Firiplaka

Firiplaka or Firiplaka Beach is a beach situated at the southern side in Milos Island, Greece between the other beaches of Provatas (West) and Tsigrado (East). It is one of the most popular beach on the island. The beach is extensive with majestic towering volcanic cliffs, snow-grey fine sand and white pebbles and shallow turquoise waters. There are umbrellas and sunbeds and a bar hut. There is also a huge rock with a cave under it in the water near the shore and it was sculptured out from a volcanic a long time ago. The access to the beach is possible by your own vehicle, taxi, bus or even boat which goes around the island from the port of Adamas. The largest part of the road is asphalt, however the last part of it, is a gravel paved driveway.


Australops

Australops is a genus of trilobites in the order Phacopida, which existed in what is now Argentina. It was described by Baldis in 1972, and the type species is "Australops australis".


Middle Rhine Basin

The Middle Rhine Basin () is the central landscape region of the Middle Rhine in Germany and, along with the Limburg Basin, forms one of the biggest intra-montane lowland regions within the Rhenish Massif. The basin is divided into the valley bottom of the Neuwied Basin, the Neuwied Basin Perimeter east of the Rhine and the Lower Moselle Valley west of the Rhine in the south, and the Maifeld-Pellenz Hills in the north.
The basin is bounded on the east of the Rhine in the northeast and east by the slopes of the Westerwald and, on the west of the Rhine, from north to southwest by the Eifel mountains, and in the southeast by the valley of the Moselle above Moselkern. Its mild winters and dry climate enable intensive agriculture, which is why the landscape has few woods.
Natural regions.
The Handbook of Natural Region Divisions of Germany groups the Middle Rhine Basin within major unit group 29, the Middle Rhine Region, but classifies it as a major unit in its own right (no. 291) and subdivides it into the following sub-units:
Neuwied Basin.
This lowland area, also called the "Koblenz-Neuwied Basin", which lies between the towns of Koblenz and Neuwied runs for a distance of c. 22 river kilometres along the Rhine and separates the narrow valley of Upper Rhine from that of the Middle Rhine. Due to its fertile soils, the Neuwied Basin has been settled from the earliest times. The countryside is today characterised as much by intensive fruit growing as industrial sites. The urban area of the Neuwied Basin has a population of about 300,000.
Maifeld.
This southwestern part of the Middle Rhine Basin is particularly striking due to its gently rolling hills. It is bounded by the river valleys of the Moselle (southeast) and Elz (southwest), which cut deeply into the hill country; its northwest border is partly formed by the Nette. This regions is mainly utilised for agriculture. The soils are considered particularly fertile. Towns in the Maifeld are Polch (seat of the Verbandsgemeinde of Maifeld in the county of Mayen-Koblenz, but strictly speaking in the Pellenz) and Münstermaifeld.
Pellenz.
This hill country forms the northwestern part of the basin between Mayen and Andernach. It is characterized by agriculture and open-cast mining (pumice and lava sand) and the associated building materials industry. The river Nette flows through the hilly landscape which slopes gently from west to east towards the Rhine and separates it from the Maifeld.


2009 Fiordland earthquake

The 2009 Fiordland earthquake struck the South Island of New Zealand with a magnitude of 7.8 at 9:22 pm (NZST) on 15 July. The earthquake was centred in the remote region of Fiordland, with the epicentre located west-north-west of Invercargill near Dusky Sound in Fiordland National Park, at a depth of . It is among the largest New Zealand earthquakes to occur, including the Culverden/Kaikoura earthquake in 2016 and the 1931 Hawke's Bay earthquake, which both had a magnitude of 7.8.
Earthquake.
The main shock was a reverse fault (thrust), with the Indo-Australian Plate subducting beneath the Pacific Plate. The earthquake lifted a large area of land around the epicenter approximately 1 metre.
New Zealand's Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences (GNS Science) initially measured the earthquake at magnitude 6.6, but later revised the magnitude to 7.8.
The reported energy release was compared to "500 million tonnes of TNT,[and] 25,000 times more powerful than the atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki in 1945".
The quake twisted New Zealand's South Island, with Puysegur Point, on the Southwestern tip of the island, moving 30 cm closer to Australia (westward); Te Anau moved 10 cm, Bluff 3 cm and Dunedin 1 cm. It is also believed to have caused an increased stress in the southern, offshore part of the Alpine Fault.
A considerable number of aftershocks were recorded.
Effects.
The earthquake was felt throughout the South Island, and in the lower North Island as far as New Plymouth. No injuries or fatalities were reported, and it caused only minor damage. Power outages were experienced in several parts of the South Island. Over 200 claims for damage have been listed with the Earthquake Commission, New Zealand's agency for earthquake compensation.
Landslides in the Fiordland National Park near Dusky Sound cleared large tracts of forest.
Tsunami.
Tsunami warnings were issued soon after the earthquake by authorities in New Zealand and Australia, as well as the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in Hawaii. Civil defence officials in Southland also issued a 'potential tsunami' warning, stating their concerns about widely varying measurements of the earthquake. Reacting to the Pacific warnings, about fifty residents and tourists on Lord Howe Island were evacuated, and in Sydney a theatre in Bondi Beach was evacuated, and residents told to keep away from the shore. In the event, waves recorded along New Zealand's western coastline measured at one metre, peak to trough, in the Haast area. (An amplitude of 17 cm) The tsunami warnings were subsequently cancelled or reduced.


Anta Maqana

Anta Maqana (Quechua "anta" copper, "maqana" club, "copper club", Hispanicized spelling "Antamajana") is a mountain in the Huancavelica Region in Peru. It is located in the Huaytará Province, Pilpichaca District.


Djupedalia

Djupedalia is an extinct genus of cryptoclidid plesiosauroid plesiosaur known from the uppermost Jurassic of central Spitsbergen, Norway. It is named after Øystein Djupedal, the former Minister of Education and Research who helped fund the fossil excavation.


South Aegean Volcanic Arc

The South Aegean Volcanic Arc is a volcanic arc (chain of volcanoes) in the South Aegean Sea formed by plate tectonics. The prior cause was the subduction of the African plate beneath the Eurasian plate, raising the Aegean arc across what is now the north Aegean Sea. It was not yet the sea, nor an arc, or at least not the one it is today, nor was there a chain of volcanos. In the Holocene the process of back-arc extension began, probably stimulated by pressure from the Arabian Plate compressing the region behind the arc. The extension deformed the region into its current configuration. First, the arc moved to the south and assumed its arcuate configuration. Second, the Aegean Sea opened behind the arc because the crust was thinned and weakened there. Third, magma broke through the thinned crust to form a second arc composed of a volcanic chain. And finally, the Aegean Sea Plate broke away from Eurasia in the new fault zone to the north.
The extension is still ongoing. The current southern Aegean is one of the most rapidly deforming regions of the Himalayan-Alpine mountain belt. It is approximately 450 km long and 20 km to 40 km wide and runs from the Isthmus of Corinth on the Greek mainland to the Bodrum peninsula on the Turkish mainland.
Development of the Hellenic orogeny.
The original proponent of a convergent boundary between Africa and Eurasia, who devised Tethys Ocean and Gondwana land for the purpose, and invented the -ides suffix, Eduard Suess, imagined a single great closure of Gondwana land on Eurasia, wrinkling up a mountain belt, the Altaides, that stretched from sea to sea. The simplicity and the name did not survive further scrutiny of the rocks. The mountain chain, subsequently the non-Suessian Alpides (he had his own Alpides, which amounted to the western Altaides), turned out to be the accumulation of orogenies in successive waves of advance. Not all the parallel chains derive from the same period or the same rocks. From the present, there is a virtual advance with a virtual resulting chain, but in fact the chain is mainly a composite of successive chains.
The mountains of Greece, or Hellenides (viewed as a singular collective thing) appear to have had a singular origin, superficially named “the Hellenic Orogeny.” These are only terms of convenience to distinguish “Hellenic” from mountains of other countries. They are actually accumulated mountain chains resulting from accumulated orogenies over time. Currently three “waves,” of orogenic activity can be distinguished, resulting in three “orogenic belts.”
Preceding the first wave, the supercontinent, Pangaea, had already broken into Laurasia (a continuous band of Eurasia and the Americas), and Gondwana (all the rest). Between the two of them was Paleo-Tethys Ocean. The break-up had been caused by shifting currents in the mantle. A different location of an upwelling plume placed a divergent boundary in a new place, in this case across the north and east of Gondwana.
The Cimmeria terrane began to separate from Gondwana, closing Palaeo-Tethys in front of it and opening Neo-Tethys, or just plain Tethys, behind it. Cimmeria voyaged across the ocean to lodge against Eurasia, forming Cimmeria-Eurasia. The existing Cimmerides (named after the mountains of Crimea) account for the northernmost chains of the Alpides. Sometimes they are called the Hunic terranes, after the land of the Huns. They cover the Black Sea region, the northern Aegean, and the eastern part of the Balkans. Their earliest date is the “pre-Late Jurassic.”
Subsequent is a two-phase Alpine Orogeny. In phase 1 (Cretaceous) the Tethys sea floor after depositing its Cimmerian passenger against Eurasia went on to dip beneath Cimmeria-Eurasia raising up the inner (eastern) Hellenides (Pindus range) and the Anatolides. Phase 2 is the arrival of another terrane, the Adriatic, or Apulian, Plate from the southwest, dipping under Cimmeria-Eurasia and raising its margin into the Dinarides and outer Hellenides in the Eocene and Oligocene.
The geologic stage was set for the latest orogenic zone, developing in the Miocene and Pliocene. It is customary to regard Tethys as gone, replaced by the Mesogean sea, plate and orogeny, which were transitional to the Mediterranean. The Mesogean Plate is of Gondwana; that is, the predecessaor of the African Plate. This plate, moving north as Gondwana approached the Alpine-Cimmerian-Eurasian Plate, dove under it in the ancestor of the Hellenic Trench. The result was the raising of the forearc and the “exhumation” of Peloponnesus and Crete. It began to migrate to the south by back-arc extension, jutting out into the Mesogean Sea and becoming arcuate. From there the geologic story becomes more familiar, being mentioned above.
The Quaternary in the Aegean has been a time of faulting to adjust to the current pressures. In the Pliocene the extension had been NE-SW causing “normal high angle faults trending NW-SE.” In the Quaternary the direction of extension changed to N-S with faults trending E-W. The type is predominantly strike-slip.
Volcanoes of the arc.
The active portion of the South Aegean Volcanic Arc comprises a number of dormant and historically active volcanoes, including Sousaki, Aegina, Methana, Milos, Santorini and Kolumbo, Kos, Nisyros and Yali, and Akyarlar. Of these, only Santorini, Kolumbo and Nisyros have either erupted or shown any significant evidence of unrest during the past 100 years.
One of the most noted volcanic eruptions from this arc occurred on the island of Santorini in the second millennium BC; during this eruption the Bronze Age city of Akrotiri was destroyed, with archaeological remains becoming well preserved under the volcanic ash.


Manam Motu

Manam, known locally as Manam Motu, is an island located in the Bismarck Sea across the Stephan Strait from Yawar on the northeast coast of mainland Papua New Guinea's Bogia District. The island is 10 kilometers wide, and was created by the activity of the Manam Volcano, one of the country’s most active. It was evacuated in 2004 and its residents resettled elsewhere in Papua New Guinea, but many have begun to return despite concerns of future volcanic activity.
Geology.
Manam is a basaltic-andesitic stratovolcano, and despite remarkably symmetrical lower flanks has four distinct valleys, locally known as "avalanche valleys" due to their ability to focus avalanches and particularly pyroclastic flows generated at the summit. These valleys represent the highest-risk areas during eruptions, and, when the island was inhabited, were typically the first areas to be evacuated during heightened activity. The earliest documented eruption of Manam was in 1616.
History.
The first recorded sighting by Europeans of Manam Island was by the Spanish navigator Iñigo Órtiz de Retes on 5 August 1545 when on board of the carrack "San Juan" tried to return from Tidore to New Spain.
Eruptions and hazards.
Thirteen local residents were killed during an eruption on 3 December 1996, when pyroclastic flows reached the village of Budua.
In November 2004, a major eruption forced the emergency evacuation of over 9,000 inhabitants of the island. The eruption began October 24 but was not seen as a major threat until the wind changed pushing ash and debris towards inhabited areas. Five people died during the eruption. On December 11, the threat was downgraded due to a reduction in activity. There have been significant problems at Bogia on the mainland where the evacuees resettled in camps at Mangem, Asarumba and Potsdam.
In March 2007 the government of Papua New Guinea made a large area of land available for permanent resettlement of displaced islanders at Andarum near Bogia. Also in March 2007, three people were killed by mudslides on the northern part of the island. As of 2014, at least 2000-3000 people have returned to the island despite continued government concerns for their safety.
Residents.
Manam Islanders have their own language called "Manam Pile" (literally "Manam talk"), which is spoken on Manam and the nearby Boisa Islands. Manam islanders have a reputation in Papua New Guinea for musicianship and have produced several locally renowned musicians.


Chhanka

Chhanka (Quechua for cliff, hispanicized spelling "Chanca") is a mountain in the Andes of Peru, about high . It is located in the Lima Region, Cajatambo Province, Cajatambo District. Chhanka lies southwest of Pishtaq. A little lake named Tuqtuqucha ("hen lake") lies at its feet.


Veronavelifer

Veronavelifer sorbinii is an extinct sailfin moonfish from the Lutetian epoch of the Monte Bolca lagerstatten.


Haute-Loire

Haute-Loire (; ; English: Upper Loire) is a department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of south-central France. Named after the Loire River, it is surrounded by the departments of Loire, Ardèche, Lozère, Cantal and Puy-de-Dôme. In 2016, it had a population of 227,339; its inhabitants are called "Altiligériens" in French (English : Altiligerians).
The department, which has its prefecture in Le Puy-en-Velay, covers the upper reaches of the Loire and consists of the Loire Valley and the surrounding mountains in the Massif Central. It is one of the original 83 departments of France created in 1790 during the French Revolution. Parts of the department are included in the Livradois-Forez Regional Natural Park.
History.
The first known inhabitants of this region were hunter-gatherers and it was later occupied by pastoralists, shepherds living in caves or simple huts. It later came under the control of a Gaulish tribe called Vellavi and at the time of Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars, this area lay on the border of Gallia Narbonensis. The area became a Roman province in 121 BC, originally under the name "Gallia Transalpina" (Transalpine Gaul). The name distinguished it from Cisalpine Gaul on the near side of the Alps to Rome. In 40 BC, during the Second Triumvirate, Lepidus was given responsibility for Narbonese Gaul (along with Hispania and Africa), while Mark Antony was given the balance of Gaul.
The area was ravaged by barbarian invasions in the last years of the Roman Empire, and "Galla Narbonensis" and surrounding areas were incorporated into the Visigothic Kingdom between 462 and 477 AD, permanently ending the political control of Rome. After the Gothic takeover, the Visigothic dominions were generally known as Septimania. The king of the Visigoths, Alaric I was killed at the Battle of Vouillé in 507, a battle won by Clovis I and Velay came under Frankish rule. On Clovis' death in 511, his kingdom was divided among his four sons, and Velay was included in the part of the king of Austrasia, then part of the French kingdom. These subdivisions were united under the auspices of his longest surviving son Chlothar I, only to be split again under his four sons at his death. It was reunited once more under Chlothar II who became the sole ruler of the Frankish people in 613.
In about 928, the area became a fiefdom of the Count of Toulouse, and later came under the control of the Count of Poitiers. In 1137, Eleanor of Aquitaine succeeded to the Duchy of Aquitaine and her marriage to Henry, Duke of Normandy, who later became Henry II of England, brought Auvergne under English rule. By the end of the thirteenth century the area was known as the Dauphiné d’Auvergne.
Haute-Loire is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790, by order of the National Constituent Assembly. The new departments were to be uniformly administered and approximately equal to one another in size and population. Haute-Loire was formed from parts of the former provinces of Auvergne, Languedoc, and Lyonnais. Two thirds of the department, centred on Le Puy-en-Velay, used to be part of the former province of Languedoc and is known as Velay. The geographical distance from Toulouse had allowed this region to enjoy a great deal of autonomy.
During the Second World War, French partisans aided by Allied supply drops and leaders were able to liberate the province from Germans. By mid-August 1944 five weeks after the invasion at Normandy, Le Puy-en-Velay was besieged. Roads, railroad and telephone lines were cut. On 18 August, the Germans attempted to escape in a fifty-truck convoy. Five hundred were captured, and about 150 killed in a massive ambush. The town fell the next day. Estivareilles in nearby Loire fell on 22 August. Paris was captured by conventional forces on 24 August.
Geography.
Haute-Loire is a department in south central France and is part of the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. The capital and largest town in the department is Le Puy-en-Velay. To the north of Haute-Loire lie Puy-de-Dôme and Loire, to the east lies Ardèche, to the south lies Lozère and to the west lies Cantal. The river Loire rises in the southern part of the department and flows northwards, creating a wide valley. On either side of this lie ranges of mountains in the Massif Central. The north part of the department is part of the Livradois-Forez Regional Natural Park, a protected area of traditionally-farmed agricultural land and woodland, covering a total area of .
The department has four mountain ranges running north and south. These are the Haut-Vivarais and its continuation, the Boutières range, the Massif du Meygal, the Velay Mountains and the Margeride Mountains.
The highest point of the department is the Mont Mézenc (1753 m) and its average elevation is 719 m. The two-thirds of the area is over 800 m and the lowest point is 393 m.
Historically, Velay has been associated with the traditional region of Vivarais, now part of Ardèche. The two regions share a common dialect which is similar to that spoken in Provence, the reason probably being associated with the trade links between the two regions.
Notable people.
Claude-Jean Allouez (1622–1689) was born in Saint-Didier-en-Velay. He was a Jesuit missionary and explorer in North America who is said to have converted ten thousand Native Americans. The town of Allouez, Wisconsin is named after him. The de Polignac family has its historic seat in the department, and various descendants of General Lafayette were senators for this region in the nineteenth century. The black metal band Peste Noire comes from the city La Chaise-Dieu.
Tourism.
The department has attractive landscapes and is popular with tourists. Le Puy-en-Velay has a historic cathedral at which pilgrims gather before starting their journey to Santiago de Compostela. The cathedral has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1998, as part of the "Routes of Santiago de Compostela in France". Another site of pilgrimage is at Saint Michel d'Aiguilhe, a twelfth century chapel on top of a rocky pinnacle approached by a flight of 268 steps.


Cordillera Occidental (Central Andes)

The Cordillera Occidental or Western Cordillera of Bolivia is part of the Andes (that is also part of the American Cordillera), a mountain range characterized by volcanic activity, making up the natural border with Chile and starting in the north with Juqhuri and ending in the south at the Licancabur volcano, which is on the southern limit of Bolivia with Chile. The border goes through the innominated point located at two thirds of elevation of Licancabur's northeastern slope at the southwestermost point of Bolivia at 22° 49' 41" south and 67° 52' 35" west. The climate of the region is cold and inadequate for animal and plant life. Its main feature is its ground, in which are large quantities of metallic minerals including gold, silver, copper, and others. The range consists of three sections:


Aegirocassis

Aegirocassis is an extinct genus of anomalocarid arthropod belonging to the family Hurdiidae that lived 480 million years ago during the early Ordovician. It is known by a single species, Aegirocassis benmoulai. Van Roy initiated scientific study of the fossil, the earliest known of a "giant" filter-feeder discovered to date. "Aegirocassis" is considered to have evolved from early predatory anomalocarids.
Description.
At the time of its existence, "A. benmoulai" was possibly the largest animal in the world. The length was described as exceeding in the scientific journal "Nature".
The fossil was preserved with exceptional three-dimensional detail, unlike most other anomalocarid fossils, in which the animals are flattened. The quality of three-dimensional preservation has shed light on the nature of anomalocarid trunk flaps. Each trunk segment of the "Aegirocassis benmoulai" specimen has both a ventral and a dorsal pair of flaps. Several details seen clearly in the specimen led to a review and reassessment of research of existing specimens and, most importantly, to the conclusion that the ventral pair are homologous with lobopodous walking limbs in arthropods, and the dorsal pair are homologous with the flaps of gilled lobopodians and exites of the Cambrian biramous limb.
Discovery.
A fossil of "A. benmoulai" from the Fezouata biota, Morocco was discovered by and named after Mohamed Ben Moula, a fossil collector who recognized its rare characteristics and brought it to the notice of a professional paleontologist, Peter Van Roy, at the Ghent University in Belgium.


Barrancas Blancas

Barrancas Blancas is a mountain in the Andes Mountains of Chile. It has a height of .


Acrolepis

Acrolepis (Ancient Greek for "tip scale") is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived from the Tournaisian stage of the Mississippian (early Carboniferous) to the late Permian epoch. Some species from the Early Triassic of Tasmania are also ascribed to "Acrolepis".
It is a large piscivorous predatory fish in the acrolepid family, which occupy an apex predator niche in its locale. Measured from the fossil specimen discovered in Germany, the species was estimated to have grown up to in length, making it one of the largest predatory fish of the Tournaisian and Permian.
A close relationship between the mostly Palaeozoic Acrolepidae and the Mesozoic Ptycholepiformes was proposed, but support from phylogenetic analyses is scarce.
Fossil record.
The type species is "Acrolepis sedgwicki" from the late Permian Marl Slate of England and the coeval Kupferschiefer of Germany. Other species are known from Carboniferous and Permian rocks in the Czech Republic and Triassic layers of Tasmania.
Specimens in possession of Tyne & Wear Archives and Museums comprise a fossilized jawbone from the Marl Slate of Durham Province.
Diet.
"Acrolepis" pursued a wide range of small fish (most primarily Palaeonisciformes), sarcopterygans, ammonoids, crustaceans, small eurypterids, bivalves and other tiny invertebrates. It used its teeth similarly to the extant pike, holding slippery, scaly prey in place and pulling edible material into smaller pieces for whole consumption. It was a solitary hunter, relying on its size alone to overcome prey, and be the sole individual to consume prey. Natural threats to this creature were minimal, as other predatory creatures larger than itself (such as "Sarcoprion", a eugeneodontid of the same period) were heavily isolated and distanced from this creature, allowing it free reign in its environment.
Other.
The coat of arms of the village and municipality of Žilov, Plzeň-North District in the Plzeň Region of the Czech Republic, features a restoration of "Acrolepis gigas" in the center of the black-silver-red divided shield.


Anoplotherium

Anoplotherium is an extinct genus of herbivorous artiodactyl mammal, possibly belonging to or a close relative of the suborder Tylopoda, which lived in Europe from the Late Eocene to the earliest Oligocene. Fossils of "Anoplotherium" were first discovered in the gypsum quarries of Paris in 1804 and were subsequently described by French naturalist Georges Cuvier. One of the first Paleogene mammals to be described, 19th Century reconstructions of "Anoplotherium" can be seen at Crystal Palace Park.
Etymology.
The genus name "Anoplotherium" is a compound of the Greek prefixes 'αν' ('an') meaning 'not', 'λπλον' ("'hóplon')" meaning 'armed' and the suffix 'θήρ' ('thēr') meaning beast or wild animal. Therefore, the genus name has a full meaning of 'Unarmed Beast', a reference to the lack of tusks or horns.
Palaeontology.
Fossils attributed to the genus "Anoplotherium" have been found in Late Eocene to earliest Oligocene strata in the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Switzerland, Germany and Portugal between 37 million and 33 million years ago. Its occurrence in the European fossil record spans European Mammal Paleogene Zones MP17-MP20, and the Headonian European Land Mammal Mega Zone (ELMMZ).
In the United Kingdom isolated teeth, bones and a partial skeleton of "Anoplotherium" have been found in the Priabonian to Rupelian aged Solent Group strata of the Hampshire Basin, a series of freshwater/brackish coastal plain deposits now exposed on the northern coastline of the Isle of Wight. Within the Solent Group fossils have been found in the upper members of the Headon Hill Formation, the Bembridge Limestone Formation and the Bouldnor Formation.
First discovered in France, "Anoplotherium" material has been collected from the famous Late Eocene Gypsum of Montmarte in the Paris Basin and several sites in the Aquitanian Basin, including the karstic deposits of the Phosphorites des Quercy, Eymet in the Dordogne and Apt in Provence.
"Anoplotherium" became extinct during the Grande Coupure, a major faunal turnover event in early Oligocene Europe that saw the extinction of many of the endemic mammal groups typical of Eocene Europe. These groups including the Anoplotheriidae were subsequently replaced by new taxa from Asia such as anthracotheres, entelodonts and rhinocerotids
Paleobiology.
"Anoplotherium" was a relatively large herbivore for Late Eocene Europe, living in typical Headonian faunas alongside groups such as palaeotheres, pachynolophids, creodonts, choeropotamids, xiphonodontids, adapid and omomyid primates, and bear-dogs amongst many others. "Anoplotherium" may have preferred wooded habitats, with sub-tropical woodland common across much of the genus' range. The dentition of "Anoplotherium" is selenodont.
A 2006 anatomical study by Hooker on specimens from Montmartre, and a near intact skeleton of an immature individual from the Bouldnor Formation of the Isle of Wight, UK, found the skeletal morphology and functionality of "Anoplotherium" to indicate it was likely capable of bipedal browsing, using its muscular tail for support. Anoplotherium would have been able to browse 2-3m off the ground, greatly reducing interspecific competition with other contemporaneous mammalian herbivores.
The study also suggests that two of the originally recognised species of "Anoplotherium, A.latipes" and "A.commune," distinguished on the basis of toe numbers, may instead represent sexual dimorphs of the same species "A.latipes". Hiard et al. 2014 suggested that if "A.latipes" and "A.commune" are sexual dimorphs as suggested by Hooker (with "A.latipes" representing the male and "A.commune" representing the female) then the well developed second digit of "Anoplotherium latipes" may have been an adaption to intraspecific combat between males.
The partial skeleton of the immature individual from the Isle of Wight described in Hooker, 2006 was discovered in a fluvial channel horizon containing large coniferous logs. The bones showed signs of post-mortem scavenging by crocodilians, most likely the European alligatoroid "Diplocynodon".


Anticona

Anticona (possibly from Quechua for metals or minerals, the inhabitants of the rainforest or the Andes), also called "Ticlio", is a mountain in the Andes of Peru, about high. It is located in the Lima Region, Huarochiri Province, Chicla District, and in the Junín Region, Yauli Province, Morococha District. Anticona lies between the Ticlio mountain pass in the southwest and Yanashinga in the northeast, northwest of a lake named Huacracocha.


Scott D. Sampson

Scott Donald Sampson (born April 22, 1961) is a Canadian paleontologist and science communicator. Sampson is currently the Executive Director of California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco, California. He was previously Vice President of Research & Collections and Chief Curator at the Denver Museum of Nature & Science. Sampson is notable for his work on the carnivorous theropod dinosaurs "Majungasaurus" and "Masiakasaurus" and his extensive research into the Late Cretaceous Period, particularly in Madagascar. He is also known as the presenter of the PBS Kids show "Dinosaur Train".
Background.
Born in Vancouver, British Columbia, Sampson studied for a Ph.D. in Zoology from the University of Toronto. For his doctorate he produced a thesis on two newly found species of ceratopsids, dated to the Late Cretaceous period in Montana and the growth and function of ceratopsid horns and frills. Sampson graduated from the University of Toronto in 1993 and worked for a year at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. Then he worked for five years as an assistant professor of anatomy at the New York College of Osteopathic Medicine on Long Island. In 1999 he accepted positions as assistant professor in the Department of Geology and Geophysics and curator of vertebrate paleontology at the Utah Museum of Natural History (nowadays called the Natural History Museum of Utah and relocated in the new Rio Tinto Center as of 2011). Sampson resided in California at this time, but continued his research with the Utah museum as a research curator. In February 2013, Sampson took a position as Vice President of Research and Collections at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science.
Sampson is featured as "Dr. Scott the paleontologist" on the PBS television series, "Dinosaur Train". In this television series he mentions he gave "Masiakasaurus" its name and also mentions on a separate episode of The Dinosaur Train that he participated in naming "Kosmoceratops". In 2003 he hosted "Dinosaur Planet", a series of four animated nature documentaries which aired on the Discovery Channel. The series was narrated by Christian Slater. His latest book, "" was published by University of California Press in 2009. The book, aimed at the general public reconstructs the odyssey of the dinosaurs from their origins on the supercontinent of Pangaea, and explores the way in which dinosaurs ecologically interacted in an expansive web of relationships with other organisms and their natural environment, underscoring "paradigm shifts", which conceptualize the nature of the dinosaurian world.
Research.
Aside from his research conducted in museums, Sampson has undertaken paleontological fieldwork in countries such as Zimbabwe, South Africa and Madagascar as well as the United States and Canada. His specialist fields of research include phylogenetics, functional morphology, and evolution of Late Cretaceous dinosaurs. Sampson is particularly notable for his work on the carnivorous theropod dinosaur "Majungasaurus" and his studies into the paleobiogeography of Gondwana. In 1995 he made a phylogenetic analysis of the Centrosaurinae and Ceratopsidae in the state of Montana and produced two papers on these horned dinosaurs of the Late Cretaceous. Sampson also published a paper documenting the discovery of the first "Tyrannosaurus" specimen found in Utah, as well as the first evidence of coexistence between "Tyrannosaurus" and sauropods.
In 1998 he conducted thorough paleontological studies into the Cretaceous period in Madagascar and published several papers on it. These include "Predatory dinosaur remains from Madagascar: Implications for the Cretaceous biogeography of Gondwana." and "The theropodan ancestry of birds: New evidence from the Late Cretaceous of Madagascar", both published in 1998. In 2001 he returned to Madagascar and conducted some important research into the evolution of Gondwanan theropods, publishing a paper on it, entitled "A bizarre predatory dinosaur from Madagascar: implications for the evolution of Gondwanan theropods". In 2007 he published "Dental morphology and variation in Majungasaurus crenatissimus (Theropoda: Abelisauridae) from the Late Cretaceous of Madagascar".
Sampson stresses the importance of evolution in understanding the dynamics of ecology in everyday life and that is underplayed in modern society:
Personal life.
He resides in Denver, Colorado with his wife Toni and daughter Jade.


Kolymella

Kolymella is an extinct genus from a well-known class of fossil marine arthropods, the trilobites. It lived during the later part of the Arenig stage of the Ordovician Period, approximately 478 to 471 million years ago.


Jechapita

Jechapita (possibly from Quechua "Hich'apita") is a volcano in the Andes of Peru, about high. It is situated in the "Valley of the Volcanoes" in the Arequipa Region, Castilla Province, Andagua District. Jechapita lies west of the Chachas Lake and north-west of the volcano Chilcayoc Grande and south of the volcano Chilcayoc.


Paralomis debodeorum

Paralomis debodeorum is an extinct species of king crab which lived in New Zealand during the Middle–Late Miocene. It was discovered in the Greta Siltstone on Motunau Beach, North Canterbury, near the mouth of the Motunau River. It is a moderate-sized "Paralomis" and most closely resembles the extant "Paralomis zealandica".
It is the first and only lithodid in the fossil record.
Etymology.
The species name "debodeorum" takes its namesake from amateur fossil collectors John and Ann DeBode.


Nicorhynchus

Nicorhynchus (meaning "knucker snout", in reference to its likely ecology) is a genus of anhanguerid pterosaur from the Cretaceous period. It contains two species, the type species, N. capito, from of the Cambridge Greensand of England, and N. fluviferox from the Kem Kem Group of Morocco. These species were previously assigned to "Coloborhynchus".
History.
The genus "Coloborhynchus" has had a convoluted history, with many species having been assigned to the genus. In 2013, Rodrigues and Kellner considered "Coloborhynchus" to be monotypic, containing only "C. clavirostris", and placed most other species in other genera, or declared them "nomina dubia". One of these species was "Coloborhynchus capito", which was originally named by Harry Seeley in 1870 as a species of "Ornithocheirus". Its holotype is CAMSM B 54625, a snout. In 2001, this species was moved to "Coloborhynchus" by David Unwin, who also synonymized "Ornithocheirus reedi" (known from a lost specimen) with it. Rodrigues and Kellner recognized that the species was distinct from "Coloborhynchus", but did not give it a new name pending the discovery of more complete material.
In 2018, Jacobs "et al." named a new species of "Coloborhynchus", "C. fluviferox" from the Ifezouane Formation of the Kem Kem Group of Morocco based on a partial snout, and also tentatively referred another specimen from the same locality to a different, unnamed species. A 2020 review of a subfamily called Coloborhynchinae by Borja Holgado and Rodrigo Pêgas moved both "C. capito" and "C. fluviferox" to a new genus, "Nicorhynchus", and also associated the unnamed Ifezouane Formation coloborhynchine to "N. fluviferox". The name "Nicorhynchus" is derived from the Old English "nicor" (knucker, a kind of water dragon) and the Ancient Greek "rhynchos" ("snout"), in reference to its likely ecology as a fish-eating, flying reptile found in river and marine deposits.
Description.
The species "N. capito" represents the second largest known anhanguerid (after a "Tropeognathus" specimen), and indeed the second largest toothed pterosaur known after "Tropeognathus". A referred specimen from the Cambridge Greensand of England described in 2011 consists of a very large upper jaw tip which displays the tooth characteristics that distinguish "N. capito" from other species. The jaw tip is nearly tall and wide, with teeth up to in base diameter. If the proportions of this specimen were consistent with species of "Coloborhynchus", the total skull length could have been up to , leading to an estimated wingspan of .
Classification.
The describers of the genus, Holgado and Pêgas, had recovered "Nicorhynchus" within the subfamily Coloborhynchinae, which in turn was within the family Anhangueridae, sister taxon to "Uktenadactylus". Their cladogram is shown below.


Inacaliri

Inacaliri is a mountain in the Andes Mountains, situated on the border of Bolivia and Chile in the Potosí Department and in the Antofagasta Region. It has a height of and has a summit crater about in diameter, which contains a crater lake.


Famatinolithus

Famatinolithus is an extinct genus from a well-known class of fossil marine arthropods, the trilobites. It lived during the early part of the Arenig stage of the Ordovician Period, a faunal stage which lasted from approximately 478 to 471 million years ago.


Tauglboden Formation

The Tauglboden Formation is a geologic formation in Tirol, Austria. It preserves fossils dating back to the Oxfordian stage of the Jurassic period. The radiolarites were deposited in a deep marine environment.
Fossil content.
The following fossils were reported from the formation:


Arnsberg Forest Nature Park

The Arnsberg Forest Nature Park () is a nature park in the districts of Hochsauerlandkreis and Soest within the administrictive region of Arnsberg in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia. The park was established in 1960 and covers an area of 482 km². Nearly 350 km² of the protection is forested and the park's wooded hills rise up to .
The nature park, which consists of the Arnsberg Forest in the west and the Warstein Forest in the east, is important for the regional economy both in terms of forestry and tourism. The two forests form a densely wooded part of the Süder Uplands within the Rhine Massif.
Geography.
Location.
The Arnsberg Forest Nature Park lies between the river Möhne in the north, on which the Möhne Reservoir is located, and the deep valley of the Ruhr in the south. Between these two valleys the park is situated between Möhnesee in the northwest, Rüthen in the northeast, Brilon in the east, Olsberg in the southeast, Meschede in the south and Arnsberg in the southwest; Warstein lies within the nature reserve. To the north is the heavily forested region of the Haarstrang, to the east are the Brilon Heights, to the south is the Rothaargebirge, to the southwest is the Lennegebirge and to the west the terrain gradually descends towards Dortmund into the Ruhr.
Rivers and lakes.
The best-known water feature in the Arnsberg Forest Nature Park is the Möhnesee, set in the Möhne valley between the Haarstrang in the north and the Arnsberg Forest in the south. Numerous rivers run through the wooded valleys. These include the Ruhr and Möhne, which border the forests, as well as other water courses that feed the Möhne and Ruhr:
Hills.
The hills and hilltops of the Arnsberg Forest Nature Park include: the Warsteiner Kopf (556.9 m; fourth-highest hill), the Gemeinheitskopf (551.9 m; fifth-highest hill) the Niekopf (550.4 m; sixth-highest hill) and the Nuttlarer Höhe (542.2 m). These are the best known hills in the nature park because, unlike the other local heights they are shown on most of the maps and the specialised reference books. There are also, as the following list shows, a number of unnamed hilltops.
Villages.
In or on the edge of the Arnsberg Forest Nature Park are numerous villages belonging to these municipalities and towns:
Tourism.
Sights.
The Bilstein Cave southwest of Warstein in the Arnsberg Forest Nature Park attracts many tourists. The cave of Hohler Stein southwest of Rüthen-Kallenhardts is also worth visiting as are the observation towers of Lörmecke Tower (near the highest point in the Arnsberg Forest Nature Park between Warstein and Eversberg), the Küppel Tower (near Meschede-Freienohls) and the Delecke Bismarck Tower (north of Möhnesee-Delecke).
Trails.
Many trails wind through the Arnsberg Forest Nature Park and its hills and valleys. The best known are the Upland Trail (no. "X 13") and the Renn Trail (no. "X 26").


Residential red zone

The residential red zone refers to areas of land in and around Christchurch, New Zealand, that experienced severe damage in the 2010 and 2011 Christchurch earthquakes and were deemed infeasible to rebuild on. Through voluntary buyouts, the Crown acquired and demolished or removed over 8,000 properties. The majority were located in a broad swath of the eastern suburbs along the Avon River / Ōtākaro that had suffered damage from soil liquefaction.
Background.
In the 2010 and 2011 earthquakes, many areas in and around Christchurch were severely affected by soil liquefaction, lateral spreading, and/or rockslides. Many flatland areas were flooded and covered in silt as a result of liquefaction, and houses and utilities were damaged. Such areas were rendered effectively uninhabitable by the quakes.
Decision to not rebuild.
Some land in and around Christchurch was so damaged that the government determined that making the land safe for rebuilding would take years and require the demolition of most, if not all, buildings, and the eviction of their tenants. Canterbury Earthquake Recovery Authority head Gerry Brownlee said "Full land repair in these areas may mean that every house would need to be removed…. Giving people the ability to relocate on land where they can rebuild immediately is the best option we have." The government decided to pursue a simple process in order to provide clarity and support for landowners, residents, and businesses. Hence a "red zone" was established for areas in and around Christchurch where rebuilding would not be allowed, as contrasted with the "green zone" where all repairs and rebuilds were allowed.
The initial announcement of red zones was made on 24 June 2011, about 4 months after the February 2011 earthquake and only 11 days after the latest series of aftershocks. (Gerry Brownlee noted that each successive aftershock made CERA’s job all the more complex – the February 2011 quake, the most damaging of all, had itself been an aftershock of the September 2010 quake – so the zone announcements were postponed for months.) By 24 June, not all properties had been assessed as red or green by that point, but the government determined that zoning most properties immediately, thus giving their owners certainty, was preferable to postponing the announcement until all decisions were complete. Several areas were temporarily zoned as "orange zones", indicating areas that still needed an engineering assessment, or "white zones", indicating properties in the Port Hills whose rockfall risk had not yet been assessed. By November 2014, all zones had been assessed as either red or green, so the orange and white zones were eliminated.
Affected areas.
The suburbs that were lost contained a relatively high proportion of more affordable housing, including social housing and rentals. Many urban Māori people lived in the red zone. Most of the displaced people moved to less-damaged outer suburbs, as well as the neighboring Selwyn and Waimakariri Districts, and new subdivisions were constructed to meet the demand. As such, whereas quake-damaged eastern Christchurch is experiencing a cooling of economic activity, the western suburbs are experiencing more growth.
Flatland.
In the 2010–2011 Christchurch earthquakes, many areas of the city built on alluvial soils experienced severe soil liquefaction which damaged roads, utilities, and buildings. About 7,400 homes were zoned red in the flatlands. The majority of red-zoned areas were in the eastern suburbs along the Avon River / Ōtākaro, downstream of Christchurch Central City. Affected areas included Avonside, Wainoni, Dallington, Avondale, Burwood, New Brighton, and Bexley. Some of the condemned subdivisions had been constructed less than 10 years prior to the earthquakes.
An area of Southshore abutting the Avon-Heathcote Estuary was also red-zoned.
Several areas along the mouth of the Waimakariri River were placed in the red zone. Nearly all of Christchurch's northernmost suburb, Brooklands, was redzoned, virtually erasing it. Large sections of the town of Kaiapoi, as well as the seaside communities of The Pines Beach and Kairaki, were also affected.
Port Hills.
Several properties in the Port Hills experienced rockslides, especially in the aftershock of 13 June, which had its epicentre in the hills. About 700 homes were zoned red in the hills. Affected areas included hillside properties in the suburbs of Sumner, Redcliffs, and Ferrymead. Since many of the rockslides often occurred later than the main February 2011 quake (especially in the June 2011 earthquake), these properties were usually red-zoned later than the flatland properties, sometimes as late as November 2013, over two years afterwards.
Buyouts.
The Crown made two offers for insured homeowners in the red zone:
All buyout prices would be based on 2007 valuation of the properties, the most recent data available before the 2010 earthquake.
The initial announcement of red zones occurred on 24 June 2011, and residents were given 9 months to consider their offers. Other areas, which had initially been zoned either orange or white, were not zoned until later: the suburb of Brooklands, for example, was not conclusively zoned red until November 2011, 8 months after the February 2011 quake. The government reviewed its offers one year later in June 2012.
The Crown did "not" buy the land through compulsory purchase, as the offers were voluntary. However, the government emphasised the lack of infrastructure and services in the abandoned areas. They noted that for homeowners who chose not to accept the offers, the Christchurch City Council could "reach the view that it is no longer feasible or practical to continue to maintain services to the remaining properties,” and home insurance companies might refuse to provide or renew coverage. Indeed, city buses have been rerouted out of the red zone, and mail deliveries were cancelled in 2014, so that any remaining residents are living in areas with minimal government services.
Stayers.
98% of homeowners within the red zones accepted the Crown's offer to purchase their homes. Around 125 households opted to stay in their homes instead. Many of those who remained, known colloquially as "stayers," were uninsured and, in the absence of a government buyout (which was only offered to homeowners with home insurance), could not afford to leave their homes. Many were also older, as those without mortgage payments could afford to remain. Stayers in the red zone contend with tyre punctures from unrepaired, earthquake-damaged roads, and the risk of crime in the little-serviced area.
Demolitions.
Once the Crown bought the land, tenants vacated the property, and insurance settlements were finalised, private contractors were hired to demolish the houses. Some houses, rather than being demolished, were moved to other areas. It took several years until all demolitions and removals were completed in 2015, in which time the red zone contained many abandoned buildings that attracted squatters and crime.
After removing the structures, the Crown then assumed responsibility for upkeep of the land. The land was treated by levelling it and planting it with grass. However, indigenous plants, as well as trees and shrubs over a certain height (4 meters or 6 meters depending on context) were retained. Depending on the natural environment of the property, one of six different treatment types was applied: grassland, riparian buffer area, dune, estuarine edge, wet areas, and no clearance treatment (for areas with existing non-intensive land use such as grazing). Owing to the policy of leaving most vegetation in place, many trees and shrubs that once marked lot boundaries still remain in their rectangular alignments around the houses that have been demolished.
Controversy.
The government only offered buyouts to homeowners with home insurance, which is compulsory for home owners who hold a home loan (mortgage) in New Zealand. Brownlee argued that to buy properties from homeowners who failed to purchase insurance would create a moral hazard by setting a precedent that homeowners without insurance would receive a bailout from the government, despite not insuring their properties against damage. However, uninsured homeowners (many of whom were uninsured by mistake, due to lapses in coverage) countered that insurance status ought not be a factor in what was, effectively, the condemnation of their homes: they argued that since it would be infeasible to live in a red zone after the rest of the area was demolished and services terminated, the government was effectively taking their homes via compulsory purchase, and ought to pay them compensation. A group called Quake Outcasts sued the government, alleging that they suffered unlawful discrimination on a basis that was not warranted by the Canterbury Earthquake Response and Recovery Act 2010. Quake Outcasts also included owners of vacant land who were "unable" to insure their properties because they had not yet built structures on them, and were therefore denied compensation based on lack of insurance. In 2019, the government opted to settle with the Quake Outcasts, paying them out rather than prolonging the legal battle. Member of Parliament Megan Woods stated that the settlement would allow people to move on with their lives.
Another source of controversy was that insurance companies paid out less than the full value of some houses if the companies found that, based on the structural characteristics of the house, it was repairable, even though the red zone legally prohibited such repairs.
Current land use.
Since the disestablishment of CERA in 2016, Land Information New Zealand (LINZ) manages the land within Christchurch, taking responsibility for managing vegetation, cleaning rubbish, and providing security. Pending a permanent land use, LINZ allows the vacant red zone to be used for activities such as community gardening, mountain biking, and beekeeping on a temporary basis (up to 5 years in length). The land is sometimes used for festivals as well. The vacant, albeit damaged, roads are used for a driving school and as a testing ground for autonomous or radio-controlled vehicles. Before the demolitions were complete, some of the vacant houses were also used by the New Zealand Army for training exercises. Land within the Waimakariri District is owned and managed by the Waimakariri District Council.
Future plans.
Ex-residents of the demolished neighborhoods along the Avon River / Ōtākaro are broadly in favor of turning their old homes into a park, with organisations such as the Avon-Ōtākaro Network lobbying to "[change] Christchurch's Avon River red zone from a place of trauma and heartache to a land of fun and natural beauty." So, the government’s long-term earthquake recovery organization, Regenerate Christchurch, developed the Ōtākaro/Avon River Corridor Regeneration Plan to make the Avon River red zone into a large park stretching from downtown Christchurch to the Avon Heathcote Estuary by the ocean. Such a park, at , will be nearly four times the size of Christchurch's Hagley Park, and Regenerate Christchurch considers this vast new urban open space a unique opportunity to improve the city’s parkland and natural environment. Researchers at Lincoln University estimate "the total annual value of benefits to Christchurch residents, savings in public health costs deriving from a recreational reserve and the value of ecosystem services in the ARRRZ [Avon River Residential Red Zone] to be approximately $94.1 million/year." The plan is intended to adapt to rising sea levels which are expected to flood part of the Ōtākaro/Avon River Corridor. The plans also acknowledge the existing Māori heritage in the area of Horseshoe Lake, an old oxbow lake of the Avon River / Ōtākaro, where there was once a Ngāi Tahu settlement. The plan calls for educational institutions that preserve and spread Māori culture. The plan was approved on 23 August 2019.
The East Lake development, which would create an open water course along the Avon River / Ōtākaro suitable for international rowing regattas, remains under consideration as a long-term land use for the red zone. However, Regenerate Christchurch is doubtful of the plan for environmental reasons.
The Waimakariri Residential Red Zone Recovery Plan seeks to rehabilitate the condemned land around the mouth of the Waimakariri River in Waimakariri District, especially in Kaiapoi. Proposed land uses “include new parks and reserves, walking and cycling links, a BMX track, a dog park, mixed use business areas, provision for heritage and mahinga kai activities, roads and infrastructure sites and rural activities." Seeking to rebrand the devastated red zone, the plan renames the condemned areas as "regeneration areas."


Moctezuma volcanic field

Moctezuma volcanic field is a volcanic field in Sonora, Mexico. The towns of Moctezuma, La Junta, Casa Grande, San Clemente de Terapa, Tepache, El Llano and Divisaderos lie in the area.
Volcanic activity in Mexico encompasses both oceanic and continental types of volcanic activity. Geographically, volcanism in Mexico is often subdivided into a Californian, Eastern Alcalic, Sierra Madre Occidental and Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, with the addition of a fifth proposed in 2007, which is known as the Northern Mexico Extensional Province.
The field is located in the Moctezuma basin, in central Sonora on the western foot of the Sierra Madre Occidental range. The ranges immediately east and west of the Moctezuma basin are known as Sierra La Madera and Sierra El Coyote, respectively. This is a sedimentary basin delimited by faults; the basin is part of the Basin and Range Province of the state of Sonora. The oldest rocks are of Cretaceous age and a number of fossils have been investigated there. Volcanic activity occurred early in the basin's history, with one old lava flow intercalated between sediments dated at 22.3 million years ago. The lithosphere in the region was thicker back then.
Five pyroclastic cones are found in the field and are named Cerro el Barril (), high Cerro Blanco which is covered by lava bombs (), Cerro los Fierros (), Cerro Mogote de Corralles (), Cerro Villalobos () and Rancho la Poma (). These cones and associated lava flows cover a surface of about . The Rio Moctezuma and its tributary Rio Tepache flow through the area. Lava flows have repeatedly impounded the Moctezuma river and dammed it.
Rocks erupted in the field are basaltic andesite and hawaiite. These rocks are mafic and often hypersthene, nepheline or quartz normative. Olivine forms phenocrysts. The total volume of the latest products is less than . There was a change in composition from tholeiite to alkali basalt over time, something observed in other volcanic centres of the Basin and Range Province as well. There is evidence that while older volcanism originated from lithospheric magma, more recent activity comes from asthenospheric magma. Moctezuma rocks noticeably lack xenoliths.
In the Terapa area, vegetation is formed by thornscrub and climate data amounting to an average temperature of and average precipitation of have been computed.
Early volcanism was tholeiitic and formed a mesa with columnar joints exposed in river valleys. These eruptions occurred along the faults which delimit the basin, one date obtained from them is 1.7 ± 0.74 million years ago. Pahoehoe lava and pillow lava has been found on these flows. The pyroclastic cones were formed during later alkali basalt volcanism. The youngest eruption occurred at Cerro Blanco, forming lava flows. Potassium-argon dating has yielded an age of 530,000 ± 200,000 years ago. This cone formed aa lava flows that generated the Mesa Grande malpais.


Schleitheimia

Schleitheimia (named after the type locality of Schleitheim), is an extinct genus of sauropodiform sauropodomorph dinosaur, from the Gruhalde Member of Klettgau Formation of Switzerland. The type species, Schleitheimia schutzi was formally described in 2020.
Discovery and naming.
The type material was collected between 1952 and 1954 by Emil Schutz. They were donated to the University of Zürich in 1955. In 1986, most of the material was described by Peter Galton, who referred them all to the species "Plateosaurus engelhardti".
In 2020, Oliver Rauhut, Femke Holwerda and Heinz Furrer redescribed most of Schutz's remains, as well as some remains in the collections of the Museum zu Allerheiligen in Schaffhausen and new remains from a excavation in 2016 led by Holwerda. They found that the earlier found remains represented a new genus and species, which they named "Schleitheimia schultzi", honoring the type locality and the discoverer of the type remains. The 2016 finds were not referred. Finds made by Schultz near Hallau-Schwärzibuck were considered to represent a different new taxon and remained unnamed.
The holotype, PIMUZ A/III 50, was found in a layer of the Klettgau Formation dating from the Norian. It consists of a partial right ilium. Several other bones from the general locality were designated as paratypes. Because they are consistent in morphology, the describers referred all of them to the same taxon, if not the same individual.
Description.
The holotype of "Schleitheimia" shows a number of autapomorphies, unique derived traits. There is a broad, rounded ridge on the iliac blade that ends in a large, rounded expansion on the ilium. The fourth tronchanter of the ilium is very robust. The crista tibiofibularis of the femur is broad and there is no posteriorly facing shelf is present lateral to the crista.


Geology of Nunavut

The geology of Nunavut began to form nearly three billion years ago in the Archean and the territory preserves some of the world's oldest rock units.
Geologic History, Stratigraphy & Tectonics.
Archean.
Archean rocks dominate much of the territory's surface and places with overlying rock. Greenstone belts are common together with migmatite gneiss, granodiorite, and quartz monzonite, on the Melville Peninsula and northern Baffin Island, as well as the southwest mainland. Lenses and bands of amphibolite, granitoid and metasedimentary rocks are common in these areas, along with less common ultramafic rocks.
Gold and other base metals are widespread as mineralization in siliclastic, felsic, mafic and ironstone rocks of the greenstone belts. The George Lake, Boston and Ulu deposits are all hosted in the Yellowknife Supergroup of the Slave Craton in the west as well as the Lupin gold mine. In the western Churchill Province of south-central Nunavut are the Noomut, Heninga Lake and Meliadine gold deposits, and the Victory Lake and Ferguson Lake base metals deposits. Ultramafic volcanic rocks, quartzite and iron formations in the northern Churchill Province hold the Woodhurn, Prince Albert and Meadowbank gold deposits. The Churchill Province experienced widespread metamorphism 2.5 billion years ago. Baffin Island represents the eastern margin of the Canadian Shield and the long-term thermal history of southern Baffin suggests temperatures remained high (above 400C) following Trans-Hudson Orogeny peak metamorphism at c. 1.85 billion years ago, slow cooling and minor reheating ensued throughout the Proterozoic, followed by episodic sedimentary burial during the Paleozoic through Mesozoic of <3-4 km.
Paleozoic (541-251 million years ago).
Paleozoic rocks cover one-third of the territory, northwest of Fury and Hecla Strait, forming part of the Arctic Platform and continuing north to Ellesmere Island. In the southeast, they are continuation of the Hudson Platform beneath the Foxe Basin. Subsidence and craton rifting are recorded in Cambrian strata, with clastic sequences left by a marine transgression.
A stable platform developed from the Cambrian through the Silurian and thick carbonates with high oil and gas potential deposited. The Caledonian orogeny brought uplift and erosion from the Silurian through the Early Devonian, generating potential red bed related copper deposits in a thick clastic wedge. The Ellesmerian orogeny produced Mississippi-valley type zinc-lead mineralization in the Polaris district of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Thick clastic and carbonate sediments deposited in the Sverdrup Basin in the north during the Carboniferous.
Proterozoic (2.5 billion-541 million years ago).
Hurwitz Group strata and other units from the Proterozoic cover much of the Churchill Province. Continental margin sediments deposited in central Baffin Island as the Piling Group and as the Penrhyn Group on the southern Melville Peninsula. The units include quartzite and feldspathic quartzite, overlain by dolomite, marble and gneiss, together with schist and iron formations with sulfur geochemistry. Gray, weathered psammitic rocks are common in the upper part of the basin, with high potential for base metals and gold. The former Black Angel zinc and lead mine is located within the Karrat Group carbonates on the coast of West Greenland. Ultramafic sills are found in the southern Baffin Island Lake Harbour Group.
On the Belcher Islands in Hudson Bay are clastic rocks overlain by volcanic and carbonate rocks, which record subsidence and rifting at the western edge of the Superior Craton. Thermal overprinting and deformation from the Paleoproterozoic have been found in these rocks, dating to the Trans-Hudson Orogeny 1.8 billion years ago.
The Bylot Supergroup in Baffin Island and Bylot Island is six kilometers thick with a combination of undeformed volcanic, clastic and carbonate rocks deposited during a phase of renewed rifting. The Borden Peninsula is divided into horst and graben structures by normal faults from local rifting and subsidence 1.27 billion years ago. The Nanisivik Mine extracts zinc and lead from these carbonates. The Bylot Supergroup is known as the Fury Group and Hecla Group along the Fury and Hecla Strait, where it overlies Archean and Paleoproterozoic rocks with nearly six kilometers of material, likely deposited over the span of 75 million years.
Mesozoic (251-66 million years ago).
Through the Cretaceous, sedimentation continued in the Sverdrup Basin, producing oil and gas forming conditions and Bent Horn light crude field. Rifting and alkaline volcanism in the Cretaceous began the process of siliclastic deposition in northern Baffin Island and northern Ellesmere Island.
Diamond-bearing kimberlite pipes formed on Somerset Island, exposed along the Brodeur Peninsula and northwest Baffin Island. The Jericho diamond pipes are part of a northern continuation of Lac de Gras field in the northern Slave Province. There are also kimberlite pipes on Victoria Island.
Cenozoic (66 million years ago-present).
In the far north, compression and strike-slip faulting affected the Canadian Arctic Archipelago throughout the Eureakan orogeny. The tectonic event happened in parallel with the siliclastic sedimentation and opened Baffin Bay and the Labrador Sea.
References.


Pirula (YouTuber)

Paulo Miranda Nascimento (born August 14, 1981), also known as Pirula or Pirulla, is a Brazilian paleontologist, YouTuber, zoologist, lecturer and a scientific disseminator.
Pirula is a bachelor of Biology by Mackenzie Presbyterian University and, he is master and PhD in Zoology by University of São Paulo. His PhD thesis is named "Revision of the Baurusuchidae family and its phylogenetic affinities within Mesoeucrocodylia". Paulo has also been a professor of evolution and palaeontology in colleges and schools.
Pirula created his YouTube channel in 2006, named "Canal do Pirulla", in which he discusses science, environment, religion and politics, in long and detailed videos.
Pirula has been awarded the Social Media Education Influencer Award in the sixth edition of the Shorty Awards, in 2014. In 2016, together with Laranjeira, Simões, Estevão and other Brazilian social media influencers, Pirula founded another YouTube channel, Bláblálogia, also focused in communicating science to common audiences.
As a critic of the means Brazilian media portraits scientific topics, Pirula was one of the founders of the Science Vlogs Brazil project, Pirula foi um dos criadores do projeto "Science Vlogs Brasil", a conglomerate of YouTube channels focused on science and education which aims to unify Brazilian popular science influencers nacionais against fake news and anti-scientific information on the internet.
In July 2019, together with Gilmar Lopes the creator and maintainer of the fact-checking website E-farsas, he debuted a series of videos named "Fake em Nóis" on the MOV.show channel, which belongs to the producer MOV on the UOL portal.
In December 2020, Pirula's channel has 923 thousand subscribers and about 100 million views.


Australovenator

Australovenator (meaning "southern hunter") is a genus of megaraptorid theropod dinosaur from Cenomanian (Late Cretaceous)-age Winton Formation (dated to 95 million years ago) of Australia. It is known from partial cranial and postcranial remains which were described in 2009 by Scott Hocknull and colleagues, although additional descriptions and analyses continue to be published. It is the most complete predatory dinosaur discovered in Australia.
Description.
According to Hocknull, it was tall at the hip and long, with a weight of about . Because it was a relatively lightweight predator, he coined it as the "cheetah of its time". Like other megaraptorans, "Australovenator" would have been a bipedal carnivore.
History of discovery.
"Australovenator" is based on a theropod specimen (AODF 604), affectionately nicknamed "Banjo" after Banjo Paterson, which was found intermingled with the remains of the sauropod "Diamantinasaurus matildae" at the "Matilda site" (AODL 85). The parts of the holotype as it was initially described, which are held at the Australian Age of Dinosaurs Museum of Natural History, consists of a left dentary, teeth, partial forelimbs and hindlimbs, a partial right ilium, ribs, and gastralia. "Australovenator" was described in 2009 by paleontologist Scott Hocknull of the Queensland Museum, and colleagues. The type species is "A. wintonensis", in reference to nearby Winton. Although the holotype was first described in 2009, the process of excavating the "Matilda site" is still ongoing and papers describing new elements of the holotype are still being published.
Additional arm elements of the holotype were described in 2012, more leg elements were described in 2013, and a right dentary was described in 2015.
For sometime, Australovenator was considered to be within the same genus as another Australian Megaraptorid called Rapator. Rapator is based on a metacarpal first described by Huene during the early 1900's and for prior to the recognition of Megaraptora, it was considered to be either an alvarezsaurid, or an intermediate theropod. After the discovery of Australovenator, some scientists noted the similarity between Rapator and Australovenator. While Hocknull "et al." (2009) identified a few distinguishing characters between the two taxa, based on a poorly preserved metacarpal I from the holotype of "Australovenator". Agnolin "et al." (2010), reclassified "Rapator", instead finding it a megaraptoran, potentially sister taxon to "Australovenator". They mentioned that "Megaraptor", the only other taxon also preserving metacarpal I, was less similar to "Rapator" than "Australovenator". However, there were no clear differences between the two latter taxa. The metacarpals of both taxa were redescribed in White "et al." (2014), who determined that they were not synonymous, adding multiple features two the potential characters identified by Hocknull "et al." and Angolan "et al." In 2019, material from the Eumeralla Formation was referred to "Australovenator." In 2020 a paper was published on a heavily eroded specimen of an indeterminate megaraptoran found near the type locality consisting of "two fragmentary vertebrae, three partial metatarsals and the distal end of a pedal phalanx" as well as other indeterminate bone fragments. The animal was slightly larger than the holotype individual of "Australovenator".
Classification.
A phylogenetic analysis found "Australovenator" to be an allosauroid carnosaurian, with similarities to "Fukuiraptor" and carcharodontosaurids. In the initial analysis, it was shown to be the sister taxon of the Carcharodontosauridae. More detailed studies found that it formed a clade with several other carcharodontosaurid-like allosaurs, the Neovenatoridae. Recent phylogenetic analysis suggests "Australovenator" is a tyrannosauroid, like with all other megaraptorans. A phylogenetic analysis in 2016 focusing on the new neovenatorid "Gualicho" found that "Australovenator" and other megaraptorids were either allosauroids or basal coelurosaurs as opposed to being tyrannosauroids.
The ankles of "Australovenator" and "Fukuiraptor" are similar to the Australian talus bone known as NMVP 150070 that had previously been identified as belonging to "Allosaurus" sp., and this bone likely represents "Australovenator" or a close relative of it. Alternatively, this bone could belong to an abelisaur.
The cladogram below follows the 2010 analysis by Benson, Carrano and Brusatte. Another study published later in 2010 also found the Australian theropod "Rapator" to be a megaraptoran extremely similar to "Australovenator".
The cladogram below follows the 2014 analysis by Porfiri "et al". that finds megaraptorans to be tyrannosauroids.
Palaeobiology.
With very comprehensive and well-preserved hand and foot remains, "Australovenator" has been made a topic of various research papers studying the dynamics of theropod appendages.
A 2015 study tested the range of motion of "Australovenator's" arms using computer models and found that it had flexible arms, with the forearms capable of making an angle of 144 to 66 degrees with the humerus, an elbow range of motion similar to that of maniraptoriforms. Unusually, its radius could slide independently of the ulna when its arm was flexed, similar to that of birds but unlike most non-avian dinosaurs. However, the study also found that "Australovenator's" fingers were capable of extension far beyond those of any other sampled theropod, with only "Dilophosaurus" having capabilities even near it. This study concluded that "Australovenator's" flexibility, facilitated by a combination of traits in both primitive and advanced theropods, played a role in prey capture, giving it the ability to grasp prey towards its chest to make it easier for its weak jaws to disembowel food.
A 2016 study used CT scans of an emu foot to digitally reconstruct the musculature and soft tissue of an "Australovenator" foot, as well as determine how soft tissue affects flexibility. The study determined that muscular range of motion is often overestimated when not accounting for soft tissue, and that soft tissue reconstruction is vital for making future analyses of theropod flexibility more accurate. A review of hindlimb elements described in 2013 re-identified several phalanges which were initially positioned incorrectly. In addition, it noted that "Australovenator's" phalanx II-3 was splayed, a pathology that may have resulted from the impacts of kicking motions. Some modern birds, such as the cassowary, are known to use their second toe as weapons in defensive or territorial fights.
A 2017 followup to the 2016 study used a 3-D printed model of the reconstructed foot to make footprints in a matrix of clay and sand in an effort to understand the creation of dinosaur footprints. The study specifically was designed to clarify the identity of particular controversial footprints from Lark Quarry, which may have been left from either a large theropod (like "Australovenator") or an ornithopod (like "Muttaburrasaurus"). The study found that the artificial "Australovenator" footprints were similar to those at Lark Quarry, concluding that the trackways in question were likely those of a theropod. The writers of the study expressed interest in creating a reconstruction of a "Muttaburrasaurus" foot as an extension of the study, although no "Muttaburrasaurus" pedal material is known.
Palaeoecology.
AODL 604 was found about northwest of Winton, near Elderslie Station. It was recovered from the lower part of the Winton Formation, dated to the late Cenomanian. AODL 604 was found in a clay layer between sandstone layers, interpreted as an oxbow lake, or billabong, deposit. Also found at the site were the type specimen of the sauropod "Diamantinasaurus", bivalves, fish, turtles, crocodilians, and plant fossils. The Winton Formation had a faunal assemblage including bivalves, gastropods, insects, the lungfish "Metaceratodus", turtles, the crocodilian "Isisfordia", pterosaurs, and several types of dinosaurs, such as the sauropods "Diamantinasaurus" and "Wintonotitan", and unnamed ankylosaurians and hypsilophodonts. Plants known from the formation include ferns, ginkgoes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms.


Cricodon

Cricodon is an extinct genus of trirachodontid cynodonts that lived during the Early Triassic and Middle Triassic periods of Africa. A. W. Crompton named "Cricodon" based on the ring-like arrangement of the cuspules on the crown of a typical postcanine tooth. The epithet of the type species, "C. metabolus", indicates the change in structure of certain postcanines resulting from replacement.
Discovery.
"Cricodon" was first discovered in the Tanzanian Manda Beds of South Africa. Broili & Schröder (1936) were the first to describe "Cricodon", yet were not able to provide a name for the taxon, which at the time was only known from 5 teeth. Extensive and in-depth descriptions of fossils from the Manda Beds were provided by A. W. Crompton (1955). Crompton provided the name "Cricodon" as more fossil discoveries were found and a more complete view of the skeleton could be created.
Fossil evidence of "Cricodon" has also been discovered in the Karoo Beds, specifically in the Cynognathus Assemblage Zone of South Africa. The "Cynognathus" Assemblage Zone encompasses the boundary between the late Early and early Middle Triassic period, and has been subdivided into three distinct subzones (Subzone A, Subzone B, and Subzone C) based primarily on the spatial and temporal ranges of key temnospondyl index taxa. "Cricodon" fossils have been found in the youngest of the three subzones, Subzone C. However, upper postcanines resembling those of "Cricodon" are also known from deposits corresponding to Subzone B.
The trirachodontid ""Trirachodon" kannemeyeri" Seeley, 1895 is now referred to "Cricodon" as "C. kannemeyeri".
Description.
Skull.
Cranial bones recovered from the Manda Beds consist of a badly crushed orbito-ethmoidal region, a practically complete right mandible, two fragments of the left mandible, several loose teeth, a portion of the occiput, and several unidentified fragments.
In the upper jaw, only the posterior ends of the maxillae, a portion of the palate, and the floor of the orbits are well preserved. The maxillary postcanines are transversely ovate and have three main cusps arranged upon the same transverse plane. The three main cusps are composed of the lingual, central, and labial cusp. There are also small peripheral cuspules present on the anterior and posterior borders of the crown. Roots of the upper postcanines are long, transversely flattened near the crown and taper away to a short point distally. The maximum known transverse diameter of the maxillary postcanines is 13mm.
A characteristic feature of the mandible is the sharp angle formed by the junction of the lower margin of the dentary and the anterior surface of the dental symphysis. A diagnostic difference between the upper jaw postcanine teeth and mandibular postcanine teeth is that mandibular postcanine teeth tend to be squarer in horizontal sections in contrast to the transversely ovate maxillary postcanines. A mammalian feature that can be seen in gomphodont cynodonts is that each root is surrounded by a pocket of cancellous bone. The maximum transverse diameter of the mandibular postcanines is 9mm.
The main cusps of the mandibular and maxillary postcanines form a transverse ridge across the center of the crown. The transverse ridge of a tooth would fit into the depression formed between the transverse ridges of two adjoining teeth. Recent research conducted by Hendrickx, Abdala, and Choiniere (2016) has revealed new information in regard to the distribution of enamel microstructure in non-mammaliform cynodonts, specifically in "Cricodon metabolus". Their research uncovered the presence of columnar divergence units in both the sectorial and gomphodont teeth of a trirachodontid along with the consistent presence of synapsid columnar enamel in cynognathians.
The newfound discovery in regards to the thickened enamel has many ecological implications. In "Cricodon metabolus", the enamel layer of the gomphodont tooth is around 11.5 times thicker than the sectorial tooth. The postcanine gomphodont teeth (labiolingually expanded teeth with large occlusal surfaces) were used for chewing, crushing, and grinding fibrous plant material, meaning that they were under higher loads and apically oriented stresses. Sectorial teeth on the other hand were used to shear plant material and were not subjected to the same types of occlusal stresses, therefore the enamel thickness was not maintained. Another reason proposed by Hendrickx, Abdala, and Choiniere (2016) to explain the thin enamel in sectorial teeth is due to replacement timing and patterns, as they will be sequentially replaced by gomphodont teeth. Another characteristic that was observed in the gomphodont teeth were enamel and dentine incremental lines. The enamel and dentine incremental lines, odontoblast tubules in dentine, and discontinuous columnar divergence units in enamel support the consistent presence of synapsid columnar enamel in Cynognathia.
Postcranial skeleton.
Twenty-five vertebrae were discovered which belong to the dorsal and sacral regions with only one vertebrae having a well preserved neural arch from the sacral region. There are additional apophyses below the posterior zygapophysis which articulate with concavities on the lateral surface of the neural arch, posterior and inferior to the anterior zygapophysis. "Cricodon metabolus" has the typical cynodont expanded ribs of which thirteen dorsal ribs were discovered.
The entire humerus was 12.5 cm long and had typical cynodont characterizations such as the twisted bone and the plane of the distal end forming an angle of 40 degrees with that of the proximal. The discovered femur was 12.5 cm long with the capitulum directed at an angle of 45 to 50 degrees to the main axis of the slender shaft. Another characteristic of the femur noted is that it projects well forward from the main body of the shaft. Although little is known of the hand of cynodonts, it is believed that "Cricodon metabolus" has a phalangeal formula of 23443, with the second phalange reduced in digits three and four.
Classification.
Below is a cladogram from Gao "et al." (2010) showing the phylogenetic relationships of one part of the Cynodontia relative to "Cricodon":


Leontosaurus

Leontosaurus is an extinct genus of non-mammalian synapsids from the "Dicynodon" Assemblage Zone, Balfour Formation of South Africa. It contains the single species "L. vanderhorsti".


Neuquenraptor

Neuquenraptor (meaning Neuquén thief) is a genus of dromaeosaurid theropod dinosaurs that lived in South America during the Late Cretaceous in what is now the Portezuelo Formation of Argentina. It is one of the first dromaeosaurids found in the Southern Hemisphere.
Discovery and naming.
In January 1996 the remains of "Neuquenraptor" were found near Plaza Huincul in the Sierra del Portezuelo and reported that very year. In 1997 it was revealed the intended name was "Araucanoraptor argentinus". In 1999 it was provisionally described as a member of the Troodontidae. However, it was named as the type species "Neuquenraptor argentinus" in 2005 by Fernando Novas of the Bernardino Rivadavia Natural Sciences Museum and Diego Pol of Ohio State University and described as a dromaeosaurid. The generic name combines Neuquén, referring to the Neuquén Province and basin of northern Patagonia, Argentina, with Latin "raptor" meaning "thief". The specific name refers to Argentina.
Description.
The known remains, holotype MCF-PVPH 77, were uncovered in layers of the Portezuelo Formation dating to the Coniacian. It consists of only a left foot, some cervical vertebrae fragments, ribs, tail chevrons and a radius.
"Neuquenraptor" is estimated to have measured long and have weigh . It was larger than its close relative "Buitreraptor", a genus it shared some osteological and physical similarities with.
Classification.
"Neuquenraptor" might be a junior subjective synonym of "Unenlagia"; that is, the two might represent the same genus or even species, in which case the name "Unenlagia" would have to be used instead of "Neuquenraptor" because the former name was published earlier, in 1997, and thus has priority. "Neuquenraptor" was assigned by Novas and Pol to the Dromaeosauridae in a polytomy with several dromaeosaurid taxa. By later phylogenetic analyses have recover the genus in the Unenlagiinae.
Paleoecology.
"Neuquenraptor" enjoys a special importance because of its provenance from South America. Until the discovery of "Neuquenraptor", all dromaeosaurids had been found in North America, Europe or Northern China / Mongolia, and scientists believed that dromaeosaurids only inhabited Laurasia, i.e. the Northern Hemisphere. South America however, during the Mesozoic became part of Gondwana. The find of "Neuquenraptor" provides some possible indication of the degree of isolation between the Northern and Southern hemispheres.
The supercontinent Pangaea started to break up in the Early Jurassic, leading to the separation around 160 Ma of Laurasia in the north and Gondwana in the south. Gondwana itself was soon fragmented into West Gondwana (i.e., Africa and South America) and East Gondwana (i.e., Antarctica and Australia plus India and Madagascar). West Gondwana broke apart during the Cretaceous, as Africa and South America separated between 132 and 90 Ma. Between approximately 80 and 60 Ma, i.e. in the Late Cretaceous and early Paleocene, North America and South America were perhaps connected, at least episodically, by a land bridge, due to the eastward motion of the Caribbean plate between the two continental masses.


Azilestes

Azilestes ("Mas-d'Azil robber") is a genus of probable zhelestid eutherian, a family consisting of small herbivores, that was discovered in the early Maastrichtian Grès de Labarre Formation of France. It is a monotypic genus, with only type species "A. ragei" being known. Only one specimen, the holotype described in 2021, is known. It consists of a partial dentary with teeth, and was discovered in sediments belonging to the Grès de Labarre Formation of France.
Certain aspects of "Azilestes"'s dental anatomy are convergent with later groups of herbivorous mammals, including Glires, though phylogenetic analysis strongly suggests a position within the Zhelestidae. It possesses bunodont molars, enlarged postfossids and hypoconids, a interradicular crest and radicular grooves, a unique combination among Cretaceous eutherians.
History of Discovery.
The sole specimen and holotype of "Azilestes", a partial dentary with teeth, was discovered in the Grès de Labarre Formation of the northern Pyrenees, near the Mas-d’Azil of the Ariege Department, France. The specimen was found by surface prospecting northeastern outcrops of the Grès de Labarre levels, northeast of the Mas-d’Azil. The vertebrate-bearing level where it was found is a fossiliferous hard limestone, belonging to the upper unit of the Grès de Labarre which overlies the Marnes d’En locality. Together with the overlying "Marnes Rouges Inférieures" formation, an eastern lateral equivalent of the Marnes d'Auzas, it comprises the last Cretaceous deposits of the Sub-Pyrenean zone.
"Azilestes" was described by Emmanuel Gheerbrant and Dominique Teodori in 2021, and much of its anatomy was mapped using CT scanning. It was named for Mas-d'Azil, the type locality, and the Greek "λῃστήσ", or "lestes" ("robber"). The specific epithet is after Jean-Claude Rage, in tribute to his major contribution to the study of Cretaceous microvertebrates from Europe.
Description.
Though damaged and fragmentary, the sole specimen of "Azilestes", dated to the early Maastrichtian, is one of the most complete jaw remains of a eutherian reported from the Late Cretaceous of Europe. It preserves only part of the mandibular corpus, including the posterior part of the mandibular symphysis. The symphysis extends far posteriorly, close to the level of the alveolus of the fourth upper molar, and is very compact. The mandibular corpus is dorso-ventrally high, and labially inflated. It is convex below the molars, but below the premolars and the symphysis, it is concave. Its dorso-ventral depth decreases drastically at the length of the symphysis.
The posterior mental foramen is rather large and located ventro-labially below and between the two roots of the fifth upper molar, as in most Cretaceous eutherians. The dentary preserves two damaged molars and four well-developed empty anterior alveoli, interpreted as corresponding to two-rooted fifth upper molar, and a single-rooted fourth upper molar and canine. Among Cretaceous eutherians, the molar morphology of the holotype most closely resembles the family Zhelestidae, to which it is tentatively assigned. Zhelestids were non-placental eutherians, and were specialized for a herbivorous diet.
The bunodont cusps and crowns, a shortened, robust dentary with reduced premolar formula, a small hypolophid and cingular-like postcristid and entoconid are unique among Cretaceous eutherians.
The closest eutherian to "Azilestes", assuming a zhelestid identity, is "Valentinella". However, the comparison of these two genera is limited due to the latter's poor preservation. Shared attributes include a possible hypocone, bunodont molar crowns with bulbous cusps, and a robust and deep mandibular corpus that is laterally convex.
Taxonomy.
Phylogenetic analyses within the paper variably suggest "Azilestes" to be part of a zhelestid polytomy which includes solenodons, a monophyletic Zhelestidae, or a basal member of Glires, though all but the latter recover it as the sister genus to "Valentinella.", and in one phylogeny, they are part of the Lainodontinae. While a position within the Zhelestidae is most likely, Gheerbrant and Teodori (2021) assume a basal position within the Eutheria.
Below is a phylogeny from Gheerbrant & Teodori (2021):
Palaeoecology.
The bunodont molars, the large postfossid and hypoconid, wear patterns, and the development of an interradicular crest and radicular grooves indicate a crushing-grinding function for "Azilestes"'s teeth, possibly suggesting a durophagous lifestyle.
Only three non-avian dinosaurs are known to have coexisted with "Azilestes". These are the rhabdodontid "Rhabdodon", cf. "Ampelosaurus atacis", and an indeterminate nodosaurid.


Nesodon

Nesodon ("island tooth") is a genus of Miocene mammal belonging to the extinct order Notoungulata which inhabited southern South America during the Late Oligocene to Miocene living from 29.0—16.3 Ma and existed for approximately .
 It had a relatively large size, weighing up to 554 kg (1221 lbs) and reaching 1.5 m in height.
Taxonomy.
"Nesodon" was named by Owen (1846). It was assigned to Toxodontidae by Carroll (1988). It was an early member of the family Toxodontidae, which included the well-known Pleistocene genus "Toxodon". Like almost all toxodontids, "Nesodon" was endemic to South America. In particular, fossils of "Nesodon" are known from late early Miocene (Santacrucian SALMA) deposits of Argentina and Chile.
Three species of "Nesodon" are recognized including a larger species, "N. imbricatus", and a smaller species, "N. conspurcatus". A poorly known and possibly invalid third species, "N. cornutus", was similar to "N. imbricatus" but may have had a small horn on its head. All species of "Nesodon" were larger than species of the contemporary toxodontid "Adinotherium".
The dentition of "Nesodon" shows features typical of living grazing (grass-eating) mammals, but a study of wear on the enamel of "N. imbricatus" suggests that it was a browser (leaf eater) that may have supplemented its diet with fruit or bark.
Classification.
In 2014, a study identifying a new species of "Nesodon", "N. taweretus", resolved the families phylogenetic relations. The below cladogram was found by the study:
Distribution.
Fossils of "Nesodon" have been found in:


Lilpela Pass

<mapframe latitude="-40.1658502" longitude="-71.8062608" zoom="11" width="400" height="300" align="right" />Ipela or Lilpela () is a mountain pass through the Andes along the border between Chile and Argentina. It is most notable for being the pass used by Pablo Neruda to flee from Chile in 1949 due to the Cursed Law. The pass is not outfitted as an international border crossing. During summer months "Carabineros" guard the entrance to the pass close to Chabranco.


Theodor Fuchs

Theodor Fuchs (15 September 1842 in Eperies – 5 October 1925 in Steinach am Brenner) was an Austrian geologist and paleontologist.
He studied geology and paleontology at the University of Vienna as a pupil of Eduard Suess (doctorate 1863). Following graduation, he worked as an assistant at the "Hofmineralienkabinett" in Vienna, being named its curator in 1880. From 1889 to 1904 he was director of the geologic-paleontological department at the Natural History Museum in Vienna. In 1897 he became an associate professor of paleontology at the university.
His primary research dealt with studies of stratigraphic conditions of the Late Tertiary of the Vienna Basin and investigations of Tertiary deposits in the Mediterranean.
In 1894 he proposed the Chattian age, a chronostratigraphic stage of the Oligocene epoch. In 1895 he was the first to report on soft sediment deformations known today as "load casts" — at the time, Fuchs used the descriptive term "Fließwülste" (flow crests).
Selected works.
He was a proponent of Esperanto; in 1912 he translated the introductory chapter of Eduard Suess's "Das Antlitz der Erde" ("The face of the Earth") as "La vizaĝo de la tero".


Fannin Formation

The Fannin Formation is a geologic formation in British Columbia. It preserves fossils dating back to the Early Jurassic period (Pliensbachian to Toarcian stages).


Lapa oil field

The Lapa oil field is a deepwater oil field in the pre-salt Guaratiba Group of the South Atlantic Santos Basin, off the coast of São Paulo, Brazil. The field lies in water depths of approximately . When the discovery of the field was initially reported, it caused widespread commotion because of the speculated size of the field, which surpassed the Mexican Cantarell Complex, the biggest oil field complex outside of the Middle East. The size of Lapa, then known as Carioca and later as Sugar Loaf, was announced as possibly "as large as ". Later appraisal of the field drastically reduced the reserves to the current estimate of .
The field was taken into production in December 2016 and is operated by Petrobras with BG and Repsol-Sinopec as partners.
History.
The field was formerly known as Carioca, named after the demonym for people from Rio de Janeiro, and later renamed to Pão de Açúcar (Sugar Loaf), after the iconic Sugarloaf Mountain of the city. Being discovered in the pre-salt of the Santos Basin after the giant Tupi oil field (2007), then called Tupi, and just before Júpiter in January 2008, the first reports about the reserves caused high expectations. It was speculated and released to the press by a spokesman of the Brazilian national petroleum agency, Agência Nacional do Petróleo (ANP), that "the field could contain reserves as large as " of oil, which would make it the biggest discovery in 30 years and one of the largest oil fields worldwide, the biggest outside of the Middle East, surpassing the Cantarell Complex of the Gulf of Mexico and the Bolivar Coastal Field of the Venezuelan oil belt.
The operator of the field, state oil company Petrobras, refuted this statement as it was "far too early" to know the size of the field while the first appraisal well Sugar Loaf-1 was still drilling. The oil price plummeted after the announcement of the discovery. The excitement about Carioca has been mentioned as an example of "oil fever" in the exploration of the Brazilian deepwater pre-salt plays.
After appraisal of the field, the reserve estimate was downsized to and taken into production in December 2016.
Reservoir.
The reservoir of the Lapa oil field is the pre-salt Guaratiba Group, a Hauterivian to Aptian sequence of limestones and clastic sediments of which the microbialite, stromatolite-like limestone hosts vast amounts of oil. The sediments were deposited in half-grabens in the early stage of the basin evolution, with the Early Cretaceous opening of the South Atlantic caused by the break-up of Gondwana. The carbonate reservoir contains good quality light 26° API oil that was potentially producing at per day.


Kola Alkaline Province

The Kola Alkaline Province or Kola Alkaline Carbonatite Province is a discontiguous group of unusual igneous rocks centered in the Kola Peninsula of Russia and with ouliers in nearby areas of Finland and in Arkhangelsk Oblast across the White Sea. The province is made up of alkaline-ultramafic rock complexes often associated to carbonatites and stand-alone dykes and pipes made up of carbonatites, kimberlites and similar rocks. To this it adds the large nepheline syenite bodies of the Lovozero Massif and the Khibiny Mountains. An estimate puts the total volume of the rocks of the Kola Alkaline Province at 15,000 ±2,700 km3.
The more mafic silicate rocks of the province originated from small degrees of partial melting in a source region in Earth's mantle made up of garnet-bearing peridotite. The lithosphere had thicknesses similar to present-day (200 km) conditions when magmas originated in the Devonian. Prior to Devonian magmatism the Kola and Karelia region had experienced a long history of low-frenquency alkaline and carbonatite volcanism.
The Permian rocks of the Kola Alkaline Province is commonly presumed to represent an igneous hotspot created by a mantle plume. The relation of Kola Alkaline Province to other igneous or tectonic features is not clear. Some have suggested a link to the Permian Dnieper-Donets Rift while others have considered it as part of a much larger a "North Atlantic Alkaline Province".


Esquel (meteorite)

Esquel is a meteorite found near Esquel, a Patagonian town in the northwest part of the province of Chubut in Argentina. It is a pallasite, a type of stony–iron meteorite that when cut and polished shows yellowish olivine (peridot) crystals.
In 1951 a farmer uncovered a meteorite in an unknown location near Esquel while digging a hole for a water tank. The meteorite was purchased from the finders and taken to the United States in 1992 by meteorite expert Robert Haag. The Esquel pallasite is known worldwide among collectors and the meteoritical scientific community. Esquel is regarded as one of the most beautiful meteorites ever found and is also one of the most desirable pallasites among meteorite collectors. It is a main group pallasite (MGP).
Specimens.
The Meteoritical Bulletin no. 29 (1964) reports a main mass of "about 1500 kg".
However O. A. Turone claimed a main mass weight of .
Robert Haag, the buyer of the main mass, reported a weight of .
Almost all of the Esquel ever found on the market is cut from his piece.