Prolonged sine

The law of the prolonged sine was observed when measuring strength of the reaction of the plant stems and roots in response to turning from their usual vertical orientation. Such organisms maintained their usual vertical growth, and, if turned, start bending back toward the vertical. The prolonged sine law was observed when measuring the dependence of the bending speed from the angle of reorientation.
The observed law.
It was observed that deviation from the desired growth direction by more than the 90 degrees causes further increase of the bending speed. After turning the 135 degrees the reoriented plant or fungi understands that it is places "head down" and bends faster than turned by just 45 degrees. Poul Larsen in 1962 proposed, that the intensity of the gravitropic reaction (bending rate) is proportional to
where α is the angle of reorientation, g - gravity vector and constants a and b are determined experimentally.
Significance.
Following the popular hypothesis of the mechanism of the plant spatial orientation, the bending from the horizontal position is caused by some small heavy particles that after turning put the pressure on the side cell (statocyte) wall, irritating some system and activating the bending process. The pressure of such particle to the cell was would be proportional to the sine of the reorientation angle, being maximal at 90° reorientation. It would be equal for the reorientations by both 45° and 135°. The prolonged sine law concludes that there are very significant deviations from such a predicted reaction.


Trapoideae


Acrophialophora fusispora

Acrophialophora fusispora is a poorly studied ascomycete fungus found in soil, air and various plants. "A. fusispora" is morphologically similar to the genera "Paecilomyces" and "Masonia", but differ in the presence of pigmented conidiophores, verticillate phialides, and frequent sympodial proliferation. Moreover, "A. fusispora" is distinguished by its pigmented spindle-shaped conidia, covered with spiral bands. The fungus is naturally found in soils of tropical to temperate regions. The fungus has been identified as a plant and animal pathogen, and has recently been recognized as an emerging opportunistic human pathogen. "A. fusispora" infection in human is rare and has few documented clinical cases, but due to the rarity of the fungus and potential misidentification, the infections may be underdiagnosed. Clinical cases of "A. fusispora" include cases of keratitis, pulmonary colonization and infection, and cerebral infections. The fungus also has two documented cases of infection in dogs.
History.
The genus "Acrophialophora" was created by Edward J. C. in the year 1959, with a single species, "Acrophialophora nainiana". However, the genus was not accepted as a distinct genus until 1970 when Samson and Mahmood differentiated "Acrophialophora" from the morphologically similar genera "Paecilomyces" and "Masonia," and described the species, "Acrophialophora fusispora".
Taxonomy.
The genus "Acrophialophora" consist of 3 species: "A. fusispora, A. levis," and "A. seudatica," while "A. fusispora, A. nainiana," and "M. indica" were found to be of the same species, now labeled with a single name", A. fusispora." The 3 species are differentiated by consistent morphological differences, such as conidial size, shape, or color. Through genetic analysis, "A." "fusispora" was found to belong to the family Chaetomiaceae, which includes mostly cellulose decomposers found in the soil, and thermotolerant opportunistic pathogens. Elements of the taxonomy of "A. fusispora" remain unresolved.
Growth and morphology.
"Acrophialophora fusispora" is similar to "Paecilomyces", but differ in the presence of pigmented, warted conidiophores, verticillate phialides in limited numbers with narrowing tip, and frequent sympodial proliferation. "A." "fusispora" is distinguished by its pigmented fusiform conidia, which are covered by spiral bands, measuring 5-12 x 3-6μm. The conidia arises in long single-cell basipetal chains, ranging from colorless to pale-brown and broadly ellipsoidal to lemon-shaped. The conidiophores arise singly, terminally, and laterally from the hyphae, and are erect or ascending, straight or flexuous, smooth or rough, and septate. Moreover, the conidiophores are thick-walled with brown at the base and pale towards the apex. The conidiophores are up to 1.5μm long and 2-5μm wide, with whorls of phialides at the end. The phialides are flask-shaped and swollen near the base, with a long, narrow neck, and hyaline, smooth or spiny wall. The phialides are borne on conidiophores, or sometimes, on vegetative hyphae, with the broadest part measuring 9-15μm x 3-4.5μm.
"A. fusispora" only reproduces asexually. The colonies of "A. fusispora" are dense, matted and felt-like at the base, with cottony aerial hyphae. The color of the colonies is initially dull white, but becoming grayish-brown, with black colony reverse. The colonies can reach 4–7 cm in diameter within 14 days at 25 °C on Malt Extract Agar. In vitro growth was found to be stimulated by exudates and extracts of "Cassia tora". The fungus also grows well and sporulates freely on potato dextrose agar.
Habitat and ecology.
"Acrophialophora fusispora" has been isolated from soil, air, and various plants, such as "Cajanus", "Cicer", maize, and "Tephrosia". The fungus found in the soil of tropical to temperate regions, and is known from uncultivated soils, field soils, under leguminous plants or grasses, forest soils, and salt-marshes. With exception of records from Czechoslovakia, Singapore, Tuamotu Archipelago, Egypt, and Pakistan, "A. fusispora" is almost exclusively reported from India. The fungus has been found commonly on root surfaces and rhizospheres of grasses, cotton, "Euphorbia" species and "Carica papaya", and on rhizoids of Funaria species. Additionally, "A. fusispora" has also been isolated from earthworm casts and woods exposed to seawater. Moreover, in the rhizosphere of "Trigonella foenum-graecum", foliar spray with the antibiotic subamycin increases the potential for "A. fusispora" isolation.
"Acrophialophora fusispora" exhibits a distinct preference for deeper (30–45 cm) soil horizon in India. The fungus is thermotolerant, with a minimum temperature of , optimum temperature at , and maximum temperature of .
Pathogenicity.
"Acrophialophora fusispora" has been recognized as an emerging opportunistic human pathogen, responsible for cases of keretitis, pulmonary colonization and infection in patients with cystic fibrosis, and cerebral infections. However, as the fungus is very rare with high possibility of misidentification, there has been concerns of underdiagnosed "A. fusispora" infections. There exists only 6 cases of well-documented "A. fusispora" infection in human, and within which, only 1 case was confirmed as "A. fusispora" by sequencing.
Antifungal susceptibility data for the fungus was limited and based on only a small number of clinical cases. An antifungal drug test demonstrated that voriconazole had the greatest in vitro activity, while other antifungal drugs, such as amphotericin B, itraconazole, posaconazole, terbinafine, anidulafungin, caspofungin, micafungin, showed little in vitro activity against the fungus. However, variable antifungal results were shown in different clinical cases.


Penium

Penium is a genus of green algae, and the sole member of the family Peniaceae. The genus contains about 39 species.


Micranthes rufidula

Micranthes rufidula is a species of flowering plant known by the common name rustyhair saxifrage. It is native to western North America from British Columbia to Oregon, and one location in northern California. It grows in moist, open and rocky habitat in mountainous areas. It is a perennial herb growing from a small caudex and system of rhizomes. The leaves have oval blades lined with blunt teeth borne on long petioles. The inflorescence arises on a hairy peduncle, the flowers bearing white petals.


Hypoestes

Hypoestes is a flowering plant genus of about 150 species. They are widely distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical lands around the Indian Ocean, and some adjacent regions.
It belongs to the subfamily Acanthoideae of the acanthus family Acanthaceae. Therein, it is classified in the subtribe Justiciinae of tribe Ruellieae, making it a relative of such American genera as the mosaic plants ("Fittonia"), water-willows ("Justicia") and wrightworts ("Carlowrightia").
"Hypoestes" comes from the Greek 'hypo' meaning under, and 'estia' meaning house. It refers to the way the flowers are hidden by the fused bracts.
Many of these herbaceous to small shrubby plants of the undergrowth have boldly patterned leaves, typically featuring red colors. Some are grown as ornamental plants or pot plants. Most well-known among these are "H. phyllostachya" of Madagascar and its cultivars, commonly called "polka dot plant".
Species.
The following is a list of species recognised by Tropicos maintained by the Missouri Botanical Garden:


Cruoriopsis

Cruoriopsis is a genus of red algae. It has sometimes been considered a synonym of "Cruoriella" Crouan & Crouan or part of the large genus "Peyssonnelia". A 2007 dissertation by Krayesky recognizes this genus, as does ITIS.


Bonnetia bolivarensis

Bonnetia bolivarensis is a species of flowering plant in the Bonnetiaceae family.
It is found only in Venezuela, known only from a single locality in the summit savanna of Ptari-tepui, in Canaima National Park in Bolívar.


Luzula orestera

Luzula orestera, with the common name Sierra woodrush, is a species of flowering plant in the rush family. It is endemic to the High Sierra Nevada of California, where it grows in fellfields, talus, and other habitat in regions of subalpine and alpine climates.
Description.
"Luzula orestera" is a perennial herb forming tough clumps of several stiff, erect stems up to about 26 centimeters in maximum height surrounded by many grasslike leaves. The stem and leaves are generally reddish in color. The inflorescence is a triangular cluster of several dark brown flowers tucked between reddish, pointed bracts.


Suaeda monoica

Suaeda monoica is a species of flowering plant in the sea-blite genus "Suaeda", largely native to the shores of the Indian Ocean from South Africa to Sri Lanka, and salty areas inland. It has been introduced in Argentina. It exhibits phenotypic plasticity, with leaves that are much more succulent when grown under higher salinity conditions. Its leaves are edible, and it is used as an animal fodder plant where it grows.


Chenopodium nitrariaceum

Chenopodium nitrariaceum, commonly known as the nitre goosefoot, is a shrub in the subfamily Chenopodioideae of the family Amaranthaceae (sensu lato), native to Australia.


Patersonioideae


Brachyglottis elaeagnifolia

Brachyglottis elaeagnifolia is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It is endemic to New Zealand, where it is limited to the North Island.
Description.
"B. elaeagnifolia" is a shrub which grows to a height of 3 metres. The branches are grooved and the smaller branches and petioles are coated in whitish or pale brownish hairs. The leathery leaves are widely lance-shaped to oblong and up to 9 centimetres long. The upper surfaces are shiny and hairless and the undersides have silvery whitish or brownish hairs. The inflorescence is a panicle of woolly flower heads containing disc florets. The fruit is an achene 1 to 2 millimetres long with a pappus of barbed white hairs up to 5 millimetres long.
Distribution and habitat.
Volcanic debris on Mount Taranaki has been colonized by this species, which occurs in dense stands up to 100 years old.


Paphinia hirtzii

Paphinia hirtzii is a species of orchid endemic to Ecuador.
Taxonomy.
The classification of this orchid species was published by Calaway H. Dodson in "Icones Plantarum Tropicarum" ser. 2, 6: t. 566. 1989 - Sarasota, Florida. Collected by C.H.Dodson & A.C.Hirtz 8 km from Chaco on the road to Santa Rosa de Chaco, off the road Ibarra to Lita, 1400 m, Esmeraldas (Ecuador, Western South America, Southern America). The holotype is kept at Herbario Nacional del Ecuador (QCNE). The isotype is kept at Rio Palenque Science Center (RPSC), Ecuador.
Plant morphology.
Description: Epiphyte. Rhizome short. Pseudobulbs appressed, laterally compressed, narrowly ovate, costate, to 2 cm wide and 8 cm long, 2 to 30 foliate, with 2 to 3 distichous, foliaceous sheaths surrounding the base. Leaves thin, heavily veined on the underside, narrowly ovate, acuminate, to 8 cm wide and 32 cm long. The inflorescence is produced from the base of the pseudobulb, pendant, surrounded by 2 to 4 sheaths, 1 to 3-flowered.


Bornetella

Bornetella is a genus of green algae in the family Dasycladaceae.


Pittosporum gatopense

Pittosporum gatopense is a species of plant in the Pittosporaceae family. It is endemic to New Caledonia.


Haworthia retusa

Haworthia retusa is a species of flowering plants of the genus "Haworthia" in the family Asphodelaceae, endemic to a very small area around Riversdale, in the Western Cape Province in South Africa.
Growing to tall and broad, it is a perennial succulent with thick triangular leaves and small white tubular flowers held in tall racemes.
Etymology.
The genus name "Haworthia" honors the British botanist Adrian Hardy Haworth (1767–1833), while the species epitheton "retusa" derives from Latin and refers to the "retused" leaf-shape.
Description.
A distinctive feature is the "retuse", deltoid, recurved shape of the leaves.
The upturned, recurved face of each leaf forms a triangle, which is transparent (and often lined). The species can be easily recognised by its leaf-top windows, which are distinctively shiny.
Plants grow as tight rosettes of thick, firm, fleshy, highly recurved/truncated leaves. It is usually a solitary rosette in the wild. In cultivation it can offset, and even form clumps.
Relatives.
This species is one of the "retuse" species of "Haworthia", meaning that it usually grows sunken beneath the ground with its flattened leaves only showing on the surface. Its rosette of succulent leaves are turned back ("retuse") so as to provide a flat and level face, on the surface of the ground. In this form, it is similar to other retuse haworthias (e.g. "Haworthia pygmaea", "Haworthia bayeri", "Haworthia springbokvlakensis", "Haworthia mirabilis", "Haworthia emelyae", "Haworthia mutica", and "Haworthia magnifica").
Distribution.
This species has a small area of natural distribution, being indigenous to an area around Riversdale, Western Cape, South Africa. Here it occurs from Bredasdorp to Mossel Bay.
Its natural habitat is lower hills and flatter terrain. Its close relative, "Haworthia turgida", inhabits the steeper, rockier, more mountainous terrain to the north. It is a tendency that "alooids" adapt to steep, rocky cliffs by becoming smaller and more proliferous/clumping. This appears to be the case with "H. turgida". As the two species are otherwise extremely similar, and never overlap in distribution, it is likely that "H. turgida" is simply the mountainous form of "H. retusa".
Cultivation.
"H. retusa" is widely cultivated. In temperate regions it is normally grown under glass as it does not survive temperatures below freezing. In the UK it has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit.


Trentepohlia (alga)

Trentepohlia is a genus of filamentous chlorophyte green algae in the family Trentepohliaceae, living free on terrestrial supports such as tree trunks and wet rocks or symbiotically in lichens. The filaments of "Trentepohlia" have a strong orange colour (photograph at right) caused by the presence of large quantities of carotenoid pigments which mask the green of the chlorophyll.
"Trentepohlia" species form associations with fungal hyphae, and are widespread phycobionts in lichens, such as the "secret writing" crustose lichen genera "Graphis", "Graphina", "Gyalecta" and "Opegrapha".
There are about 40 species of "Trentepohlia" mostly distributed in tropical and subtropical areas but several species also occur in temperate environments including Britain and Ireland. The genus is present in almost all continents.


Polygala rehmannii

Polygala rehmannii is a species of flowering plant in the milkwort family (Polygalaceae). It is endemic to areas with an altitude below in Southern Africa. It was first described by Robert Chodat in 1893.
Description.
The species is a perennial herb with a height between growing from a woody rootstock. The leaves are long and have rounded ends. Just like the stem, the leaves are glabrous. The flowers the plant produces are blue or greenish-blue.
Conservation.
The Red List of South African Plants list the species as of least conservation concern.


Aristolochia cucurbitifolia

Aristolochia cucurbitifolia is a species of plant in the family Aristolochiaceae. It is endemic to Taiwan.


Browallia americana

Browallia americana, the Jamaican forget-me-not, amethyst flower, or bush violet, is a species of flowering plant. It is native to tropical Latin America, from Mexico and the Caribbean, south to Peru and Brazil. Forms are variable. Pictured is the broader-leaved form.


Apodanthera

Apodanthera is a genus of plants in the family Cucurbitaceae.


Diospyros malabarica

Diospyros malabarica, the gaub tree, Malabar ebony, black-and-white ebony or pale moon ebony, is a species of flowering tree in the family Ebenaceae that is native to the Indian Subcontinent and South East Asia.
It is a long-lived, very slow-growing tree, which can reach up to 35 m in height with a black trunk up to 70 cm in diameter.
Fruit.
The fruits are round, and yellow when ripe. It may be somewhat often astringent, even when ripe. Its common name is derived from the coast of southwestern India, Malabar. It is the provincial tree of Ang Thong Province in Thailand.
Uses.
Both the bark of the tree and the unripe fruit have medicinal uses in Ayurveda. This tree was mentioned as "Tinduka" by Sanskrit writers.
Unripe leaves and fruits were traditionally used to dye cloth black.
The wood is sometimes used in guitar manufacturing for its distinctive patterns.


Sympetalae

Sympetaly (fused petals) is a flower characteristic that historically was used to classify a grouping of plants termed Sympetalae, but this term has been abandoned in newer molecular based classifications, although the grouping has similarity to the modern term asterids.
History.
Sympetalae (1828), meaning “with fused petals”, is a descriptive botanical name used in the Eichler, Engler, and Wettstein systems for a group of flowering plants (angiosperms). In this group the flowers have a separate calyx and corolla and in which the corolla petals are fused, at least at their base, a condition known as sympetaly.
Prior to the phylogenic classifications of August Eichler and his successors this group corresponds to the Gamopetalae of Bentham and Hooker, gamopetaly being a synonym of sympetaly. This was one of the three divisions of dicotyledons in their system. In Eichler's "Blüthendiagramme", the class Dicotyleae was divided into two subclasses, the Sympetalae (also classified as Metachlamydeae) and the Choripetalae. Adolf Engler and Karl Prantl also listed Sympetalae as a division of the class Dicotyledoneae in their system, "Die Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien", with Sympetalae being composed of gamopetalous families having gamopetalous corollas. Alfred Rendle similarly described Sympetalae as originating from dicots, and then divided them into Pentacyclicae and Tetracyclicae in accordance with the number of flower parts in each group, four and five respectively.
According to Engler and Prantl, Sympetalae includes the following orders: Diapensiales, Ericales, Primulales, Plumbaginales, Ebenales, Contortae, Tubiflorae, Plantaginales, Rubiales, Cucurbitales, and Campanulatae.
Sympetalous flowers are found in many angiosperms, but it was the combination of sympetaly with a "stamen whorl isomerous and alternate with the corolla-lobes, or stamens fewer than the corolla lobes" that Takhtajan (1964) used to define the subclass Asteridae, and later by Cronquist (1981), and later, corresponding to the asterids in the modern Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) system, based on molecular phylogenetics. Since sympetaly has arisen independently many times in evolution (homoplasy), on its own it is not useful for taxonomic classification.


Garcinia leptophylla

Garcinia leptophylla is an evergreen flowering tree in the family Clusiaceae or Guttiferae. The specific epithet ("leptophylla") comes from Greek "leptos" (= slender, slim), and "phyllon" (= leaf).
Distribution.
It is native to Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, and northern Brazil.
Description.
It grows to 65 feet (20 meters) in height and the branches are glabrous and angular. The sap is yellow and the petioles measure 2–3.5 centimeters in length. The leaves are elliptic to lanceolate in shape and are very coriaceous, and the base is attenuate or cuneate and the margin is entire. The flowers occur in fascicles of approximately 40 and their pedicels measure 1.5–2.5 centimeters in length. They have four green petals which are lanceolate to oblanceolate in shape and measure 4–5 x 3-3.5 millimeters and have truncate bases. The fruit is smooth and is green when immature and measures 2-2.2 x 1.7–1.9 centimeters. Its pedicel measures 2.7–3.5 centimeters in length. It is a dioecious species but has been recorded to have some level of self-pollination.
Uses.
An extract from the leaves has been proven to induce an antinociceptive effect, and it is used in folk medicine in South America.


Epilobium montanum

Epilobium montanum or Broad-leaved Willowherb is a species of flowering plant in the willowherb family Onagraceae.
Description.
This species grows to 60 cm high. The leaves are hairless and serrate and ovate-lanceolate. They are mostly positioned opposite and have short stalks. The flowers are pale mauve and about 8 mm across with a 4-lobed stigma in terminal racemes.
Distribution.
Common throughout Britain and Ireland as well as most of Europe. It is also present in central and eastern Asia and has been introduced in North America, Japan and New Zealand.
Ecology.
It is typically found on disturbed ground, base-rich soils, in hedges and as a garden weed.
Medicine.
"Epilobium montanum" herb has been used in the traditional Austrian medicine internally as tea for treatment of disorders of the prostate, kidneys, and urinary tract. A review of studies of the use of extracts from "Epolobium" species indicated that there was some evidence for traditional uses with digestive disorders. The extracts contained mixtures of flavonoids, phenolic acids and tannins, with the tannin oenothein B possibly a major contributor to biological activity. There was not sufficient evidence of efficacy in prostate disorders.


Hemaris thysbe

Hemaris thysbe, the hummingbird clearwing, is a moth of the family Sphingidae (hawkmoths). Coloration varies between individuals, but typically the moth is olive green and burgundy on its back, and white or yellow and burgundy on the underside. Its wings are transparent with a reddish-brown border. It has light-colored legs, which combined with the lack of striping on the underside is diagnostic. Beating its wings rapidly, "H. thysbe" hovers to collect nectar from a variety of flowers. The combination of its appearance and its behavior commonly leads to it being confused with a hummingbird or bumblebee.
"Hemaris thysbe" is found in a large portion of North America, with a range extending from Alaska to Oregon in the west and from Newfoundland to Florida in the east. It is a migratory species and is most common in southern Ontario and the eastern United States. "H. thysbe" has two broods a year in the southern portion of its range, but only one in the north. As a caterpillar, it feeds on honeysuckle, dogbane, and several types of fruit trees.
Due to the variable appearance of "H. thysbe", it has often been mistakenly described as multiple distinct species. It was first described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1775. The moth is a flower pollinator.
Description.
The body of an adult "Hemaris thysbe" moth is spindle shaped, and is largely covered by a thick coat of fur. There is significant variation in coloration between individuals. Typically, the back side of the moth is olive to golden-olive on the thorax and burgundy to black with light olive to dark golden patches on the abdomen. The underside of the moth is white to yellow on the thorax and burgundy to black on the abdomen. When it first hatches, the wings of "H. thysbe" are dark red to black. As it begins to fly, scales fall off leaving a mostly clear wing with reddish-brown borders and veins. The width and shape of the border as well as the patterning of the veins vary between individuals. The moth beats its wings quite rapidly and has a wingspan of . "H. thysbe" has light-colored, often yellow legs. In general, southern broods and individuals hatched later in the season are darker in color. Southern and eastern populations generally exhibit jagged wing borders, while northern and western ones are usually smooth.
The antennae of "H. thysbe" are thicker at their base and are curved at the ends. Unlike most moths, the species lacks hearing organs. It has compound eyes and well-developed reproductive organs. "Hemaris thysbe" can be distinguished from "Hemaris gracilis" and "Hemaris diffinis" by the lack of stripes on the underside of its thorax and by its pale legs. (Legs are reddish in "H. gracilis" and black in "H. diffinis".) The "H. thysbe" caterpillar is yellowish green with bands of dark green and reddish brown to dark brown. It has a granulose body with small, white spots and a white horn projecting from its posterior.
As a caterpillar, "H. thysbe" feeds on cherry trees, European cranberry bush, hawthorns, dogbane, honeysuckle, and snowberry. It burrows into the soil to overwinter as a brown, hard-shelled pupa. In the late spring, it emerges as an adult moth. "H. thysbe" lays green eggs on the underside of plant leaves, which hatch in about a week. Development takes four weeks, after which the caterpillar spins a cocoon at ground level. Two to four weeks later a moth emerges for a second breeding cycle before summer's end in southern climates. In northern climates, "H. thysbe" has a single mating cycle per year.
The mating and other behavioral habits of "H. thysbe" have not been well studied. Adults are most active during the hottest parts of the day, but remain active until sunset. "H. thysbe" collects nectar from a wide variety of flowers using a long () proboscis while hovering above the bloom. It shows a preference for pink and purple flowers, moving rapidly from one flower to the next. The moth is considered to be a hummingbird mimic and is frequently mistaken for the bird or for a bumblebee.
Habitat and range.
"Hemaris thysbe" lives in second-growth forest, in meadows, and is commonly found in cultivated gardens of suburbia. "H. thysbe" is a migratory species, capable of traveling long distances. In single brood regions, adults are found throughout the summer. In the south, adults are present from March to June and from August to October.
"H. thysbe" is most abundant in the eastern United States and southern Ontario. Its range extends eastward to Newfoundland and westward to Texas, the Great Plains, and into Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta. On the west coast of North America, its range extends from Oregon, up to the Yukon Territory and Alaska. It has minimal economic impact to humans, acting neither as a crop pollinator nor as a pest. The moth does, however, pollinate several cultivated flowers, and is the primary pollinator for some species of orchid. "H. thysbe" is not endangered or threatened.
Taxonomic history.
"Hemaris thysbe" was first described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1775 as "Sesia thysbe" in his "Systema Entomologiae". The specific name is likely a reference to Thisbe, half of a pair of ill-fated lovers in Ovid's "Metamorphoses". The name thus associates the blood-stained scarf of Thisbe to the reddish-brown coloration of the moth.
Due to the variable coloration and wing patterning of "H. thysbe", it, along with other members of "Hermaris", were described as many different species during the 1800s. In 1971, entomologist Ronald Hodges examined the various forms in detail. He dissected a number of specimens representing the range of "H. thysbe" coloration and geographic scope and found no differences in their reproductive organs. He thus concluded that the many variations represent a single species. Species collapsed into "H. thysbe" include:


Echinodorus subalatus

Echinodorus subalatus is a species of aquatic plants in the Alismataceae. It is native to Cuba, Mexico, Central America, Guyana, Venezuela, Bolivia, Brazil and Paraguay. It is found naturally growing in mud by the side of streams.
Description.
Leaves with canaliculate petioles, blades lanceolate, narrowly to broadly ovate, sharp on the tip, decumbent or rarely abrupt on the base, 18 – 24 cm long x 2 – 9 cm wide, with terrestrial forms usually only 10 x 2 cm having 5 - 7 veins and distinct pellucid lines.
Stem below cylindrical, between whorls triangular in cross-section, often alate, 35 – 120 cm long. Inflorescence racemose or paniculate having 4 - 15 whorls. Bracts on base connate, longer than the pedicels (up to 3.5 cm). Pedicels 0.5 – 2 cm long. Sepals 4 – 6 mm long, petals about twice as long, the diameter of the corolla 1.2 - 1.5 cm. Usually 12 stamens, achenes 2 x 1.5 mm with one, rarely 2 glands separated by a rib. Stylar beak bent back - reaching usually 1/4 of the body.
Vegetatively, resembles "E. andrieuxii," nut differs by having distinct pellucid lines, a usually paniculate inflorescence and by achenes with beaks that are at most 1/3 as long as the body.
Cultivation.
Deep, rich growing substrate and a good light. Will grow submersed or emersed. Benefits from additional CO2.


Alsophila crassicaula


Polyclathra

Polyclathra is a genus of the gourd family. It has the synonyms "Pentaclathra", "Pittiera", and "Roseanthus". Its corolla is white.


Stromatella (alga)

Stromatella is a genus of green algae in the family Kornmanniaceae.


Osmolindsaea

Osmolindsaea is a genus of ferns in the family Lindsaeaceae. Most species are found in southeastern Asia, from and Sri Lanka to Japan and New Guinea. "Osmolindsaea latisquama" and "Osmolindsaea leptolepida" (which may be synonymous) are found in Madagascar and the adjacent African mainland.
Species.
, the "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World" recognized seven species, agreeing with the number in the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I). , three of these were regarded as synonyms by "Plants of the World Online" (PoWO).


Micromonolepis

Micromonolepis pusilla, (Syn. "Monolepis pusilla") is the only species of the genus Micromonolepis in the flowering plant family Amaranthaceae, known by the common names small povertyweed and red povertyweed. It is native to the western United States, including the Great Basin and surrounding areas, where it grows in sandy scrub, dry valleys, playas, and other open habitat. It is a somewhat fleshy annual herb producing a branching, slender stem that has a mealy whitish texture when young and turns dull to bright red with age, losing its grainy coat. It grows up to 14 to 20 centimeters tall. The thick oblong leaves are up to a centimeter long. Clusters of 1 to 3 minute flowers appear in the leaf axils, each flower made up of 3 tiny sepals.


Betula michauxii

Betula michauxii, the Newfoundland dwarf birch, is a species of birch which is native to Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and Quebec as well as Saint Pierre and Miquelon.
Description.
The species is tall and have a wintergreen smell. The leaves are obovate and have a glabrous surface. Infructescence is cylindric, erect, short, and long. The fruits ripen by fall and are as glabrous as the leaves.


Guamatela

Guamatela is a genus of flowering plants in the order Crossosomatales. "Guamatela" is the only genus in the family Guamatelaceae. The genus comprises a single species, the type species, Guamatela tuerckheimii Donn.Sm., an evergreen shrub with a prostrate habit that is native to Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras. The genus "Guamatela" had formerly been included in the family Rosaceae before the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group placed it in the Guamatelaceae in 2009.


Phycodrys rubens

Phycodrys rubens is a red marine alga of up to 30 cm long.
Description.
"Phycodrys rubens" is seaweed which is perennial and can grow to 30 cm long and is strongly red in colour. It grows with flat leaf-like blades which are monostromatic, that is composed of a single flat layer of cells and can grow 3 cm wide. These blades can become 3 cm wide and show a clear mid-rib. The blades have a ruffled margin with veins growing out from the central mid-rib with paired lateral veins. The plants grow from a small disk holdfast with an axis to the blades.
The algae are somewhat similar to "Delesseria sanguinea" which is also strongly red but has a smooth, not dentate, margin. The shape of the frond is similar to the leaf of an Oak tree.
Reproduction.
The gametophytes are dioecious, that is the male and female phases are on separate plants.The reproductive structures are found at the margins of the blades, the cystocarps as branches attached to the veins and the tetrasporangial sori occur near the apices of the larger bladelets.
Habitat.
Commonly found in the littoral, sub-littoral in low rock pools and attached to the stipes of large algae such a "Laminaria". Found to a depth 30 m.
Distribution.
Common on the shores of Ireland, Wales, Isle of Man, Scotland including the Shetland Islands and the north-east and south-east of England. It is not found in the south-east of England.The species is found in the North Atlantic from Spitzbergen to Portugal and Canada.
Note.
The fronds adhere well to paper and can be dried to make fine specimens.


Maytenus addat

Maytenus addat is a species of plant in the family Celastraceae. It is endemic to the Afromontane forests, especially along forest margins, of Ethiopia.


Kubitzki system

The Kubitzki system is a system of plant taxonomy devised by Klaus Kubitzki, and is the product of an ongoing survey of vascular plants, entitled "The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants", and extending to 15 volumes in 2018. The survey, in the form of an encyclopedia, is important as a comprehensive, multivolume treatment of the vascular plants, with keys to and descriptions of all families and genera, mostly by specialists in those groups. The Kubitzki system served as the basis for classification in "Mabberley's Plant-Book", a dictionary of the vascular plants. Mabberley states, in his Introduction on page xi of the 2008 edition, that the Kubitzki system "has remained the standard to which other literature is compared".
In ordinal and family arrangements, the classification system in the initial angiosperm volumes closely resembles the Dahlgren system in Monocots and the Cronquist system in Dicots, but later volumes have been influenced by recent molecular phylogenetic studies.
The first volume of the series ("Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms") covered lycophytes, monilophytes, and gymnosperms, and was published in 1990. By 2010, there were nine published volumes, covering 39 of the 59 orders of flowering plants that are recognized in the APG III system. The order Saxifragales is covered except for the genus "Medusandra", which was transferred to it from Malpighiales in 2009. Volume 10 (2011) covers the family Myrtaceae and the orders Cucurbitales and Sapindales. Volume 11 was published in 2014, and two further volumes in 2015. Volumes 2, and 5–7 address dicotyledons, while volumes 3, 4 and 13 address monocotyledons. Volumes 8–12 and 14 deal with eudicots.
Because it is the result of a work in progress, the Kubitzki system is incomplete for those groups of plants that have not yet been covered, and groups that have been completely covered are not revised in light of subsequent knowledge. Since the first volume was published in 1990, a great deal has been learned about plant taxonomy, mostly by phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequences. The classification of ferns has been completely overhauled in that time. And some of the gymnosperm families have been revised.
For the flowering plants, the later volumes of the Kubitzki System follows the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group last revised in 2009 (APG III system), except for the recognition of smaller families. (For a complete listing of all volumes, see Klaus Kubitzki)
Classification.
Summary.
Divisions
Magnoliophyta.
Monocotyledoneae.
4 Superorders
Dicotyledoneae.
In volumes 5,6,7,8 no groups above the taxonomic rank of order were recognized.
In volume 9 the supraordinal groups Rosidae and Asteridae were recognized.
In volume 10 are treated the Orders Sapindales and Cucurbitales; and the Myrtaceae Family (belonging to Myrtales).


Poa meionectes

Poa meionectes, known as the fine-leaved snow grass, is a tufted grass native to south eastern Australia. It grows to 70 cm high, leaves are 0.3 mm wide. It occurs south of Orange, New South Wales. Flowering occurs in spring and summer. Often found on eucalyptus woodland in coastal ranges.
The original specimen was collected in 1970 by J. Vickery near Six Mile Creek, Tantawangalo mountain, in South East Forest National Park.


Dendrobium angulatum

Dendrobium angulatum is an epiphytic orchid native to Southeast Asia.
Description.
The stem is 40–100 cm long and slender. The flowers are small, 1.0–1.2 cm long with white with pink lines on the lip. It flowers and fruits between April and July.
Distribution and habitat.
The species grows on tree trunks in subtropical rain forests. It is found in Bangladesh, India (Assam), Myanmar, southwestern Thailand, and Vietnam.


Calystegia malacophylla

Calystegia malacophylla is a species of morning glory known by the common name Sierra false bindweed
. It is endemic to California, where it grows in several of the mountain ranges, including the Central Coast Ranges and the Sierra Nevada.
Description.
This is a rhizomatous perennial herb with a woolly stem growing to lengths of 10 centimeters to nearly a meter. It generally does not climb as do many other morning glories. The leaves are vaguely kidney-shaped to triangular and pointed, and reach a few centimeters in length. The foliage is covered in a short coat of woolly white hairs, giving the plant a light greenish gray color. The inflorescence holds a solitary white flower which is sometimes tinted with pink or yellow. The flower is 2 to 4 centimeters wide when open.


Microsoroideae

Microsoroideae is a subfamily in the fern family Polypodiaceae in the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I). The subfamily is also treated as the tribe Microsoreae within a very broadly defined family Polypodiaceae "sensu lato". In either treatment, it includes the previously separated tribe Lepisoreae.
Taxonomy.
The taxonomy of the subfamily Microsoroideae has been described as "highly problematic". The division into genera varies considerably. The Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I) recognized the following genera, while accepting that some needed further evaluation:
A molecular phylogenetic study in 2019 suggested the following relationship between the PPG I genera ("Thylacopteris" was not included in the study):
Species placed in the PPG I genera "Lepidomicrosorium", "Neocheiropteris", "Neolepisorus" and "Tricholepidium" were intermingled in a single clade. Although "Lemmaphyllum" and "Lepisorus" s.s. were monophyletic, the authors suggested a single broadly circumscribed "Lepisorus" s.l. for all of these genera. Three clades, mainly comprising species previously placed in "Microsorum", were closely related to "Lecanopteris" s.s. and distinct from other clades in the subfamily. Rather than expanding the circumscription of "Lecanopteris", the authors of the study preferred to use four genera, reviving "Dendroconche" and erecting two new genera "Bosmania" and "Zealandia".
, "Lepisorus" s.l. and "Lecanopteris" s.l. are treated differently by PPG I, the "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World" (CFLW) and "Plants of the World Online" (PoWO), as shown in the following tables.


Alseuosmiaceae

Alseuosmiaceae is a plant family of the order Asterales found in Australia, New Caledonia, and New Zealand.
They are shrubs with leaves arranged in spirals or whorls about the stem. The flowers are solitary or borne in raceme or fascicle inflorescences. Some species have fragrant flowers. The flower corolla is urn-shaped or funnel-shaped with 4 to 7 lobes. There are 4 to 7 stamens and one style tipped with a two-lobed stigma. The fruit is a fleshy berry.
There are 11 species divided among 5 genera:


Brunfelsia splendida

Brunfelsia splendida is a species of plant in the family Solanaceae. It is endemic to Jamaica.


Solanum americanum

Solanum americanum, commonly known as American black nightshade, small-flowered nightshade or glossy nightshade is a herbaceous flowering plant of wide though uncertain native range. The certain native range encompasses the tropics and subtropics of the Americas, Melanesia, New Guinea, and Australia.
The plant is widely naturalised around the tropical Pacific and Indian Oceans, including Hawaii, Indochina, Madagascar and Africa, possibly via anthropogenic introduction in these locales.
"Solanum americanum" is one of the most widespread and morphologically variable species belonging to the section "Solanum". It can be confused with other black nightshade species in the "Solanum nigrum" complex.
Description.
"Solanum americanum" grows up to tall and is an annual or short-lived perennial. The leaves are alternate on the branch, and vary greatly in size, up to long and broad, with a petiole and a coarsely wavy or toothed margin. The flowers are about 1 cm diameter, white or occasionally light purple, with yellow stamens. The fruit is a shiny black berry diameter, containing numerous small seeds.
Taxonomy.
"Solanum americanum" is a variable taxon. It is considered by some botanists to be more than one species, and others recognise subspecies. Some botanists have suggested that "Solanum americanum" may be conspecific with the European nightshade, "S. nigrum".
Toxicity.
Research indicates the presence of toxic glycoalkaloids and there are warnings to be careful on the use of "S.americanum" as herbal medicine and food. The green fruit is particularly poisonous and eating unripe berries has caused the death of children. Ripe berries and foliage may also cause poisoning, though the toxicity seems to diminish somewhat with ripening. This is via high levels of the glycoalkaloids, solanine and solamargine. Other toxins present in the plant include chaconine, solasonine, solanigrine, gitogenin and traces of saponins, as well as the tropane alkaloids scopolamine (hyoscine), atropine and hyoscyamine.
Significant amounts of solasodine (0.65%) have been found in the green berries. The ripe fruit also contains 0.3–0.45% solasonine, and acetylcholine, and has a cholinesterase-inhibiting effect on human plasma. In Transkei, rural people have a high incidence of esophageal cancer thought to be a result of using "S.americanum" as a food. Livestock can also be poisoned by high nitrate levels in the leaves.
Toxicity varies widely depending on the genetic strain and the location conditions, like soil and rainfall. Poisonous plant experts advise: "...unless you are certain that the berries are from an edible strain, leave them alone."


Clematis recta

Clematis recta, the erect clematis or ground virginsbower, is a species of "Clematis" unusual in that it is a free-standing shrub rather than a climbing plant. Growing usually on the margins of woodland areas, it is native to Eastern, Southern and Central Europe.


Cheilanthes

Cheilanthes (lip ferns) is a genus of about 180 species of rock-dwelling ferns with a cosmopolitan distribution in warm, dry, rocky regions, often growing in small crevices high up on cliffs. Most are small, sturdy and evergreen. The leaves, often densely covered in trichomes, spring directly from the rootstocks. Many of them are desert ferns, curling up during dry times and reviving with the coming of moisture. At the ends of veins sporangia, or spore-bearing structures, are protected by leaf margins, which curl over them.
Taxonomy.
The genus name is derived from the Greek words χεῖλος ("cheilos"), meaning "lip," and ἄνθος ("anthos"), meaning "flower."
"Cheilanthes" as traditionally circumscribed is now known to be highly paraphyletic, comprising at least four generically separate groups. The type species, "C. micropteris", is most closely allied to the genera "Aleuritopteris" and "Sinopteris" (Schuettpelz "et al."). In the early 21st century, many species, principally from the New World, were moved into the new genus "Gaga" and the revived genus "Myriopteris". Further work remains to be done to render "Cheilanthes" monophyletic. Members of many other cheilanthoid genera have at times been given names in the genus.
Species.
The circumscription of the genus was uncertain . The "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World" lists species in several distinct groups.
"Cheilanthes" sensu stricto contains about 20 species from North and tropical Central and South America:
"Cheilanthes" sensu lato contains about 50 species that molecular phylogenetic studies suggest do not form a clade with the core "Cheilanthes" species, falling into separate clades, but for which no placement outside "Cheilanthes" was available :


Pothos longipes

Pothos longipes is a climbing plant of the warmer rainforests of eastern Australia. Distributed from Boorganna Nature Reserve in the Mid North Coast of New South Wales to tropical Queensland. Mostly found on trunks of trees. An attractive plant with interesting flowers and bright red fruit.
Description.
A slender, glossy leaved climber or hemi-epiphyte. Leaves 1.5 to 5 cm long, 5 to 15 mm wide. Leaves flattened, appearing constricted with an apparent wasp waist in the middle of the apparent leaf at the point where the flattened petiole meets the leaf blade itself.
Flowers form in late spring to early summer, being greenish or purple, featuring a lanceolate shaped spathe, 25 mm long. The spadix is yellowish and cylindrical, up to 6 cm long. Flowers usually solitary, on a 5 cm stem. The fruit is a red drupe, 8 to 13 mm long. Germination from fresh seed is not particularly difficult.


Polytrichadelphus

Polytrichadelphus is a genus of mosses belonging to the family Polytrichaceae.
The species of this genus are found in Australia and America.
Species:


Hypseochloa

Hypseochloa is a genus of African plants in the grass family.


Lissanthe

Lissanthe is a genus of shrubs in the family Ericaceae. The genus is endemic to Australia.
Species include:


Combretum echirense

Combretum echirense is a species of flowering plant first formally named by C.C.H. Jongkind in 1993.


Chosenia

Chosenia arbutifolia (syn. "Salix arbutifolia" Pall.) is a flowering plant in the family Salicaceae, native to Korea, Sakhalin, Kamchatka and the Russian Far East.
Its name is taken from the Joseon dynasty which ruled Korea until 1897. It is the sole member of genus Chosenia, but is included within the closely related genus "Salix" by some authors.
It is a deciduous, willow-like wind-pollinated tree generally reaching a height of 20–30 m with a columnar crown and grey-brown peeling bark.
The leaves are 5–8 cm long and 1.5-2.3 cm broad, with a very finely serrated to nearly entire margin, and an acuminate apex.
The flowers are aggregated in pendulous catkins 1–3 cm long; it is dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate trees. Chosenias are fast-growing pioneer trees on sand and pebble river banks.


Hibbertia

Hibbertia, commonly known as guinea flowers, is a genus of flowering plants in the family Dilleniaceae. They are usually shrubs with simple leaves and usually yellow flowers with five sepals and five petals. There are about 400 species, most of which occur in Australia but a few species occur in New Guinea, New Caledonia, Fiji and Madagascar.
Description.
Plants in the genus "Hibbertia" are usually shrubs, rarely climbers and often form mats. Their leaves are usually arranged alternately along the stems, usually sessile, clustered on short side-branches, and have smooth, rarely toothed or lobed edges. The flowers are usually arranged singly in leaf axils or on the ends of stems and have five sepals, two "outer" sepals slightly overlapping the three "inner" ones. There are five yellow, rarely orange, petals and the stamens are usually arranged in three to five groups, sometimes on only one side of the carpels. There are between two and five carpels, usually free from each other, each containing up to six ovules and with a style on the top. The fruit is a follicle containing seeds, usually with an aril.
Taxonomy and naming.
The genus "Hibbertia" was first formally described in 1800 by Henry Cranke Andrews in his book "The Botanist's Repository for New, and Rare Plants" and the first species he described was "H. volubilis", now known as "H. scandens". The name "Hibbertia" honours George Hibbert, a patrony of botany. The common name, guinea flower reflects the resemblance of the flowers to the colour and shaped of the guinea coin.


Wiesnerella

Wiesnerella is the only genus in the liverwort family Wiesnerellaceae, in order Marchantiales.


Polygala sanguinea

Polygala sanguinea, known as purple milkwort or field milkwort, is an annual plant in the family Polygalaceae. It is native to widespread areas of eastern North America, but is absent from much of the southeastern Coastal Plain. It is it generally found in wet, acidic soils in open areas such as prairies and fields.
It produces pink-purple (occasionally white) flowers in the summer.


Araucaria humboldtensis

Araucaria humboldtensis, or Humboldt's araucaria, is a species of conifer in the family Araucariaceae. It is found only in New Caledonia. It is threatened by habitat loss, as even though the remaining wild populations are located within protected park areas, an increased frequency of forest fires in recent years has led to continued degradation of habitat and increased dieback of mature trees.
"Araucaria humboldtensis" is one of the smaller trees in its family, ranging from 6–15 m in height, with a distinct flattened crown in mature specimens. It is found in the wild only in three remnant populations in the south of the main island Grand Terre, growing on Mont Humboldt, Mont Mou and Mont des Sources at an altitude of between 750–1500 m.


Monnina obovata

Monnina obovata is a species of plant in the family Polygalaceae. It is endemic to Ecuador.


African payal

African payal is a common name for several aquatic plants which are invasive in India:


Microthamnion

Microthamnion is a genus of green algae in the family Microthamniaceae.


Calceolaria dilatata

Calceolaria dilatata is a species of plant in the Calceolariaceae family. It is endemic to Ecuador.


Crucigeniella

Crucigeniella is a genus of green algae in the family Oocystaceae.


Haworthiopsis longiana

Haworthiopsis longiana (synonym Haworthia longiana) is a succulent plant in the subfamily Asphodeloideae, found in the southern part of the Cape Provinces of South Africa.


Michel Charles Durieu de Maisonneuve

Michel Charles Durieu de Maisonneuve (7 December 1796 – 20 February 1878) was a French soldier and botanist who was a native of Saint-Eutrope-de-Born in the department of Lot-et-Garonne.
He studied at École Militaire de Brienne, and later at the military school of Saint-Cyr, where he received the rank of sub-lieutenant. He entered military service in 1813, and would be associated with the French army until 1848. He participated in the Battle of Trocadero at Cadiz, and was involved in the 1843 Battle of Smala against the forces of Abd-El-Kader (1808–1883).
In the mid-1820s Durieu de Maisonneuve developed an interest in natural history and botany by studying fresh water algae. He participated in the Morea expedition to Greece with naturalist Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent (1778–1846), and in 1840-44 was a member of a committee for scientific exploration of Algeria. During his years in the military he also performed botanical investigations in France, Spain (Asturias) and northern Portugal.
Durieu de Maisonneuve studied cryptogam species with Bory de Saint-Vincent, Camille Montagne (1784–1866), Joseph-Henri Léveillé (1796–1870), and the brothers Charles (1817–1884) and Louis René Tulasne (1815–1885). He was particularly interested in quillworts, of which, he described several new species. He also performed research of spermatophytes with Ernest Cosson (1819–1889), who was an authority of North African flora.
In 1858 he succeeded Jean François Laterrade (1784–1858) as director of the botanical garden at Bordeaux, where he was the first to acclimatize the Chinese windmill palm in France, and from 1867 to 1877, was a professor of botany in Bordeaux.
The botanical genus "Durieua" was named after him by Pierre Edmond Boissier and Georges François Reuter.


Aeridostachya acuminata

Aeridostachya acuminata, synonym "Eria acuminata", is a species of plant within the orchid family.


Gentianella

Gentianella is a plant genus in the gentian family (Gentianaceae). Plants of this genus are known commonly as dwarf gentians.
There are about 256 species in this genus. They are herbs that occur in alpine and arctic habitat types. They are distributed in the Americas, Eurasia, northern Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.


Tetradoxa

Tetradoxa is a monotypic genus in the family Adoxaceae containing the single species Tetradoxa omeiensis. It is sometimes included in genus "Adoxa". It is endemic to China, where it is known only from Sichuan.
This species has a stem 10 to 20 centimeters long with a few basal leaves and one pair of oppositely arranged stem leaves. It produces an inflorescence of 3 to 5 yellow-green flowers.


Richea procera

Richea procera, the lowland richea, is a plant in the family Ericaceae, endemic to Tasmania, Australia. It is found in lowland areas of Tasmania with unusually small leaves for the genus "Richea". Its leaves are parallel veined, from 10 to 335 mm long, 10 mm wide at the base. It is similar in appearance to the high altitude species Richea sprengelioides.


Phegopteridoideae


Nageia formosensis

Nageia formosensis is a species of conifer in the family Podocarpaceae. It is found only in Taiwan.


Amoreuxia gonzalezii

Amoreuxia gonzalezii is a rare species of flowering plant in the Bixaceae known by the common names Santa Rita mountain yellowshow, Santa Rita throwup weed, saiya and temaqui. It is native to Sonora in Mexico, its distribution extending just above the border into Arizona in the United States, where it occurs in the Santa Rita Mountains of Pima and Santa Cruz Counties. It has also been found in the States of Sinaloa and Jalisco to the south.
This plant is a perennial herb with stems 25 to 35 centimeters long growing from a tuber-like rootstock. The leaves are divided deeply into 5 to 7 lobes, the blades dark green in color and 3 to 6 centimeters wide. The flower is 6 to 8 centimeters wide with five orange petals with dark red-brown spots at the bases. The flowers close in the daytime. Blooming occurs in July through September. The hanging fruit is up to 8 centimeters long and contains rounded brown seeds. This species is very similar to "Amoreuxia palmatifida".
This plant grows in the transition between desert scrub and grassland. In the Santa Rita Mountains it grows on limestone talus and in Mexico it has been found on granite. Other plants in the habitat include "Eysenhardtia", "Erythrina", "Cercidium floridum", "Tecoma", "Agave schottii", "Heteropogon", "Fouquieria", "Calliandra", "Opuntia" spp., "Krameria", "Janusia gracilis", "Agave palmeri" and "Hibiscus coulteri".


Microsorum punctatum

Microsorum punctatum is a medicinal fern commonly called the Fishtail Fern.
Description.
It is epiphytes, but can also grow in soil (terrestrial). The rhizome is small, short, 50 mm in diameter, covered with dark brown scales; elongated scales, similar to triangles, 8 mm long. Single leaf lanceolate shape, green, 550 mm long, 50 mm wide, indistinct petiole, clear leaf bone, 3 mm diameter, pointed tip, winged base of leaf, branched leaf repetition.
Uses.
Juice extracted from the fronds (leaves) of the fern is used as purgative, diuretic, and wound healing agents.


Griselinia jodinifolia

Griselinia jodinifolia known locally as yemo chico is a shrub with a natural distribution in Chile ranging from Maule Region (~35° S) in the north to Los Lagos Region (~41° S). It is found in near the coast.


Eotrichocolea

Eotrichocolea is a genus of liverworts belonging to the family Trichocoleaceae.
The species of this genus are found in Australia and New Zealand.
Species:


Ochyraea

Ochyraea is a genus of moss in the family Amblystegiaceae. It contains the following species (but this list may be incomplete):


Cacteae

Cacteae is a tribe of plants of the family Cactaceae found mainly in North America especially Mexico. , the internal classification of the family Cactaceae remained uncertain and subject to change. A classification incorporating many of the insights from the molecular studies was produced by Nyffeler and Eggli in 2010.
Genera.
The classification of cacti is in flux; the following list of genera is that from Nyffeler and Eggli (2010).
The type genus is "Mammillaria".


Poga

Poga is a genus of flowering plants in the family Anisophylleaceae. It has only one currently accepted species, Poga oleosa, a large tree found from southeast Nigeria to Gabon. Its common names include afo nut, inoi/inoy nut and poga. Its seeds are dispersed by forest elephants ("Loxodonta cyclotis"). Local people collect and sell the edible nuts for their oil. The wood, known as ovoga, is used for veneers, furniture and boxes.


Camaridium

Camaridium is a genus of epiphytic orchids widespread across the West Indies and through Latin America from Mexico to Bolivia. One species extends into Florida ("C. vestitum", listed in Flora of North America under the synonym, "Maxillaria parviflora").
The genus was long included as part of "Maxillaria" but recent molecular studies have indicated that "Maxillaria" should be split into several genera.


Nuphar lutea

Nuphar lutea, the yellow water-lily, brandy-bottle, or spadderdock, is an aquatic plant of the family "Nymphaeaceae", native to northern temperate and some subtropical regions of Europe, northwest Africa, western Asia, North America, and Cuba. This interesting species found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean was used as a food source and in medicinal practices from prehistoric times with potential research and medical applications going forward.
Botanical description and etymology.
"Nuphar lutea’s" wide distribution and long-standing interest as an object of food, medicine, horticulture and folklore has led to many common or popular names. The following list is testimony to this species’ long history:
This species’ botanical name ""Nuphar lutea" (L.) Sm." includes its scientific name ("Nuphar lutea"), genus ("Nuphar"), specific epithet ("lutea"), a standard author abbreviation for Carl Linnaeus (L.), and an author citation for James Edward Smith (Sm.). "Nuphar" is derived from the Arabic and Persian "ninufar", meaning “pond-lily.” "Lutea" is Latin for “golden, saffron, orange-yellow.” Carl Linnaeus (1701-1778) was the Swedish botanist, physician, and father of modern plant taxonomy, who first described the species. James Smith (1759-1828) was an English botanist and founder of the Linnean Society, the first person to segregate "Nuphar" from the genus "Nymphaea", validating its current accepted botanical name. Smith “neglected shifting the feminine epithet of "Nymphaea lutea" to neuter "Nuphar luteum", publishing the scientific name as "Nuphar lutea".” A 1998 proposal to amend the gender to the neuter "Nuphar luteum" was approved, but subsequently the name reverted back to Smith’s original designation. This explains why the species is described by both names in botanical literature.
Henry Conard’s classic "Waterlilies: A Monograph of the Genus Nympaea", documented early and widespread nomenclature instability for "Nuphar" and for the genus it was separated from, noting disagreement over botanical names leading to much confusion. “The outcome, nevertheless, is a disconcerting abundance of synonyms and misapplications throughout the literature.” This has been true for many of the species in the genus "Nuphar" and for "Nymphaeaceae", the lily family, as a whole. An early essay on how the "Nuphar" and "Nymphaea" genera “have been confounded” was authored by Edward Lee Greene (1843-1915), with early challenges to the currently accepted designation and authority on "Nuphar lutea".
Plant form and growth.
F. G. Hayne’s "Faithful Representation and Description of the Plants Used in Medicine" published in 1813 offered an illustration of "Nuphar latea" “in its natural size” -- centered on its large crown leaf, several emerging leaflets from the plant’s root system (rhizome), and its distinctive yellow flower set on a stem above the water surface. The copper plate from this early botanical treatise adds the following details: Figures 3 and 4, the male fertilizing organ (stamen) composed of filaments capped by pollen-containing anthers; Figures 5 and 6, the flower’s female reproductive part (pistil), containing a cup-like ovary topped by pollen-receptive tip (stigma), whole and cut lengthwise; Figures 7 and 8, the mature berry (ovule) protected by outer petals and sepals, whole and sliced; and Figures 9 through 12, the mature berry holding seed, natural size and enlarged, then sliced on two axes. The pollen grain photographed here is a 30.70 μm (micrometer) yellow sphere of prickly (echinate) ornamentation with well-developed spines indicating “primitive phylogenetic position of the genus ["Nuphar"] as well as for "Nymphaeaceae" [lily family].”
"Nuphar lutea" flowers emerge about three years after seed germination, blooming mid-spring through early autumn, each flower taking 4 to 5 days to develop -- a process incorporating secretion of a sweet-smelling nectar on the stigma, pollen cross-fertilization by a host of insects (bees, beetles, flies, aphids), expansion of the female reproductive parts (gynoecium) up to three times in diameter, birthing as many as 400 seeds, and finally dispersal of the seeds on the water surface as the seed-head bursts, spreading them up to 80 m/h (meters/hour) over a 72 hour period before they sink to the bottom.
The flower is solitary, terminal, held above the water surface; it is hermaphrodite, 2–4 cm diameter, with five or six large bright yellow sepals and numerous small yellow petals largely concealed by the sepals. Flowering is from June to September, and pollination is entomophilous, by flies attracted to the alcoholic scent. The flower is followed by a green bottle-shaped fruit, containing numerous seeds which are dispersed by water currents.
New plants or colonies of "Nuphar lutea" can also be generated by the root system pictured in the illustration, described as follows: “Branching, spongy, tuberous rhizomes 20-150 mm in diam., firmly attached to the substrate [lake floor], dense tangled hairs around leaf scars.” New flower stalks and leaves -- submerged and floating on the surface -- continually emerge on the growing network of rhizomes. The common name “spadderdock” comes from spattered seed when the fruit bursts, the common name “brandy bottle” from the aroma produced by the flowers which is similar to stale alcohol.
Ecology.
Habitat for "Nuphar lutea" ranges widely from moving to stagnant waters of “shallow lakes, ponds, swamps, river and stream margins, canals, ditches, and tidal reaches of freshwater streams;” alkaline to acidic waters; and sea level to mountainous lakes up to 10,000 feet in altitude. The species is less tolerant of water pollution than water-lilies in the genus "Nymphaea". This aquatic plant grows in shallow water and wetlands, with its roots in the sediment and its leaves floating on the water surface; it can grow in water up to 5 metres deep. It is usually found in shallower water than the white water lily, and often in beaver ponds. Since the flooded soils are deficient in oxygen, aerenchyma in the leaves and rhizome transport oxygen from the atmosphere to the rhizome roots. Often there is mass flow from the young leaves into the rhizome, and out through the older leaves. This “ventilation mechanism” has become the subject of research because of this species’ substantial benefit to the surrounding ecosystem by "exhaling" methane gas from lake sediments.
"Nuphar lutea" plant colonies in turn are affected by organisms that graze on its leaves, gnaw on stems, and eat its roots, including turtles, birds, deer, moose, porcupines, and more. The rhizomes are often consumed by muskrats. The Waterlily Leaf Beetle, "Galerucella nymphaeae", spends its entire life cycle around various "Nuphar" species, exposing leaf tissue to microbial attack and loss of floating ability.
With other species in the "Nymphaeales" order, "Nuphar lutea" provides habitat for fish and a wide range of aquatic invertebrates, insects, snails, birds, turtles, crayfish, moose, deer, muscrats, porcupine, and beaver in shallow waters along lake, pond, and stream margins across the multiple continents where it is found.
Two major threats to "Nuphar lutea" will continue to be global warming and eutrophication of the habitats in which its colonies have flourished. Significant research efforts have gone into establishing the consequences of crossing critical temperature, nitrogen, and phosphorus thresholds:
Geographical distribution.
The wide distribution of "Nuphar lutea" across North America, Eurasia, and North Africa calls for some explanation. Fossil evidence combined with recent phylogenetic studies point to the family of water lilies ("Nymphaeaceae") being among the first flowering plants, with genus "Nuphar" a basal branch in its clade on the angiosperm tree.
Joseph Edgard De Langhe (1907-1998) was a Belgian engineer and botanist with expertise on ferns and related plants, who collected widely in Europe and donated his collection to Meise Botanic Garden, seven miles north of Brussels. His specimen of "Nuphar lutea" pictured here was collected in 1937 in Wijnegem, just to the east of Antwerp, Belgium, in shallow water near the Albert Canal. This specimen includes leaves, flower, pistil, stems, and rhizome. De Lange’s specimen was collected in Europe’s lowlands.
Frank Tweedy (1854-1937) was an American topographer and botanist who worked with the United States Geological Survey, collecting over 6000 specimens during his 43-year career, many of them from mountainous habitats in New York and western states. One of his earliest specimens was collected in the shallow waters on the shore of Beaver Lake, Lewis County, a higher elevation on the border of the Adirondack Mountains of northern New York. Frank’s collection is dispersed in herbaria throughout the US and Canada, his "Nuphar lutea" specimen held in Yale University’s Peabody Museum of Natural History in New Haven, Connecticut.
A search of the Mid-Atlantic Herbaria Consortium website yield’s 1151 specimens of "Nuphar lutea", including Frank Tweedy’s 1876 specimen from Beaver Lake, although many of these specimens are labeled as “subspecies” "advena", "variegate", "polysepala", "macrophylla", "pumila", "rubrodisca", and "sagittifolia". An additional 357 records emerge under the alternate name "Nuphar luteum" Sibth. & Sm., for the neuter of "lutea" and recognizing the co-author of the 1809 "Florae Graecae Prodromus" in which Smith named and validated "Nuphar lutea" -- Johannes Sibthorp.
The Alps make up an interesting case study in the distribution of "N. lutea" and "N. pumila", where these mountains served as a "refugium" during the interglacial cycles, the later species losing up to 60% of its populations because of glaciation. At the same time, "Nuphar" species did survive and expand their populations in this higher altitude habitat.
Taxonomy.
Some botanists have treated "Nuphar lutea" as the sole species in "Nuphar", including all the other species in it as subspecies and giving the species a holarctic range, but the genus is now more usually divided into eight species (see "Nuphar" for details).
Kingdom ("Plantae") and Division ("Magnoliophyta").
A recent count of all the world’s plant species ("Plantae") numbered at 374,000, 82% of these being vascular plants ("Tracheophytes") and 79% angiosperm or flowering plants ("Magnoliophyta"). "Nuphar lutea" is also a member of a superdivision of seed plants ("Spermatophyta"), its seed hidden or enclosed inside the plant’s fruit or pistil.
Class ("Magnoliopsida") and Subclass ("Magnoliidae").
"Magnoliopsida" are in a class including 402,595 species of flowering plants with a certain set of characteristics placing it early in the evolution of plants, and including six subclasses, depending on the botanical system being used for categorization. The "Nuphar genus" is a member of the subclass "Magnoliidae", with a unique flower, pollen, and leaf structure as described above. "Nuphar" species are difficult to categorize using the newer cladistic APG I, APG II, APG III, or APG IV systems. As a flowering plant, "Nuphar lutea" is part of the angiosperm “clade” or monophyletic group – composed of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants. "Nuphar" species are too early on the evolutionary tree to neatly locate within the early or lower clades, such as the monocots or dicots, although "Nuphar" clearly is “a monophyletic clade in the family "Nymphaeaceae".”
Order ("Nymphaeales") and Family ("Nymphaeaceae").
Other accepted “sister” genera are "Euryale", "Ondinea", "Victoria", "Barclaya", and "Nymphaea" (and in some schemes "Cabombaceae"). Narrowing down to "Nuphar latea", family "Nymphaeaceae" includes these five genera containing a total of 70 species whose status is “accepted.”
Members of family "Nymphaeaceae" are described as aquatic herbs with rhizomes, simple floating leaves, solitary flowers floating on or standing above the water surface, sepals 4 to 6, and fruit consisting of a leathery berry containing multiple seeds.
Genus ("Nuphar") and Species ("Nuphar lutea").
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew sponsors a web “Plant List,” or working list of all plant species, includes 88 scientific names for plant species in the "Nuphar" genus -- with 18 “accepted” members, 49 listed as synonyms, and 21 still unassessed. "Nuphar lutea" is included in the accepted list “with original publication details found in Smith’s 1809 writeup in "Florae Graecae Prodromus". Four synonyms are listed on that site for "Nuphar lutea", one of these unresolved and all under peer review. In addition, two infraspecific names are given for taxa below the level of species, "Nuphar lutea" subsp. "advena" (Aiton) Kartesz & Gandhi and "Nuphar lutea" subsp. "macrophylla" (Small) E. O. Beal. Adding to the confusion, another botanical authority lists 15 synonyms for "Nuphar lutea" (L.) Sm. Seven of these “subspecies” were listed in the search for "Nuphar lutea" specimens through the Mid-Atlantic Herbaria Consortium website.
Research history.
An early witness in the fossil record.
Plant fossil specimens confirm "Nuphar lutea’s" genus and family as early branches on the angiosperm tree. Noting gaps in the fossil record for "Nymphaeales"’ plant species, paleobotanical researchers report well-preserved "Nuphar" seeds from the early Eocene epoch -- 56 to 33.9 million years ago (mya) -- in coal mines of Japan and rock formations in China, identified positively based on their morphology and anatomy. These finds add to older fossil seeds unearthed in North Dakota, dating back to the Paleocene epoch (66-56 mya).
The Cretaceous epoch -- a geological period which ran from 145 to 66 mya -- pushes "Nuphar" and its family of species to the evolutionary birth and rapid spread of flowering plants across the globe. That fact alone makes "Nuphar lutea" an object of intense research interest.
The six illustrations here of extinct "Nymphaeales" seeds -- or what are usually described as the plant berry or fruit in the literature -- found on Seymour Island, Antarctica, are well-preserved and date from the Eocene epoch. The species has been named "Notonuphar antarctica", with the following illustration key: (a) seed with germination cap, (b) seed showing smooth outer surface, (c) broken seed showing cells of the protective outer layer (exotesta), (d) root tips or apical part of broken seed with germination cap preserved, (e) palisade-shaped cells of the exotesta, and (f) surface view of the seed shown in illustration (b).
As a perennial food source.
"Nuphar lutea" has a long history of usage as a valued food source. The field of archaeobotany documents this species’ tubers and charred seeds present in Vologda River digs in northern Russia since Early Neolithic times (ca 10,000 years BCE). The author of "Edible and Medicinal Plants" offered the following summary of this species’ wide usage in the Native American diet, where harvesting was done by canoe in late summer and early autumn:
A storied history from ancient times.
Henry Conard’s seminal work titled "The Waterlilies", published in 1905, was the first attempt to present a synopsis of plant family "Nymphaea" for the English-speaking world, noting that “serious confusion exists concerning the identities of the parent species.” His survey of the pre-Linnaean literature of China, India, Greece, and Rome summarized this plant family as widely observed in Eurasia, and specifically held as an object of beauty with distinct medicinal properties noted by authorities such as Aristotle and Diodorus Siculus. The “white lotus” member of the lily family became a sacred symbol for the Hindu and Egyptian -- for example, as an emblem for the Nile God.” Another source gives the following account:
Medieval European study of the family divided it into a white and yellow-flowered genus, with three scientific names designated by 1613: "Nymphaea alba", "Nymphaea candida", and "Nuphar lutea".
Official description and botanical name.
Two names are now associated with "Nuphar lutea’s" more recent botanical record, "Nuphar lutea" (L.) Sm. -- Linnaeus (1753) and Smith (1809). The former adopted three names for the "Nymphaea" genus found in Europe and America, "Nymphaea lutea" for the yellow water lily, "Nymphaea alba major" for the white water lily, and "Nymphaea nelumbo" for India’s water lotus. Smith distinguished yellow from white lilies by returning to the pre-Linnaean name "Nuphar" for yellow "lutea", retaining the classical name "Nymphaea" for the white water lily. He thus received credit for separating "Nuphar" from the "Nymphaea" genus, officially naming this species. By 1908, 10 varieties, 10 forms, and two subforms, or subspecies, were recognized under three Eurasian species, "N. lutea", "N. pumila", and "N. intermedia".
The identification of North American "Nuphar" species similarly expanded to include 17 species and two subspecies, based on a few variable characteristics, and resulting in the taxonomic confusion that has followed "Nuphar lutea" and its genus and family right up to the present time.
A new proposal tested and confirmed.
Ernest Beal’s 1956 reappraisal of the "Nuphar" genus as a whole, North American together with Eurasian specimens, offered a new option -- one genus ("Nuphar") comprising just two species, “"Nuphar lutea", Beal” and “"Nuphar japonica",” the only taxon in Japan. Beal explained polymorphic variations observed in "N. lutea" specimens as nine subspecies which arose because of relatively minor geographical or ecological differences:
A doctoral research project using morphometric-pollen analysis with cladistic phylogenetic studies of 10 perennial "Nuphar" "species" in northern New Hampshire in 1997 tested and confirmed Beal’s conclusions that the long list of "Nuphar" “species” on both sides of the Atlantic are members of just two “sections” in that one genus. His evolutionary reconstruction located genus "Nuphar" and its species "lutea" at the base of the angiosperm tree, allied with "Nuphar" sect. "Astylata" on what he referred to as an “Old World/New World divergence,” dividing up the genus as follows:
The author of this doctoral research (Padgett) went on to demonstrate that "N. xrubrodisca" is a hybrid of "N. variegate" and "N. microphylla" on four criteria of hybridity -- geographically, the sharing of 15 characteristics, in cross-pollination tests, and with 22 genetic markers. After reviewing four additional hybrid candidates, Padgett concluded with Beal that “hybridization may occur frequently in "Nuphar",” although contrary to Beal he demonstrated major differences between “New World” "N. microphylla" and “Old World” "N. pumilla", indicating “clear morphological divergence among the dwarf yellow water lilies.” Interestingly, the number of sepals on a Nuphar specimen has also confirmed Beal and Padgett’s “5-sepaled taxa as distinct from 6-9-sepaled taxa, with several significant differences in fruit as well as floral characters.”
Recent cladistic and phylogenetic findings.
The evolutionary origin of "angiosperms" or "Magnoliopsida" -- flowering plants with seeds that develop from fertilization of an ovule or egg within an enclosed hollow ovary -- has long been a biological mystery. The classic statement of this was made by Charles Darwin in 1879 in a letter to Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817-1911), Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, London, in which he stated, “The rapid development as far as we can judge of all the higher plants within recent geological times is an abominable mystery.” Darwin’s 1879 letter was not referring to the angiosperm division (or clade) as is often assumed. He viewed this rapid and perplexing diversification taking place early in the Cretaceous period, ca 140 million years ago, in a sub-group of this division -- the class formerly referred to as "Magnoliopsida", now generally known as Dicotyledon plants or Dicots. This is an important starting point for human knowledge of the 79% of flowering plant species which rapidly spread across the planet in that early epoch.
One of the reasons "Nuphar lutea’s" genus and family have become the subject of increasing cladistic focus is that this species is located in a basal position on the evolutionary tree, or in other words, among the earliest flowering plants on earth. Understanding lily development and genetic structure will provide clues to solving Darwin’s “abominable mystery,” the dynamics behind the sudden explosion of angiosperms across the globe. The following quote refers to "Nuphar’s" sister genus on that tree:
Interestingly, flower and rhizome formation in genus "Nuphar" has come under recent electron microscope study by phylogenetic researchers, on the assumption that the very first angiosperms -- which have left no trace in the fossil record – share many of the unique characteristics of the basal genus of which "Nuphar lutea" is a part. Russian biologists are foremost in these efforts, exploring the "golden spiral" formation of the rhizome and the whorl mechanism by which flower parts develop -- this photograph capturing a "Nuphar lutea" Gynoecium at a late stage in flower development, “pe” for petal and “s5” for one of its five sepals.
Accurately placing "Nuphar" and its sister species in the "Nymphaeaceae" family on the “Tree of Life” will also be a necessary step in sorting out taxonomic confusion that existed long before Linnaeus and Smith first distinguished and described this species within its plant family. The list of research articles using DNA barcoding to accurately plot "Nuphar lutea" on its phylogenetic tree (phylogram) is a long one. The phylogram included here depicts "Nuphar lutea" as a basal species in its branch of “the "Nympheales" group.” The following quote from "Towards a Complete Species Tree of Nymphaea" puts the need for continuing research in proper perspective:
In the treatment of cancer and other diseases.
The Plants for a Future website offers a long list of medicinal uses for "Nuphar lutea", past and present: As an anaphrodisiac, anodyne, antiscrophulatic, antispasmodic, astringent, cardiotonic, demulcent, hypotensive, sedative, and vasoconstrictor, with the following warning added: “Always seek advice from a professional before using a plant medicinally.” The "International Journal of Biology, Pharmacy and Allied Sciences" surveyed past medicinal usage with a listing of the chemical compounds showing promise for their anti-inflammatory, antifungal, and antibacterial actions, including “alkaloids, anthraquinone glycosides, terpenoids, saponins, flavonoids, tannins and phenolic compounds, proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, starch and vitamin C.”
One of the most promising research developments to date has to do with "Nuphar lutea’s" potential role in the treatment of diseases like cancer, MRSA, Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s, and Parkinson’s. A Dartmouth College professor, Jimmy Wu, has recently synthesized several new "Nuphar" alkaloids capable of “programmed cell death” (apoptosis), a critical approach to fighting disease:
The accompanying picture of "Nuphar lutea" includes the chemical “signature” for just one of many new organic compounds with therapeutic promise, this one synthesized by The Jimmy Wu Research Group.
Conservation status.
After the receding of the glaciers from Europe ca 15,000 years ago, populations of "N. pumila" and "N. lutea" have returned to the Swiss Alps, with 37 populations of the former identified. Several current threats to these plant colonies have been identified in "Alpine Botany", including hybridization between these species, runoff from excessive nutrients (eutrophication), and climate change:
The distribution or range maps included with this article certainly put "Nuphar lutea" in a global context, with limited regions where the species has been introduced (Bangladesh, New Zealand, and Primorye) and one where it has gone extinct (Sicilia). Conservation efforts on a global scale are needed to guarantee the benefits of this valuable species, its sisters, and genera in the lily family.
Another conservation concern for this and the other plants is “the desertification of the world,” a leading cause for species extinction.
There is another side to "Nuphar lutea" and like species, hinted at by its common name “Spatterdock” or “Splatterdock.” It can spread so fast under favorable conditions that some jurisdictions treat it like an invasive species. The Lake Lemon Conservancy District in southern Indiana has implemented an "Aquatic Plant Management Plan" with four methods for controlling its lake invasives -- chemical or biological control, water level manipulation, and mechanical harvesting.
Symbolism.
Stylized red leaves of the yellow water lily, known as "seeblatts" or "pompeblêden" are used as a symbol of Frisia. The flag of the Dutch province of Friesland features seven "pompeblêden".
Stone masons carved forms of the flowers on the roof bosses of Bristol Cathedral and Westminster Abbey, these are thought to encourage celibacy.


Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius

Carl Friedrich Philipp (Karl Friedrich Philipp) von Martius (17 April 1794 – 13 December 1868) was a German botanist and explorer.
Life.
Martius was born at Erlangen, the son of Prof Ernst Wilhelm Martius, court apothecary.
He graduated Ph.D. from Erlangen University in 1814, publishing as his thesis a critical catalogue of plants in the university's botanical garden. After that he continued to devote himself to botanical study, and in 1817 he and Johann Baptist von Spix were sent to Brazil by Maximilian I Joseph, the king of Bavaria. They travelled from Rio de Janeiro through several of the southern and eastern provinces of Brazil and travelled up the Amazon River to Tabatinga, as well as exploring some of its larger tributaries.
On his return to Europe in 1820 Martius was appointed as the keeper of the botanic garden at Munich, including the herbarium at the Munich Botanical Collection, and in 1826 as professor of botany in the university there, and he held both offices until 1864. He devoted his chief attention to the flora of Brazil, and in addition to numerous short papers he published the "Nova Genera et Species Plantarum Brasiliensium" (1823–1832, 3 vols.) and "Icones selectae Plantarum Cryptogamicarum Brasiliensium" (1827), both works being finely illustrated. An account of his travels in Brazil appeared in three volumes between 1823 and 1831, with an atlas of plates, but probably the work by which he is best known is his "Historia naturalis palmarum" (1823–1850) in three large folio volumes, in which all known genera of the palm family are described and illustrated. The work contains more than 240 chromolithographs, with habitat sketches and botanical dissections. In 1840 he began the "Flora Brasiliensis", with the assistance of the most distinguished European botanists, who undertook monographs of the various orders. Its publication was continued after his death under the editorship of A. W. Eichler (1839–1887) until 1887, and subsequently of Ignatz Urban. He also edited several works on the zoological collections made in Brazil by Spix, after the death of the latter in 1826. In 1837, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
On the outbreak of potato disease in Europe he investigated it and published his observations in 1842. He also published works and short papers on the aborigines of Brazil, on their civil and social condition, on their past and probable future, on their diseases and medicines, and on the languages of the various tribes, especially the Tupi. He died at Munich; his gravestone is decorated with two palm fronds and the Latin inscription "In palmis semper virens resurgo".
A species of South American snake, "Hydrops martii", is named in his honor. The Martiusstraße in Munich is named after him.
He married (1801–1843). His son was German chemist, entrepreneur and company founder Carl Alexander von Martius (1838–1920)
Herbarium Martii.
As well as a huge collection of flora specimens owned by Martius prior to his departure to South America, he returned with another 12,000 specimens which together formed the Herbarium Martii. At the time of his death the collection had been further expanded and comprised 300,000 specimens representing 65,000 species from around the world, and was one of the largest private herbaria assembled.
The Belgian government acquired the collection in 1870 which formed the basis of the then newly established "Jardin botanique de l'Etat". The collection is now held as part of the National Botanic Garden of Belgium.
The Martius Project is an effort by the Botanic Garden to digitize the entire collection.
Route followed in Brazil during 1817–1820 expedition.
Martius and Spix, accompanied by Johann Christian Mikan who was with his wife and the artist Thomas Ender travelled to Brazil with the Austrian Commission, which joined the wedding train of Archduchess Leopoldina of Austria and Dom Pedro de Alcantara, the future Emperor of Brazil. The party left from Trieste on 10 April 1817.
The first natural history collections were made in the city of Rio de Janeiro at Laranjeiras, Corcovado, Aqueduto, Fonte da Carioca, Tijuca, Botafogo, Jardim Botanico) immediately following the wedding.
Spix and Martius then spent some days at "Fazenda Mandioca" with Grigori Ivanovitch Langsdorff and then went to a fazenda near Rio Paraiba before returning to Rio. A mounted expedition took them on horseback to Itaguaí (13 December 1817) through São Paulo state to the city of São Paulo where they arrived on 31 December 1817. They left on 9 January 1818 for Sorocaba and Itu on to Minas Gerais, then through Camanducaia to cross the Rio Sapucaí for São Gonçalo and Ouro Prêto. On 1 May 1818, they left for Diamantina, Minas Novas and then Montes Claros.
On 12 August 1818, they headed North-North East to Rio Carinhanha, as far as the Serra Geral then returned by Codó to Carinhanha arriving at Rio de Contas on 17 October 1818, then riding east to cross the Rio Paraguaçu arriving at Salvador on 10 November 1818, and leaving on 18 February 1819 via Coit and Jacobina. The party then travelled to Piaui, Oeiras where they arrived on 3 May. They departed on 11 May, arriving on 15 May at São Gonçalo do Amarante, where Martius became seriously ill. Spix had at this time contracted the schistosomiasis from which he eventually died.
On 3 June 1819, they arrived in Maranhão to replenish funds and supplies. They then sailed down the Rio Itapicuru to São Luis from where they left on 20 July for Belém, arriving there on 25 July, having collected specimens at several places in between. They left Belém on 21 August for an Amazon voyage, up the Tocantins to Breves, arriving in Gurupá on 9 September and Porto de Moz on the Rio Xingu on 10 September. They spent 19 September through 30th in Santarém, arriving at Barra do Rio Negro on 22 October and leaving on 2 November. They reached Tefé, then called Ega, on 26 November, then split up.
Spix left Tefé on 7 December 1819, for Solimões and visiting Tabatinga before returning to Manaus on 3 February 1820. He then travelled up the Rio Negro to Moura, Barcelos returning to Manaus on 26 February. Martius left Tefé on 12 December, ascended Rio Japurá, returning to Manaus on 11 March, where they reunited. They departed for Belém arriving on 16 April 1820, and left for Europe on 13 June 1820.
After this journey, Martius and Spix published their account of their travels and work in Brazil.
In the appendix, they published a piece of dance music, a lundu, the earliest example of this form of music recorded, it is now known as "Lundu: Recolhido por C.P.F. von Martius". One recording of this work is by Orquestra e Coro Vox Brasiliensis & Ricardo Kanji in their recording "História da Música Brasileira – Período Colonial II".


Pedobesia

Pedobesia is a genus of green algae in the family Derbesiaceae. Species within this genus can be found in New Zealand.


Betula neoalaskana

Betula neoalaskana (syn. "B. resinifera") or Alaska birch, also known as Alaska paper birch or resin birch, is a species of birch native to Alaska and northern Canada. Its range covers most of interior Alaska, and extends from the southern Brooks Range to the Chugach Range in Alaska, including the Turnagain Arm and northern half of the Kenai Peninsula, eastward from Norton Sound through the Yukon, Northwest Territories, British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, southern Nunavut, and into northwestern Ontario.
This tree typically grows to tall, occasionally up to , and achieves a trunk diameter of , and sometimes to more than . It grows in a variety of habitats, from wetlands to ridgetops at altitudes of . The mature bark ranges widely in color, from pure white to red, yellowish, pinkish, or gray. Bark of twigs, seedlings, and saplings is dark, from reddish to almost black, and covered with resin glands. The leaves are triangular-ovate, long and broad, with a truncate base and an acuminate apex, and a double-serrated margin. The fruiting catkins are long and about broad. It is able to tolerate extreme cold, as low as .
Although it is diploid like its close relatives, the Eurasian Silver Birch and the eastern American Gray Birch, it frequently hybridizes with the hexaploid Paper Birch; the hybrid is known as "Betula × winteri". Hybrids also occur with American Dwarf Birch, named "Betula × uliginosa".


Ulva flexuosa

Ulva flexuosa now generally referred to as "Enteromorpha flexuosa" (Wulfen ex Roth) J. Agardh). is a species of seaweed in Ulvaceae family that can be found worldwide.
Description.
This large green alga may grow to 25 cm, it is tubular and similar to "E. prolifera". It is very variable with branches showing cells in longitudinal and sometimes also in transverse rows.
Distribution.
Europe.
The species can be found in such European countries as Ireland,Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Great Britain (Scotland), and on island of Corsica.
Africa.
In Africa it can be found in Algeria, Cameroon, Egypt, Gabon, Guinea, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Liberia, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Togo, Tunisia, and on the islands such as Canary Islands, Madagascar, Mauritius and São Tomé & Príncipe.
Asia.
In Asia, it is found in Bahrain, China, India, Iran, Kuwait, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan and Yemen.
Americas.
It is also have North and South American distribution, which includes countries such as Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Mexico, Uruguay and Venezuela. In Central America it can be found in such countries as Belize, Costa Rica, and Panama, while in Caribbean it can be found on Bahamas, Barbados, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Martinique, Tobago, Virgin Islands, and on Lesser and Netherlands Antilles.
The species is distributed throughout the US states such as California, Florida, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oregon, Texas, and Washington.


Hypnodendraceae

Hypnodendraceae is a family of mosses belonging to the order Hypnodendrales.
Genera:


Raddia

Raddia is a genus of South American plants in the grass family, most of the species found only in Brazil.
The genus was named for Italian botanist and herpetologist Giuseppe Raddi, 1770–1829.
see "Arberella Crypsis Cryptochloa Piresia Raddiella"


Podocarpus dispermus

Podocarpus dispermus is a species of conifer in the family Podocarpaceae known commonly as the broad-leaved brown pine. It is endemic to Queensland, Australia, where it is limited to the eastern Atherton Tableland.
This species grows in scattered subpopulations. It is part of the rainforest understory. The seed is dispersed by southern cassowary ("Casuarius casuarius") and musky rat-kangaroos ("Hypsiprymnodon moschatus").