Myriophyllum aquaticum

Myriophyllum aquaticum is a flowering plant, a vascular dicot, commonly called parrot's-feather and parrot feather watermilfoil.
Morphology and reproduction.
Parrot feather is a perennial plant. Parrot feather gets its name from its feather-like leaves that are arranged around the stem in whorls of four to six. The emergent stems and leaves are the most distinctive trait of parrot feather, as they can grow up to a foot above the water surface and look almost like small fir trees. The woody emergent stems grow over 5 feet long and will extend to the bank and shore. Attached to the Parrot feather are pinkish-white flowers that extend approximately 1/16 inches long. As the water warms in the spring, parrot feather begins to flourish. Most plants flower in the spring; however, some also flower in the fall. Almost all plants of this species are female, in fact there are no male plants found outside of South America. Seeds are not produced in any North American plants. Parrot feather reproduces asexually. New plants grow from fragments of already rooted plants. The plant has whorls of feathery blue-green to waxy gray-green leaves deeply cut into many narrow lobes.
Kasselmann recently described a new variety, "M. aquaticum" var. "santacatarinense", which distinguishes itself from the typical variety by its more stiff and robust habitus and pinnae that are fewer and broader.
Habitat.
Parrot feather is native to the Amazon River in South America, but it can now be found on every continent except Antarctica. It is thought that this plant was introduced to North America around the late 1800s. It was first discovered in the United States in the 1890s in Washington D.C. Parrot’s feather typically grows in freshwater streams, ponds, lakes, rivers, and canals that have a high nutrient content. During the 20th century it colonized areas in South Africa, Japan, England, New Zealand, and Australia. As it prefers a warmer climate, it is chiefly found in the southern parts of the United States.
Use and spread.
Parrot feather is now used for indoor and outdoor aquatic use. It is a popular plant in aquatic gardens. It spreads easily and has become an invasive species and a noxious weed in many areas. The plant can be introduced to new areas when sections of its rhizome are dug up and moved. In Florida in the United States, flea beetles have been found to use parrot feather as a host for their larvae.
Problems.
Because of its attractiveness and ease of cultivation, parrot feather has been introduced worldwide for use in indoor and outdoor aquaria. It is also a popular aquatic garden plant. However, it has escaped cultivation and spread via plant fragments and intentional plantings. While parrot feather may provide cover for some aquatic organisms, it can seriously change the physical and chemical characteristics of lakes and streams. The parrot feather grows abundantly, shades out naturally occurring algae, and clogs irrigation ducts and canals. The Parrot feather typically exist in bundles and extend out of the water. In large numbers, the plants make a dense mat on the water's surface. Because of this, they shade the water from sunlight and cause native plants to die because of light deficiency. The organisms that feed on the native plants can die off due to starvation. The dense mats also cause problems for recreation. Swimmers and boat propellors can become entangled. The mats are also a breeding ground for mosquitos.
Cleanup efforts.
Herbicides have not been found very useful in controlling its growth, partly because the plant has a waxy cuticle that seals out the poison. Cutting and chopping can actually promote the plant's spread. In the U.S. states of Alabama, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine, Vermont, and Washington, parrot feather is a declared noxious weed and is therefore banned from sale.
The two main solutions to manage this aquatic nuisance is physically removing the plant and or using herbicides.
The physical aspects of removal are such acts of cutting, harvesting, and rotovation (underwater rototilling). These methods see best results only when the extent of the infestation has taken over all available niches. Best results are seen this way due to the availability of space as compared to rapid growth. Using physical control methods while the plant is still invading will tend to enhance its rate of spread.
Another method of controlling Parrots feather is by the usage of herbicides. The herbicides are effective to the plant part exposed above water. The plant parts beneath the water never come fully into contact with the pesticides and are therefore washed away. Herbicides are most effective when applied to young growing plants. They should be applied repeatedly to show maximum results. M. aquaticum is more difficult to control with herbicides than other aquatic species. The leaves are protected by a thick waxy coating, and in order for herbicides to penetrate the leaves, surfactants must be added; however, herbicides may impact non-target native plants or animals.
In the United Kingdom, this plant is one of five introduced aquatic plants which are to be banned from sale from April 2014. This is the first ban of its kind in the country.


International Organization for Plant Information

The International Organization for Plant Information (IOPI) is an international organization founded on September 20, 1991. It runs a series of collaborative international projects aimed at establishing databases of plant classification information and is committee of the International Union of Biological Sciences.
The Global Plant Checklist was its first objective to provide a list of all plants by merging data from existing sources. This required development of data standards as well as international co-operation, starting in 1993.
Later aims included the Species Plantarum Project to record taxonomic information about all the vascular plants in the world.
Its dataset was later incorporated in the Catalogue of Life.


Geniostoma

Geniostoma is a genus of around 25 species of flowering plants in the family Loganiaceae. They are shrubs or small trees, with inflorescences borne in the axils of the simple, petiolate, oppositely-arranged leaves. The flowers are arranged in cymes, and each is pentamerous.
The name "Geniostoma" derives from the Greek words ('; "beard") and ('; "mouth"), referring to the hairs in the corolla tube of some species. The genus is widely distributed across the Pacific Ocean from Japan, Malesia to Australia in the west, and east to the Tuamotu Archipelago; one species is also found on the Mascarene Islands.
The Hawaiian endemic genus "Labordia" has been included in "Geniostoma" by some authors. These two genera have been grouped together in the family "Geniostomaceae", but are considered by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group to be part of a wider Loganiaceae.


Lophosoria

Lophosoria is a genus of tree ferns within the family Dicksoniaceae.
Although it is confined to tropical America in modern times, there is fossil evidence that it was once spread throughout Gondwana with the exception of New Zealand.


Eucommiaceae


Polygonum deciduum

Polygonum deciduum is a species of flowering plant in the family Polygonaceae, native to Uzbekistan. It was first described in 1856.
It has also been treated as a synonym of "Polygonum argyrocoleon" .


Fagus japonica

Fagus japonica, known as the Japanese beech, Japanese blue beech or in Japanese as inubuna ("dog buna") or kurobuna ("black buna"), is a deciduous tree of the beech family Fagaceae.
Description.
It is endemic to Japan, where it is one of the main tree species in natural deciduous forests particularly on the Pacific side of the country.
Description.
It reaches 25 metres in height. The growth habit is often multi-trunked. Bark is smooth and grey. The simple leaves are arranged alternately along the branch. They are slightly pubescent and slightly glaucous beneath, with 10–14 pairs of lateral nerves. Fruiting peduncles are 3–4 cm long and glabrous.


Kalanchoe brasiliensis

Kalanchoe brasiliensis, the folha-da-fortuna, saião, folha-da-costa or coerama, is a plant species in the genus "Kalanchoe".
Patuletin acetylrhamnosides can be isolated from "K. brasiliensis".


Ludwigia palustris

Ludwigia palustris is a species of flowering plant in the evening primrose family known by the common names marsh seedbox, Hampshire-purslane and water purslane. This is an aquatic or semiaquatic perennial herb which grows in moist to wet to flooded areas. It is sometimes a weed. The species epithet "palustris" is Latin for "of the marsh" and indicates its common habitat.
Description.
The stem is up to half a meter (20 in) long and spreads to form mats on the mud, rooting at nodes in contact with the substrate, or floats ascending in the water. The leaves are oppositely arranged and green to red or purple in color. Solitary flowers appear in leaf axils. They are made up of tiny green sepals and no petals. They yield small capsular fruits containing many minute seeds.
Distribution.
Its native distribution is unclear, but includes parts of the Americas; it can be found on most continents and spreads easily to become naturalized. It is also cultivated as an aquarium plant. It was identified in England in 1827.


Amsinckia vernicosa

Amsinckia vernicosa is a species of fiddleneck known by the common name green fiddleneck.
It is endemic to California, where it is an uncommon member of mountain, desert, and valley habitat in several regions.
Description.
"Amsinckia vernicosa" is a hairy annual herb somewhat similar to other fiddlenecks, but waxy in texture and pinkish in color along the lower stem.
The coiled inflorescence holds yellow or orange tubular flowers up to 2 centimeters long and 1.5 wide at the corolla.


Parentucellia

Parentucellia is a small genus of flowering plants in the family Orobanchaceae containing about four species. They are known generally as glandweeds. The genus was named for Pope Nicholas V, whose surname was Parentucelli.
Phylogeny.
The phylogeny of the genera of Rhinantheae has been explored using molecular characters. "Parentucellia" belongs to the core Rhinantheae. It is closely related to the genus "Bellardia", and then to "Odontites", "Tozzia" and "Hedbergia". In turn, these genera share phylogenetic affinities with "Euphrasia" and "Bartsia".
Systematics.
Species include:


Andreaea

Andreaea is a genus of rock mosses described by Johann Hedwig in 1801.
They are small, delicate acrocarpous mosses (meaning that the capsules are formed at the tips of vertical branches) that form dark brown or reddish cushions on wet siliceous rocks in mountainous areas. The capsule lacks the peristome teeth and operculum of other mosses, and opens by splitting along 4 vertical slits, the four valves remaining joined at the base and apex. The capsule of "Andreaea" has no seta, but the sporophyte ("Spf" in the diagram below) instead is supported by a pseudopodium ("ps") derived from gametophyte tissue, as in "Sphagnum" and the columella is enclosed within the sporangium. The spores germinate to give thalloid protonemata.
Species.
In alphabetical order:


Ilex subtriflora

Ilex subtriflora is a species of plant in the family Aquifoliaceae. It is endemic to Jamaica.


Asplenium milnei

Asplenium milnei is a ground fern only found on Lord Howe Island. Commonly seen in lowland areas.
Taxonomy.
A global phylogeny of "Asplenium" published in 2020 divided the genus into eleven clades, which were given informal names pending further taxonomic study. "A. milnei" belongs to the ""Neottopteris" clade", members of which generally have somewhat leathery leaf tissue. It forms a clade with "A. pteridoides" and "A. surrogatum", two other Lord Howe Island endemics, suggesting that all three species diverged after a single colonization of the island by their ancestor. This clade is sister to a large group of Pacific Ocean spleenworts.


Calceolaria commutata

Calceolaria commutata is a species of plant in the Calceolariaceae family. It is endemic to Ecuador.


Antidesmatoideae


Brazilian cherry

Brazilian cherry is a common name for several plants native to the New World tropics with edible fruits and may refer to:


Agelanthus validus

Agelanthus validus is a species of hemiparasitic plant in the family Loranthaceae, which is found in the Usambara Mountains, Tanzania
Description.
A description of the plant is given in Govaerts "et al.", based on Polhill & Wiens (1999).
Habitat/ecology.
"A. validus" parasitises "Catha", "Maytenus" and "Scolopia".
Threats.
The major threat is habitat conversion for timber and agriculture. Both the quality and extent of its habitat are declining.


Eriogonum trichopes

Eriogonum trichopes is a species of wild buckwheat known by the common name little desert trumpet. It is native to the mountain slopes and deserts of the southwestern United States from California to New Mexico, and its range extends into Mexico.
Description.
This is an annual herb quite variable in height, growing to a spindly 10 centimeters or a sprawling, brambly 1.5 meters. Its leaves form a basal patch on the ground, each rounded with ruffled margins and covered in woolly or stiff hairs.
The erect inflorescence is naked and sometimes hairy, with many slender branches that flower year-round. Flower clusters hang on short, thready stalks. Each minuscule flower is glandular or hairy and is bright yellow when new, darkening over time to a reddish color.


Caragana korshinskii

Caragana korshinskii, also known as the Korshinsk pea shrub, is a shrub from the genus Caragana. The plant is native to sandy grass and desert areas of northern China and Mongolia.
It is commonly planted to reduce soil erosion as well as for animal feed.


Frasera puberulenta

Frasera puberulenta (syn. "Swertia puberulenta") is a species of flowering plant in the gentian family known by the common name Inyo frasera.
It is native to the High Sierra Nevada of California, as well as the Inyo Mountains and White Mountains of eastern California, where its distribution extends just over the border into Nevada. It grows in dry mountain woodlands.
Description.
"Frasera puberulenta" is a perennial herb producing several lightly hairy stems 10 to 30 centimeters long. The leaves are green with white margins and have fuzzy hairs on the undersides.
The inflorescence is an open panicle of flowers atop the stem. Each flower has a calyx of four pointed sepals and a corolla of four pointed lobes each roughly a centimeter long. The corolla is greenish with purple dots, and each lobe has a fringe of hairs near the base. There are four stamens tipped with large anthers and a central ovary.


Dioscorea sericea

Dioscorea sericea (common names: wild yam, colic-root, rheumatism-root) is a type of climbing tuberous geophyte in the family Dioscoreaceae. It is native to Colombia and Peru.


Alsophila podophylla

Alsophila podophylla, synonym Cyathea podophylla, is a widespread species of tree fern native to southern China, Taiwan, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and the Ryukyu Islands. It grows in forest by streams and in ravines at an altitude of 600–1000 m.


Zygochloa

Zygochloa is a genus of desert plants in the grass family known only from Australia. The only known species is Zygochloa paradoxa, commonly known as sandhill canegrass. It occurs in extremely arid areas such as the Simpson Desert.


Tree topping

Tree topping is the practice of removing whole tops of trees or large branches and/or trunks from the tops of trees, leaving stubs or lateral branches that are too small to assume the role of a terminal leader. Other common names for the practice include hat-racking, heading, rounding over, and tipping. Some species of trees are more likely to recover from topping than others. There are alternatives to topping that can help to achieve the same goals without damaging trees.
Purpose.
Hundreds of large trees are topped each year, which causes significant stress and future safety issues. It has been shown through survey that the average person's knowledge on tree care is limited.
Another popular misconception is that a topped tree will benefit from increased light penetration. The removal of a large portion of a tree's canopy can have detrimental effects. When a tree is topped, newly formed bark may be susceptible to sun scald. Prolonged exposure can severely damage the bark, thus creating an attractive home for decay-causing organisms. Evidence of decay may be the presence of conks (fungal fruiting structures) on the outer tree bark. The loss of leaves reduces a tree's ability to photosynthesize and produce food. If a large tree is unable to produce enough sugars to feed the roots, it will slowly die from starvation.
Some people have been known to top trees in order to stimulate new growth. When a tree is topped, many adventitious shoots, known as suckers begin to grow from the wound. This is the tree's response to the sudden loss of leaves. Although the tree is able to produce an abundance of suckers, they are susceptible to numerous problems. Firstly, this adventitious growth is succulent and susceptible to attacks by insects such as aphids and caterpillars, and pathogens like fire blight (Rosaceae). Secondly, the branch-stubs that the suckers emerge from are rarely able to form a complete callus. This means that any pathogen that attacks a sucker may enter the tree directly through the open wound. If wood begins to rot it could create a weak branch connection between the developing suckers and the main tree leading to a possible branch failure. If a tree is unable to compartmentalize the fungi, it may reach the trunk and ultimately kill the tree.
Aesthetics is another reason why people hire arborists to top their trees. A tree may be blocking the mountain view, shading the garden, or interfering with solar energy collection. As a result, the tree never fully returns to its initial natural form.
Topping precautions.
Large pruning wounds, such as those left behind in trees after topping, may become entry points for pathogens and may result in extensive decay. Decay undermines, to greater or lesser extent, the long-term health and physical stability of trees; most notably in those species which compartmentalize decay less effectively. Should a tree survive topping, tissue regrowth at the site of the original topping wound(s) is generally profuse. These new multiple leaders are less well-attached than was the original treetop, partly due to the effect of advancing decay at the wound site. As these weakly attached trunks increase in size, they become more prone to fall from the tree. Wind can increase this potential. Previously topped trees can present significant hazards and should be inspected by a qualified arborist, who can recommend possible solutions, such as removal, cabling, bracing, or ongoing inspection.
Aesthetic appeal is also compromised by topping, as the natural shapes of trees are lost.
Alternatives.
Alternatives based on scientific research are replacing tree topping. For example, size reduction can maintain the aesthetics and structural integrity of a tree without damage.
Spiral thinning and other forms of canopy thinning can decrease wind resistance and allow wind to pass through trees, reducing the potential for branch failure due to wind-throw. Thinning also allows more light penetration and air circulation, both important to tree health. Other cultural practices include choosing plant material that will fit in the desired location at its mature size.


Cassine laneana

Cassine laneana, commonly known as the Bermuda olivewood, is a species of large tree in the staff vine family, Celastraceae, that is endemic to the islands of Bermuda. Although once found in the extensive subtropical coniferous forests that covered the islands, it is currently restricted to small protected areas, such as Spittal Pond. "C. laneana" can grow anywhere from tall, with leaves that are long and wide. The leaves are also a deep green colour when they are older and a bright green colour when they are younger. "C. laneana" flowers in late spring and early summer and produces a small ovate berry that is an olive colour and long.
The Bermuda olivewood did not have very much use in Bermuda's history, although it played a huge part in it. It has huge boughs that are highly woody. The crown is naturally grown into a sphere shape. "C. laneana" is often used as an ornamental tree, lining the streets of Hamilton and providing shade in the Bermuda Botanical Gardens.


Tayloria acuminata

Tayloria acuminata, commonly known as acuminate dung moss and acuminate trumpet moss, is a bright-green dung moss species with violet radicles that age to a dark red. It is native to North America and Iceland, where it is found in bird cliffs in Hornstrandir. In Iceland it has the conservation status of a vulnerable species (VU).


Gymnogrammitis

Gymnogrammitis is a genus of ferns in the subfamily Drynarioideae of the family Polypodiaceae according to the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I), with a single species Gymnogrammitis dareiformis.
Taxonomy.
The genus "Gymnogrammitis" was first erected by William Griffith in 1849. The only accepted species is "Gymnogrammitis dareiformis", transferred from "Polypodium dareiforme". In the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I), the genus is placed in the family Polypodiaceae, subfamily Drynarioideae. Other sources place "Gymnogrammitis dareiformis" in a more broadly circumscribed genus "Selliguea" as "Selliguea dareiformis".


Saxifraga marginata

Saxifraga marginata, the Kabschia saxifrage, is a species of flowering plant in the family Saxifragaceae, native to southeastern Europe. It and its cultivar 'Balkan' (formerly the "rocheliana" subtaxon) have both gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit as ornamentals.


Ribes austroecuadorense

Ribes austroecuadorense is a species of plant in the currant family. It is endemic to Ecuador.
Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical high-altitude shrubland.


Alyssum troodi

Alyssum troodi is a 10–25 cm high perennial subshrub. Leaves 5–10 mm long obovate-spatulate, covered with a silvery indumentum. Flowering and sterile shoots on the same plant, On the sterile shots the leaves form terminal clusters. Flowers have 3 mm long golden-yellow petals. The siliques are 7–8 mm long, elliptic and glabrous. Flowers from May to July.
Distribution.
Endemic to the Troodos Mountains in Cyprus, from 1300 m altitude to the highest summit of Hionistra.


Asplenium dimorphum

Asplenium dimorphum, the Norfolk Island spleenwort, is a species of fern in the family Aspleniaceae, endemic to Norfolk Island.
Taxonomy.
A global phylogeny of "Asplenium" published in 2020 divided the genus into eleven clades, which were given informal names pending further taxonomic study. "A. dimorphum" belongs to the ""Neottopteris" clade", members of which generally have somewhat leathery leaf tissue. Its closest relative in the phylogeny was "A. difforme".


Hakonechloa macra


Cornus alba

Cornus alba, the red-barked, white or Siberian dogwood, is a species of flowering plant in the family Cornaceae, native to Siberia, northern China and Korea. It is a large deciduous surculose (suckering) shrub that can be grown as a small tree. As a popular ornamental used in landscaping its notable features include the red stems in fall (autumn) through late winter, the brightest winter bark of any cornus; and the variegated foliage in some cultivars, such as "C. alba" 'Elegantissima', in which the discreet flat whitish flower clusters are almost lost in the variegated texture and dappled light. "C. alba" can grow to high, but variegated forms are less vigorous. For the brightest winter bark, young shoots are encouraged by cutting to the ground some older stems at the end of the winter, before leaves are open. The oval fruits are white, sometimes tinted blue.
The plant is extremely hardy, to USDA Zone 3 - .
The Latin specific epithet "alba" means “white”.
The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017):-
Notes.
Flora of Siberia
Flora of China
Flora of Korea


Lathraea squamaria

Lathraea squamaria, the common toothwort, is a species of flowering plant in the family Orobanchaceae. It is widely distributed in Europe and also occurs in Turkey.
It is parasitic on the roots of hazel and alder, and occasionally other trees, and represents the second occasion on which a member of the family Orobanchaceae lost the ability to photosynthesize and became parasitic. It occurs in shady places such as deciduous woodland and hedge sides. The plant consists of a branched whitish underground stem closely covered with thick, fleshy, colourless leaves, which are bent over so as to hide under the surface. The only portions that appear above ground in April to May are the short flower-bearing shoots, which bear a spike of two-lipped dull purple flowers, but is also able to produce cleistogamic underground flowers which fertilise themselves. It is also able to regenerate from broken fragments of the underground stem.
Description.
Toothwort is a perennial plant producing clumps of flowering shoots in late spring. The low, hairy, creamy-pink flowering shoot grow in a one-sided spike to a height of . The few scales on the stem represent the leaves, but the whole shoot is devoid of chlorophyll. The individual pinkish flowers are drooping and have short stalks, two lips and open mouths. The calyx teeth are blunt and hairy. The scales which represent the leaves also secrete water, which escapes and softens the ground around the plant. Externally they immediately reveal their heterotrophic character by their lack of chlorophyll and the reduction of their leaf area.
Distribution and habitat.
Common toothwort is widely distributed throughout Europe, its range extending from France and Norway to Russia, Bulgaria, Italy and Greece. In the British Isles, it is found in England and Northern Ireland, and less often in lowland areas of East England, Southwest England, Wales, Scotland and the Republic of Ireland. Its natural habitats are deciduous woodland, hedgerows and the banks of rivers and streams. It grows in Hatherton Flush, an SSSI in Cheshire.


Lomaridium contiguum

Lomaridium contiguum, synonym Blechnum contiguum, is a fern in the family Blechnaceae. The specific epithet refers to the contiguous lobes of the fronds.
Description.
The plant is a climbing epiphytic fern. Its rhizome is long and covered with dense, narrowly lanceolate scales. Its fronds are 30–50 cm or more long and 5–12 cm wide.
Distribution and habitat.
The fern is found on Australia's subtropical Lord Howe Island in the Tasman Sea, as well as on New Caledonia. On Lord Howe it is common in the cloud forest on the summits of Mounts Gower and Lidgbird.


Polypodium hesperium

Polypodium hesperium is a species of fern known by the common name western polypody. It is native to western North America from British Columbia to California, and the Rocky Mountains to northern Mexico, where it grows in rocky habitat types.
This is an allopolyploid species of hybrid origin, its parent species being "Polypodium glycyrrhiza" and "Polypodium amorphum".
Description.
This polypody anchors with a thin, scaly rhizome. It produces oblong leaves in maximum length and 7 in width. Each leaf is made up of many dull-pointed linear or lance-shaped segments which may be thin and membranous or firm and leathery in texture, and smooth or serrated on the edges. The underside of each leaf segment has a few brownish, reddish, or nearly black sori, which contain the spores.


Conospermum teretifolium

Conospermum teretifolium, commonly known as the spider smokebush, is a shrub endemic to Western Australia.
The erect and lignotuberous shrub typically grows to a height of . It blooms between August and January producing cream-white flowers.
It is found along the south coast in the South West, Great Southern and Goldfields-Esperance regions of Western Australia where it grows in sandy soils over granite or laterite.


Rhizanthella gardneri

Rhizanthella gardneri, commonly known as western underground orchid, is a species of flowering plant in the orchid family and is endemic to the southwest of Western Australia. It is a herb that spends its entire life cycle, including flowering, at or below the soil surface. A head of up to 100 small reddish to cream-coloured, inward facing flowers surrounded by large, cream-coloured bracts with a horizontal rhizome is produced between May and July.
Description.
"Rhizanthella gardneri" is a leafless, sympodial herb with a horizontal rhizome below the soil surface. Beginning in late May to early June, the plant produces up to 100 small, inward-facing pinkish to deep red and cream coloured flowers wide, surrounded by six to twelve pinkish-cream bracts. The bracts curve over the flowers, forming a tulip-like head and leaving a small opening at, or a few millimetres above the soil surface. After pollination, each flower produces a fleshy, berry-like fruit containing up to 150 seeds. Unlike the capsules of other orchids that produce minute, dust-like seeds dispersed by the wind, this species produces indehiscent fruit.<ref name="Brown" /
Discovery, taxonomy and naming.
John Trott discovered the first specimen of "R. gardneri" during ploughing operations in May 1928 on his farm near Corrigin. The discovery generated such excitement that a wax model was toured around the British Isles. Specimens were found a further six times in similar circumstances between the Corrigin and Dowerin areas, until 1959. The next confirmed sighting was by John McGuiness near Munglinup in 1979, of plants in their natural habitat. In 1981 and 1982, surveys in the Munglinup area located more than one hundred flowering specimens. The Munglinup population is now regarded as the separate species, "Rhizanthella johnstonii".
"Rhizanthella gardneri" was first formally described in 1928 by Richard Sanders Rogers in the "Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia" from specimens collected near Corrigin in May of the same year. The specific epithet ("gardneri") honours Charles Gardner, assistant botanist to the Western Australian Government at that time.
Distribution and habitat.
"Rhizanthella gardneri" is only known from the Avon Wheatbelt biogeographic region of Western Australia, where it grows in association with broom honeymyrtle ("Melaleuca uncinata"), between Corrigin and Babakin.
Ecology.
As with other orchids in the genus "Rhizanthella", all parts of the life cycle of "R. gardneri", including flowering, are subterranean. The orchid obtains its energy and nutrients as a myco-heterotroph via mycorrhizal fungi that form associations with the roots of broombush species including "M. uncinata", "M. scalena" and "M. hamata". The fungus involved is thought to be "Thanatephorus gardneri".
The flowers of "R. gardneri" are subterranean but the heads crack open the soil surface as they mature, and sometimes the tips of the bracts protrude through the leaf litter, leaving a small opening through which pollinators may enter. Termites and ants have been seen to enter the flower heads. The orchid's seeds are too large to be dispersed by the wind and it is possible that the succulent fruit is eaten by small mammals and the seeds passed out of their faeces.
Conservation status.
The species is classified as "critically endangered" under the Australian Government "Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999" and as "Threatened Flora (Declared Rare Flora — Extant)" by the Department of Environment and Conservation (Western Australia).
Much of the central and southern Wheatbelt of Western Australia has been cleared for agriculture, or affected by drought, resulting in the loss of broombush habitat or a reduction in the level of bark and leaf litter necessary to protect the underground orchid and a reduction in the area suitable for translocation. The main threats to the species include lack of suitable habitat, degraded habitat, drought and rising soil salinity.
Three of the known populations of "Rhizanthella gardneri" are protected within nature reserves, and a concerted initiative has been launched to safeguard this species for future generations. A partnership between the Millennium Seed Bank of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Australia's Endangered Species Program and Perth's Kings Park and Botanic Gardens are undertaking DNA fingerprinting and seed-banking of this rare orchid in an attempt to establish a propagation programme.


Tmesipteris ovata

Tmesipteris ovata is a fern ally endemic to eastern Australia. The habitat of this primitive plant is on tree ferns in rainforests.


Amplectosporangium

Amplectosporangium is a monotypic genus of extinct land plants found in Sichuan Province, China, that existed around 407 million years ago. "A. jiangyouense", the only known species, is a leafless plant that consists of short-statured (to 7 cm) erect, dichotomous axes with terminal fertile branches. Short-stalked, oval-shaped sporangia are distributed in rows along the inner sides of the fertile branches. The linear arrangement of the sporangia in a cup-like fashion along the inner sides of the terminal fertile branches has been hypothesized to represent an early stage in the evolution of the seed coat or integument. While this arrangement of the spore-producing structures is similar to other polysporangiophytes like "Eophyllophyton", a basal member of the euphyllophytes, the phylogenetic relationship of "Amplectosprangium" to other early land plants is uncertain. Hao and Xue in 2013 considered it to be an unplaced vascular plant (tracheophyte).


Solanum ptychanthum

Solanum ptychanthum, the West Indian nightshade or eastern black nightshade, is an annual or occasionally perennial plant in the Solanaceae (Nightshade) family. It is typically 15–60 cm tall and many branched.
The leaves of eastern black nightshade are triangular to elliptic. The stems are circular, and sometimes slightly hairy. The flowers are small, white, and star-shaped, and they occur in small umbels of 5-7. The flowers ripen into glossy, black berries, each 10 mm in diameter and containing between 50 and 100 seeds. The ripened fruits have been shown to be not poisonous in low to moderate amounts, however the unripened berries are toxic. The berries are eaten and dispersed by birds.
Nomenclature.
The original spelling is "ptychanthum", from the Ancient Greek words () "a fold" and () "flower". Some sources mistakenly refer to this plant as "S. ptycanthum" (without the first "h").
Some sources list "Solanum americanum" as a synonym, but it is a misapplication of the name. The Germplasm Resources Information Network lists "Solanum americanum" as a synonym of "S. ptychanthum", but as S. americanum auct. (i.e. a misapplication of the name), not "S. americanum" Mill. Other sites have not make this distinction and the two have become confused.
Habitat.
Eastern black nightshade is native to North America. It grows in landscapes and mixed in among most crops. It is most likely to be found growing near crops of related species such as tomatoes and potatoes. It can grow on sandy and poor soil, but prefers fertile and cultivated soil types. Eastern black nightshade is found in all but the most Western U.S. states (i.e. Washington, Oregon, Nevada, California), as well as in the southern provinces of Canada from Alberta to the Maritimes. It is introduced in Alaska, Hawaii, and the Virgin Islands.
As a weed.
Eastern black nightshade is not a strong competitor with most crops. It is, however, shade tolerant and so an infestation can survive and continue to grow even in the shade of crop plants. There are no easy chemical methods for controlling Eastern black nightshade, but night tillage reduces emergence by 50% to 75%. Planting soybeans in 7.5-inch rows also reduces growth significantly, and is the recommended method of control.


Tetracentron hopkinsii

Tetracentron hopkinsii is an extinct species of flowering plant in the family Trochodendraceae. The species is known from fossil leaves found in the early Eocene deposits of northern Washington state, United States and south Central British Columbia. The species was first described from fossil leaves found in the Allenby Formation. "T. hopkinsii" are possibly the leaves belonging to the extinct trochodendraceous fruits "Pentacentron sternhartae".
Distribution and paleoenvironment.
"Tetracentron hopkinsii" was initially described from two leaves, both recovered from the Early Eocene, Ypresian Allenby Formations One Mile Creek outcrop north of Princeton, British Columbia. The one mile creek site is notable for being dominated by fossils of "Betula leopoldae" though "Acer" species, Rosaceae species, "Pistillipollianthus wilsoni", "Tsukada davidiifolia", and "Ulmus okanaganensis" are also present.
The Allenby Formation preserves an upland temperate flora which was first interpreted as being distinctly microthermal, however further study has shown the flora to be more upper microthermal to lower mesothermal in nature, with few to no days below freezing in a year. Analysis of pollen samples shows plant community preserved at the site was mesic mixed conifer–broadleaf forest, with large pollen elements of birch and golden larch, but also having notable traces of fir, spruce, cypress, and palm. The plants and animals are preserved in a finely layered light greenish-gray lacustrine shale as compression-impression fossils.
Pigg "et al" noted in 2007 that one leaf assignable to "Tetracentron" had been found in the Klondike Mountain Formation of Republic, Washington, but was not complete enough to confidently attribute it to "T. hopkinsii". The recovery of additional leaves deposited in the Stonerose Interpretive Center allowed Manchester "et al" to assign the Republic flora specimens to "T. hopkinsii" in 2018, expanding the confirmed distribution of the species.
Taxonomy.
Examination of the species was performed by Kathleen Pigg, Richard Dillhoff, Melanie DeVore and Wesley Wehr based on the study of the holotype "UWBM 54185" and paratype "UWBM 56700ab" leaves. Both specimens were part of the in the Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture paleobotanical collections at the time of description. Pigg "et al" published their 2007 type description of the species in the "International Journal of Plant Sciences" along with the type description of "Trochodendron drachukii". They chose the specific epithet "hopkinsii" as a patronym honoring Donald Q. Hopkins in recognition for his collecting efforts at both the One Mile Creek site and other sites in the Okanagan highlands floras.
Along with the 2008 description of "Tetracentron atlanticum" from the Mid to Late Miocene of Iceland, Grímsson "et al" documented and figured "Tetracentron" pollen recovered from the Princeton Chert locality of the Allenby Formation.
"T. hopkinsii" is one of between three and four trochodendraceous species that have been described from the Klondike Mountain Formation. Broadly circumscribed, three other species have been identified in the Republic flora, "Paraconcavistylon wehrii", "Pentacentron sternhartae", and "Trochodendron nastae". Additionally the species "Trochodendron drachukii" is known from related Kamloops group shales at the McAbee Fossil Beds near Cache Creek, British Columbia. Manchester "et al" 2018 noted that "Tr. drachukii" is likely the fruits of "Tr. nastae", while "Pe. sternhartae" are likely the fruits of "Te. hopkinsii". If fossils of the fruits and foliage in attachment are found, that would bring the species count down to three whole plant taxa.
Description.
The elliptical "Tetracentron hopkinsii" type specimen leaves have a length to width ratio of 1.3:1, being up to in length and up to . The venation is palmate with one thin midvein and two to three sets of lateral primaries which curve upwards towards the apex. The outermost set of lateral primaries are thin, branching off from the midvein at a 90° angle. Conversely the inter one to two sets of lateral primaries are thicker and arch towards the leaf apex. The secondary veins which branch off the midvein are thin, and fork out from the midvein at 32°–40° angles before meeting secondaries from the lateral primaries and forming chevrons. The tertiary veins and quaternary veins are percurrent forking at 60° to 70° angles. The margin has regular teeth formed by a convex basal side and a convex apical side which may divide into a subtooth. A persistent gland is present in the tooth tip and which is supplied by a central vein and two converging lateral veins. The robust long petiole starts wide at its base, and gradually thins along its length before meeting the leaf in the center of the cordate leaf base.


Elsholtzia ciliata

Elsholtzia ciliata, commonly known as Vietnamese balm, xiang ru (香薷) or kinh giới in Vietnamese, is a plant native to Asia. In the US it can go by the name Crested Late Summer Mint. In US Vietnamese grocery stores is called Kinh Gioi, Vietnamese Lemon Balm or Vietnamese Lemon Mint.
Distribution.
The plant is native to Asia. However, the exact extent of its original range is unclear.
Today it is found through much of India, eastern Asia, and Europe. It grows throughout Nepal at elevations of 1500 to 3400 m.
Description.
"Elsholtzia ciliata" is an erect herb that grows to about 60 cm in height. The leaves are long, stalked, and serrated, and reach 2 to 8.5 cm in length and .8 to 2.5 cm in width. In shape they are ovate to lanceolate, with a gland-dotted underside.
Flowers of a purple color bloom in flat spikes in September and October. Seeds propagate within them.
Uses.
"Elsholtzia ciliata" has many cultural uses.
Culinary.
It is used in Vietnamese cuisine, where it is called "rau kinh giới" or "lá kinh giới". The leaves are used to flavor meat dishes, soups and salads with a lemony flavor.
The seeds are sometimes powdered and used for flavoring food.
Traditional medicine.
It is used common in herbal medicine, as it is considered to be carminative and astringent.
In Traditional Chinese Medicine, it is known as xiang ru (香薷) or aromatic madder and is used for stomach problems, to induce sweating, and also for halitosis.
Cultivation.
It is cultivated as an ornamental plant. It prefers moist soil, and grows mostly on exposed rocky slopes and other open, gravelly areas.
Propagated by both seeds and rhizomes.
It is banned in the state of Connecticut and classified as an noxious weed in 46 states.
It was first reported in the Americas as a weed in 1889.


Halosphaera

Halosphaera is a genus of green algae in the order Pyramimonadales.


Conospermum polycephalum

Conospermum polycephalum is a shrub endemic to Western Australia.
The spindly or semi-prostrate shrub typically grows to a height of . It blooms between July and September producing blue-white-pink flowers.
It is found in the Wheatbelt region of Western Australia where it grows in gravelly soils over laterite.


Wulfenia carinthiaca

Wulfenia carinthiaca, commonly named wulfenia, is a plant of the plantain family. It is endemic to the Gartnerkofel mountain of the Carnic Alps at the Austro-Italian border.
It was discovered in 1779 by Franz Xaver von Wulfen, for whom it is named.
"Wulfenia carinthiaca" is cultivated as an ornamental plant for gardens.
External links.
See it at Botanic Garden Carinthia in Klagenfurt - "Wulfenia carinthiaca"


Hypnodendron vitiense

Hypnodendron vitiense, commonly known as palm moss or palm tree moss, is a ground moss which can be divided into two varieties: "Hypnodendron vitiense" var. "vitiense" and "Hypnodendron vitiense" var. "australe". Distributed in Australia, Asia, and Oceania. The plant is commonly located in shaded wet forests and rainforests.


Pararistolochia schlechteri

Pararistolochia schlechteri is a vine endemic to the Northern (Oro) Province of Papua New Guinea. Although its distribution is supposedly restricted to the Northern Province, there have been two rare accounts of occurrences in the Madang and East Sepik Provinces Papua New Guinea.


Ipomoea obscura

Ipomoea obscura, the obscure morning glory or small white morning glory, is a species of the genus "Ipomoea". It is native to parts of Africa, Asia, and certain Pacific Islands, and it is present in other areas as an introduced species
The seed of this plant is toxic if ingested, however, the leaves can be cooked and eaten.


Antarctic beech

Antarctic beech is a common name of two species in the genus "Nothofagus":


Xanthophyllum pauciflorum

Xanthophyllum pauciflorum is a tree in the family Polygalaceae. The specific epithet "" is from the Latin meaning "few flowers", referring to the inflorescences.
Description.
"Xanthophyllum pauciflorum" grows up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The smooth bark is greyish. The flowers are yellowish, drying yellowish orange. The olive-brown fruits are round and measure up to in diameter.
Distribution and habitat.
"Xanthophyllum pauciflorum" is endemic to Borneo. Its habitat is mixed dipterocarp forest from to altitude.


Melanophylla alnifolia

Melanophylla alnifolia is a species of plant in the Torricelliaceae family. It is endemic to Madagascar. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Poeppigia

Poeppigia is a genus of flowering plants in the family Fabaceae. It belongs to the subfamily Dialioideae. It contains a single species, Poeppigia procera.


Muehlenbeckia hastulata

Muehlenbeckia hastulata is a species of plant in the family Polygonaceae. It is a rapidly growing climbing plant and is common in Chile.


Lithocarpus coopertus

Lithocarpus coopertus is a tree in the beech family Fagaceae. The specific epithet "" is from the Latin meaning "covered over", referring to the acorn.
Description.
"Lithocarpus coopertus" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The greyish brown bark is smooth, flaky or lenticellate. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its brown acorns are ovoid to conical and measure up to across.
Distribution and habitat.
"Lithocarpus coopertus" grows naturally in Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo and the Philippines. Its habitat is dipterocarp, peat swamp and "kerangas" forests up to altitude.
Uses.
The timber is used locally in home construction and for firewood.


Papaver commutatum

Papaver commutatum, the Caucasian scarlet poppy, is a species of flowering plant in the family Papaveraceae native to northern Turkey, northwestern Iran and the Caucasus. It is an erect annual growing to tall by wide, with hairy stalks and leaves. The flower is bowl-shaped and about in diameter, bright red with prominent black blotches at the bases of the petals, and is borne in early summer. The flowers are followed by spherical seed heads.
The Latin specific epithet "commutatum" means “changed”, referring to a change of name from another species.
The cultivar "P. commutatum" 'Ladybird' is a popular and easy garden annual for a sunny position in a moist, fertile spot. It bears many flowers on each plant and blooms from late spring to early summer. It is frequently a feature of cultivated wildflower meadows. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit, as has the species.
The main alkaloid of this species is isocorydine.


Callitriche palustris

Callitriche palustris, the vernal water-starwort, narrow-fruited water-starwort, or spiny water starwort, is a species of aquatic plants. It is the type species of its genus.


Haworthiopsis nigra

Haworthiopsis nigra, formerly Haworthia nigra, is a species of flowering succulent plant from the Western and Eastern Cape Provinces, South Africa.
Description.
"Haworthiopsis nigra" typically grows its leaves in three tiers (though some varieties have multifarious leaf arrangement). The leaves, which are a very dark green to brownish black, are covered in dark tubercles, and are packed densely along its stems.
Taxonomy.
The species was formerly placed in "Haworthia" subgenus "Hexangulares". Phylogenetic studies have demonstrated that subgenus "Hexangulares" is actually relatively unrelated to other Haworthias (being more closely related to "Gasteria"). The species was therefore moved to "Haworthiopsis".
Distribution.
This species extends across the southern part of South Africa. The variety "diversifolia" occurs in the west of its range, in the Western Cape Province around Loeriesfontein. The type variety "nigra" occurs to the east of its range, in the Eastern Cape as far east as East London.
Within this range, it typically grows in very well-drained sandy soil, usually under a bush or rocks which serve as partial protection from the sun.


Gastrolobium spinosum

Gastrolobium spinosum, also known as prickly poison, is a shrub in the family Fabaceae. It is endemic to Southwest Australia
The species ranges from 0.3 to 3.5 metres in height. It has leaves with spiky, dentate margins and a long, tapering, pointed apex. The pea flowers are yellow to orange with a band of red surrounding the yellow centre, and a pink and maroon keel. These are produced from early spring to early summer (September to December in Australia).
The species was first formally described by English botanist George Bentham, this description being published by John Lindley in "A Sketch of the Vegetation of the Swan River Colony" in 1839.


Ilex costaricensis

Ilex costaricensis is a species of plant in the family Aquifoliaceae. It is found in Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Panama. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Frasera tubulosa

Frasera tubulosa (syn. "Swertia tubulosa") is a species of flowering plant in the gentian family known by the common name Kern frasera.
Distribution.
The gentian is endemic to California, where it is known only from the southern Sierra Nevada, primarily within the Sequoia National Forest and Sequoia National Park.
The plant grows in open mountain areas, and in foothill chaparral and woodlands habitats.
Description.
"Frasera tubulosa" "Frasera tubulosa" is a perennial herb growing just a few centimeters tall to about a meter in maximum height. The pointed, lance-shaped basal leaves are up to 9 centimeters long. They are green with white margins, and they tend to have downcurved tips. Smaller leaves are arranged in whorls higher on the stem.
The inflorescence is an open panicle of flowers atop the stem. Each flower has a calyx of four pointed sepals and a bell-shaped corolla of four pointed lobes each roughly a centimeter long. The corolla is white or blue-tinged with light blue veining. There are four stamens tipped with large anthers and a central ovary.


Didiereoideae


Magnoliaceae

The Magnoliaceae () are a flowering plant family, the magnolia family, in the order Magnoliales. It consists of two subfamilies: Magnolioideae, of which "Magnolia" is the best-known genus, and Liriodendroidae, a monogeneric subfamily, of which "Liriodendron" (tulip trees) is the only genus.
Unlike most angiosperms, whose flower parts are in whorls (rings), the Magnoliaceae have their stamens and pistils in spirals on a conical receptacle. This arrangement is found in some fossil plants and is believed to be a basal or early condition for angiosperms. The flowers also have parts not distinctly differentiated into sepals and petals, while angiosperms that evolved later tend to have distinctly differentiated sepals and petals. The poorly differentiated perianth parts that occupy both positions are known as tepals.
The family has about 219 species and ranges across subtropical eastern North America, Mexico and Central America, the West Indies, tropical South America, southern and eastern India, Sri Lanka, Indochina, Malesia, China, Japan, and Korea.
Genera.
The number of genera in Magnoliaceae is a subject of debate. Up to 17 have been recognized, including "Alcimandra", "Lirianthe", "Manglietia", "Michelia", "Pachylarnax", "Parakmeria", "Talauma" and "Yulania". However, many recent studies have opted to merge all genera within subfamily Magnolioideae into the genus "Magnolia". Thus, Magnoliaceae would include only two genera, "Magnolia" and "Liriodendron".
Description.
The monophyly of Magnoliaceae is supported by a number of shared morphological characters among the various genera in the family. Most have bisexual flowers (with the exception of "Kmeria" and some species of "Magnolia" section "Gynopodium"), showy, fragrant, radial, and with an elongated receptacle. Leaves are alternate, simple, and sometimes lobed. The inflorescence is a solitary, showy flower with indistinguishable petals and sepals. Sepals range from six to many; stamens are numerous and feature short filaments which are poorly differentiated from the anthers. Carpels are usually numerous, distinct, and on an elongated receptacle or torus. The fruit is an etaerio of follicles which usually become closely appressed as they mature and open along the abaxial surface. Seeds have a fleshy coat, aril, and color that ranges from red to orange (except "Liriodendron"). Magnoliaceae flowers are beetle pollinated, except for "Liriodendron", which is bee pollinated. The carpels of" Magnolia" flowers are especially thick to avoid damage by beetles that land, crawl, and feast on them. The seeds of Magnolioideae are bird-dispersed, while the seeds of "Liriodendron" are wind-dispersed.
Biogeography.
Due to its great age, the geographical distribution of the Magnoliaceae has become disjunct or fragmented as a result of major geologic events such as ice ages, continental drift, and mountain formation. This distribution pattern has isolated some species, while keeping others in close contact.
Extant species of the Magnoliaceae are widely distributed in temperate and tropical Asia from the Himalayas to Japan and southwest through Malaysia and New Guinea. Asia is home to about two-thirds of the species in Magnoliaceae, with the remainder of the family spread across the Americas with temperate species extending into southern Canada and tropical elements extending into Brazil and the West Indies.
Systematics.
Due to the family-wide morphological similarity, no consensus has yet emerged on the number of genera in the family. The development of DNA sequencing at the end of the 20th century had a profound impact on the research of phylogenetic relationships within the family. The employment of "ndh"F and cpDNA sequences has refuted many of the traditionally accepted phylogenetic relationships within the Magnoliaceae. For example, the genera "Magnolia" and "Michelia" were shown to be paraphyletic when the remaining four genera of the Magnolioideae are split out. In fact, even many of the subgenera ("Magnolia" subg. "Magnolia", "Magnolia" subg. "Talauma") have been found to be paraphyletic. Although no completely resolved phylogeny for the family has yet been determined, these technological advances have allowed systematists to broadly circumscribe major lineages.
Economic significance.
As a whole, the Magnoliaceae are not an economically significant family. With the exception of ornamental cultivation, the economic significance of magnolias is generally confined to the use of wood from certain timber species and the use of bark and flowers from several species believed to possess medicinal qualities. The wood of the American tuliptree, "Liriodendron tulipifera" and the wood of the cucumbertree magnolia, "Magnolia acuminata", and, to a lesser degree, that of the Frasier magnolia, "Magnolia fraseri", are harvested and marketed collectively as "yellow poplar." This is a lightweight and exceptionally fine-grained wood, lending itself to precision woodworking for purposes such as pipe organ building.
Magnolias have a rich cultural tradition in China, where references to their healing qualities go back thousands of years. The Chinese have long used the bark of "Magnolia officinalis", a magnolia native to the mountains of China with large leaves and fragrant white flowers, as a remedy for cramps, abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, and indigestion. Certain magnolia flowers, such as the buds of "Magnolia liliiflora", have been used to treat chronic respiratory and sinus infections and lung congestion. Recently, magnolia bark has become incorporated into alternative medicine in the west, where tablets made from the bark of "M. officinalis" have been marketed as an aid for anxiety, allergies, asthma, and weight loss. Compounds found in magnolia bark might have antibacterial and antifungal properties, but no large-scale study on the health effects of magnolia bark or flowers has yet been conducted.


Pittosporum wingii

Pittosporum wingii, sometimes known as the mountain pittosporum or hairy pittosporum, is a shrub or small tree growing in tropical Queensland in Australia. It may reach 9 metres tall, growing in rainforest or moist eucalyptus areas. It grows in a variety of different sites, in the forest understory from 150 metres to 1100 metres above sea level


Anthocerotales


Cussonia spicata

Cussonia spicata, known as spiked cabbage tree, lowveld cabbage tree or common cabbage tree, is a tree in the family Araliaceae, which is native to the moister regions of Sub-Saharan Africa. It is cultivated as a garden plant in areas without extreme degrees of frost. It is one of the favorite foods of wild elephants.
Description.
Larger specimens develop a sturdy trunk and a rounded, spreading canopy, and can reach a height of 15 meters. The attractive leaves grow from the end of thick branches to form rounded heads. The species name "spicata" means "spike-like", and suggests the arrangement of its flowers.
Range.
It occurs naturally from southern and eastern South Africa to the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Zambia and northwards into tropical Africa.
Ethnomedical uses.
It has been used in traditional African medicine and its medicinal properties are being investigated.


Ripogonaceae


Black rot on orchids

Black rot on orchids is caused by "Pythium" and "Phytophthora" species. Black rot targets a variety of orchids but Cattleya orchids are especially susceptible. "Pythium ultimum" and "Phytophthora cactorum" are known to cause black rot in orchids.
"Pythium ultimum" is a pathogen that causes damping-off and root rot on plants. Symptoms of this pathogen include stunting and chlorosis. Identifying "Pythium ultimum" has traditionally been done by examining oogonia, antheridia, and sporangium structure. Now, PCR (polymerase chain reaction) technology can identify the pathogen using DNA fragments.
"Phytophthora cactorum" is a pathogen that causes root rot on many plant species. Symptoms of this pathogen include necrosis in the roots, chlorosis, and wilting. "Phytophthora cactorum" can be identified by examining oogonia, antheridium, oospore, and sporangia structure.
Disease cycle.
"Phytophthora cactorum"
"P. cactorum" requires free water to reproduce. Zoospores are released from sporangium and blown via wind or rain splash and use free water on the leaf to germinate. An appressorium is formed and a penetration peg penetrates the leaf surface. From there, hyphae grow throughout the leaf and infects all plant tissues. While this pathogen enters through the leaf, the disease is caused by root rot that causes symptoms of foliar blight. The mycelium gives rise to chlamydospores and oospores. Oospores produce mycelium that produce sporangia. Oospores are the survival structure of P. cactorum. Chlamydospores produce mycelium that continues to infect the plant.
"Pythium ultimum"
"P. ultimum" requires moist conditions to germinate. When conditions are favorable, surviving oospores in the soil produce a sporangia and zoospores which facilitate infection via germ tube. From there, mycelium will grow throughout all plant tissues. The disease is primarily a root rot that causes symptoms of foliar blight. Sporangia are produced on the mycelium and can produce zoospores for asexual reproduction or an oogonium and antheridium for sexual reproduction. Once the oogonium is fertilized, the oospore either infects via germ tube or produces sporangia and zoospores.
Environmental conditions.
"Pythium ultimum"
"Pythium species" rely on moist soils and cool conditions. Moist conditions allow the movement of zoospores which infect the plant. From here, the fungus penetrates the leaf surface and mycelial growth takes over the plant.
"Phytophthora cactorum"
"Phytophthora" species thrive in moist soils. When there is free water in the soil, conditions are met for sporangia to be produced. As the disease cycle mentioned, sporangia produce zoospores which are infectious. Spring and autumn also produce temperatures that are most favorable for zoospore production.
Control and management.
Avoiding black rot in orchids is challenging. Avoiding symptomatic plants and isolating new plants from larger populations is helpful. In addition, decontaminating pots, tools, and work surfaces ensures that there are no contamination that could infect healthy plants. Potting media should also be sterilized as spores and hyphae can survive in dust or free water. Being careful not to over water, providing good drainage, air circulation, and proper potting media are helpful to prevent zoospores from having an optimal environment to move and infect. Fungicides are also used. The primary fungicide treatments to control black rot are metalaxyl, fosetyl-AI, and etridiazole that are sprayed onto the plant. Poultices such as copper sulfate and lime or cinnamon can also be useful fungicides.


Hemandradenia

Hemandradenia is a genus of plant in family Connaraceae. It contains the following species (but this list may be incomplete):


Encephalartos cycadifolius

Encephalartos cycadifolius is a species of cycad that is native to the Winterberg mountains to the north of Bedford in the Eastern Cape province, South Africa. It is found at elevations from 1,200 to 1,800 meters.
Description.
It is a cycad with a trunk at least partly underground, up to 1.5 m high and with a diameter of 25-30 cm, often with secondary stems originating from shoots that arise at the base of the main stem.
The leaves, pinnate, 60–90 cm long, are arranged in a crown at the apex of the stem and are supported by a 10-20 cm long petiole, without thorns; each leaf is composed of numerous pairs of lanceolate leaflets, with an entire margin, of an average length of 9-12 cm, of olive-green color, inserted on the yellowish rachis.
It is a dioecious species with male specimens that have 1 or 2 cones, cylindrical-conical, 13–22 cm long and 5–7 cm broad, sessile, covered with a greyish tomentum, and female specimens with 1 or 2 cylindrical-ovoid cones, pedunculate, 20–30 cm long and 16–18 cm in diameter, greenish-yellow in color, also thickly tomentose, gray to brown in color.
The seeds are coarsely ovoid, 20–30 mm long, covered by a yellow-orange to amber color sarcotesta.


Koeberliniaceae


Zinowiewia madsenii

Zinowiewia madsenii is a species of plant in the family Celastraceae. It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Shelton Oak

The Shelton Oak, also known as Owen Glendwr's Observatory or the Glendower Oak, was a veteran oak tree near Shrewsbury, England. It may be the "grette Oak at Shelton" mentioned in a document from the time of Henry III (1216–1272). The oak is said to have been climbed by Owain Glyndŵr to view the 1403 Battle of Shrewsbury, from which its alternative name derives. In later years the tree became renowned for its hollow trunk which was variously described as able to accommodate twenty people, six people sitting for dinner or an eight-person quadrille dance. The tree had fallen by 1940 and its remains were removed in the 1950s to facilitate improvements to an adjacent road junction.
Battle of Shrewsbury.
The tree stood around from the town of Shrewsbury at a site from which The Wrekin and, later, Shrewsbury Cathedral were visible. The oak is believed to be mentioned in a document dating to the reign of Henry III (1216-1272) which refers to a "grette Oak at Shelton" that stood on the land of Adam Waring.
The oak is linked with a legend of Owain Glyndŵr, the last native Welshman to hold the title Prince of Wales (). In 1403 he marched from Wales with his men to join an army led by Henry Percy (Hotspur) who was fighting a rebellion against the English king Henry IV. His route of march was blocked by the king's men on 21 July so Owain climbed the Shelton Oak to view the progress of the Battle of Shrewsbury, some distant. From his vantage point Glyndŵr could see that Hotspur's father Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland's had not joined the battle and Hotspur's men were losing. Glyndŵr decided not to fight and retreated to Oswestry. The story is regarded as a legend as history is not certain if Glyndŵr actually marched to Shrewsbury.
Later history.
The Shelton Oak was pictured in Jacob George Strutt's 1822 book "Sylva Britannica". In 1823 it was recorded to be at least high; in circumference at ground level and at a height of . It was also noted that the hollow trunk had "sufficient room for, at least, half a dozen to take a snug dinner". Until 1824, when it was sold, the land the oak stood upon was owned by the Mytton family. A report from this year noted that at a height of the circumference of the oak was and at the circumference was . It was noted at this time that the hollow trunk could accommodate 20 people.
During the early 19th-century a plaque was erected at the site that read: "On July XXII AD MCCCCIIII OWEN GLENDWR ascended this Tree to reconnoitre, on his march to Shrewsbury, to join the daring Hotspur, against King Henry IV; but, finding his friends were defeated, returned from this spot into Wales" (the date and year stated here, 22 July 1404, are not those of the actual battle). The tree was also known at this time as "Owen Glendwr's Observatory" and the "Glendower Oak" due to its association with the legend. An acorn from the tree was planted by the gate of Pentreheylin Hall by a Mrs Croxon in 1832 and was flourishing more than 40 years later. A report from 1878 suggests that the hollow trunk of the Shelton Oak was by then large enough for eight people to dance a quadrille within it.
A second acorn from the tree was grown into a sapling and planted at The Elms in Shrewsbury by Dr Charles Waring Saxton on 5 February 1880.
By 1884 the tree was said to be "in a complete state of decay, and hollow, even in the larger ramifications". The tree had died by 1940 and the stump was removed in the 1950s to allow improvements to take place to the adjacent junction of the A5 and the Welshpool Road. Shropshire County Council opened the Mytton Oak Remembrance Park in 2014 and planted a descendant of the Elms oak tree (therefore "grandson" of the Shelton Oak) within its grounds.


Cinnamodendron dinisii

Cinnamodendron dinisii is a species of flowering plant in the family Canellaceae. It is found in Southern Brazil.


Banksieaeidites

Banksieaeidites is a plant genus that encompasses fossil pollen that can be attributed to the Proteaceae tribe Banksieae, but cannot be attributed to a genus.
It was published in 1950 by Isabel Cookson and Suzanne Duigan, on the grounds that the two then-members of Banksieae, "Banksia" and "Dryandra", cannot be distinguished by the pollen.
Since then, "Banksia" and "Dryandra" have been further grouped into subtribe Banksiinae, and another subtribe, Musgraveinae, erected to contain two new genera. The correct interpretation for "Banksieaeidites" does not appear to have been clarified since then, but treatment of the analogous genus for fossil leaves, "Banksieaephyllum", is no longer consistent, with some botanists holding that it is still defined in terms of Banksieae, while others now treat it as defined in terms of Banksiinae. "Dryandra" has now been transferred into "Banksia". Although as yet undetermined, the latter interpretation would result in "Banksieaeidites" becoming a nomenclatural synonym of "Banksia".
Species include:


Lygodium

Lygodium (climbing fern) is a genus of about 40 species of ferns, native to tropical regions across the world, with a few temperate species in eastern Asia and eastern North America. It is the sole genus in the family Lygodiaceae in the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I). Alternatively, the genus may be placed as the only genus in the subfamily Lygodioideae of a more broadly defined family Schizaeaceae, the family placement used in "Plants of the World Online" .
Description.
"Lygodium" are unusual in that the rachis, or midrib, of the frond is thin, flexible, and long, the frond unrolling with indeterminate growth and the rachis twining around supports, so that each frond forms a distinct vine. The fronds may be from long, depending on the species.
Uses.
"Lygodium" species, known as "nito", are used as a source of fibers in the Philippines. The fibers are used as material for weaving, most notably of traditional salakot headgear.
As invasive species.
Some "Lygodium" species are now considered very problematic invasive weeds in the southeastern United States. Populations of "Lygodium" have increased more than 12-fold over the past decade, as noted by Florida's Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
Japanese climbing fern ("Lygodium japonicum") was added to the Florida Noxious Weed List in 1999. It is also a major problem in pine plantations, causing contamination and harvesting problems for the pine straw industry. Old World climbing fern ("Lygodium microphyllum") infests cypress swamps and other hydric sites, forming a monoculture. This massive infestation displaces all native flora and fauna, completely changing the ecosystem of the area.
Plants in this genus have basal chromosome counts of "n=28, 29, 30".


Helodiaceae

Helodiaceae is a family of mosses belonging to the order Hypnales.
Genera:


Eufriesea surinamensis

Eufriesea surinamensis belongs to the tribe of euglossine bees and as such is a species of orchid bee. This should not be mistaken with the species group "surinamensis", which includes "Ef. surinamensis" among other "Eufriesea" species.
Taxonomy and phylogeny.
"Eufriesea surinamensis" was first described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in 1758. The genera "Eufriesia" and "Euplusia" were combined in 1979 by Kimsey. The genus "Eufriesea," consisting of 52 species, was later reviewed by Kimsey in 1982.
Euglossine bees are a relatively new group of bee, sharing a common ancestor with the Bombini, one of the four tribes of corbiculate bee that have a pollen basket. The genus "Eufriesia" is the second largest within the Euglossini tribe. It is challenging to distinguish between the over fifty "Eufriesea" species, particularly since the females mimic each other. Within the surinamensis group it is very difficult to distinguish between females of different species.
Description and identification.
"Ef. surinamensis" are characterized by their long tongue and yellow hindtibial posterior fringe. The forehead and thorax are black with a colorful, metallic face; the labrum is also rounded. One can distinguish between the two sexes by looking at the ridges on the clypeus. Males have three, while females only have one. Also, a female's clypeus is not depressed at the tentorial pits. Males are approximately 16–19 mm in length, with a tongue of about 13–14 mm long. "Ef. surinamensis" can be distinguished from other euglossine species by the knob above their hindtibial spurs and by the darkened medial cell in their wings.
Their tongues can be anywhere from 68% to greater than 80% of their body length. Each female cares for her own nest, though she may build nests in close proximity to other females due to limited availability of good locations.
Distribution and habitat.
Female bees construct aggregated nests of varying sizes out of mud, bark, and resin. Nests are typically located in sheltered locations such as small crevices found in cliffsides and cracks in trees. They have also adapted to humans by creating their nests below buildings, within walls and under bridges.
Though females nest in aggregations, this is due more to lack of suitable locations than any social interactions. They work independent of each other, though they nest adjacent to each other. Nests are typically a linear series of cells with an outer layer made using bark and a smooth inner layer of wax.
These bees are commonly found in the neotropical regions throughout Mexico, Central America and South America.
Seasonality.
"Eufriesea surinamensis" is considered to be a characteristically seasonal bee. This activity of this bee species is restricted during the late spring and summer months, as was observed in the Atlantic Forest region. Specifically, the unique climate of each area largely determines the composition of the bee community, since environmental variations affect pollen and nectar source locations as well as nesting places. They begin foraging early in the dry season, about four months from winter to early spring, and continue during the wet season, about seven months from spring to fall.
Nesting cycle.
As each female cares for her own nest, there are no colonies. However, these bees do nest in aggregation of up to thirty nests in one location, with each nest holding up to eight eggs. Females have been seen nesting in more than one location.
Females make two types of foraging trips: to collect pollen or nesting materials. They typically forage for pollen in the morning, to provision their nests. They will also search for building materials for a nest, including bark and resin, which they attach to their corbicula when flying back to the nest. These bees have been observed to return to their nests from distances as far as 23 km.
Being a seasonal bee, females only create nests during the dry season, about four months from winter to early spring, with larvae developing during the wet season, about seven months from spring to fall. Developing young grow quickly and spend most of the wet season in larval diapause, a delay in development so that the juveniles can emerge into the optimal environment to begin creating their own nests and repeating the cycle. Eggs are typically 6 mm long by 1 mm wide and during development larvae will grow from 0.5 cm up to 2.5 cm.
As these bees are relatively short-lived, there is no generation overlap. However, old, abandoned and empty nests will be repaired and reused by new female bees. This is advantageous as they will only need to provision pollen to nurture larval development. It also has the added benefit of decreasing the time required for nest completion and allowing females to put more resources into laying more eggs.
Behavior.
Dominance hierarchy.
Though female bees build nests in aggregations, each is in charge of building and provisioning her own nests. There is no queen bee overseeing the work or workers to help her.
Mating behavior.
Male hind legs are specialized to store aromatic compounds. There can be up to seventy compounds in each tibia. Some researchers believe that these compounds are used to form male leks, while others believe that the compounds may be changed into sex hormones. Still others believe that these aromatic compounds may be a courtship gift or an anti-predator ward. In 2005, Thomas Eltz and his research group discovered that male "Eufriesea" will release different aromatic compounds using complex leg maneuvers, giving credence to the hypothesis that these compounds play a role in mating, though they may have multiple uses.
A study found that "Ef. surinamensis" males have a marked preference for the compound vanillin, compared to 1.8 cineole and eugenol.
Nest visits among females.
Nesting female bees will often visit other bee's nests. Myers and Loveless classified five different entry types:
Most females visit a nest after completing a nest and beginning work on a new one. Nest defense and invasion can become very violent with both bees falling to the ground. Females will lock mandibles when fighting. Though no bees were observed to be injured after a fight took place, fighting may deplete them of physical resources they could use elsewhere.
Traplining.
Given their large ranges, it is thought that bees of the euglossine tribe trapline for more efficient foraging. Traplining occurs when an insect will visit a series of flowers in a stable, repeatable sequence. Traplining gives the bee an advantage in that they have a series of flowers they can visit to gain nectar. There is also a benefit to the flora, which can be many kilometers from each other, but can still be cross-pollinated because they are on the same traplining path. "Ef. surinamensis" and other orchid bees are major players in flora gene flow, and are vital to the continued health of tropical forests.
Kin selection.
As generations do not overlap, there is no active kin selection. However, it is quite likely that female bees will stay in the same area they were born in, reusing the same aggregation of nests they were born in to bear their offspring.
Also, as only one generation exists at a time, there are no worker bees with a vested interest in more sisters so the sex ratio is about 1:1. A study by Janzen found that in 297 bees, 59% were female. As there is little to no sociality in this species, the sex ratio is not very skewed towards females
Mimicry and camouflage.
Female "Eufriesea" have fierce stings, so predators will want to avoid them. Among the genus "Eufriesea", females have evolved Müllerian mimetic complexes, making it difficult to distinguish between the species in the "surinamensis" group. Male "Ef. surinamensis" are stingless, but are Batesian automimics as their yellow hindtibial fringes trick other animals into believing they are stinging females and not stingless males. There are also flies that mimic "Eufriesea," including asilids. Mimicking "Eufriesea" may provide these flies protection from their predators.
In the "surinamensis" group, "Ef. surinamensis" and "Ef. mexicana" look very similar and it can be difficult to distinguish between the two. "Ef. mexicana" males have an elongate apical point of the subgenital plate that "Ef. surinamensis" males do not have. Also, the apical dorsal segment may be blue for "Ef. mexicana", particularly for females. "Ef. surinamensis" females are never blue. However, some "Ef. mexicana" females are not blue, leaving the medial cell as the only way to distinguish between the two species. If darkened, the bee is of "Ef. surinamensis", otherwise it is "Ef. mexicana."
Nests do not need to be camouflaged as they tend to be hidden away under buildings, or in small crevices.
Interactions with other species.
Diet.
Adult bees visit various flora for nectar and pollen. Adults drink nectar, and females collect pollen for larvae to feed on during development. Males also visit flora for aromatic compounds, but it is uncertain what these are used for. Listed below are some of the flora that "Eufriesea surinamensis" forage from.
Species of flora visited for nectar:
Species of flora visited for pollen:
Species of flora visited for aromatic materials:
Parasites.
"Exaerete dentata" and "Exaerete smaragdina", which both belong to the tribe Euglossini, are two kleptoparasitic bees that will lay their eggs in "Ef. surinamensis" nests. A female "Ex. dentata" will open a sealed cell carefully, removing bits of bark from the cell cap. Though some bark will fall away, most of it will stay attached to the female for later use. Once she can reach inside, she will use her mandibles to crush the "Ef. surinamensis" egg and replace it with her own egg. Then she will reseal the cell using the original bark.
Not only are nests of "Ef. surinamensis" parasitized by other species, but they also take advantage of empty nests to lay their eggs. "Ef. surinamensis" has been found in abandoned nests of "Centris trigonoides" and "Monobia nigripennis" built within the shells of termite nests.
Predators.
There are no known predators or parasites that attack "Eufriesea" adults.
Diseases.
It has been difficult for researchers to raise "Ef. surinamensis" larvae as they are soon attacked by molds once the cell wall has been opened. It is believed that resin use is an adaptation on the female's part to help her offspring grow to adulthood.
Interactions with humans.
"Ef. surinamensis" is responsible for pollinating a wide variety of orchids and other flora in neotropical regions. Thanks to their long flight ranges, these bees are crucial for the continued reproduction of scattered and uncommon flora throughout tropical forests. Thus deforestation and fragmentation of their habitats not only jeopardizes these bees, but also the entire surrounding ecosystem.
Though females can build nests under houses and around humans, there has been no evidence of "Ef. surinamensis" acting as a pest or causing health problems with its sting.
External links.
High-quality photos of "E. surinamensis"
Mummified "E. surinamensis" found in Panama City altar


Orthotrichum

Orthotrichum is a genus of moss in the family Orthotrichaceae. It is distributed throughout the world.
There are about 125 species in the genus.
Species include:


Vacuolar pathway

Vacuolar pathway:
Movement of water molecules in plant cells via the vacuoles located in the cytoplasm of the cell. The water molecules encounter high resistance however and as a result little flow usually occurs making this pathway insignificant, the Apoplast pathway and Symplast pathway being the major pathways for movement of water in plants.
Water moves by osmosis across the vacuoles of the cells of the root system. The water moves down a concentration gradient from the soil solution to the xylem.


Symplast

The symplast of a plant is the inner side of the plasma membrane in which water and low-molecular-weight solutes can freely diffuse. Symplast cells have more than one nucleus.
Or, The connection made between cells by the cytoplasmic connection of plasmodesmata is called symplast
(Water and low molecular weight pass through pore in the adjacent cell walls)And cytoplasmic connection through pore are known as plasmodesmata..
The plasmodesmata allow the direct flow of small molecules such as sugars, amino acids, and ions between cells. Larger molecules, including transcription factors and plant viruses, can also be transported through with the help of actin structures.
This allows direct cytoplasm-to-cytoplasm flow of water and other nutrients along concentration gradients. In particular, symplastic flow is used in the root systems to bring in nutrients from soil. It moves these solutes from epidermis cells through the cortex into the endodermis. Once solutes reach the endodermal cells through apoplastic flow, they are forced into the symplastic pathway due to the presence of the Casparian strip. Once the solutes are passively filtered, they eventually reach the pericycle, where it can be moved into the xylem for long-distance transport.
It is contrasted with the apoplastic flow, which uses cell wall transport.
History.
The symplastic transport was first realized by Eduard Tangl in 1879, who also discovered the plasmodesmata, a term coined by Eduard Strasburger, 1901. In 1880, Hanstein coined the term symplast. The contrasting terms apoplast and symplast were used together in 1930 by Münch.


Thyridachne

Thyridachne is a genus of plants in the family Poaceae. The only known species is Thyridachne tisserantii, native to the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Central African Republic.


Kerriochloa siamensis


Diplopanax

Diplopanax is a genus of flowering trees placed in the family Cornaceae or Nyssaceae. Its two known extant species inhabit the wet tropical mountains of Vietnam and southern China. They are broad-leaved evergreen trees with woody fruits and white or yellow flowers.
"Diplopanax" was originally described from only one species, "D. stachyanthus", and placed in the family Araliaceae, but this species was later discovered to be congeneric with "Mastixicarpum", a genus of flowering plants known only from fossils and assumed extinct since the Pliocene. (This makes "Mastixicarpum" an example of a Lazarus genus.) One additional species ("D. vietnamensis") was subsequently found and described.
Classification of "Diplopanax" is inconsistent due to ongoing investigation into its phylogenetic relationships. Although generally placed in Cornaceae, it has also been included in the family Nyssaceae, when that family is removed from Cornaceae. "Diplopanax" is also sometimes separated, along with the genus "Mastixia", into the family Mastixiaceae.


Paspalum conjugatum

Paspalum conjugatum, commonly known as carabao grass or hilo grass, is a tropical to subtropical perennial grass. It is originally from the American tropics, but has been naturalized widely in tropical Southeast Asia and Pacific Islands. It has also spread to Northern Africa and Northern and Eastern Australia. It is also known as sour paspalum, T-grass (after the shape of their panicle), or more confusingly, as "buffalo grass" or "sour grass".
Taxonomy.
"Paspalum conjugatum" belongs to the genus "Paspalum" (bahiagrasses or crown grasses) in the grass family Poaceae. It was first described in 1772 in by the Swedish botanist Peter Jonas Bergius.
Distribution.
"Paspalum conjugatum" is native to the tropics of the Americas. It was introduced to tropical Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands during the colonial period. It is particularly abundant in the Philippines from where the English common name "carabao grass" originates (named after the carabao, the local water buffalo breed); and in Hawaii where it is known as "hilo grass". They have also spread to Northern Africa and Northern and Eastern Australia.
Description.
"Paspalum conjugatum" has a creeping stoloniferous habit. The culms are branching and slightly compressed dorsoventrally, they are usually reddish to purplish in color. The leaf sheaths are strongly flattened, usually long and hairy around the nodes. The leaves are smooth, around in length, and in width. They are linear to lance-like in shape, tapering to a point. The inflorescence are characteristically T-shaped, with two (rarely three) racemes.
Biology.
They flower approximately 4 to 5 weeks after germination and continue flowering year-round. They rarely germinate from seed. Instead they usually propagate via stolons.
Ecology and uses.
"Paspalum conjugatum" grow from sea level to around in altitude. They commonly grow near riparian and disturbed habitats.
They are usually unpalatable to cattle, especially in the flowering stage. When grown for forage, they are usually closely cropped continually, to maintain palatability. It is suitable forage for water buffalos, however, hence the common name of "carabao grass" or "buffalo grass". They can be a serious weed among agricultural crops. They are also grown as lawn grass.


Aglaia meridionalis

Aglaia meridionalis is a species of plant in the family Meliaceae. It is endemic to Queensland, Australia.


Massif de la Hotte

The Massif de la Hotte is a mountain range in southwestern Haiti, on the far-western end of the Tiburon Peninsula. The region is relatively remote and is one of the most biologically diverse and significant areas of all of Hispaniola. It also supports some of the last stands of Haiti's dense cloud forest on its peaks. About 2.5 million years ago, the Massif de la Hotte was separated from the rest of the country by a deep, wide sea channel, which resulted in a hotbed of endemism in its bird, plant, and reptile communities.
Haiti has a World Heritage site located here. In the wake of the 2010 Haiti earthquake, UNESCO's World Heritage Program is helping Haiti assess the damage.
Biodiversity and conservation.
Most of the island's endemic species exist within the 'de la Hotte Biosphere. Rising to a peak level of approximately 7700 ft (2347 m) in Pic Macaya; Haiti's second highest peak, the Massif's high and fluctuating elevations supports some of Hispaniola's highest levels of biological diversity and endemism. Much of the region lies within the Pic Macaya National Park.
Conservation International recognizes the region as one of the most conservation-urgent in the world in which 13 of Hispaniola's most critically endangered species (all amphibians) occur. Among the most critically endangered frog species are "Eleutherodactylus chlorophenax" and "Eleutherodactylus parapelates", two frog species endemic to Haiti. The Hispaniolan trogon has a recognized presence in the region.
La Hotte Biosphere Reserve.
The La Hotte Biosphere Reserve was designated by UNESCO in 2016. The reserve covers an area of 435,193.5 ha (terrestrial and marine), with a core area of 117,119 ha (terrestrial 52,781.5 ha, marine 64,337.5 ha), a buffer zone of 185,027.5 ha (terrestrial 130,074.5 ha, marine: 54,953 ha), and a transition area of 133,047 ha (terrestrial 82,423 ha, marine: 50,624 ha).


Foamy bark canker

The foamy bark canker is a disease affecting oak trees in California caused by the fungus "Geosmithia pallida" and spread by the Western oak bark beetle ("Pseudopityopthorus pubipennis"). This disease is only seen through the symbiosis of the bark beetles and the fungal pathogen. The bark beetles target oak trees and bore holes through the peridermal tissues, making tunnels within the phloem. The fungal spores are brought into these tunnels by the beetles and begin to colonize the damaged cells inside the tunnels. Symptoms of the developing fungus include wet discoloration seeping from the beetle entry holes as the fungus begins to consume phloem and likely other tissues. If bark is removed, necrosis of the phloem can be observed surrounding the entry hole(s). As the disease progresses, a reddish sap and foamy liquid oozes from entry holes, thus giving the disease the name Foamy bark canker. Eventually after the disease has progressed, the tree dies. This disease is important because of its detrimental effects on oak trees and its ability to spread to several new Californian counties in just a couple years.
Hosts and symptoms.
Hosts associated with "Geosmithia pallida" include a number of tree species, including oak and other hardwoods, pine and spruce trees, depending on the beetle vector. In this case, the western oak bark beetles target live oak trees of western United States. Beetles tend to attack stressed trees that are already weakened from drought or injury. Symptoms causing branch dieback and tree death also include a cinnamon-colored gum seeping from multiple beetle entry holes on the bole, followed by a prolific, cream-colored foamy liquid. These symptoms, as well as signs (entry holes, larvae, beetles) of bark beetles, are key factors in diagnosis. Necrosis of xylem and phloem tissues underneath bark can be observed.
Common Symptoms:
"Geosmithia putterillii".
Geosmithia putterillii, also known as Geosmithia pallida, is a species of fungi of the genus "Geosmithia," which was named by Australian mycologist John Pitt in 1979, is widely distributed and contains 10 species.
Disease cycle.
The western bark beetle carries "G. pallida" and burrows into the host tree, depositing the fungus inside the phloem where the female beetle lays its eggs. As more beetles are produced the fungus is picked up and transported to other areas of the host or another host. Conidia spores of "G. pallida" are known to function in reproduction of the fungus. Some species of the genus "Geosmithia" are known to produce apothecia, however it is unclear whether or not "G. pallida" produces this type of spore dispersing structure. The western oak bark beetle is a known vector for transmission of "G. pallida" and is responsible for infecting oak tree hosts with fungal inoculum. The beetles may also be responsible for dispersing conidia spores among coast live oak trees. However, it is unclear how the fungus becomes associated with the bark beetles that eventually make their way into the phloem of oak trees. It is possible that spores (or spore-producing structures) are picked up on the soil surface, on woody debris, or on the bark of trees as beetles make their way to oak tree hosts. Spores may attach to the exterior of the beetles, however, this mechanism of association is still unknown. Once the bark beetles have begun tunneling through and consuming phloem tissue, "G. pallida" is "dropped" or dispersed throughout the tunnels and is able to begin growth within damaged tissues nearby. The fungus is then able to continue reproduction (by production of conidia), thereby causing disease, once inside the phloem.
Environment.
This disease has been found in the southern coastal regions of California where the climate is mild and constant year-round. A warm, Mediterranean climate is favored by this disease. The pathogen relies on the bark beetle as a vector for dispersal and infection of the host. Bark beetles generally have two or more generations in a single year, leading to disease symptoms in multiple seasons. Because of the multiple generations of bark beetles constantly transporting the fungus, this disease could be considered to be polycyclic if the beetles spread to new hosts.
Management.
Control of the beetle vector is the most effective management technique for disease prevention. Conventional methods of tree thinning and the use of insecticides have been used to combat the western bark beetles, but are only effective before the beetles have colonized and before the fungus has invaded the tree. Other cultural techniques of sanitation and overall health of the oak trees by keeping up with watering, fertilizer or mulch needs, and pruning may help. It is very important to diagnose foamy bark canker disease correctly and promptly in order to manage the disease properly because if a tree is already infected, the removal of the tree is the most effective way to prevent the disease from spreading.
Importance.
Although the disease is caused by a relatively new symbiosis, it has already spread to a number of different counties, and is completely wiping out oak trees. As mentioned before, this is partially due to disease symptoms that are similar to other diseases leading to a misdiagnosis, it most resembles bacterial wetwood, polyphagous shot hole borer (PSHB), and fusarium dieback. With the recent outbreak and growth in population of the western bark beetle, there is concern that the pathogen's range will expand. Oak trees are important for wildlife diversity and for the ecological services they provide like habitat, shelter and food.


List of trifoliate plants

This is an incomplete list of plants with trifoliate leaves. Trifoliate leaves (also known as trifoliolate or ternate leaves) are a leaf shape characterized by a leaf divided into three leaflets. Species which are known to be trifoliate are listed here. Genera which are characteristically trifoliate are also listed, with species underneath. Genera which are generally "not" trifoliate are not listed; only the trifoliate species are. Entries are currently listed in alphabetical order, but in the future it may be desirable to list them by families. It may also be desirable to include common names and references.


Pinus lawsonii

Pinus lawsonii, Lawson's pine, is a species of conifer in the family Pinaceae.
It is found only in Mexico.