Stari Grad, Croatia

Stari Grad ("Old Town") (Italian: "Cittavecchia" or "Cittavecchia di Lesina") is a town on the northern side of the island of Hvar in Dalmatia, Croatia. One of the oldest towns in Europe, its position at the end of a long, protected bay and next to prime agricultural land has long made it attractive for human settlement. Stari Grad is also a municipality within the Split-Dalmatia County.
The most ancient part of Stari Grad falls within the UNESCO Protected World Heritage Site of the Stari Grad Plain, while the entire municipality lies within the surrounding buffer zone.
Name.
Stari Grad was originally named Faros () by the Greek settlers from the island of Paros, who arrived in 384 BC. While the name Faros is strikingly similar to the name of the Greek island the settlers arrived from, there is an alternate theory that it came from the previous inhabitants of the area. A great naval battle was recorded a year after the establishment of Pharos colony by a Greek inscription in Pharos (384 – 383 BC) and by the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus (80 – 29 BC), initiated by conflicts between the Greek colonists and the indigenous Hvar islanders, the Liburnians, who asked their compatriots for support. 10,000 Liburnians sailed out from their capital "Idassa" (Zadar), led by the "Iadasinoi" (people of Zadar), and laid siege to Pharos. The Syracusan fleet positioned in Issa was informed in time, and Greek triremes attacked the siege fleet, taking victory in the end. According to Diodorus, the Greeks killed more than 5,000 and captured 2,000 prisoners, ran down or captured their ships, and burned their weapons in dedication to their gods.
This battle meant the loss of the most important strategic Liburnian positions in the centre of the Adriatic, resulting in their final retreat to their main ethnic region, Liburnia, and their complete departure from the Italic coast, apart from Truentum. In Roman times, the town became known as Faria, which was turned into Hvar by the incoming Slav population. When the administrative capital of the island was moved to today's Hvar town on the south coast, the old town became simply known as Stari Grad. ("Stari" translates as "old" and "grad" as "city" in Croatian.)
Population.
The municipality of Stari Grad has a population of 2,781 (2011 Census), of which 1,885 live in the town itself. Four other settlements fall within the municipality, namely Dol (Pop. 311), Rudina (Pop. 70), Selca Kod Starog Grada (Pop. 17) and Vrbanj (Pop. 498).
Geography.
Stari Grad lies on the north side of the island of Hvar, at the end of the Stari Grad Bay, a deep water channel, protected to the north by the hills of the Kabal peninsula and by the high mountain ridge of Hvar to the south.
The island's best agricultural land opens up to the east of Stari Grad town. This fertile plain has been farmed since pre-historic times, and the Greek field layout is still largely intact, thanks to continuing maintenance over the years of its dry stone walls. In 2008, the Stari Grad Plain became a UNESCO protected world heritage site.
History.
The area around present day Stari Grad was settled by the neolithic tribes of the Hvar culture who occupied the island between 3500 and 2500 BC, and who traded with other settlements around the Mediterranean. Remains of their pottery and other artifacts have been found, along with that of the Illyrian tribe that succeeded them. The settlement lay at the lower end of Stari Grad Bay, defended by two strongholds on the north and south hillsides overlooking the harbour (Glavica and Purkin Kuk).
In 384 BC, the town was formally founded by ancient Greeks from the island of Paros in the Aegean Sea. They gave the name Faros (ΦΑΡΟΣ) to their new settlement, an independent state permitted to mint its own money. The nearby plain was marked out with roads at right angles, and divided into fields of standard size. The Stari Grad Plain today represents one of the best-preserved examples of ancient Greek agriculture throughout the Mediterranean.
In 218 BC, the Romans defeated the Illyrian army at Pharos during the Second Illyrian War, and the town was destroyed by the Roman army, but remained under Illyrian control. The town came under permanent Roman control by force in 168 BC, following the defeat of Gentius during the Third Illyrian War.
An inscription from the 2nd century BC, refers to the Farians and their delegation to the Greek island of Paros and the oracle at Delphi. It makes mention of the Roman senate and the people (who are) well disposed and benevolent towards the city of Faros from the times of their ancestors. Further inscriptions, mosaics, tombstones, stone reliefs, fine pottery, jewellery, coins, villae rusticae in the Plain tell the story of life in and around the ancient Roman town.
The first church was built in the 5th century, in the southeast corner of the town, close to the city walls, on the foundations of a prior Greek house. In the 6th century, a new church was built on the same site, a twin basilica with a baptistry dedicated to St Mary and St John.
In the 7th century, following the fall of Salona, the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia, many of its people sought refuge in Faria and other Roman towns in the nearby islands, as noted by the historian Archdeacon Thomas of Split (1200–1268) in his Historia Salonitana.
Roman Faria was taken over by the Slavs at the beginning of the 8th century. At this point, the town received the name we know it by today – "Hvar" (the letter F not being part of the old Slavonic alphabet). During the 10th century, Hvar came under the Narentines. Pirates from Omiš on the mainland were raiding the coastal settlements, and new villages grew up in the foothills – Dol, Vrbanj and Pitve.
In 1278, the people of Hvar chose to put themselves under the protection of the Venetian Republic. As part of the contract, they undertook to expand the existing settlement on the south side of the island as a more suitable base for the Venetian fleet. This is the site of the present day town of Hvar. The old town of Stari Grad, also referred to as “Old Hvar”, remained the centre of the most densely populated part of the island, the area surrounding the agricultural plain.
During the 16th century, the town was attacked by the Turks, the first time repulsing them, but in 1571 they lost, and much of the town was burnt down. Following that loss, Stari Grad was slowly rebuilt from the ruins. During the 17th and 18th centuries, prosperity once again grew from sea-trade. The old waterfront (Stara Riva) was extended and the town underwent a major architectural and urban transformation, resulting in the town structure we see today.
In 1797 Napoleon overthrew the Venetian Republic, and Hvar briefly became part of the Austrian Empire. When the French also took over Austria, they conferred the status of an autonomous province on the town of Stari Grad. With the fall of the Napoleonic Empire, Stari Grad became part of the Dalmatian Kingdom, within the larger political body of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
The 19th century was peaceful, and a time of prosperity for the entire island. However, the advent of phylloxera destroyed the island's grapevines, and the town's sailing vessels could not compete with the new steam ships. Large numbers of people moved away to start a new life elsewhere. Today, Stari Grad is again rebuilding itself, this time with tourism as the main focus.
Culture.
Archeology.
The town itself, and the surrounding area are rich in archaeological sites dating from pre-history and classical times. Permanent exhibitions in the Stari Grad Museum display the collection of artifacts found at local sites, both on land and under the sea.
Architecture.
The present-day Church of St. John, together with the archaeological remains found south of it, comprises an Early Christian complex dating from 5th/6th century. The original walls are preserved up to the beginning of the barrel vault that was built during the restoration in the early Romanesque period (11th century). The church floor was decorated with geometrical and figural details of which some are preserved. In the interior is original Early Christian altar. The large rosette on the facade is from the Gothic-era adaptation of the church in the 14th century.
The Church of St. Rocco, patron of Stari Grad, was raised by the confraternity of the same name, with provisions by the poet and nobleman Petar Hektorović in the 16th century. The bell tower was added in 1783 and side chapels in 1898. The main altar is the work of Andrija Bruttapela from 1774; it is decorated with statue of St. Rocco made by unidentified Venetian workshop. St. Rocco is shown with a dog that was a faithful friend after he was abandoned by everyone. In 1898 the mosaic floor of ancient Roman baths was unearthed beneath the stairs. The place is marked with Latin inscription on one of the steps.
The Dominican monastery of St. Peter the Martyr was founded, with help of townspeople, by friar Germanicus of Piacenza in 1482. The church and the monastery were ransacked and burned by the Turks in 1571 and after that the monastery was fortified with round towers. The church was partially demolished and built anew in 1894. All that remained from the old church is the bell tower and the chapel with the tomb of the Renaissance poet Petar Hektorović. The monastery museum host the oldest Greek inscriptions from Pharos (4th century BC). The picture gallery has a number of valuable paintings of Venetian artists such as the famous "The Lamentation of Christ" by Tintoretto (1518–1594).
Notable inhabitants.
Notable inhabitants and persons with the origin from Stari Grad.
Stari Grad bays.
There are numerous bays on each side of Stari Grad Bay. One of the largest bays is Tiha, located on the northern side. Tiha is a perfect anchoring point as it is safe, and sheltered from all winds (the name Tiha translates to silent/calm). Zavala is a slightly smaller bay, but equally calm, with plenty of anchoring spots. The other side (south side) of Stari Grad bay, is quite higher, and offers smaller bays with hills meters away from the beach. Gracisce is one of those bays, with a pebble covered beach, and a thick pine forest just meters above. Closer to the city on the southern side there are a few beautiful beaches, such as the small sandy Maslinica bay. One more worth mentioning is Arkada, located underneath the hotel of the same name on the northern side, with a calm space for anchoring nearby.


Bieszczady National Park

Bieszczady National Park () is the third largest national park in Poland, located in Subcarpathian Voivodeship in the extreme southeast corner of the country, bordering Slovakia and Ukraine.
History.
The park was created in 1973. At the time it covered only , but over the years it was enlarged four times. The last enlargements took place in 1996 (when the park incorporated the former villages of Bukowiec, Beniowa and Carynskie) and in 1999 (when the former villages of Dzwiniacz, Tarnawa and Sokoliki were added).
It occupies , covering the highest areas of the Polish part of the Bieszczady Mountains. In 1992 the park and its surrounding areas became part of the UNESCO East Carpathian Biosphere Reserve, which has a total area of and includes parts in Slovakia and (since 1998) Ukraine.
Geography.
Forests cover about 80% of Bieszczady National Park. The woods are mainly natural; in some cases it can be said that they have preserved their pristine character. The highest peak in the park, Tarnica, is above sea level.
Fauna.
Animal life is abundant with several species of endangered animals thriving in the area, among them brown bears, grey wolf, European wildcat, wild boar, European beavers, European otter, and European lynx as well as deer (such as moose) and European bison (over 500 live in the area). The park contains interesting bird species, including eagles and owls, and is home to the largest Polish population of Aesculapian snakes.
The park is sparsely populated (less than 1 person per km²), which means that animals can roam freely. The region is very popular among tourists, but there are not many facilities. Around 70% of the park is regarded as strict preserve, which means that the use of trails is restricted. The park's authorities promote walking trips.


Sacro Monte di Oropa

The Sacro Monte di Oropa (literally ‘Sacred Mount of Oropa’) is a Roman Catholic devotional complex in the province of Biella, Piedmont, northern Italy. It is one of the nine Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy and is on the UNESCO World Heritage list.
It is a stop-over on the CoEur devotional path.
Description.
Construction began in 1617, near the pre-existing sanctuary of Black Virgin of Oropa, one of the oldest in Piedmont and one of the best known in the region of the Alps. The 12 chapels (plus another seven nearby) are united by a devotional path, and inside these chapels scenes from the story of the life of the Virgin Mary are represented. The minute dimensions and expressions of the characters, the shades and colour tones and the vivid, precise settings of the episodes envelop the visitor in a warm atmosphere which grows from one chapel to the other until reaching Paradise (chapel XV – The Crowning of Mary), on the top of the hill, a Baroque work of art by the brothers Giovanni and Antonio d'Enrico, animated by 156 modelled figures.


Titi / Muttonbird Islands

The Titi/Muttonbird Islands are located near Stewart Island in the far south of New Zealand. The islands are not permanently inhabited, and are named for the traditional seasonal harvesting ("muttonbirding") of the sooty shearwater by Māori. These birds are known as "muttonbirds" due to their supposedly mutton-like taste.
History.
In May 2006, the north-eastern chain was the scene of tragedy when the fishing boat "Kotuku" capsized with the loss of six lives, close to Women's Island.
Description.
There are three chains, collectively referred to as the Muttonbird or Titi Islands. (The islands' official name is "Titi/Muttonbird Islands"). The north-eastern chain lies in Foveaux Strait, to the north-east of Stewart Island, between it and Ruapuke Island. A small eastern chain, south of Stewart Island's East Cape, also goes by the name of the Breaksea Islands. The southern chain lies to the south-west of Stewart Island.


Ab-i Istada

Ab-i Istada ("standing water") is an endorheic salt lake in Nawa District, Ghazni Province, Afghanistan. It lies in a large depression created by the Chaman Fault system in the southern foothills of the Hindu Kush, south-southwest of Ghazni.
Description.
In modern times the lake has been reported to have a surface area of , although it dries out periodically. It is very shallow, not exceeding in depth. There are two small islands near the lake's southeastern shore, Loya ghundai () and Kuchney ghundai (). The water is highly alkaline and mass die-offs of freshwater fish from the Ghazni River sometimes occur.
The main inflows into Ab-i Istada are the Ghazni, Sardeh and Nahara Rivers, which drain into it from the northeast. The watershed draining into the lake covers and was home to over 1.8 million people in 2003. Three sets of raised beaches surrounding the lake have been noted at , and above the normal lake level. At high water levels, the lake is known to overflow into the Lora River, a tributary of the Arghistan River, through two channels on the south side of the lake, Akasi Mandeh and Sekva Mandeh. A groundwater connection between the lake and the Lora drainage has been suggested.
Settlement.
Historically the area around the lake was unpopulated, although nomads from Kandahar visited it in the summer. More recently, the Tarakai have settled near the lake: in 2003 there were eight villages within with a total population of approximately 5000. Economic activities around the lake include trapping of saker and peregrine falcons, grazing and collection of fuel wood.
Environment.
The wetlands around Ab-i Istada attract a variety of migratory birds, over 120 species having previously been recorded. Babur observed enormous flocks of greater flamingoes at the lake; their numbers in recent years have varied between 0 and 9000. The wetlands were once a critical stopover for the central migratory population of Siberian cranes, but these have not been sighted at the lake since 1986. In 1974, the Afghani government proclaimed a Waterfowl and Flamingo Sanctuary around the lake, causing considerable resentment among the locals; conservation efforts ended with the Soviet invasion in 1979 and have not been restarted since.
Important Bird Area.
A 27,000 ha area, encompassing the lake and its immediate surrounds, has been designated an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports populations of greylag geese, common pochards, greater flamingos, Siberian cranes, grey herons, great white pelicans, black-winged stilts, Kentish plovers, slender-billed gulls and gull-billed terns.


Boreal woodland caribou

The boreal woodland caribou ("Rangifer tarandus caribou"), also known as woodland caribou, boreal forest caribou and forest-dwelling caribou, is a North American subspecies of the reindeer (or the caribou in North America) with the vast majority of animals in Canada. Unlike the Porcupine caribou and barren-ground caribou, boreal woodland caribou are primarily, but not always, sedentary.
The boreal woodland caribou is the largest of the caribou subspecies and is darker in colour than the barren-ground caribou. Valerius Geist, specialist on large North American mammals, described the "true" woodland caribou as ”the uniformly dark, small-manned type with the frontally emphasized, flat-beamed antlers" which is "scattered thinly along the southern rim of North American caribou distribution". Geist asserts that ”the true woodland caribou is very rare, in very great difficulties and requires the most urgent of attention", but suggests that this urgency is compromised by the inclusion of the Newfoundland caribou, the Labrador caribou, and Osborn's caribou in the "Rangifer tarandus caribou" subspecies. In Geist's opinion, the inclusion of these additional populations obscures the precarious position of the "true" woodland caribou.
They prefer lichen-rich mature forests and mainly live in marshes, bogs, lakes and river regions.
The historic range of the boreal woodland caribou covered over half of present-day Canada, stretching from Alaska to Newfoundland and Labrador. The national meta-population of this sedentary boreal ecotype spans the boreal forest from the Northwest Territories to Labrador (but not Newfoundland). Their former range stretched south into the United States. There are no longer any boreal woodland caribou in New England, Minnesota, Idaho, Wisconsin or Michigan and only several dozen in Washington.
The boreal woodland caribou was designated as threatened in 2002 by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). Environment Canada reported in 2011 that there were approximately 34,000 boreal caribou in 51 ranges remaining in Canada.(Environment Canada, 2011b). In a joint report by Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society (CPAWS) and the David Suzuki Foundation, on the status of boreal woodland caribou, claim that "the biggest risk to caribou is industrial development, which fragments their habitat and exposes them to greater predation. Scientists consider only 30% (17 of 57) of Canada’s boreal woodland caribou populations to be self-sustaining." "They are extremely sensitive to both natural (such as forest fires) and human disturbance, and to habitat damage and fragmentation brought about by resource exploration, road building, and other human activity. New forest growth following destruction of vegetation provides habitat and food for other ungulates, which in turn attracts more predators, putting pressure on woodland caribou."
Compared to barren-ground caribou or Alaskan caribou, boreal woodland caribou do not form large aggregations and are more dispersed particularly at calving time. Their seasonal movements are not as extensive. Mallory and Hillis explained how, "In North America populations of the woodland caribou subspecies typically form small isolated herds in winter but are relatively sedentary and migrate only short distances (50 – 150 km) during the rest of the year."
The name caribou was probably derived from the Mi'kmaq word "xalibu" or "qalipu" meaning "the one who paws".
According to the then-Canadian Wildlife Service Chief Mammalogist, Frank Banfield, the earliest record of "Rangifer tarandus caribou" in North America is from a 1.6 million year old tooth found in the Yukon Territory. Other early records of caribou include a "45,500-year-old cranial fragment from the Yukon and a 40,600-year-old antler from Quebec."
The caribou design on the Royal Canadian Mint quarter was first used in 1937.
Nomenclature.
The boreal woodland caribou, "Rangifer tarandus caribou", is also referred to as the woodland caribou, woodland caribou (boreal group) and forest-dwelling caribou.
The Mi'kmaq people referred to caribou as "xalibu" or "qalipu" which means "the one who paws." The word "caribous" was first published in print in the 1610 publication on the history of New France by Marc Lescarbot. Lescarbot partially based his writing on his expedition to 1606–1607 to Acadia where he encountered the Mi'kmaq people. Silas Tertius Rand included the term "kaleboo" in his Mi'kmaq-English Dictionary in 1888.
Species and subspecies description.
According to the 2019 Species at Risk Act (SARA), while caribou and reindeer are the same species—"Rangifer tarandus", there are differences. The term "Caribou" refers to the "various subspecies present in North America" and the term "reindeer" is used to describe the "domesticated, semi-domesticated or wild subspecies found in Eurasia." Some reindeer have been introduced to North America. The reindeer species "Rangifer tarandus", of which "Rangifer tarandus caribou" is a subspecies, is a medium-sized ungulate which inhabits boreal, montane and Arctic environments and exhibits "tremendous variation in ecology, genetics, behaviour and morphology." Most of the subspecies, such as "Rangifer tarandus caribou", are now only found in Canada. A distinctive characteristic of all caribou is large crescent-shaped hooves that change shape with the season and that are adapted to walking in snow-covered and soft ground such as swamps and peat lands and assist in digging through snow to forage on lichens and other ground vegetation. The subspecies ecotype, boreal woodland caribou, have a shoulder height of approximately 1.0-1.2 m shoulder height and weigh 110–210 kg.
Both male and female boreal woodland caribou have antlers during part of the year, although some females may have only one antler or no antlers at all (Boreal Caribou ATK Reports, 2010–2011). On the males these grow so quickly each year that velvety lumps in March can become a rack measuring more than a metre in length by August. Antlers of boreal woodland caribou are flattened, compact, and relatively dense. Boreal woodland caribou antlers are thicker and broader than those of the barren-ground caribou and their legs and heads are longer.
The boreal woodland caribou is well-adapted to cold environments, with a compact body covered with a thick and long coat (thicker in winter than in summer). They have a large blunt muzzle, short wide ears and a small tail. Adults have a brown to dark-brown coat in summer, becoming greyer in winter. Adults have a distinctive creamy-white neck, mane, shoulder stripe, underbelly, underside of the tail and patch above each hoof.(Boreal Caribou ATK Reports, 2010–2011)
Reproduction.
Female woodland caribou reach maturity at 16 months, and males at 18–20. Males usually do not breed before reaching three or four years of age, due to the hierarchical nature of the herd and competition with older males. Their reproduction rate is low. Breeding occurs at the end of September and the beginning of October. Calves are born in mid-June. Precise dates may vary based on geographical region. For conservation and herd management purposes, migratory herds are often defined in terms of female natal philopatry or natal homing – the tendency to return to natal calving areas. Female boreal woodland caribou and their newborn calves are more vulnerable to predation than migratory caribou, as they often calve separate from the rest of the herd and remain solitary until mid-winter.
Taxonomy and current classifications.
Current classifications of "Rangifer tarandus", either with prevailing taxonomy on subspecies, designations based on ecotypes, or natural population groupings, fail to capture "the variability of caribou across their range in Canada" needed for effective species conservation and management. "Across the range of a species, individuals may display considerable morphological, genetic, and behavioural variability reflective of both plasticity and adaptation to local environments." COSEWIC developed Designated Unit (DU) attribution to add to classifications already in use.
The species' taxonomic name "Rangifer tarandus" (reindeer or caribou), was defined by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. The woodland caribou subspecies' taxonomic name, "Rangifer tarandus caribou", was defined by Gmelin in 1788.
Based on Banfield's often-cited "A Revision of the Reindeer and Caribou, Genus Rangifer" (1961), "R. t. caboti" (Labrador caribou), "R. t. osborni" (Osborn's caribou—from British Columbia) and "R. t. terraenovae" (Newfoundland caribou) were considered invalid and included in "R. t. caribou".
Some recent authorities have considered them all valid, even suggesting that they are quite distinct. In their book entitled "Mammal Species of the World", American zoologist Don E. Wilson and DeeAnn Reeder agree with Valerius Geist, specialist on large North American mammals, that this range actually includes several subspecies.
In 2005, an analysis of mtDNA found differences between the caribou from Newfoundland, Labrador, southwestern Canada and southeastern Canada, but maintained all in "R. t caribou".
Mallory and Hillis argued that, "Although the taxonomic designations reflect evolutionary events, they do not appear to reflect current ecological conditions. In numerous instances, populations of the same subspecies have evolved different demographic and behavioural adaptations, while populations from separate subspecies have evolved similar demographic and behavioural patterns... "[U]nderstanding ecotype in relation to existing ecological constraints and releases may be more important than the taxonomic relationships between populations."
Subspecies and ecotypes.
The woodland caribou ("R. t. caribou"), is one of four extant subspecies of "Rangifer tarandus" identified by , an experienced field scientist with the Canadian Wildlife Service.
Others claim that "[t]axonomically, woodland caribou ("Rangifer tarandus") are one of seven extant subspecies that occur within Eurasia and North America."
Ecotypes.
Caribou herds are classified by ecotype depending on several behavioural factors – predominant habitat use (northern, tundra, mountain, forest, boreal forest, forest-dwelling), spacing (dispersed or aggregated) and migration patterns (sedentary or migratory). Caribou herds can be classified as a northern or mountain woodland ecotype.
In eastern North America caribou are classified into three ecotypes – "the mountain caribou which is found south of the St. Lawrence River, the barren-ground caribou which calves in the tundra, and in between, the forest-dwelling ecotype which lives all year long in the boreal forest. In west-central Alberta there are two ecotypes – boreal and mountain. In Québec there are three ecotypes with specific habitats and behaviour – migratory barren-ground ecotype, the mountain ecotype and the forest-dwelling ecotype (boreal woodland caribou). In British Columbia caribou are classified into three ecotypes – Mountain, Northern, and Boreal. In Ontario caribou are classified into two ecotypes – forest-dwelling woodland caribou and forest-tundra woodland caribou. In Newfoundland and Labrador, woodland caribou are classified as part of the boreal population of caribou, which is subdivided into two ecotypes: the migratory forest-tundra and the sedentary forest-dwelling. In the Northwest Territories, the Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society identified five types of caribou – boreal woodland caribou, northern mountain woodland caribou, barren-ground caribou, Peary caribou and the Dolphin-Union caribou herd. "The Boreal woodland caribou live in the forests east of the Mackenzie Mountains and tend to live in small groups. They prefer to stay within the forest for most of the year and do not migrate."
Range and population changes.
In 2012 Environment Canada identified 51 "Rangifer tarandus caribou" (boreal woodland caribou) or boreal ecotype of forest-dwelling woodland caribou ranges in Canada.
The northernmost range of boreal woodland caribou in Canada is in the Mackenzie River Delta area, Northwest Territories. In 2000, in the Northwest Territories, boreal woodland caribou had a very large range and the population was assessed and was not considered to be at risk in 2000. The population is identified as NT1 for conservation purposes.
The southernmost populations of the boreal woodland caribou are isolated populations on Lake Superior in Ontario, Canada such as the Slate Islands and Michipicoten Island.
The Northwest Territories.
The Species at Risk Committee's (SARC) assessed the biological status of the boreal woodland caribou ("Rangifer tarandus caribou") in the NWT as threatened, in their completed assessment and status report dated 5 December 2012, submitted in compliance with the Species at Risk (NWT) Act. The SARC 2012 report provided the following reasons for its assessment,
Based on this 2012 SARC report, the NWT Conference of Management Authorities (CMA) undertook further studies and in October 2013, reached a consensus to add boreal woodland caribou to the Northwest Territories List of Species at Risk as a threatened species.
Management authorities include NWT Conference of Management Authorities (CMA) for boreal woodland caribou are the Government of the NWT, the Tłįchǫ Government, the Wildlife Management Advisory Council (NWT), the Gwich'in Renewable Resources Board, the Sahtu Renewable Resources Board and the Wek'eezhii Renewable Resources Board.
There is a stable population of boreal woodland caribou throughout a large portion of the Gwich’in Settlement Area and are an important food source for Gwich’in although they harvest them less than other caribou. Gwich’in living in Inuvik, Aklavik, Fort McPherson, and Tsiigehtchic harvest boreal woodland caribou, but not as much as other caribou. The Gwich'in prefer to hunt the Porcupine caribou or the barren-ground Bluenose caribou herd, who travel in large herds, when they are available. Many hunters claimed that boreal woodland caribou that form very small groups, are wilder and are both hard to see and hard to hunt. They are very smart, cunning and elusive. However, at times due to their natural curiosity, they may freeze, standing as if they were trying to hide, unlike the Porcupine or Bluenose caribou that will outrun a hunter.
British Columbia.
In British Columbia woodland caribou are classified into three ecotypes – mountain, northern and boreal. The boreal woodland caribou is now only found in "the lowlands of the Boreal Plains and Taiga Plains ecoprovinces of the Alberta Plateau physiographic region, in the northeastern corner." This population was in an area with a high density of wolves and there was concern that the caribou herd was not self-sustaining.
Density and population of boreal woodland caribou in BC was not well known prior to 2000. In British Columbia the conservation status of caribou "is important from both federal and provincial perspectives because declining populations have been recognized globally (Vors and Boyce 2009), nationally (Sleep 2007), and provincially (Wittmer et al. 2005)." Following a 2006 survey of boreal caribou populations in 2006, they were blue-listed within British Columbia.
The 15 northern woodland caribou herds of the Southern Mountains National Ecological Area (SMNEA) are federally listed as "threatened" by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). The 16 northern woodland caribou herds of the Northern Mountains Ecological Area (NMNEA) are listed as of "special concern" federally. This includes the Pink Mountain Herd which is locally, provincially and federally of concern. In 1996 there were 1,300 animals. The population declined from 1,300 in 1996 to 850 animals in 2002 and continues to decline.
The name of the Cariboo district of central British Columbia relates to their once-large numbers there, but they have almost vanished from that area in the last century. There are a number of populations in BC that are currently being monitored. In 2006 there were approximately 200 to 340 individual boreal woodland caribou in the BC1 Maxhamish DU, north of Fort Nelson, BC2 Calendar. The BC3 Snake-Sahtahneh boreal woodland caribou are non-migratory. In BC4 Parker DU, there was a small local population of 20 individuals in 2006. BC5 Prophet (small local population). According to Forest and Wildlife Ecologist, R. Scott McNay,
Alberta.
There are 16 woodland caribou herds in Alberta and their ranges are all on Crown land. In west-central Alberta there are two ecotypes – boreal and mountain. "Seven of the ten most-at-risk herds are in Alberta and are generally well-known to be under severe threat." There are 12 designated units for conservation purposes including the most-at-risk herds, AB2 Bistcho, Little Smoky, a small isolated local population at risk of extirpation, AB1 Chinchaga in Alberta and British Columbia, AB8 Richardson, AB6 Red Earth, AB11 Nipisi, a small local population, and AB7 West Side Athabasca River. The remaining herds are AB3 Yates, AB4 Caribou Mountains, AB9 East Side Athabasca River, AB10 Cold Lake and AB12 Slave Lake (a small, local population).
A herd is protected in the Caribou Mountains Wildland Park in Alberta. The Redrock-Prairie Creek (RPC) herd, located north of Jasper, in northwestern Alberta is also endangered. Land use practices in their range includes "timber harvesting, extensive oil and gas exploration and production, coal mining, roads, recreational off-road vehicle use, recreational hunting, and commercial trapping."
The AB5 Little Smoky Herd "is the most critically disturbed boreal caribou habitat in the country" with "only five per cent of intact forest left in the Little Smoky Range." By 2012 there were only 80 animals left in this herd. Since 2005 the Alberta government has been culling wolves, up to a hundred a year.
In June 2014, an Alberta Biodiversity Monitoring Institute (ABMI) report funded by the Canadian government revealed dwindling numbers between 1994 through 2014 in all populations of all six herds—including the threatened boreal woodland and the endangered mountain woodland caribou—with ranges in the oil sands region (OSR) of the northern Alberta boreal forests. This represented "annual rates of decline ranging from 4.6% to 15.2% from 1999 to 2012" in the OSR. The ABMI report concluded that it is unlikely these herds would gain new members from other Alberta caribou herds as the OSR herds are "genetically distinct" from other boreal woodland caribou populations. According to a June 2014 article in "The Wall Street Journal", the ABMI report was released during a period of "controversy over Alberta's recent sales of oil and gas development leases in areas populated by both boreal and mountain caribou." The OSR "comprises about 20%" of the province's land area.
By November 2014 it was apparent that the recovery plan adopted by the Alberta government had not been implemented as development expanded in the oil sands. However Carolyn Campbell, a conservation specialist with the Alberta Wilderness Association in a radio interview was hopeful that the new Premier of Alberta Jim Prentice would work towards a new recovery plan. Campbell described the caribou as an "umbrella species." Caribou are leading indicators of old growth forest core areas. By protecting their ecosystem, water quality is protected and other native fish and bird species also benefit. Dave Hervieux, Alberta's caribou specialist, confirmed the 2013 report findings that "woodland caribou are declining rapidly across Alberta." "The report suggests the population viability of caribou is compromised and supports recovery-based actions to reverse the trend."
Canadian Press correspondent Bob Weber revealed in March 2015 that the government of Alberta had planned to sell energy leases on 21,000 hectares in the habitat in northwestern Alberta of the endangered Redrock-Prairie Creek boreal woodland caribou herd which both the Alberta provincial government and the Canadian federal government had promised to protect. However, on 5 March the government announced it would postpone the oil and gas lease auction in this endangered caribou range.
Saskatchewan.
In Saskatchewan the boreal woodland caribou are in what is called the SK1 Boreal Shield, an area with very low anthropogenic disturbance, but very high fire disturbance.
Manitoba.
In Manitoba there are several small populations including the MB1 The Bog (a small, local population), MB2 Kississing (a small, local population), MB3 Naosap, MB4 Reed, MB5 North Interlake (a small, local population), MB6 William Lake (a small, local population), MB7 Wabowden, MB8 Wapisu, MB9 Manitoba North, MB10 Manitoba South, MB11 Manitoba East, MB12 Atikaki-Berens and MB13 Owl-Flinstone (a small local population).
Ontario.
In their Annual Report 2006–2007, the Office of the Environmental Commissioner of Ontario argued that, "Woodland caribou represent the "hard-to-perceive, slow-motion crisis" that faces many species at risk." "Woodland caribou are a sensitive indicator of the ecological effects of development in northern Ontario. The success or failure of conservation efforts for this species also may serve as a benchmark to measure the sustainability of policy choices made by the Ontario government."
Since the 1940s the decline of "Rangifer tarandus caribou" range occupancy in Ontario has been recognized. There are two populations of woodland caribou, the forest-tundra ecotype and the sedentary forest-dwelling ecotype. The boreal woodland caribou population (forest-dwelling), estimated at approximately 3,000, make up approximately one-quarter of Ontario's woodland caribou, was designated as threatened in 2000 (and likely to become endangered if limiting factors are not reversed) by the Federal Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada and by the Province of Ontario. The migratory forest-tundra woodland caribou, numbering about 20,000 in 2007 is found in northern Ontario, on the coastal plains south of Hudson Bay was not considered to be endangered.
In 1985, the Ontario government established the Slate Islands in Lake Superior as a natural environment provincial park. The islands are notable for having Ontario's largest herd of boreal woodland caribou. Slate Island, where there were no wolves or other predators, had the highest density of boreal woodland caribou in the world with a population peaking at 660. Because of a food shortage in 1990, their numbers were reduced to less than 100.
There are six designated units in Ontario – ON1 Sydney, ON2 Berens, ON3 Churchill, ON4 Brightsand, ON5 Nipigon, ON6 Coastal (a small, isolated local population), ON7 Pagwachuan, ON8 Kesagami and ON9 Far North (a very large range).
Québec: QC1 Val d'Or (a small, isolated local population), QC2 Charlevoix (a small, isolated local population), QC3 Pipmuacan, QC4 Manouane, QC5 Manicouagan and QC6 Quebec (a very large range).
Newfoundland: NL1 Lac Joseph, NL2 Red Wine Mountain (a small, local population) and NL3 Mealy Mountain.
Woodland caribou in Newfoundland and Labrador.
In 1961 in Banfield's often-cited "A Revision of the Reindeer and Caribou, Genus Rangifer" (1961), "R. t. caboti" (Labrador caribou) and "R. t. terraenovae" (Newfoundland caribou) were considered invalid and included in "R. t. caribou".
In insular Newfoundland, in Gros Morne National Park, for example, boreal woodland caribou "R. t. caribou" are "usually seen on the Long Range traverse and sometimes on Gros Morne Mountain. In recent winters, they have been seen in large numbers on the coastal lowlands north of Berry Hill and St. Paul's." An adult male "R. t. caribou" can weigh up to and females are about a quarter smaller. The caribou is much smaller than the moose.
According to Bergerud in the 1800s and early 1900s, caribou ("Rangifer tarandus") numbers declined following settlement. The decline continued along the southern edge of woodland caribou distribution throughout the 1960s, 70s and 80s with the direct loss of habitat to logging, mines and dams. The increase of roads intersecting the led to increased hunting and poaching and increased predator/prey densities.
According to the Canadian Wildlife Federation in Canada, "Despite its vast range, the boreal population of woodland caribou [boreal ecotype of forest-dwelling woodland caribou] has been listed as threatened by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) since 2002 and endangered in British Columbia. One of the main reasons numbers are dropping is that fewer calves are surviving their first year of life. The main cause is predation. More calves are being preyed on by wolves and black bears than ever before." However, this is caused by habitat fragmentation, due to forestry, agriculture, and mining, which reduce the mother's ability to shelter calves from predators.
Western North America.
In 1991 Edmonds identified 44 herds of woodland caribou in seven jurisdictions in western North America (west of the Ontario/Manitoba border) with an estimated total maximum population of 61,090 caribou. She noted that by 1991 caribou were a threatened species in Alberta and an endangered species in Washington/Idaho.
Quebec.
Subspecies and ecotypes.
All caribou of the province of Québec were assigned to the same subspecies ("R. t. caribou") in 1961. Banfield classified the caribou of Ungava as woodland caribou ("Rangifer tarandus caribou") based on skull measurements. But there are three ecotypes with specific habitats and behaviour. Bergerud et al. compared the sedentary ecotype caribou (Bergerud 1988b) in southern Ungava (south of 55°N) to those farther north, the migratory ecotype Leaf River Caribou Herd (LRH) and the George River Caribou Herd (GRCH). In southern Ungava caribou females disperse from other females to avoid predators. See migratory woodland caribou.
The boreal woodland caribou (forest-dwelling) ecotype is found discontinuously, mainly between the 49th and 55th parallels. In 2003 its distribution covered 235 000 km2,mainly east of the 72nd meridian. This sedentary ecotype is found almost exclusively in the boreal forest, principally in areas with long forest fire cycles. Its abundance has also decreased over the years. Large forest-dwelling populations still persisted during the 1950s and 1960s, but they apparently disappeared. The current abundance is not known precisely, but based on density estimates and considering the current distribution, it probably does not exceed 3000 individuals. Current data are insufficient to identify precisely the causes of the population decline, although hunting seems to be an important proximal cause."
Although they are included as boreal woodland caribou, the George River and Leaf River caribou herds are migratory, covering thousands of miles each year to and from their birthing grounds. They travel north and south of their birthing grounds near these rivers crossing from Nunavik in the Ungava region to Quebec and insular Newfoundland.
The George River caribou herd (GRCH).
The George River caribou herd (GRCH) is a migratory forest-tundra ecotype of the boreal woodland caribou. "Since the mid-1990s, the George River Herd has declined catastrophically. A 2018 survey confirms a continuing decline of the George River migratory caribou herd population, as reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, it is estimated to be fewer than 9,000 animals, down from 385,000 in 2001, 74,131 in 2010, and 27,600 in 2012.
The Leaf River caribou herd (LRCH).
The Leaf River caribou herd (LRCH) is a migratory forest-tundra ecotype of the boreal woodland caribou. The Leaf Herd in the west, near the coast of Hudson Bay, increased from 270 000 individuals in 1991 to 628 000 in 2001. According to the Quebec's Natural Resources and Wildlife survey, the Leaf River Herd (LRH) (Rivière-aux-Feuilles) had decreased to 430 000 caribou in 2011. According to an international study on caribou populations, the Leaf River herd and other herds that migrate from Nunavik, Quebec and insular Newfoundland, could be threatened with extinction by 2080.
Woodland caribou in the United States.
Mountain ecotype.
The southern end of the Selkirk Mountains is home to the only extant woodland caribou population in the contiguous United States. In the United States the woodland caribou is one of the most critically endangered mammals, with only a few woodland caribou found south of the Canada border each year. The mountain woodland caribou are known as grey ghosts because they are "only rarely glimpsed." In the U.S. there is only one naturally occurring herd of woodland caribou in extreme northern Idaho, eastern Washington, and British Columbia, Canada, of about 40 animals. By April 2018, "only three of the so-called gray ghosts remain".
Boreal forest ecotype.
Though the boreal forest ecotype has been considered extirpated in the lower 48 states, at the turn of the 20th century this ecotype ranged as far south as northern Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota and Maine.
There was, however, a concerted effort on the part of the North Central Caribou Corporation and the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness to reintroduce a herd of around 75 animals from the Slate Islands in Lake Superior to northern Minnesota though this effort has since lost steam due to reluctance on the part of the Minnesota DNR and the death of the NCCC spokesperson.
Another location for reintroduction by the NCCC was [Isle Royale] National Park, Michigan on Lake Superior off the coast of Minnesota and Ontario not far from the Slate Islands. This idea appears to be gaining public support, as evident in the public scoping comments on the National Park Service website in regards to the wolf and moose situation on [Isle Royale].
In his article entitled "Woodland Caribou: A Conservation Dilemma", Idaho Department of Fish and Game biologist Peter Zager described how the range of the boreal woodland caribou had dramatically declined.
There is also a small population of boreal woodland caribou in Pukaskwa National Park, but their numbers declined from 30 caribou in the 1970s to about four in 2012, mainly due to human activity and its associated changes with predator and prey abundance, which caused excessive wolf predation. Abundance of moose population may be lowering caribou populations, however more study is needed. Harvest rates north of the park are also confirmed to reduce caribou migrations into the park.
Habitat degradation and predation.
According to the 2019 "Recovery Strategy for the Woodland Caribou", the "primary threat to most boreal caribou local populations is unnaturally high predation rates." Caribou habitat fragmentation, loss, and degradation—as a result of by both human activities and natural causes—supports an increase in populations of the caribou's natural predator, the wolf ("Canis lupus") In areas where there has been extensive fragmentation of the forest, often with the crisscrossing of seismic lines. efforts are being made to restore these disturbed area to decrease wolves' access to the woodland caribou's preferred habitat, the peatlands. Caribou mortality increased and populations declined as the hunting success of wolves that followed seismic lines, increased.
Boreal woodland caribou were once found throughout much of Ontario's boreal forest; at the turn of the 20th century they ranged as far south as northern Wisconsin. The last permanent residents were killed in Minnesota in 1962. Despite periodic sightings of individuals south of the border the caribou range has receded approximately 34 km/decade, the manifestation of widespread range collapse and population decline. Although boreal woodland caribou have been protected from sport hunting since 1929, the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada listed them in Canada as threatened (likely to become endangered if limiting factors are not reversed) in 2000. Boreal woodland caribou may be extinct before the year 2100 if the rate of range loss continues. "Destruction of habitat, hunting and disturbances by humans during the construction of roads and pipelines are all factors that have contributed to the decline of Woodland Caribou."
David Suzuki explained that,
Cumulative effects of development.
When Environment Canada (EC) introduced the new South Athabaska Sub-regional Strategic Environmental Assessment, it was partly in response to the cumulative effect of oil sands development on the habitat loss of the boreal woodland caribou, also known as woodland caribou (boreal), "Rangifer tarandus caribou". Ecosystem degradation of the "stands of old growth forest", for example, are caused by "mining, logging, oil and gas exploration and even excessive motorized recreation" which result in "a fragmented and altered landscape often leading to increased populations of deer, moose, elk, and their predators. Caribou require large areas of land with low densities of predators. The cumulative effect of oil sands development, was one of the topics discussed. It was noted that,
In June 2007 a national recovery strategy for boreal caribou was to be posted on the Species at Risk Public Registry.
Since the fall of 2010, the Alberta government has been working closely with the federal government, through the Major Projects Management Office (MPMO) on system-wide improvements in regulatory activities to align with the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act (CEAA) and to engage Alberta on energy and environment issues.
On 3 February 2013, a joint Canada-Alberta world-class, comprehensive and integrated monitoring system of the oil sands was announced. Through the South Athabaska Sub-regional Strategic Environmental Assessment, the Government of Canada and Alberta will "further align regulatory processes, while addressing cumulative effects by employing an ecosystem-based approach."
On 11 May 2012, the briefing notes for the meeting with Suncor VP and Environment Canada included EC's concerns for the cumulative effects of oil sands development.
By February 2013, Suncor's March report reflects their concerns with the Species at Risk Act (SARA), in particular on the implications of the Proposed Recovery Strategy for Woodland Caribou. Suncor reported that,
Technology.
Caribou are monitored through a capture and collaring with VHF or Global Positioning System (GPS) collars tracking collars. Satellite tracking Argos system, a satellite-based system collects, processes and disseminates the data from caribou tracking collars, clearly locating exact geographically coordinates. Satellite networks have tracked the migration and territorial movements of caribou. Electronic tags are giving scientists a complete, accurate picture of migration patterns. Using radio transmitters to track one herd of caribou, scientists learned that the herd moves much more than previously thought and they learned that each year the herd returns to about the same place to give birth. Environment Canada uses Landsat satellite imagery, for example, to identify anthropogenic disturbance (human-caused disturbance) to the natural landscape. This includes roads, seismic lines, pipe lines, well sites, and cutblocks that accompany industrial activities such as oil and gas exploration and development and forestry. British Columbia uses telemetry and computer modelling.
Comparison with other global populations.
Experts in Finland are also concerned about their "R. tarandus" subspecies, "R. t. fennicus" or the Finnish forest reindeer, where an increasing, returning wolf population may be partially responsible for slowing the recovery.


List of World Heritage Sites in Indonesia

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites are places of importance to cultural or natural heritage as described in the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, established in 1972. The Republic of Indonesia ratified the convention on 6 June 1989, making its historical sites eligible for inclusion on the list.
, there are nine World Heritage Sites in Indonesia, five of which are cultural sites and four are natural. The first sites in Indonesia were added to the list in 1991, when four sites were listed: the Borobudur Temple Compounds, the Prambanan Temple Compounds, Ujung Kulon National Park, and Komodo National Park. The most recent addition to the list was the Ombilin Coal Mining Heritage of Sawahlunto, in 2019. In 2011, the Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra site was inscribed on the list of World Heritage in Danger, due to threats posed by poaching, illegal logging, agricultural encroachment, and plans to build roads through the site. In addition, Indonesia has 19 sites on the tentative list.
World Heritage Sites.
UNESCO lists sites under ten criteria; each entry must meet at least one of the criteria. Criteria i through vi are cultural, whereas vii through x are natural.
Tentative list.
The following 19 sites are on the Tentative List for Indonesia, meaning that the government intends to consider them for nomination in the future:


Forests of Iran

Iran's forests are part of Iran's natural resources. Most of the country's forests are located in the northern regions, on the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. These forests have a temperate humid climate and are extended from the east of Ardabil province to North Khorasan province. They also spread and cover the three provinces of Gilan, Mazandaran, and Golestan. The Alborz mountain range, which is the highest mountain range in the Middle East, stands like a wall against the moisture of the Caspian Sea and prevents the moisture coming into the central regions of Iran; therefore, these clouds are forced to rain in the northern areas of the country leaving the central areas dry and barren.
There are 3,400,000 hectares of forests on the northern slopes of the Alborz Mountains and the coastal provinces of the Caspian Sea. Other parts of the country have forests up to three million hectares. Of these forests, only 1.3 million hectares can be used for industrial exploitation, the rest of the forests are not exploited due to lack of proper maintenance or natural damage. According to the records, Iran had many and varied forests from ancient times to the beginning of the eighteenth century. During the Achaemenid period, the expanse of forests in Iran with the current borders reached more than 16 million hectares. Deforestation in Iran began after the Mongol invasion and reached its highest point in the last three centuries. During the Qajar dynasty, about 130,000 tons of charcoal were produced and exported abroad by cutting down the forest trees.
Nationalization of forests and fields.
The government’s program included the nationalization of the forests, fields, waters, and natural resources.
On January 26, 1963, forests were declared national according to the framework of the White Revolution. In accordance with the second principle of the White Revolution, about 120 million hectares of forests and fields which were also known as green gold mines, were given to the government for national exploitation.
Trees and soil erosion.
Trees, shrubs, and vegetation in general have an effective role in maintaining the stability of the soil and increasing their permeability. The surface soil that can be used by humans is not more than a few centimetres, so its preservation is vital. In barren areas, wind erosion is the main cause of soil degradation and in windy areas, trees are an effective factor in soil stabilization.
The climate in the forests.
Some forests (for example, evergreen forests) are less affected by climate change; But others (for example, temperate deciduous forests) are severely affected, losing all their leaves each fall.
The growth of the trees in the forests depends on several factors, mainly sunlight, type of soil and water, temperature, and the genetic potential of trees. Most of these factors are directly or indirectly related to the weather
In summer, the temperature inside the forest is usually between 6-8 degrees Fahrenheit (3-4 degrees Celsius) lower than the temperature outside the forest, but in winter the temperature in the forest is very close to the outdoor temperature and sometimes a few degrees warmer. The outdoor soil temperature on a summer day may reach to 90 degrees Fahrenheit (32 degrees Celsius), while soil temperature in a nearby forest lines to 20 degrees Fahrenheit (11 degrees Celsius).
During winter, in a coniferous forest, because of insulation such as sunshade and litter on the forest floor, the forest soil freezes and in spring, the soil warms up.
Forest regions of Iran.
Iran's forests can be divided into five vegetation regions:
1.  Hyrcanian region (Caspian) which forms the green belt of the north side of the country.
2.  The region of Iran and Turan, which are mainly scattered in the center of Iran.
3.  Zagros region, which mainly contains oak forests in the west of the country.
4.  The Persian Gulf region, which is scattered in the southern coastal belt.
5.   Arasbarani region, which contains rare and unique species.
Iran’s forests are classified in five regions and the country ranks 45th among 56 countries with forests in the world.
Caspian Sea Region.
The forests in the north part of the country, which are known as the forests of the Hyrcanian or Caspian vegetation zone, wet forests, and industrial forests of the north, such as the green strip of the southern Caspian Sea and the northern profile of the Alborz mountain range from Astara to Glidaghi, approximately 800 km long, 20 to 70 Km and an altitude of 2,800 meters above sea level.
So far, 80 species of trees (mainly broadleaf), four species of native conifers, and 50 species of shrubs have been identified in these forests, most of which are mixed species of beech, hornbeam, oak, maple, and alder.
These forests are remnants of the third geological period. But the reason for the scarcity of conifers in the Hyrcanian forests is the lack of progress and expansion of glaciers in the late third and early fourth geological period in these areas.
This area in the north is the green belt of the country in Gilan, Mazandaran, and Golestan. The Hyrcanian region has a humid climate and is affected by the Caspian Sea.


Zapatera Archipelago

The Zapatera Archipelago is located in Lake Nicaragua, Nicaragua. It consists of the Zapatera Island (Isla Zapatera), Isla el Muerto and several other islets. The Zapatera Archipelago National Park is located there.


Saba National Marine Park

The Saba National Marine Park encompasses the waters and sea bed encircling the Caribbean island of Saba, Kingdom of the Netherlands, from the high water mark to deep. In total, the marine park covers approximately . At the time of its creation in 1987, the government passed the Marine Environment Ordinance to protect the coral reefs and other marine life within the park. The Saba Conservation Foundation manages the Saba National Marine Park, as well as the island's hyperbaric facility and natural sites on land.
Protection.
A number of regulations ensure that the park's thriving aquatic life remains healthy. Zones divide the area according to acceptable uses. Commercial fishing is forbidden in certain places to prevent overfishing. The reefs are protected from damage by 36 permanently anchored buoys where boats can moor. Scuba divers are not permitted to dive by themselves; they must dive with guides from one of Saba's three dive shops.
Protecting the Saba National Marine Park is not only an environmental consideration, it is also an economic concern. Tourism currently brings in more money to the island than any other industry, and the Saba National Marine Park is the biggest tourist draw.
Geography.
In addition to the fact that Saba's reefs are still flourishing, unlike many others in the region, several unusual natural formations attract divers. Some of these features were formed through volcanic activity, such as the Pinnacles: these peaks rise up to from the ocean floor, and are covered with corals, sponges, and other invertebrate animals. In the Ladder Bay area, a natural labyrinth was created by flowing lava. Other attractions include underwater caves, tunnels, and rock walls.
Fauna.
Many different species of life inhabit Saba National Marine Park. Soft corals abound. Hard corals live only in the waters on the island's east side. Types of fish found in the park include parrotfish, Atlantic blue tang, black durgon, and barracuda. Sharks and stingrays frequent certain areas. Octopus, turtles, and spiny lobster make the park their home also.
Visiting.
Saba's residents may access the park without charge. Visitors pay $5 (US) per dive (in addition to dive shop diving fees). The park fee supports maintenance of the park and its equipment.


Mount Hamiguitan

Mount Hamiguitan is a mountain located in the province of Davao Oriental, Philippines. It has a height of . The mountain and its vicinity has one of the most diverse wildlife populations in the country. Among the wildlife found in the area are Philippine eagles and several species of "Nepenthes". Some of the latter, such as the "Nepenthes peltata" and "Nepenthes micramphora", are endemic to the area.
The mountain has a protected forest area of approximately 2,000 hectares. This woodland is noted for its unique pygmy forest of century old trees in ultramafic soil, with many endangered, endemic and rare species of flora and fauna.
The Mount Hamiguitan range, with an area of , was declared a national park and a wildlife sanctuary in 2003. In 2014, the park was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, becoming the first in Mindanao and the sixth in the Philippines.
Mount Hamiguitan is part of the Eastern Mindanao Biodiversity Corridor. Conservation of the mountain range is a multisectoral effort done involving the provincial government of Davao Oriental, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, local communities, and indigenous people.
Geography.
Mount Hamiguitan is located in the province of Davao Oriental in the southeastern part of the island of Mindanao, Philippines. It occupies the land area within the political boundaries of Mati, San Isidro, and Governor Generoso.
Flora and fauna.
Plants.
Inventory of flora species in the mountain and its vicinity showed that its montane forest has the highest species richness of plants with 462 species, followed by its dipterocarp forest with 338 species, mossy forest with 246 species and agro-system with 246 species. The mountain also harbors 45 species of orchids, 23 of which are endemic to the Philippines. Some of the plants commonly found on Mount Hamiguitan include the following:
Animals.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List has identified at least 11 endangered vertebrate species. The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources and Development (PCARRD) reported that the mountain is inhabited by five endangered species, 27 rare species, 44 endemic species and 59 economically important species. The following species can be found in the area:
Designations.
In 2004, Mount Hamiguitan was declared as a wildlife sanctuary through the "Mount Hamiguitan Law" which was enacted under the initiative of senator Loren Legarda.
In June 2014, the Mount Hamiguitan Range Wildlife Sanctuary was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. Prior to this, the site has already been declared an ASEAN Heritage Park.


Yarkon Park

Yarkon Park (, "Park HaYarkon") is a large park in Tel Aviv, Israel, with about sixteen million visits annually. Named after the Yarkon River which flows through it, the park includes extensive lawns, sports facilities, botanical gardens, an aviary, a water park, two outdoor concert venues and lakes.
History.
Planning of the park began in 1969. When it was opened to the public in 1973, it was called Ganei Yehoshua, honoring Yehoshua Rabinovich, the mayor of Tel Aviv between 1969–1974.
Landmarks.
The park has six gardens: "Gan HaBanim" (Fallen Soldiers Memorial Garden), "Gan Nifga'ei HaTeror" (Terror Victims Memorial Garden), "Gan HaSlaim" (Rock Garden), "Gan HaKaktusim" (Cacti Garden), "HaGan HaGazum" (Trimmed Garden), and "HaGan HaTropi" (Tropical Garden).
The Rock Garden, one of the largest of its kind in the world, reflects Israel's geological diversity. In its 10-acre enclosure the rocks are interspersed with some 3,500 species of plants, including over six acres of cacti. The five-acre Tropical Garden has a wooden walkway shaded by palm trees leading to a small lake. The rainforest-like microclimate supports a large variety of orchids and vines.
The Yarkon River runs through the park and reaches the Mediterranean Sea at the park's western edge, then connects into the Tel Aviv Port, an entertainment and tourism center. Despite clean-up efforts in the last few years, the river is still polluted. Despite its polluted waters, on July 2011 Tel Aviv's mayor, Ron Huldai, jumped into the water and swam in the lake. Nevertheless, the region has retained its biodiversity. It is home to an abundance of insects, water fowl, golden jackals, porcupines and mongoose.
Events.
Many popular musical acts have played the park, including Michael Jackson, Bob Dylan, Paul McCartney, The Rolling Stones, Peter Gabriel, Madonna, David Bowie, Carlos Santana, Dire Straits, Bon Jovi, Elton John, Aerosmith, Metallica, U2, Depeche Mode, Guns N' Roses, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Ugly Kid Joe, Linkin Park, Ozzy Osbourne, Joe Cocker, Morrissey, Eurythmics, Westlife, Five, Justin Timberlake, Robbie Williams, Rihanna, Sia, OneRepublic, Lady Gaga, Justin Bieber, Rod Stewart, Queen + Adam Lambert, Britney Spears and Jennifer Lopez.
American singer Britney Spears performed in the park on July 3, 2017 as part of her . It was attended by a crowd of 60,000 people. Due to the concert, the Israeli Labor Party delayed their election for a new chairperson by a day. It was originally scheduled for July 3, the same day as Spears's concert, but party officials feared traffic jams and that party members would choose the concert over finding a polling station.
The superstar Michael Jackson performed there, on September 19/21, 1993 during his Dangerous World Tour attended by a crowd of 80,000 people in the first show and 100,000 people in the second show.
Italian opera house La Scala performed a free outdoor concert of Verdi's "Requiem" in the park as a part of Tel Aviv's 100th anniversary celebrations, attracting about 100,000 people.
American singer Jennifer Lopez performed in the park as part of her It's My Party (tour) on August 1st, 2019. It was attended by a crowd of 57,000 people.


Yala Swamp

The Yala Swamp is a wetland region of about in Western Kenya.
Location.
The Yala Swamp at the mouth of the Yala River covers about along the northeastern shore of Lake Victoria.
The swamp contains the Lake Kanyaboli, a freshwater deltaic wetland with an average depth of , which is fed by the floodwaters of the Nzoia and Yala rivers and by the backflow of water from Lake Victoria.
The wetland is in Siaya and Busia counties in Kenya. It acts as a filter for waters that flow into Lake Victoria from two major rivers, the Yala River and Nzoia River.
It is sometimes considered the source of the Nile.
In the past the Yala River flowed through the eastern 20% of the Yala Swamp into Lake Kanyaboli, then into the main swamp, and then through a small gulf into Lake Victoria.
Today the eastern part of the swamp has been drained, and the river flows directly into the main swamp.
It is cut off from Lake Kanyaboli by a silt-clay dyke.
Lake Kanyaboli now receives its water from the surrounding catchment area and from back-seepage from the swamp.
The river's gulf has been cut off from the lake by a culvert, which created the Lake Sare through back-flooding.
Ecology.
The swamps harbour endangered fish species "Oreochromis esculentus" and "Oreochromis variabilis" that have disappeared from Lake Victoria itself. The sitatunga antelope ("Tragecephalus spekii") still lives in the swamps’ papyrus. BirdLife International classifies the Yala Swamp among Kenya’s 60 Important Bird Areas. Some of the birds that live there are the blue-breasted bee-eater, the papyrus gonolek, the swamp flycatcher, the papyrus canary, the white-winged swamp warbler and the Baillon's crake.
A 2005 report noted changes in Lake Sare that threatened the lake ecosystem through eutrophication and pollution.
It recommended an inclusive management plan for the Yala swamp complex to prevent further degradation of the ecosystem.
As of 2019 BirdLife International scored the threat to the swamp complex as high, and was pessimistic about action being taken.


Ulu Muda Forest

The Greater Ulu Muda Forest Complex (GUMFC) is a large expanse of lowland dipterocarp forest in the north of Kedah State, Malaysia, on the border with Thailand. The area has high biodiversity thanks to relatively low rates of poaching and human intrusion. A number of endangered species are known to be present in the GUMFC. The forest is in the Peninsular Malaysian rain forests ecoregion.
The water that it provides through the man-made Muda, Pedu and Ahning lakes provide water to the Muda agricultural area as well as much of Kedah, Penang and Perlis.
The forest has been both selectively and illegally logged in the past, possibly causing excess sedimentation of the water courses, and the future of the forest remains uncertain.
The majority of the forest is not very accessible, the easiest point of entry being the KOPAM jetty on Muda Lake.
Ulu Muda Wildlife Reserve covers an area of 1152.57 km². The reserve adjoins San Kala Khiri National Park in Thailand.


List of invasive species in California

Invasive species in California, the introduced species of fauna−animals and flora−plants that are established and have naturalized within California.
Native plants and animals can become threatened endangered species from the spread of invasive species in natural habitats and/or developed areas (e.g. agriculture, transport, settlement).
Animals.
Invasive animal species include:
Plants.
Invasive plant species include:


Mina Airport

Mina Airport is a public use airport located southeast of Mina, in Mineral County, Nevada, United States. It is owned by U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM).
Facilities and aircraft.
Mina Airport covers an area of 29 acres (12 ha) at an elevation of 4,552 feet (1,387 m) above mean sea level. It has one runway designated 13/31 with a dirt surface measuring 4,600 by 165 feet (1,402 x 50 m).
This runway was originally graded for use as an auxiliary field of the Tonopah Army Air Field to the southeast.
For the 12-month period ending August 31, 2012, the airport had 175 general aviation aircraft operations, an average of 14 per month. At that time there were three aircraft based at this airport: 67% single-engine and 33% ultralight.


Washington Slagbaai National Park

Washington Slagbaai National Park is a national park and ecological reserve on the northwestern part of the island of Bonaire in the Caribbean Netherlands. The park covering approximately a fifth of the island of Bonaire is managed by STINAPA Bonaire, a non-profit foundation, on behalf of the Bonaire government. Established in 1969, Washington Slagbaai National Park was the first nature reserve to be established in the former Netherlands Antilles.
Flora and fauna.
There are about 340 species of plants. Typical vegetation is made up of low thorny scrub (xerophytic shrublands) and two main species of cacti: the yatu ("Lemaireocereus griseus") and the cadushi (in Wayuunaiki) or kadushi ("Cereus repandus").
Park seashores are nesting ground for endangered sea turtles: the green turtle ("Chelonia mydas"), the hawksbill ("Eretmochelys imbricata") and the loggerhead sea turtle ("Caretta caretta"). On rare occasions one can see leatherback sea turtles ("Dermochelys coriacea").
The park is also an Important Bird Area (IBA) since it serves as nesting, roosting, and foraging area for endangered or restricted-range bird species.
The salt pans are a special area and home to the Caribbean flamingo ("Phoenicopterus ruber"). The Pekelmeer Flamingo Sanctuary is set in mud pockets.
Specially protected parrot species include the yellow-shouldered parrot ("Amazona barbadensis"). The chance for the chicks to survive in the nest is very small. Rats, wild cats and other birds eat the eggs, but the biggest danger is humans. They take the chicks out of their nests to sell them. Trade is now prohibited by an international convention (CITES). Since 2008, the population has increased.
The park is also nesting grounds for endangered common terns ("Sterna hirundo"), Sandwich terns ("Sterna sandvicensis") and least terns ("Sterna antillarum").


Dams to Darnley Country Park

Dams to Darnley Country Park is a 1350 acre country park in East Renfrewshire and Glasgow, in Scotland comprising the historic greenspace between the towns of Barrhead and Newton Mearns in East Renfrewshire, and the areas of Darnley, Parkhouse and Southpark Village in south Glasgow. Being designated since 2000, it is one of the newest country parks in Scotland.
Geography.
The area occupied by Dams to Darnley Country Park has been used for leisure for many years. The park is largely farmland, but contains some historic woodlands. The park is also noted for its large reservoirs. By far the largest of these is Balgray Reservoir, which has Aurs Road, the main road through the park, alongside it for some distance. The rural portion of Aurs Road is entirely included within the park, and the road is the main road connecting the two halves of East Renfrewshire (although a new road is planned for this purpose). There are three other reservoirs in the park: Ryat Linn Reservoir, the Category A Listed Waulkmill Glen Reservoir, and the small Littleton Reservoir. The Brock Burn flows around the reservoirs, very directly adjacent to several, although Littleton Reservoir is the only one that the burn actually flows through, with the burn going on to flow into the White Cart Water near the Silverburn Shopping Centre in Pollok.
At the west, the park ends at the Glasgow Central to Neilston railway line (the railway enters the park for around 2km east of this point and crosses a large viaduct over the Waulkmill Glen Reservoir before being used as part of the park boundary in Newton Mearns). In this area, there is a plan to rebuild Barrhead South railway station, after new housing developments in the area. This railway station would also serve the park.
History.
Mining was conducted in the Darnley area since 1610, as evidenced by a lease agreement between Sir John Maxwell, John Hall and George Stephenson, which is archived together with the Pollock-Estate Papers. In it, Stevenson acquired the rights to mine limestone at Over Darnley. As early as 1615 coal was mined, as evidenced by a contract between Sir John Maxwell and Robert Milne in April 1615. The Darnley Lime Works Tramway and Mineral Railway consisted of a narrow gauge field railway and probably a standard gauge works railway, which were successively operated at least from 1898 until the late 1950s or early 1960s. Then the old quarries were used as landfills.
Features.
The park currently lacks many features, however the long term plan includes adding more leisure facilities and better access to the local communities. As of 2020, the park mainly consists of a long path from Balgraystone Road, around the large Balgray Reservoir, across Aurs Road, down a steep hill past the other reservoirs and under a large viaduct. The path then passes an old mill before going through a woodland disconnecting Darnley from the Parkhouse area before ending on the Nitshill Road.
Future proposals for the park include realignment of Aurs Road including construction of a new bridge over Brock Burn (as the current bridge has a weight limit preventing buses from connecting using the road), a visitor centre/leisure centre on the northern peninsula into the Balgray Reservoir, as well as new cycle and walking routes around the park.


George Bird Grinnell

George Bird Grinnell (September 20, 1849 – April 11, 1938) was an American anthropologist, historian, naturalist, and writer. Grinnell was born in Brooklyn, New York, and graduated from Yale University with a B.A. in 1870 and a Ph.D. in 1880. Originally specializing in zoology, he became a prominent early conservationist and student of Native American life. Grinnell has been recognized for his influence on public opinion and work on legislation to preserve the American bison. Mount Grinnell in Glacier National Park in Montana is named after Grinnell.
Exploration and conservation.
Grinnell had extensive contact with the terrain, animals and Native Americans of the northern plains, starting with being part of the last great hunt of the Pawnee in 1872. He spent many years studying the natural history of the region. As a graduate student, he accompanied Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer’s 1874 Black Hills expedition as a naturalist. He declined a similar appointment to the ill-fated 1876 Little Big Horn expedition.
In 1875, Colonel William Ludlow, who had been part of Custer's gold exploration effort, invited Grinnell to serve as naturalist and mineralogist on an expedition to Montana and the newly established Yellowstone Park. Grinnell prepared an attachment to the expedition's report, in which he documented the poaching of buffalo, deer, elk and antelope for hides. "It is estimated that during the winter of 1874-1875, not less than 3,000 Buffalo and mule deer suffer even more severely than the elk, and the antelope nearly as much." His experience in Yellowstone led Grinnell to write the first of many magazine articles dealing with conservation, the protection of the buffalo, and the American West.
Grinnell made hunting trips to the St. Mary Lakes region of what is now Glacier National Park in 1885, 1887 and 1891 in the company of James Willard Schultz, the first professional guide in the region. During the 1885 visit, Grinnell and Schultz while traveling up the Swiftcurrent valley observed the glacier that now bears his name. Along with Schultz, Grinnell participated in the naming of many features in the Glacier region. He was later influential in establishing Glacier National Park in 1910. He was also a member of the Edward Henry Harriman expedition of 1899, a two-month survey of the Alaskan coast by an elite group of scientists and artists.
Grinnell was prominent in movements to preserve wildlife and conservation in the American West. Grinnell wrote articles to help spread the awareness of the conservation of buffalo. For many years, he published articles and lobbied for congressional support for the endangered American buffalo. In 1887, Grinnell was a founding member, with Theodore Roosevelt, of the Boone and Crockett Club, dedicated to the restoration of America's wildlands. Other founding members included General William Tecumseh Sherman and Gifford Pinchot. Grinnell and Roosevelt published the Club's first book in 1895. Grinnell also organized the first Audubon Society and was an organizer of the New York Zoological Society.
With the passage of the 1894 National Park Protective Act, the remaining 200 wild buffalo in Yellowstone National Park received a measure of protection. It was nearly too late for the species. Poaching continued to reduce the animal's population, which reached its lowest number of 23 in 1902. Grinnell's actions led to ongoing efforts by the Department of Interior to find additional animals in the wild and to manage herds to supplement the Yellowstone herd. This ultimately led to a genetically pure viable herd, and the survival of the species.
Grinnell was editor of "Forest and Stream" magazine from 1876 to 1911. He contributed many articles and essays to magazines and professional publications, including:
Ethnology of the Plains cultures.
Grinnell’s books and publications reflect his lifelong learnings about the ways of northern American plains and the Plains tribes. Along with J. A. Allen and William T. Hornaday, Grinnell was a historian of the buffalo and their relationship to Plains tribal culture. In "When Buffalo Ran" (1920), he describes hunting and working buffalo from a buffalo horse.
Grinnell’s best-known works are on the Cheyenne, including "The Fighting Cheyennes" (1915), and a two-volume work, "" (1923). His principal informant for both books was George Bent, a Cheyenne of mixed race who had fought for the Confederacy during the Civil War. George E. Hyde may have done much of the writing.
In 1928, Grinnell explored the story of brothers Major Frank North and Captain Luther H. North, who led Pawnee Scouts for the US Army. In other works on the Plains culture area, he focused on the Pawnee and Blackfeet people: "Pawnee Hero Stories" (1889), "Blackfoot Lodge Tales" (1892), and "The Story of the Indian" (1895).
Of his work, President Theodore Roosevelt said:
Selected papers by Grinnell were edited by J. F. Reiger in 1972.
Death and burial.
Grinnell died April 11, 1938 and is interred in Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, New York City.


Gumot National Park

The Gumot National Park is a high-altitude national park in north eastern Pakistan. It is located within Neelum Valley in Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Conservation efforts in the Gumot National Park are funded by the Global Environment Facility Small Grants Programme and implemented by the Himalayan Wildlife Foundation. The national park is significant as it hosts a connected population of the threatened Himalayan Brown Bear of Pakistan, connected through a network of national parks in northern Pakistan including the Deosai National Park and Musk Deer National Park. The park also hosts a population of the threatened musk deer.


Podocarpus indonesiensis

Podocarpus indonesiensis is a species of conifer in the family Podocarpaceae. It is found only in Indonesia.


Wasgamuwa National Park

Wasgamuwa National Park is a natural park in Sri Lanka situated in the Matale and Polonnaruwa Districts . It was declared to protect and to make a refuge for the displaced wild animals during the Mahaweli Development Project in 1984 and is one of the four National Parks designated under the Project. Originally it was designated as a nature reserve in 1938, and then in the early 1970s the area was regraded as a strict nature reserve. Wasgamuwa is one of protected areas where Sri Lankan Elephants can be seen in large herds. It is also one of the Important Bird Areas in Sri Lanka. The name of the Wasgamuwa has derived through the words "Walas Gamuwa". "Walasa" is Sinhala for sloth bear and "Gamuwa" means a wood. The park is situated 225 km away from Colombo.
Physical features.
The National Park's annual daily temperature is and has a dry zone climate. Annual rainfall ranges between 1650–2100 mm. Rain is received during the north-eastern monsoon, from October to January. July–September is the dry season. Highest elevation of the National Park is Sudu Kanda (White mountain), which is of height. The soil of the national park contains quartz and marble. The forests of Wasgamuwa represent Sri Lanka dry-zone dry evergreen forests. The park consists of primary, secondary, riverine forests and grasslands.
History and historic irrigation.
Ruins of Malagamuwa, Wilmitiya, Dasthota irrigation tanks and Kalinga Yoda Ela canal which are built by Parākramabāhu I remain in the national park. In the past water was irrigated from the Minipe anicut's left bank canal to Parakrama Samudra by Amban ganga which had run through Wasgamuwa.
Yudangana Pitiya has identified as the battleground of the battle between King Ellalan and King Dutthagamani taken place. A grassland that the Dutthagamani's army supposed to have camped before the battle is known as Kandauru Pitiya. The ruins of Chulangani chaitya which is built by King Mahanaga can be seen in the national park. Its circumference, is greater than the Ruwanwelisaya's. The artifacts that have been recovered from the bricks of the chaitya include a bowl used by King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha and several bronze statues are now kept in the Yudangana vihara.
Flora.
Wasgamuwa National Park exhibits one of the highest biodiversity among the protected areas in Sri Lanka. More than 150 floral species have recorded from the park. "Cryptocoryne walkeri" and "Munronia pumila" are two plants with economic value. Reservoirs and riverine forests support large number of fauna species. The forest consists of several layers. "Chloroxylon swietenia", "Manilkara hexandra", "Elaeodendron glaucum", "Pterospermum canescens", "Diospyros ebenum", "Holoptelea intergrifolia", "Pleurostylia opposita", "Vitex altissima", "Drypetes sepiaria", and "Berrya cordifolia" are dominant trees in the emergent layer. "Polyalthia korinti", "Diplodiscus verrucosus", "Limonia acidissima", "Cassia roxburghii" and "Strobilanthes stenoden" are common in other strata. Some 1,700 years old tamarind tree, "Oru Bendi Siyambalawa" (Sinhala for Canoes-Moored-Tamarind) was situated in the park.
Fauna.
Wasgamuwa National Park is home to 23 species of mammals. The park is inhabited by a herd of 150 Sri Lankan elephants. Marsh elephant ("Elephas maximus vil-aliya") roams in the Mahaweli river area. Both monkeys found in the park, purple-faced langur and toque macaque, are endemic to Sri Lanka. While water buffalo and Sri Lankan axis deer are common to observe, Sri Lanka leopard and sloth bear are rare. Small golden palm civet is another rare endemic mammal.
The number of bird species recorded from the park is 143. This includes 8 endemic species. Endemic red-faced malkoha is a resident
bird in this national park. Sri Lanka junglefowl is another endemic bird inhabits the park. Lesser adjutant, yellow-fronted barbet, and Sri Lanka spurfowl are the species that visit the reservoirs and streams of the national park. Peafowl, painted stork, black-headed ibis and Eurasian spoonbill are the park's other aquatic birds. Rare Sri Lanka frogmouth can be found here. Another rare species, chestnut-winged cuckoo, is seen near the Mahaweli river.
Endemic and endangered "Fejervarya pulla" is one of the eight species of amphibians of the park. Of 17 reptile species recorded in the park, five species are endemic. Water monitor and mugger crocodile are common in the waterbodies of the park. Skinks "Lankascincus" spp., lizards "Calotes ceylonensis" and "Otocryptis wiegmanni", and serpent "Chrysopelea taprobanica" are the endangered reptile species. Endemic "Garra ceylonensis" and combtail are among the 17 fish species reside in the aquatic habitats of the park. Of the park's 50 butterflies, eight species are endemic.
Threats and conservation.
There is a possibility that wild animals might catch diseases by coming into contact with domestic cattle, which are released to park's grasslands by the villagers. Wild animals have to compete with these cattle as they have occupied the grazing lands and water pools. These cattle also damage the park's electric fence. Illegal logging is a major threat and preventing it has been a difficult issue. Elephants damage the properties of the villagers and fatal attacks on them have reported from the park. An elephant transit home is being proposed in the Wasgamuwa National Park. Environmentalists raised concern over proposed resettlement of displaced people from the construction of Moragahakanda reservoir. It is suggested that this resulted in escalating the elephant-human clash.


Si Lanna National Park

Si Lanna National Park () is a national park in Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. Home to waterfalls, caves and springs, this mountainous park is the source of numerous tributaries of the Ping River.
Geography.
Si Lanna National Park is located about north of Chiang Mai in Mae Taeng, Chiang Dao and Phrao districts. The park's area is . The highest point is Doi Chom Hot peak at . The Mae Ngat Somboon Chon Reservoir lies within the park.
History.
On 1 August 1989, Si Lanna was designated Thailand's 60th National Park. This national park is home to hill tribes including Karen and Lahu.
Attractions.
Mon Hin Lai Waterfall is a nine-tiered waterfall located in the Mae Ngat Forest. Other waterfalls include Huai Mae Rangong and Huai Pa Phlu. The Nong Pha cave system features stalactites and stalagmites.
Flora and fauna.
The park's rugged terrain features numerous forest types: mixed deciduous, moist evergreen, hill evergreen and dipterocarp. Tree species include "Anisoptera costata" ("krabak"), teak, "Toona ciliata", "Hopea odorata", "Xylia kerrii", "Shorea obtusa" and "Shorea siamensis".
Animal species include tiger, serow, barking deer and wild boar.Bird life includes little egret and lesser whistling-duck.


Black Desert (Egypt)

The Black Desert (, "aṣ-Ṣaḥrāʾ as-sawdāʾ") is a region of volcano-shaped and widely spaced mounds, distributed along about 30 km in western Egypt between the White Desert in the south and the Bahariya Oasis in the north. Most of its mounds are capped by basalt sills, giving them the characteristic black color.
Geology.
The mounds of the "Black Desert", up to 100 m high, vary in size, composition, height, and shape as some are dark consisting of iron quartzite while others are more reddish as its surface rocks consist of iron sandstone. On the outskirts of the Black Desert are volcanic hills proving the eruption of dark volcanic dolerite, dating back to the Jurassic period 180 million years ago.
Palaeobiology.
Remains of shrubs, and fossilized woodlands have been found in the "Black Desert" indicating that it once has worn a dress of greenery and freshness.
Declaration of Natural Reserve.
After discovering a large dinosaur skeleton on its borders, the "Black Desert" has been declared a natural reserve as of 2010.


Tana River Delta Ramsar Site

The Tana River Delta Ramsar Site is a wetland on the Tana River protected under the Ramsar Convention located in the Coast Province of Kenya. It was gazetted as Kenya's 6th Ramsar Site.
The Tana River Delta is the second most important estuarine and river delta (deltaic) ecosystem in Eastern Africa, comprising a variety of freshwater, floodplain, estuarine and coastal habitats with extensive and diverse mangrove systems, marine brackish and freshwater intertidal zone (intertidal areas), pristine beaches and shallow marine areas, forming productive and functionally interconnected ecosystems.
This diversity in habitats permits diverse hydrological functions and a rich biodiversity including coastal and marine prawns, shrimps, bivalves and fish, five species of threatened marine turtles and IUCN red-listed African elephant (Loxodonta africana), Tana River mangabey (Cercocebus galeritus), Tana River red colobus (Procolobus rufomitratus rufomitratus) and White-collared Monkey (Cercopithecus mitis albotorquatus). Over 600 plant species have been identified, including the endangered Cynometra lukei and Gonatopus marattioides.
Tana River delta is one of the only estuarine staging posts on the Asian–East African Flyway, it is a critical feeding and wintering ground for several migratory waterbirds such as waders, gulls and terns.
The main anthropogenic activities include fishing, small-scale family-oriented agriculture, mangrove wood exploitation, grazing, water supply, tourism and research (ongoing research on the protection and monitoring of breeding turtles and the conservation of dugongs).
The Tana River delta is also an Important Bird Area (IBA).


List of protected areas of Lithuania

The Baltic nation of Lithuania is home to several protected areas, which receive protection because of their environmental, cultural or similar value.
The total area of Lithuania’s protected terrestrial territories is , which amounts to approximately 17.04 % of the country’s territory. In addition of marine area protected, or 25.59 % of the country’s territorial waters. Total number of protected areas — 1060. In Lithuania there are 6 Strict Nature Reserves, 5 National Parks, 404 Managed Nature Reserves and 7 Ramsar sites.
Strict nature reserves.
In Lithuania there are 6 strict nature reserves.
Managed reserves.
In Lithuania there are 405 managed nature reserves.
Ramsar sites.
In Lithuania there are 7 Ramsar sites.


Sabon Wuse

Sabon Wuse is the headquarters of Tafa local government area of Niger State of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.


Sabah Wildlife Department

Sabah Wildlife Department, a local wildlife authority under Sabah's state Ministry for Tourism Development, Environment, Science and Technology, enforces the "Wildlife Conservation Enactment 1997" for the proper regulation, use, protection, conservation and management of wildlife, caves and wildlife areas in Sabah. Headquartered in Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia, jurisdiction is spread amongst district offices:
The Department is responsible for: