Beautiful nuthatch

The beautiful nuthatch (Sitta formosa) is a bird species in the family Sittidae, collectively known as nuthatches. It is a large nuthatch, measuring in length, that is not sexually dimorphic. Its coloration and markings are dramatic, the upper parts being black and azure, streaked with white and pale blue on the head and lined with the same colors on the wing feathers. The are orange, and the and are ochre. An irregular, dark highlights its eye. "S. formosa"s ecology is not fully described, but it is known to feed on small insects and larvae found on the trunks and epiphyte-covered branches of trees in its range. Reproduction takes place from April to May; the nest is placed in the hole of an oak, rhododendron, or other large tree. The nest is made of plant material and fur in which the bird typically lays four to six eggs.
Although the species is found in most of the countries making up the mainland of Southeast Asia, it appears to be rare throughout its range, its population being highly localized where it is found. The bird nests predominantly in montane forest at an altitudinal range from up to nearly , with some seasonal height adjustment, down to around in winter. Its apparent localization within its range makes rigorous estimates of its population difficult, but its habitat is threatened by deforestation and the species appear to be in decline. It has been classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
Taxonomy.
The nuthatches constitute a genus – "Sitta" – of small passerine birds in the family Sittidae, typified by short, compressed wings and short, square 12-feathered , a compact body, longish pointed , strong toes with long claws, and behaviorally, by their unique head-first manner of descending tree trunks. Most nuthatches have gray or bluish and a black eyestripe. "Sitta" is derived from the Ancient Greek name for nuthatches, , "sittē". "Nuthatch", first recorded in 1350, is derived from "nut" and a word probably related to "hack", since these birds hack at nuts they have wedged into crevices. The genus may be further divided into seven subgenera, of which the beautiful nuthatch is placed alone in "Callisitta" (Bonaparte, 1850), and the species is therefore sometimes called "Callisitta Formosa".
The beautiful nuthatch was first described in 1843 by British zoologist Edward Blyth, from a specimen he examined in Darjeeling. Its kinship with other members of the genus is unclear. The bright blue color of its invites a comparison to the blue nuthatch ("S. azurea"), or other blue-tinted nuthatch species such as the velvet-fronted nuthatch ("S. frontalis"), yellow-billed nuthatch ("S. solangiae") and the sulphur-billed nuthatch ("S. oenochlamys"), but its distribution being focused in the eastern Himalayas, and the uniqueness of its plumage, argues against the assumption. According to the International Ornithological Congress and ornithologist Alan P. Peterson, no subspecies have been identified.
In 2014, Eric Pasquet, "et al." published a phylogeny based on examination of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA of 21 nuthatch species. The position of the beautiful nuthatch within the genus was not established with certainty, having a far lower statistical association than others in the model. Nevertheless, under the findings the species appears closest evolutionarily to three clades of nuthatches: two nuthatches that prefer rocky environments, the western rock nuthatch ("S. neumayer") and the eastern rock nuthatch ("S. tephronota"); species in the "europaea" group, including the Eurasian nuthatch ("S. europaea"), Siberian nuthatch ("S. arctica"), chestnut-vented nuthatch ("S. nagaensis"), Kashmir nuthatch ("S. cashmirensis"), Indian nuthatch ("S. castanea"), chestnut-bellied nuthatch ("S. cinnamoventris") and the Burmese nuthatch ("S. neglecta"); as well as the white-tailed nuthatch ("S. himalayensis"), and therefore, the white-browed nuthatch ("S. victoriae"). These close relatives are generally all species that plaster the entrance to their nest with mud.
Description.
Described by Erik Matthysen in his 1998 treatise "The Nuthatches" as a bird that "deserves its name", the beautiful nuthatch has highly distinctive plumage. Its upperparts are black and azure, and it is orange on the underparts. The crown and upper mantle are black, streaked with pale blue and white. The scapulars, back and rump are an azure blue. The greater and medium coverts are black, finely edged with white, forming two narrow ; the flight feathers are black and more or less lined with pale blue. The eyebrow and throat are white and buff and the eye is highlighted by an irregular, dark eyestripe. Under the wing, the white base of the contrasts sharply with gray ; a distinguishing trait when viewing the bird in flight. The iris is reddish-brown or dark brown and the bill is black but for a whitish tinge at the base of the . The lower parts are generally orange-cinnamon. The legs and feet are yellowish-brown, olive-brown or greenish-brown.
There is no sexual dimorphism. Juveniles are very similar to adults, but the streaks on the mantle are blue rather than white. The primary coverts of juveniles are also more closely lined with blue, and the underparts are paler overall, especially on the chest. Adults perform a complete moult after the breeding season, whereas juveniles only have a partial moult, in which they replace a variable number of rectrices.
The bird is large as compared with other members of the genus "Sitta", measuring in length. The folded wing measure in males and in females. The tail is in males and in females. The measures between and and the tarsus is in length. The weight is not known.
Ecology and behavior.
Voice.
"S. formosa"'s vocalizations are not well known, but its is described as "low and sweet in tone". Its call is typical of nuthatches, and similar to that of the Eurasian nuthatch ("Sitta europaea"), but less strident.
Feeding.
The beautiful nuthatch alone, in pairs or in small groups of four to five individuals, though an unusual gathering of 21 individuals was observed in one tree in Bhutan. It often takes part in mixed-species foraging flocks, and has been notably observed feeding with the Himalayan cutia ("Cutia nipalensis") and the velvet-fronted nuthatch ("Sitta frontalis") – two other species that prospect for food on tree trunks. Other foraging flock partners surveyed are the long-tailed broadbill ("Psarisomus dalhousiae"), the lesser racket-tailed drongo ("Dicrurus remifer"), the maroon oriole ("Oriolus traillii") and the white-browed scimitar babbler ("Pomatorhinus schisticeps").
"S. formosa" forages from about the middle to the apex of tall trees, exploring the trunks and epiphyte-covered branches (lichens, mosses, orchids), for small insects, but also prospect on outermost branches. In Laos, individuals were observed feeding while perched on the larger branches of a Fokienia evergreen ("Fokienia hodginsii") – a tree frequently enveloped in epiphytes. The bird has been described at times as the most timid of nuthatches. It prospects in a manner typical of many others in its genus, sometimes hanging upside down for an extended time surveying its surroundings. As compared with other nuthatch, the species has been described as working "unhurriedly", as they peck at trunks, lichen and other epiphytes, searching for prey. Stomach contents of collected Chinese specimens consisted of beetles and insect larvae.
Breeding.
Reproduction in the species has not been well studied. In the northeast of India, the breeding season is from April to May. The nest is placed off the ground, between two and eight meters high, and is often built in a hole of a (living or dead) oak or rhododendron tree, or sometimes in other large trees. Nests are constructed using leaves and bark, held together with hair, often that of bamboo rats. If the opening of the hole is too large, it is cemented with mud to reduce the entrance size. The bird usually lays four to six white eggs, speckled with red spots, that measure . Beautiful nuthatch sexes are reported to share equally in nest building and duties.
Distribution and habitat.
This species lives in the eastern Himalayas, and has been reported in several scattered sites across Southeast Asia, in the northwest of Vietnam and in central Laos. Its range stretches west into the northeast of India, where it was reported seen near Darjeeling in West Bengal, but not since 1933. It is present in Bhutan, and in the Indian states of Sikkim (in the town of Rangpo), in Meghalaya (in the Khasi Hills), in Assam (in the Dima Hasao district), in the south of Arunachal Pradesh, and in Manipur and Nagaland. Its presence in Bangladesh is uncertain but it is found further west in the north of Burma, in Chin State (in the Chin Hills–Arakan Yoma montane forests), the Sagaing Region, in Kachin State and in Shan State. Data on the bird from Laos is erratic, but there are reports of sightings north of Phou Kobo, and of large numbers of the species wintering in the center of the country in the pristine wilderness of Nakai–Nam Theun. There are also reports of sightings in the southeast of China’s Yunnan province, in northern Thailand and in northwestern Vietnam. Its residential and breeding range is estimated to cover .
Beautiful nuthatches typically inhabit both the interior and outskirts of evergreen or semi-evergreen montane forest, though in northern Burma they have been recorded nesting in trees scattered across open areas. In central Laos, the bird was found associated with the Fokienia evergreen. They usually live at altitudes of and up to nearly during the warm seasons but may make seasonal vertical migration. In India, for example, the species spends the summer between and , but was observed during winter at just in Sikkim and in northeastern Arunachal Pradesh at and between and . In Burma, they were observed at between and , in China between and , in Laos between and and in Thailand, the only observation of the species was at a height of .
Threats and protection.
The beautiful nuthatch has always been rare and very localized throughout its distribution, perhaps due to very specific ecological requirements, though this has been questioned as not in keeping with the diversity of habitats in which "S. formosa" has been observed. Although the species is less threatened at high elevations, its habitat has been reduced by deforestation, due to logging and forest clearance to make way for human habitation. In the center of Laos and northern Vietnam, "Fokienia" trees, which are a known beautiful nuthatch foraging source and nesting site, are harvested for their high commercial value. Research conducted in 2001 indicated a population comprising 2,500 to 10,000 adults, and between 3,500 and 15,000 total individuals; these numbers are in decline. The species has been classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).


Iberian gudgeon

Iberian gudgeon ("Gobio lozanoi") is a species of gudgeon, a small freshwater in the family Cyprinidae. It is widespread only in the Iberian Peninsula where it is indigenous in the Ebro and Bidasoa drainage, and in France in the Adour drainage, as well as Andorra. It has been introduced throughout the Iberian Peninsula, including Portugal, It is a freshwater demersal fish, up to 11.9 cm long.
Named in honor of Luis Lozano Rey (1878-1958), University of Madrid, for his contribution to the knowledge of Iberian freshwater fishes.


Yunnan red-backed vole

The Yunnan red-backed vole ("Eothenomys miletus") is a species of rodent in the family Cricetidae. It is found in Southwest China, specifically Yunnan Province. It is the largest member of the genus "Eothenomys", with a higher cranium, a soft, thick and long coat with tawny brown to reddish brown coloring and grey underparts.


Gnaphosa rufula

Gnaphosa rufula is a ground spider species found in Hungary, Russia, Kazakhstan, Lebanon and Israel.


Chignahuapan splayfoot salamander

The Chignahuapan splayfoot salamander ("Chiropterotriton orculus"), also known as Cope's flat-footed salamander, is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae. It is endemic to Mexico and known from the southern and eastern margins of the Mexican Plateau between northern Morelos and northern Puebla. It was removed from the synonymy of "Chiropterotriton chiropterus" in 1994; unnamed species may also exist in this species complex.
Its natural habitats are pine-oak and fir forests; it tolerates some habitat modification. It is a relatively common, terrestrial species. It is threatened by habitat loss caused by logging and human settlement.


Bythinella markovi

Bythinella markovi is a species of very small freshwater snail, an aquatic gastropod mollusk in the family Amnicolidae (according to the taxonomy of the Gastropoda by Bouchet & Rocroi, 2005).
Distribution.
This species is endemic to Bulgaria, and is known only from Gardina Dupka Cave, in the Western Rhodopes.


Marine life of the Canary Islands

The marine life found in the Canary Islands is interesting, being a combination of North Atlantic, Mediterranean, and endemic species. In recent years, the increasing popularity of both scuba diving and underwater photography have provided biologists with much new information on the marine life of the islands.
Fish species found in the islands include many species of shark, ray, moray eel, bream, jack, grunt, scorpionfish, triggerfish, grouper, goby, and blenny. In addition, there are many invertebrate species including octopus, cuttlefish, sponge, jellyfish, anemone, crab, mollusc, sea urchin, starfish, sea cucumber, and coral.
Marine turtles.
There are a total of 5 different species of marine turtle that are sighted periodically in the islands, the most common of these being the loggerhead turtle. The other four are the green, hawksbill, leatherback, and Kemp's ridley turtle. Currently, there are no signs that any of these species breed in the islands, and so those seen in the water are usually migrating. However, it is believed that some of these species may have bred in the islands in the past, and there are records of several sightings of leatherback turtle on beaches in Fuerteventura, adding credibility to the theory.
Sea urchins.
By far the most commonly seen invertebrate in Canary Island waters, the lime urchin is, ecologically, a not very important herbivore. Populations of these creatures have increased rapidly within recent years, primarily due to overfishing of their natural predators, such as starfish, triggerfish and Triton's trumpet.
In areas with many of these creatures, the seabed can become completely stripped of algae. As a response to this "ecological emergency", widespread culling of sea urchins has been advocated in some areas.
Marine mammals.
Marine mammals of the Canary Islands include varieties of cetaceans, such as rorquals (not much known about their distributions in northeastern Atlantic), sperm whales, "Kogia", little known beaked whales, orcas, the short-finned pilot whales, false killer whales, Risso's dolphins, common and bottlenose dolphins. Vagrant hooded seals also appear every now and again. In 1995, continuous observations of North Atlantic right whale, being considered as functionally extinct in eastern North Atlantic were made, followed by another possible sighting off La Gomera between 1998 and 1999. The Canary Islands were also formerly home to a population of the rarest pinniped in the world, the Mediterranean monk seal.
Sharks.
Tenerife and Gran Canaria are one of the few remaining locations with a substantial population of angelsharks. It is quite a common sight while snorkeling.
The basking shark, a harmless plankton feeder, visits the island in large groups during the winter, but is rarely seen.
The common smooth-hound comes close to shore in the late summer to breed, but is too small to be dangerous to humans.
The hammerhead shark ("Sphyrna zygaena") is another fish eater, and is sometimes encountered while fishing.
Marine life and tourism.
Marine life, particularly cetaceans are one of the main attractions of Tenerife and the other islands, generating jobs and letting tourists enjoy the marvelous sea life of the area.


Huanren frog

The Huanren frog ("Rana huanrensis") is a species of true frog found in East Asia. It was originally believed to be endemic to Huanren County, Liaoning, China, but was later also found in South Korea; it is presumed to be present in North Korea, as well. It is closely related to the Dybowski's frog, "Rana dybowskii", and specimens collected before 1991 were incorrectly identified as that species. Distinguishing factors include the absence of a vocal sac.
The Huanren frog is found in and around rivers and streams in hilly terrain. The type locality in Huanren is above sea level, and specimens from Korea have also only been found at altitudes over . Specimens from South Korea have been collected in the provinces of Gangwon-do, Gyeongsangbuk-do, and eastern Gyeonggi-do. Egg clutches, which are small and clustered, are deposited on submerged rocks in the streams which this species favors.


Lamprolepis nieuwenhuisii

Nieuwenhuis's skink ("Lamprolepis nieuwenhuisii") is a species of skink. It is found in Borneo.
Etymology.
The specific name, "nieuwenhuisii", is in honor of Dutch explorer and ethnologist Anton Willem Nieuwenhuis.


Alopoglossus eurylepis

Alopoglossus eurylepis, the largescale lizard, is a species of lizard in the family Alopoglossidae. It is endemic to Colombia.


Sikkim wedge-billed babbler

The Sikkim wedge-billed babbler or blackish-breasted babbler ("Stachyris humei") is a species of bird in the Old World babbler family (Timaliidae). It is named for the Indian state of Sikkim.
It is found in the Indian subcontinent and nearby parts of Southeast Asia. Its range includes Bhutan, India, Myanmar, and Nepal. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests. It is becoming rare due to habitat loss.
Systematics.
This species described by Louis Mandelli based on specimens from Sikkim and placed in the genus "Heterorhynchus" which was however preoccupied leading to it briefly being placed in the genus "Stachyrirhynchus" by Hume. However the genus "Sphenocichla" was erected before this by Godwin-Austen and Lord Tweeddale for the Manipur or Cachar wedge-billed babbler and this species was moved to the genus "Sphenocichla". Molecular phylogenetic analysis indicated that the species in the genus "Sphenocichla" were nested amid species of "Stachyris" leading to them being merged into the older described genus "Stachyris".
The species was previously known as the wedge-billed babbler and included "Stachyris humei" and the now separated "Stachyris roberti" which was earlier treated as a subspecies.
Ecology.
It inhabits the understorey of broadleaf evergreen forest and bamboo at 900–1,950 m, favouring westward facing slopes in Bhutan. It occupies lower elevations only during the winter. It occurs in small parties and feeds on insects, particularly woodlice and boring beetles.


Telmatobius ceiorum

Telmatobius ceiorum is a species of frog in the family Telmatobiidae, and which is endemic to Argentina. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forest and rivers, and it is threatened by habitat loss.


Acanthurus nigricauda

Acanthurus nigricauda, the epaulette surgeonfish, black-barred surgeonfish, eye-line surgeonfish, shoulderbar surgeonfish, white-tail surgeonfish or blackstreak surgeonfish, is a tropical fish in the family Acanthuridae. It is native to the Indo-Pacific region.
Description.
"Acanthurus nigricauda" is a laterally compressed, deep-bodied fish reaching a maximum length of . The profile of the head is convex, the eyes are fairly prominent and there are two pairs of nostrils just in front of the eyes. The dorsal fin has 9 spines and 25 to 28 soft rays, and the anal fin has 3 spines and 23 to 26 soft rays. The caudal fin is crescent-shaped. The body is covered with tiny scales giving it a smooth appearance, and the lateral line is indistinct. The head is usually paler than the body, which is a uniform shade but varies in colour from pale grey to dark brown or nearly black, depending on the fish's mood. There is a bold black streak behind the eye, the "epaulette", which extends as far as the operculum, and a slender black line in front of the pair of sharp "scalpels" on the caudal peduncle. The dorsal fin is yellowish with a black line with blue edge at the margin, and the anal fin is grey with a blue margin. The pectoral fins have an orange base and are banded in grey, yellow and translucent, and the caudal fin has a white base and a dark outer portion bordered with blue. "A. nigricauda" can be distinguished from the similar doubleband surgeonfish ("Acanthurus tennenti") by the single "epaulette" behind its head.
Distribution and habitat.
"Acanthurus nigricauda" occurs in the tropical and subtropical Indian Ocean and the western and central Pacific Ocean. Its range extends from East Africa and Madagascar to the Tuamoto Islands, and from southern Japan to Northern and Eastern Australia and New Caledonia. It occurs over sandy and rocky bottoms, in bays, lagoons and on reef slopes, at depths down to about . Unlike most other members of its genus, it is seldom found over coral.
Ecology.
"Acanthurus nigricauda" is a schooling fish and forms shoals, sometimes in association with the orange-band surgeonfish ("Acanthurus olivaceus"). It feeds by grazing on the algal film that grows over sandy areas in the vicinity of coral or rock substrates, but the proportion of algae in its stomach is low, and it mostly subsists on the organic detritus that gets trapped in the film.
The sexes are separate in this species, and both sexes become mature at a length of about . Large aggregations of fish occur at breeding time, with both sexes liberating their gametes into the water column. The scalpels on the caudal peduncle are retractable and are very sharp; they are displayed when the tail is thrust to the side and are used to slash at rival fish and for protection against predators. Juvenile fish are shorter and more deep-bodied than adults. They are deep brown at first, with a yellowish, unnotched caudal fin, and gradually change colour as they reach a length of between .


Oreolalax lichuanensis

Oreolalax lichuanensis (Lichuan lazy toad or Lichuan toothed toad) is a species of amphibian in the family Megophryidae. It is endemic to China, and found in south-central parts of the country (Hubei, Sichuan, Chongqing, and Guizhou).
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, subtropical or tropical moist shrubland, and rivers.
It is threatened by habitat loss.
Male "Oreolalax lichuanensis" grow to about in snout-vent length and females to about . Tadpoles are in length.


White-crested elaenia

The white-crested elaenia ("Elaenia albiceps") is a species of bird in the family Tyrannidae, the tyrant flycatchers. It has several subspecies breeding across southern and western parts of South America. Southern birds migrate north in winter.
Its natural habitats are temperate forests, subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, subtropical or tropical high-altitude shrubland, and heavily degraded former forest.
Description.
The white-crested elaenia easily is recognizable as an elaenia by the combination of drab plumage (primarily dull green above, and whitish below); wings with conspicuous wing bars (pale tips to the greater and median wing coverts); slightly crested appearance, with a semi-concealed white center to the crown; and upright posture. small-billed elaenia, lesser elaenia and sierran elaenia cannot always be distinguished in the field. The length of the species ranges from and weight is , with an average of .
Subspecies.
At least five subspecies are recognized:
Distribution and habitat.
The white-crested elaenia is a permanent resident in the central and southwestern coastal Andean region of South America in Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and northernmost Chile. Also, in most of Argentina, mostly western, and southern and central Chile, Tierra del Fuego, it is also resident.
To the north and east in northeast Brazil, the Amazon Basin, and in the Amazonian Andes regions of eastern Colombia, Peru, and northern Bolivia southeastwards into eastern Brazil, white-crested elaenia is a non-breeding resident bird, in the austral winter. In the entirety of South America, two thirds of its range is as a non-breeding migratory species. It is a vagrant to the Falkland Islands and in 2008 a bird was found in Texas, a potential first for the United States and North America. A second bird was reported in Chicago in 2012.
Like many other species of "Elaenia", white-crested elaenia is found in a variety of wooded habitats. Throughout most of its breeding distribution in the Andes, white-crested elaenia is found at forest edge, in second growth, and in scrub. In at least some areas, it breeds in drier intermontane valleys, rather than the more humid forests occupied by Sierran elaenia, but the habitat relationships between the two species have not been studied in detail. In northwestern Argentina, where white-crested elaenia overlaps with small-billed elaenia, there is some degree of segregation by habitat: small-billed elaenia breeds in tall woods, and primarily below , whereas white-crested elaenia occurs in smaller trees and in agricultural areas, at elevations from .
Behavior and ecology.
It regularly consumes small fruit, at least when not breeding, but takes small insects as well. It also eats a large variety of foods such as grass, berries, seeds, and nuts. The white-crested elaenia typically is solitary, but, at least when not breeding, may congregate with other frugivores at fruiting trees. Aggregations of up to 100 individuals have been reported during migration.
The oldest known white-crested elaenia from banding studies was eight years and two months old, though it is uncertain whether this represents the maximum potential longevity of the species.


White-cheeked bushtit

The white-cheeked bushtit ("Aegithalos leucogenys"), also known as the white-cheeked tit, is a species of bird in the family Aegithalidae. It is found in Afghanistan, Kashmir region, and Pakistan.


List of birds of Hungary

This is a list of the bird species recorded in Hungary. The avifauna of Hungary included a total of 397 confirmed species as of 2021, according to Hungarianbirdwatching.com. Of them, 106 are rare or accidental and six have been introduced by humans. None are endemic.
This list's taxonomic treatment (designation and sequence of orders, families and species) and nomenclature (English and scientific names) are those of "The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World", 2019 edition. The Hungarian names in parentheses are from Hungarianbirdwatching.com.
The following tags have been used to highlight some categories of occurrence; the tags are from "Bird Checklists of the World".
Ducks, geese, and waterfowl.
Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae
Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These birds are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to an oily coating.
Pheasants, grouse, and allies.
Order: GalliformesFamily: Phasianidae
The Phasianidae are a family of terrestrial birds. In general, they are plump (although they vary in size) and have broad, relatively short wings.
Flamingos.
Order: PhoenicopteriformesFamily: Phoenicopteridae
Flamingos are gregarious wading birds, usually tall, found in both the Western and Eastern Hemispheres. Flamingos filter-feed on shellfish and algae. Their oddly shaped beaks are specially adapted to separate mud and silt from the food they consume and, uniquely, are used upside-down.
Grebes.
Order: PodicipediformesFamily: Podicipedidae
Grebes are small to medium-large freshwater diving birds. They have lobed toes and are excellent swimmers and divers. However, they have their feet placed far back on the body, making them quite ungainly on land.
Pigeons and doves.
Order: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae
Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere.
Sandgrouse.
Order: PterocliformesFamily: Pteroclidae
Sandgrouse have small, pigeon-like heads and necks, but sturdy compact bodies. They have long pointed wings and sometimes tails and a fast direct flight. Flocks fly to watering holes at dawn and dusk. Their legs are feathered down to the toes.
Bustards.
Order: OtidiformesFamily: Otididae
Bustards are large terrestrial birds mainly associated with dry open country and steppes in the Old World. They are omnivorous and nest on the ground. They walk steadily on strong legs and big toes, pecking for food as they go. They have long broad wings with "fingered" wingtips and striking patterns in flight. Many have interesting mating displays.
Cuckoos.
Order: CuculiformesFamily: Cuculidae
The family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners, and anis. These birds are of variable size with slender bodies, long tails, and strong legs. The Old World cuckoos are brood parasites.
Nightjars.
Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Caprimulgidae
Nightjars are medium-sized nocturnal birds that usually nest on the ground. They have long wings, short legs, and very short bills. Most have small feet, of little use for walking, and long pointed wings. Their soft plumage is camouflaged to resemble bark or leaves.
Swifts.
Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Apodidae
Swifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. Many swifts have long swept-back wings which resemble a crescent or boomerang.
Rails, gallinules, and coots.
Order: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae
Rallidae is a large family of small to medium-sized birds which includes the rails, crakes, coots, and gallinules. Typically they inhabit dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps, or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings and to be weak fliers.
Cranes.
Order: GruiformesFamily: Gruidae
Cranes are large, long-legged, and long-necked birds. Unlike the similar-looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Most have elaborate and noisy courting displays or "dances".,
Thick-knees.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Burhinidae
The thick-knees are a group waders found worldwide within the tropical zone, with some species also breeding in temperate Europe and Australia. They are medium to large birds with strong black or yellow-black bills, large yellow eyes, and cryptic plumage. Despite being classed as waders, most species have a preference for arid or semi-arid habitats.
Stilts and avocets.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Recurvirostridae
Recurvirostridae is a family of large wading birds which includes the avocets and stilts. The avocets have long legs and long up-curved bills. The stilts have extremely long legs and long, thin, straight bills.
Oystercatchers.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Haematopodidae
The oystercatchers are large and noisy plover-like birds with strong bills used for smashing or prising open molluscs.
Plovers and lapwings.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae
The family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels, and lapwings. They are small to medium-sized birds with compact bodies, short thick necks, and long, usually pointed, wings. They are found in open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water
Sandpipers and allies.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae
Scolopacidae is a large diverse family of small to medium-sized shorebirds including the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers, and phalaropes. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil. Variation in length of legs and bills enables multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food.
Pratincoles and coursers.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Glareolidae
Glareolidae is a family of wading birds comprising the pratincoles, which have short legs, long pointed wings, and long forked tails, and the coursers, which have long legs, short wings, and long, pointed bills which curve downwards.
Skuas and jaegers.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Stercorariidae
The family Stercorariidae are, in general, medium to large birds, typically with grey or brown plumage, often with white markings on the wings. They nest on the ground in temperate and arctic regions and are long-distance migrants.
Auks, murres, and puffins.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Alcidae
Alcids are superficially similar to penguins due to their black-and-white colours, their upright posture, and some of their habits; however they are not related to the penguins and differ in being able to fly. Auks live on the open sea, only deliberately coming ashore to nest.
Gulls, terns, and skimmers.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae
Laridae is a family of medium to large seabirds, the gulls, terns, and skimmers. Gulls are typically grey or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have stout, longish bills and webbed feet. Terns are a group of generally medium to large seabirds typically with grey or white plumage, often with black markings on the head. Most terns hunt fish by diving but some pick insects off the surface of fresh water. Terns are generally long-lived birds, with several species known to live in excess of 30 years.
Loons.
Order: GaviiformesFamily: Gaviidae
Loons, known as divers in Europe, are a group of aquatic birds found in many parts of North America and northern Europe. They are the size of a large duck or small goose, which they somewhat resemble when swimming, but to which they are completely unrelated.
Storks.
Order: CiconiiformesFamily: Ciconiidae
Storks are large, long-legged, long-necked, wading birds with long, stout bills. Storks are mute, but bill-clattering is an important mode of communication at the nest. Their nests can be large and may be reused for many years. Many species are migratory.
Cormorants and shags.
Order: SuliformesFamily: Phalacrocoracidae
Phalacrocoracidae is a family of medium to large coastal, fish-eating seabirds that includes cormorants and shags. Plumage colouration varies, with the majority having mainly dark plumage, some species being black-and-white, and a few being colourful.
Pelicans.
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Pelecanidae
Pelicans are large water birds with a distinctive pouch under their beak. They have webbed feet with four toes.
Herons, egrets, and bitterns.
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae
The family Ardeidae contains the bitterns, herons, and egrets. Herons and egrets are medium to large wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more wary. Members of Ardeidae fly with their necks retracted, unlike other long-necked birds such as storks, ibises, and spoonbills.
Ibises and spoonbills.
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Threskiornithidae
Threskiornithidae is a family of large terrestrial and wading birds which includes the ibises and spoonbills. They have long, broad wings with 11 primary and about 20 secondary feathers. They are strong fliers and despite their size and weight, very capable soarers.
Osprey.
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Pandionidae
The family Pandionidae contains only one species, the osprey. The osprey is a medium-large raptor which is a specialist fish-eater with a worldwide distribution.
Hawks, eagles, and kites.
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Accipitridae
Accipitridae is a family of birds of prey which includes hawks, eagles, kites, harriers, and Old World vultures. These birds have powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons, and keen eyesight.
Barn-owls.
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Tytonidae
Barn-owls are medium to large owls with large heads and characteristic heart-shaped faces. They have long strong legs with powerful talons.
Owls.
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Strigidae
The typical owls are small to large solitary nocturnal birds of prey. They have large forward-facing eyes and ears, a hawk-like beak, and a conspicuous circle of feathers around each eye called a facial disk.
Hoopoes.
Order: BucerotiformesFamily: Upupidae
Hoopoes have black, white, and orangey-pink colouring with a large erectile crest on their head.
Kingfishers.
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Alcedinidae
Kingfishers are medium-sized birds with large heads, long pointed bills, short legs, and stubby tails.
Bee-eaters.
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Meropidae
The bee-eaters are a group of near passerine birds. Most species are found in Africa but others occur in southern Europe, Madagascar, Australia, and New Guinea. They are characterised by richly coloured plumage, slender bodies, and usually elongated central tail feathers. All are colourful and have long downturned bills and pointed wings, which give them a swallow-like appearance when seen from afar.
Rollers.
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Coraciidae
Rollers resemble crows in size and build, but are more closely related to the kingfishers and bee-eaters. They share the colourful appearance of those groups with blues and browns predominating. The two inner front toes are connected, but the outer toe is not.
Woodpeckers.
Order: PiciformesFamily: Picidae
Woodpeckers are small to medium-sized birds with chisel-like beaks, short legs, stiff tails, and long tongues used for capturing insects. Some species have feet with two toes pointing forward and two backward, while several species have only three toes. Many woodpeckers have the habit of drumming on tree trunks with their beaks.
Falcons and caracaras.
Order: FalconiformesFamily: Falconidae
Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey. They differ from hawks, eagles, and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their talons.
Old World orioles.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Oriolidae
The Old World orioles are colourful passerine birds which are not related to the similar-appearing New World orioles.
Shrikes.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Laniidae
Shrikes are passerine birds known for their habit of catching other birds and small animals and impaling the uneaten portions of their bodies on thorns. A shrike's beak is hooked, like that of a typical bird of prey.
Crows, jays, and magpies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Corvidae
The family Corvidae includes crows, ravens, jays, choughs, magpies, treepies, nutcrackers, and ground jays. Corvids are above average in size among the Passeriformes, and some of the larger species show high levels of intelligence.
Tits, chickadees, and titmice.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Paridae
The Paridae are mainly small stocky woodland species with short stout bills. Some have crests. They are adaptable birds, with a mixed diet including seeds and insects.
Penduline-tits.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Remizidae
The penduline-tits are a group of small passerine birds related to the true tits. They are insectivores.
Larks.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Alaudidae
Larks are small terrestrial birds with often extravagant songs and display flights. Most larks are fairly dull in appearance. Their food is insects and seeds.
Bearded reedling.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Panuridae
This species, the only one in its family, is found in reed beds throughout temperate Europe and Asia.
Cisticolas.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cisticolidae
The Cisticolidae are warblers found mainly in warmer southern regions of the Old World. They are generally very small birds of drab brown or grey appearance found in open country such as grassland or scrub.
Reed warblers and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Acrocephalidae
The members of this family are usually rather large for "warblers". Most are rather plain olivaceous brown above with much yellow to beige below. They are usually found in open woodland, reedbeds, or tall grass. The family occurs mostly in southern to western Eurasia and surroundings, but it also ranges far into the Pacific, with some species in Africa.
Grassbirds and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Locustellidae
Locustellidae are a family of small insectivorous songbirds found mainly in Eurasia, Africa, and the Australian region. They are smallish birds with tails that are usually long and pointed, and tend to be drab brownish or buffy all over.
Swallows.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae
The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings, and a short bill with a wide gape. The feet are adapted to perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partially joined at the base.
Leaf warblers.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Phylloscopidae
Leaf warblers are a family of small insectivorous birds found mostly in Eurasia and ranging into Wallacea and Africa. The species are of various sizes, often green-plumaged above and yellow below, or more subdued with greyish-green to greyish-brown colours.
Bush warblers and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Scotocercidae
The members of this family are found mostly in Africa and Asia with a few species in Europe and Polynesia.
Long-tailed tits.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Aegithalidae
Long-tailed tits are a group of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They make woven bag nests in trees. Most eat a mixed diet which includes insects.
Sylviid warblers, parrotbills, and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sylviidae
The family Sylviidae is a group of small insectivorous passerine birds. They mainly occur as breeding species, as the common name implies, in Europe, Asia and, to a lesser extent, Africa. Most are of generally undistinguished appearance, but many have distinctive songs.
Kinglets.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Regulidae
The kinglets and "crests" are a small family of birds which resemble some warblers. They are very small insectivorous birds in the single genus "Regulus". The adults have colored crowns, giving rise to their name.
Wallcreeper.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Tichodromidae
The wallcreeper is a small bird related to the nuthatch family, which has stunning crimson, grey, and black plumage.
Nuthatches.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sittidae
Nuthatches are small woodland birds. They have the unusual ability to climb down trees head first, unlike other birds which can only go upwards. Nuthatches have big heads, short tails, and powerful bills and feet.
Treecreepers.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Certhiidae
Treecreepers are small woodland birds, brown above and white below. They have thin pointed down-curved bills, which they use to extricate insects from bark. They have stiff tail feathers, like woodpeckers, which they use to support themselves on vertical trees.
Wrens.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Troglodytidae
The wrens are mainly small and inconspicuous except for their loud songs. These birds have short wings and thin down-turned bills. Several species often hold their tails upright. All are insectivorous.
Dippers.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cinclidae
Dippers are a group of perching birds whose habitat includes aquatic environments in the Americas, Europe, and Asia. They are named for their bobbing or dipping movements.
Starlings.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sturnidae
Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds. Their flight is strong and direct and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country. They eat insects and fruit. Plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen.
Thrushes and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Turdidae
The thrushes are a group of passerine birds that occur mainly in the Old World. They are plump, soft plumaged, small to medium-sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs.
Old World flycatchers.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Muscicapidae
Old World flycatchers are a large group of small passerine birds native to the Old World. They are mainly small arboreal insectivores. The appearance of these birds is highly varied, but they mostly have weak songs and harsh calls.
Waxwings.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Bombycillidae
The waxwings are a group of birds with soft silky plumage and unique red tips to some of the wing feathers. In the Bohemian and cedar waxwings, these tips look like sealing wax and give the group its name. These are arboreal birds of northern forests. They live on insects in summer and berries in winter.
Accentors.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Prunellidae
The accentors are in the only bird family, Prunellidae, which is completely endemic to the Palearctic. They are small, fairly drab species superficially similar to sparrows.
Old World sparrows.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae
Old World sparrows are small passerine birds. In general, sparrows tend to be small, plump, brown or grey birds with short tails and short powerful beaks. Sparrows are seed eaters, but they also consume small insects.
Wagtails and pipits.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Motacillidae
Motacillidae is a family of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They include the wagtails, longclaws, and pipits. They are slender ground-feeding insectivores of open country.
Finches, euphonias, and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Fringillidae
Finches are seed-eating passerine birds that are small to moderately large and have a strong beak, usually conical and in some species very large. All have twelve tail feathers and nine primaries. These birds have a bouncing flight with alternating bouts of flapping and gliding on closed wings, and most sing well.
Longspurs and snow buntings.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Calcariidae
The Calcariidae are a family of birds that had been traditionally grouped with the New World sparrows, but differ in a number of respects and are usually found in open grassy areas.
Old World buntings.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Emberizidae
The emberizids are a large family of seed-eating birds with distinctively shaped bills. Many emberizid species have distinctive head patterns.


Smallscale archerfish

The smallscale archerfish ("Toxotes microlepis") is a perciform fish of genus "Toxotes". As its name suggests, the scales of the smallscale archerfish are smaller than those of other archerfish. They reach a maximum length of . Smallscale archerfish live in the tropical Indo-Pacific region and are potamodromous, moving between fresh and brackish water through their lifetimes.
Description.
Smallscale archerfish have a pointed snout and large eyes. The back is flat and the belly is curved. There is only one dorsal fin, with four to five dorsal spines. The fourth spine is longer than the third. The second dorsal spine is slightly shorter than the third anal spine, which itself is shorter than the soft rays. There are usually 40 to 42 lateral line scales, though some specimens found in the Mekong had 34 to 37. The species "T. blythii" was formerly thought to be identical to "T. microlepis". Differences in structure and colouration caused the splitting of "T. blythii" into a new species.
Like other archerfish, they have dark, wedge-shaped bands or spots on its flanks, which can be yellow to silvery. They reach a maximum length of in the wild, and in captivity. The smallscale archerfish is sometimes confused with the banded archerfish, "T. jaculatrix". Both species have four or five wedge-shaped bars on their flanks. However, the bars of banded archerfish extend to the dorsal fin whilst those of the smallscale archerfish do not; they stop below the dorsal fin, with another dark spot on the fin itself. The smallscale is also has a shorter snout than other archerfish.
Diet.
Smallscale archerfish eat terrestrial insects (which they can shoot down), zooplankton, crustaceans, and insect larvae.
Distribution and habitat.
Smallscale archerfish inhabit large rivers and estuaries in Asia and the Indo-Pacific. They are distributed throughout the Mekong and Chao Phraya river basins as well as waters off the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo. They can be found near the shores of moving and standing waters, usually with overhanging plants. The smallscale archerfish is described as a "freshwater archerfish", as it does not move into saltwater during its life as do some other archerfish. It is found upstream from the estuary more often than other species of the genus.
Taxonomy.
The populations of archerfish assigned to the smallscale archerfish that occur in the rivers of southeast Asia were found to be three different species by work published in 2018, this has not yet been reflected in Fishbase. The new species are "Toxotes mekongensis" from the Mekong, "Toxotes siamensis" from the Chao Phraya and "Toxotes sundaicus" from Borneo, Sumatra and possibly the Malay Peninsula. This same study found that "Toxotes microlepis" is a synonym of "Toxotes blythii".
Relationship to humans.
Some aquarists believe the smallscale archerfish is the most frequently traded archerfish. It is often confused with other archerfish (such as the banded archerfish and largescale archerfish), and may be sold with the others as one species. Smallscale archerfish do not need brackish water as do other members of its genus (though it can also live in brackish water); it is thus sometimes sold as the "freshwater archerfish".
In Thailand smallscale archerfish is called "Pla Suea Pon Nam Nakhon Sawan" (; lit: Nakhon Sawan archerfish) or "Pla Suea Pon Nam Leung" (ปลาเสือพ่นน้ำเหลือง; yellow archerfish) because it is wild caught from Bueng Boraphet, Nakhon Sawan Province, and because it has a bright yellow colour. It is often the most common species in aquarium shop.


Dolichoderus laurae

Dolichoderus laurae is a species of ant in the genus "Dolichoderus". Described by Mackay in 1993, the species is endemic to Colombia.


Anaxarcha hyalina

Anaxarcha hyalina is a species of praying mantis found in China.


Mexican prairie dog

The Mexican prairie dog ("Cynomys mexicanus") is a diurnal burrowing rodent native to Mexico. Treatment as an agricultural pest has led to its status as an endangered species. They are closely related to squirrels, chipmunks, and marmots. "Cynomys mexicanus" originated about 230,000 years ago from a peripherally isolated population of the more widespread "Cynomys ludovicianus".
Ecology.
These prairie dogs prefer to inhabit rock-free soil in plains at an altitude of . They are found in the regions of southern Coahuila and northern San Luis Potosí in northern Mexico, where they eat herbs and grasses native to the plains where they live. They acquire all of their water from these plants. Although mainly herbivores, they have been known to eat insects. Predators include coyotes, bobcats, eagles, hawks, badgers, snakes, and weasels.
Northern prairie dogs hibernate and have a shorter mating season, which generally lasts from January to April. After one month's gestation, females give birth to one litter per year, an average of four hairless pups. They are born with eyes closed and use their tails as visual aids until they can see, about 40 days after birth. Weaning occurs during late May and early June, when yearlings may break away from the burrow. Pups leave their mothers by fall.
As they grow older, young play fighting games that involve biting, hissing, and tackling. They reach sexual maturity after one year, with a lifespan of 3–5 years; adults weigh about and are 14-17 inches long, and males are larger than females. Their coloring is yellowish, with darker ears and a lighter belly.
Prairie dogs have one of the most sophisticated languages in the animal world—a system of high-pitched yips and barks—and can run up to . As a consequence, their defense mechanism is to sound the alarm, and then get away quickly.
Mexican prairie dogs live in excavated colonies, referred to as "towns", which they dig for shelter and protection. A typical town has a funnel-like entrance that slants down into a corridor up to long, with side chambers for storage and nesting. It has been found that some chambers in these burrows serve specific purposes such as nurseries for new mothers and their young. Prairie dogs have strong muscles in their arms which allow them to dig through the often dense dirt of their habitats. They have even been found to use their teeth to dig, although this is less common. Towns can contain hundreds of animals, but generally have fewer than 50, with a single alpha male. Sometimes, spotted ground squirrels or burrowing owls share the burrow with its rightful owners.
Population structure.
In 1956, the Mexican prairie dog was reported as occurring in Coahuila, Nuevo León, and San Luis Potosí. By the 1980s, it had disappeared from Nuevo León. As of 1992 its complete range was roughly 600 km2 (372 mi2). Viewed as a pest and an obstacle to agriculture and cattle raising due to their burrowing and frequent consumption of crops, it was frequently poisoned, and became endangered in 1994. Mexican prairie dogs currently inhabit less than 4% of their former territory and have suffered a 33% decrease in range between 1996 and 1999.
The current habitat of Mexican prairie dogs is in the region known as El Tokio. These are the grasslands located in the convergence of the states of San Luis Potosí, Nuevo León, and Coahuila. Due to the underground structures in which many prairie dogs live, it is difficult to accurately survey populations. The use of satellite imagery has proven to be helpful in documenting areas in which prairie dogs reside.
Conservation groups such as Pronatura Noreste and Profauna, with the help of donors, carry out conservation efforts for the protection of prairie dogs and associated species, such as shorebirds and birds of prey. Pronatura Noreste, as of February 2007, has signed conservation easements with "ejidos" and private owners for the protection of more than 42,000 acres (170 km2) of Mexican prairie dog grasslands.


Nebria chasli

Nebria chasli is a species of ground beetle from Nebriinae subfamily that is endemic to Jiangxi province of China.


Polycarpa aurata

Polycarpa aurata, also known as the ox heart ascidian, the gold-mouth sea squirt or the ink-spot sea squirt, is a species of tunicate in the family Styelidae.
Description.
"Polycarpa aurata" grows to a height of . It has an urn-shaped, hollow body with two siphons, one at the top and the other on the side. The body colour of this tunicate is white with purple and orange patches and purple lines. The inside is yellow or orange and this is visible around the rim of the siphons.
Distribution.
This species is found in the tropical eastern Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean. Its range includes the Philippines, Indonesia and northern Australia. Its depth range is .
Biology.
Tunicates feed by drawing water in through the branchial siphon at the top, filtering out phytoplankton, bacteria and other food particles, before expelling the water through the atrial siphon at the side. Sometimes hydroids and algae grow on the outside of the tunicate and nudibranchs such as "Nembrotha lineolata" sometimes feed on it.
External links.


Greenland wolf

The Greenland wolf (taxonomic Latin: "Canis lupus orion", Danish: "grønlandsulv") is a subspecies of gray wolf that is native to Greenland. Historically, it was heavily persecuted, but today it is fully protected and about 90% of the wolf's range falls within the boundaries of the Northeast Greenland National Park.
A recent genomic study has shown that wolves of Ellesmere Island, Canada, likely should be included in the same subspecies, a view also supported by earlier morphological reviews. The entire population is very small, probably about 200 individuals but with significant uncertainty due to its very remote range.
Taxonomy and evolution.
In 1935, the British zoologist Reginald Pocock attributed the subspecies name "Canis lupus orion" to a specimen from Cape York, northwest Greenland. He also attributed the name "Canis lupus arctos" (Arctic wolf) to a specimen from Melville Island in the nearby Queen Elizabeth Islands, Canada. Both wolves are recognized as separate subspecies of "Canis lupus" in the taxonomic authority "Mammal Species of the World" in 2005.
The oldest wolf remains in Greenland date to 7,600 years ago, however they may have been there earlier because their main prey, the caribou, date to 8,900 years ago. Nowak proposed that during the Late Pleistocene two types of wolf evolved in the ice-free north of the Wisconsin glaciation, one in the Peary Land refugium in the far north of Greenland, the other in Alaska. Once the ice receded, the Peary Land wolves spread across Greenland and the Queen Elizabeth Islands. The Alaskan wolves spread to become the northern wolves referred to as "Canis lupus arctos". Other wolves from south of the ice sheet would move north to interact with the northern wolves. Other authors have disagreed that the Greenland wolf is a separate subspecies of "Canis lupus" because its close proximity to the range of the Arctic wolf. One author proposed that the Greenland wolf migrated from Canada by crossing the frozen sea ice between the two regions, and another has documented wolves on the ice when the Nares Strait froze.
In 2016, a study based on 582 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA indicated that Greenland wolves belong to one haplotype that had been previously found among other North American wolves, which indicates their female lineage originated from North America. In 2019, a study mapped the entire mitochondrial genome of the Greenland wolf and confirmed that it fell within "Canis lupus".
In 2018, a whole genome study of most North American wolf populations identified three distinct populations in the high arctic, including one novel and highly distinct wolf population that inhabits both Ellesmere Island, Canada and Greenland. This had already been suggested in a morphological review in 1983, where wolves of the Queen Elizabeth Islands (the main island is Ellesmere) were placed in "C. l. orion" together with wolves of Greenland.
Description.
The Greenland wolf has been described as being small to medium in length, at but extremely light in weight, at , however these measures were derived from only five specimens that were caught in northwest Greenland during the winter of 1906 and could be the result of under-nutrition. The average pack size of the wolves is 3.3; packs of four or more were rare. They are endangered due to their exceptionally low densities, smaller pack sizes, infrequent reproduction, and lower offspring production. The wolves of Greenland and Ellesmere Island prey on any easily obtainable species, with hare forming an important food source. The wolf has been documented preying on seal in both Greenland and the Queen Elizabeth Islands, and there are documented eye-witness accounts of muskox killings from the Queen Elizabeth islands and from Greenland where two muskox calves were killed by a wolf pair.
Population.
Wolves have been fully protected in Greenland since 1988. In Greenland, about 90% of the wolf's range falls within the boundaries of the Northeast Greenland National Park, where the wolf population was estimated in 1998 to be 55 wolves due to lack of prey. However, in 1997, there was a decline in the wolf populations and their prey, muskoxen ("Ovibos moschatus") and Arctic hares ("Lepus arcticus") across arctic Canada. This was due to harmful weather conditions during the summers for four years. The recovery of the wolf populations came after when summer weather conditions returned to normal. In 2018, it was estimated that the total population of the Greenland wolf was about 200, but with significant uncertainty due to its remote range. As expected from such a tiny population, genetics have shown that the Greenland wolf is quite inbred.
In east Greenland.
In eastern Greenland between by 1899 and 1939, a small population of an estimated 38 wolves were poisoned to extinction.
The Greenland wolf population was not harvested by the Europeans prior to 1899. The decline and extermination of the wolf population was studied in east Greenland between 1899 and 1939. There the wolf population was located mainly in the central part of the range, which made them vulnerable to Danish and Norwegian hunters who exterminated that population with poison. Arctic wolves were considered less in terms of economic value by the hunters because of their low abundance, with the hunters trapping Arctic foxes for the fur trade so they sort to maximize profits by killing as many wolves as possible. Between 1899 and 1939, there were 252 sightings of the wolves or their tracks. Of 112 wolves that were sighted in the early winter, 31.3% were lone wolves, 23.2% were in pairs, and the rest stayed together in larger groups. Between 1920 and 1932, 35 wolves were killed in the core wolf range, forcing the population to decline rapidly to extinction.
Wolves could not recover during the years between 1939 and 1978 in east Greenland due to factors such as geography and limited resources. Prey was insufficient and a dispersal corridor was hidden at 79 degrees north, thus restricting access to east Greenland. In 1979, a wolf pair had arrived into the historical wolf range and during 1980 several wolf pairs were reported throughout eastern Greenland by military patrols. The migrating wolves began to repopulate the area and have established a new population of wolves. By 2011, they had re-established a population of 23 wolves through single and pairs of wolves following military dog-sled patrols from the northeast over distances of up to to eastern Greenland.


Panulirus argus

Panulirus argus, the Caribbean spiny lobster, is a species of spiny lobster that lives on reefs and in mangrove swamps in the western Atlantic Ocean.
Anatomy.
"P. argus" have long, cylindrical bodies covered with spines. Two large spines form forward-pointing "horns" above the eyestalks. They are generally olive greenish or brown, but can be tan to mahogany. There is a scattering of yellowish to cream-colored spots on the carapace and larger (usually four to six) yellow to cream-colored spots on the abdomen. They have no claws (pincers). The first pair of antennae are slender, black or dark brown and biramous. The second pair of antennae are longer than the body, and covered with forward pointing spines. The bases of the second antennae are thick, can have a bluish tinge, and are likewise covered with rows of spines. The legs are usually striped longitudinally with blue and yellow and terminate in a single spine-like point. The somites of the abdomen are smooth and have a shallow furrow across the middle. Each has pairs of swimmerets on the underside that are yellow and black. The lobes of the tail are colored similarly to the swimmerets.
"P. argus" may reach up to long, but typically around , and is fished throughout its range. Sexual maturity in females is reached at a carapace length of .
Biology.
Like most decapods, "P. argus" hatches from eggs carried externally by the female for around four weeks. They begin life as a free-swimming, microscopic phyllosoma larvae. After about one year, the larvae settle in algae ("Laurencia" sp., "Neogoniolithon" sp.), in "Thalassia testudinum" seagrass beds or among mangrove roots. After undergoing several molts, they migrate to the coral reefs and live in holes or crevices. As they grow, they molt or shed their exoskeleton to make room for their larger bodies. As in other decapods, after molting, the new exoskeleton or shell is soft, and has to harden. During this time, the lobster is highly vulnerable to predation and as a result they are usually very retiring until the new exoskeleton hardens fully. The diet is mostly composed of mollusks, but they also consume detritus, vegetable material, and dead animals and fish they find on the bottom.
"P. argus" is a nocturnal species, taking to cover during the day. They serve as prey for skates, nurse sharks, octopuses, snappers and groupers. Although they generally prefer to remain near cover, at times groups of hundreds will line up and march across the floor off Florida and the Bahamas. The purpose of these migrations is not known, but they generally occur in the fall and may be in response to the onset of autumn storms.
Habitat.
Individuals can be found at depths of up to from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil to Beaufort, North Carolina, including the Caribbean Sea, the Bahamas and Bermuda, with occasional reports from West Africa. Although they range throughout the entire Gulf of Mexico, in the northern portions of the Gulf they generally are only found at depths of and greater due to the seasonal variation in the water temperature. Around the southern portion of the Florida peninsula and throughout the Bahamas and Caribbean, they are found in shallower water. They generally prefer habitat with some sort of cover and can be found around coral reefs, artificial reefs, sponges, bridge pilings, wooden bridge bumpers, piers, and under the prop roots of mangroves.
Human consumption.
"P. argus" is a popular seafood item for human consumption. It is the most important food export of the Bahamas, and rivals the shrimp industry in the Florida Keys in commercial value. They are eagerly sought by both commercial lobstermen and sport divers in South Florida, the Caribbean, the Bahamas, and Bermuda.
In Florida, there is a season where the spiny lobster may be taken, usually from the beginning of August to the end of March, to protect the species during its main breeding season. A special "mini season" a few days before the start of the regular lobster season gives recreational divers a "head start" in catching them. Divers catch them by gloved hand or net, often "tickling" them out of their dens with a dowel or small stick. In the Bahamas and Caribbean, they are often also speared or gigged (Florida game regulations prohibit taking them by these methods). In Bermuda, licensed individuals can only take lobsters by free-diving and using an approved noose within designated areas; all other methods and use of air tanks are prohibited. Commercial fisherman typically use lobster traps similar to those used by lobster fishermen in New England. The traps are usually baited with dead fish or chicken necks.
Common names.
Other common names for the species in the United States include spiny lobster, Bermuda spiny lobster, common spiny lobster, crawfish, Florida spiny lobster, West Indian langouste and West Indian spiny lobster.


Scopula kohor

Scopula kohor is a moth of the family Geometridae. It was described by Claude Herbulot and Pierre Viette in 1952. It is endemic to Chad.


Brattegardia nanseni


Mobula eregoodootenkee

Mobula eregoodootenkee (the pygmy devil ray or longhorned mobula) is a species of ray in the family "Mobulidae". It is endemic to the Indian Ocean and central-west Pacific Ocean. It ranges from South Africa in the west to the Philippines in the east, north to Vietnam, and south to the northern coast of Australia.
It is a brownish-grey colour, with a whitish underside. It grows up to 100 cm wide. The species feeds on plankton and small fish.
The longhorned mobula is an ovoviviparous fish, usually giving birth to a single pup in shallow waters. The young stay in these waters until they mature.
The ray is likely a bycatch at several fisheries, being entangled in nets meant for other species. It is marketed in Thailand and possibly elsewhere in southeast Asia.


Orange-bellied flowerpecker

The orange-bellied flowerpecker ("Dicaeum trigonostigma") is a species of bird in the family Dicaeidae. It is found in Bangladesh, Brunei, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand.
Habitat.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest, subtropical or tropical mangrove forest, and subtropical or tropical moist montane forest.
Description.
Male is distinctive, and shows slaty-blue upperparts (crown/nape/wings/tail) except for a large triangular orange patch on the mantle. It has a fairly thin and short bill that is slightly curved downwards at the tip. Upper-breast and throat are a lighter greyish blue; from the lower breast to the vent is a gradient from fiery orange (on the lower breast) to yellow (on the vent).
Female is much duller, and is mostly drab olive brown overall, except for its pale orange rump and yellow belly.
Dicaeum trigonostigma melanostigma
Delacour ("Birds of Malaysia," 1947) cited a name Dicaeum trigonostigma melanostigma, but because no description accompanied this name, and no type was identified, it was published as a" nomen nudum."
He later (in litt.) asserted that the name was a "lapsus" (Salomonsen, "American Mus. Novitates" No. 1991 (1960)). However," melanostigma" continued to be cited in various lists (Howard and Moore, "Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World" (1980, 1991)), as well as on websites which list birds common to Thailand and the surrounding region, thus possibly allowing for the inadvertent description of this name should any published reference to it accompany a picture of an orange-bellied flowerpecker. Dickinson ("Complete Howard and Moore Checklist" (2003)) also asserted that the name was a "lapsus," but of Howard and Moore's, with no reference to Delacour.


Gillellus inescatus

Gillellus inescatus, the flagfin stargazer, is a species of tropical sand stargazer native to the Caribbean sea.
Etymology.
The specific epithet ""inescatus" is derived from the Latin word "inescare"" (to bait). It refers to the structure at the back of the head and front of the spine, shaped like an anglerfish's esca, which Williams theorizes may be used as bait for luring prey, in a style similar to anglerfish, or as a means to attract potential mates. The species' common name, "flagfin stargazer" refers to the structure's resemblance to a small flag atop the blenny's spine.
Description.
Based on the single known specimen, "Gillellus inescatus" can reach a length of . Its body is elongate and compressed, primarily creamy-white, with eight reddish-brown saddles and blue chromatophores on the head. The esca-like structure is at the tip of the elongated spine on the first dorsal fin and is reddish brown. Williams describes "G. inescatus" as being similar to "G. uranidea", "G. healae", and "G. jacksoni", with the esca being a noticeable distinguishing trait.
Distribution.
The full extent of the distribution of "Gillellus inescatus" is uncertain, as it is only known from the holotype specimen, found between Northwest Point and Lulu Bay, Navassa Island. This single specimen was collected from a depth range of .


Variegated flycatcher

The variegated flycatcher ("Empidonomus varius") is a species of bird in the family Tyrannidae. With the crowned slaty flycatcher being moved to its own genus, this is now the only species remaining in Empidonomus.
It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and the Guianas; it is a vagrant to more northwestern parts of the continent.
Accidental in North America north of Mexico, there have been only seven records, Maine (1977), Tennessee (1984), Ontario (1993,2020), Washington (2008), and 2 sightings in Florida (2013 and 10/26/2015).
It is similar to the smaller piratic flycatcher and larger sulphur-bellied flycatcher.


Ducie Island

Ducie Island is an uninhabited atoll in the Pitcairn Islands. It lies east of Pitcairn Island, and east of Henderson Island, and has a total area of , which includes the lagoon. It is long, measured northeast to southwest, and about wide. The island is composed of four islets: Acadia, Pandora, Westward and Edwards.
Despite its sparse vegetation, the atoll is known as the breeding ground of a number of bird species. More than 90% of the world population of Murphy's petrel nests on Ducie, while pairs of red-tailed tropicbirds and fairy terns make around 1% of the world population for each species.
Ducie was first discovered in 1606 by Pedro Fernandes de Queiros, who named it "Luna Puesta", and rediscovered by Edward Edwards, captain of , who was sent in 1790 to capture the mutineers of . He named the island "Ducie" in honour of Francis Reynolds-Moreton, 3rd Baron Ducie. In 1867, it was claimed by the United States under the Guano Islands Act, but the United Kingdom annexed it on 19 December 1902 as part of the Pitcairn Islands. Due to its inaccessibility and the distance from Pitcairn Island, Ducie is rarely visited today.
History.
The island was discovered by a Spanish expedition led by Portuguese sailor Pedro Fernandes de Queirós on 26 January 1606, during an expedition that began in Callao, Peru. Supported by Pope Clement VIII and Philip III of Spain, Queirós was given the command of the "San Pedro", "San Pablo" and "Zabra". The fleet was nicknamed "Los Tres Reyes Magos" ("The Three Wise Men"). The objective of the expedition was to take soldiers, friars and provisions to establish a colony in the Santa Cruz Islands.
Ducie Island was the first of eighteen discoveries on the trip. Queirós named the island "Luna Puesta" (roughly, "moon that has set"). On the same day, he also sighted two more islands, one that he named "San Juan Bautista" ("St John the Baptist"), and the other "La Encarnación" ("the Incarnation"). It is unclear which one was Henderson island and which one was Pitcairn. The confusion was later compounded when a chart produced by Admiral José de Espinosa marked Ducie as "La Encarnación", rather than as "Luna Puesta".
The island was rediscovered and named Ducie Island on 16 March 1791 by Captain Edward Edwards, of , who had been despatched from Britain in 1790 to arrest the "Bounty" mutineers. Edwards named it in honour of Francis Reynolds-Moreton, 3rd Baron Ducie, under whom he had served earlier in his career. HMS "Pandora" turned northwards from Ducie and, because of this change of course, Edwards did not sight the other islands of the group. If HMS "Pandora" had maintained its course, it would eventually have reached Pitcairn Island and found the "Bounty" mutineers.
The crew of the whaleship "Essex", which a whale had attacked and sunk in November 1820, mistakenly believed that they had reached Ducie after a month at sea in two whaleboats. In fact they had reached Henderson Island. Captain Thomas Raine of "Surrey", who was searching for the survivors of "Essex", in 1820 made the first recorded landing on Ducie. Frederick William Beechey, who arrived in during November 1825, wrote the first comprehensive description of the island. Beechey's expedition did not land in the atoll, but members of the crew sailed around it in small boats. Based on Beechey's survey, the first Admiralty chart of the island was published in 1826. For nearly a hundred years it was the only available map of the island.
On 5 June 1881 the mail ship "Acadia" ran aground on the island while returning from San Francisco, Peru after unloading its cargo. On the way to Queenstown or Falmouth for new orders, Master Stephen George calculated a route passing to the east of Ducie. George left the first mate in command at 6 am. Half an hour later, the first mate saw a white line, which he disregarded on the assumption that it was phosphorescence in the water. Later, realising that it was land, he manoeuvred to avoid running aground, but failed. The look-out excused himself by saying that he thought that the white land was a cloud. The crew made several unsuccessful attempts to re-float the ship, after which the master sailed one of the ship's boats to Pitcairn Island. He was assisted there by the local inhabitants and returned aboard the "Edward O'Brien", an American boat, to rescue the rest of the crew. The incident was later investigated in a court in Liverpool, where the ultimate cause of the wreck was left undetermined, though possible causes included a calculation error by the master or an unknown current that carried the ship to the island. The court declared the master not guilty of any wrongdoing. A stone marker with a memorial inscription is located at the landing point on Acadia Islet. It was unveiled to commemorate the recovery of the anchor in 1990. The wreck lies offshore from the memorial stone in about 10 metres of water.
In 1969 the atoll was proposed as an "Island for Science", and was later recommended as a Ramsar Site. Major expeditions that came to the island to record its biota include the Whitney South Seas Expedition in 1922, the National Geographic Society-Oceanic Institute Expedition to Southeast Oceania of 1970–71 and the Smithsonian expedition of 1975. More recent expeditions include the MV Rambler Expedition by the Smithsonian in 1987, one by Raleigh International in the same year, the Sir Peter Scott Commemorative Expedition to the Pitcairn Islands of 1991–1992 (aka The Pitcairn Islands Scientific Expedition), In 2012, National Geographic Explorer-in-Residence Enric Sala produced "Sharks of Lost Island" including Ducie and all the Pitcairn Islands. Because of its inaccessibility, Ducie is rarely approached, but cruise ships make one or two landings per year. In addition, unrecorded visits are known to be made by freighters and tankers that dump residues on the island or in the nearby waters.
Sovereignty.
Although Captain Edward Edwards discovered the atoll in 1791, Ducie was not considered a British possession. In 1867 Ducie was claimed by the United States under the Guano Islands Act, which established that an uninhabited territory with guano deposits could be claimed as a US possession, so long as it was unclaimed by any other country. Despite claims on several other territories, based on various documents such as the Guano Islands Act, neither the United States nor the United Kingdom recognised the sovereignty claimed by each other. Neither of the two considered that the mere discovery of an island was sufficient to claim sovereignty over it, and often a formal act of possession was considered the proper procedure to claim rights over a territory. Ultimately, the United States did not assert its sovereignty over most of its claimed territories.
Under the 1893 Pacific Order in Council, Pitcairn Island was governed by the High Commissioner of the British Western Pacific Territories in Fiji. On 19 December 1902, commissioned by R. T. Simmons, the British Consul in Tahiti, Captain G. F. Jones and a group of Pitcairners visited the nearby islands and annexed them to the United Kingdom. In 1903 Ducie was annexed by the same procedure and placed under the authority of the Western Pacific High Commissioner. R. T. Simmons stated in a dispatch to the Foreign Office that James Russell McCoy had assured him that the islands had always been considered as dependencies of Pitcairn, and that he and other Pitcairners had frequently visited them in the past. This claim is contested by Donald McLoughlin on grounds of the distance between Pitcairn Island and Ducie Island and the lack of a suitable boat to navigate the distance between the two, casting doubt on whether they had ever visited Ducie.
On 4 August 1937 Captain J. W. Rivers-Carnac, commander of HMS "Leander", reaffirmed British sovereignty over Ducie by hoisting the Union Flag and placing boards proclaiming the island to be the property of King George VI. Ducie was one of several islands thought valuable for potential seaplane bases, though they did not materialise. In 1953 the Pacific Order in Council ceased to have effect and the British Governor of Fiji was appointed Governor of the Pitcairn Islands, which became a separate British colony. A new constitution for the Pitcairn Islands was enacted on 10 February 2010, establishing that Ducie and the rest of the islands are ruled by a governor designated by the British monarch. The governor has a duty to enforce the provisions of the constitution.
Geography.
Ducie lies east of Pitcairn Island and is claimed by some to be the southernmost atoll in the world at 24 degrees south latitude. However, Middleton Reef is at 29 degrees south latitude, so the assertion on behalf of Ducie Island is doubtful. Ducie Island's land area is and its maximum elevation, occurring on the Westward islet, is .
Ducie is located west of the edge of the Easter Plate. It was formed approximately 8 million years ago, after Oeno Island was formed by a hotspot that later caused a magma leak generated in the Oeno lineation. The leak spread over fracture zone FZ2, which was formed by the third movement of the Pacific Plate. The atoll is part of the Oeno-Henderson-Ducie-Crough seamount, speculated to be part of the southern Tuamotus.
The atoll consists of four islets: Acadia—which is by far the largest—Pandora, Westward and Edwards. All three of the smaller islets can be accessed on foot from Acadia at low tide. The islets were named by Harald Rehder and John Randall, who visited the atoll during an expedition by the Smithsonian Institution in 1975.
The atoll has a central lagoon, accessible by boat only by way of a channel wide located in the southwest, between Pandora and Westward Islets. It has a maximum depth of and its bottom consists of sand and coral. Whirlpools in the lagoon are common, caused by caves that drain the water from the lagoon into the ocean.
Flora.
The vegetation in the atoll is sparse, because of the lack of fresh water. Only two species of vascular plant are currently known to grow there – one of the smallest such floras on any island. Acadia, Pandora and Edwards Islets are forested with "Heliotropium foertherianum", but Westward Islet is not. "Pemphis acidula" has also been recorded on Ducie; specimens were found during an expedition in 1991.
During the expedition of Hugh Cuming in 1827 and the 1922 Whitney South Sea Expedition, "Lepturus" grass was found on Acadia Islet. However, it disappeared when storm waves deforested the island some time before the Smithsonian expedition of 1975. Thus "H. foertherianum" now dominates the vegetation of the islets. Additionally, there are a number of species of coralline algae, including "Porolithon onkodes", "Porolithon gardineri", and "Caulerpa racemosa".
Fauna.
The atoll is populated by several species of birds, fish, and reptiles. In the lagoon, sparse, living coral can be found; the dominant species is "Montipora bilaminata" (family Acroporidae). Most of the coral in the lagoon is dead, presumed to have been killed by influxes of cold water.
Birds.
Though no terrestrial birds are found on the atoll, Ducie Island is known for the seabirds that breed there. Birds that have been recorded nesting on the atoll include the red-billed tropicbird, red-tailed tropicbird, fairy tern, great frigatebird, bristle-thighed curlew, masked booby, and red-footed booby. A number of gull species, including the sooty tern, blue noddy, brown noddy, lesser noddy, and white tern have been recorded, as have several members of the family Procellariidae: Kermadec petrel, Trindade petrel, Murphy's petrel, and Christmas shearwater.
The island is particularly important for Murphy's petrel, as more than 90% of its world population breeds on Ducie. Around 3,000 pairs of Christmas shearwaters, about 5% of the world's total population, can be found on the island too. Meanwhile, the red-tailed tropicbirds and fairy terns that breed on Ducie are around 1% of the world population of each species. Phoenix petrels, which previously inhabited the atoll, apparently disappeared between the Whitney expedition in 1922 and the 1991–92 Pitcairn Scientific Expedition. The island has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA), principally for its colonies of Murphy's, herald, and Kermadec petrels, and Christmas shearwaters.
Fish.
In the lagoon there are around 138 fish species, which also inhabit southeastern Oceania, the Western Pacific, and the Indian Ocean. The lagoon is noted for its poisonous fish and dangerous sharks. The yellow-edged lyretail, the blacktip grouper, and the greasy grouper are known to cause ciguatera poisoning. The lagoon is also inhabited by Galápagos sharks and the whitetip reef shark. The Galápagos shark is dangerous to humans, while the whitetips are seldom aggressive unless provoked. Five species are found exclusively around the Pitcairn Islands: "Sargocentron megalops" (a species of squirrelfish), the spiny butterflyfish, the "Henderson triplefin" (a species of threefin blenny), an unnamed species of "Alticus" (a genus of combtooth blenny), and an unnamed species of "Ammodytes" (a genus of sand lance).
Terrestrial vertebrates.
Lizards that inhabit the island include the white-bellied skink ("Emoia cyanura"), photographed by E. H. Quayle during an expedition in 1922, and a lizard reported in the journal of an expedition in 1935 by James Chapin. The species of the latter was uncertain, but it was thought to be a gecko, possibly either an oceanic gecko ("Gehyra oceanica"), or a mourning gecko ("Lepidodactylus lugubris"). The 1991–92 Pitcairn Islands Scientific Expedition found specimens of both the mourning gecko and the white-bellied skink. The only mammal known to inhabit Ducie is the Polynesian rat; In 1997 there was a successful project to eradicate these by Brian Bell (WMIL) and Graham Wragg (S/V Te Manu), to aid the conservation of bird species threatened by the rat population. Green sea turtles feed on Ducie, but have not been seen to breed there.


Maya mouse

The Maya mouse ("Peromyscus mayensis") is a species of rodent in the family Cricetidae.
It is found only in Guatemala.


Baya weaver

The baya weaver ("Ploceus philippinus") is a weaverbird found across the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Flocks of these birds are found in grasslands, cultivated areas, scrub and secondary growth and they are best known for their hanging retort shaped nests woven from leaves. These nest colonies are usually found on thorny trees or palm fronds and the nests are often built near water or hanging over water where predators cannot reach easily. They are widespread and common within their range but are prone to local, seasonal movements mainly in response to rain and food availability.
Among the population variations, five subspecies are recognized. The nominate race "philippinus" is found through much of mainland India while "burmanicus" is found eastwards into Southeast Asia. The population in southwest India is darker above and referred to as subspecies "travancoreensis".
Taxonomy.
In 1760 the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson included a description of the baya weaver in his "Ornithologie" based on a specimen that he believed had been collected in Philippines. He used the French name "Le gros-bec des Philippines" and the Latin "Coccothraustes Philippensis". Although Brisson coined Latin names, these do not conform to the binomial system and are not recognised by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. When in 1766 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his "Systema Naturae" for the twelfth edition, he added 240 species that had been previously described by Brisson. One of these was the baya weaver. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name "Loxia philippina" and cited Brisson's work. It was subsequently realised that Brisson was mistaken in believing that his specimen came from the Philippines and the type locality was redesignated as Sri Lanka. This species is now placed in the genus "Ploceus" that was introduced by the French naturalist Georges Cuvier in 1816.
There are five subspecies:
Description.
These are sparrow-sized () and in their non-breeding plumage, both males and females resemble female house sparrows. They have a stout conical bill and a short square tail. Non-breeding males and females look very similar: dark brown streaked fulvous buff above, plain (unstreaked) whitish fulvous below, eyebrow long and buff coloured, bill is horn coloured and no mask. Breeding males have a bright yellow crown, dark brown mask, blackish brown bill, upper parts are dark brown streaked with yellow, with a yellow breast and cream buff below.
Behaviour and ecology.
Baya weavers are social and gregarious birds. They forage in flocks for seeds, both on the plants and on the ground. Flocks fly in close formations, often performing complicated manoeuvres. They are known to glean paddy and other grain in harvested fields, and occasionally damage ripening crops and are therefore sometimes considered as pests. They roost in reed-beds bordering waterbodies. They depend on wild grasses such as Guinea grass ("Panicum maximum") as well as crops like rice for both their food (feeding on seedlings in the germination stage as well as on early stages of grain) and nesting material. They also feed on insects (including butterflies), sometimes taking small frogs, geckos and molluscs, especially to feed their young. Their seasonal movements are governed by food availability. Their calls are a continuous "..." sometimes ending in a wheezy "" that is produced by males in a chorus. A lower intensity call is produced in the non-breeding season.
They are occasionally known to descend to the ground and indulge in dust bathing.
In captivity, individuals are known to form stable "peck orders".
Breeding.
The breeding season of the baya weavers is during the monsoons. The breeding condition is initiated by environmental characters such as day length and comes to an end late in summer. This post-reproductive "photorefractoriness", in which photoperiodic birds cease to respond reproductively to the stimulation of long days, can end spontaneously without having been exposed to short days for four to six months unlike temperate birds. They nest in colonies typically of up to 20–30, close to the source of food, nesting material and water. Baya weavers are best known for the elaborately woven nests constructed by the males. These pendulous nests are retort-shaped, with a central nesting chamber and a long vertical tube that leads to a side entrance to the chamber. The nests are woven with long strips of paddy leaves, rough grasses and long strips torn from palm fronds. Each strip can be between in length. A male bird is known to make up to 500 trips to complete a nest. The birds use their strong beaks to strip and collect the strands, and to weave and knot them while building their nests. The nests are often built hanging over water from palm trees and often suspended from thorny "Acacia"s and in some cases from telephone wires. Although the birds prefer thorny trees, they sometimes use avenue trees in urban areas. Nests are often located on the eastern side of the tree, where they are believed to provide shelter from the Southwest Monsoon; however, late breeders are more likely to build their nests in other orientations relative to the trunk of the nest tree. Abandoned nests are sometimes used by mice ("Mus booduga") and other birds such as munias.
Nests are built mainly in colonies but isolated nests are not unknown. Nests are often built from thorny "Acacia" or palm trees ( mainly "Phoenix sylvestris") and hang over open water. Young males may build experimental nests among reeds. In Burma, birds often build nests under the eaves of buildings, but this habit is uncommon in India. The males take about 18 days to construct the complete nest with the intermediate "helmet stage" taking about eight days. The nests are partially built before the males begin to display to passing females by flapping their wings and calling while hanging from their nests. The females inspect the nest and signal their acceptance of a male. Once a male and a female are paired, the male goes on to complete the nest by adding the entrance tunnel. Males are almost solely in charge of nest building, though their female partners may join in giving the finishing touches, particularly on the interiors. Females may modify the interiors or add blobs of mud. A study has found that nest location is more important than nest structure for the female when it selects the nest and mate. Females prefer nests high in trees, those over dry land, and those on thin branches.
Both males and females are polygamous. Males build many partial nests and begin courting females. The male finishes the nest only after finding a mate. The female lays about two to four white eggs and incubates them for about 14 to 17 days. Males may sometimes assist in feeding the chicks. The chicks leave the nest after about 17 days. After mating with a female the male typically court other females at other partially constructed nests. Intraspecific brood parasitism is known, that is, females may lay their eggs in the nests of others. Young birds leave the nest in a juvenal plumage which is replaced in their first moult after about four to six months. The young disperse to new locations not far from their nest and young have been located up to two kilometres away from their origin. Females are capable of breeding after a year while males take half a year longer. Prior to breeding they go through a prenuptial moult. Adults also go through a second moult after breeding and thus there are two moults each year. Histochemical studies have shown increased lipid metabolism in the crown region of male Baya during the breeding season. Lipids are known to be involved in the transport of the yellow carotenoid pigments that form the crown and are subsequently metabolized.
The nest, being suspended from thorny trees and overhanging water, is protected from many predators, but nest predation by crows is not unusual. Brood may also be destroyed by lizards such as "Calotes versicolor" or rodents such as "Vandeleuria oleracea" which may take over the nest. Nests may sometimes be taken over and used for nesting by munias and Indian silverbills ("Euodice malabarica").
In culture.
A widespread folk belief in India is that the baya sticks fireflies with mud to the nest walls to light up the interior of the nest at night. Clay, however is known to be used in the nests of baya weavers. Males alone have been seen to add blobs of mud and dung to the nest chamber prior to pairing with a female. It has been suggested that the clay may help to stabilise the nest in strong winds.
In earlier times, the baya weaver was trained by street performers in India for entertainment. They could pick up objects at the command of their trainers. They were trained to fire toy cannons, string beads, pick up coins and other objects. According to Edward Blyth "the truth is, that the feats performed by trained Bayas are really very wonderful, and must be witnessed to be fully credited. Exhibitors carry them about, we believe, to all parts of the country; and the usual procedure is, when ladies are present, for the bird, on a sign from its master, to take a sweetmeat in its bill, and deposit it between a lady's lips, and repeat this offering to every lady present, the bird following the look and gesture of its master. A miniature cannon is then brought, which the bird loads with coarse grains of powder..." Robert Tytler noted demonstrations where the bird would twirl a thin stick with fires at the ends over its head. These uses have been noted from the time of Akbar.
Local names.
"Túkúra Sorai" (Assamese: টোকোৰা চৰাই); "baya", "son-chiri" (Hindi); "bayya chirya" (Urdu: بیّا چڑیا ); "ବାୟା ଚଢ଼େଇ" (Odia); "sugaran" (Marathi); "tempua" (Malay); "sughari" (Gujarati); "বাবুই (babui)" (Bengali); "parsupu pita", "gijigadu"/"gijjigadu గిజిగాడు" (Telugu); "gijuga ಗಿಜುಗ" (Kannada); "thukanam kuruvi, ആറ്റക്കുരുവി" (Malayalam); "thukanan-kuruvi, " தூக்கணாங்குருவி (Tamil); "wadu-kurulla", "tatteh-kurulla", "goiyan-kurulla" (Sinhala); "sa-gaung-gwet", "sar-buu-daung စာဗူးတောင်း" (Myanmar); "bijra" (Punjabi: ਬਿਜੜਾ ); "suyam" (Chota Nagpur), "bagra"(Maithili). संस्कृतम् (सुगृहः/चञ्चूसूचकः)


Pelophylax tenggerensis

Pelophylax tenggerensis is a species of frog in the family Ranidae. It is endemic to China. It is recorded from Shapotou and Shenjiatan, Yinnan Prefecture, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, along the banks of the Yellow River at the edge of the Tengger Desert, China.
Its natural habitats are temperate grassland, rivers, freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marshes, freshwater springs, and arable land. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Sveltonectes

Sveltonectes (meaning "agile swimmer" in Greek) is an extinct genus of platypterygiine ophthalmosaurid ichthyosaurs known from Ul’yanovsk region, western Russia.
Description.
"Sveltonectes" is known from the holotype IRSNB R269, an almost complete three-dimensionally preserved skeleton including a partial skull. It was collected in unnamed locality, in Ul’yanovsk, dating to the late Barremian stage of the early Cretaceous, about 126 million years ago. Another thunnosaur described from the same locality, by Bogolubow (1909), is ""Ichthyosaurus" steleodon". It is a "nomen dubium" that is twice the size and more robust than "Sveltonectes".
Like some other ophthalmosaurids, "Sveltonectes" has a projection on the nasal bone of the skull into the naris, a prefrontal forming part of the margin of the naris and a frontal forming part of the margin of the supratemporal fenestra. "Sveltonectes" is unique in that it has small, sharp teeth and numerous other peculiar features such as a very primitive prootic. The distinctive shape of these teeth suggest that it had a different feeding habit than other cretaceous ophthalmosaurids. Within the Ophthalmosauridae, "Sveltonectes" is most closely related to "Aegirosaurus".
Etymology.
"Sveltonectes" was named by Valentin Fischer, Edwige Masure, Maxim S. Arkhangelsky, and Pascal Godefroit in 2011 and the type species is "Sveltonectes insolitus". The generic name is derived from "sveltos", Greek for "agile", and "nektes", Greek for "swimmer", and refers to its small size, streamlined skull, and powerful girdle musculature. The specific name is derived from "insolitus", Latin for "unusual", in reference to the numerous unusual features of this ichthyosaur, as well as its unusual tooth morphology.


Cercosaura doanae

Cercosaura doanae is a species of lizard in the family Gymnophthalmidae. The species is endemic to Peru.
Etymology.
The specific name, "doanae", is in honor of herpetologist Tiffany M. Doan
Geographic range.
"C. doanae" is found in Mariscal Cáceres Province, Department of San Martín, Peru.


Green-billed malkoha

The green-billed malkoha ("Phaenicophaeus tristis") is a species of non-parasitic cuckoo found throughout Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia. The birds are waxy bluish black with a long graduated tail with white tips to the tail feathers. The bill is prominent and curved. These birds are found in dry scrub and thin forests.
Description.
Green-billed malkoha is about 50–60 cm centimetres long and weighs 100–128 g. It often has a clear white boarder to the red face patch salty grey on the face and neck. Adult green-billed malkoha has dark grey with green gloss above, oily green wings.
Distribution and habitat.
Its breeding habitat is Primary forest, second growth, dense thickets, scrub, cultivated areas, rubber plantations across south Asia east from Nepal, India, and Sri Lanka to the Southeast Asia.