Eulaema meriana

Eulaema meriana is a large-bodied bee species in the tribe Euglossini, otherwise known as the orchid bees. The species is a solitary bee and is native to tropical Central and South America. The male collects fragrances from orchid flowers, which it stores in hollows in its hind legs. Orchids can be deceptive by mimicking the form of a female and her sex pheromone, thus luring male bees or wasps. Pollination will take place as the males attempt to mate with the labellum, or the tip petal of the flower. Male "E. meriana" are territorial and have a particular perch on a tree trunk where it displays to attract a female. After mating, the female builds a nest with urn-shaped cells made with mud, feces, and plant resin, and provisions these with nectar and pollen before laying an egg in each. These bees also have complex foraging and wing buzzing behaviors and are part of a mimicry complex.
Description.
"Eulaema meriana" resembles a bumblebee in appearance and is covered in short dense hairs. At first glance "Eulaema" bees look like large bumblebee queens. They are relatively large bees with faint metallic colorations. The head of the bee is black, and the thorax brownish black with a large, glossy black scutellum. Their abdomen is black with three transverse pale yellowish bands on the anterior half, and the posterior third is reddish brown. "E. meriana" also possess membranous wings that are dark at the base and paler at the tips. The legs are black and the tibia of the hind legs are much thicker. Males possess hollows on their hind legs, while females have pollen baskets. In general, the species have long tongues that are thought to be an evolutionary adaptation that favors nectar collection. The large body size is thought to allow the bees to fly in cooler, rainy conditions and continue foraging. It has also been suggested that the larger body size can help them forage for longer distances.
Taxonomy and phylogeny.
"Eulaema meriana" are part of the order Hymenoptera, which includes ants, bees, wasps, and sawflies. More specifically, they are in the bee family, Apidae.
"E. meriana" are part of the Euglossini tribe within the subfamily Apinae. Euglossini are part of a group known as corbiculate bees, a group that also includes honey bees, stingless bees, and bumble bees. Members of this group have depressions on their hind legs that are used for nest construction, cell provisions, and transportation of materials.
The Euglossini, or orchid bees, do not have advanced social bees in contrast to the other corbiculate Apinae like the honey bees, bumblebees, and stingless bees that form colonies with a queen and workers.
Orchid bees are considered to be key species in lowland forests because they are pollinators of specific tropical plants. It is in fact the females that perform cross-pollination. They have also been targets of conservation, and the diversity of the euglossine bees as a whole is being affected by habitat fragmentation. "E. meriana" themselves are closely related to their sister bee, "E. bombiformis".
Distribution.
"Eulaema meriana" is native to Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil, or most commonly the New World tropics. It is found in forests in the Amazon basin but is replaced in the Atlantic coastal forest by "Eulaema niveofasciata" and "Eulaema flavescens". In general, members of the Euglossini tribe are found mostly in the tropical areas of the Americas, even around Mexico or Argentina. The genus "Eulaema" itself ranges from central Mexico to northern Argentina.
Nests.
General nest architecture.
Nest entrances have a mud wall or ceiling at the entry point, with a very narrow entrance hole (about 15 mm in diameter). The nests contain a pedicel made out of mud, and a number of urn-shaped brood cells fused together. The pedicel increases in size as the overall size of the nest increases as well. The pedicel is built first and its anterior surface is what forms the back of the first brood cell, which is made of a thick layer of mud and has an average volume around 4.8mL. Cell structures have been observed to be similar across nests. Each cell is fused to the wall of the previous cell, and new cells are often observed to be attached along the same plane. The cells are then covered with a thin layer of feces and lined with resin that is extended past the opening to form a collar. After oviposition by the female, the resin collar is pushed inward by the female and then covered with a layer of mud. In larger nests, once a layer of cells is complete, the surface is covered with mud to make a new floor for the next layer of cells to be built.
Nest initiation and construction.
After mating, a female usually chooses a cavity as its nesting site. If the entrance is too large, a mud wall about 8-9mm thick may first be built in which a hole about in diameter is made. The mud is gathered in small balls by the mandibles, transferred progressively to the fore, mid and hind legs, and deposited in the pollen basket on the hind leg. About six balls make a load, three in each basket and the female flies back to the nest site. Inside the cavity, a pedicel is constructed on which an urn-shaped cell is built. The mud hardens as it dries.
Initiation of a nest begins with mud collection for the mud wall, entrance, pedicel, and first brood cell. This process can take up to four days. Therefore, all trips on the very first day of nest construction are devoted to mud collection. After the first brood cell is nearly complete, the female will begin to collect both mud and resin, which will be used to line the cell on the second day. After the cell is lined, almost no mud is collected on the third day. A female will spend almost three quarters of her time foraging for larval food collection, and the rest for resin collection. Once the brood cell is complete, oviposition will occur, the collar will be pushed in, and the cell will be covered with mud. The construction of additional cells follows a similar timeline, although there is less mud collection now that the mud wall and entrance have been built. It was noted by Cameron and Ramirez in a study done on the nest architecture of the "E. meriana" that less time was required to build successive cells after the first. Some nests were also observed to be reused. Clusters of older cells and decomposing females were found in some of the cells, covered with a layer of mud.
Brood cell construction.
Each brood cell is filled two-thirds of its volume with a pale yellow, sticky pollen/nectar mixture. Females returning to the nest with this sticky substance attached to their corbiculae deposit it into the only open brood cell. The female "E. meriana" follow a specific ritual after placing this pollen mixture into a cell. They make a rotation with the posterior part of the body inside the cell and forelegs around the resin collar. It is suggested that this allows the pollen mixture to be pushed down and packed into the cell. Other materials like mud, feces, and resin are deposited in the nest. Mud and feces can be found deposited on the floor of the nest, while resin is stuck onto a cavity wall near the pedicel.
While the actual size of the nest cavity varied in the study conducted by Cameron and Ramirez, the brood cells of all the nests studied were uniform in size, shape, and structure. The cell structures were also similar to the cells built by other "Eulaema" species.
Colonies.
"E. meriana" typically begin nests alone, and they remain solitary. Occasionally they form parasocial colonies with two or more females that are from the same generation and may even be sisters.
Females work inside the nest at night, constructing cells and ovipositing. One egg is laid in each provisioned cell, and oviposition occurs after the provisions are tamped into the cell. Egg laying happens quickly as the female backs into the cell, holding the collar with her forelegs and inserting her posterior end into the cell. After laying the egg, the female pushes the resin collar in and spends a few hours covering the cell with mud. After this, the female begins to work on building a new brood cell.
Larger nests can have multiple females. Females may use the same site over many generations and continuously build upon the nest. In one large nest studied in Ecuador consisting of 76 cells, two females were found together in the nest for at least 17 days. One of the females carried pollen nectar loads on her corbicula and deposited it into the only open cell. A second female carried mud, covering dead females with mud and working on the nest construction. This suggests some level of social plasticity among these solitary bees.
For single female nests, each cluster of cells represents the reproductive output for one female. One female on average will construct and oviposit over four or five brood cells before disappearing and leaving the nest. Egg development is rather long, with adults observed to be emerging 100–165 days after oviposition.
Pollination.
As in other species of orchid bee, both the male and female visit flowers to feed on nectar. Besides this, the male has a mutualistic relationship with one or more species of orchid. To persuade the male to visit its flowers, the orchid produces fragrances of a particular chemical composition attractive to a specific species of bee that is exactly the right size and shape to pollinate the flower. "Stanhopea" orchids are mostly pollinated by large "Eulaema" bees, "Euglossa" species often being too small for the purpose. In more primitive species in the genus "Eulaema", the orchid pollinium, a packet of pollen, adheres to the male bee as it reverses out of the flower having collected the fragrance. In more advanced species, there is a fall-through mechanism in which the bee loses its footing on some oil droplets while collecting the fragrance and the pollinium adheres to the bee as it slithers out of the flower. "E. meriana" has been observed visiting "Stanhopea florida" and pollinating "Stanhopea candida", "Stanhopea costaricensis" and "Stanhopea tricornis". It also pollinates "Catasetum macrocarpum" and "Notylia pentachne". It is also the only bee species thus far reliably documented as a pollinator of a species of "Vanilla" - "Vanilla grandiflora". In a study to identify which insects pollinated the flowers of the Brazil nut tree ("Bertholletia excelsa"), it was found that the flowers were visited by a number of bee species, including "E. meriana," which visited the tree early in the day. Both males and females were observed collecting nectar from the base of the flower's lower lip. The study concluded that "E. meriana" played a part in the pollination of the Brazil nut flowers but that other bee species, "Eulaema mocsaryi" and "Xylocopa frontalis", were of greater importance, thus "E. meriana" are not required to pollinate Brazil nut flowers. Nevertheless, in commercial Brazil nut tree plantations, successful pollination depends on the plantation being surrounded by intact primary forest with its epiphytic orchid population to supply a sufficient number of pollinating bees for the large number of flowers.
Fragrance collection.
Male orchid bees have a large hind tibia with pouches where they store fragrances. Adult male bees spend much of their time filling their pouch with the volatile fragrances found at orchid flowers. This behavior has given rise to the “pollination syndrome”, where males pollinate about 650 orchid species. They apply lipids to these fragrances, and the compounds are collected and stored in the hind tibia with movements involving their entire legs. The fragrances stay in the pouch for a long period of time and form a complex chemical blend. The blends are species specific, and are commonly hypothesized to be used for intraspecific communication in courtship. To the right is a picture of a male "Eulaema" hovering around the "Catasetum discolor" orchid.
Wing Buzzing.
Males showed increased wing buzzing during each perching session on a tree when they were more active during the day and when ambient temperature was higher. During perching, the male "E. meriana" grabs the tree with his mandibles and extends his hind legs while sweeping his wings back and forth rapidly. Scientists have suggested three hypotheses to explain the behavioral purposes of the increased wing buzzing.
Visual attraction hypothesis.
Some suggest that the bi-colored (half black, half shiny) wings flash the black and yellow abdomen, which could attract females. Others believe that the abdomen is always visible during buzzing due to the angle of the abdomen and the wings, so it is unlikely that the colors of the abdomen are a signal to females.
Thermoregulation hypothesis.
Additionally, the buzzing itself is not loud, and is also unlikely to serve as a signal to other members of the species. David L. Stern instead suggests that these territorial males are cooling their body down by buzzing their wings. The males could be thermally stressed because they fly and hover at lower speeds around their territory compared to when they forage, resulting in lower levels of heat loss from the bee. The wing buzzing could be a behavioral mechanism that helps cool the bee in tropical climates as a form of thermoregulation. Moreover, sunlit territories can also elevate the body temperature of the bee. Therefore, a mechanism like wing buzzing could be important to help the bee cool off. Males were not observed to be active when the ambient temperature was greater than 28.5° Celsius.
Others hypothesize that wing buzzing could also serve to disperse fragrances during a mating display.
Chemical attraction hypothesis.
"E. meriana" have jugal combs. It is present in both sexes, but on females it is much smaller. On males, the jugal comb is large in comparison to its body, and under a stereoscope, scientists were able to determine that the jugal comb can be moved across the middle tibial tufts. A research group led by Bembé in Germany observed that when the jugal comb was moved across a tibial tuft moistened with water, they observed fine aerosol clouds being sprayed off. They suggested that males can spray fragrances from their mid tibial tufts by vibrating their hind wings, and postulated this spraying to be a part of their courtship displays. Thus, another hypothesis on the purpose of wing buzzing is that the wing vibration could attract other Euglossini.
Behavior.
Foraging activities.
Females forage for pollen, nectar, resin, mud, and feces. These materials are packed in the corbiculae and brought back to the nest. Pollen and nectar foraging trips are on average longer than other resource trips. Mud collecting usually takes only a few minutes while pollen and nectar collecting could take up to two hours. Collection times for different materials are also very specific. The female bees collect pollen and nectar from dawn to around noon, while mud, feces, and resin were collected mostly in the afternoon. "E. meriana" are diurnal, limiting foraging to periods between dawn and dusk.
Mating Behavior.
Territoriality and Transiency.
The euglossine bees, also commonly known as “orchid bees”, are best known for the male bees’ collection and attraction of fragrance produced by orchids and other flowers. The exact role of fragrances in the mating system remains unclear, as they are not observed to use them in an obvious manner to attract females or mark their territory. After emergence as an adult, males spend much of their time searching for nectar and fragrances. They can also be found defending territories where mating will sometimes occur.
In a four-month study of male territoriality conducted by Stern, "E. meriana" males showed two alternative behaviors of territoriality and transiency. Transient male bees did not defend territories, but instead flew from one territory to the other. They also did not engage in physical contact with the territorial males. On the other hand, territorial males patrolled an area around a tree and used the same territory for up to 49 days. It also appeared that they gave up territories to new males without violence.
Males defend territories solely for mating, and no other resources such as fragrances, nests, nest construction materials, nectar, or pollen are found at these territories. According to Stern's observations on male behavior, transient males hover around a territory while facing the territorial male, and then descend slowly. They will then fly up to the same level as the territorial male and interact with each other, flying around a territory with one bee seeming to chase the other without any physical contact. The territorial male was observed to fly in a zig-zag pattern consistently before the transient male left, whereupon the territorial male would resume its normal patrolling of his area. Male bees could switch from territoriality to transiency.
Territory occupancy was not statistically observed to be dependent on tree diameter, but when territories of bees were observed and noted, trees with a diameter between 40–70 cm were observed to be used more than 20% of the time. The closely related male "Eulaema bombiformis" prefers trees with a mean diameter of 15.5 cm. Stern suggests this may serve as a reproductive isolating mechanism between the two species. Analysis of occupancy of territories with respect to diffuse and direct light at the site showed that territory occupancy increased with increasing diffuse light and decreasing direct light.
Leks.
In a study conducted by Kimsey, an entomologist that specializes in bees and wasps at the University of California, Davis, she defined leks as fulfilling four criteria: 1) males aggregate and display at sites for mating; 2) males defend territories from conspecific (of the same species) males; 3) the territories do not have food or oviposition sites; and 4) the females can choose their mate. Kimsey and her team investigated "E. meriana" in the Canal Zone for two years.
Males of this species are territorial and operate a lek system. Each selects a perch on the trunk of a tree at the edge of a temporary clearing in the forest caused by a fallen tree. None of the territories contained any flowering plants, nest sites, or nest building materials. Territories are found in treefalls or large light gaps in the tropical forest. Trees used by "E. meriana" were about 20–30 cm in diameter and the perch site 2-5m above the ground. The trees were noted to be relatively straight with smoothed bark.
The male stands in a characteristic pose with its head close to the bark, its front and hind legs extended and its middle legs folded underneath its body. Periodically it "buzzes", vibrating its wings while opening and closing them to display the yellow abdominal markings. At intervals it takes off and flies a few meters away from the perch before looping back to land close to its previous spot. The same perches are used by males every day, both in the morning and in the afternoon, but are unoccupied for a period in the middle of the day. In ensuing years, the same spots are used again as long as the clearing in the forest still exists. Males repeat cycles of patrolling and perching as long as the male remained in the territory and was not disturbed by other males. Male "E. meriana" flew about 2-3m from their perch when no males were present, but 4–6 m when other males were within 5m of their perch. Conflicts were sometimes observed, but were 60–90 seconds long. The males would fly around each other until the other male left.
It appears that male aggregations are seen at favorable mating sites and is likely not due to males attracting other males. The more suitable sites within a treefall, the
larger the number of potential territories, and the more males were found in these areas. Kimsey suggests that this type of a lek is a transitional type of lek in the entire evolution of classical leks.
Male-Male Interactions.
David W. Roubik of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute observed male "E. meriana" forming a ball around a recently killed male of their species. They were observed to be biting the dead male’s hind tibia and scraping them with their forelegs, a behavior typically seen in their chemical harvesting. Roubik notes this as a sort of chemical parasitism – it is possible that the dead male had a "good" blend of chemicals, and the males scraping them off attempted to gather the potentially favorable blend held by a former competitor. Chemicals stored by the male "E. meriana" do not change chemical composition over the few weeks they are stored. Other species observed on the Barro Colorado island in Panama had unique chemical combinations. Thus, it is hypothesized that if a male has good survival, and has had good foraging success with orchids, saps, resins, or fungi, it could have a better chance of mating.
Female-Male Interactions.
Some field observations suggest that male "Eulaema meriana" collect these volatile fragrances to inform potential mates that they have “good genes”. <ales had the same sweeter mandibular gland odors but very different, rancid hind tibial odors.
When a female approaches a male, the male likely disperses collected odors towards the female – it is at this stage that the male would disperse a chemical blend specific to the "E. meriana". Males that have lived longer and foraged widely, as evidenced by the chemicals it disperses, could show the female that they are better equipped with “better genes” and better survival and foraging skills.
Females have large ranges in which they forage and these may contain a number of different male territories, some solitary and others in loose groups. A female attracted to a territory circles around with the male before landing on the perch tree, often taking off and settling several times. The female entering the territory initially appears to be similar to an intruding male. The female "E. meriana" flies in small circles with the male, and the mating process begins when the male successfully lands on the female's back with mating lasting around 5 minutes. After mating, the females leave immediately. Matings have only been observed when no other males were present. It is not entirely apparent how a male's collected and stored fragrances may facilitate the breeding process.
Further research about these chemical stimuli is still needed, as the exact context in which these behaviors are evoked could depend on many environmental factors.
Mimicry.
Large bees of the genus "Eulaema" are found frequently in moderately wet lowland forests of tropical America and show red, yellow, and black colors. "E. meriana" females sting quite painfully, so the males could be considered to be Batesian mimics to females. Several asilid flies also mimic some of the color patterns found in "Eulaema". The most striking mimicry in the Amazon basin and Guiana highlands are the "Eufriesea ornate" and the "Eufriesea limbata" who have similar tergum patterns and colors to the "E. meriana".
"E. meriana" have also been observed to have slightly different patterns depending the region it is found in. For example, in Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua, "E. meriana "show a “flavescens” pattern, without red or brown, and having pale yellow or almost white bands on the terga.
"E. bombiformis, E. meriana", and "E. seabrai" form part of a Müllerian mimetic complex in the Amazon basin and are very similar and make distinguishing between them difficult. However, in eastern Brazil near the coast, these three species are easily distinguished. One can see that these three species show different mimetic patterns in different geographic areas – sometimes between two species independent of the third, and sometimes involving all three. Robert L. Dressler, an expert on orchids, hypothesizes that these bee patterns have their origin in the Pleistocene geography of America. He suggests that the original isolation that led to speciation of "E. meriana" and "E. bombiformis" could have occurred in the early Pleistocene.
In the case of "E. meriana", there appears to be no obvious ecological factor that explains why the “flavescens” pattern occurs in 3 separate areas in the Neotropical region. Those in Brazil are almost identical to the ones in Nicaragua and El Salvador. Dressler suggests that "E. meriana" was once monomorphic with only the “flavescens” pattern, but has been replaced by the “bombiformis” patterns like its sister species "E. bombiformis" because it could be more superior as “warning coloration”.
Sociality.
Mixed colonies in Apidae have rarely been recorded. Sometimes more than one species are observed in a nest, but this is more common in the bumble bees. Some scientists believe that parasites can be viewed as agents that promote sociality among bees in order to promote guarding behavior and cooperation in collective nest construction and maintenance. Roubik suggests that some advantages of colony establishment counters the evolution of eusociality.
The mechanism of accepting other nest mates is unclear in "E. meriana," but there is a capacity for joint nest maintenance and tolerance. This places limits on female sterility because there is no kin selection. Worker castes and non-reproductive females would not evolve if bees accept newcomers to the nest in order to offset costs of a small colony and risks from enemies.
Polymorphism and social limits.
"Eulaema" show high polymorphism and high proportions of diploid males. After assays of 23 enzymes, Roubik focused on five polymorphic systems with six isozyme loci. "E. Meriana" had 35% heterozygotes for a HK loci, and 54% heterozygosity for the PGM loci. Diploid males were observed in rather high proportions. Diploid males were not observed to be larger than or more distinctive than haploid males, and responded to chemical baits in the same manner as haploid males. Homozygosity at the sex locus leads to 50% of the diploids being male in Hymenoptera, and diploid males are usually present at some stage of the life cycle. Euglossine polymorphism is almost twice that of bumblebees, stingless bees, and honey bees.
Some scientists propose that euglossines lack the types of colonies formed by their relatives because of both high diploid male production and genetic polymorphism. Up to 50% of the bees that are intended to be females (diploids) would be males, therefore the supply of altruistic workers would not be stable. Without a stable supply of workers, colonies would not be able to develop adequately. Because the diploid male larva lives in a thick enclosed cell, females may not eliminate them as readily. There is still much discussion on the mechanisms that prevent inbreeding in euglossines and how chemical collections by males influences mating success or paternity. Some propose that inbreeding is a likely reason for the high diploid male proportion.
Interaction with other species.
Because "Eulaema" are so large, brood cells are large and take longer to provision. Thus the cell remains open for longer, providing an opportunity for parasites and scavengers to enter the nest.
Parasites.
"Meloetyphlus fuscatus", a meloid beetle, was observed to emerge from one studied nest. The phoretic type of the meloid attaches itself to the bee and is carried back to the nest and functions as a nest parasite. The larvae feed on provisions collected by the bees.
There are also two "Hoplomutilla conspecta" Mickel wasps that were seen inside nests. One was chewing at closed brood cells, but oviposition was not observed.
Wasps of the family Leucospidae were found to emerge from nests. In one of the nests observed and followed by Cameron and Ramirez, a total of 51 wasps emerged. One of the cells was revealed to have at least 20 "Leucospis" pupal exuviae. "Leucospis pinna" is an ectoparasite of "E. meriana", and is the first species of "Leucospis" that was reported to parasitize members of the Euglossini tribe. It is also the first known member of Leucospidae that has gregarious larvae, with multiple adults emerging from the same cell.
External links.
Listed below are links to just a few websites of research groups and scientists among many that have conducted extensive research on orchids and orchid bees.


Fuchsia hatschbachii

Fuchsia hatschbachii, called Hatschbach's fuchsia, is a species of flowering plant in the genus "Fuchsia", endemic to the state of Paraná in Brazil. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Dipteris conjugata

Dipteris conjugata is a species of fern. It has a rhizome, and 2-3 tall stems with mid green or dark green fronds, which have several divisions to toothed lobes. It is grows in clearings, mountain ridges and in forest margins, from tropical and temperate Asia, Australia and some islands in the Pacific Ocean. It has limited native medicinal uses.
Description.
It has a creeping rhizome, covered with black shiny hairs, or reddish brown hairlike scales. The hairs are 4 to 5 mm long and 0.2 mm in diam. The hairs are more like bristles on the older sections of the rhizomes. It is up to 1 cm or more in diameter.
It has Stipes (or stalks) that are between tall, which have hairlike scales at base, and then becomes smooth and glabrous. They are stramineous (straw coloured) to brown.
The leaf stems appear at regular intervals along the rhizome. and branch three or four times, with 1 metre wide fronds, or lamina (leaf blades).
The mid green, or dark green fronds, but paler or glaucous underneath. are between long and wide. They are divided to the base into two spreading fan-shaped halves, which are further divided more than halfway into 4 or more unequal lobes, these lobes are again less deeply lobed once or more times. The ultimate lobes taper to a narrow apex with the edges deeply or coarsely toothed. The main veins are dichotomously branched several times. The veins on the fronds are also dichotomously-branched with 2–4 main veins entering each of the lobes. The juvenile fronds are tomentose (with a layer of downy hairs).
On the lower surface of the fronds, are numerous, small sori (spore producers), they are irregularly scattered and of irregular size and shape. They do not have indusia (umbrella-like covers) and have paraphyses (filament-like support structures) which are club-shaped.
Biochemistry.
The leaves contain 2 ent-kauranoid hydroxy acids.
Taxonomy.
In Fijian, it is known as "koukoutangane", or 'aivuiniveli'. In Thailand it is called "bua chaek" and "bua cek" in Singapore,
It is written as 双扇蕨 or 破傘蕨, in Chinese script, and known as "shuang shan jue" in Pidgin in China.
The Latin specific epithet "conjugata" refers to the leaf having one pair of leaflets.
It was described by Caspar Georg Carl Reinwardt in Syll. Pl. Nov. 2: 3 in 1828.
"Dipteris conjugata" was also published by Tardieu & C.Chr., Fl. Indo-Chine 7(2): 442. 1941; Holttum, Rev. Fl. Malaya ed. 1, 2: 135, f. 55. 1955 [‘1954’]; Tagawa & K.Iwats., SouthE. Asian Stud. 5: 46. 1967; Acta Phytbtax. Geobot. 23: 52. 1968; Tagawa & K.Iwats., Fl. Thailand 3: 481, f. 49.1 & 49.2. 1989; Boonkerd & Pollawatn and Pterid. Thailand: 32, 78. 2000.
Distribution and habitat.
It is native to tropical and temperate Asia, Australia and some islands in the Pacific Ocean.
Range.
It can be found in temperate Asia, within the Ryukyu Islands of Japan. In tropical Asia, within Papua New Guinea, Cambodia (mainly Kampot), Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, and Hainan (in China), Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia (including on the slopes of Mount Ophir,) and in the Philippines. Also within Queensland in Australia, and on the islands of New Caledonia, (of New Zealand) and Fiji.
Within Thailand, it is found in the provinces of Surat Thani, Phangnga, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Trang and Yala. Within Singapore, it is found in the district of Kranji, Tanjung Gul and on the island of Pulau Tekong.
Habitat.
"D. conjugata" grows on clay slopes, in clearings, ridges and on forest margins. In East Kalimantan, Indonesia, it grows along rivers together with Nypa Palms. In Borneo, it is found commonly growing with "Histiopteris incisa" (Thunb.) J. Sm. and "Lygodium circinnatum" (Burm.) Sw., along forest margins and paths. In New Caledonia, it is found on sunny roadside banks. The fern is also common in forest margins in high rainfall areas.
The species occurs mainly at altitudes of above sea level in China, in Malaysia, and in Singapore. In Singapore, it occurs on coastal cliffs, and at the risk of landslides. It is also
Conservation.
"Dipteris conjugata" is listed as Critically Endangered, in the 2008 Singapore Red Data Book. In Labrador Nature Reserve in Singapore, a large historic fern population was decimated, when the reserve was downgraded to a nature park to only a few plants left in 2001. It has also been found in Tanjong Berlayar Park in Singapore.
To help conserve this fern, staff from the National Biodiversity Centre regularly check on the growth of the Dipteris in the Western Water Catchment. Using parangs and secateurs, they prune and clear the plants that may damage the fern, such as the invasive weed, Simpuh Air ("Dillenia suffruticosa"), the Weeping Fig ("Ficus benjamina"), and the Resam (fern) ("Dicranopteris linearis").
Elsewhere in other areas, at has been assessed as Least Concern (LC), as this species is widespread and not under any known threat.
Cultivation.
It is sometimes planted as an ornamental plant in Singapore.
It can grown in poor to well drained soils and is mostly disease and pest resistant.
Also specimens of the plant can be found in Cibodas Botanical Garden in West Java of Indonesia, and in the Fernarium of Univerisiti Kebangsaan in Malaysia
Uses.
It has been used as a medicinal plant to treat various ailments, such as in southern Thailand, the roots have been collected for used in traditional medicine. In Fiji, it is used to treat male reproductive ailments.
It also has another use, in the highlands of Mindanao in the Philippines, the large fronds are used as an umbrella.


Frailea pygmaea

Frailea pygmaea is a species of Frailea from Bolivia, Argentina, and Uruguay.


Abies fargesii

Abies fargesii () is a species of fir, a coniferous tree in the family Pinaceae. Its common name is Farges' fir, after the French missionary, botanist and plant collector, Paul Guillaume Farges. "Abies fargesii" can grow very large and be up to tall. It is endemic to central China where it is found in Gansu, Henan, Hubei, Shaanxi, and Sichuan provinces. It grows in mountains and river basins at altitudes between ASL. The cones of the given fir are 0.8 to 1.5 by .
"Abies fargesii" is a timber tree used in construction and for pulp.
The Latin specific epithet "fargesii" refers to the French missionary and amateur botanist Père Paul Guillaume Farges (1844–1912).
Varieties:


Euglossa imperialis

Euglossa imperialis is a bee species in the family Apidae. It is considered to be one of the most important pollinators to many Neotropical orchid species in mainland tropical America. It is also one of the most common non-parasitic euglossine species in lowland Panama. "E. imperialis", unlike many other bee species, is not a social bee in the sense that there is no apparent morphological or physiological division within the species to distinguish individual bees to be part of a worker or reproductive caste.
Taxonomy and phylogenetics.
"Euglossa imperialis" is a bee species of the Euglossini tribe and Apidae family. The Euglossini are better known as "orchid bees," as they are known to interact almost exclusively with flowering orchid species as pollinators, and are known to search for nectar and chemical fragrances as well. The Euglossini tribe consists of approximately 240 species grouped into five genera—"Euglossa, Eufriesea, Eulaema, Exaerete," and "Aglae—" all of which are
spread from northern Mexico to northern Argentina. These euglossine bees comprise up to around 25% of local bee communities in lowland wet forests in this region. The Euglossini tribe is also part of the larger Apinae sub-family, which contains many of the known advanced social bees, such as the honey bees, stingless bees, and bumblebees; however, bees of the Euglossini tribe are non-social in nature, meaning that they have not developed a colonial structure with Queen-drone interactions.
Phylogenetic community assembly.
Temporal variation in the structure of euglossine bee communities reveal the relative contributions of varying ecological processes to the shaping of insect communities which include resource competition and habitat filtering. Specifically, phylogenetic diversity changes across latitudinal gradients, in which the more seasonal climates have decreased phylogenetic diversity. It has therefore been theorized that the same ecological processes that drive phylogenetic diversity geographically, also shape communities at the temporal level within a given community.
Description and identification.
"Euglossa imperialis" can be identified from other bees by its relatively large size and relatively sparse hairs, which expose their brightly metallic color. Males have conspicuous white marks around the mouth, whereas similar markings are diminutive in females. Males also have a broad hind tibia, rhomboid or triangular in shape and rounded distally, used as a storage organ for aromatic materials. Male forelegs have five tarsal segments, which have dense tufts of hairs (or ‘brushes’) on the ventral surface, that are useful for picking up oily liquids by capillarity. An elongated pit covered by long hairs (a ‘scar’) can also be seen on the outer rear surface of the tibia, which shows two lobes, each of which has an opening into the tibial organ. The wall of the tibial organ is extremely wrinkled, on which the inner surface has many large branched hairs. Males also display a characteristic pattern of short, dense hairs on the outer surface of the mid tibia, with one or two small hairy patches within a much larger patch. All "E. imperialis" are known to have relatively long tongues in comparison to other bee species. They also have two widely separated tufts of hair without any obvious tubes or slits on the second (metasomal) sternum.
Distribution and habitat.
Limited to mainland Tropical America, "E. imperialis" range from northern Mexico to Paraguay and Argentina.
Male territories occur in light gaps in the forest, including treefalls and trails, and are almost nonexistent in areas of uninterrupted forest. Approximately half of these territories are solitary, of which males tend to be attracted to treefalls which have more potential territory sites. Each territory usually consists of a perch on the trunk of a tree about 0.5 to 1.5 m above the ground, on which the male is displayed, and a route which the male "patrols" to and from the perch. Perches are normally located on tree trunks located on the edge of treefalls. Patrol routes normally extend out into the whole open treefall space. However, it has been noted that territories do not contain flowering plants, sources from which to collect aromatic material (such as tree wounds), nest sites, or nest-building materials. Males also had a preference for use straight, smooth-barked trees about 5 to 10 cm in diameter, with an unobstructed view from the perch site. Studies have also shown that perches for "E. imperialis" were almost always in the shade receiving between 27.8 and 92.9 lux on sunny days and 14.8 to 46.4 lux on overcast days.
Nest.
"Euglossa imperialis" construct their nests with cells clumped in a single cluster, like bumble bee (Bombus) nests, such that it forms a globular structure rather than a comb structure. The nest chamber is approximately spherical in shape with a diameter of 13 cm. The walls are lined with a dark resinous substance thick on the floor and thin at the ceiling. The oldest cells form the bottom layer of the nest, with new cells added on top of each layer. The larvae typically occupy the older cells with eggs in the newer cells. The inner walls of the cells are smooth, whereas the exterior is rough.
Since "E. imperialis" is not a social bee and lacks a worker cast, the nest is constructed communally. A nest for "E. imperialis", is thus the product of a combined effort of many generations of "selfish" individual behavior, indicating that rather than having a Queen dictate the construction and maintenance of the nest, each individual bee contributes to the well-being of a communal nest because it benefits each individual bee's chance of survival to propagate its genes to future generations of progeny.
Life cycle.
"Euglossa imperialis", like many other insect species, undergoes biological change throughout its lifetime via Holometabolism, the four stages of complete metamorphosis:
Eggs.
Duration of approximately 3 days in cell, eggs of "E. imperialis" are curved in shape and approximately 5mm long and 1mm in diameter positioned with only its anterior and posterior ends resting on the surface of the provisions.
Larvae.
Duration of approximately 25 days in cell, mature larvae are ivory-colored and robust with intersegmental lines clearly defined laterally, dorsally, and ventrally.
Pupa.
Duration of approximately 35 days in cell, including ‘Pre-Pupa’ stage.
Adult.
Males have been observed to live about six weeks to three months, whereas females have been observed to live about three to six months.
Colony cycle.
Since "E. imperialis" is a euglossine species, they are a non-social bee, and therefore lack the formation of colonies. Studies have shown that significant barriers to establish stable perennial colonies arise from two main factors: high diploid male production and genetic polymorphism. There could be no supply of truly altruistic workers (or drones), since the supply would be inconsistent, with up to 50% of the intended diploid females actually being males. Therefore, with no drone class, colonies would not be able to adequately form. Another reason why there is such a high diploid male population is because diploid male larva live within thick, closed off resinous cells which are not readily eliminated by the females. Diploid males are therefore seen as a ‘waste’ in energy and resources, and have no adaptive value to other bees.
For the second main factor, genetic polymorphism, it is theorized that "Euglossini" bees have not reached a point where the threshold of genetic homogeneity permitting colony fitness has crossed the expected individual fitness. Therefore, euglossine genetic polymorphism levels appear to be higher than those of ordinary solitary bees, and much higher than social bees, since low polymorphism levels is seen as a foundation for advanced social evolution.
Diet.
"Euglossa imperialis" typically feed on nectar from flowering plants, particularly of the orchid species. Studies have shown that the nectar intake rate for "E. imperialis" is determined primarily by nectar viscosity rather than nectar sweetness, as measured by sucrose concentrations. "E. imperialis" also visits a wide variety of deep flowering plants, unreachable to most other bee species, such as Bignoniaceae, Costaceae, and Marantaceae, as well as understorey herbs such as "Costus laevis" and "Costus allenii", which are entirely dependent on female "E. imperialis" for pollination and cross-fertilization. Male euglossines have also been observed to collect chemical fragrances from floral sources—such as Orchidaceae, Solanaceae, Bignoniaceae, and Euphorbiaceae—as well as non-floral sources, including decaying wood, rotting fruit, animal feces, and tree wounds.
Behavior.
Food foraging.
"Euglossa imperialis" are relatively site-constant when it comes to foraging, meaning that they regularly return to the same areas to forage for nectar, reminiscent of traplines. These are specific foraging routes individual bees utilize to visit the same flowering individuals in a daily regular sequence. These traplines reduce the time bees have to spend searching for food each day; each bee has a set circuit and begins foraging from the same plant on consecutive days. "E. imperialis" forage efficiently in this way by flying rapidly from one precise flowering plant to the next in its daily sequence, even ignoring newly blooming plants adjacent, but outside of, its regular route. Severe shortages of food may also cause males to migrate or change their foraging behavior to become transient and vagabond, in which males will fly longer distances to find food. This behavior can also be expected to change with the changing seasons, as certain plants flower in different seasons.
Nectar feeding behavior.
Contrary to most other bee species which have a short proboscis to consume nectar with a lapping motion of their hair-covered tongues, the long-tongued "Euglossini" bees utilize a purely suction feeding method to ingest nectar from deep flowers, such as flowering orchid plants. However, because of the dilemma the euglossine bees face—in which energy content rises linearly with nectar sugar concentration, whereas viscosity rises exponentially—, "E. imperialis" collect more dilute nectars, relative to their lapping bee counterparts, with sucrose concentrations between approximately 30 to 40%. During the actual ingestion, the glossa of "E. imperialis" is generally fully extended and stationary, stretching 6 mm beyond the apical end of the feeding tube formed by the galeae and the labial palps. Therefore, the shift in capillary-based lapping to suction feeding for "E. imperialis", although decreasing nectar sugar concentration, maximizes the rate of energy intake for each individual bee.
Fragrance collection.
Studies of male "E. imperialis" show elevated levels of territorial behavior when provided with a fragrant chemical, cineole, which attracts other male bees. In addition, it has been observed that these male bees are likely to periodically abandon their territories to forage for chemicals thought to be important for attracting and mating with females. Males have been observed to actively collect aromatic chemicals, especially those produced by orchid flowers, while storing and modifying them in their hind tibiae for later use. Experiments have evidenced that younger male bees are relatively more active at chemical baits than nectar plants, indicating that many younger male bees have relatively no chemical stores to establish a territory and attract females, and must therefore commit more of their energy to foraging for chemicals. Older male bees were found to be relatively more common at nectar plants, indicating that as these male bees age, there is a decline in reproductive activity. However, when studied over time, male "E. imperialis" did not detectably decrease their fragrance stores in their hind tibiae over the course of two weeks of captivity, suggesting that continuous passive exposure is highly unlikely. Instead, this strongly supports the theory that an active mechanism is required to allow the male to trigger voluntary fragrance release at specific times, such as courting behavior, or other mating behaviors in which sex pheromones are released.
Territorial display.
Male "E. imperialis" have been observed to occasionally form aggregations of territories considered to be leks. These aggregations typically occur at sites in which they can collect aromatic materials; however, females almost never approach these aggregations. It is also important to note that although leks are formed, they are only facultative for this species (the more suitable sites, the greater the number of habitable territories). Since these territories are aggregated, females have a large selection of males with whom to potentially mate with in the aggregation. Territorial behavior of male "E. imperialis" consists of two primary components: displaying on the perch and patrolling its territory. During display, the male ‘stands’ on the perch with its head pointed up, and touching the trunk of the tree with its mandibles closed. Only the fore and hind legs touch the tree trunk, in which the forelegs bend and are held besides the head, whereas the hind-legs are held straight away from the body. During its display, the male would also ‘hop’ on-and-off the tree, about 2 cm from the perch, accompanied by a loud buzzing sound. Shortly after displaying, the male then engages in patrol behavior, flying an irregular elliptical path around its territory. This cycle of displaying and patrolling repeats continuously as long as the male remains in its territory and is undisturbed by intruding males. Male "E. imperialis" are considered to have two types of territories: ‘primary territories’ and ‘secondary territories’. In primary territories, they are almost always defended by males, and is the site for all male-male confrontations. In secondary territories, they are defended for only 1 to 2 hours a day. Secondary territories often serve as a transitional territory for males attempting to move into primary territories by challenging the resident males. Weather also plays a significant role in territorial defense behavior, such that in heavy rain, males would often abandon their territories for the rest of the day. On dark, overcast days, there is also little to no activity.
Mating behavior.
Receptive females are the ones to locate male territories by examining tree-falls or large light gaps within their foraging ranges. Female "E. imperialis" behavior, when entering a territory, initially resembles that of an intruding male. The female flies up within 5 cm of the resident male and hovers until the male flies out to investigate. The male and female then engage in a tight circular flight path, less than 20 cm apart, until the female lands on the perch of the tree. The female then presses its body close to the tree trunk, with its wings held down. The male then lands on her dorsum to copulate with the female, which lasts a brief 5 seconds. After mating, the female then immediately leaves the territory. It is also important to note that mating only occurs in relatively solitary territories in which no other males are present. It is theorized that female "E. imperialis" possibly only mate once in their lifetime due to the fact that a very limited number of female foraging ranges actually overlap with any given male territory.
Inter/intra-species conflict behavior.
Normally only occurring when a resident male of a primary territory is challenged by an intruding male, intra-species conflict is often fleeting, typically lasting 60 seconds or less. Both males typically engage each other by flying around each other, occasionally bumping, within 0.5 to 1.0 m circles. No actual grappling would occur, and this behavior would continue until one male, typically the intruder, leaves. Male "E. imperialis" typically ignore members of other species, both bees and animals, in the immediate area of their perch and vicinity of their territories. However, "Solenopsis" ants have a parasitic relationship with "E. imperialis", since they enter some of the cells from below the nest and rob the cell contents.
Nesting behavior.
Each nest is occupied by several adult females. When a larva matures in its cell, it lays down a layer of silk threads on the cell walls, then coats it with layers of a smooth and shiny substance, creating a sort of cocoon. The larva then defecates and smears its feces in vertical streaks on the inside of the cocoon to cover the lower half of the inner wall. This behavior is unique in "E. imperialis", but the reason for its behavior is still unknown. Males, after emerging from their cells, leave immediately and have been observed to never re-enter the nest.
Flight behavior.
Since "E. imperialis" is an important pollinator to orchid species, they experience excessive loads to carry in their hind tibiae for maneuvers, nectar loading, and mate or prey transport. Thus, aerial agility and mobility is a necessary adaptation that bees of this species must acquire. Studies have shown that the energy "E. imperialis" bees expend on hovering in normal atmospheric conditions is not representative of their maximum aerodynamic performance capabilities. Bee muscle power output is proportional to the product of contraction frequency, muscle strain, and myofibrillar stress; for "E. imperialis", the easiest method of enhancing power output is solely relying on increasing muscle strain by increasing the wing stroke amplitude approximately 40-50%. In short, the total inertial power required can be stored in the elastic elements of the thorax, and then subsequently released to reaccelerate the wings for greater lift.
Human interaction.
"Euglossa imperialis" appear to be a shy species when it comes to human interaction. Multiple experiments done with "E. imperialis" have all noted that tagging territorial males often ends in failure since they leave the vicinity altogether when people walk within 1.5 to 2.0 m of their territories.
Population decline.
Sharp pronounced declines in tropical euglossine bee populations at both the native and human-managed levels, have raised serious concerns over a possible global pollination crisis. Since many tropical plant taxa, especially flowering orchid plants, strongly rely on euglossine bee pollinators for cross-fertilization, declining euglossine bee populations could lead to widespread pollen limitation and low reproductive rates. This decline is most likely attributable to human activity such as habitat disturbance—habitat degradation, pervasive pesticide use, pathogen spillover, forest fragmentation, and climatic alteration.


Acer washingtonense

Acer washingtonense is an extinct maple species in the family Sapindaceae described from one fossil leaf and four fossil samaras. The species is solely known from the Early Eocene sediments exposed in northeast Washington state, United States. It is one of three species belonging to the extinct section "Torada".
History and classification.
"Acer washingtonense" was described from a lone leaf specimen and four complete fruit specimens which were recovered from three different locations. The lone leaf and two of the samara's were found in an outcrop of shale on Knob Hill north of Republic, Washington identified as Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture location UWBM B2737. The third samara fossil is from the Burke Museum location UWBM A0307 located within the town of Republic itself and the last samara was recovered from Resner Canyon, National Museum of Natural History location USNM 11018. Both UWBM B2737 and UWBM A0307 are in the Republic Graben while USNM 11018 is in the Toroda Creek Graben. Each of the sites are considered outcroppings of early Eocene, Ypresian, shale belonging to the Klondike Mountain Formation. The Klondike Mountain Formation, along with site of the same age in British Columbia preserve upland temperate floras which were first interpreted as being Microthermal, however further study has shown them to be more mesothermal in nature. The plant community preserved in the Klondike Mountain formation is a mixed conifer-broad leaf forest with large pollen elements of birch and golden larch, but also having notable traces of fir, spruce, cypress, and palm.
The species was described from a group of specimens, the holotype, number "UWBM 56253 A,B" and the paratypes "UWBM 56255", "UWBM 71135 A,B" and "UWBM 54308" are currently preserved in the paleobotanical collections housed at the Burke Museum, part of the University of Washington in Seattle while the paratype, "USNM 396011", is in the paleobotanical collections of the National Museum of Natural History, part of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C.. The specimens were studied by paleobotanists Jack A. Wolfe of the United States Geological Survey, Denver office and Toshimasa Tanai of Hokkaido University. Wolfe and Tanai published their 1987 type description for "A. toradense" in the "Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University". The etymology of the chosen specific name "washingtonense" is in recognition of the type locality in Northeastern Washington State. "A. washingtonense" is one of three species assigned to the extinct section "Torada" and is designated the type species for the section. The three members of the section "A. stonebergae", "A. toradense", and "A. washingtonense" were known only from the Republic and Princeton fossil localities when first described. Of the three species, both "A. stonebergae" and "A. toradense" are only known from the samara fossils, and only "A. washingtonense" has been described from both leaves and samaras. The three are among a number of "Acer" species described from the Republic and Princeton sites by Wolfe and Tanai.
Description.
Leaves of "Acer washingtonense" are simple in structure and with perfectly actinodromus vein structure and a generally wide elliptic shape. The leaves are shallowly three-lobed, with five primary veins and is wide by an estimated long in overall dimension. "A. washingtonense" has a simple structure to the teeth that is similar to the Alaskan fossil species "A. alaskense" and "A. douglasense" and the modern species "A. spicatum". The samaras have distinct bifurcating ridges on the nutlet which are unique to section Torada. The overall shape of the samara is ovoid with an average length of up to and a wing width of . The paired samaras for "A. washingtonense" have a 45° attachment angle and the attachment scar on the nutlet is . While very similar in morphology to "A. toradense", the two possibly related species can be separated by the coarse reticulum of veins which is found on "A. toradense" and not "A. washingtonense". The samaras of "A. stonebergae" are distinguishable from both "A. toradense" and "A.washingtonense" by their notably larger overall size.


Ariocarpus scaphirostris

Ariocarpus scaphirostris is a species of plant in the family Cactaceae. The "Ariocarpus scaphirostris" was originally called "Ariocarpus scapharostrus" in the 1930. D. R. Hunt, however, changed it to "Ariocarpus scaphirostris".
It is endemic to Nuevo León state in northeastern Mexico.
Its natural habitat is hot deserts.
The plant is slow growing and also produces rare flowers.


Eriogonum davidsonii

Eriogonum davidsonii is a species of wild buckwheat known by the common name Davidson's buckwheat. This plant is native to the southwestern United States and northern Baja California, where it grows in sandy or gravelly soils in a variety of habitats. It is a spindly annual herb growing up to 40 centimeters in height. The fuzzy leaves are located at the base of the plant and are one or two centimeters wide and round with wavy or wrinkly margins. It is variable in appearance, but is generally erect with thin, naked, neatly branching stems bearing clusters of tiny flowers at widely spaced nodes. Each flower is about 2 millimeters wide, bell-shaped, and usually pink.


Lonicera dioica

Lonicera dioica (limber honeysuckle, glaucous honeysuckle) is a vine in the honeysuckle family native to Canada and the eastern and central United States. "Lonicera dioica" comprises four variations: var. "Dasygyna", var. "Dioica", var. "Douglasii", and var. "Orientalis".


Euonymus thwaitesii

Euonymus thwaitesii is a species of plant in the family Celastraceae. It is endemic to Sri Lanka.


Carlavirus

Carlavirus, formerly known as the "Carnation latent virus group", is a genus of viruses in the order "Tymovirales", in the family "Betaflexiviridae". Plants serve as natural hosts. There are 53 species in this genus. Diseases associated with this genus include: mosaic and ringspot symptoms.
Description.
"Carlavirus" is described in the 9th report of the ICTV (2009). The genus is characterised by having six ORFs (Open Reading Frames) including a TGB (Triple Gene Block). The viruses are transmitted by insects.
Taxonomy.
The genus was first proposed in the first report of the ICTV in 1971, as the 'Carnation latent virus group' but was renamed in 1975 as the 'Carlavirus group', and as the genus "Carlavirus" in 1995 (6th report). In 2005 (8th report) it was placed in the "Flexiviridae" family, having previously been unassigned. The current position in the 9th report (2009) as a genus of the family "Betaflexiviridae" derives from the subsequent subdivision of "Flexiviridae".
The following species are assigned to the genus:
Virology.
The virions are non enveloped, filamentous, 610–700 nanometers (nm) and 12–15 nm in diameter.
The linear 5.8–9 kilobase genome is positive sense, single-stranded RNA. The 3’ terminus is polyadenylated. In some species the 5’ end is capped. The genome encodes 3 to 6 proteins including a coat protein located at the 3' end and an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase located at the 5' end of the genome.
Life cycle.
Viral replication is cytoplasmic, and is lysogenic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by penetration into the host cell. Replication follows the positive stranded RNA virus replication model. Positive stranded RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription. The virus exits the host cell by tripartite non-tubule guided viral movement. Plants serve as the natural host.
Transmission.
Infection is at times spread by aphids in a semi-persistent mode, that is, the vector is infective for a number of hours.(Pimentel) Some species are transmitted by "Bemisia tabaci" in a semi-persistent mode or through the seed. Most species infect only a few hosts and cause infections with few or no symptoms, for example, American hop latent virus and lily symptomless virus. Some, such as blueberry scorch virus and poplar mosaic virus, cause serious illnesses. (Foster)


Euthemis minor

Euthemis minor is a plant in the family Ochnaceae. The specific epithet "" is from the Latin meaning "small", referring to the species' smaller size when compared with "E. leucocarpa".
Description.
"Euthemis minor" grows as a shrub or treelet measuring up to tall. The flowers are pinkish when fresh. The roundish fruits measure up to in diameter.
Distribution and habitat.
"Euthemis minor" grows naturally in Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Borneo. Its habitat is lowland to submontane forests, including kerangas forests, from sea-level to altitude.


Primula farinosa

Primula farinosa, the bird's-eye primrose, is a small perennial plant in the family Primulaceae, native to Northern Europe and northern Asia, and (rarely) farther south at high altitudes in the mountains of southern Europe. This primrose thrives on grazed meadows rich in lime and moisture.
Growth.
This small, Arctic–alpine primrose grows from in height. The leaves are set in rosettes and are long and broad, smooth on top, powdery-white on the underside. The violet-blue flowers appear in early spring, and often in rounded clusters on top of a powdery stem when the plant is older.


Cleomella brevipes

Cleomella brevipes is a species of flowering plant in the cleome family known by the common name shortstalk stinkweed. It is native to the Mojave Desert and adjacent hills, where it grows in wet alkaline environments such as mineral-rich desert hot springs. It is an annual herb producing a rough, waxy, red stem up to about 45 centimeters tall. The stem is lined with many small fleshy leaves, each divided into three leaflets. Flowers appear in the leaf axils all along the stem, often all the way down to the base. Each grows at the end of a short, erect pedicel. The flower has four tiny yellow sepals and four tiny yellow petals. The fruit is a somewhat rounded, hanging capsule developing at the end of the remaining flower receptacle.


Dictymia

Dictymia is a small genus of ferns. They are found growing on rocks, or hanging from branches in Malesia, Australia and islands of the Pacific Ocean. Species include "Dictymia mckeei", and "Dictymia brownii". The word "Dictymia" is from the ancient Greek language. It refers to the "net" like veiny patterns.


Asterotheca

Asterotheca is a genus of seedless, spore-bearing, vascularized ferns dating from the Carboniferous of the Paleozoic to the Triassic of the Mesozoic.
Description.
"Asterotheca sp." is a vascularized, seedless fern that reproduces via spores that require the presence of water. This genus of fern lived from the Carboniferous to the Triassic and is an ancestor to all modern seed plants.
The leaves of "Asterotheca" (and all ferns) are called fronds. Fossilized specimens show large, morphologically complex structures that consist of leaf segments called pinnae. Each pinna consists of four to eight sporangia. "Asterotheca" fronds are unipinnate because there is only a single row of pinnae on each side of the rachis, or main central stem.
"Asterotheca cyathea" displays open dichotomous unipinnate segments, each with four to five eusporangia.
Synonyms.
In the field of paleobotany, different parts of plant fossils are assigned different taxonomic names based on how they are preserved.
Synonyms for "Asterotheca" include:
Reproduction.
True ferns (Filicales) are vascular plants that reproduce by way of spores that require water to disperse their gametophytes. Families of ferns are classified according to the arrangement and morphology of their sporangia and are generally categorized into two groups: the eusporangia and leptosprangia. "Asterotheca" exhibited eusporangia that are partially fused within a larger synangium that is most commonly characterized with four to eight sporangia.
The reproduction cycle of "Asterotheca", like that of all seedless ferns, is an alternation of generations. In this life cycle, there is an alternation between two different forms (gametophytes and sporophytes) that are alternately sexual and asexual.
The alternation of generations in ferns can be generalized in five steps:
Fructifications of Paleozoic Pteridosperms.
A - "Asterotheca". 1, Pinnule bearing 8 synangia. 2, Synangium in side view. 3, In section, magnified.
B - "Renaultia". 1, Fertile pinnule, nat size. 2, Sporangium, enlarged.
C - "Dactylotheca", as in B.
D - "Sturiella". Section of pinnule and synangium. a, Vascular bundle; c, hairs; b, d, annulus, magnified.
E - "Oligocarpia". Sorus in surface-view, magnified.
F - "Crossotheca". Fertile pinnule, bearing several tufts of microsporangia, magnified.
G - "Senftenbergia". Group of annulate sporangia, magnified.
H - "Hawlea". Synangium after dehiscence, magnified.
J - "Urnatopteris". 1, Part of fertile pinna, nat. size. 2, Sporangia, showing apical pores, magnified.
Of the above. A, D, E, G and H, probably belong to true Ferns; F is the male fructification of a Pteridosperm (Lyginodendron); the rest are of doubtful nature.
Significance of Seedless Vascular Plants.
The evolution of vascular plants with roots and leaves during the Devonian and early Carboniferous increased the rate of photosynthesis, and, thus, increased the rate of CO2 removal from the Earth's atmosphere by almost a factor of five during the Carboniferous.
Paleoenvironments.
"Asterotheca", like all seedless ferns, requires an environment with abundant water for survival. Suitable paleoenvironments include tropical everwet, tropical summerwet, warm temperate, and cool temperate biomes.


Norman C. Deno

Norman C. Deno (February 15, 1921 – September 22, 2017) was an American chemist and plant scientist. He was a professor of Chemistry at Penn State University and is known as one of the foremost researchers in seed germination theory. He researched the biochemical reactions that underlie the germination of all seeds and self-published a number of books that combined his scientific results. A final volume titled "Seed Storage Theory and Practice" was never written. He published 150 papers in Chemistry and 20 papers in horticulture. Over the course of his career, Deno performed germination research on plant species from 150 families, 800 genera, and 2500 species.
The second edition of his first book was published in 1993 and listed germination rules for over 2,500 individual species of plants. These covered 605 different genera of plants. The first supplement to the book was published in 1996 and added 1,080 further species.
Career.
Education.
Deno earned a Bachelors of Science degree from the University of Illinois in 1942. He earned a Masters of Science degree in Chemistry and a Ph.D in Chemistry from the University of Michigan in 1946 and 1948.
Research.
During his time as a chemist, Deno made a major discovery on the operation of oil refineries and how to increase their efficiency, which earned him a large amount of money to focus on other research.
Later in his life, Deno moved from his direct chemistry work and decided to instead focus on horticulture and the chemical processes involved in the seed germination process. He determined that around 95% of plants relied upon chemical methods to delay germination and understanding how these work allowed for reversing them. A focus of his research was on the plant hormone gibberellic acid and how it increased germination rates, usually after being produced by microorganisms in a symbiotic relationship with their host plant. He disliked the methods of scarification, especially since he preferred the term "puncturing", and worked on his own physical methods of inducing germination.
Deno argued that the term "drainage" in regards to watering of plants is fundamentally wrong, as it does not matter the amount of flowing level of water over the roots, but the amount of contained oxygen in them and the capability of the plant at that growth stage to uptake the oxygen into the plant body. Therefore, he suggested all usage of the term drainage should be replaced with aeration for accuracy. Additionally, from his understanding of chemical responses boosting germination, he suggested that the idea of seed dormancy is inaccurate, as there is no form of hibernation going on. The seeds are still active and so he prefers the term "conditioning" in that the seeds are waiting for chemical signals to show that the outside conditions are right so their activity can proceed beyond the seed coat. These ideas and methodologies developed by Deno were also discussed and reproduced by Ken Druze for his book "Making More Plants: The Science, Art and Joy of Propagation".
A large amount of his research proved useful for gardeners and those wanting to successfully germinate specific species of plants outside of a lab setting. His contributions to the "North American Rock Garden Society" helped promote this and his low-tech methodology for accomplishing germination was referred to as "The Deno Method". This involved replicating the lab setting of blotting paper for sowing seeds and the use of germination chambers by instead using heavy-duty paper towels and plastic sandwich bags to imitate the enclosed chamber environment. Additionally, Deno stressed that sterilized soil had to be used in order to prevent encroachment of pathogenic fungi and his method recommended using boiling water strained through the soil several times in order to ensure no pathogens survived. Multiple seed companies contacted him over the years to see if he could attempt to find germination techniques for specific plant species they wanted to sell. Thompson & Morgan also incorporated his methods into their purchaser instructions for customers.
Books.
Copies of Deno's works are hosted in the United States National Agricultural Library archive. Original physical copies were previously sold by Deno for $20 through the mail.
Accolades and awards.
Deno received an Award of Merit in 1978 from the "North American Rock Garden Society", along with a Carleton R. Worth Award in 1990.


Gimlet (eucalypt)

A gimlet is one of nine species of eucalypt in the genus "Eucalyptus", series "Contortae". These species are mainly characterised by having smooth, shiny, fluted trunks. The most widely distributed of the gimlets, is "E. salubris" which is found throughout the south-west of Western Australia, other than in coastal areas and wet forests. The other eight species have a narrower distribution in the Goldfields-Esperance region. The only gimlet that is a mallee is "E. effusa" which forms a lignotuber from which it can resprout after fire. The other eight gimlets are mallets, do not form a lignotuber, are killed by fire and regenerate from seed. These species are "E. campaspe", "E. creta", "E. diptera", "E. jimberlanica", "E. ravida", "E. terebra", "E. salubris" and "E. tortilis".


Lomatium plummerae

Lomatium plummerae (Plummer's lomatium) is a perennial plant in the carrot family (Apiaceae). Former subspecies "L. plummerae" var. "sonnei" was reclassified as its own species, "Lomatium austinae". "Lomatium plummerae" is found mostly in California where it is native.


Leuenbergerioideae


Caryocar amygdaliferum

Caryocar amygdaliferum is a plant native to the rain forests of the Choco region of Colombia and Panama. Its fruit consists of a spiny husk inside which a seed about three times the size of an almond develops. It has been used for similar purpose as the almond and was traded as a luxury item among the Inca in pre-conquest times and grown in the land of the Chachapoyas. It is also eaten by some species of bats.


Poa compressa

Poa compressa, the Canada bluegrass or flattened meadow-grass, is a perennial flattened meadow grass, similar to common meadow-grass, "Poa pratensis". It is native to Europe but it can be found nearly worldwide as an introduced species. It grows in old wall tops, pavement cracks, dry stony grassland, and many types of wild habitat. It has a flattened stem, 23–30 cm tall, a close one sided panicle of grey green, with purple florets.
The ligule is rounded.


Plasmodiophora

Plasmodiophora is a genus of cercozoa.
It includes the species "Plasmodiophora brassicae", which causes the disease cabbage clubroot.


Arthromeris mairei

Arthromeris mairei is a fern species in the genus "Arthromeris".
Two afzelechin glycosides, arthromerin A (afzelechin-3-O-β-D-xylopyranoside) and arthromerin B (afzelechin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside), can be isolated from the roots of "A. mairei".


Grammitis recondita

Grammitis recondita is a species of fern in the family Polypodiaceae. It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Bog huckleberry

Bog huckleberry is a common name for several plants and may refer to:


Oedogoniales


Pseudoweinmannia

Pseudoweinmannia is an endemic Australian genus with two species of trees of the family Cunoniaceae. Both species lack petals.
The name refers to the similarity of another genus, "Weinmannia", after the German eighteenth century pharmacist J.W. Weinmann.


Keckiella antirrhinoides

Keckiella antirrhinoides (formerly "Penstemon antirrhinoides") is a species of flowering shrub in the plantain family known by the common names snapdragon penstemon and chaparral beardtongue.
It is native to the Mojave Desert and Sonoran Deserts of California, Arizona, and northern Baja California. It is also found in the chaparral—Colorado Desert ecotone of the Peninsular Ranges.
Description.
"Keckiella antirrhinoides" is desert shrub that grows one half to two and a half meters tall, with spreading branches.
The oppositely-arranged leaves are up to 2 centimeters long and are lance-shaped or narrow ovals. They are deciduous during dry periods.
The plant produces branchlike inflorescences which bear snapdragon-like flowers. Each hairy, glandular flower is about 2 centimeters wide, with three lower lobes which lie flat or curve down and two upper lobes which join to form a curved lip. Inside the flower are shiny filamentous stamens holding anthers and a flat, densely hairy sterile stamen called a staminode. The flowers are light yellow and dry to nearly black.


Tilopteridales

Tilopteridales is an order of brown algae (class Phaeophyceae) with isomorphic alternation of generations.


Myosotidium

Myosotidium is a genus of plants belonging to the family Boraginaceae. This genus is represented by the single species Myosotidium hortensia, the giant forget-me-not or Chatham Islands forget-me-not, which is endemic to the Chatham Islands, New Zealand. The biogeography is yet unresolved, but its ancestors may have originated from the American continent, as "Myosotidium hortensia" was found to be sister to the South American plant genus "Selkirkia" and both genera being sister to the North American genus "Mimophytum".
"Myosotidium hortensia" is a fleshy herb with large orbicular somewhat fleshy leaves and appearingly parallel leaf venation. The inflorescence bears numerous blue flowers in the late spring. The relatively large blackish seeds are winged. It is much planted as a garden ornamental flower in New Zealand and elsewhere. In addition to the blue-flowered species, 'Alba', a white flowered cultivar is also popular in cultivation. In its natural habitat, "M. hortensia" occurs near beaches under the direct influence of sea-water spray and sea-winds.


Aristolochia tricaudata

Aristolochia tricaudata is a species of perennial plant in the family Aristolochiaceae. It is found in Chiapas and Oaxaca, Mexico.


Lejeuneaceae

Lejeuneaceae is the largest family of liverworts. Most of its members are epiphytes found in the tropics, while others can be found in temperate regions.
The main characteristics of the family are that:
Some large genera of the family are "Lejeunea", "Ceratolejeunea" and "Cheilolejeunea".
Taxonomy.
The Lejeuneaceae are the largest family of liverworts with more than 1600 species, which equates to roughly 20% to 25% of all liverworts. These species are assigned to 95 genera.


Huernia hystrix

Huernia hystrix, the porcupine huernia, is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae, native to southeastern Africa. A succulent, it has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
Subtaxa.
The following subspecies are accepted:


Scilla lochiae

Scilla lochiae, known as Loch's glory-of-the-snow, is a bulbous perennial from Cyprus flowering in early spring. After flowering, it goes into dormancy until the next spring. It was named after Lady Loch who collected it. It belongs to a group of "Scilla" species that were formerly put in a separate genus, "Chionodoxa", which may now be treated as "Scilla" sect. "Chionodoxa".
Like all former "Chionodoxa" species, the bases of the stamens are flattened and closely clustered in the middle of the flower. In other species of "Scilla", the stamens are not flattened or clustered together.
"S. lochiae" is an endemic of the Toodos Mountains of Cyprus, where it flowers during March and April in moist organic soils in pine forests at higher elevations. Found only in a small area, it is strictly protected under the Berne Convention.
It has relatively few flowers in a raceme, each about 2.5 cm in diameter. The flowers are bright blue, without white at the base of the tepals, as most other former "Chionodoxa" species have, although the stamen bases are white. Photographs taken in the wild show the flowers nodding rather than upright.


Sarraceniaceae of South America

Sarraceniaceae of South America is a monograph on the pitcher plants of the genus "Heliamphora" by Stewart McPherson, Andreas Wistuba, Andreas Fleischmann, and Joachim Nerz. It was published in September 2011 by Redfern Natural History Productions and covered all species known at the time.
The book is part of a comprehensive two-volume work on the Sarraceniaceae. The other tome, "Sarraceniaceae of North America", deals with the genera "Darlingtonia" and "Sarracenia". Intended as the first volume, "Sarraceniaceae of South America" includes an introduction to the family Sarraceniaceae as a whole. Both volumes were nominees for the 2012 CBHL Annual Literature Award, in the Technical Interest category.
In addition to the main authors, others who worked on the book include Andy Smith and Wayne Jenski, who produced a number of anatomical illustrations, and taxonomist Jan Schlauer, who contributed to the formal species descriptions.
Content.
The book gives a detailed account of all 23 species of "Heliamphora" recognised at the time of its publication. This number includes four species described for the first time (, , , and ) and one raised to a species from infraspecific level (). A further two "incompletely diagnosed taxa" are also included. The authors recognise the following taxa:
Additionally, an undescribed variant of "H. pulchella" from Amurí Tepui that lacks long retentive hairs is listed as "H. pulchella" 'Incompletely diagnosed taxon from Amurí Tepui'. All known natural hybrids are also covered.
The book includes a colour foldout map and 488 numbered figures.
Reviews.
"Sarraceniaceae of South America" received generally favourable reviews. Writing in the June 2012 issue of the "Carnivorous Plant Newsletter", Barry Rice praised the book's detailed coverage, photography, and build quality, as well as the inclusion of "very useful" distribution maps for each species. However, he pointed out the lack of a botanical key as a significant omission. He suggested that the book's shortcomings are likely "due to an overly-speedy publication schedule at Redfern Natural History Productions". Summarising, Rice wrote that both "Sarraceniaceae of South America" and its sister volume "are beautiful books with wonderful images and lots of fascinating details".
A review by Nils Köster published in the June 2012 issue of "Willdenowia" was also positive, describing the two monographs as "the ideal companions for everybody interested in New World pitcher plants". However, the author found the book's treatment of synonyms "a little disappointing"—although present, they are "rather hidden within the text" and mostly absent from the index. The reviewer also noted the lack of an identification key, writing: "ultimately, a taxonomic concept which cannot be implemented in an identification key always leaves some room for doubt about its viability".
In his review for the September 2012 issue of the "Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society", Michael F. Fay described the two tomes as "beautifully illustrated", adding: "these authoritative volumes will be important books for all who wish to study New World pitcher plants [...] No library of books on carnivorous plants will be complete without [them]".


Chorizanthe uniaristata

Chorizanthe uniaristata is a species of flowering plant in the buckwheat family known by the common name one-awn spineflower. It is endemic to central California, where it is known from several of the local mountain ranges, as well as the Central Coast.
It grows in sandy, gravelly, and rocky soils in chaparral and woodland. This plant has upright or decumbent stems up to about 25 centimeters in length. It is hairy and gray, green, or reddish in color. The inflorescence is a cluster of flowers, with each flower surrounded by an array of six hairy bracts. One bract is much longer than the others and has a long, straight awn; the other bracts have hooked awns. The flower is 2 or 3 millimeters long and usually white.


Paphinia

Paphinia, abbreviated in horticultural trade Pna, is a genus of orchids, composed of an estimated 16 species from Central America, northern South America and Trinidad. These species are medium-sized epiphytes with small ovoid pseudobulbs and 2 or more leaves. The generic name comes from the Greek "Paphia", the name of Aphrodite of Cyprus. Most authorities consider the genus rare.
Species accepted as of June 2014:
Hybrids include:


Aquilegia flavescens

Aquilegia flavescens, the yellow columbine, is a wildflower native to mountain meadows, open woods, and alpine slopes of the Rocky Mountains from Utah north to British Columbia and Alberta.
The plant grows to 20–70 cm in height. While the most common flower color is yellow, portions of the flowers can also be yellow-pink, raspberry pink, white, and cream.


Dipladenia

The genus name Dipladenia or the common name dipladenia can refer to several flowering plants:


Alfaroa williamsii

Alfaroa williamsii is a tropical monoecious cloud forest dwelling species of tree first recognized in the Cordillera Central of Nicaragua at an altitude of 1.3 km. The mature tree is 15–25 m in height, with a 0.5 m DBH. The sub-opposite to alternate pinnately compound leaves bear three to five opposite to sub-opposite pairs of coriaceous leaflets, glabrous above and covered with minute scales below. The pollen is born on panicles consisting of several erect catkins. The small, nearly round, glabrous, ribbed fruits are born on a sparsely flowered spike.
The sub-species "A. williamsii" subsp. "tapantiensis" has been recognized by D. Stone.


Alsophila capensis

Alsophila capensis, synonym Cyathea capensis, (known as the "forest tree fern") is a regionally widespread and highly variable species of tree fern. It is indigenous to Southern Africa (subsp. "capensis") and South America (subsp. "polypodioides").
Description.
Both subspecies of "Alsophila capensis" have a slender, erect trunk that is up to tall (occasionally even ) and about 15 cm in diameter.
The fronds are tripinnate, born on long stipes (stalks), and 2–3 m in length. The main stem of the leaf (rachis) is smooth to slightly warty and covered in scales that range from tan to brown or dark brown. The frond stalks are covered with dark brown or black scales.
The smallest leaflets (pinnae) have toothed (serrated) margins. The lowest pinnae may be separated from the others along the rachis and form a clump around the crown, similar to the "wig" of "Alsophila baileyana". This moss-like tuft of tiny, reduced leaves is distinctive for "Alsophila capensis", and can be used to identify this species across its range.
The sori occur in two rows, one along each side of the pinnule midvein, and are covered by scale-like indusia.
Distribution.
This fern is the only member of the family Cyatheaceae native to both Africa and the Americas. The species is divided into two subspecies:
Cultivation.
"Alsophila capensis" is cultivated as an ornamental plant. It is relatively easy to grow if provided with a semi-shady, moist and sheltered environment, and can likely tolerate several degrees of frost.


Grusonia bulbispina

Grusonia bulbispina is native to Mexico. It is a member of the family Cactaceae.


Jubula (plant)

Jubula is a genus of liverwort in the family Jubulaceae.
Taxonomy.
Species within "Jubula" include:


Ilex paujiensis

Ilex paujiensis is a species of plant in the family Aquifoliaceae. It is endemic to Venezuela.


Myrica rivas-martinezii

Myrica rivas-martinezii is a species of plant in the Myricaceae family. It is endemic to three of the Canary Islands (Spain). It is threatened by habitat loss and fewer than 100 plants are known.


Libocedrus bidwillii

Libocedrus bidwillii, also called pāhautea, kaikawaka or New Zealand cedar, is a species of "Libocedrus", endemic to New Zealand. It is in the cypress family Cupressaceae.
Name.
"Libocedrus bidwillii" is named after J. C. Bidwill, the New Zealand botanist and explorer.
The species is commonly named by its Maori name pāhautea or kaikawaka. However, according to DOC botanist Geoff Rogers, pāhautea is preferred correct form.
Description.
It is an evergreen coniferous tree growing to 25 m tall, with a trunk up to 2.5 m diameter. The foliage is arranged in flattened sprays; the leaves are scale-like, 1.5–2 mm long and 1 mm broad, arranged in opposite decussate pairs on the shoots. The seed cones are cylindrical, 8–12 mm long, with four scales each with a prominent curved spine-like bract; they are arranged in two opposite decussate pairs around a small central columella; the outer pair of scales is small and sterile, the inner pair large, bearing two winged seeds. They are mature about six to eight months after pollination. The pollen cones are 2.5–5 mm long.
The timber seldom becomes commercially available. It is very light in weight and a distinct light purple when cut. The timber in small dimension sizes is prone to spiral and twist when cut. It is sometimes used for lightweight sailing boat construction. It glues and holds ring nails well.
Distribution and habitat.
The tree grows in both the North and South Islands; in the North Island, it occurs from Te Aroha southward. It grows at 250–1,200 m altitude in temperate rainforests. It is absent from Stewart Island.
Conservation status.
"Libocedrus bidwillii" is listed as near-threatened species.
Apart from logging, the main threat of "Libocedrus bidwillii" comes from possums. Severe possum browse can kill a cedar tree, leaving only stark stag head.


Oxymitra

Oxymitra is the only genus in the liverwort family Oxymitraceae, in the order Marchantiales. The genus includes two or three species.
The species "Oxymitra paleacea" Bisch. occurs in Europe, South America and North America (Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas and Missouri, on sandstone or igneous substrates). North American plants have sometimes been considered a separate species "O. androgyna", but they have more often been included in a wider definition of "O. paleacea". The species "Oxymitra cristata" is found in South Africa.


Lithocarpus ovalis

Lithocarpus ovalis is a species of plant in the family Fagaceae. It is endemic to the Philippines.


Phycoplast

The phycoplast is a microtubule structure observed during cytokinesis in members of the "Chlorophyceae", the largest class of green algae.
Cytokinesis in green algae occurs via a diverse range of mechanisms, including cleavage furrows in some algae and cell plates in others. Some green algae of the class "Charophyceae" use phragmoplasts similar to those in embryophytes to organize and guide the growing cell plate. In these algae, the microtubules of the telophase spindle give rise to the phragmoplast and are oriented perpendicular to the plane of cell division and the forming cell plate. The growth of the cell plate eventually disrupts the telophase spindle (see case 4 in picture).
In the "Chlorophyceae", the most common form of cell division occurs via a phycoplast. In these algae, the spindle collapses and a new system of microtubules forms that is oriented in parallel to the plane of cell division. This phycoplast can be observed in algae undergoing cytokinesis via cleavage furrow (case 1 in picture) as well as algae utilizing a cell plate (case 3 in picture). The phycoplast may play a role in assuring that the plane of cell division will pass between the two daughter nuclei. Typically, these algae undergo "closed" mitosis where the nuclear envelope persists throughout mitosis.


Medinilla waterhousei

Medinilla waterhousei, commonly known as tagimaucia or tagimoucia (tahng-ee-mow-theea), is a species of flowering plant in the family Melastomataceae which is endemic to the highland rainforest of the Fijian island of Taveuni. It is a liana bearing crimson and white flowers in 30 cm-long hanging clusters. It only grows at altitudes of over 600 m, flowering from October to December. The flower is the floral emblem of Fiji. The flower is now represented on the Fiji $50 note replacing the queen.
Legend.
A local romantic legend attached to the flower has it representing the tears of a young girl forbidden by her father to marry the boy of her dreams so as she wept her tears became the flower.
Etymology.
"Medinilla" is named for José de Medinilla y Pineda, who was governor of Mauritius (then known as the Marianne Islands) in 1820.


Lithops viridis

Lithops viridis, the green rock-plant, is a species of plant in the family Aizoaceae. Its rocklike leaves protect it from predators. Its leaves are succulent. The daisy-like flowers close at night, and this one is one of the handful of "Lithops" with green leaves. Its two leaves are formed like a sprouting bean.


Renantanda

× Renantanda, abbreviated Rntda. in the horticultural trade, is the nothogenus for intergeneric hybrids between the orchid genera "Renanthera" and "Vanda" (Ren. x V.). Its parent plants are both endangered, and have separate breeding seasons, so this hybrid is incredibly rare. Because of that, it is highly marketable.
References.
http://www.rhs.org.uk/publications/orchidreview/orchid1105/renantanda.asp
A List of Orchid Hybrids of Singapore and Malaysia, 1960-1980 By V. P. E. Phang


Moreton Bay Fig Tree (Santa Barbara, California)

Santa Barbara's Moreton Bay Fig Tree located in Santa Barbara, California is believed to be the largest "Ficus macrophylla" in the United States.
A seaman visiting Santa Barbara in 1876 presented a seedling of an Australian Moreton Bay fig tree to a local girl who planted it at 201 State Street. After the girl moved away a year later, her girlfriend, Adeline Crabb, transplanted the tree to the corner of Montecito and Chapala streets, just a few blocks from the ocean, on land then owned by the Southern Pacific Transportation Company. The tree was officially designated as a historic landmark in 1970, and the property was deeded to the City of Santa Barbara in 1976. The tree has since been placed on the California Register of Big Trees. The roots are protected by a chain barrier the size of the canopy. The tree may be viewed at the Amtrak Train Station, 209 State Street.
In July 1997, the circumference of the tree, measured at a height of above the ground, was . The average crown spread was and the total height was .


Nepenthes mirabilis

Nepenthes mirabilis (; from Latin "mirabilis" "wonderful"), or the common swamp pitcher-plant and tropical pitcher plant, is a carnivorous plant species. By far the most widespread of all "Nepenthes", its range covers continental Southeast Asia and all major islands of the Malay Archipelago (minus the Lesser Sunda Islands and northern Philippines), stretching from China in the north to Australia in the south. The species exhibits great variability throughout its range. One of the more notable varieties, "N. mirabilis" var. "echinostoma", is endemic to Brunei and Sarawak and possesses an extremely wide peristome.
The conservation status of "N. mirabilis" is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. In Hong Kong, it is a protected species under Forestry Regulations Cap. 96A.
According to Matthew Jebb and Martin Cheek, the pitchers of "N. mirabilis" are used as toy phallocrypts in New Guinea.
Distribution.
"Nepenthes mirabilis" has by far the widest distribution of any "Nepenthes" species and is known from the following countries and regions: Australia (Cape York Peninsula), Borneo, Cambodia, Caroline Islands (Palau and Yap), China (Guangdong Province, Hainan, Hong Kong, and Macau), D'Entrecasteaux Islands, Java, Laos, Louisiade Archipelago, Maluku Islands, Myanmar, New Guinea, Peninsular Malaysia, Philippines (Dinagat and Mindanao), Sulawesi, Sumatra, Thailand, and Vietnam. It has also been recorded from many smaller islands, including Babi, Bangka, Banyak Islands, Batu Islands, Bengkalis, Enggano, Ko Lanta, Ko Tarutao, Langkawi, Mendol, Mentawai Islands (North Pagai, Siberut, Sipura, and South Pagai), Meranti Islands (Padang, Rangsang, and Tebing Tinggi), Nias, Penang, Phuket, Riau Islands (Lingga Islands and Riau Archipelago), Rupat, Tawi-Tawi, and possibly Wowoni.
Taxonomy.
"Nepenthes mirabilis" is closely related to "N. rowaniae" and "N. tenax", the only two "Nepenthes" species endemic to Australia.
In his Carnivorous Plant Database, taxonomist Jan Schlauer treats "N. kongkandana" as a synonym of "N. mirabilis".
Infraspecific taxa.
Across its range, "N. mirabilis" exhibits great variability in terms of pitcher morphology and colour, and it has the most synonyms of all "Nepenthes" species. The following forms and varieties of "N. mirabilis" have been described. With the exception of "N. mirabilis" var. "echinostoma" and "N. mirabilis" var. "globosa", these taxa are not considered valid today.
"N. mirabilis" var. "echinostoma".
"Nepenthes mirabilis" var. "echinostoma" was discovered by Odoardo Beccari in 1865 and described as a species, "N. echinostoma", by Joseph Dalton Hooker in 1873. In 1882, Frederick William Burbidge described this unusual variety in "The Gardeners' Chronicle" as follows:
Beccari's singular N. echinostoma ("vide" Herb. Kew) is a wonderful thing, as yet unintroduced—indeed, I suppose unseen by any save Beccari ! The mouths of the urns remind one of the deflexed teeth of some gigantic moss of the Hypnoid section.
"Nepenthes mirabilis" var. "echinostoma" is the only form of this species that occurs in Brunei. It has also been recorded from parts of Sarawak, but appears to be completely absent from Sabah.
"N. mirabilis" var. "globosa".
"Nepenthes mirabilis" var. "globosa" has been recorded from a single undisclosed Andaman Sea island off Phang Nga and from the Thai mainland near the city of Trang.
This variety was featured on the cover of the January 2006 issue of the "Journal of Insectivorous Plant Society", identified as ""Nepenthes" sp. from Thailand". The name "Nepenthes globosa" appeared in print in an article by Shigeo Kurata in the July 2007 issue of the "Journal of Insectivorous Plant Society". The same issue also featured an article by Masahiro Tada that referred to the plant as ""Nepenthes" Viking". Prior to its description by Marcello Catalano in 2010, this taxon was also published under the informal name "Nepenthes" sp. Phanga Nga in Stewart McPherson's 2009 book, "Pitcher Plants of the Old World".
In the horticultural trade, this variety is popularly known as both "Nepenthes globosa" (; from Latin: "globosus", "globular") and "Nepenthes" sp. Viking, after the resemblance the pitchers bear to the prow of a Viking ship.
Pitcher infauna.
A great number of infaunal organisms have been found in the pitchers of this species. These include the sarcophagid fly "Sarcophaga papuensis" and the mite "Nepenthacarus warreni", which have both been found in Australian populations of the plant. Similarly, the mosquitoes "Aedes dybasi" and "Aedes maehleri" reside in the pitchers of "N. mirabilis" on the islands of Palau and Yap, respectively. Both have unusual life histories and morphological traits associated with this habit.
The nematode "Baujardia mirabilis" has been described from "N. mirabilis" in Thailand. It is not thought to be an accidental; the pitchers of this species appear to be the nematode's natural habitat. The microecosystems in these pitchers were found to be dominated by mosquito larvae, midges, and "B. mirabilis". It is speculated that this nematode might have a phoretic relationship with one or more infaunal insect species.
In southern China, tree frogs have been observed in the pitchers of "N. mirabilis". The amphibians do not fall prey to the plant, but rather feed on insects that are caught by the pitchers. They are not affected by the acidic digestive juices (which may have a pH as low as 2), likely due to the mucilaginous outer layer of their skin.
The first record of an aquatic fungus living in the pitcher organ of a carnivorous plant came from a specimen of "N. mirabilis" growing along the Jardine River in Australia. The mycelial fungus was observerd as both free-living in the trap's fluid and attached to chitinous insect remains.
The pitchers of "N. mirabilis" have also been found to harbour a complex community of bacteria. These bacterial communities appear to be more diverse than those found in the pitcher fluid of "N. ampullaria" and sympatric "N. gracilis" in Peninsular Malaysia. In "N. mirabilis" their composition can also differ significantly according to pitcher type, something not seen in the other two species.
Natural hybrids.
"Nepenthes mirabilis" has the greatest number of known natural hybrids of any species in the genus.