Petrous part of the temporal bone

The petrous part of the temporal bone is pyramid-shaped and is wedged in at the base of the skull between the sphenoid and occipital bones. Directed medially, forward, and a little upward, it presents a base, an apex, three surfaces, and three angles, and houses in its interior, the components of the inner ear. The petrous portion is among the most basal elements of the skull and forms part of the endocranium. Petrous comes from the Latin word "petrosus", meaning "stone-like, hard". It is one of the densest bones in the body.
The petrous bone is important for studies of ancient DNA from skeletal remains, as it tends to contain extremely well-preserved DNA.
Base.
The base is fused with the internal surfaces of the squamous and mastoid parts.
Apex.
The apex, which is rough and uneven, is received into the angular interval between the posterior border of the great wing of the sphenoid bone and the basilar part of the occipital bone; it presents the anterior or internal opening of the carotid canal, and forms the postero-lateral boundary of the foramen lacerum.
Surfaces.
Anterior surface.
The anterior surface forms the posterior part of the middle cranial fossa of the base of the skull, and is continuous with the inner surface of the squamous portion, to which it is united by the petrosquamous suture, remains of which are distinct even at a late period of life. It is marked by depressions for the convolutions of the brain, and presents six notable points:
Posterior surface.
The posterior surface forms the anterior part of the posterior cranial fossa of the base of the skull, and is continuous with the inner surface of the mastoid portion.
Near the center is a large orifice, the internal acoustic opening, the size of which varies considerably; its margins are smooth and rounded, and it leads into the internal auditory meatus a short canal, about 1 cm. in length, which runs lateralward. It transmits the facial and acoustic nerves and the internal auditory branch of the basilar artery.
The lateral end of the canal is closed by a vertical plate, which is divided by a horizontal crest, the falciform crest, into two unequal portions.
Each portion is further subdivided by a vertical ridge into an anterior and a posterior part.
Behind the internal acoustic meatus is a small slit almost hidden by a thin plate of bone, leading to a canal, the aquæductus vestibuli, which transmits the ductus endolymphaticus together with a small artery and vein.
Above and between these two openings is an irregular depression that lodges a process of the dura mater and transmits a small vein; in the infant, this depression is represented by a large fossa, the subarcuate fossa, which extends backward as a blind tunnel under the superior semicircular canal.
Inferior surface.
The inferior surface is rough and irregular, and forms part of the exterior of the base of the skull. It presents eleven points for examination:
Angles.
The superior angle, the longest, is grooved for the superior petrosal sinus, and gives attachment to the tentorium cerebelli; at its medial extremity is a notch, in which the trigeminal nerve lies.
The posterior angle is intermediate in length between the superior and the anterior. Its medial half is marked by a sulcus, which forms, with a corresponding sulcus on the occipital bone, the channel for the inferior petrosal sinus. Its lateral half presents an excavation — the jugular fossa — which, with the jugular notch on the occipital, forms the jugular foramen; an eminence occasionally projects from the center of the fossa, and divides the foramen into two.
The anterior angle is divided into two parts—a lateral joined to the squamous part by a suture (petrosquamous), the remains of which are more or less distinct; a medial, free, which articulates with the spinous process of the sphenoid.
At the angle of junction of the petrous and the squamous parts are two canals, one above the other, and separated by a thin plate of bone, the septum canalis musculotubarii; both canals lead into the tympanic cavity.
The petrous bone in ancient DNA studies.
In ancient DNA studies, scientists extract and sequence DNA from ancient skeletal remains of humans and other species. In many cases the DNA is highly degraded, and contaminated by DNA from soil microbes. In 2015 it was found, surprisingly, that the petrous bone has remarkably well-preserved DNA. A 2017 study comparing DNA from different skeletal sites concluded that "The inner part of petrous bones and the cementum layer in teeth roots are currently recognized as the best substrates for (ancient DNA) research ... Both substrates display significantly higher endogenous DNA content (average of 16.4% and 40.0% for teeth and petrous bones, respectively) than parietal skull bone (average of 2.2%)."
Consequently, petrous bones are now the most widely-used skeletal site for the study of ancient DNA.


Haliclona elegans

Haliclona elegans is a species of demosponge in the family Chalinidae. It is found off south-eastern Australia.


Obliquus capitis superior muscle

The obliquus capitis superior muscle () is a small muscle in the upper back part of the neck and is one of the suboccipital muscles and part of the suboccipital triangle. It arises from the lateral mass of the atlas bone. It passes superiorly and posteriorly to insert into the lateral half of the inferior nuchal line on the external surface of the occipital bone. The muscle is innervated by the suboccipital nerve, the dorsal ramus of the first spinal nerve.
It acts at the atlanto-occipital joint to extend the head and flex the head to the ipsilateral side.


Gymnotiformes

The Gymnotiformes are a group of teleost bony fishes commonly known as the Neotropical or South American knifefish. They have long bodies and swim using undulations of their elongated anal fin. Found almost exclusively in fresh water (the only exceptions are species that occasionally may visit brackish water to feed), these mostly nocturnal fish are capable of producing electric fields for navigation, communication, and, in the case of the electric eel ("Electrophorus electricus"), attack and defense. A few species are familiar to the aquarium trade, such as the black ghost knifefish ("Apteronotus albifrons"), the glass knifefish ("Eigenmannia virescens"), and the banded knifefish ("Gymnotus carapo").
Description.
Aside from the electric eel ("Electrophorus electricus"), Gymnotiformes are slender fish with narrow bodies and tapering tails, hence the common name of "knifefishes". They have neither pelvic fins nor dorsal fins, but do possess greatly elongated anal fins that stretch along almost the entire underside of their bodies. The fish swim by rippling this fin, keeping their bodies rigid. This means of propulsion allows them to move backwards as easily as they move forward.
The knifefish has approximately one hundred and fifty fin rays along its ribbon-fin. These individual fin rays can be curved nearly twice the maximum recorded curvature for ray-finned fish fin rays during locomotion. These fin rays are curved into the direction of motion, indicating that the knifefish has active control of the fin ray curvature, and that this curvature is not the result of passive bending due to fluid loading.
Different wave patterns produced along the length of the elongated anal fin allow for various forms of thrust. The wave motion of the fin resembles traveling sinusoidal waves. A forward traveling wave can be associated with forward motion, while a wave in the reverse direction produces thrust in the opposite direction. This undulating motion of the fin produced a system of linked vortex tubes that were produced along the bottom edge of the fin. A jet was produced at an angle to the fin that was directly related to the vortex tubes, and this jet provides propulsion that moves the fish forward. The wave motion of the fin is similar to that of other marine creatures, such as the undulation of the body of an eel, however the wake vortex produced by the knifefish was found to be a reverse Kármán vortex. This type of vortex is also produced by some fish, such as trout, through the oscillations of their caudal fins. The speed at which the fish moved through the water had no correlation to the amplitude of its undulations, however it was directly related to the frequency of the waves generated.
Studies have shown that the natural angle between the body of the knifefish and its fin is essential for efficient forward motion, for if the anal fin was located directly underneath, then an upwards force would be generated with forward thrust, which would require an additional downwards force in order to maintain neutral buoyancy. A combination of forward and reverse wave patterns, which meet towards the center of the anal fin, produce a heave force allowing for hovering, or upwards movement.
The ghost knifefish can vary the undulation of the waves, as well as the angle of attack of the fin to achieve various directional changes. The pectoral fins of these fishes can help to control roll and pitch control. By rolling they can generate a vertical thrust to quickly, and efficiently, ambush their prey. The forward movement is determined exclusively by the ribbon fins and the contribution of the pectoral fins for forward movement was negligible. The body is kept relatively rigid and there is very little motion of the center of mass motion during locomotion compared to the body size of the fish.
The caudal fin is absent, or in the apteronotids, greatly reduced. The gill opening is restricted. The anal opening is under the head or the pectoral fins.
These fish possess electric organs that allow them to produce electricity. In most gymnotiforms, the electric organs are derived from muscle cells. However, adult apteronotids are one exception, as theirs are derived from nerve cells (spinal electromotor neurons). In gymnotiforms, the electric organ discharge may be continuous or pulsed. If continuous, it is generated day and night throughout the entire life of the individual. Certain aspects of the electric signal are unique to each species, especially a combination of the pulse waveform, duration, amplitude, phase and frequency.
The electric organs of most Gymnotiformes produce tiny discharges of just a few millivolts, far too weak to cause any harm to other fish. Instead, they are used to help navigate the environment, including locating the bottom-dwelling invertebrates that compose their diets. They may also be used to send signals between fish of the same species. In addition to this low-level field, the electric eel also has the capability to produce much more powerful discharges to stun prey.
Taxonomy.
There are currently about 250 valid gymnotiform species in 34 genera and five families, with many additional species known but yet to be formally described. The actual number of species in the wild is unknown. Gymnotiformes is thought to be the sister group to the Siluriformes from which they diverged in the Cretaceous period (about 120 million years ago).
The families are classified over suborders and superfamilies as below.
Order Gymnotiformes
Distribution and habitat.
Gymnotiform fishes inhabit freshwater rivers and streams throughout the humid Neotropics, ranging from southern Mexico to northern Argentina. They are nocturnal fishes. The families Gymnotidae and Hypopomidae are most diverse (numbers of species) and abundant (numbers of individuals) in small nonfloodplain streams and rivers, and in floodplain "floating meadows" of aquatic macrophytes (e.g., "Eichornium", the Amazonian water hyacinth). Apteronotidae and Sternopygidae are most diverse and abundant in large rivers. Species of Rhamphichthyidae are moderately diverse in all these habitat types.
Evolution.
Gymnotiformes are among the more derived members of Ostariophysi, a lineage of primary freshwater fishes. The only known fossils are from the Miocene about 7 million years ago (Mya) of Bolivia.
Gymnotiformes has no extant species in Africa. This may be because they did not spread into Africa before South America and Africa split, or it may be that they were out-competed by Mormyridae, which are similar in that they also use electrolocation.
Gymnotiformes and Mormyridae have developed their electric organs and electrosensory systems (ESSs) through convergent evolution. As Arnegard et al. (2005) and Albert and Crampton (2005) show, their last common ancestor was roughly 140 to 208 Mya, and at this time they did not possess ESSs. Each species of "Mormyrus" (family: Mormyridae) and "Gymnotus" (family: Gymnotidae) have evolved a completely unique waveform that allows the individual fish to identify between species, genders, individuals and even between mates with better fitness levels. The differences include the direction of the initial phase of the wave (positive or negative, which correlates to the direction of the current through the electrocytes in the electric organ), the amplitude of the wave, the frequency of the wave, and the number of phases of the wave.
One significant force driving this evolution is predation. The most common predators of Gymnotiformes include the closely related Siluriformes (catfish), as well as predation within families ("E. electricus" is one of the largest predators of "Gymnotus"). These predators sense electric fields, but only at low frequencies, thus certain species of Gymnotiformes, such as those in "Gymnotus", have shifted the frequency of their signals so they can be effectively invisible.
Sexual selection is another driving force with an unusual influence, in that females exhibit preference for males with low-frequency signals (which are more easily detected by predators), but most males exhibit this frequency only intermittently. Females prefer males with low-frequency signals because they indicate a higher fitness of the male. Since these low-frequency signals are more conspicuous to predators, the emitting of such signals by males shows that they are capable of evading predation. Therefore, the production of low-frequency signals is under competing evolutionary forces: it is selected against due to the eavesdropping of electric predators, but is favored by sexual selection due to its attractiveness to females. Females also prefer males with longer pulses, also energetically expensive, and large tail lengths. These signs indicate some ability to exploit resources, thus indicating better lifetime reproductive success.
Genetic drift is also a factor contributing to the diversity of electric signals observed in Gymnotiformes. Reduced gene flow due to geographical barriers has led to vast differences signal morphology in different streams and drainages.


Wasei Kingu Kongu

 is a lost 1933 Japanese black-and-white silent film directed by Torajiro Saito. A silent, three-reel comedy short, it uses the 1933 film "King Kong" as a backdrop to the story and was produced by Shochiku Studios (which released the original 1933 film in Japan on behalf of RKO). It is now considered a lost film.
Plot.
Santa (Isamu Yamaguchi) and his friend Koichi (Nagamasa Yamada) are jobless vagabonds. They make their living by picking up coins on the streets. Santa has a girlfriend named Omitsu (Yasuko Koizumi), but her father Seizo (Kotaro Sekiguchi) does not like having his daughter date a penniless man. He breaks the lovers up and tries to marry his daughter off to a rich man. Desperate, Santa seeks employment and wanders the streets. He cannot find a job at all, but has an inspiration. RKO’s "King Kong" has been released and is a big hit in Tokyo. He decides to capitalize on its success by dressing up as an ape and playing King Kong in a vaudeville theater. He approaches one theater owner to tell him of the idea and the owner is pleased with Santa’s plan, thus giving him the job. Santa’s King Kong show becomes an instant success, with Santa interacting amongst props on the theater stage in his gorilla suit (small buildings, toy airplanes, a doll, etc.). One day while performing on stage, Santa sees that Omitsu and her new rich boyfriend are in the audience. Blinded with rage, Santa jumps down from the stage and runs after them - with his gorilla suit still on! Santa creates chaos in the town as firemen and hunters chase him, thinking him an escaped gorilla that is running wild in the streets. Eventually Santa confronts the rich boyfriend and knocks him unconscious. He puts the gorilla suit on him and leaves him lying out cold in the street. Just then, Koichi comes and tells Santa that the theater owner will give him a lot of money for his performances. Now that he has wealth, Santa marries Omitsu.
Production.
Shochiku Studios produced this Torajiro Saito comedy short. Shochiku released "King Kong" in Japan on behalf of RKO and wanted to fund this film as a tie-in to the film's release, which is used as a backdrop in the story. Torajiro Saito was a very popular film producer/comedian at the time, known for his successful comedy shorts. Going by the information presented by magazines and newspapers covering the film's release, it is believed that there are no actual special effects in the film, as it focuses on a man trying to earn money to woo his girlfriend by playing the King Kong character on stage.


Orchesella bulba

Orchesella bulba is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae.


Kimberella

Kimberella is an extinct genus of bilaterian known only from rocks of the Ediacaran period. The slug-like organism fed by scratching the microbial surface on which it dwelt in a manner similar to the gastropods, although its affinity with this group is contentious.
Specimens were first found in Australia's Ediacara Hills, but recent research has concentrated on the numerous finds near the White Sea in Russia, which cover an interval of time from . As with many fossils from this time, its evolutionary relationships to other organisms are hotly debated. Paleontologists initially classified "Kimberella" as a type of jellyfish, but since 1997 features of its anatomy and its association with scratch marks resembling those made by a radula have been interpreted as signs that it may have been a mollusc. Although some paleontologists dispute its classification as a mollusc, it is generally accepted as being at least a bilaterian.
The classification of "Kimberella" is important for scientific understanding of the Cambrian explosion: if it was a mollusc or at least a protostome, the protostome and deuterostome lineages must have diverged significantly before . Even if it was a bilaterian but not a mollusc, its age would indicate that animals were diversifying well before the start of the Cambrian.
Etymology.
The genus is named after Mr. John Kimber, student, teacher, and collector who lost his life during an expedition to Central Australia in 1964. Originally it was described with the name "Kimberia". Dr. N. H. Ludbrook pointed out that the name "Kimberia" was already used for a subgenus of "Turritella" (Gastropoda). Accordingly, the new name "Kimberella" was proposed by Mary Wade in 1972.
Occurrence.
"Kimberella" has been found both in the Ediacara Hills of South Australia, in the Ust’ Pinega Formation in the White Sea region of Russia and the Kushk Series of central Iran. The White Sea fossils are often associated with the Ediacaran "animals" "Tribrachidium" and "Dickinsonia"; meandering trace fossil trails, possibly made by "Kimberella"; and algae. Beds in the White Sea succession have been dated to and by radiometric dating, using uranium-lead ratios in zircons found in volcanic ash layers that are sandwiched between layers that contain "Kimberella" fossils. "Kimberella" fossils are also known from beds older and younger than this precisely dated range. The fossils from the Ediacara Hills have not been dated precisely.
Description.
Over 1000 specimens, representing organisms of all stages of maturity, have now been found in the White Sea area at the bottom of fine-grained sandstone layers. The large number of specimens, the small grain-size of the sediments and the variety of circumstances in which specimens were preserved provide detailed information about "Kimberella"′s external form, internal anatomy, locomotion and feeding style.
All of the fossils are oval in outline. Elongated specimens illustrate that the organism was capable of stretching in an anterior-posterior direction, perhaps by as much as a factor of two. The only type of symmetry visible in the White Sea specimens is bilateral; there is no sign of any of the kinds of radial symmetry that are normal in the Cnidaria, the group that includes jellyfish, sea anemones and hydras. The Australian fossils were originally described as a type of jellyfish, but this is inconsistent with the bilateral symmetry in the fossils. The White Sea fossils and the surrounding sediments also show that "Kimberella" lived on the surface of the sea-floor.
"Kimberella" had a dorsal integument that has been described as a non-mineralized "shell"; in the larger specimens this reached up to 15 cm in length, 5 to 7 cm in width, and was 3 to 4 cm high; the smallest specimens are only about 2–3 mm long. The shell was stiff but flexible, and appears to have been non-mineralized, becoming tougher as it grew larger (and presumably thicker) in more mature specimens. The deformation observed in elongated and folded specimens illustrates that the shell was highly malleable; perhaps, rather than a single integument, it consisted of an aggregation of (mineralized?) sclerites. At its highest point was a hood-like structure, forming what is thought to be the front. In some specimens, the inner surface of the shell bears stripes spanning the width of the creature; these may represent the attachment sites of muscles. Similar stripes around the edge of the shell may have been connected to muscles involved in retracting the muscular foot into the shell.
The long axis of the organism is marked by a raised ridge; the middle axis is slightly humped. Kimberella's body had no visible segmentation but had a series of repeated "modules". Each module included a well-developed band of dorso-ventral muscles running from the top to the single, broad, muscular "foot", and smaller transverse ventral muscles from side to side on the underside of the body. The combination of the bands of dorso-ventral and transverse ventral muscles enabled Kimberella to move by making the foot ripple.
The body also had a frilled fringe that may have been part of the animal's respiratory system, performing a function similar to that of gills. The fact that the fringe extended well beyond the shell may indicate that "Kimberella"′s "gills" were inefficient and needed a large area, or that there were no effective predators on "Kimberella" and the shell's main function was to provide a platform for the muscles.
Ecology.
"Kimberella" dwelt in shallow waters (up to tens of meters in depth), sharing the calm, well-oxygenated sea floor with photosynthetic organisms and microbial mats. Assemblages bearing "Kimberella" often also bear fossils of "Andiva", "Yorgia", "Dickinsonia", "Tribrachidium" and "Charniodiscus", suggesting that it lived alongside these organisms.
"Kimberella" probably grazed on microbial mats, but a selective predatory habit cannot be ruled out. Fedonkin reckons that as it ate, it moved "backwards"; the trail thus created was destroyed by the subsequent grazing activity. Conversely, Gehling et al. claim that it moved 'forwards'. Fans of grooves are often found radiating from the "head" end of the organism; these indicate that the organism stayed in one place, and raked the surface of the microbial mat towards it by extension of its head, which bore two "teeth". Gehling "et al". reconstruct Kimberella as having a long neck that operated like the arm of a digger, rotating about an axis perpendicular to the sea floor in order to produce the sweep of the fan, and rotating towards and away from the animal to scrape food from the substrate to the mouth. In one community Kimberella has been shown to be avoiding its grazing traces, demonstrating complex sensory behaviour.
The lack of evidence of asexual reproduction suggests that the organisms reproduced sexually. Budding or fission has never been observed.
The waters in which "Kimberella" dwelt were occasionally disturbed by sandy currents, caused when sediments were whipped up by storms or meltwater discharge, and washed over the creatures. In response to this stress, the organisms appear to have retracted their soft parts into their shells; apparently they could not move fast enough to outrun the currents. Some organisms survived the current, and attempted to burrow out of the sand that had been deposited above them; some unsuccessful attempts can be seen where juveniles were fossilised at the end of a burrow a few centimetres long.
Preservation.
"Kimberella" fossils are generally preserved on top of clay-rich beds and beneath sandy beds. All fossils are preserved as depressions in the bases of beds, implying that the organism, although not mineralised, was firm enough to resist being crushed as sediment accumulated above it; as the soft parts of the organism decayed, the soft muds underneath would be squeezed up into the shell, preserving the shape of the organism.
Preservation of most specimens was made possible by the fast sedimentation that quickly cut the organism off from seawater; it may also have been enhanced by the decay products of the rotting organism, which could have helped the overlying sediment to mineralise and harden. It has been suggested that a mucus trail produced by the organism may have assisted its preservation, but experiments suggest that mucus disintegrates too easily to play a role in binding sediment together.
Classification.
All the "Kimberella" fossils found so far are assigned to one species, "K. quadrata". The first specimens were discovered in Australia in 1959. They were originally classified as jellyfish by Martin Glaessner and Mary Wade in 1966, and then as box jellyfish by Wade in 1972, a view that remained popular until the fossils of the White sea region were discovered; these prompted a reinterpretation. Research on these specimens by Mikhail A. Fedonkin, initially with Benjamin M. Waggoner in 1997, led to "Kimberella" being recognised as the oldest well-documented triploblastic bilaterian organism — not a jellyfish at all.
So far "Kimberella" fossils show no sign of a radula, the toothed chitinous "tongue" that is the diagnostic feature of modern molluscs, excluding bivalves. Since radulae are very rarely preserved in fossil molluscs, its absence does not necessarily mean that "K. quadrata" did not have one. The rocks in the immediate vicinity of "Kimberella" fossils bear scratch marks that have been compared to those made by the radulae of molluscs as they graze on microbial mats. These traces, named "Radulichnus" and "Kimberichnus", have been interpreted as circumstantial evidence for the presence of a radula. In conjunction with the univalve shell, this has been taken to indicate "Kimberella" was a mollusc or very closely related to molluscs. In 2001 and 2007 Fedonkin suggested that the feeding mechanism might be a retractable proboscis with hook-like organs at its end. "Kimberella"′s feeding apparatus appears to differ significantly from the typical mollusc radula, and this demonstrates that "Kimberella" is at best a stem-group mollusc. Notably, the scratch marks indicate that the 'teeth' were dragged towards the organism, not pushed away as in molluscs, and that the maximum impact on the sediment was when the mouthpart was furthest from the organism. The direction of grazing is also backwards, as opposed to forwards as in molluscs. Furthermore, the constant width of grooves implies stereoglossy – a trait that is very derived in molluscs. It has been argued that the shape of the feeding traces is incompatible with a radula, and that despite the molluscan body form, the lack of a radula places "Kimberella" well outside the molluscan crown group. Butterfield points out that plenty of other groups of organisms bear structures capable of making similar marks.
Taken together, sceptics doubt that the available evidence is enough to reliably identify "Kimberella" as a mollusc or near-mollusc, and suggest that it is presumptuous to call it anything more than a "possible" mollusc, or even just a "probable bilaterian".
Theoretical importance.
The Cambrian explosion is an apparently rapid increase in the variety of basic body structures of animals in the Early Cambrian period, starting after and finishing before . A few of the Early Cambrian fossils were already known in the mid-19th century, and Charles Darwin saw the apparently sudden appearance and diversification of animals as one of the main objections that could be made against his theory of evolution by natural selection.
The majority of animals more complex than jellyfish and other Cnidarians are split into two groups, the protostomes and deuterostomes. The mollusc-like features of "Kimberella" strongly suggest that it was a member of the protostomes. If so, this means that the protostome and deuterostome lineages must have split some time before "Kimberella" appeared — at least , and hence well before the start of the Cambrian . Even if it is not a protostome, it is widely accepted as a member of the more inclusive bilaterian clade. Since fossils of rather modern-looking Cnidarians have been found in the Doushantuo lagerstätte, the Cnidarian and bilaterian lineages would have diverged well over .


Ken Simpson

Kenneth (Ken) Nigel Graham Simpson (1938 – 9 July 2014) was an Australian ornithologist and ornithological writer best known as the coauthor, with artist Nicolas Day, of the Simpson & Day field guide to Australian birds.
Simpson was born in Sydney and educated at University High School in Melbourne. He subsequently worked as a research technician in various institutions as well as lecturing in primary science at Deakin University and leading birdwatching tours. During the mid-1960s he studied royal penguins and wandering albatrosses on subantarctic Macquarie Island. He had a long association with the Bird Observers Club of Australia (BOCA), which he joined at the age of 11 in 1949, and was involved in editorial work with the BOCA journal "Australian Bird Watcher".
In addition to his ornithological studies, while on Macquarie Island Simpson collected botanical specimens (mostly Lichens). The specimens are held at the National Herbarium of Victoria, Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria.
Publications.
As well as numerous articles and scientific papers, books authored or coauthored by Simpson include:


Gwynia

Gwynia is a genus of very small to minute brachiopods.
Species.
There are two species in the genus:


Pedunculotheca

Pedunculotheca is a genus of orthothecid hyolith known from the Chengjiang biota of China, notable for its possession of a pedunculate attachment structure likened to the brachiopod pedicle.
On account of this pedicle and its flattened larval shell, it is reconstructed as the earliest diverging hyolith, and a model for the ancestral morphology of this lineage of stem-group brachiopods.


Mendozachorista

Mendozachorista is an extinct genus of insect which existed in Argentina during the Late Triassic period. It was named by Carsten Brauckmann, Oscar F. Gallego, Norbert Hauschke, Rafael G. Martins-Neto, Elke Groening, Jan-M. Ilger and María B. Lara in 2010, and the type and only species is "Mendozachorista volkheimeri". It is known only from an impression of a Mecopterida-like wing found in the Llantenes Formation in Mendoza Province.


Leucosoleniidae

Leucosoleniidae is a family of calcareous sponges in the order Leucosolenida.


Vema bacescui

Vema bacescui is a species of monoplacophoran, a superficially limpet-like marine mollusc.
It is found in the Peru-Chile Trench of the southeastern Pacific Ocean. At 2.8 cm, it is relatively large for a monoplacophoran.


Sternalis muscle

The sternalis muscle is an anatomical variation that lies in front of the sternal end of the pectoralis major parallel to the margin of the sternum. The sternalis muscle may be a variation of the pectoralis major or of the rectus abdominis.
Structure.
The sternalis is a muscle that runs along the anterior aspect of the body of the sternum. It lies superficially and parallel to the sternum. Its origin and insertion are variable. The sternalis muscle often originates from the upper part of the sternum and can display varying insertions such as the pectoral fascia, lower ribs, costal cartilages, rectus sheath, aponeurosis of the abdominal external oblique muscle. There is still a great deal of disagreement about its innervation and its embryonic origin.
In a review, it was reported that the muscle was innervated by the external or internal thoracic nerves in 55% of the cases, by the intercostal nerves in 43% of the cases, while the remaining cases were supplied by both nerves. However, innervation by the pectoral nerves has also been reported. This appears to indicate that the sternalis is not always derived from the same embryonic origin.
Prevalence.
Cadaveric studies showed that the sternalis muscle has a mean prevalence of around 7.8% in the population with the range from 0.5% to 23.5%. It has a slightly higher incidence in females. Though, It was proposed that a possible reason for the high prevalence may result from the existence of small, ill-defined or tendinous fibres, which could be misidentified for a sternalis muscle.
Variations.
A recent study classified the sternalis into three types depending on morphology.
Type I, the single head and single belly was seen in the majority of reported cases (58.5%), type II in 18.1%, and type III in 23.4%.
In addition to the above classification, triple-bellied/double-headed sternalis has also been reported.
Function.
There is no apparent physiological function of the sternalis muscle. However, there are many theories for a function. It may function as a proprioceptive sensor for thoracic wall movements. It may also take part in the movement of the shoulder joint or have an additional role in elevation of the chest wall.
Clinical significance.
The presence of the sternalis is asymptomatic but aesthetic complaints have been reported as it was reported to cause chest asymmetry or deviation of the nipple-areola complex. The presence of the sternalis may cause alterations in the electrocardiogram or confusion in mammography. However, there is a potential benefit of the muscle as it can be used as a flap in a reconstructive surgery of the head and neck and the anterior chest wall.
History.
The sternalis was first reported by Carbolius in 1604 and the name was first given by Turner in 1867. Different terminologies have been given to the sternalis due to its highly varied morphology and the disagreement on its embryonic origin. The sternalis was referred to as the "rectus sternalis," "sternalis brutorum, musculus sternalis, episternalis, parasternalis, presternalis, rectus sterni, rectus thoracis, rectus thoracicus superficialis, superficial rectus abdominis, japonicas, and thoracicus" depending on studies"."


Triaenops goodmani

Triaenops goodmani is an extinct bat from Madagascar in the genus "Triaenops". It is known from three lower jaws collected in a cave at Anjohibe in 1996, and described as a new species in 2007. The material is at most 10,000 years old. A bat humerus (upper arm bone) from the same site could not be identified as either "T. goodmani" or the living "T. menamena". "T. goodmani" is identifiable as a member of "Triaenops" or the related genus "Paratriaenops" by a number of features of the teeth, such as the single-cusped, canine-like fourth premolar and the presence of a gap between the entoconid and hypoconulid cusps on the first two molars. "T. goodmani" is larger than the living species of "Triaenops" and "Paratriaenops" on Madagascar, and on the first molar the protoconid cusp is only slightly higher than the hypoconid, not much higher as in the other species.
Taxonomy and distribution.
In 1996, a team led by David Burney collected breccias containing remains of bats and other animals from the cave of Anjohibe in northwestern Madagascar. The bats in the sample were described by Karen Samonds (previously Irwin) in her 2006 Ph.D. dissertation and a 2007 paper. She found several living species in addition to two extinct ones that she described as new, "Triaenops goodmani" and "Hipposideros besaoka". At the time, the genus "Triaenops" was thought to include three species on Madagascar–"Triaenops auritus", "Triaenops furculus", and "Triaenops rufus". Since then, Steven Goodman and Julie Ranivo have discovered that the name "rufus" is not in fact applicable to the Madagascar species and proposed the name "Triaenops menamena" for the Madagascan bats previously known as "Triaenops rufus".
In addition, Petr Benda and Peter Vallo have removed the other two Madagascan species to a separate genus "Paratriaenops", so that they are now known as "Paratriaenops auritus" and "Paratriaenops furculus". The specific name of the extinct species, "goodmani", honors Steven Goodman for his research on Madagascan bats. The material of "T. goodmani" is from locality OLD SE within the cave and is about 10,000 years old or younger. A cladistic analysis using morphological data could not resolve the relationships of "Triaenops goodmani", but did not place it with the other species of "Triaenops" and "Paratriaenops" studied. In a 2008 paper, Amy Russell and colleagues commented that cranial (skull) characteristics of "T. goodmani" suggest it is a member of the ""T. furculus/T. auritus" group", now placed in "Paratriaenops".
Description.
"Triaenops goodmani" is known from three mandibles (lower jaws): one with the fourth premolar (p4) and first and second molars (m1–2) and two with the second and third molars (m2–3). The jaw is relatively robust. The p4 resembles a canine, having a single cusp that is about as high as the highest cusp on m1 and lacking accessory shelves or cusps. The molars are narrow-crowned and longer than in "T. menamena", "P. auritus", and "P. furculus". Length of m2 ranges from 1.55 to 1.57 mm and width from 0.98 to 1.02 mm. On m1, the trigonid (front group of cusps) is narrower and slightly higher than the talonid at the back. The protoconid, one of the main cusps in the trigonid, is the highest cusp, but is only slightly higher than the hypoconid (a cusp in the talonid); in living Madagascan "Triaenops" and "Paratriaenops", the protoconid is substantially higher than the hypoconid. The paraconid, metaconid (both cusps in the trigonid), and entoconid (a cusp in the talonid) are lower than in "Paratriaenops auritus". The hypoconulid (part of the talonid) is small but distinct and is the lowest cusp. It is separated from the entoconid by a gap. "T. goodmani" lacks a ridge, the preentocristid, connecting the entoconid to the metaconid. There is a crest (cingulum) at the front and back of the tooth. The last two molars are similar to m1, but in m2 the talonid is only slightly wider than the trigonid and in m3 the two are of equal width. In addition, a shelf is present between the protoconid and hypoconid on m2 and m3 is smaller, lacks the gap between the entoconid and hypoconulid, and has a weak ridge between the entoconid and metaconid. These characteristics are typical of "Triaenops" and "Paratriaenops".
From the same site where "T. goodmani" was found, Samonds also recorded the distal (far) end of a "Triaenops" humerus (upper arm bone), with a width of 3.58 mm. This bone was similar to humeri of "T. menamena", but she did not identify it as either species because of the small size difference between "T. menamena" and "T. goodmani". In site NCC-1 (estimated 69,600 to 86,800 years old), two "Triaenops" mandibles were recorded, one with p4 and m1 and another with m1–2 and part of m3. Relative to living "Triaenops" and "Paratriaenops", m1 in those jaws is longer and narrower. Although sample sizes are small, the measurements do not resemble those of "T. goodmani". In addition, the ridge between the entoconid and metaconid is stronger than in "T. goodmani". Samonds identified these jaws only as "Triaenops".


Blood type (non-human)

Animal erythrocytes have cell surface antigens that undergo polymorphism and give rise to blood types. Antigens from the human ABO blood group system are also found in apes and Old World monkeys, and the types trace back to the origin of humanoids. Other animal blood sometimes agglutinates (to varying levels of intensity) with human blood group reagents, but the structure of the blood group antigens in animals is not always identical to those typically found in humans. The classification of most animal blood groups therefore uses different blood typing systems to those used for classification of human blood.
Simian blood groups.
Two categories of blood groups, human-type and simian-type, have been found in apes and monkeys, and they can be tested by methods established for grouping human blood. Data is available on blood groups of common chimpanzees, baboons, and macaques.
Rh blood group.
The Rh system is named after the rhesus monkey, following experiments by Karl Landsteiner and Alexander S. Wiener, which showed that rabbits, when immunised with rhesus monkey red cells, produce an antibody that also agglutinates the red blood cells of many humans.
Chimpanzee and Old World monkey blood group systems.
Two complex chimpanzee blood group systems, V-A-B-D and R-C-E-F systems, proved to be counterparts of the human MNS and Rh blood group systems, respectively.
Two blood group systems have been defined in Old World monkeys: the Drh system of macaques and the Bp system of baboons, both linked by at least one species shared by either of the blood group systems.
Canine blood groups.
Over 13 canine blood groups have been described. Eight DEA (dog erythrocyte antigen) types are recognized as international standards. Of these DEA types, DEA 4 and DEA 6 appear on the red blood cells of ~98% of dogs. Dogs with only DEA 4 or DEA 6 can thus serve as blood donors for the majority of the canine population. Any of these DEA types may stimulate an immune response in a recipient of a blood transfusion, but reactions to DEA 1.1+ are the most severe.
Dogs that are DEA 1.1 positive (33 to 45% of the population) are universal recipients - that is, they can receive blood of any type without expectation of a life-threatening hemolytic transfusion reaction. Dogs that are DEA 1.1 negative are universal donors. Blood from DEA 1.1 positive dogs should never be transfused into DEA 1.1 negative dogs. If it is the dog's first transfusion the red cells transfused will have a shortened life due to the formation of alloantibodies to the cells themselves and the animal will forever be sensitized to DEA 1.1 positive blood. If it is a second such transfusion, life-threatening conditions will follow within hours. In addition, these alloantibodies will be present in a female dog's milk (colostrum) and adversely affect the health of DEA 1.1 negative puppies.
Other than DEA blood types, Dal is another blood type commonly known in dogs.
Feline blood groups.
A majority of feline blood types are covered by the AB blood group, which designates cats as A, B, or AB. This type is determined by the CMAH alleles a cat possess. The majority A allele seems to be dominant over the recessive B type, which is found with a higher frequency in some countries other than the United States. An "AB" type seems to be expressed by a third recessive allele. In a study conducted in England, 87.1% of non-pedigree cats were type A, while only 54.6% of pedigree cats were type A. Type A and B cats have naturally occurring alloantibodies to the opposite blood type, although the reaction of Type B cats to Type A blood is more severe than vice versa. Based on this, all cats should have a simple blood typing test done to determine their blood type prior to a transfusion or breeding to avoid haemolytic disease or neonatal isoerythrolysis. It is also important to check donor cats for FeLV/FIV status.
An additional blood group system is "Mik" (+/-). It is only identified in 2007, with no specific gene mapped yet, but the prevalence of "Mik-" appears high enough for concern.
Equine blood groups.
Horses have eight blood groups, of which seven, A, C, D, K, P, Q, and U, are internationally recognized, while the eighth, T, is primarily used in research. Each blood group has at least two allelic factors (for example, the A blood group has a, b, c, d, e, f, and g), which can be combined in all combinations (Aa, Afg, Abedg, etc.), to make many different alleles. This means that horses can have around 400,000 allelic combinations, allowing blood testing to be used as an accurate method of identifying a horse or determining parentage. Unlike humans, horses do not naturally produce antibodies against red blood cell antigens that they do not possess; this only occurs if they are somehow exposed to a different blood type, such as through blood transfusion or transplacental hemorrhage during parturition.
Breeding a mare to a stallion with a different blood type, usually Aa or Qa blood, risks neonatal isoerythrolysis if the foal inherits the blood type of the stallion. Group C is also of some degree of concern. This can also occur if a mare is bred to a jack, due to a "donkey factor". This immune-mediated disease is life-threatening and often requires transfusion.
Ideally, cross-matching should be performed prior to transfusion, or a universal donor may be used. The ideal universal whole blood donor is a non-thoroughbred gelding that is Aa, Ca, and Qa negative. If this is not available, a gelding, preferably of the same breed as the patient, may be used as a donor, and cross-matching may be crudely accessed by mixing donor serum with patient blood. If the mixture agglutinates, the donor blood contains antibodies against the blood of the patient, and should not be used.
Bovine blood groups.
The polymorphic systems in cattle include the A, B, C, F, J, L, M, S, and Z polymorphisms.


Tropomodulin 4

Tropomodulin 4 (muscle) also known as TMOD4 is a protein which in humans is encoded by the "TMOD4" gene.
Function.
This gene encodes a muscle-specific member of the tropomodulin family of actin-regulatory proteins. The encoded protein caps the pointed end of actin filaments preventing both elongation and depolymerization. The capping activity of this protein is dependent on its association with tropomyosin. Alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been described.


Osseous spiral lamina

The osseous spiral lamina is a bony shelf or ledge which projects from the modiolus into the interior of the canal, and, like the canal, takes two-and-three-quarter turns around the modiolus.
It reaches about half-way toward the outer wall of the tube, and partially divides its cavity into two passages or scalae, of which the upper is named the scala vestibuli, while the lower is termed the scala tympani.
Near the summit of the cochlea the lamina ends in a hook-shaped process, the hamulus laminae spiralis; this assists in forming the boundary of a small opening, the helicotrema, through which the two scalae communicate with each other.
From the spiral canal of the modiolus numerous canals pass outward through the osseous spiral lamina as far as its free edge.
In the lower part of the first turn a second bony lamina, the "secondary spiral lamina", projects inward from the outer wall of the bony tube; it does not, however, reach the primary osseous spiral lamina, so that if viewed from the vestibule a narrow fissure, the vestibule fissure, is seen between them.


Clear cell

In histology, a clear cell is a cell that shows a clear cytoplasm when stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E).
Normal histology.
In the skin, some secretory cells in the epithelium appear as clear cells, and are one of the components of eccrine sweat glands. A clear cell's plasma membrane is highly folded, more so on the apical and lateral surfaces. The cytoplasm of clear cells contains large amounts of glycogen and many mitochondria. Melanocytes appear as clear cells when in the stratum basale of the skin, and Langerhans' cells appear as clear cells in the stratum spinosum.
C cells, more commonly referred to as parafollicular cells are type of cell found in the thyroid gland which stain clear using H&E.
Clear cell cancers.
Clear-cell adenocarcinomas are adenocarcinomas that contain a preponderance of clear cells.


Barry Cross

Sir Barry Albert Cross (17 March 1925 – 27 April 1994) was a British biologist. He was a fellow of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. He was knighted in 1989.


Cicerina elegans

Cicerina elegans is a species of flatworms in the class Rhabditophora. It is an interstitial species from the bay of Great Peter of the Sea of Japan.


Genitourinary system

The genitourinary system, or urogenital system, are the organs of the reproductive system and the urinary system. These are grouped together because of their proximity to each other, their common embryological origin and the use of common pathways, like the male urethra. Also, because of their proximity, the systems are sometimes imaged together.
The term "apparatus urogenitalis" was used in "Nomina Anatomica" (under Splanchnologia) but is not used in the current "Terminologia Anatomica".
Development.
The urinary and reproductive organs are developed from the intermediate mesoderm. The permanent organs of the adult are preceded by a set of structures that are purely embryonic and that, with the exception of the ducts, disappear almost entirely before the end of fetal life. These embryonic structures are on either side: the pronephros, the mesonephros and the metanephros of the kidney, and the Wolffian and Müllerian ducts of the sex organ. The pronephros disappears very early; the structural elements of the mesonephros mostly degenerate, but the gonad is developed in their place, with which the Wolffian duct remains as the duct in males, and the Müllerian as that of the female. Some of the tubules of the mesonephros form part of the permanent kidney.
Disorders.
Disorders of the genitourinary system includes a range of disorders from those that are asymptomatic to those that manifest an array of signs and symptoms. Causes for these disorders include congenital anomalies, infectious diseases, trauma, or conditions that secondarily involve the urinary structure.
To gain access to the body, pathogens can penetrate mucous membranes lining the genitourinary tract.
Urogenital malformations include:
As a medical specialty, genitourinary pathology is the subspecialty of surgical pathology which deals with the diagnosis and characterization of neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases of the urinary tract, male genital tract and testes. However, medical disorders of the kidneys are generally within the expertise of renal pathologists. Genitourinary pathologists generally work closely with urologic surgeons.


Pseudoceros scriptus

Pseudoceros scriptus is a marine flatworm species that belongs to the Pseudocerotidae family.
This species is commonly known as the script flatworm.
Distribution.
Tropical Indo-Pacific, from the Archipelago of Maldives to Australia.
Habitat.
External slope or top of coral reefs.
Size.
Up to .
Physical characteristics.
"External anatomy: Cream yellowish background fading to white towards the margin with irregular black maculae on either side of the median line and an orange marginal band. The ventral side is cream becoming darker towards the margin and a wide orange marginal band. The pseudotentacles are formed by simple folds of the anterior margin. Cerebral cluster with about 40 eyespots. Pharynx is formed by elaborated folds.
Internal anatomy: The male system is formed by unbranched vas deferens, an oblong seminal vesicle, an oval prostatic vesicle, and a short cuticular stylet housed in a deep, folded, and voluminous antrum. The female antrum is shallow with a narrow and short vagina surrounded by the cement glands."
Behaviour.
Benthic, diurnals, because of its aposematic colors, it has no fear to crawl around to feed.
Feeding.
Pseudoceros scriptus feeds on various colonial ascidians.


Afroaves

Afroaves is a clade of birds, consisting of the kingfishers and kin (Coraciiformes), woodpeckers and kin (Piciformes), hornbills and kin (Bucerotiformes), trogons (Trogoniformes), cuckoo roller (Leptosomiformes), mousebirds (Coliiformes), owls (Strigiformes), raptors (Accipitriformes) and New World vultures (Cathartiformes). The most basal clades are predatory, suggesting the last common ancestor of Afroaves was also a predatory bird.
The following cladogram of Afroaves relationships is based on Jarvis "et al" (2014), with some clade names after Yury, T. "et al." (2013) and Kimball "et al." (2013).
Afroaves has not always been recovered as a monophyletic clade in subsequent studies. For instance, Prum "et al." (2015) recovered the accipitrimorphs as the sister group to a clade (Eutelluraves) comprising the remaining Afroavian orders and Australaves., while an analysis by Houde "et al". (2019) recovered a clade of accipitrimorphs and owls as sister to the remaining landbirds.


Amphilectus strepsichelifer

Amphilectus strepsichelifer is a species of demosponges found in the Atlantic waters around Cape Verde, western Africa. The species name is a combination of the Latin "strepsis" = twisted, and "chelifer" = bearing chelae, reflecting the twisted condition of the chelae.
The species was discovered in 1986 in the waters of Canal de São Vicente, west of São Vicente, at about 350 m depth, on hard bottom. This is the only place where it has been observed.


Falconimorphae

Falconimorphae is a superorder with Raptores as a parent and which is composed of the orders Falconiformes and Strigiformes. However, more recent research made this clade invalid. Falconiformes is now placed in Eufalconimorphae, while Strigiformes is placed in Afroaves.


Terminal bar (histology)

Terminal bar is a histological term given to the unresolved group of junctional complexes that attach adjacent epithelial cells on their lateral surfaces: the Zonula Occludens, Zonula Adherens, Macula Adherens and Macula Communicans.
Using light microscopy, the terminal bar appears as a bar or spot at the apical surface of the cell, wherein the structures listed cannot be resolved. With electron microscopy, it can be visually disseminated into these structures.
The terminal bar is located on the lateral surface of epithelial cells, where the lateral surface meets the apical surface. It should not be confused with the terminal web, which is an actinous web underlying microvilli on specialized epithelial cells.


Eximipriapulus

Eximipriapulus is a genus of priapulid-like organisms, perhaps belonging to the crown group, known from the Chengjiang biota.


Echinoderes cernunnos

Echinoderes cernunnos is a species of mud dragons first found in coastal and subtidal locations around the Korean Peninsula and in the East China Sea.


Colangia

Colangia is a genus of small corals in the family Caryophylliidae.
Species.
The World Register of Marine Species includes the following species in the genus :


Bactrognathus

Bactrognathus is an extinct genus of conodonts in the family Bactrognathidae.


Eryonidae

Eryonidae is a family of fossil decapod crustaceans which lived from the Upper Triassic to the Lower Cretaceous. It contains four genera: An aggregation of three unidentified eryonids was reported in 2012 inside a Late Jurassic ammonoid of the species "Harpoceras falciferum"; they represent the earliest evidence of gregarious behaviour in decapods.


The Capture of Bigfoot

The Capture of Bigfoot (a.k.a. The Legend of Bigfoot) is a 1979 horror film from Bill Rebane, the director of "Monster A-Go-Go". Produced and originally released by Studio Film Corp, the film was re-released in 2010 by Troma Entertainment.
Plot.
The creature known as Bigfoot has managed to elude capture for more than 25 years and a small town has made a cottage industry out of local Bigfoot sightings and merchandising. When a businessman decides to trap Bigfoot once and for all so that he can benefit, the town may ultimately lose the tourist profits that have filled the town's coffers.
Reception.
In his book "All I Need to Know about Filmmaking I Learned from the Toxic Avenger", Troma president Lloyd Kaufman lists this film as one of the five worst Troma films ever distributed (along with "", also directed by Bill Rebane). Shot in Gleason, Wisconsin, the film's closing credits attribute the "wardrobe" to Kmart.


Echinoclathria

Echinoclathria is a genus of demosponge in the family Microcionidae.
Species.
Species in the genus include:


Fish jaw

Most bony fishes have two sets of jaws made mainly of bone. The primary oral jaws open and close the mouth, and a second set of pharyngeal jaws are positioned at the back of the throat. The oral jaws are used to capture and manipulate prey by biting and crushing. The pharyngeal jaws, so-called because they are positioned within the pharynx, are used to further process the food and move it from the mouth to the stomach.
Cartilaginous fishes, such as sharks and rays, have one set of oral jaws made mainly of cartilage. They do not have pharyngeal jaws. Generally jaws are articulated and oppose vertically, comprising an upper jaw and a lower jaw and can bear numerous ordered teeth. Cartilaginous fishes grow multiple sets "(polyphyodont)" and replace teeth as they wear by moving new teeth laterally from the medial jaw surface in a conveyor-belt fashion. Teeth are replaced multiple times also in most bony fishes, but unlike cartilaginous fishes, the new tooth erupts only after the old one has fallen out.
Jaws probably originated in the pharyngeal arches supporting the gills of jawless fish. The earliest jaws appeared in now extinct placoderms and spiny sharks during the Silurian, about 430 million years ago. The original selective advantage offered by the jaw was probably not related to feeding, but to increased respiration efficiency—the jaws were used in the buccal pump to pump water across the gills. The familiar use of jaws for feeding would then have developed as a secondary function before becoming the primary function in many vertebrates. All vertebrate jaws, including the human jaw, evolved from early fish jaws. The appearance of the early vertebrate jaw has been described as "perhaps the most profound and radical evolutionary step in the vertebrate history". Fish without jaws had more difficulty surviving than fish with jaws, and most jawless fish became extinct.
Jaws use linkage mechanisms. These linkages can be especially common and complex in the head of bony fishes, such as wrasses, which have evolved many specialized feeding mechanisms. Especially advanced are the linkage mechanisms of jaw protrusion. For suction feeding a system of linked four-bar linkages is responsible for the coordinated opening of the mouth and the three-dimensional expansion of the buccal cavity. The four-bar linkage is also responsible for protrusion of the premaxilla, leading to three main four-bar linkage systems to generally describe the lateral and anterior expansion of the buccal cavity in fishes. The most thorough overview of the different types of linkages in animals has been provided by M. Muller, who also designed a new classification system, which is especially well suited for biological systems.
Skull.
The skull of fishes is formed from a series of loosely connected bones. Lampreys and sharks only possess a cartilaginous endocranium, with both the upper and lower jaws being separate elements. Bony fishes have additional dermal bone, forming a more or less coherent skull roof in lungfish and holost fish.
The simpler structure is found in jawless fish, in which the cranium is represented by a trough-like basket of cartilaginous elements only partially enclosing the brain, and associated with the capsules for the inner ears and the single nostril. Distinctively, these fish have no jaws.
Cartilaginous fish, such as sharks, also have simple skulls. The cranium is a single structure forming a case around the brain, enclosing the lower surface and the sides, but always at least partially open at the top as a large fontanelle. The most anterior part of the cranium includes a forward plate of cartilage, the rostrum, and capsules to enclose the olfactory organs. Behind these are the orbits, and then an additional pair of capsules enclosing the structure of the inner ear. Finally, the skull tapers towards the rear, where the foramen magnum lies immediately above a single condyle, articulating with the first vertebra. There are, in addition, at various points throughout the cranium, smaller foramina for the cranial nerves. The jaws consist of separate hoops of cartilage, almost always distinct from the cranium proper.
In ray-finned fishes, there has also been considerable modification from the primitive pattern. The roof of the skull is generally well formed, and although the exact relationship of its bones to those of tetrapods is unclear, they are usually given similar names for convenience. Other elements of the skull, however, may be reduced; there is little cheek region behind the enlarged orbits, and little, if any bone in between them. The upper jaw is often formed largely from the premaxilla, with the maxilla itself located further back, and an additional bone, the symplectic, linking the jaw to the rest of the cranium.
Although the skulls of fossil lobe-finned fish resemble those of the early tetrapods, the same cannot be said of those of the living lungfishes. The skull roof is not fully formed, and consists of multiple, somewhat irregularly shaped bones with no direct relationship to those of tetrapods. The upper jaw is formed from the pterygoids and vomers alone, all of which bear teeth. Much of the skull is formed from cartilage, and its overall structure is reduced.
Oral jaws.
Lower.
In vertebrates, the lower jaw (mandible or jawbone) is a bone forming the skull with the cranium. In lobe-finned fishes and the early fossil tetrapods, the bone homologous to the mandible of mammals is merely the largest of several bones in the lower jaw. It is referred to as the "dentary bone", and forms the body of the outer surface of the jaw. It is bordered below by a number of splenial bones, while the angle of the jaw is formed by a lower angular bone and a suprangular bone just above it. The inner surface of the jaw is lined by a "prearticular" bone, while the articular bone forms the articulation with the skull proper. Finally a set of three narrow "coronoid bones" lie above the prearticular bone. As the name implies, the majority of the teeth are attached to the dentary, but there are commonly also teeth on the coronoid bones, and sometimes on the prearticular as well.
This complex primitive pattern has, however, been simplified to various degrees in the great majority of vertebrates, as bones have either fused or vanished entirely. In teleosts, only the dentary, articular, and angular bones remain. Cartilagenous fish, such as sharks, do not have any of the bones found in the lower jaw of other vertebrates. Instead, their lower jaw is composed of a cartilagenous structure homologous with the Meckel's cartilage of other groups. This also remains a significant element of the jaw in some primitive bony fish, such as sturgeons.
Upper.
The upper jaw, or maxilla is a fusion of two bones along the palatal fissure that form the upper jaw. This is similar to the mandible (lower jaw), which is also a fusion of two halves at the mandibular symphysis. In bony fish, the maxilla is called the "upper maxilla," with the mandible being the "lower maxilla". The alveolar process of the maxilla holds the upper teeth, and is referred to as the maxillary arch. In most vertebrates, the foremost part of the upper jaw, to which the incisors are attached in mammals consists of a separate pair of bones, the premaxillae. In bony fish, both maxilla and premaxilla are relatively plate-like bones, forming only the sides of the upper jaw, and part of the face, with the premaxilla also forming the lower boundary of the nostrils. Cartilaginous fish, such as sharks and rays also lack a true maxilla. Their upper jaw is instead formed from a cartilagenous bar that is not homologous with the bone found in other vertebrates.
Some fish have permanently protruding upper jawbones called rostrums. Billfish (marlin, swordfish and sailfish) use rostrums (bills) to slash and stun prey. Paddlefish, goblin sharks and hammerhead sharks have rostrums packed with electroreceptors which signal the presence of prey by detecting weak electrical fields. Sawsharks and the critically endangered sawfish have rostrums (saws) which are both electro-sensitive and used for slashing. The rostrums extend ventrally in front of the fish. In the case of hammerheads the rostrum (hammer) extends both ventrally and laterally (sideways).
Jaw protrusion.
Teleosts have a movable premaxilla (a bone at the tip of the upper jaw) and corresponding modifications in the jaw musculature which make it possible for them to protrude their jaws outwards from the mouth. This is of great advantage, enabling them to grab prey and draw it into the mouth. In more derived teleosts, the enlarged premaxilla is the main tooth-bearing bone, and the maxilla, which is attached to the lower jaw, acts as a lever, pushing and pulling the premaxilla as the mouth is opened and closed. These protrusible jaws are evolutionary novelties in teleosts that evolved independently at least five times.
The premaxilla is unattached to the neurocranium (braincase); it plays a role in protruding the mouth and creating a circular opening. This lowers the pressure inside the mouth, sucking the prey inside. The lower jaw and maxilla (main upper fixed bone of the jaw) are then pulled back to close the mouth, and the fish is able to grasp the prey. By contrast, mere closure of the jaws would risk pushing food out of the mouth. In more advanced teleosts, the premaxilla is enlarged and has teeth, while the maxilla is toothless. The maxilla functions to push both the premaxilla and the lower jaw forward. To open the mouth, an adductor muscle pulls back the top of the maxilla, pushing the lower jaw forward. In addition, the maxilla rotates slightly, which pushes forward a bony process that interlocks with the premaxilla.
Teleosts achieve this jaw protrusion using one of four different mechanisms involving the ligamentous linkages within the skull.
Some teleosts use more than one of these mechanisms (e.g. "Petrotilapia").
Wrasses have become a primary study species in fish-feeding biomechanics due to their jaw structure. They have protractile mouths, usually with separate jaw teeth that jut outwards. Many species can be readily recognized by their thick lips, the inside of which is sometimes curiously folded, a peculiarity which gave rise the German name of "lip-fishes" ("Lippfische").
The nasal and mandibular bones are connected at their posterior ends to the rigid neurocranium, and the superior and inferior articulations of the maxilla are joined to the anterior tips of these two bones, respectively, creating a loop of 4 rigid bones connected by moving joints. This "four-bar linkage" has the property of allowing numerous arrangements to achieve a given mechanical result (fast jaw protrusion or a forceful bite), thus decoupling morphology from function. The actual morphology of wrasses reflects this, with many lineages displaying different jaw morphology that results in the same functional output in a similar or identical ecological niche.
The most extreme jaw protrusion found in fishes occurs in the slingjaw wrasse, "Epibulus insidiator ". This fish can extend its jaws up to 65% the length of its head. This species utilizes its quick and extreme jaw protrusion to capture smaller fishes and crustaceans. The genus this species belongs to possess one unique ligament (vomero-interopercular) and two enlarged ligaments (interoperculo-mandibular and premaxilla-maxilla), which along with a few changes to the form of cranial bones, allow it to achieve extreme jaw protrusion.
Pharyngeal jaws.
Pharyngeal jaws are a second set of jaws distinct from the primary (oral) jaws. They are contained within the throat, or pharynx, of most bony fish. They are believed to have originated, in a similar way to oral jaws, as a modification of the fifth gill arch which no longer has a respiratory function. The first four arches still function as gills. Unlike the oral jaw, the pharyngeal jaw has no jaw joint, but is supported instead by a sling of muscles.
A notable example occurs with the moray eel. The pharyngeal jaws of most fishes are not mobile. The pharyngeal jaws of the moray are highly mobile, perhaps as an adaptation to the constricted nature of the burrows they inhabit which inhibits their ability to swallow as other fishes do by creating a negative pressure in the mouth. Instead, when the moray bites prey, it first bites normally with its oral jaws, capturing the prey. Immediately thereafter, the pharyngeal jaws are brought forward and bite down on the prey to grip it; they then retract, pulling the prey down the moray eel's gullet, allowing it to be swallowed.
All vertebrates have a pharynx, used in both feeding and respiration. The pharynx arises during development through a series of six or more outpocketings called pharyngeal arches on the lateral sides of the head. The pharyngeal arches give rise to a number of different structures in the skeletal, muscular and circulatory systems in a manner which varies across the vertebrates. Pharyngeal arches trace back through chordates to basal deuterostomes who also share endodermal outpocketings of the pharyngeal apparatus. Similar patterns of gene expression can be detected in the developing pharynx of amphioxus and hemichordates. However, the vertebrate pharynx is unique in that it gives rise to endoskeletal support through the contribution of neural crest cells.
Cartilaginous jaws.
Cartilaginous fishes (sharks, rays and skates) have cartilaginous jaws. The jaw's surface (in comparison to the vertebrae and gill arches) needs extra strength due to its heavy exposure to physical stress. It has a layer of tiny hexagonal plates called "tesserae", which are crystal blocks of calcium salts arranged as a mosaic. This gives these areas much of the same strength found in the bony tissue found in other animals.
Generally sharks have only one layer of tesserae, but the jaws of large specimens, such as the bull shark, tiger shark, and the great white shark, have two to three layers or more, depending on body size. The jaws of a large great white shark may have up to five layers. In the rostrum (snout), the cartilage can be spongy and flexible to absorb the power of impacts.
In sharks and other extant elasmobranchs the upper jaw is not fused to the cranium, and the lower jaw is articulated with the upper. The arrangement of soft tissue and any additional articulations connecting these elements is collectively known as the jaw suspension. There are several archetypal jaw suspensions: amphistyly, orbitostyly, hyostyly, and euhyostyly. In amphistyly, the palatoquadrate has a postorbital articulation with the chondrocranium from which ligaments primarily suspend it anteriorly. The hyoid articulates with the mandibular arch posteriorly, but it appears to provide little support to the upper and lower jaws. In orbitostyly, the orbital process hinges with the orbital wall and the hyoid provides the majority of suspensory support. In contrast, hyostyly involves an ethmoid articulation between the upper jaw and the cranium, while the hyoid most likely provides vastly more jaw support compared to the anterior ligaments. Finally, in euhyostyly, also known as true hyostyly, the mandibular cartilages lack a ligamentous connection to the cranium. Instead, the hyomandibular cartilages provide the only means of jaw support, while the ceratohyal and basihyal elements articulate with the lower jaw, but are disconnected from the rest of the hyoid.
Teeth.
Jaws provide a platform in most fishes for simple pointed teeth. Lungfish and chimaera have teeth modified into broad enamel plates with jagged ridges for crushing or grinding. Carp and loach have pharyngeal teeth only. Sea horses, pipefish and adult sturgeon have no teeth of any type.
In fish, Hox gene expression regulates mechanisms for tooth initiation.
However, sharks continuously produce new teeth throughout their lives via a drastically different mechanism. Shark teeth form from modified scales near the tongue and move outward on the jaw in rows until they are eventually dislodged. Their scales, called dermal denticles, and teeth are homologous organs.
Shark teeth are embedded in the gums rather than directly affixed to the jaw, and are constantly replaced throughout life. Multiple rows of replacement teeth grow in a groove on the inside of the jaw and steadily moving forward as though on a conveyor belt. Some sharks lose 30,000 or more teeth in their lifetime. The rate of tooth replacement varies from once every 8 to 10 days to several months. In most species, teeth are replaced one at a time as opposed to the simultaneous replacement of an entire row, which is observed in the cookiecutter shark.
Tooth shape depends on the shark's diet: those that feed on mollusks and crustaceans have dense and flattened teeth used for crushing, those that feed on fish have needle-like teeth for gripping, and those that feed on larger prey such as mammals have pointed lower teeth for gripping and triangular upper teeth with serrated edges for cutting. The teeth of plankton-feeders such as the basking shark are small and non-functional.
Examples.
Salmon.
Male salmon often remodel their jaws during spawning runs so they have a pronounced curvature. These hooked jaws are called kypes. The purpose of the kype is not altogether clear, though they can be used to establish dominance by clamping them around the base of the tail (caudal peduncle) of an opponent.
Cichlids.
Fish jaws, like vertebrates in general, normally show bilateral symmetry. An exception occurs with the parasitic scale-eating cichlid "Perissodus microlepis". The jaws of this fish occur in two distinct morphological forms. One morph has its jaw twisted to the left, allowing it to eat scales more readily on its victim's right flank. The other morph has its jaw twisted to the right, which makes it easier to eat scales on its victim's left flank. The relative abundance of the two morphs in populations is regulated by frequency-dependent selection.
In cichlids generally, the oral and pharyngeal teeth differ with different species in ways that allow them to process different kinds of prey. Primary oral jaws contain teeth which are used to capture and hold food, while pharyngeal jaws have pharyngeal teeth which function as a chewing tool.
This allows for different nutritional strategies, and because of this, cichlids are able to colonize different habitats. The structural diversity of the lower pharyngeal jaw could be one of the reasons for the occurrence of so many cichlid species. Convergent evolution took place over the course of the cichlid radiation, synchronous with different trophic niches. The pharyngeal jaw apparatus consists of two upper and one single lower plate, all of which have dentations that differ in size and type. The structure of the lower pharynx is often associated with the species of food of the species.
In order to crack shellfish considerable force must be generated, which is why cichlids that feed on molluscs (e.g. the cichlid bass, "Crenicichla minuano"), have molariform teeth and a strengthened jawbone bone. To grab and bite prey not armoured with shells, predators need conical, bent back teeth. Herbivorous cichlids also have structural differences in their teeth. Cichlids that specialise in algae (e.g. Pseudotropheus) tend to have small conical teeth. Species that feed on pods or seeds require large conical teeth for chewing their food.
Other.
Stoplight loosejaws are small fish found worldwide in the deep sea. Relative to their size they have one of the widest gapes of any fish. The lower jaw has no ethmoid membrane (floor) and is attached only by the hinge and a modified tongue bone. There are several large, fang-like teeth in the front of the jaws, followed by many small barbed teeth. There are several groups of pharyngeal teeth that serve to direct food down the esophagus.
Another deep sea fish, the pelican eel, has jaws larger than its body. The jaws are lined with small teeth and are loosely hinged. They open wide enough to swallow a fish larger than the eel itself.
Distichodontidae are a family of fresh water fishes which can be divided into genera with protractile upper jaws which are carnivores, and genera with nonprotractile upper jaws which are herbivores or predators of very small organisms.
Evolution.
The appearance of the early vertebrate jaw has been described as "a crucial innovation" and "perhaps the most profound and radical evolutionary step in the vertebrate history". Fish without jaws had more difficulty surviving than fish with jaws, and most jawless fish became extinct during the Triassic period. However studies of the cyclostomes, the jawless hagfishes and lampreys that did survive, have yielded little insight into the deep remodelling of the vertebrate skull that must have taken place as early jaws evolved.
The customary view is that jaws are homologous to the gill arches. In jawless fishes a series of gills opened behind the mouth, and these gills became supported by cartilaginous elements. The first set of these elements surrounded the mouth to form the jaw. The upper portion of the second embryonic arch supporting the gill became the hyomandibular bone of jawed fishes, which supports the skull and therefore links the jaw to the cranium. The hyomandibula is a set of bones found in the hyoid region in most fishes. It usually plays a role in suspending the jaws or the operculum in the case of teleosts.
It is now accepted that the precursors of the jawed vertebrates are the long extinct bony (armoured) jawless fish, the so-called ostracoderms. The earliest known fish with jaws are the now extinct placoderms and spiny sharks.
Placoderms were a class of fish, heavily armoured at the front of their body, which first appeared in the fossil records during the Silurian about 430 million years ago. Initially they were very successful, diversifying remarkably during the Devonian. They became extinct by the end of that period, about 360 million years ago. Their largest species, "Dunkleosteus terrelli", measured up to and weighed . It possessed a four bar linkage mechanism for jaw opening that incorporated connections between the skull, the thoracic shield, the lower jaw and the jaw muscles joined together by movable joints. This mechanism allowed "Dunkleosteus terrelli" to achieve a high speed of jaw opening, opening their jaws in 20 milliseconds and completing the whole process in 50-60 milliseconds, comparable to modern fishes that use suction feeding to assist in prey capture. They could also produce high bite forces when closing the jaw, estimated at at the tip and at the blade edge in the largest individuals. The pressures generated in those regions were high enough to puncture or cut through cuticle or dermal armour suggesting that "Dunkleosteus terrelli" was perfectly adapted to prey on free-swimming, armoured prey like arthropods, ammonites, and other placoderms.
Spiny sharks were another class of fish which appeared also in the fossil records during the Silurian at about the same time as the placoderms. They were smaller than most placoderms, usually under 20 centimetres. Spiny sharks did not diversify as much as placoderms, but survived much longer into the Early Permian about 290 million years ago.
The original selective advantage offered by the jaw may not be related to feeding, but rather to increased respiration efficiency. The jaws were used in the buccal pump still observable in modern fish and amphibians, that uses "breathing with the cheeks" to pump water across the gills of fish or air into the lungs in the case of amphibians. Over evolutionary time the more familiar use of jaws (to humans), in feeding, was selected for and became a very important function in vertebrates. Many teleost fish have substantially modified jaws for suction feeding and jaw protrusion, resulting in highly complex jaws with dozens of bones involved.
Jaws are thought to derive from the pharyngeal arches that support the gills in fish. The two most anterior of these arches are thought to have become the jaw itself (see hyomandibula) and the hyoid arch, which braces the jaw against the braincase and increases mechanical efficiency. While there is no fossil evidence directly to support this theory, it makes sense in light of the numbers of pharyngeal arches that are visible in extant jawed (the Gnathostomes), which have seven arches, and primitive jawless vertebrates (the Agnatha), which have nine.
Meckel's cartilage is a piece of cartilage from which the mandibles (lower jaws) of vertebrates evolved. Originally it was the lower of two cartilages which supported the first gill arch (nearest the front) in early fish. Then it grew longer and stronger, and acquired muscles capable of closing the developing jaw. In early fish and in chondrichthyans (cartilaginous fish such as sharks), Meckel's cartilage continued to be the main component of the lower jaw. But in the adult forms of osteichthyans (bony fish) and their descendants (amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals) the cartilage was covered in bone – although in their embryos the jaw initially develops as the Meckel's cartilage. In tetrapods the cartilage partially ossifies (changes to bone) at the rear end of the jaw and becomes the articular bone, which forms part of the jaw joint in all tetrapods except mammals.


Sinus (botany)

In botany, a sinus is a space or indentation between two lobes or teeth, usually on a leaf. The term is also used in mycology. For example, one of the defining characteristics of North American species in the "Morchella elata" clade of morels is the presence of a sinus where the cap attaches to the stipe.


Occipital triangle

The occipital triangle, the larger division of the posterior triangle, is bounded, in front, by the Sternocleidomastoideus; behind, by the Trapezius; below, by the Omohyoideus.
Its floor is formed from above downward by the Splenius capitis, Levator scapulæ, and the Scalenus medius and posterior.
It is covered by the skin, the superficial and deep fasciæ, and by the Platysma below.
The accessory nerve is directed obliquely across the space from the Sternocleidomastoideus, which it pierces, to the under surface of the Trapezius; below, the supraclavicular nerves and the transverse cervical vessels and the upper part of the brachial plexus cross the space.
The roof of this triangle is formed by the cutaneous nerves of cervical plexus and the external jugular vein and platysma muscle.
A chain of lymph glands is also found running along the posterior border of the Sternocleidomastoideus, from the mastoid process to the root of the neck.


Enantiodrilus

Enantiodrilus is a genus of South American earthworm.


Isohypsibius

Isohypsibius is a genus of water bear or moss piglet, a tardigrade in the class Eutardigrada.


Lophophorata

The Lophophorata are a Lophotrochozoan clade consisting of the Brachiozoa and the Bryozoa. They have a lophophore. Molecular phylogenetic analyses suggest that lophophorates are protostomes, but on morphological grounds they have been assessed as deuterostomes.


Flathead (fish)

A flathead is one of a number of small to medium fish species with notably flat heads, distributed in membership across various genera of the family Platycephalidae. Many species are found in the Indo-Pacific, especially most parts of Australia where they are popular sport and table fish. They inhabit estuaries and the open ocean. Flathead can grow up to 3m in length and 15kg in weight, with dusky flathead being the biggest. Although fish this size are seldom caught.
Anatomy and morphology.
Flathead are notable for their unusual body shape, which their hunting strategy is based upon. Flathead are dorsally compressed, meaning their body is wide but flattened and very low in height. Both eyes are on the top of the flattened head, giving excellent binocular vision to attack overhead prey. The effect is somewhat similar to flounders. In contrast to flounder, however, flathead are much more elongated, the tail remains vertical, and the mouth is large, wide and symmetrical. Flathead use this body structure to hide in sand (their body colour changes to match their background), with only their eyes visible, and explode upwards and outwards to engulf small fish and prawns as they drift over, using a combination of ram and suction feeding thereby improving their chances to catch prey.
Flathead have two short spikes on either side of their heads and on top of their heads that contain venom. The venom, while not fatal, can cause pain and infection for no more than about 2 days. Some anglers believe the pain of the sting of the Flathead fish can be reduced by rubbing the slime of the belly of the same fish that caused the sting on the inflicted wound, due to a particular gland in its belly.
Habitat.
Dusky Flatheads are found in estuaries and coastal bays from Cairns in Queensland to the Gippsland Lakes in Victoria. They occur over sand, mud, gravel and seagrass and can inhabit estuarine waters up to the tidal limit.
Oceanic flathead species (sand flathead, tiger flathead, bar-tailed flathead) are, as named, generally located more offshore than the dusky flathead, frequenting the sandy zones around and between coastal reefs; although bar-tailed flathead occur in many estuarine environments, for example the Swan/Canning River System in Perth.
Importance to humans.
Fishermen catch flathead on a variety of baits and artificial lures all year round, but they are more commonly caught during summer. Only a handful of the many flathead species are regularly caught by fishermen. Flathead species found in higher latitude areas are more welcome at the table. The Australian state of New South Wales has a substantial commercial flathead catch.


Herring bodies


Karaburun Peninsula, Albania

The Karaburun Peninsula () is a peninsula of the Mediterranean Sea located in Southern and Southeastern Europe, which is almost completely surrounded by both the Adriatic Sea to the north and the Ionian Sea to the south. It is located in Southwestern Albania along the Albanian Ionian Sea Coast, whereas the Strait of Otranto separates it from Italy. The Strait of Mezokanal separates the peninsula from Sazan Island, while in the southeast stretches the Bay of Vlorë. Its name “Karaburun” derives from Turkish for "black cape". In classical antiquity, its name was the "Akrokeraunian Peninsula" (Ακροκεραύνιο ακρωτήριο), whose name was derived from the eponymous Akrokeraunian mountains;this is because in terms of geology, the Rrëza e Kanalit on the peninsula represent the continuation of said mountains, which are the highest and most extensive mountain range system that extends parallel to the Ionian Sea. Karaburun peninsula is sometimes called "Ceraunian Peninsula" due to the name of the mountain range. Created during the mesozoic era of the cretaceous and paleogene period, the crests of the mountain range form a northwest-southeast line with a series of distinct peaks along its irregular structure that are broken apart by steep and unequally slopes. The highest peaks are namely, the Maja Çaderës, Maja e Flamurit, Maja e Koretës and Maja e Ilqes.
The western section comprises a rough relief and is dotted with sandy and rocky beaches, sea caves, steep cliffs and several bays amongst them Cave of Haxhi Ali, Cape of Gjuhëz, Bay of Skaloma, Bay of Arushë, Bay of Dafinë, and most notably Bay of Grama, where ships and vessels anchored during classical antiquity. On the high and steep rock faces of the bay, which served also as a marble quarry, there are hundreds of rock inscriptions dating back to the 4th century BC.
Under the Köppen climate classification, the peninsula experiences a mediterranean climate with hot summers and generally warm to cool, dry winters. The ideal climate and contrasting landscapes located at the sea have favored the development of a vast array of habitats which in turn are home to a diverse wildlife. The fauna is represented by several threatened and endangered species such as the loggerhead and green sea turtle but also the mediterranean monk seal, the rarest seal species in the world.
The landmass of the peninsula is designated as nature reserve, while the shoreline and its surrounding sea waters are part of the marine park. In 2014, the Regina Blu ferry was established by a Radhime-based hotel owner making trips between the peninsula and the island of Sazan, while stopping along the secluded beaches.
The peninsula belongs to the Sazan Zone that is a constituent of the Albanides tectonic unit. Albanides form the link between Dinarides and Hellenides orogenic belts. They are considered allocthonous and mobilist theories deduce they come from the east. These formations have been continuously under the effect of Karst and are exploited as marble (metamorphosed limestone) since antiquity. The widespread Karst topography is responsible for the absence of potable water and thus the absence of any population on the peninsula. Despite the dry surface and upper soil layers, there are several water sources that pour deep directly into the sea. The geological evolution has formed also capes such as "Galloveci" cape and Kepi i Gjuhëzës, as well as a total number of 20 caves along the whole coast.


Anne Larigauderie

Dr. Anne Larigauderie (born Bourges, France) is a French ecologist. She is currently the Executive Secretary of the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). She was previously the Head of Science in Society at ICSU, the International Council for Science, and the Executive Director of DIVERSITAS, the international scientific programme dedicated to biodiversity science, under the auspices of ICSU, and UNESCO.
Studies.
Anne Larigauderie received her Master's Degree in plant molecular biology from the Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France, and her PhD in plant ecology, from the Université des Sciences et Techniques du Languedoc and the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) in Montpellier, France. She then spent several years in the USA, working as a research scientist in several scientific projects. In Alaska, for example, she was involved in the first pilot project performing CO2 enrichment of natural ecosystems in the tundra in open top chambers (with Prof. Walter C. Oechel) to understand and predict impact of climate change on plant physiology and ecology. In California (San Diego State University and the University of California – Davis) she worked on root competition among California grassland species for soil nutrient pockets (with Prof. Jim Richards). A subsequent project focused on responses of various grass species to various scenarios of elevated CO2 and temperature, the aim of which was to predict response of grasses to future climate change (with Prof. Boyd Strain and Prof. Jim Reynolds, Duke University, North Carolina).
Career.
Dr. Larigauderie then returned to Europe, working as a research scientist on the potential acclimation of dark respiration of lowland and alpine plant species to future elevated temperatures (with Prof. Christian Körner, University of Basel, Switzerland). In 1996 she became the coordinator of the Swiss Priority Programme on biodiversity, and the scientific adviser to the Swiss delegation to the Convention on Biological Diversity.
In 1999, she joined the International Council for Science (ICSU, Paris), as Environmental Sciences Officer. She was appointed as Executive Director of DIVERSITAS late 2001. Her priorities have been to build DIVERSITAS as a strong international scientific programme dedicated, on one hand, to the sciences of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and, on the other hand, to strengthen the science-policy interface for biodiversity and ecosystem services. She has worked to facilitate, on behalf of the scientific community, the establishment of an IPCC-like mechanism for biodiversity, called IPBES, the Intergovernmental science-policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem services. In 2013, she became Head of Science in Society at ICSU, the International Council for Science.
In 2010, she was made Chevalier de l’Ordre national de la Légion d’Honneur by the French national Ministry of National Education, Advanced Instruction, and Research.
She currently resides in Paris.