Teleocrater

Teleocrater (meaning "completed basin", in reference to its closed acetabulum) is a genus of avemetatarsalian archosaur from the Middle Triassic Manda Formation of Tanzania. The name was coined by English paleontologist Alan Charig in his 1956 doctoral dissertation, but was only formally published in 2017 by Sterling Nesbitt and colleagues. The genus contains the type and only species T. rhadinus. Uncertainty over the affinities of "Teleocrater" have persisted since Charig's initial publication; they were not resolved until Nesbitt "et al." performed a phylogenetic analysis. They found that "Teleocrater" is most closely related to the similarly enigmatic "Yarasuchus", "Dongusuchus", and "Spondylosoma" in a group that was named the Aphanosauria. Aphanosauria was found to be the sister group of the Ornithodira, the group containing dinosaurs and pterosaurs.
A carnivorous quadruped measuring long, "Teleocrater" is notable for its unusually long neck vertebrae. The neural canals in its neck vertebrae gradually become taller towards the back of the neck, which may be a distinguishing trait. Unlike the Lagerpetidae or Ornithodira, the hindlimbs of "Teleocrater" are not adapted for running; the metatarsal bones are not particularly elongated. Also unlike lagerpetids and ornithodirans, "Teleocrater" inherited the more flexible ankle configuration present ancestrally among archosaurs, suggesting that the same configuration was also ancestral to Avemetatarsalia but was lost independently by several lineages. Histology of the long bones of "Teleocrater" indicates that it had moderately fast growth rates, closer to ornithodirans than crocodilians and other pseudosuchians.
Description.
In life, "Teleocrater" would have been a long-necked and carnivorous quadruped that measured some in length.
Skull.
Carnivory can be inferred for "Teleocrater" from the single tooth that was preserved, which is compressed, recurved, and bears serrations on both edges. Like other members of the Archosauria, the recess in the maxilla in front of the antorbital fenestra (the antorbital fossa) extends onto the backward-projecting process of the bone, and the palatal projection of the two maxillae contacted each other. Additionally, like early dinosaurs, there is a depression on the frontal bone in front of the supratemporal fenestra (the supratemporal fossa).
Axial skeleton.
The cervical vertebrae of "Teleocrater" from the front half of the neck are quite long, up to 3.5 times as long as they are high; they are among the longest of Triassic avemetatarsalians. Proportionally, they are longer than either the rest of the cervical vertebrae or any of the vertebrae from the front of the trunk. On the cervical vertebrae, the tops of the neural spines are blade-like, but are accompanied by rounded and roughened projections; the front portions of the neural spines strongly overhang the preceding vertebrae; and the cervical vertebrae from the back of the neck have an additional projection above the parapophysis, previously identified by Nesbitt as part of a "divided parapophysis". These are shared characteristics of the Aphanosauria. In contrast to most other archosauriforms, the openings of the cervical neural canals in "Teleocrater" are large, subelliptical, and transition from being wider than they are tall at the front of the neck to being taller than they are wide at the back of the neck; this may be unique to the genus. The epipophyses from the front and middle cervical vertebrae project backwards, and, as in "Yarasuchus" and some pseudosuchians, the back cervical vertebrae appear to have supported three-headed ribs.
On the dorsal vertebrae, the accessory articulations known as the hyposphene-hypantrum articulations are well-developed. Like other aphanosaurians, there are pits located on the side of the base of the dorsal vertebrae. Two vertebrae are associated with the sacrum in "Teleocrater"; there are three such vertebrae in "Nyasasaurus". The ribs associated with the latter sacral vertebra bear processes that project backward and outward, which is only otherwise seen in "Yarasuchus", "Spondylosoma", and members of the dinosauriforms. There were no bony osteoderms preserved in association with the specimen, which indicates that "Teleocrater" probably lacked osteoderms, unlike pseudosuchians.
Appendicular skeleton.
Like other archosaurs as well as the proterosuchids, "Teleocrater" has a distinct acromion process on the scapula, and like silesaurids there is a thin ridge on the back of the bone. The socket of the scapula is oriented downwards and backwards, more so than that of "Yarasuchus". On the humerus, there is a long deltopectoral crest that stretches for about 30% of the bone's length, as with other aphanosaurians; such a long crest is also seen in "Nyasasaurus" and dinosaurs, but not pterosaurs or silesaurids. Another aphanosaurian characteristic is the wide bottom end of the humerus, which is about 30% of the bone's length. The hand was apparently quite small.
"Teleocrater" is named after its mostly-closed acetabulum, or hip socket (the eponymous "basin"). There is a small and concave notch on the bottom edge of the part of the ilium that extends to meet the ischium, which suggests a small perforation within the acetabulum. This is not a unique characteristic; "Asilisaurus" and "Silesaurus" both also possess it. The inner surface of the ilium in front of the acetabulum curves inwards, forming a pocket. Like both "Asilisaurus" and "Marasuchus", the front portion of the ilium is separated from the rest of the bone by a ridge that rises vertically from the top rim of the acetabulum. As in other aphanosaurians, the ischia contact each other extensively along the midline, but less so near the tops of the bones; the bottom back portion of each ischium is rounded, and the top of the shaft of each ischium bears a longitudinal groove.
Hindlimb.
In terms of hindlimb proportions, "Teleocrater" is more similar to silesaurids, pseudosuchians, and early archosaurs than lagerpetids or ornithodirans, in that the metatarsus is not particularly lengthened with respect to the femur and tibia. The lengthening of the metatarsus in the latter groups probably represent adaptations to running.
The femur of "Teleocrater" shows a combination of diverse characteristics. Like other aphanosaurians, the top end of the femur bears a transverse groove, and also bears a scar for the attachment of the "iliofemoralis externus" muscle that is connected to the intermuscular line; the same condition is seen with the anterior trochanter in dinosaurmorphs, yet the scar is clearly separated from that of the "iliotrochantericus caudalis" as it is in "Dongusuchus", "Yarasuchus", and early archosaurs. An additional aphanosaurian trait is that the bottom articulating surface of the femur is concave. On this articulating surface, the back of the medial condyle bears a vertical scar, also seen in dinosauromorphs. The femur is overall quite similar to that of "Dongusuchus"; however, in "Teleocrater", the sides of the top end are more rounded and the inner surface is concave, the posteromedial tuber on the top end is convex instead of flat, and the length relative to midshaft width is shorter.
Unlike either proterochampsids or dinosauromorphs, the tibia of "Teleocrater" does not bear a cnemial crest. The fibula bears a long, twisted crest for the attachment of the "iliofibularis", and the front edge of the top of the bone is expanded outwards. Additional features shared by aphanosaurians, silesaurids (namely "Asilisaurus" and "Lewisuchus"), and pseudosuchians occur in the calcaneum. It has a convex-concave joint with the astragalus that allows for free movement, a tuber on its surface that is tall, broad, and directed backwards, and its articulation with the fibula is distinctly rounded. Meanwhile, lagerpetids and pterosaurs both lack the tuber (lagerpetids also lack the rounded fibular articulation), and dinosaurs lack the convex-concave joint.
Discovery and naming.
The holotype specimen of "Teleocrater", NHMUK PV R6795, was found by Francis Rex Parrington in 1933. It consists of a partial, disarticulated skeleton that includes four vertebrae from the neck, seven from the trunk, and seventeen from the tail; parts of one neck and one trunk rib; part of a scapula and coracoid; the radius and ulna from the right forelimb; part of the left ilium; both femora and tibiae, as well as the left fibula; and isolated fragments from metatarsals and phalanges. Parts of the trunk vertebrae and humerus, likely originating from another individual, were referred to the same animal under the specimen number NHMUK PV R6796. Although the exact locality is unknown, Parrington recorded the specimen as originating from near the village of Mkongoleko, "south of river Mkongoleko", in the Ruhuhu Basin of southern Tanzania. These specimens were stored at the Natural History Museum, London.
Alan J. Charig described the remains of "Teleocrater" in his 1956 PhD thesis for the University of Cambridge. He was the first to apply the name "Teleocrater", derived from Greek "teleos" ("finished", "complete") and "krater" ("bowl", "basin"), in reference to the closed acetabulum of the animal. His initial thesis listed "tanyura" as the specific name of "Teleocrater"; later, in a 1967 overview of reptiles, he revised it to "rhadinus", from Greek "rhadinos" ("slender", in reference to the bodyplan of the animal). However, given that it was never formally published, it remained an invalid "nomen nudum".
In 2015, a bonebed designated as Z183 was discovered within of the approximate location described by Parrington. This bonebed contained at least three individuals of different sizes, represented by 27 bones, all of which were mixed in with the remains of an allokotosaurian; new elements not known previously included the maxilla, quadrate, braincase, axis, sacral vertebrae, humeri, ischia, and calcaneum. They were stored at the National Museum of Tanzania. It is quite possible, given the proximity, that this bonebed represents the same site that the original specimens were recovered from. In 2017, these remains, along with the holotype, were described by a study published in "Nature", co-authored by Sterling Nesbitt and others. They formally named the genus "Teleocrater", and the type and only species "T. rhadinus". The late Charig was honoured as a co-author on this study.
Bonebed Z183 belongs to the lower portion of the Lifua Member of the Manda Formation. The bonebed is located in a gully, and is surrounded by pinkish-grey cross-bedded sandstone containing well-rounded quartz pebbles. The sandstone is overlain near the top by reddish-brown and olive-grey siltstone in a digit-like pattern characteristic of point bars; most of the vertebrate remains are concentrated within a section of this overlap. Discontinuous veins, or stringers, of brown claystone are also present. This layer has been biostratigraphically correlated to Subzone B of the South African "Cynognathus" Assemblage Zone, which is situated in the Anisian epoch of the Triassic period. This makes "Teleocrater" the oldest known bird-line archosaur, preceding the previous record-holder "Asilisaurus".
Classification.
Prior to the formalization of the definitions of these groups by Jacques Gauthier in 1986, "Teleocrater" was variously considered as a rauisuchian, an ornithosuchian (Ornithosuchia being in fact synonymous with Avemetatarsalia), or a thecodont. The position of "Teleocrater" remained enigmatic due to the absence of additional remains and the lack of a phylogenetic analysis incorporating the taxon. A 2008 histological study of early archosauriforms by Armand de Ricqlès and colleagues tentatively identified "Teleocrater" as an archosauriform of uncertain phylogenetic placement, but possibly closely related to Eucrocopoda.
Nesbitt "et al." utilized two phylogenetic datasets to analyze the affinities of "Teleocrater": one published by Nesbitt himself in 2011, and another published by Martín D. Ezcurra in 2016. In addition to "Teleocrater", the similarly problematic "Yonghesuchus", "Dongusuchus", "Spondylosoma", and "Scleromochlus" were also added to the dataset in order to test their relationships. Analyses based on both datasets consistently recovered a monophyletic group containing "Teleocrater", "Yarasuchus", "Dongusuchus", and "Spondylosoma", with "Spondylosoma" forming the sister group to a polytomy containing the other three. This group is differentiated from other archosauriforms by fifteen shared characters, one of them an unambiguous synapomorphy (the overhang of the cervical neural spines). Nesbitt "et al." named this group the Aphanosauria, defined as the most inclusive clade containing "Teleocrater rhadinus" and "Yarasuchus deccanensis" but not "Passer domesticus" or "Crocodylus niloticus". The results of the analyses are reproduced below, based primarily on the Ezcurra dataset but incorporating the avemetatarsalian topology of the Nesbitt dataset.
The inclusion of "Scleromochlus" altered the topology obtained to varying extents, although both analyses recovered it as an avemetatarsalian. In the Nesbitt dataset, "Scleromochlus" collapsed Avemetatarsalia into a polytomy containing itself, "Spondylosoma", the other aphanosaurians, pterosaurs, lagerpetids, and dinosauriforms. Meanwhile, in the Ezcurra dataset, "Scleromochlus" formed a polytomy with lagerpetids and dinosauriforms. Nesbitt "et al." emphasized that characteristics of pelvic and leg anatomy could not be assessed for "Scleromochlus" due to conflicting descriptions and poor quality of skeletal casts; these characteristics play a substantial role in the topology of basal avemetatarsalians.
Traditionally, the "crocodile-normal" and "advanced mesotarsal" ankle arrangements have been considered as a dichotomy among archosaurs: early archosaurs and pseudosuchians possess the more mobile "crocodile-normal" configuration, while pterosaurs and dinosauromorphs (including birds) possess the stiffer "advanced mesotarsal" configuration. The presence of the "crocodile-normal" ankle in "Teleocrater" (convex joint with the astragalus, presence of a tuber, and the convexity of the fibular facet on the calcaneum) indicates that this configuration was probably plesiomorphic for archosaurs, including avemetatarsalians, supported by reconstructions of character state evolution using the two datasets. At the same time, features associated with the "advanced mesotarsal" ankle (lack of a tuber and the concavity of the fibular facet on the calcaneum) were reconstructed as having appeared at least two different times among ornithodirans, with basal dinosaurs also possessing a mixture of "crocodile-normal" and "advanced mesotarsal" characteristics. This demonstrates that the evolution of ankle morphology in avemetatarsalians is more complex than previously thought, and led Nesbitt "et al." to conclude that the strict "crocodile-normal"/"advanced mesotarsal" dichotomy is reductionist.
Paleobiology.
Histology and growth.
Nesbitt "et al." examined cross-sections from the fibula of "Teleocrater". The cortical bone was thin, measuring about thick. Primary woven-fibered bone with no signs of remodeling comprises the entirety of the cortex, and the vascular canals are all longitudinal primary osteons, arranged in some parts as concentric bands within the cortex; parallel-fibered bone and radial osteons are present locally. Disorganized osteocytes were abundant in the cortex. The outer cortex contains lines of arrested growth, but does not contain an external fundamental system (an indicator of maturity). The humerus was similar, albeit with many of the longitudinal osteons being anastomotically linked.
Similar results were reached by Ricqlès "et al.", who analyzed a cross-section from a metatarsal. The cortex likewise consists entirely of the primary layer, with the vascular canals consisting of longitudinal osteons that are less dense in the peripheries of the cortex. The interior medullary cavity of the bone is occupied by dense spongy endosteum; the trabecula is missing. Overall, histology suggests that specimens of "Teleocrater" were rapidly growing at time of death. The dense vasularization, anastomosis in the humerus, and disorganization of osteocytes indicates a growth rate higher than more basal archosaurs and comparable to silesaurids, but less than that of "Nyasasaurus", pterosaurs, and dinosaurs.
Paleoecology.
In Bonebed Z183, from where the newer specimens of "Teleocrater" (and possibly the type specimen) are known, the fauna can generally divided into two types. Larger bones originate from the dicynodont "Dolichuranus sp." and the cynodont "Cynognathus sp."; they tend to be closely associated and semi-articulated, suggesting minimal transportation by water after death. Smaller bones originate from "Teleocrater rhadinus", the temnospondyl "Stanocephalosaurus" "pronus", an unnamed allokotosaurian, and another unnamed small reptile; they tend to be more fragmented, suggesting that they were worn and transported by several floods before they were finally deposited. Overall, the preservational environment is consistent with the crevasse splay of a floodplain, where the animals were killed and transported by sheetfloods before being buried by the crevasse splay complex. Elsewhere in the assemblage of the lower Lifua Member, the ctenosauriscid "Hypselorhachis mirabilis" is also present.


Treskelodden Formation

The Treskelodden Beds is a geologic formation exposed near Hornsund on the island of Spitsbergen, Svalbard in Norway. It preserves fossils dating back from the Gzhelian stage of the Carboniferous period to the Artinskian stage of the Permian period.


Serratolamna

Serratolamna is an extinct genus of mackerel sharks belonging to the family Cretoxyrhinidae.
These sharks lived from the Cretaceous period to the Eocene epoch, approximately from 99.7 to 50.3 million years ago.
Similar and related genera include "Cretodus", "Cretolamna", "Cretoxyrhina", "Dallasiella", "Paraisurus", "Plicatolamna".
Species.
Species within this genus include:
Description.
The fossils of "Serratolamna" mainly consist of teeth and scattered vertebrae. The teeth are asymmetrical with smooth crowns and multiple cusplets. The basal margin of the roots are V-shaped. Based on the size of its teeth, it appears "Serratolamna" grew no larger than 1.5 metres.
Distribution.
Fossils of species within this genus have been found in the Eocene sediments in United States and in the Cretaceous of France, Madagascar, Mexico, Morocco, Sweden and United States.


Rhacolepis

Rhacolepis is an extinct genus of ray-finned fish from the Cretaceous Santana Formation of Brazil. Complete fossilised hearts from this species have been recovered.


Itapeuasaurus

Itapeuasaurus (meaning "Itapeua lizard") is a genus of rebbachisaurid sauropod dinosaur from the Alcântara Formation from Maranhão in Brazil. The type and only species is Itapeuasaurus cajapioensis. It would have been around to when fully grown.
Discovery and naming.
In November 2014, fisherman Carlos Wagner Silva discovered a fossilised humerus on the beach at Itapeua. In May 2015, paleontologist Manuel Alfredo Medeiros and his students were sent in and they secured several bones, including limb bones and vertebrae. In 2019, the species was described.
Phylogeny.
Lindoso "et al.", (2019) placed "Itapeuasaurus" in the Nigersaurinae, as the sister taxon to "Demandasaurus".


Osmussaar earthquake

The Osmussaar earthquake occurred on 25 October 1976 near the north tip of Osmussaar, an island close to the coast of Estonia. Its hypocenter was below ground level, and it was measured at 4.5–4.7 . The earthquake was the most powerful recorded in Estonia; it caused rockfall along the north and northeastern coasts, and some houses took structural damage. The earthquake was largely felt in surrounding areas like north Estonia, south Finland and Sweden. Aftershocks also took place in November.


Cerro Morado

Cerro Morado is a monogenetic volcanic field, in Argentina. It is part of a group of mafic volcanic centres in the Altiplano-Puna region, which is dominated by silicic rocks such as dacitic - rhyolitic rocks.
The field was formed during eruptions 6.4 million years ago which probably lasted from half a year to several years. These eruptions formed scoria cones and a plateau of lava flows.
Geology and geography.
The Cerro Morado volcanic field is located in northwestern Argentina, in the Jujuy Province. The town of is located within the volcanic field. The frontier with Chile lies approximately west of the volcanic field.
The Altiplano and the adjacent southern Puna has experienced mafic volcanism during the Cenozoic. Most of this volcanism occurred in the southern segment, but the northern segment has also experienced mafic volcanism mostly associated with major volcanic centres and smaller volcanic fields such as Cerro Morado and Cerro Bitiche. Mafic lava flows however tend to constitute the minority of volcanic rocks in this region; the bulk of the volcanic rocks are dacitic-rhyolitic in composition. Present day volcanism occurs in the volcanic arc called the Central Volcanic Zone approximately farther west. The basement in the Cerro Morado area is formed by Ordovician rock formations and older lava flows of the Pairique volcanic complex and the Patahuasi flows. Volcanism in the area has been influenced by faults.
The field covers a surface area of , alternatively stated as . Eight scoria cones form the volcanic field, but there may be more. With exceptions erosion has buried their bases. Layered deposits containing ash, lava bombs and lapilli are found around them. These cones are frequently aligned and an average diameter of and the heights range . Other structures associated with the cones are clastogenic lava flows and eroded pyroclastic mounds, as well as dykes that cut the cones.
The volcanic field is dominated by a plateau made of lobate lava flows, typically having thicknesses of . The lava flows contain folding and flow structures. Various layers of lava flows lie on top of each other and on the basement, and pyroclastic deposits can also be found. The volcanic field has a north-south extension.
The volcano has erupted andesite and basaltic andesite. Most cones are constructed from basaltic andesite, most lava flow lithofacies are andesitic. The andesites have a dark-blue to gray colour, with variable amounts of vesicles. Minerals found in the rocks include bytownite, clinopyroxene, - oxides, labradorite, orthopyroxene and plagioclase. Olivine is more common in the basaltic andesite than the andesite. Overall, the composition is -rich calc-alkaline. Xenoliths of quartz are contained in the andesite. Some of the rocks that form the cones are hydrothermally altered.
The volcanic field was formed during the Upper Miocene. Dates of 6.7 ± 0.4 million years ago have been obtained. The field was formed by energetic effusive eruptions; lava supply rates of up to and an emplacement time of 84-18 months for the northern and 48-7 months for the southern parts of the field have been estimated. The field was probably formed by Strombolian eruptions accompanied by lava fountaining. Magma was transported along fractures and faults, resulting in the eruption of several different batches of magma without long stalling in the upper crust.


Eusarcana

Eusarcana (meaning "true flesh") is a genus of eurypterid, an extinct group of aquatic arthropods. Fossils of "Eusarcana" have been discovered in deposits ranging in age from the Early Silurian to the Early Devonian. Classified as part of the family Carcinosomatidae, the genus contains three species, "E. acrocephalus", "E. obesus" and "E. scorpionis", from the Silurian-Devonian of Scotland, the Czech Republic and the United States respectively.
"Eusarcana" is known for its odd proportions and features; the broad abdomen, thin and long tail, spined and forward-facing walking appendages and sharp and curved tail spike differentiate it from most other eurypterids, but are shared with other carcinosomatid eurypterids. The triangular carapace, oddly positioned forward-facing eyes differentiate the genus further from its closest relatives. At 80 centimetres (31.5 in) in length, "E. scorpionis" represents a moderately large species of eurypterid, and far exceeded other representatives of the genus in size, such as the 4 cm (1.5 in) long "E. obesus".
Originally described under the name "Eusarcus", this name was preoccupied by a genus of living harvestmen in the family Gonyleptidae. Following the discovery of this homonym, the genus was also wrongly recognized as synonymous with the related "Carcinosoma" and was only given replacement names for the older name decades after the error was discovered, first as "Eusarcana" in 1942 and later as Paracarcinosoma (assumed to have been named without knowledge of the earlier replacement name) in 1964.
Description.
"Eusarcana" can be differentiated from other eurypterids by the considerably narrow border between the prosoma (head) and opisthosoma (abdomen), which is particularly thin considering the subsequent broad and large ellipse-shape of the abdomen. The postabdomen (or tail) also narrows rather quickly from the preceding segments. Further features distinctive of the genus include that the carapace (segment covering the head) is clearly triangular in shape, with eyes placed on the rim of it and positioned forwards, the fact that all walking legs possess spines and that they decrease in length the further back they were placed as well as the cylindrically shaped and sharp telson (tail spike).
In comparison with many other eurypterids, "Eusarcana" was a rather large animal, with the largest species (also the type species) "E. scorpionis" reaching lengths of 80 cm (31.5 in). In comparison, the species "E. obesus" was significantly smaller, with the largest specimen only being 4 cm (1.5 in) long.
The appearance of "Eusarcana" is somewhat odd in comparison with other eurypterids, not only in its overall shape and proportions but also in that the surface of its exoskeleton is covered in small scale-like ornamentation that is circular in shape, crowded and small in size which differentiates it from other eurypterids in which such ornamentation is usually triangular. Overall, "Eusarcana" is mostly similar in appearance to other carcinosomatid eurypterids, particularly "Carcinosoma" which shares its forwardly positioned eyes, and is primarily defined by the small degree of spinosity on its second to fifth pair of appendages and its curved telson.
History of research.
Original description and subsequent discoveries.
"Eusarcana" was first described as "Eusarcus" by the American geologists August R. Grote and William Henry Pitt based on fossils recovered from the Pridoli-age Buffalo waterlime of New York State. This name derives from the Ancient Greek εὖ, ("eu-") meaning "true", and σάρξ ("sarx"), meaning "flesh", meaning "true flesh". The designated type species was "E. scorpionis". Though Grote and Pitt did not provide a generic diagnosis for the genus, the species was well diagnosed with a number of distinctive characters. Furthermore, the genus of Grote and Pitt was seemingly based solely on outlines and shape, which prompted some researchers, such as the prominent English geologist Henry Woodward, to regard the genus as lacking generic characters and as such being invalid, referring "E. scorpionis" to "Eurypterus" on the grounds that several British species of "Eurypterus", notably "E. scorpiodes" and "E. punctatus" (today recognized as species of "Carcinosoma"), were similar in shape.
Unbeknownst to Grote and Pitt, "Eusarcus" had already been named as a genus of extant (currently living) laniatorid harvestmen of the family Gonyleptidae, in 1833 and as such constituted a preoccupied name. The preoccupied nature of the name was not immediately recognized, and it continued to be used for eurypterid species described in the late 19th to early 20th centuries.
In 1912, American paleontologists John Mason Clarke & Rudolf Ruedemann declared that the differences between "Eusarcus" and all related forms of eurypterids were so great that it was "entirely evident" that "Eusarcus" was distinct from other eurypterids. They referred the Scottish Wenlock-age "Eurypterus" species "E. obesus" (described by English geologist Henry Woodward in 1868) to the genus, alongside the Pridoli-Lochkovian-age Czech species "E. acrocephalus" (described by Austrian paleontologist Max Semper in 1898) on the grounds of both possessing triangular carapaces similar to "E. scorpionis" as well as an abruptly narrowing postabdomen. Furthermore, Clarke and Ruedemann concluded that "Eusarcus" was sufficiently similar to the related "Carcinosoma" to be designated as synonymous with it. As "Eusarcus" had been named earlier than "Carcinosoma", the taxonomical laws of priority dictated that "Eusarcus" would be the name of the taxon.
"E. acrocephalus" (sometimes referred to erroneously as "E. acrocephala") can be distinguished from the other two species by the strongly recurved lateral sides of its carapace, the oval mesosoma and the first segment of the metasoma being unusually wide and short for the genus. The holotype of "E. acrocephalus", UW 1906/V/2 discovered in the Požáry Formation of the Czech Republic, is composed of the carapace and a partial abdomen, portions of which were broken off during bombing runs on Prague during the Second World War, during which the National Museum of Prague was damaged.
The obesity of the opisthosomal (abdominal) segments in "E. obesus" is its most remarkable feature (and is also what lends the species its name), the fourth segment is as wide as the first eight segments combined are long. The surface of the exoskeleton of the carapace and the segments is thin and seemingly lacks ornamentation. In 2014, American paleontologist James Lamsdell suggested that "E. obesus" may represent a juvenile of the related and contemporary "Carcinosoma scorpioides". Unlike other species of "Eusarcana", "E. obesus" does not appear to possess spines on its appendages.
Recognition as preoccupied name.
It was first in 1934, 59 years after its original description, that "Eusarcus" was recognized as a name preoccupied by a harvestman. The Norwegian geologist Leif Størmer proposed that the name of the taxon should be next oldest available and valid name for the genus, "Carcinosoma". During the preparation for his paper on the issue, Størmer also discussed the situation with fellow Norwegian researcher Embrik Strand, who helped confirm that "Carcinosoma" was not preoccupied.
Strand would subsequently propose the replacement name "Eusarcana" in 1942, despite the problem having been dealt with by Størmer, who he had been in contact with eight years earlier. The reasons for proposing the name during the circumstances of the time remains unknown, but contemporary researchers critiquing Strand for his studies in systematics and an apparent desire to name as many taxa as possible may explain the situation somewhat. As it was seen as completely unnecessary at the time, Strand's "Eusarcana" was overlooked and not even mentioned in subsequent eurypterid studies. The naming of "Eusarcana" was one of many contributions to nomenclature by Strand seen as unhelpful today. His journal "Folia Zoologica et Hydrobiologica" would later re-emerge within the field to create all kinds of systematic problems that could have been avoided. Strand was also notorious for applying new species names to incomplete or poorly preserved fossils.
In 1964, American paleontologists Kenneth Edward Caster and Erik N. Kjellesvig-Waering recognized "Eusarcus" and "Carcinosoma" to be distinct genera when revising the superfamily Carcinosomatoidea, and coined the replacement name "Paracarcinosoma" to designate the species previously assigned to "Eusarcus". "E. scorpionis" was designated the type species. Caster and Kjellesvig-Waering made no mention of Embrik Strand or "Eusarcana", and they were likely not aware of the existence of the previous name. With "Eusarcana" all but forgotten, all subsequent researchers used "Paracarcinosoma" for the genus.
In 2012, American paleontologists Jason A. Dunlop and James Lamsdell noted that whilst the name "Eusarcana" had been completely unnecessary (and of questionable validity, as Strand did not designate a type species) at the time of its creation, it is the oldest available valid name for the taxon and as such should constitute its name under the rules of priority, despite "Paracarcinosoma" being more widely used. As such, "Paracarcinosoma" was designated as a junior synonym, with all three species assigned to it being transferred to "Eusarcana".
Classification.
"Eusarcana" is classified as part of the family Carcinosomatidae, one of two families within the superfamily Carcinosomatoidea (the other being the Mixopteridae), alongside the genera "Carcinosoma", "Eocarcinosoma" and "Rhinocarcinosoma". The cladogram below is adapted from a larger cladogram (simplified to only display the Carcinosomatoidea) in a 2007 study by eurypterid researcher O. Erik Tetlie, in turn based on results from various phylogenetic analyses on eurypterids conducted between 2004 and 2007.
Paleobiology.
The features of "Eusarcana" indicate that its lifestyle was completely different from many other swimming eurypterids, such as "Eurypterus". When walking, "Eusarcana" would likely have lifted the eye-bearing frontal part of its head above the ground, as indicated by the larger size of the forward walking legs and the placement of the eyes. In contrast, "Eurypterus" would have kept its head, shovel-shaped and broad, down to the ground while walking. Furthermore, the walking legs of "Eusarcana" are more powerful than those of "Eurypterus" in general. The legs decrease in strength the further back they are, indicating that there was an emphasis on lifting the front of the carapace. In "Eurypterus" the legs are the longest the further back they are, which indicates that it would have had an emphasis on keeping the head down.
The swimming legs of "Eusarcana" were powerfully developed, with paddles both longer and broader than those of "Eurypterus", which corresponds to the fact that "Eusarcana" was a broader and heavier genus of eurypterids.
Tail spike.
In the Pridoli-age Buffalo waterlime fauna where "E. scorpionis" lived, it represented one of the larger members of the ecosystem, being at least half as long as the larger predatory eurypterids of the genus "Pterygotus". With "Eusarcana" not having large and powerful pincers like the larger pterygotid eurypterids, which not only represented potential competitors but also dangerous predators, the only obvious organ it could use for defense was the pointed and sharp tail spike.
The narrowed tail is so long and extended that it exceeds the principal parts of the body, the head and abdomen, in length. The fact that the tail has been preserved as curved in several fossil specimens proves that it would have been flexible in life, with the apparent curvature of the spike on its end making it a dangerous weapon. If curved forwards over the rest of the body, the spike would be positioned with its point turned upwards, effectively acting similar to a scimitar.
The similarity between the spike of "Eusarcana" and that of scorpions opens up the possibility that the tail spike might possibly have possessed poison glands. Though the state in which the specimens have been preserved does not allow determination of either the absence or presence of a poison canal or pores for transferring the venom to potential victims, the shape of "Eusarcana" suggests that it was a rather slow and inactive animal that was not very agile, possibly adapted for burrowing or ambush predation. In such a lifestyle, a venomous and agile tail spike would greatly aid in securing prey and defense in absence of other prehensile and powerful organs with long reach.
Ecology.
As a considerable majority of described eurypterid species are known from the Silurian, particularly the late Silurian, researchers have concluded that the group peaked in diversity and number during this time. Complex eurypterid faunas, compromising several different species in different ecological roles, are typical of the period. All species of "Eusarcana" described so far occur together with other eurypterid species. "E. acrocephalus" is known from both the Silurian and the Devonian of the Czech Republic, with a somewhat apparent difference in other fauna depending on the time period. Devonian "E. acrocephalus" occur together with other eurypterids "Slimonia", "Pterygotus" and "Acutiramus" as well as with various trilobites (including "Crotalocephalina", "Otarion", "Warburgella", "Proetus", "Tropidocare", "Leonaspis" and "Ceratocephala"), crustaceans (including "Ceratiocaris" and "Aristozoe"), ostracods, conodonts, gastropods and crinoids. The Silurian-aged fauna of the same general area, also preserving "E. acrocephalus", were home to other eurypterids "Erettopterus", "Pterygotus" and "Acutiramus", a less diverse assemblage of trilobites ("Otarion", "Scharyia" and "Prionopeltis"), crustacean "Ceratiocaris", cephalopods (including "Cycloceras" and "Corbuloceras"), ostracods, gastropods, crinoids, conodonts and bivalves.
Silurian "E. obesus" from the United Kingdom lived in a marine environment also home to other eurypterids "Nanahughmilleria", "Pterygotus", "Slimonia", "Carcinosoma", "Parastylonurus" and "Erettopterus" as well as phyllocarid crustaceans, xiphosurans, gastropods and anaspid fish "Birkenia". In Silurian deposits of New York, "E. scorpionis" occurs together with a diverse fauna of eurypterids composed of "Buffalopterus", "Dolichopterus", "Erettopterus", "Eurypterus", "Pterygotus" and "Acutiramus". Also present were xiphosurans, crustaceans ("Gonatocaris"), ostracods, bivalves, gastropods and cephalopods.


Volcanism of Italy

The volcanism of Italy is due chiefly to the presence, a short distance to the south, of the boundary between the Eurasian Plate and the African Plate. Italy is a volcanically active country, containing the only active volcanoes in mainland Europe. The lava erupted by Italy's volcanoes is thought to result from the subduction and melting of one plate below another.
Three main clusters of volcanism exist: a line of volcanic centres running northwest along the central part of the Italian mainland (see: Campanian volcanic arc); a cluster northeast of Sicily in the Aeolian Islands; and a cluster southwest of Sicily around the island of Pantelleria, in the Mediterranean's Strait of Sicily.
Active volcanoes.
Three of Italy's volcanoes have erupted in the last hundred years:
Dormant volcanoes.
At least nine other volcanic centres have seen eruptions in historic times, including some submarine volcanoes (seamounts). In order of the most recent eruptions, they are:
Status.
Several volcanoes in Italy have reportedly erupted in the past, but these events are not confirmed:


Jaanikivi

Jaanikivi ('St John's stone') is a sacrificial stone in Võru County, Meremäe rural municipality in Miikse village near Miikse church by Miikse Stream in Estonia.
General information.
It is said that Saint John himself once sat on the rock, resting his feet. Even today some people believe that the stone has miraculous powers and sick persons are brought to the stone and a sore hand or foot pressed against its surface. The spring water from the Miikse Stream flowing near St. John's Stone (the so-called eye spring) is also believed to have a healing effect. St John’s stone is registered as an archaeological monument. During the time of Baltic-German landlords, the local landlord dismantled the rock into pieces and took the pieces in the cow-shelter wall. This kind of conduct, however, brought ruin and illnesses among the manor herd, so the landlord had the pieces of the rock taken back to its place.
Lore.
Information in Eisen folklore poetry collection dating back to 1915:
In Vastseliina parish, near Meeksi village (a Seto village near Pihkva border) by a small stream, that separates Liivi province from Pihkva province, there is a stone, where Seto people still bring sacrifices. The stone stands in Liivi province. It is called St John’s Stone. People say: St John used to sleep on the stone. Every St John’s Day, a Russian priest comes to the stone and Seto people from every corner of Setumaa come to the stone and bring sacrifice to St John. The sacrifices are mostly butter and eggs. If Servitude of God be ended, the priest takes half the sacrifice and the other half is for the poor. When Servitude of God is held, the river is said to have holy water in it and if the ill wash themselves in the water, the illness disappears. At one time, when a cow-shelter was made in Meeksi village, a piece was taken from St John’s stone and laid in the wall, so that cows would not die. When the shelter was finished, every year two-three cows still died. Then the piece of St John’s stone was taken from the wall and there were no deaths among the animals anymore. (E 49367 (1) < Vastseliina region — R. Tamm (1915))
According to the lore originating from 1953, cottage cheese and wool made exactly for this purpose were taken to the St John’s stone:
A week before St John’s Day, St John’s milk was taken: the milk was skimmed and cottage cheese was made. It was taken to Meeksi and placed on the St John’s stone. Wool was also placed on the stone. Whatever was taken on the stone, the poor got for their own after. Those, who had something wrong with them, drove to Meeksi St John’s stone on St John’s Day. Who had something wrong with their eyes, wiped their eyes with a towel and put the towel on the stone. A spring is near the stone, water was taken from there to moisten (hämmäma) the eyes. (RKM II 44, 481/2 (11) < Vastseliina region, Obinitsa < Setumaa, Navike village — U. Mägi < Anna Kuusik, about 70 y (1953).


Salmonier Cove Formation

The Salmonier Cove Formation is a formation cropping out in Newfoundland.


Atapalluni

Atapalluni (Aymara "itapallu, atapallu" nettle, "-ni" a suffix to indicate ownership, "the one with the nettle (or nettles)", also spelled "Atapallune") is a mountain in the Andes of southern Peru, about high. It is situated in the Puno Region, El Collao Province, Santa Rosa District, and in the Chucuito Province, Pisacoma District.


Boxhole crater

Boxhole is a young impact crater located approximately 180 km (265 km by road) north-east of Alice Springs in the Northern Territory, Australia. It is 170 metres in diameter and its age is estimated to be 5,400 ± 1,500 years based on the cosmogenic 14C terrestrial age of the meteorite, placing it in the Holocene. The crater is exposed to the surface.
Description.
In 1937 Joe Webb, a shearer at Boxhole sheep station, took geologist Cecil Madigan to examine the crater. Madigan discovered nickel-bearing metallic fragments and iron shale-balls similar to those found at Henbury to the south of Alice Springs. It was the second impact crater to be described in Australia, after Henbury.
A later search found additional meteoritic metal including an iron mass of 181 pounds (82 kg) , now in the Natural History Museum, London.


Neosqualodon

Neosqualodon is an extinct genus of toothed cetacean, that lived in the modern Italy in the Middle Miocene (Langhian). Their fossils - mostly teeth and jaws - have been recovered in the Ragusa Formation of Sicily, that are more robust and shorter than in the related genus "Squalodon". Two species are known: "N. assenzae" and "N. gemellaroi", that are distinguished by the shape of the teeth. Apparently this genus was endemic of the pre-Mediterranean sea of the Late Oligocene.


Sydney Basin

The Sydney Basin is an interim Australian bioregion and is both a structural entity and a depositional area, now preserved on the east coast of New South Wales, Australia and with some of its eastern side now subsided beneath the Tasman Sea. The basin is named for the city of Sydney, on which it is centred.
Around thick, the Sydney Basin consists of Permian and Triassic sedimentary rocks, which stretches from Newcastle in the north to Batemans Bay in the south, and west to the Great Dividing Range. The basin is also home to the major centres of Newcastle and Wollongong, and contains economically significant reserves of coal.
Sydney's famous harbour and the sculptured cliffs of the Blue Mountains are signature formations of relatively hard upper strata of sandstone. The basin contains the UNESCO World Heritage-listed Greater Blue Mountains Area.
Geography.
According to NSW Primary Industries, the basin extends through approximately of coastline from Newcastle in the north to Durras Lake (near Batemans Bay) in the south. From Durras Lake the western boundary continues in a line through Lithgow to around Ulan (near Mudgee). To the north the boundary extends along the Liverpool Range to a point north of Muswellbrook, and then runs back to the coast at Newcastle. To the east the basin continues to the edge of the continental shelf.
The total area of the basin is approximately onshore plus offshore. The centre of the basin is located around west of the Sydney central business district at Fairfield, though only the youngest Triassic (middle Triassic) rocks are exposed in the Sydney area.
The Australian Government Department of the Environment and Energy classifies the basin as an interim Australian bioregion consisting of . Meanwhile, according to Geoscience Australia the basin covers , of which is onshore and is offshore with water depths of up to . Another Australian Government agency classifies that the basin covers approximately .
History and formation.
Minor igneous activity took place in the basin during the Early Jurassic (i.e. 210 million years ago), Late Mesozoic (i.e. 100-90 million years ago) and Cenozoic eras (i.e. 65 million years ago). The Early Jurassic activity resulted in the formation of the Prospect dolerite intrusion in Prospect Hill. Although Jurassic sedimentation is not observed in the Sydney Basin, there are Jurassic volcanic breccia pipes (diatremes).
The Sydney Basin is part of a major basin system that extends over from the Bowen Basin in Queensland through to the Basin in NSW. Onshore, the basin contains of Permo-Triassic clastic sediments, while the offshore basin contains of sediments. The basin overlies the Lachlan Fold Belt and Late Carboniferous volcanoclastic sediments. The basin formed during extension in the Early Permian, with half-graben infilled with the Dalwood and Talaterang Groups. Foreland loading followed with the compression of the Currarong Orogen in the Early Permian.
Late Permian uplift associated with the New England foreland loading phase resulted in the formation of depocentres with the northeast Sydney Basin with best preserved marine fossils. These depocentres filled with pyroclastic and alluvial-paludual sediments of the Newcastle Coal Measures. In the Triassic, uplift of the offshore basin resulted in reworking of Permian sediments in fluvial environments. The basin underwent a final phase of deformation (thrusting) in the Middle Triassic where it was uplifted to become dry land, with an erosion occurring from this time to the present.
Extension and breakup in the Tasman Sea beginning in the Late Cretaceous resulted in the current structural boundaries of the basin's eastern margin. In the south and west the Basin finishes in cliff lines formed on sandstones and conglomerates of the primary Permian sediments, with waterfalls being widespread on all escarpments.
Hydrology.
The hydrology of the basin comprises three main drainage basins as defined by the New South Wales Office of Water that lie entirely or mainly within the geography of the basin; namely the Central Coast catchment, the Hawkesbury-Nepean catchment, and the Sydney Metropolitan catchment.
In addition, some of the rivers of the Hunter-Central Rivers catchment and the Southern Rivers catchment also lie mainly in the basin. In the Hunter-Central Rivers catchment, the Hunter River sub-catchment forms the northern boundary of the basin. In the Southern Rivers catchment, the Illawarra sub-catchment and the Shoalhaven sub-catchment forms the southern boundary.
References.
Attribution.
 (accessed on 25 March 2018).


Paramphisile

Paramphisile is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived from the early to middle Eocene.


Oguta

Oguta is a town on the east bank of Oguta Lake in Imo State of southeastern Nigeria.
Oguta is called "Oguta-Ameshi" or "Ameshi"- by its aborigines, indigenes - consists of two parts, the old part which holds the 27 villages of Oguta, and the new part, called the "Oguta New Layout".
Oguta New Layout, as a rule, in strict compliance with its original master plan. Oguta Town by location is embedded between Oguta Lake on the eastern side, and Obana River that joined Okposha River, on the western side, leaving only the Egwe Gateway as the only dry land route into Oguta without passing through water or a bridge.
Oguta is a tourist destination, makes most people including natives to have the preponderance to describe Oguta Town more often - as being located on the east bank of Oguta Lake. Oguta's high-yield oil and gas fields make Oguta an important territory and geographic area when economically vital, oil-producing territories of Imo State or Nigeria which hosting many multinational oil companies like AGIP, Shell, Chevron. Some times Oguta is used as a synonym for Oguta Local Government Area, Oguta LGA, which has Oguta as its headquarters. Oguta LGA is one of the twenty seven local government areas that make up the Imo State.
In turn, Imo State is one of the five states that make up The South-East geopolitical region, which is one of the six geopolitical regions that make up The Federal Republic of Nigeria. With its Oguide Lake and Urashi River bestowing her peculiar advantages, Oguta was one of the chosen endowed territories that the British through the instrumentality of the Royal Niger Company, UAC, and then the British Colonial Government used and exploited diversely.
Due to its strategic waterways, oil and gas, palm produce, agricultural products, natural resources, Oguta was one of the oldest trade and administrative Centres in Nigeria. Connected to River Niger, Oguta waterways were used by the British and later Nigerian government forces during the Nigeria - Biafra civil war as routes through which to access and connect to the adjoining towns, villages and other settlement types nearer and further from Oguta, that were and remain principally peopled by other ethnic Igbo people the Mgbidi, Orlu, Awo-Omamma, Nkwerre, Owerri, Okigwe, Umuahia, Aba/Ngwa people, among others, who are substantial parts of the Eastern Nigerian population in the hinterland, collectively called "The Igbos".
As of 2012, that Oguta's population was estimated at 20,096. Originally, the people of Oguta (pronounced Ugwuta) belonged to the Ancient Kingdom of Benin before they started to migrate. That was around the 16th Century. The migration became inevitable following the series of wars in which the Benin Kingdom as engaged for the purpose of extending their Kingdom and wielding greater economic and political power. Furthermore, the iron handed reign of Oba Ewuare the Great and his successor, Oba Esigie, precipitated the migration, which affected many other peoples.
Location and territory.
Oguta is located in Imo State of Nigeria, and shares boundaries with Anambra, Delta and Rivers States. It lies within the Lower Niger drainage basin. Oguta is the headquarters of the Oguta local government area and is one of the four crude oil producing local governments in Imo State.
Territory.
Oguta is a socio-geographic community town with a surface area of approximately 2,025.75 square kilometers. Oguta LGA itself comprises 27 villages. The Omereife festival (new yam ) – performed between July, August – September by, Mgbele, Nkwesi, Nneukwu, Osu Obodo Eziorsu, Oguta Egbuoma and Egwe communities. Okorosha festival (new year festival) – performed August and September by, Agwa, Awa, Awo-Omamma, Izombe, Akabo and Ejemekuru lake.


Trindade hotspot

The Trindade hotspot is a working hypothesis supposing that the submarine volcanic chain Vitória-Trindade, off the eastern coast of Brazil in the southern Atlantic Ocean, is a volcanic hotspot chain. It was considered that the supposed hot-spot should be responsible for the creation of the east-west trending Vitória-Trindade seamount chain, which includes the Trindade and Martim Vaz archipelago at its easternmost end. Trindade, a small island in the archipelago, is the hotspot's most recent eruptive center.
This ideas was based on the geochemical data, especially of the highly silica-undersaturated alkaline ultramafic rocks of the Trindade Island and Martim Vaz Island. The isotopic data is OIB-type, which is favourable to the hot-spot hypothesis. However, the volcanic chain direction is E-W and the absolute motion vector of the South America Plate is NW. Therefore, the volcanic chain cannot be a hot-spot chain. Recent research papers, such as and , proposed that the hot mantle penetrated horizontally along the Vitória-Trindade fracture zone which is present in the lithospheric mantle. Because of the same reason, the Fernando de Noronha Volcanic chain also is not a hot-spot chain. On the other hand, the NW-SE magmatic alignments, such as the Cruzeiro do Sul Chain, Bahia Chain, and Macau-Queimado, are considered to be hot-spot chains.


Moschops

Moschops (Greek for "calf face") is an extinct genus of therapsids that lived in the Guadalupian epoch, around 265–260 million years ago. They were heavily built plant eaters, and they may have lived partly in water, as hippopotamuses do. They had short, thick heads and might have competed by head-butting each other. Their elbow joints allowed them to walk with a more mammal-like gait rather than crawling. Their remains were found in the Karoo region of South Africa, belonging to the "Tapinocephalus" Assemblage Zone. Therapsids, such as "Moschops", are synapsids, the dominant land animals in the Permian period, which ended 252 million years ago.
Description.
"Moschops" were heavy set dinocephalian synapsids, that were roughly in length. They had small heads with broad orbits and heavily-built short necks. Like other members of Tapinocephalidae, the skull had a tiny opening for the pineal organ. The occiput was broad and deep, but the skull was more narrow in the dorsal border. Furthermore, the pterygoid arches and the angular region of the jaw with heavily-bult jaw muscles. Due to that and the possession of long-crowned, stout teeth, it is believed that "Moschops" was a herbivore feeding on nutrient-poor and tough vegetation, like cycad stems. Due to the presumably nutrient-poor food, it is likely they had to feed for long periods of time. The anatomy of the taxa allowed them to open the elbow joints more widely, enabling them to move in a more mammal-like posture than some other animals at the time. This helped to carry their massive bodies more easily while feeding, as well as allowing them short bursts of speed. It has also been proposed that "Moschops" were possibly sub-aquatic. "Moschops" had rather thick skulls, prompting speculation that individuals could have competed with one another by head-butting. A 2017 published study would later confirm this by synchrotron scanning a "Moschops capensis" skull, which revealed numerous anatomical adaptations to the central nervous system for combative behaviour. They were likely preyed upon by titanosuchids and larger therocephalian species.
Earliest finds.
"Moschops" material was discovered for the first time by Robert Broom in the Ecca Group (part of the Karoo Supergroup) in South Africa. The geological horizon dubious, it was referred to that group on the basis of "Pareiasaurus" remains in near proximity. The material includes a holotype (AMNH 5550) and seven topotypes (AMNH 5551-5557). The degree of pachyostosis varies within the skulls of the specimens. According to Broom, it is because of gender and age variation within the discovered specimens. In 1910, the material was sent to the American Museum of Natural History in New York City and it was described in 1911.
Classification.
"Moschops" is characterized by a strongly pachyostosed skull with a broad intertemporal region and greatly reduced temporal fossae. Two species are known from the fossil record, "M. capensis" and "M. koupensis". Two other species were assigned ("M. whaitsi" and "M. oweni"), but their validity is considered possibly dubious. Genera regarded as synonyms are "Moschoides", "Agnosaurus", "Moschognathus" and "Pnigalion". "Delphinognathus conocephalus" could represent juvenile "Moschops", thus possibly synonymous. "Delphinognathus" is only known from a single, moderately pachyostosed skull. It has a conical boss on the parietal surrounding the pineal foramen.


Adriaan Gilles Camper

Adriaan Gilles Camper (March 31, 1759 – February 5, 1820) was a 19th-century Dutch mathematics and physics professor at the University of Franeker who took to politics and became a statesman in his later years. He was the son of Petrus Camper is known today primarily for his paleontological work in collaboration with his father, causing several fossil holotypes to be named after him, such as the Puppigerus P. Camperi. The engravings he commissioned on the basis of his father's work were published by Barthélemy Faujas de Saint-Fond. He himself wrote several books on paleontology, including a catalog of his collection of fossils and minerals.
His daughter Frederica married one of his pupils in Franeker, the Dutch geologist J.G.S. van Breda (who later became curator of the Teylers Museum in Haarlem). Van Breda wrote a biography of father-in-law, in which he describes him as the home-schooled wunderkind who entered the University of Franeker at age 14 already learned in natural history and modern languages from his close association with his father. Three years later, in 1776, his mother died, and his father was so struck by the loss that he undertook a leave of absence from the university to travel to Paris and the young Adriaan went with him. There due to the fame of his father, they were received with open arms by the various learned societies such as the French Academy of Sciences and consorted with Louis, Antoine Portal, Jacques-René Tenon, Julien-David Le Roy, the Count Jean-Charles de Borda, the Marquis de Condorcet, and Benjamin Franklin ("the American liberator").
He became member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands in 1808.


Noronha hotspot

Noronha hotspot is a hypothesized hotspot in the Atlantic Ocean. It has been proposed as the candidate source for volcanism in the Fernando de Noronha archipelago of Brazil, as well as of other volcanoes also in Brazil and even the Bahamas and the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province.
The presence of a mantle plume is controversial owing to equivocal seismic tomography images of the mantle and the inconsistent age progression in the volcanoes, especially the Brazilian ones.
General.
The Noronha hotspot is also known as the Fernando hotspot. The hotspot is located over the South America Plate, which moves west-southwestward at a rate of , and is considered to be part of a West African superplume.
Candidate volcanoes.
Fernando de Noronha.
The Noronha hotspot is considered to be currently located beneath the Fernando de Noronha islands, and age trends in the archipelago are consistent with a hotspot pattern. Such a hotspot would presently be centered beneath the eastern part of the archipelago. Mantle derived xenoliths found at Fernando de Noronha are consistent with the hotspot theory, although their traits can be explained with non-hotspot theories as well.
Rocas Atoll and Fernando de Noronha ridge.
A series of volcanoes extend westwards away from Fernando de Noronha and may also be the consequence of hotspot volcanism. Volcanic structures in this ridge include guyots, islands and seamounts. The Rocas Atoll from Fernando de Noronha has been proposed as another product of the Noronha hotspot.
Brazilian continental.
Activity of the hotspot has been used to explain alkaline Cenozoic volcanism in Brazil, such as Pico Cabugi and the Fortaleza region. The hotspot 30 million years ago passed by northeastern Brazil, and some of the continental volcanics appear to have been erupted at the time of plume passage. This interaction may be responsible for the high geothermal gradient in the region as well. Oligocene-Eocene volcanic rocks in the offshore Potiguar basin may also be a product of a Noronha hotspot, while volcanics in the offshore Boa Vista and Cubati basins probably have a different origin. However, more recent chronological data have cast doubt on the plume origin of at least some of these volcanics.
The mantle plume that feeds the Noronha hotspot appears to combine several different types of magma judging by the isotope ratios of the erupted rocks. In addition, the plume material would have mixed with lithospheric melts to derive the rocks erupted by the continental volcanics. Distinct mantle domains have been inferred to have contributed to magma genesis for some volcanoes underneath Brazil than for Fernando de Noronha, which calls into question the origin of these volcanoes over a Noronha hotspot.
Caribbean and North America.
If the Noronha hotspot is allowed to wander in the mantle, it is possible to reconstruct a path where it runs through Louisiana, Florida and the Bahamas between 180 and 150 million years ago. In that case the Bahamas may be a subsided volcanic ridge with corals atop of it. If the hotspot did not wander, it would have passed underneath Cuba and Hispaniola instead, with Cuba above the hotspot 160-140 million years ago.
Before 170 million years ago the hotspot was beneath Texas and Louisiana leaving no traces (maybe it was not active before then). If it followed a more southerly path, it may have been involved in the formation of the Gulf of Mexico.
Alternatively, if it passed farther east it may be identical with the "Newark plume" that is considered responsible for the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province; generally speaking the position of the North America Plate is fairly uncertain before 130 million years ago. The Cape Verde hotspot may also be related to the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province. The opening of the central Atlantic Ocean may be the consequence of the activity of either hotspot.
Alternative theories.
One problem with the hotspot theory is that the geochronology of the Fernando de Noronha and mainland Brazil volcanics are not necessarily consistent with a mantle plume, much of the volcanic activity in both regions was contemporaneous for example. Further, seismic tomography has not imaged a mantle plume, although isolated seismic anomalies may reflect the existence of the hotspot. There are also geochemical problems. Several alternate theories have been proposed:


Creuse

Creuse () is a department in central France named after the river Creuse.
History.
Creuse is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790. It was created from the former province of La Marche.
The County of Marche was a medieval French county, approximately corresponding to the modern "département" of Creuse. Marche first appeared as a separate fief about the middle of the 10th century, when William III, Duke of Aquitaine, gave it to one of his vassals named Boso, who took the title of count. In the 12th century, the countship passed to the family of Lusignan. They also were sometimes counts of Angoulême and counts of Limousin. With the death of the childless Count Guy in 1308, his possessions in La Marche were seized by Philip IV of France. In 1316 the king made La Marche an "appanage" for his youngest son the Prince, afterwards Charles IV. Several years later in 1327, La Marche passed into the hands of the House of Bourbon. The family of Armagnac held it from 1435 to 1477, when it reverted to the Bourbons. In 1527 La Marche was seized by Francis I and became part of the domains of the French crown. It was divided into "Haute Marche" and "Basse Marche", the estates of the former continuing until the 17th century. From 1470 until the Revolution, the province was under the jurisdiction of the Parliament of Paris.
In 1886 , located in a remote part of Creuse, became somewhat improbably the third town in France to receive a public electricity supply. Three years later, in 1889, the construction of a primitive hydro-electric factory at on the little river at Saint-Martin-Château, away, established a more reliable electricity supply for the little town. The creation of a power line from the plant to Bourganeuf was supervised by an innovative engineer named Marcel Deprez; this was the first time that a power line over such a long distance had been constructed in France. The achievement was crowned with the region's first telephone line, installed in order to permit instant communication between the generating station and the newly illuminated town.
Geography.
Creuse is part of the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine and is surrounded by the departments of Corrèze, Haute-Vienne, Allier, Puy-de-Dôme, Cher, and Indre.
It is in the Massif Central and permeated by the Creuse and its tributaries. The river is dammed at several locations both for water supply and hydroelectricity generation. As is typical for an inland area of continental Europe, Creuse has relatively cold winters with some snowfall into April, but also hot summers. Rain falls throughout the year because of the relatively high elevation.
The topography is principally rolling hills intersected by often steep valleys. The terrestrial ecology is typically cool temperate with a species mix common in the western UK: with oak, ash, chestnut, hazel and "Prunus" species dominating the woodlands. There are no commercial vineyards. Much of the farming is beef cattle: Charolais and Limousin, and also sheep.
Demographics.
The inhabitants of the department are called "Creusois".
The population peaked at 287,075 in 1851, after which it declined gently until the First World War. During and after the war, the decline in population became much more rapid both because of the death and disruption that characterised the war years and because of the higher wages available to any workers with marketable skills in the economically more dynamic towns and cities outside Creuse. By 1921 the registered population had slumped by almost 38,000 (approximately 14%) in ten years to 228,244, and the decline continued throughout the twentieth century.
Over the last four decades of the twentieth century Creuse experienced the greatest proportional population decline of any French department, from 164,000 in 1960 to 124,000 in 1999 – a decrease of 24%.
Because of its low population density, it is considered to fall within the empty diagonal.
Politics.
The President of the General Council is Jean-Jacques Lozach of the Socialist Party.
Culture.
Language.
Until the 1980s, Occitan was the primary language of rural areas. There remain three different Occitan dialects in use in Limousin, although their use is rapidly declining. These are:
Cuisine.
The Creuse Cake is a dessert named after the region. It is made with butter and hazelnuts. There are many varieties, and they are sold throughout France.
Tourism.
As a traditionally rural and lightly populated area, with ancient and typical "art de vivre", original stone architecture, no major urban center and many heritage site such as castles, abbeys and Celtic stone monuments: the Creuse department has become a Green tourism destination since the late 1990s. Creuse enjoyed a temperate climate with mild springs and autumns, rather cold and snowy but sunny winters, and relatively warm and sunny summers, but not as hot as in the southern parts of France. Thanks to its preserved forested landscape, little pollution and wonderful stone buildings, many foreigners (notably British and Dutch, but also German and Belgian) have sought to buy holiday homes in Creuse.
The major tourist attractions are the tapestry museum in Aubusson and the many castles, notably those of Villemonteix, Boussac, and Banizette. The monastery of Moutier-d'Ahun has exceptional wood carvings from the 17th century. (). After World War 1, some towns in France set up pacifist war memorials. Instead of commemorating the glorious dead, these memorials denounce war with figures of grieving widows and children rather than soldiers. Such memorials provoked anger among veterans and the military in general. The most famous is at Gentioux-Pigerolles in the department (see picture on the left). Below the column which lists the name of the fallen, stands an orphan in bronze pointing to an inscription 'Maudite soit la guerre' (Cursed be war). Feelings ran so high that the memorial was not officially inaugurated until 1990 and soldiers at the nearby army camp were under orders to turn their heads when they walked past.
The Chapelle du Mas-Saint-Jean is in Saint-Sulpice-le-Dunois. A local legend declares that Joan of Arc prayed there in about 1430.
Guéret, Creuse is also home to a large nearby animal park named Les Loups de Chabrières containing some of France's few remaining wolves, held in semi-captivity. It includes 24 European Grey Wolves, two Canadian White Wolves and two Canadian Black Wolves in five enclosures.
Motor racing Mas du Clos It is twelve kilometers from Aubusson at the foot of the family castle of Saint-Avit-de-Tardes Pierre Bardinon creates all pieces in 1963.


Drangey

Drangey () or Drang Isle is an island in the Skagafjörður fjord in northern Iceland. It is the remnant of a 700,000‑year‑old volcano, mostly made of volcanic palagonite tuff, forming a massive rock fortress.
The island was first mentioned in the Icelandic classic "Grettis saga" as being the refuge of the outlaw Grettir, who spent his last years there with his brother Illugi and his slave Glaumur. He fled there with his two companions when enemies were seeking his life because of its high, impervious cliffs. It is described as having a flock of 80 sheep, and many birds nesting on the cliffs. In late autumn of 1031, Grettir was assassinated where he lay dying in his shed on the island. Þorbjörn Öngull and his men were the perpetrators.
An old legend says that two night-prowling giants, a man and a woman, were traversing the fjord with their cow when they were surprised by the bright rays of daybreak. As a result of exposure to daylight, all three were turned into stone. Drangey represents the cow and Kerling (supposedly the female giant, the name means "Old Hag") is to the south of it. Karl (the male giant) was to the north of the island, but he disappeared long ago.
The bird life in Drangey is varied and lively, but the most common are diving birds: the guillemot, auk and puffin. The guillemot nests in the cliffs, while the auk mostly prefers deep cracks underneath the cliffs. The puffin, on the other hand, digs holes in the edge of the cliffs. In addition to these species, the black-legged kittiwake and fulmar nest in the cliffs and the raven and falcon also have their sanctuaries there.
Drangey has for ages been a harbinger of spring for the local residents. Every spring, they visited the island to collect both eggs and birds. They used ropes to climb down the fowling cliffs for the eggs, but the birds were caught using rafts placed on the sea underneath the cliffs. These rafts were covered with bird snares made of horsehair. The bird catchers mostly found shelter in sheds on the beach on the southernmost tip of the island. From this point, they also used to go fishing in their boats. At peak seasonal periods, there were as many as 200 men engaged in fowling and the catch was in excess of 200,000 birds when the yield was best. The use of snares was discontinued in 1966.
In popular culture.
The 2011 Icelandic film "Stormland" includes Drangey.


Challwaqucha (Yauli)

Challwaqucha (Quechua "challwa" fish, "qucha" lake, "fish lake", Hispanicized spelling "Chalhuacocha") is a mountain in the Andes of Peru, about high, with a small lake of the same name. It is located in the Junín Region, Yauli Province, Morococha District, southwest of Yawarqucha and Yuraqqucha.
The mountain is named after a little lake on its western slope at .


Alice Springs Orogeny

The Alice Springs Orogeny was a major intraplate tectonic (mountain building) episode in central Australia responsible for the formation of a series of large mountain ranges. The deformation associated with the Alice Spring Orogeny caused the vertically-tilted sandstone layers of the iconic Uluru/Ayers Rock.
Duration.
The Alice Springs Orogeny was a long lived event, beginning approximately 450 million years ago and concluding about 300 million years ago, and it involved less than 100 km of distributed shortening.
Extent.
The Alice Springs orogeny was centred in an area that had previously been a marine sedimentary basin, and involved the thrusting up of the underlying metamorphic and igneous rocks of Proterozoic age.
The Alice Springs Orogeny had its beginnings in the Late Ordovician, continuing during the Silurian and Devonian, and by the Carboniferous the folding of the sedimentary deposits of the central Australian basins had produced the mountainous terrain of the MacDonnell Ranges area. Today we see only the eroded remnants of these former mountains in the MacDonnell Ranges and other ranges throughout much of central Australia.
Prior to the Alice Springs Orogeny the Amadeus, Georgina, Wiso and Ngalia sedimentary basins were adjoining. The Alice Springs Orogeny disentombed the Arunta Inlier during mainly south-directed thrusting. Sediment was eroded off the rising mountain belt to result in the deposition of thick foreland sediments which became incorporated into the remaining relics of the former sedimentary basin, becoming the Amadeus, Georgina and Ngalia basins that are preserved today.
General tectonics.
Two major crustal blocks dominate Central Australia: the Palaeoproterozoic to Mesoproterozoic Arunta Block and the Mesoproterozoic Musgrave Block. The blocks now separate the Officer, Amadeus, Ngalia and Georgina Basins.
Central Australia has experienced two intraplate orogenic events involving significant north-south shortening: the late Neoproterozoic to early Cambrian Petermann Orogeny and the Devonian to Carboniferous Alice Springs Orogeny. The pattern of fault reactivation during these events is similar to the pattern of subsidence in the overlying basin. During the Alice Springs Orogeny, reactivation occurred along the most deeply buried faults, even in instances where those faults had remained inactive during the earlier Petermann Orogeny. The major Petermann-aged structures that were not buried during renewed subsidence were inactive during the Alice Springs Orogeny. The record of reactivation tells us that the presence of pre-existing faults is insufficient to localise deformation. The correspondence between the distribution of basement fault reactivation and subsidence patterns during the Petermann and Alice Springs Orogenies implies a link between relatively thick sedimentation and long-term lithospheric weakening. This link is also found to be compatible with the thermal effects of a thick sedimentary blanket.
Since both events involved significant north-south shortening, deformation is said to have occurred in response to a similarly oriented in-plane regional stress field. The combined effects of both the orogenic events resulted in the emergence of the Musgrave and Arunta Blocks from beneath the Centralian intracratonic basin, which is now represented by the Officer, Amadeus, Ngalia and Georgina Basins.
Localisation of strain.
Deformation was not spatially continuous throughout the Alice Springs Orogeny, but focused at a number of discrete loci, situated along the current structural margins of the preserved basins and in areas of now-exhumed basement.
The factors that control distribution of intraplate deformation have been the subject of considerable discussion. Many people believe that the intraplate deformation of the Alice Springs Orogeny is localised by suitably oriented structural weaknesses such as faults. This theory is supported by the observation that many continental interior faults have experienced numerous episodes of reactivation during their history. Although shortening associated with the Alice Springs Orogeny was widespread, there are two major regions affected by significant basement involved deformation: the Redbank Shear Zone and the Officer Basin.
Redbank Shear Zone.
The Redbank Shear Zone in the Arunta Block, is a reverse sense shear zone dipping north at about 45 degrees, and was the major structural feature reactivated during the Alice Springs Orogeny. This shear zone is associated with one of the largest gravity anomalies known from continental interiors. The Redbank Shear Zone also accommodates 25% of the apparent shortening.
Seismic and gravity data over the Arunta Inlier have provided a reasonable degree of constraint on the crustal architecture of this province and have demonstrated that the crust-mantle boundary is uplifted by 25 km along the lithospheric-scale Redbank Thrust Zone, and that this offset is sufficient to cause the relative gravity high.
The south-directed Redbank Shear Zone accommodated much of the exhumation and led to the unearthing of the Moho. The spectacular Macdonnell Ranges near Alice Springs are made up of Amadeus Basin sediments tilted as a consequence of exhumation associated with the Redbank Shear Zone.
Officer Basin.
The second region occurs along the northern margin of the Officer Basin. In this basin the Alice Springs Orogeny caused reactivation of the Munyarai Thrust which had also undergone reactivation during the Petermann Orogeny. Shortening here resulted in southward thrusting of basement rocks belonging to the Musgrave Block across the northern margin of the basin.


Antikuna (Jauja)

Antikuna (Quechua for metals or minerals or the inhabitants of the rainforest, also spelled "Anticona") is a mountain in the Andes of Peru which reaches a height of approximately . It is located in the Junín Region, Jauja Province, Apata District. Antikuna lies south of Utkhulasu and T'uruqucha.


Eostegostoma

Eostegostoma is an extinct genus of prehistoric cartilaginous fish from the Eocene epoch of Belgium.


Stuttgart Formation

The Stuttgart Formation is a geologic formation in Germany. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carnian stage of the Triassic period.


Arteza

Arteza (possibly from Quechua for a wooden boat) is a mountain in the Cordillera Blanca in the Andes of Peru, about high. It is situated in the Ancash Region, Huari Province, Huantar District. Arteza lies at the Qarwakancha valley, southeast of Andavite and Cayesh and northeast of Qarwakancha and Maparaju.


Pellegrinisaurus

Pellegrinisaurus (meaning "Lizard from Pelligrini") is a genus of titanosaurian sauropod dinosaur that lived in South America during the Late Cretaceous period. The holotype was found in the Allen Formation, Argentina.
Discovery and naming.
The assigned holotype, MPCA 1500, was discovered in 1975 by Roberto Abel and his assistant Jaime Emilio Powell. It was recovered from the lower member of the Allen Formation in the locality of Pellegrini Lake, Argentina, dating from the Late Cretaceous, Campanian to lower Maastrichtian, but it was not formally described until 1996 by Leonardo Salgado. Initially, the recovered remains were referred to "Epachthosaurus", but later this hypothesis was abandoned because MPCA 1500 did not share derived features with the holotype of "Epachthosaurus". The generic name "Pellegrinisaurus" refers to Pellegrini Lake, where the specimen was found. The specific name "powelli" is in honour of Jaime E. Powell.
Description.
"Pellegrinisaurus" is a rather large titanosaur. The estimated body size is about . The holotype includes an incomplete right femur, twenty-six caudal and four dorsal vertebrae. Autapomorphic features of "Pellegrinisaurus", by which it can be distinguished, are:
"Pellegrinisaurus" differs from other titanosaurs by having anteroposteriorly elongate and dorsoventrally depressed mid-posterior and posterior caudal spines; Salgado interpreted this condition as an extra-articulation between the neural spine and the articular process of the subsequent vertebra, that reduced tail movement.
The right femur is partially preserved. It is anteroposteriously compressed with a very flattened fourth trochanter. Laterally, it features a pronounced bulge similar to that of "Chubutisaurus", brachiosaurids and other titanosaurs.
Paleoecology.
"Pellegrinisaurus" was unearthed from the Allen Formation, in which it probably lived alongside other titanosaurs, such as "Aeolosaurus" and "Rocasaurus". Salgado suggested that contemporaneous hadrosaurids and the titanosaur "Aeolosaurus" inhabited coastal lowlands while other larger titanosaurs (such as "Pellegrinisaurus") and theropods inhabited interior environments of the region.
Classification.
Initially, Salgado placed "Pellegrinisaurus" as a possible sister taxon of the Saltasaurinae, in view of the build of its vertebrae.
Later, during the description of "Mansourasaurus", Sallam "et al." (2017) published a complete phylogenetic analysis of the Titanosauria in which "Pellegrinisaurus" is found to be part of the clade Lithostrotia, in the Opisthocoelicaudiinae.


Macrogryphosaurus

Macrogryphosaurus (meaning "big enigmatic lizard") is a genus of elasmarian dinosaur from the Coniacian age Upper Cretaceous Sierra Barrosa Formation (Neuquén Group) of Argentina in Patagonia. It was described by Jorge Calvo and colleagues in 2007, with M. gondwanicus as the type and only species.
Discovery and naming.
In May 1999, during field work at Mari Menuco Lake, Argentina (sixty kilometres northwest of Neuquén) conducted by the National University of Comahue, an articulated, nearly complete dinosaur skeleton was discovered and excavated. It was brought to the attention of the palaeontologists by young boy Rafael Moyano, who had discovered it. Originally reported to hail from the Portezuelo Formation of the Neuquén Group, its locality was later revised to be in the Sierra Barrosa Formation of the same geologic group. These unit is dated to the Coniacian age of the Late Cretaceous. Noted for bony plates on its thorax, it was identified as a large species of ornithopod.
The species would be described and named "Macrogryphosaurus gondwanicus" in 2007, in a study authored by Jorge O. Calvo, Juan D. Porfiri, and Fernando E. Novas. Its generic name was derived from the Greek "macro", meaning large, "grypho", meaning enigmatic, and "saurus", meaning lizard. The specific epiphet "gondwanicus" refers to the ancient continent of Gondwana. The holotype specimen, MUCPv-32, consists of an essentially complete set of vertebra, a number of ribs, four mineralized thoracic plates, both sides of the pectoral girdle, and a sternum. The individual is considered to have been an adult. The preservation of the fossil was described by Dr. Stephen F. Poropat as "amazing" in nature.
Subsequent research has not referred any other specimens to the species. However, in 2016, a study was published on MAU-Pv-PH-458, a fragmentary dorsal neural arch from the Plottier Formation of northern Argentina. The bone is the northernmost record of an ornithopod in South America. It was not determined to belong to a "Macrogryphosaurus", but noted to be from an animal of similar size and anatomy, and from approximately the same geographic and stratigraphic location, though it lived at a slightly earlier time. Other indeterminate ornithopod specimens from Argentina similarly indicate animals of similar size to the taxon. "M. gondwanicus" received a complete osteology in 2020, a study published in Cretaceous Research by Sebastián Rozadilla, Penélope Cruzado-Caballero, Jorge O. Calvo. This described the anatomy of the species in much more thoroughly and investigating its classification and biomechanics under a more modern lens. They considered the genus to be of importance, due to being the largest known elasmarian species, and for the completeness of its known remains, informing on the anatomy of the group.
Description.
"Macrogryphosaurus" has been noted for its large size compared to other South American ornithopods. It has been estimated to have been around in length, though the only known individual may not have been fully grown. As such, it is the largest species of South American ornithopod outside of Hadrosauridae, and the largest species of elasmarian. Approaching the size of many more derived iguanodontian ornithopods, it is, compared to these derived taxa, much more graceful and lightly built in form. One of the most remarked upon features of the taxon is its mineralized thoracic plates, also referred to as intercostal plates. These are a series of plates along the side of the torso, shared with a handful of other ornithischians such as "Talenkauen", "Thescelosaurus", and "Hypsilophodon". Along with a fused, birdlike sternum, its short torso would have been rather stiff in nature. This, alongside its relatively elongate neck and coelurosaur-like tail, gave it a rather unique form compared to that documented in other ornithischian dinosaurs.
Classification.
Phylogenetic analysis indicates that it is related to "Talenkauen", and Calvo and colleagues proposed a new clade, Elasmaria, for the two genera.
The cladogram below results from analysis by Herne "et al.", 2019.


San Rafael Formation

The San Rafael Formation is a geologic formation in Mexico. It preserves fossils dating back to the Paleogene period.


Ubirajara jubatus

Ubirajara ("lord of the spear") is a genus of compsognathid theropod that lived during the early Cretaceous period in what is now Brazil. It is known by a single species, Ubirajara jubatus, recovered from the Crato Formation.
Discovery and naming.
Workers recovered a number of fossils from a chalk quarry located between Nova Olinda and Santana do Cariri. In 1995, these were acquired by the "Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart" and moved to Germany after an export permit was allegedly obtained.
These fossils have been alleged to have been illegally imported into Germany out of Brazil in 1995, as Brazilian laws do not allow the removal of fossils from its territory, nor for studies on them to be conducted without the participation of at least one Brazilian scientist. As a result, Brazilian scientists are campaigning for the repatriation of the fossils.
One of the pieces was a chalk plate that had already been split by the workers. Further preparation by a sharp steel pin and X-ray photography revealed to "Dino" Frey the presence of a small theropod skeleton.
The genus was erected by Robert S. H. Smyth, David Michael Martill, Eberhard Frey, Hector Eduardo Rivera-Silva and Norbert Lenz in 2020. The generic name means "Lord of the Spear" in the local Tupi language in reference to the shoulder spikes. The specific name means "maned" in Latin, referring to the mane on its back. Due to the ethical issues involving the description of the specimen, the article was "temporarily removed". The lack of a physical publication of the article and a proper ZooBank registration make "Ubirajara jubatus" a "nomen nudum".
The holotype, SMNK PAL 29241, was discovered in a layer of the Crato Formation, dating from the Aptian, about 115 million years old. It consists of a partial skeleton lacking the skull, preserved on a plate and counterplate. It contains nine neck vertebrae, thirteen back vertebrae, two sacral vertebrae, the shoulder girdle, one neck rib, seven dorsal ribs, fifteen belly ribs and the almost complete left arm. Apart from the bones, the fossil preserves remains of the plumage, skin, granulate structures in the torso and the keratin sheaths of the hand claws. The skeleton is partially articulated. It represents a juvenile, and possibly male, individual.
Description.
The individual of the type specimen had probably been one metre long.
The describing authors established a unique combination of two traits that in themselves were not unique. The shoulder blade has 81% of the length of the humerus instead of being equally long or much longer, the two prevailing conditions with other compsognathids. The top profiles of the neural spines of the sacral vertebrae are 15% to 27% longer than their bases are long in side view, instead of being much longer as with "Mirischia".
The granulated structures in the torso were concluded to have been adipocere, corpse wax. They do not show food remains and are therefore unlikely to represent intestines. Also they lack a scale structure. The specimen preserves a "mane" of proto-feathers that ran along its neck and back. Also they covered the arm including the hand up to the claws. This SMF (Slender MonoFilamentous integument) became longer towards the rear, reaching a length of eleven centimetres over the ninth and tenth back vertebrae. These filaments were not branched and had a diameter of about 0.3 millimetre with a hollow core. Skin remains contain a series of nineteen rectangular vertical structures that were interpreted as the follicles of the filaments. Skin muscles would have allowed to erect a mane over the back. Their shrinking in the saline lagoon conditions of the Crato Formation would have caused the mane to have been activated after death, as still shown by the fossil.
Unique, integumentary structures projected from its sides. The left side shows a pair of flat straight elongated spikes. A similar pair was assumed to have been present on the opposite right side. The upper spike is fifteen centimetres long, the lower one fourteen centimetres. The structures are reinforced by a central sharp longitudinal ridge, 0.1 millimetre wide. Total width is 4.5 millimetres for the upper spike, 2.5 millimetres for the lower with parallel sides which only taper close to the distal end. There is no sign of any ossification. The authors compared this Broad Monofilamentous Integument to those of the standardwing bird-of-paradise. The authors speculate that the ribbon-like shoulder structures might have had display purposes, perhaps being erected in a courtship display. It was also deemed possible that they vibrated and even made a noise. That such a display structure should be present in a juvenile is exceptional. This phenomenon is not known from modern Neornithes but has been reported in Enantiornithes and "Zuolong". The authors noted that in the more derived group of the Paraves such structures were largely limited to the tail. They suggested this prevented the display structures to limit the aerodynamic capabilities of these volant species. The non-volant compsognathids would in this respect not be hindered by shoulder spikes. That simple filaments could evolve into complex display structures would be an indication that pennaceous feathers were not evolved for display reasons, contrary to what has been often assumed.
Phylogeny.
"Ubirajara" was placed in the Compsognathidae in 2020, as the sister species of a clade formed by "Sinosauropteryx" and "Compsognathus".


2007 Solomon Islands earthquake

The 2007 Solomon Islands earthquake took place on 2 April 2007, near the provincial capital of Gizo on Ghizo Island, in Solomon Islands. Its magnitude was estimated at 8.1 on the scale, and 7.8 on the scale. The tsunami that followed the earthquake killed 52 people. According to the USGS, the earthquake was recorded around 7:39:56 a.m. local time (UTC+11). The focus was 10 km (6 mi) deep and 40 km (25 mi) South South-East of Gizo township on New Georgia Islands in Western Province. There were numerous aftershocks, the largest of which had a magnitude of 6.2.
Tectonic setting.
The Australia, Woodlark, and Solomon Sea plates converge to the east-northeast or northeast against the Pacific plate with velocities of 90–105 millimetres/year. Along much of the plate boundary between the Pacific plate and the Australia/Woodlark/Solomon Sea plates, relative plate-motion is accomplished principally by subduction of the Australia/Woodlark/Solomon Sea plates beneath the Pacific plate.
Earthquake.
The earthquake's location and focal mechanism are consistent with the earthquake having occurred as underthrusting of the Australia/Woodlark/Solomon Sea plate beneath the Pacific plate, as part of the broader northeast-directed subduction process. The length of faulting was estimated to be about 260±50 km. The Solomon Islands arc as a whole experiences a very high level of earthquake activity, and many shocks of magnitude 7 and larger have been recorded since the early decades of the twentieth century. The 2 April earthquake, however, nucleated in a 250 kilometre-long segment of the arc that had produced no shocks of magnitude 7 or larger since the early 20th century.
Warnings.
A tsunami warning was issued for the South Pacific Ocean, and advisories issued for Japan and Hawaii. The Australian Bureau of Meteorology issued a warning for Australia's eastern coast, from Queensland's Barrier Reef to Tasmania, and beaches along the coast were closed, while many evacuated to higher ground. However, as the epicenter was close to the Solomon Islands, the tsunami hit before the Hawaiian Pacific Tsunami Warning Center released the warning.
As high-magnitude ocean waves propagate at high speeds close to 25 meters per second, they traversed the 55-kilometer distance from the epicenter to Gavo in less than 20 minutes. The S-waves from the earthquake shook the ground and alerted the population, allowing many to flee to high ground before the wave struck.
From Honiara, one of the first warnings came from the People First Network's Simbo email station, situated close to the epicentre. PFnet's Technical Advisor David Leeming relates that 20 minutes after the earthquake, Nickson Sioni from Simbo came on the (HF) radio and announced the arrival of a huge wave that had washed away several houses and come inland about 200m. This information was passed on by telephone to the Hawaii-based Pacific Tsunami Warning Center who then upgraded their warning to an "expanding regional alert". This was achieved before the 35-minute arrival time of the wave for the capital Honiara, which in the event proved non-destructive.
Tsunami.
At least fifty-two people were reported to have been killed and sixty reported missing when a tsunami triggered by the earthquake struck the Solomon Islands, wiping out thirteen or more villages. Thousands were left homeless, and damage is estimated in the millions. The largest waves were reported on the northern tip of Simbo Island, where maximum tsunami run-ups were 12 m, completely washing away two villages, Tapurai and Riquru, and killing 10 people. In South Choiseul, waves 10 meters high swept away villages, gardens and a hospital.
About 900 homes were destroyed.
The tsunami reached Papua New Guinea, with a family of five reportedly missing from a remote island in Milne Bay Province, which was in the tsunami's path. The beaches and ferry services at Sydney were closed due to tsunami alert. C
Aid workers reported that an outbreak of diarrhoea emerged among the survivors. However, the UN reported that the outbreak and other diseases were under control as of 12 April. On 18 April, a measles outbreak was reported and an immunisation program was underway.
The island of Ranongga in the New Georgia Group was lifted three meters by the earthquake, causing its beaches to shift outwards of up to 70 meters. Large coral reefs in the area are now largely above the surface and local fishermen are worried that the fishing grounds have been destroyed. However, Australian scientists said the exposure of the reefs are a normal part of island building and that careful wildlife management can preserve the reefs that remain.
Response.
Australia committed to contribute an initial 3 million AUD in emergency aid, later increased to 5.7 million as of June 2007.
New Zealand gave 950,000 NZD during the initial relief period, and committed 7.5 million NZD over two years to reconstruction, as of July 2007.
The United States contributed US$250,000 in aid.
Taiwan contributed US$214,000 and shipment of 1,000 kg of rice. France has also airlifted supplies via New Caledonia.
The United Nations established a field hospital in Gizo, with a total of eight planned for the entire country, and also established three camps for internally displaced persons. Australian and Canadian medical teams have also been deployed across the islands.
Papua New Guinea, itself affected by the tsunami, has contributed US$340,000 and a light plane that can better access smaller, more remote airstrips. UNICEF issued an appeal for US$500,000 for both the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea.
Separately, the Red Cross has issued an appeal for US$800,000. The remoteness of some villages meant that aid did not reach them until several days after the tsunami occurred. However, the Associated Press reported on 6 April that Gizo's airport had reopened, easing the delivery of supplies. A Taiwanese fishing boat ran aground on coral reefs while delivering supplies, but it was successfully evacuated by a United States Navy helicopter. The boat's crew managed to free the vessel from the rocks a few days later.
Aftermath.
Francis Billy Hilly, the MP for Simbo Island where 10 people died, said on 8 April that those who had previously resisted resettlement away from the island's active volcano were reconsidering their options. The national government may also relocate islanders away from low-lying areas pending a review of long-term rehabilitation and disaster preparedness plans. The Australian government announced that a network of five tsunami warning buoys will be deployed along its Pacific coast, with two buoys stationed in the Papua New Guinea/Solomon Islands area.


Stensionotus

Stensionotus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the Early Triassic epoch in what is now Madagascar and China. It belongs to Parasemionotidae together with "Albertonia", "Candelarialepis", "Jacobulus", "Lehmanotus", "Parasemionotus", "Qingshania", "Suius", "Thomasinotus" and "Watsonulus".