995, and the Shetland Islands in 1987. The latter was linked to a mass movement of harp seals into Norwegian waters; by mid-February 1987, 24,000 were reported drowned in fishing nets and perhaps 30,000 (about 10% of the world population) had invaded fjords as far south as Oslo. The animals were emaciated, likely due to humans competing for their prey.
Harp seals can strand on Atlantic coasts, often in warmer months, due to dehydration and parasite load. In March 2020, a harp seal was spotted near Salvo, North Carolina. Harp seals often consume snow to stay hydrated, but in mild winters may not have enough available. Several centers are active in seal rescue and rehabilitation, including IFAW, NOAA, and the New England Aquarium. Harp seals are protected by the Marine Mammal Protection Act in the United States.
Seal hunting.
All 3 populations are hunted commercially, mainly by Canada, Norway, Russia and Greenland.
In Canada, commercial hunting season is from November 15 to May 15. Most sealing occurs in late March in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and during the first or second week of April off Newfoundland, in an area known as "the Front". This peak spring period is generally what is referred to as the "Canadian seal hunt". Hunting Canadian whitecoats has been banned since 1987. Since 2000, harp seals that are targeted during the hunt are often found to be less than a year old, known as "beaters". In 2006, the St. Lawrence hunt officially started on March 25 due to thin ice caused by the year's milder temperatures. Inuit people living in the region hunt mainly for food and, to a lesser extent, commerce.
In 2019, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans estimated sustainable harvest levels for the next five years. The identified annual Canadian Total Allowable Catch (TAC) levels were 425,000 assuming harvest age structures of 95% young of the year (YOY). In 2016, 66,800 harp seals and 1,612 grey seals were harvested in Atlantic Canada.
In 2005, the Independent Veterinarians' Working Group (IVWG) recommended a three-step process for hunters to kill the seals with little or no pain for the seals, as long as the process is completed in rapid succession. The process is as follows:
In 2009, this process was included in both the 'Conditions of License' for the Canadian hunt as well as the Canadian Marine Mammal Regulations.
The Canadian seal hunt is monitored by the Canadian government. Although approximately 70% of the hunt occurs on "the Front", most private monitors focus on the St. Lawrence hunt, due to its more convenient location.
The annual quota off the coast of Greenland for 2017–2019 was set at 26 000 1+ animals, where two pups are equivalent to removing one 1+ animal. The total catches of harp seals were 2000 (including 1934 pups) in 2017, 2703 (including 1218 pups) in 2018, and 5813 (including 2168 pups) in 2019.
The 2004 West Ice total allowable catch (TAC) was 15,000, almost double the sustainable catch of 8,200. Actual catches were 9,895 in 2004 and 5,808 in 2005. The 2004 White Sea TAC was 45,000. The catch was 22,474.
Population Dynamics.
Hunting has tremendously affected the population size of Harp Seals. Over the past 150 years, the Harp Seal population has fluctuated from over 9 million to as little as 1 million. As of 2019, the current population is estimated to be 7.6 million. The Northwest Atlantic populations was found to have decreased by at least 50 percent from 1952 to 1970 but nowadays, seal populations all are hunted under quotas and strict restrictions and the population has exceeded the natural carrying capacity of the marine ecosystem and is now threatening other fish stocks. A well managed, sustainable harvest is the best way to ensure a healthy, balanced ecosystem.
Further reading.
The Northwest population:
The White Sea and West Ice populations:


Cochlostoma pageti

Cochlostoma pageti is a species of small land snail with an operculum, a terrestrial gastropod mollusc in the family Cochlostomatidae.
Geographic distribution.
"C. pageti" is endemic to Greece, where it occurs in the region of Epirus in the north-western part of the country.


Aethes sulphurosana

Aethes sulphurosana is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It was described by Kennel in 1901. It is endemic to Algeria.


Aphaniotis ornata

Aphaniotis ornata is a species of lizard in the family Agamidae. The species is endemic to Borneo.


Bombus haueri

Bombus haueri is a species of bumblebee. It is endemic to Mexico.
This bee was known from much of northern and central Mexico, where there were records from at least ten states. Since its description in 1888 it has faced an estimated decline of about 74%, and it now occupies perhaps 10% of its historical range. It was not seen at all between 1991 and 2013, and since then it has only been noted in two Mexican states. It is now an endangered species on the IUCN Red List.
This species lives in mountainous habitat. Its range has been affected by the claiming of land for agriculture and associated chemical pollution. Because it is found in volcanic highlands, volcanic activity may affect the species.


Phyllocnistis sciophanta

Phyllocnistis sciophanta is a moth of the family Gracillariidae, known from Peru. It was described by E. Meyrick in 1915.


Argyrotaenia cupreographa

Argyrotaenia cupreographa is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in Veracruz, Mexico.


Heliophanus iranus

Heliophanus iranus is a jumping spider species in the genus "Heliophanus". It was first described by Wanda Wesołowska in 1986 and lives in Iran.


Geodorcus capito

Geodorcus capito is a large flightless species of stag beetle in the family Lucanidae. It is endemic to the Chatham Islands in New Zealand.
Description.
The exoskeleton of "Geodorcus capito" varies in colour from glossy black to brownish black. Adults show distinct sexual dimorphism. Including mandibles, male beetles range in length from 17.0–27.0 mm; females from 15.0–19.5 mm. Male and female beetles can be distinguished by the distinct ribbed elytra with obvious branching setae on the male beetle, whilst a female beetle has more vague ribbed elytra and barely visible setae.
Distribution.
This stag beetle is found throughout the Chatham Islands, including on Chatham Island, Pitt Island, Rangatira, Mangere Island and Little Mangere Island.
It is now thought to be restricted to the southern end of Chatham Island and is less common on Pitt Island than previously. It is possible that vulnerable species like "G. capito" have been restricted in their distribution by grazing and habitat loss on Chatham Island and pig rooting on Pitt Island.
Habitat.
All "Geodorcus" are nocturnal forest species. Adult "G. capito" beetles have been seen at night on the ground and on trees. During the day, beetles can be seen hiding under rotten branches and inside debris on tree trunks. All life cycle stages, including eggs, have been seen in moss covered cavities of trees on Chatham Island. On smaller islands adults have been collected under rocks in coastal forest.
Diet.
From their mouthparts, it is assumed that all adult stag beetles are liquid feeders. Adult "Geodorcus" beetles feed on sappy exudations from trees. Stag beetle larvae consume rotting wood at or above ground but a few species live underground and feed on either roots or humus.
Conservation.
Like other "Geodorcus" species, "G. capito" is protected under Schedule 7 of The 1953 Wildlife Act, making it an offense to collect or harm a specimen.
The Chatham Island stag beetle has suffered a large reduction in its range on the inhabited Chatham Islands.


Lobocheilos falcifer

Lobocheilos falcifer is a species of cyprinid in the genus "Lobocheilos". It inhabits Malaysia and Indonesia and has a maximum length of .


Calathus oreades

Calathus oreades is a species of ground beetle from the Platyninae subfamily that is endemic to Spain.


Dryas iulia

Dryas iulia (often incorrectly spelled "julia"), commonly called the Julia butterfly, Julia heliconian, the flame, or flambeau, is a species of brush-footed (or nymphalid) butterfly. The sole representative of its genus Dryas, it is native from Brazil to southern Texas and Florida, and in summer can sometimes be found as far north as eastern Nebraska. Over 15 subspecies have been described.
Its wingspan ranges from 82 to 92 mm, and it is colored orange (brighter in male specimens) with black markings; this species is somewhat unpalatable to birds and belongs to the "orange" Mullerian mimicry complex.
This butterfly is a fast flier and frequents clearings, paths, and margins of forests and woodlands. It feeds on the nectar of flowers, such as lantanas ("Lantana") and shepherd's-needle ("Scandix pecten-veneris"), and the tears of caiman, the eye of which the butterfly irritates to produce tears. Its caterpillar feeds on leaves of passion vines, including "Passiflora affinis" and yellow passionflower ("P. lutea") in Texas.
Its mating behavior is complex and involves a prolonged courtship whose outcome appears to be controlled by the female. This raises questions pertaining to the occurrence of the evolution of sexual conflict.
The species is popular in butterfly houses because it is long-lived and active throughout the day. However, the caterpillars are spiky and may cause a skin rash.
Identification.
"D. iulia" is characterized by elongated orange wings with black wing markings that vary by subspecies. Black markings are mainly located near the wing tips. Male Julia butterflies can be identified by their brighter orange color, compared to the duller orange exhibited by females . Images of many Julia butterfly subspecies can be found at the bottom of the page.
Distribution.
"D. iulia" is common in the tropical and subtropical areas of North, Central, and South America. In South America, throughout countries like Brazil, Ecuador, and Bolivia, the Julia butterfly is commonly distributed. The butterfly is also widespread throughout a number of the Caribbean islands, with endemic subspecies located in Cuba, Dominica, the Bahamas, and Puerto Rico, among others. Moving further north, the species can be commonly witnessed in Central America up into Texas and Florida (and can occasionally be found to move into the Nebraska area during the summer). The geographic distribution of "D. iulia" overlaps with the ranges of other butterflies which sometimes leads to conflict. For example, the ranges of "D. iulia" and the gulf fritillary overlap; in some cases, gulf fritillaries can sometimes be subjected to competition and fighting from "Dryas iulia moderata" when the two species have breeding populations in similar areas and within the same geographic range.
Habitat.
"D. iulia" prefer open, sunny breaks in the subtropical and tropical forests it inhabits. The butterfly is also common in open areas such as gardens, cattle grazing lands, and forest clearings, due to human impact. "D. iulia" can be found on a few main hostplants (or shrubs in Latin America) including the passion vine of the family Passifloraceae.
Migration.
"D. iulia" flights take place throughout the year in southern Florida and southern Texas, but especially during the fall. The butterfly in its U.S. range has been seen to occasionally migrate as far north as Nebraska. However, south of its United States range, the Julia butterfly generally does not migrate. The butterfly's flight pattern can be fast or slow, and is usually seen around the middle story of their forest habitat.
Food resources.
"D. iulia" larvae feed on "Passiflora" plants almost exclusively, specifically those of subgenuses "Astrophea" (also known as "Passiflora"), "Polyanthea", "Tryphostemmatoides", and "Plectostemma".
As adults, male and females feed differently based on their reproductive needs. As mentioned further down, males engage in mud-puddling behavior in order to gain valuable minerals for their spermatophores. They have also been seen to agitate the eyes of caimans and turtles in order to produce tears that the butterflies can drink. Observations of this from points 1500 km apart, were probably the first time scientific observations were coordinated via films broadcast on terrestrial television.
Females, meanwhile, besides visiting certain flower species for their nectar – like "Lantana" and "Eupatorium" (as both male and female "D. iulia" butterflies do) – also use pollen from flowers to gain nutrients needed for egg production.
Hostplant coevolutionary strategies.
"Passiflora vines" and "D. iulia" (among other "Heliconian" butterflies) have shown strong evidence of coevolution, as the butterflies attempt to gain better survival for their laid eggs and the plants attempt to stop their destruction from larval feeding. Many members of the genus "Passiflora" have evolved to produce very tough, thick leaves that are hard to break down by the caterpillars. Some "Passiflora" vines have gone further by producing small leaves that look like a perfect place for the butterflies to lay eggs, but break off at the stem within a few days, carrying the "D. iulia" eggs with them. Other "Passiflora" vines actually mimic eggs of the butterfly species that use it as a hostplant, so that a passing butterfly thinks the plant already has eggs on it and consequently does not oviposit. The butterflies have thus evolved to be more discerning in their egg placement, and better able to detect strategies used by their host plant, the "Passiflora"
Mud-puddling behavior.
Mud-puddling is a peculiar social behavior engaged in by a number of butterfly species, including "D. iulia". It involves male butterflies crowding around damp ground in order to drink dissolved minerals through a process of water filtration. During copulation, the male butterfly uses minerals in his spermatophore, which must be replenished before the following mating. When a male finds a suitable spot for the behavior, other males can quickly join and hundreds of butterflies may become attracted to the site. Multiple species may join the group, but the butterflies do not evenly distribute between species. Instead, "D. iulia" and others usually remain near members of their own species.
Protective coloration.
"D. iulia" butterflies are part of the “orange” Mullerian mimicry complex, one of the similar "Heliconian" species that employ this protective tactic. "Passifloracae", the primary food source of "D. iulia" caterpillars, contains trace amounts of cyanide. This has led to the development of cyanogenic glycosides that make the butterfly unpalatable to its predators, which come from a mixture of storage from their hostplant and larval synthesis. The mimicry in "D. iulia" involves other butterfly species having evolved to look similar to the Julia butterfly in order to convey their presumed unpalatability.
Life history.
Egg.
Julia butterfly eggs tend to be a light yellow color when laid, which turns to a darker orange or brown shade before hatching. Each of the butterfly's eggs are separately laid onto new leaf tendrils of its host plant, usually the passionflower vine.
The egg of the butterfly measures about 1.2 mm in height and 1.0 mm in diameter. They have approximately 20 vertical ridges and 13 horizontal ridges.
Larva.
"D. iulia" caterpillars eat slots into the leaves of their hostplant once they emerge from their egg. However, they do not have nests in their hostplants. They instead use the remaining part of the leaf as a protected area to rest on.
The caterpillars of the Julia butterfly have pink, gray, and black coloration throughout their body with maroon and cream patches. Long, branched, black spines also cover their entire body. A cream-colored, inverted Y-shaped mark can be seen on the front of the caterpillar's head.
Larvae emit noxious chemicals in their larval stage because of the trace cyanide in their hostplant. This makes the larvae unpalatable to certain bird species, especially tanagers.
Pupa.
"D. iulia" have five larval stages, and at the fifth the larva becomes a pupa. The pupa of the Julia butterfly is grayish white in color, and somewhat resembles a dead leaf.
Adult.
After emerging from their chrysalis, the male Julia butterfly spends the majority of its time looking for mates. At night, the butterfly roosts close to the ground, either in a small group or alone. "D. iulia"’s adult lifespan lasts for less than a month.
Reproduction.
Courtship behavior.
Courtship behavior in "D. iulia" involves a very specific sequence of steps that can be categorized into three sequential phases: an aerial phase, an air-ground phase, and a ground phase. The observed courtship steps are outlined in detail below:
First, the male "D. iulia" approaches the female from behind. Then, the female takes flight, with the male flying in front of and above the female. This position is taken by the male so that the female can smell the male's scent scales and become sexually stimulated. Next, the female attempts to fly higher than the male, which can be seen as an anti-copulatory behavior, before landing. After that, the male "D. iulia" continues to beat his wings above and in front of the female, while both face the same direction. The female butterfly then opens and vibrates her hind wings and front wings. Her hind wings are fully opened while her forewings are only partially so. At the same time, the female emits scent glands from her raised abdomen. The male then beats his wings behind and then in front of the female once again. If the female is satisfied by the courtship, she lowers her abdomen and shuts her wings in preparation for mating.
Mating behavior.
Mating can occur within two weeks of the Julia butterfly's exit from the chrysalis. As adults, male "D. iulia" spend the majority of their time searching for females to mate with. Females of this butterfly species can mate four times in their lifetime, which is unusual for female "Heliconius" butterflies who generally mate just once.
Many mating behaviors in "D. iulia" are sex-specific, and can include receptive and non-receptive behaviors by the females of the species. Some female behaviors regarded as showing non-receptiveness include abdomen raising and overflight, in which the female attempts to fly higher than the male during the aerial phase of courtship. On the other hand, a female behavior such as shutting her wings has been found to be a key receptive behavior. For males, persistence did not seem to be a key driver of success, as behaviors performed by persistent males such as hovering over the female did not often lead to copulation.
The inability of persistent males – meaning, those that carried on extended courtship behavior – to increase copulation has led to researchers theorizing female copulation acceptance as the primary determinant of successful copulation in "D. iulia". For example, the only male behavioral acts found to be indicative of successful copulation occurred in response to signals of female receptiveness.
Evolutionary basis of sexual selection and conflict.
Julia butterfly copulation is always terminated by the males after the ground phase. The female remains at the mating site as the male flies away. This raises the idea of an evolutionary basis for this behavior based on a conflict of interests between males and females of the species. This conflict arises because of a difference in reproductive interests between the male and the female that has its beginnings in anisogamy. Sexual selection studies favor forms of sexual conflict such as this one to be one of the major sources of speciation in certain insects.
The methods of mate selection (by which a female accepts or denies a male suitor) are not completely understood. Some studies have reported the sexual dimorphism (of color and body size) of the butterfly as a key factor that may suggest an evolutionary basis towards understanding sexual selection. "D. iulia" male butterflies have been seen to chase females of butterfly species with similar visual cues, which has led researchers to believe that these visual recognition strategies form the basis of sexual partner selection in this species. However, more research is needed to identify how different aspects of "D. iulia"’s physical features factor into mate selection.
Interaction with humans.
When "D. iulia" are caterpillars, they can cause a skin rash on humans if touched. This is likely from the yellow liquid that is produced from the tips of the long, black spines that cover its body, which is emitted as a predator deterrent related to their cyanogenic glycosides
Introduced invasiveness.
"D. iulia" are commonly admired for their coloration. As a diurnal species of butterfly that is quite active during the day, Julia butterfly are often found in butterfly houses. One butterfly house in Phuket, Thailand, obtained Julia butterflies from an exporter butterfly farm in Costa Rica and released them during Buddhist ceremonies and weddings. The released butterflies have now colonized areas of Thailand and Malaysia and established a wild population. "D. iulia" are now too widespread in the region to eradicate.
Subspecies.
Listed alphabetically:


Slender squirrel

The slender squirrel ("Sundasciurus tenuis") is a species of rodent in the family Sciuridae. It is arboreal and found in Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand. The body is brown on the upper parts and light grey on the underparts. The body measures about 13–16 cm, with a slightly shorter slender tail. It feeds on soft bark, fruits and insects.


White-black tree frog

The white-black tree frog ("Boana albonigra") is a species of frog in the family Hylidae endemic to Bolivia. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, subtropical or tropical high-altitude shrubland, subtropical or tropical high-altitude grassland, and rivers. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Beijing barbastelle

The Beijing barbastelle ("Barbastella beijingensis"), also known as the Beijing wide-eared bat, is a species of vesper bat endemic to Beijing Municipality, China. The species was discovered by Chinese zoology students in 2001 in caves of Fangshan District in southwestern Beijing and was identified as a distinct species by zoologists Zhang Shuyi, Gareth Jones, Zhang Jingshuo and Han Naijian in 2007.
Description.
The Beijing barbastelle is a relatively large member of the genus "Barbastella" with forearm length of 41.1-46.4 mm and body mass of 10.5-13.9 g. It has dark black dorsal fur with brown-gray tips and lighter ventral fur. The shape of its ear and the frequency of its echolocation calls are distinct from those of its closest relatives, the Asian barbastelle and western barbastelle.
Range and habitat.
The Beijing barbastelle has only been found in caves and one abandoned tunnel in Fangshan District, near Yunxiaoling, in a mountainous region with riparian woodland.
Conservation.
The Beijing barbastelle is believed to be rare but as of 2007, there has not been an assessment of the species in the Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN).