Common Logic

Common Logic (CL) is a framework for a family of logic languages, based on first-order logic, intended to facilitate the exchange and transmission of knowledge in computer-based systems.
The CL definition permits and encourages the development of a variety of different syntactic forms, called "dialects". A dialect may use any desired syntax, but it must be possible to demonstrate precisely how the concrete syntax of a dialect conforms to the abstract CL semantics, which are based on a model theoretic interpretation. Each dialect may be then treated as a formal language. Once syntactic conformance is established, a dialect gets the CL semantics for free, as they are specified relative to the abstract syntax only, and hence are inherited by any conformant dialect. In addition, all CL dialects are equivalent (i.e., can be automatically translated to each other), although some may be more expressive than others.
In general, a less expressive subset of CL may be translated to a more expressive version of CL, but the reverse translation is only defined on a subset of the larger language.
The ISO Standard.
Common Logic is published by ISO as "ISO/IEC 24707:2007 - Information technology — Common Logic (CL): a framework for a family of logic-based languages". It is available for purchase from ISO's catalog, and is freely available from ISO's index of publicly available standards.
The CL Standard includes specifications for three dialects, the Common Logic Interchange Format (CLIF) (Annex A), the Conceptual Graph Interchange Format (CGIF) (Annex B), and an XML-based notation for Common Logic (XCL) (Annex C).
The semantics of these dialects are defined in the Standard by their translation to the abstract syntax and semantics of Common Logic.
Many other logic-based languages could also be defined as subsets of CL by means of similar translations; among them are the RDF and OWL languages, which have been defined by the W3C.
The ISO standard's development began in June 2003 under Working Group 2 (Metadata) of Sub-Committee 32 (Data Interchange) under ISO/IEC JTC1, and was completed in October 2007. A technical corrigendum, correcting some errors in the original standard, is being prepared at the time being.


Puneri

This word explains the characteristics related to the Indian city Pune. Puneri word is referred in following areas.


Belarusian history in the Russian Empire

The Belarusian history within the Russian Empire is associated with the history of Belarus from the Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth to the October Revolution when the present-day Belarus' lands were made part of the Russian Empire.
Territorial growth.
The First Partition of Poland (1772) awarded only some parts of the Belarusian lands,
northern part of the Polotsk Voivodeship, entire Mstsislaw Voivodeship and Vitebsk Voivodeship, and southeastern part of the Minsk Voivodeship, which became parts of the Pskov and the Mogilev "guberniyas" (governorates).
In 1776, the Polotsk Governorate was created after separating from the original Russian lands of the Pskov Governorate.
The second partition (1793) added more (the remaining part of Minsk Voivodeship, Bracław Voivodeship and Vilnius Voivodeship and Brest Litovsk Voivodeship). After the third partition virtually all Belarusian lands were within the Russian Empire, and the Belarusian "guberniyas" eventually constituted part of the Northwestern Krai.
Russo-Polish power struggle.
Initially, most of the Polish feudal system was retained in Belarusian lands, the polonized Litvin Catholic Szlachta dominated the territories, whilst most of the Ruthenian population was peasantry. Unlike the strong nationalist drive seen in Right-Bank Ukraine, a legacy of the Cossacks following the partitions, most of the Belarusian lands remained inert in terms of changes.
Polish nationalism sparked the rise of Belarusian self-identity. In 1830, the szlachta, began the November Uprising and after its failure, Nicholas I began a systematic policy of cracking down on Polish influence in the lands of modern Belarus that were claimed by Russian tsars as "White Russia". First the ruling class was removed, and the Belarusian Greek Catholic Church, at the Synod of Polotsk reverted to Eastern Orthodoxy under the leadership of Joseph Semashko in 1839.
Meanwhile, since the mid-1830s, ethnographic works about Belarus began to appear, the tentative attempts to study the language were taken up (e.g., Belarusian grammar by Shpilevskiy). The Belarusian literary tradition began to re-form, basing on the folk language instead of the written Ruthenian, initiated by the works of Vintsent Dunin-Martsinkyevich, Jan Czeczot, Jan Barszczewski and others. Still, a large part of the literature had to hide itself behind the labels of "Polish" or sometimes even "Bulgarian", because Russian censorship did not tolerate the Belarusian national movement up until the Revolution of 1905.
In the beginning of the 1860s, both pro-Russian and pro-Polish parties in the Belarusian lands had begun to realise that the decisive role in the upcoming conflicts was shifting to the peasantry. So, a large amount of propaganda appeared, targeted at the peasantry and published in the Belarusian language. Notably, the anti-Russian, anti-Tsarist, anti-Eastern Orthodox "Manifest" and newspaper "Peasants' Truth" (1862–1863) by Kalinowski, the anti-Polish, anti-Revolutionary, pro-Orthodox booklets and poems (1862).
Industrialisation & rise of Belarusian nationality.
The 1860s marked a turning point of Belarus in the Russian Empire. The emancipation of the serfs in 1861, followed by the January Uprising fully left the Polish influence on Belarus behind. A number of authors started publishing in the Belarusian language, including Jan Czeczot, Władysław Syrokomla and Konstanty Kalinowski. What followed was the Industrial Revolution under Alexander III and with it the arrival of the railways Peasants sought a better lot in growing industrial centres in Belarus and a further 1.5 million people leaving to other parts of the Empire in the half-century preceding the Russian Revolution of 1917.
During this time the Russification of Belarusian culture brought to the results that in the 1897 Russian Empire Census, about 5.89 million people declared themselves speakers of "Belarusian" language rather than "Litvin" or "Ruthenian", as they did under Polish rule. The Belarusian nobility and middle class had a firm footing in the regions and Stolypin's reforms allowed the peasants standard of living to greatly increase. However at the same time, many rising Belarusian nationalists, were fearing that the growth of the Russian influence on their culture, and as a result played a decisive role in the 1905 Revolution afterwards Nicholas II officially recognised Belarusian language as independent and allowed its teachings.
Aftermath.
During World War I Belarus was caught in the front lines. The Russian Revolution of 1917 and dissolution of the Russian Empire as well as loyalty of the Germans enabled Belarusians, to establish in 1918 an independent state, the Belarusian People's Republic. However, by 1919 Bolsheviks took control over Belarus and forced the country's democratic government into exile.
Today the period of Belarus in Russian Empire is viewed with some controversy. On one side, many recognise that the period enabled the Litvin and Ruthenian identity to transform into a modern Belarusian nationality. On the other, in doing so, many traits, though coming via Poland of the Belarusian culture were lost under Tsarist pressure.


Portuguese vocabulary

Most of the Portuguese vocabulary comes from Latin because Portuguese is a Romance language.
However, other languages that came into contact with it have also left their mark. In the thirteenth century, the lexicon of Portuguese had about 80% words of Latin origin and 20% of pre-Roman Gallaecian and Celtiberian, Germanic, Greek and Arabic origin.
Pre-Roman languages of Portugal.
Traces of the languages from native peoples of western Iberia (Gallaeci, Lusitanians, Celtici or Conii) persist in Portuguese, as shown below. Most of the pre-Roman placenames or rivers in Portugal originate from the Hispano-Celtic Gallaecian and Celtiberian languages. There are also a few Iberian, Basque and Tartessian components in Portuguese.
List of Portuguese words of Iberian and Basque origin.
Iberian-Basque.
Projections on Iberian vocabulary, toponyms and derivations in Portuguese, indicate just a few dozen words in total.
Basque.
The Basque influence in Portuguese is believed to have entered mainly through Spanish, because many of those who took part in the Reconquista and later repopulation campaigns in Portugal, were of Basque lineage.
Celtic.
Although there is not a comprehensive study or wordcount on how much Celtic, (particularly Gallaecian and words from the Hispano-Celtic group) survived in Portuguese (and Galician); it is fair to say that after Latin, this is the second largest component in the Portuguese culture and language. Projections on Celtic vocabulary (some words may have come via French borrowings starting in the 12th century), toponyms and derivations in Portuguese, indicate well over 1,500 words. The Celtic substratum is often overlooked, due to the strong Latinisation of Celtic-derived words in Portuguese.
List of towns and places.
Names.
Surnames.
A considerable number of the Portuguese surnames (spread in all Portuguese-speaking countries and ex-colonies today) is Celtic or of Latinised, Celtic-borrowings. This is not a comprehensive list of those.
Germanic languages.
The main Germanic influence in Portuguese were the Suebi and Visigoths (also Buri and Vandals).
Their vocabulary in Portuguese is often related to warfare/military topics, animals texugo (badger), natural world orvalho (dew), Human qualities like franqueza (frankness, candour), orgulho (pride), some verbs like ganhar (to gain), town and placenames such as Aldão, Alderete, Albergaria-a-Velha, Albergaria-a-Nova (from Gothic 'haribergo'), Ermesinde and Esposende, where "sinde" and "sende" for instance; are derived from the Germanic "sinths" (military expedition), numerous Suebi derivations like, Freamunde (from 'Fredemundus'), Vermunde, Amonde (Onomondi), Samonde, Gimonde, Aldão, Guadramil, Gondomil, Samil, Gosende, Guilhofrei (from Geodefredis), Esmoriz, Esmeriz (toponymics of Hermeric, king of the Suebians), Alhariz (toponymic of Aliaricus), Oriz, Touriz, Roriz, Gavieira, Gondoriz, Gondizalves, Gondar, Gondomar (from Gundomarus), Gondarém, Gudim, Guimarães (from Vimara), Torres Vedras (from Turres Veteras, 'old tower'), Sousa, Terras de Sousa and Terras de Bouro (land of the Buri), Serra do Bouro, Bouro, are found mainly in the Minho (Braga) and Douro (Porto) regions- these two provinces present the highest concentration of Germanic toponyms in the Iberian Peninsula, as they historically correspond to old the Suebic Kingdom in the middle-ages.
Many of the Germanic words entered the language during the late antiquity, either as words introduced into Vulgar Latin elsewhere, or as words brought along by the Suebi who settled in Gallaecia (Northern Portugal and Galicia) in the 5th century, and also by the Visigoths who annexed the Suebic Kingdom in 585 and ruled until the 8th century AD.
It is very difficult to establish how the Suebi and Visigoth dialects differed from each other during that period, how much linguistic assimilation occurred, and therefore almost impossible to classify words with etymological certainty.
List of Portuguese words of Germanic origin.
Because they have different Germanic origins, this list is divided into words that come from English, Frankish, Langobardic, Middle Dutch, Middle High German, Middle Low German, Old English, Old High German, Old Norse, Old Swedish, and Visigothic and finally, words which come from a Germanic root, where the specific source is unknown or uncertain. Projections indicate over 600 Germanic words in Portuguese, with a tendency to increase due to English, German and other modern influences. Some of these words existed in Latin as loanwords from other languages. Some of these words have alternate etymologies and may also appear on a list of Galician words from a different language. Some words contain non-Germanic elements. Any form with an asterisk (*) is unattested and therefore hypothetical.
from Norwegian.
Langobardic:
Germanic Names.
Ancient Roman-derived names are the most numerous in Portugal and Portuguese-speaking countries. Together with Germanic-derived names they constitute the majority of those (and similarly to most European/Western countries inherited also a number of ancient Greek and Hebrew names) today. With globalisation, a number of new Germanic names (and other origins) exist in Portuguese. Because they stem from the same root, Portuguese and Galician share common Germanic names, inherited from the Suevi (who settled in northern Portugal and Galicia in 409 AD), Visigoths, Vandals, Buri and other Germanic peoples, were often the most common Portuguese-Galician names during the early and high Middle Ages. This article deals with Germanic personal names recorded and used in northern Portugal, Galicia and its adjoining regions: territories of the kingdom of the Suebi during the early Middle Ages from its 409 settlement to the 12th century.
Germanic names.
Germanic names were the most common personal names in Portugal-Galicia (Gallaecia) during the early and high Middle Ages, surpassing Christian and Roman names in number and popularity. The names, primarily of East Germanic origin, were used by the Suebi, Goths, Vandals and Burgundians. With the names, the Galicians-Portuguese inherited the Germanic onomastic system; a person used one name (sometimes a nickname or alias), with no surname, occasionally adding a patronymic. More than 1,000 such names have been preserved in local records. and in local toponyms.
Many of the Germanic names were composite, with the second element usually a noun with the same gender of the bearer. Others were hypocorisms formed from a composite name or deriving from it. Less frequently, a name was a noun or an adjective.
These names were transmitted to the Suevi with the usual Germanic rules of inheritance, which were variations (passing one element of the name; Rechiar was the son of Rechila, who was the son of Hermeric) and alliteration (names beginning with the same sound; Maldras was the son of the nobleman Masila). Full names were later transmitted from grandfather to grandson (commemoration), following a trend common until the present in most of western Europe.
Adaptations.
In addition to the conversion of many Germanic endings into Romance or Latin endings, the names had phonetic adaptations such as the change of word stress from the first to the penultimate syllable, the conversion of most [þ] into [t] or [d] and the conversion of [h] into [k] before a consonant. [W] was initially preserved, although noted as [u] or [oy] before becoming [gw] (or, less commonly, [b]). These early inherited names underwent Western Romance and Galician changes from Latin, such as consonant lenition and palatalization. This contributed to a large number of variants in recorded names; Ostrofredus was recorded in Portugal-Galicia as Ortofredus, Ostofredo, Ostouredus, Ostrofedone, Stobredo and Strofredo.
Names used by the Suevi.
The following names, used by the Suevi of Gallaecia during the fifth and sixth centuries, were recorded in chronicles, inscriptions and acts of local ecclesiastical councils:
"Hermericus, Heremigarius, Rechila, Rechiarius, Agriulfum, Maldras, Massila, Framta, Frumarius, Rechimundus, Remismundus, Veremundus, Chararici, Ariamirus, Ildericus, Theudomirus, Miro, Nitigisius, Uittimer, Anila, Remisol, Adoric, Eboricus, Siseguntia f, Audeca, Malaricus, Pantardus, Neufila, Hildemirus, Commundus, Ermaricus, Sunila, Becilla, Gardingus, Argiovitus, Gomedei, Rodomiro, Ermengontia f, Remisiwera f, Thuresmuda f, Suinthiliuba f."
Many of the names, used by kings such as Miro, Reckila and Theudemirus, were used for local toponyms: Mirón, Requián, Requiás, Requiás and Receá, Tuimil and Toimil.
Roots.
The following is a list of the roots used to form Germanic personal names in Galicia-Portugal and northwestern Iberia. Many are related to war, victory, fame, boldness, strength and warlike qualities ("bald-, funs-, hild-, gund-, nand-, rod-, seg-, send-"), totemic animals ("ar-, wulf-, ber-, ebur-") and weapons ("brand-, bruni-, rand-, saru-"); many others refer to knowledge, love and other peaceful qualities ("fred-, leob-, mun-, ragi-, rad-, uin-"). Some refer to the condition of ruler or master ("fro-, ric-, vald-, Froya, Theodinus, Tructinus, Hendinus"). Another group refers to the tribe, nation or country ("conia-, fulc-, teod-, leod-, man-, truct-, gavi-, gogi-, kend-"), and another appears to refer to Huns ("Hun-"), Suevi ("Sav-"), Goths ("Gut-"), Vandals ("Vandal-"), Celts ("Vala-"), Vendians/Slavs ("Venet-"), Galindians/Balths ("Galind-"), Franks ("Frank-"), Saxons ("Sax-"), Angles ("Engl-"), Danes ("Dan-") and other peoples. Although some elements are identical to others found in Celtic anthroponymy ("And-, Dag-, -mar, -riks"), others appear to be adaptations of Latin words and names incorporated in the Danube region: "Florens, Fortis, Crescens".
Forms marked with an asterisk are unrecorded and hypothetical. PGmc is an abbreviation for Proto-Germanic.
Feminine roots.
Elements common as the second syllable of feminine names include:
Suffixes used to derive hypocoristic feminine names include:
Masculine roots.
Elements common as the second syllable of masculine names include:
Suffixes used to derive hypocoristic masculine names are:
Superlative and comparative suffixes were also used in forming personal names:
"-iza": Boniza, Wittiza
"-istaz": Ariastre, Belestrio, Fromesta, Remestro, Segestro
Other suffixes imply origin or relationship:
Toponyms.
Many of these names are also toponyms (towns, parishes, villages, hamlets and fields), usually in the form of a Latin or Germanic genitive of the owner's name and sometimes preceded by the type of property (a Portuguese-Galician word of Latin, Germanic or pre-Latin origin) such as "vila" (villa, palace, estate), "vilar" (hamlet) "castro" (castle), "casa" (house), "porta" (pass, ford), "agro" (field), "sa" (Germanic "sala"; hall, house), "busto" (dairy), "cabana" (cabin), "lama" (pastures), "fonte" (well, spring), "pena" (fort), "pomar" (orchard) and "vale" (valley). This kind of name is present all over Northern Portugal:
b) Sigefredo (Siegfried = victorious peace), Gondomar (the first element means «sword»), Arganil (from hargis, army), Adães e Adufe (from hathus = fight); hildis (= fight) and Tagilde, etc.; Tresmonde, Trasmil, etc. from thras (= dispute); for Ermesinde and Esposende comes sinths (= military expedition). Also citing Antenor Nascentes pg. XXI of his "Dicionário Etimológico da Língua Portuguesa":
Several thousand such toponyms are known in northern Portugal, Galicia, western Asturias and other territories which were part of the Suebi kingdom.
Arabic.
Between the 8th and mid 13th centuries, Portugal was occupied and under the influence of the Islamic Emirate of Cordoba known as (Al-Andalus). During that period, although the local populations continued to speak Western Romance, and further south Mozarabic dialects; Arabic being the elite language, lent many new words to Portuguese, thanks to a rich cultural and scientific legacy left in the Iberian Peninsula and the Western world in the Middle Ages.


Emanuel Gil-Av

Emanuel Gil-Av (Zimkin) (7 August 1916 – 24 March 1996) was an Israeli chemist. The main emphasis of his work constituted chiral chromatography for the analytical separation of enantiomers.
Life and Work.
Emanuel Gil-Av was born 1916 in Pensa of Tzarist Russia. After the death of his father, a physician, the family moved first to Central Europe and in 1928 to Tel-Aviv, Israel, where Gil-Av attended High School. Gil-Av studied petroleum chemistry at the University of Strasbourg. In 1940 he escaped the German occupation to England where he worked at first in the chemical laboratory of Chaim Weizmann, followed by the Petrochemical Ltd. in Manchester. After World War II, he moved to Palestine and he joined the Daniel Sieff Institute in Rehovot which was later on to become the Weizmann Institute of Science. In 1951 he earned his PhD under the supervision of Ernst David Bergmann.
In his study of oil shale deposits, Gil-Av developed complex-forming stationary phases employing silver(I) ions for selective olefin separations by gas chromatography (GC). In co-operation with the centre of peptide chemistry at the Weizmann Institute of Science, he developed methods of the gas-chromatographic resolution of racemic α-amino acids. By coating a glass capillary column with the chiral stationary phase (CSP) "N"-trifluoroacetyl-L-isoleucine lauryl ester, Gil-Av et al. carried out in 1966 the first gas-chromatographic enantioseparation of racemic amino acids as "N"-trifluoroacetyl-"O"-alkyl derivatives. Many racemic compounds, amenable for enantioselective interaction via hydrogen bonding with the CSP, could be analytically enantioseparated by GC.
Further contributions of Gil-Av and associates are concerned with the use of chiral mobile phase additives (CMPAs) in liquid chromatography (LC), enantiomeric separation of helicenes by supramolecular LC, the temperature-dependent reversal of enantioselectivity by enthalpy-entropy compensation and non-linear effects leading to enantiomeric enrichment during chromatography on achiral stationary phases.


General visceral afferent fiber

The general visceral afferent (GVA) fibers conduct sensory impulses (usually pain or reflex sensations) from the internal organs, glands, and blood vessels to the central nervous system. They are considered to be part of the visceral nervous system, which is closely related to the autonomic nervous system, but 'visceral nervous system' and 'autonomic nervous system' are not direct synonyms and care should be taken when using these terms. Unlike the efferent fibers of the autonomic nervous system, the afferent fibers are not classified as either sympathetic or parasympathetic.
GVA fibers create referred pain by activating general somatic afferent fibers where the two meet in the posterior grey column.
The cranial nerves that contain GVA fibers include the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) and the vagus nerve (CN X).
Generally, they are insensitive to cutting, crushing or burning; however, excessive tension in smooth muscle and some pathological conditions produce visceral pain (referred pain).
Pathway.
Abdomen.
In the abdomen, general visceral afferent fibers usually accompany sympathetic efferent fibers. This means that a signal traveling in an afferent fiber will begin at sensory receptors in the afferent fiber's target organ, travel up to the ganglion where the sympathetic efferent fiber synapses, continue back along a splanchnic nerve from the ganglion into the sympathetic trunk, move into a ventral ramus via a white ramus communicans, and finally move into the mixed spinal nerve between the division of the rami and the division of the roots of the spinal nerve. The GVA pathway then diverges from the sympathetic efferent pathway, which follows the ventral root into the spinal column, by following the dorsal root into the dorsal root ganglion, where the cell body of the visceral afferent nerve is located. Finally, the signal continues along the dorsal root from the dorsal root ganglion to a region of gray matter in the dorsal horn of the spinal column where it is transmitted via a synapse to a neuron in the central nervous system.
The only GVA nerves in the abdomen that do not follow the above pathway are those that innervate structures in the distal half of the sigmoid colon and the rectum. These afferent fibers, instead, follow the path of parasympathetic efferent fibers back to the vertebral column, where the afferent fibers enter the S2-S4 sensory (dorsal root) ganglia followed by the spinal cord.
Pelvis.
The course of GVA fibers from organs in the pelvis, in general, depends on the organ's position relative to the pelvic pain line. An organ, or part of an organ, in the pelvis is said to be "above the pelvic pain line" if it is in contact with the peritoneum, except in the case of the large intestine, where the pelvic pain line is said to be located in the middle of the sigmoid colon. GVA fibers from structures above the pain line follow the course of the sympathetic efferent fibers, and GVA fibers from structures below the pain line follow the course of the parasympathetic efferents. Pain from the latter fibers is less likely to be consciously experienced.
Neurotransmitters.
For many of these visceral afferents, their endings in the periphery and in the spinal cord contain substance P and other neuropeptides of the tachykinin family, such as neurokinin A and neurokinin B, specifically in the sympathetic portion of these fibres.


Pierre Blanchar

Pierre Blanchar (30 June 1892 – 21 November 1963) was a French actor. He appeared in 54 films between 1922 and 1961. Blanchar was married to actress Marthe Vinot, with whom he had a daughter, actress Dominique Blanchar.


Monocular vision

Monocular vision is vision in which both eyes are used separately in animals and monocular vision in human species is vision when only one eye is used. By using the eyes in this way the field of view is increased, while depth perception is limited. The eyes of an animal with monocular vision are positioned on opposite sides of the animal's head, giving it the ability to see two objects at once. The word monocular comes from the Greek root, "mono" for single, and the Latin root, "oculus" for eye.
Related medical conditions.
Monocular vision impairment refers to having no vision in one eye with adequate vision in the other.
Monopsia is a medical condition in humans who cannot perceive three-dimensionally even though their two eyes are medically normal, healthy, and spaced apart in a normal way. Vision that perceives three-dimensional depth requires more than parallax. In addition, the resolution of the two disparate images, though highly similar, must be simultaneous, subconscious, and complete. (After-images and "phantom" images are symptoms of incomplete visual resolution, even though the eyes themselves exhibit remarkable acuity.) A feature article in "The New Yorker" magazine published in early 2006 dealt with one individual in particular, who, learning to cope with her disability, eventually learned how to see three-dimensional depth in her daily life. Medical tests are available for determining monoptic conditions in humans.
Monocular cues.
Monocular cues provide depth information when viewing a scene with one eye.
Recent advances in computational machine learning now allow monocular depth for an entire scene to be algorithmically estimated from a single digital image by implicitly using one or more of these cues
Balance.
Vision has been known to play an important role in balance and postural control in humans, along with proprioception and vestibular function. Monocular vision affects how the brain perceives its surroundings by decreasing the available visual field, impairing peripheral vision on one side of the body, and compromising depth perception, all three of which are major contributors to the role of vision in balance. Studies comparing monocular vision to binocular (two eyes) vision in cataract patients (pre and post surgery), glaucoma patients (compared with healthy age matched controls), and in healthy adults and children (in both binocular and monocular conditions) have all shown to negatively impact balance and postural control than when both eyes are available. Each of the studied populations still displayed better balance when having only one eye compared to having both eyes closed.


Kermit Bloomgarden

Kermit Bloomgarden (December 15, 1904 – September 20, 1976) was an American theatrical producer. He was an accountant before he began producing plays on Broadway including "Death of a Salesman" (1949), "The Diary of Anne Frank" (1955), "The Music Man" (1957), "Look Homeward, Angel" (1957), and "Equus" (1973).
Early life.
Bloomgarden was born in Brooklyn to Zemad and Annie (née Groden) Bloomgarden, where he attended the local public schools. He majored in accounting at New York University and became a Certified Public Accountant after his graduation in 1926.
Career.
Bloomgarden transitioned into theater after meeting Arthur Beckhard at a 1932 dinner party, who convinced Bloomgarden, as he later recounted, that "the theater was for me". He worked for Beckhard as his general manager, before accepting the same position with Herman Shumlin. In his ten years with Shumlin, he helped produce a number of Lillian Hellman's plays, including "The Children's Hour" (1934), "The Little Foxes" (1939), and "Watch on the Rhine" (1942), and "The Lark" (1952), Hellman's English-language version of the play "L'Alouette" by Jean Anouilh. Bloomgarden also mounted Hellman's last play "Toys in the Attic" (1960).
His first producing effort was "Heavenly Express" (1940), starring John Garfield, which closed shortly after it opened. His first hit was "Deep Are the Roots" (1945), followed by Hellman's "Another Part of the Forest" (1946). "Command Decision" (1947) written by William Wister Haines, followed, with Paul Kelly sharing the Best Actor Tony Award that year for his performance and James Whitmore earning the Tony for "Best Performance by a Newcomer". Bloomgarden had a major string of success that culminated with the February 1949 opening of Arthur Miller's "Death of a Salesman", which earned a Tony Award, Drama Desk Award and the Pulitzer Prize.
The winning streak ended with Lillian Hellman's works "Montserrat" (1949) and "The Autumn Garden" (1950), but he got back on track with a revival of Hellman's "The Children's Hour" soon thereafter. Bloomgarden produced Arthur Miller's modestly successful "A View From the Bridge" (1955), followed by "The Most Happy Fella" (1956), starring Robert Weede, and "The Diary of Anne Frank" (1957).
In November 1957, Bloomgarden opened "Look Homeward, Angel", based on the novel by Thomas Wolfe. Ketti Frings, better known for her screenplays, wrote the play, and George Roy Hill, who had worked mostly in television, directed. The show made Anthony Perkins a star.
Later career and death.
Arteriosclerosis forced the amputation of his right leg in 1971. "Scott Rudin", the recently successful Broadway producer, worked for Bloomgarden; he relates on NPR's "Fresh Air" (June 6,2016), how he once carried the artificial leg for repair on NY public transport ... one of the most memorable days in his life. After a lengthy recuperation, Kermit triumphantly returned to producing with the off-Broadway transfer of the Circle Repertory Company production of Lanford Wilson's "The Hot l Baltimore", which ran for 1,166 performances and won the New York Drama Critics Circle Award for Best American Play. Afterwards, he brought Peter Shaffer's "Equus" to the stage in 1974, which he had co-produced with Doris Abrahams.
Bloomgarden died at age 71 in his New York City home on September 20, 1976, having dealt with a brain tumor for six months before his death. In 1983, Bloomgarden was posthumously inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame.


Glossary of oilfield jargon

Oilfield terminology refers to the jargon used by those working in fields within and related to the upstream segment of the petroleum industry. It includes words and phrases describing professions, equipment, and procedures specific to the industry. It may also include slang terms used by oilfield workers to describe the same.


Annual Review of Neuroscience

The Annual Review of Neuroscience is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes review articles relevant to neuroscience. In publication since 1978 by Annual Reviews, founding editor W. Maxwell Cowan led the editorial committee until his death in 2002. Botond Roska and Huda Y. Zoghbi have been co-editors since 2017.
History.
In 1975, the nonprofit publisher Annual Reviews had two meetings in New York to coincide with the annual meeting of the Society for Neuroscience. In the meetings, neuroscientists from the US and Canada concurred that it would be useful to establish a journal that published an annual volume of review articles relevant to neuroscience. The board of directors of Annual Reviews gave the final approval for the journal in early 1976, appointing the first editorial committee with W. Maxwell Cowan appointed editor. In April 1976 the editorial committee planned the first volume of the journal, which was published in 1978. As of 2021, it was published both in print and electronically. Some of its articles are available online in advance of the volume's publication date.
Scope and indexing.
The "Annual Review of Neuroscience" defines its scope as covering significant developments in the field of neuroscience, including the subfields of molecular neuroscience, cellular neuroscience, neurodevelopment, neurogenetics, neuroplasticity, systems neuroscience, neurological disorders, and the history and ethics of neuroscience. As of 2019, "Journal Citation Reports" lists the journal's impact factor as 12.547, ranking it ninth of 271 journal titles in the category "Neurosciences". It is abstracted and indexed in Scopus, CAB Abstracts, EMBASE, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, and Academic Search, among others.
Editorial processes.
The "Annual Review of Neuroscience" is helmed by the editor or the co-editors. The editor is assisted by the editorial committee, which includes associate editors, regular members, and occasionally guest editors. Guest members participate at the invitation of the editor, and serve terms of one year. All other members of the editorial committee are appointed by the Annual Reviews board of directors and serve five-year terms. The editorial committee determines which topics should be included in each volume and solicits reviews from qualified authors. Unsolicited manuscripts are not accepted. Peer review of accepted manuscripts is undertaken by the editorial committee.
Current editorial committee.
As of 2021, the editorial committee consists of two co-editors and the following members:


MDMAI

5,6-Methylenedioxy-"N"-methyl-2-aminoindane (MDMAI), is a drug developed in the 1990s by a team led by David E. Nichols at Purdue University. It acts as a non-neurotoxic and highly selective serotonin releasing agent (SSRA) in animals and a putative entactogen in humans.
Chemistry.
MDMAI can be thought of as a cyclised analogue of MDMA where the alpha-methyl carbon of the alkylamino side chain has been joined back round to the 6-position of the aromatic ring to form an indane ring system. This changes the core structure of the molecule from phenethylamine to aminoindane, and causes the pharmacological properties of the two compounds to be substantially different.


Vagotonia

Vagotonia is the state of the autonomic nervous system in which the equilibrium between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system is biased towards the parasympathetic, the opposite phenomenon being sympatheticotonia.
There is an associated clinical syndrome with low blood pressure (hypotension), low heart rate (bradycardia), miosis, often cold hands and feet, a cold and clammy diaphoresis, severe fatigue, and sometimes vasovagal syncope.
Description.
The parasympathetic nervous system is dominant in situations of rest and relaxation, it has an activating effect on digestive organs and a relieving one on the heart. Endurance training supports vagotonia. For example, a low heart rate may be observed with sportsmen. With trained people vagotonia isn't regarded as abnormal, but rather as beneficial and protective in effect.


Scotland Yard Hunts Dr. Mabuse

Scotland Yard Hunts Dr. Mabuse or Scotland Yard vs. Dr Mabuse () is a 1963 German crime film directed by Paul May and starring Peter van Eyck. "Scotland Yard vs. Dr. Mabuse" was distributed in West Germany by Gloria Film, premiering on 20 September 1963. The film was based on a story written by Bryan Edgar Wallace It was shot at the Spandau Studios in Berlin. The film's sets were designed by the art directors Albrecht Hennings and Hans Kuhnert


Trois coups

In theatre, les trois coups (the three blows) are hit on the floor of the stage with a stick called "brigadier", just before the start of a performance, in order to attract public attention for the rise of the curtain.
This tradition, especially in France, may come from the Middle Ages, where three blows, symbolizing the Trinity, ended the mystery. These three blows could be preceded by eleven hammered ones (the twelve Apostles minus Judas). They may also be a tribute to the nine muses of ancient Greece. Hence, there would be nine rapid blows plus the "trois coups", thus twelve blows. Twelve, being a perfect number in its symbolism, symbolized the unity of theatre.
Another explanation matches the three blows with the three bows that comedians performed before playing in front of the Court: the first one to the contender (, left), the second one to the machinist (, right), and the third to the audience.
In French classical theatre, the dramaturge pounded the ground with twelve quick blows to announce to the machinists the start of the performance. Then a first blow came in response from the fly system operators; a second response rose from below the stage and a third one came from the opposite wing. Each machinist being in their position for the performance, the dramaturge could open the curtain.
The military rank of "brigadier" was given to a worker leading a team. The dramaturge, using a stick to hit the three blows, gathered the theatre staff to begin the show, like a brigadier gathering his men. Through metonymy, the stick itself was called a "brigadier".
The theatre brigadier is traditionally made of wood with a piece of theatre pole, decorated with red velvet and gold studded nails.
For years the Comédie-Française would hit six blows in order to commemorate the uniting of the two troupes, that of the Hôtel de Bourgogne and Molière's company, previously associated with that of the Théâtre du Marais under Louis XIV, allowing for daily performances.


Thoracic splanchnic nerves

Thoracic splanchnic nerves are splanchnic nerves that arise from the sympathetic trunk in the thorax and travel inferiorly to provide sympathetic innervation to the abdomen. The nerves contain preganglionic sympathetic fibers and general visceral afferent fibers.
Nerves.
There are three main thoracic splanchnic nerves.


Preview (theatre)

Previews are a set of public performances of a theatrical presentation that precede its official opening. The purpose of previews is to allow the director and crew to identify problems and opportunities for improvement that weren't found during rehearsals and to make adjustments before critics are invited to attend. The duration of the preview period varies, and ticket prices may be reduced.
The term can also be used to describe an exhibition of a film to evaluate an audience's reaction and make possible changes before its official release. (This is different from a "trailer", a short advertisement for a finished film.)


Tipepidine

Tipepidine (INN) (brand names Asverin, Antupex, Asvelik, Asvex, Bitiodin, Cofdenin A, Hustel, Nodal, Sotal), also known as tipepidine hibenzate (JAN), is a synthetic, non-opioid antitussive and expectorant of the thiambutene class. It acts as an inhibitor of G protein-coupled inwardly-rectifying potassium channels (GIRKs). The drug was discovered in the 1950s, and was developed in Japan in 1959. It is used as the hibenzate and citrate salts.
The usual dose is 20 mg every 4–6 hours. Possible side effects of tipepidine, especially in overdose, may include drowsiness, vertigo, delirium, disorientation, loss of consciousness, and confusion.
Tipepidine has recently garnered interest as a potential psychiatric drug. It is being investigated in depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Through inhibition of GIRK channels, tipepidine increases dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens, but without increasing locomotor activity or producing methamphetamine-like behavioral sensitization, and this action appears to be at least partly responsible for its antidepressant-like effects in rodents.


Languages of the African Union

The languages of the African Union are languages used by citizens within the member states of the African Union (AU). For languages of the institution, see African Union: Languages.
Overview.
The African Union has not legally defined specific working languages, though they do say that the working languages "shall be, if possible, African languages, Arabic, English, French and Portuguese." The prominence of Arabic in many African countries is due to the Arab expansion into Africa from the 7th century, with subsequent Arabization of local populations. Indo-European languages were introduced during the European colonisation from the 15th century.
In 2001, the AU created the African Academy of Languages (ACALAN) to harmonize the various languages across the continent and safeguard any that are on the verge of becoming extinct. To that end, the AU declared 2006 the Year of African Languages. 2006 also marked Ghana's 55th anniversary since it founded the Bureau of Ghana Languages originally known as Gold Coast Vernacular Literature Bureau.


Fastigial nucleus

The fastigial nucleus is located in the cerebellum. It is one of the four deep cerebellar nuclei (the others being the nucleus dentatus, nucleus emboliformis and nucleus globosus), and is grey matter embedded in the white matter of the cerebellum.
It refers specifically to the concentration of gray matter nearest to the middle line at the anterior end of the superior vermis, and immediately over the roof of the fourth ventricle (the peak of which is called the "fastigium"), from which it is separated by a thin layer of white matter. It is smaller than the nucleus dentatus, but somewhat larger than the nucleus emboliformis and nucleus globosus.
Although it is one dense mass, it is made up of two sections: the rostral fastigial nucleus and the caudal fastigial nucleus.
Structure.
The Purkinje cells of the cerebellar cortex project into the deep cerebellar nuclei and inhibit the excitatory output system via GABAergic synapses. The fastigial nucleus receives its input from Purkinje cells in the vermis. Most of its efferent connections travel via the inferior cerebellar peduncle to the vestibular nuclei, which are located at the junction of the pons and the medulla oblongata.
The fastigial nucleus sends excitatory projections beyond the cerebellum. The likely neurotransmitters of fastigial nucleus axons are glutamate and aspartate.
Rostral fastigial nucleus.
The rostral fastigial nucleus (rFN) is related to the vestibular system. It receives input from the vestibular nuclei and contributes to vestibular neuronal activity. The rFN interprets body motion and places it on spatial planes to estimate the movement of the body through space. It deals with antigravity muscle groups and other synergies involved with standing and walking.
Caudal fastigial nucleus.
The caudal fastigial nucleus (cFN) is related to saccadic eye movements. The Purkinje cell output from the oculomotor vermis relays through the cFN, where neurons directly related to saccadic eye movements are located.


Gens (anthropology)

Gens was used by Lewis H. Morgan (in Ancient Society) and Friedrich Engels (in The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State), among others, to refer to a group of people who were related through their female ancestor, in a gens organized according to mother-right, or through their male ancestor, in a gens organized according to father-right. It is also used by other anthropology writers to refer exclusively to groups of people who are related through their male ancestor.


List of regions in the human brain

The human brain anatomical regions are ordered following standard neuroanatomy hierarchies. Functional, connective, and developmental regions are listed in parentheses where appropriate.
Forebrain (prosencephalon).
Diencephalon.
Third ventricle.
And Circumvetricular Organs, including the former.
Limbic system.
The limbic system, also known as the paleomammalian cortex, is a set of brain structures located on both sides of the thalamus, immediately beneath the medial temporal lobe of the cerebrum primarily in the midbrain. The classification of structures as part of the limbic system is historical and originates from the position of the structures at the boundary between two functionally distinct components (hence, the name limbus, meaning border) and the structures' shared roles in emotional processes (see limbic system for more details). Hence, there is overlap of structures in the limbic system and in other classifications of brain structures. The following areas have been considered part of the limbic system.
Other areas that have been included in the limbic system include the:


Thoracic spinal nerve 2

The thoracic spinal nerve 2 (T2) is a spinal nerve of the thoracic segment.
It originates from the spinal column from below the thoracic vertebra 2 (T2).


Pryvit

Pryvit ("Welcome", ) is a Ukrainian dance developed by 20th century Ukrainian performance ensembles to start off programs of Ukrainian folk dances. In it, the dancers preview dances and the various representations or regional folk costumes which will be seen later in the performance. At some point in the dance, the audience is welcomed by one or more dancers bearing wheat, bread and (sometimes visible, but always implied) salt. It is performed by amateurs and professional Ukrainian dance ensembles as well as other performers of folk dance.
The bread, salt and wheat represent the land's fertility to Ukrainian people.


Bidirectional cell

Bidirectional cells are a subset of neurons found in mammalian brains in region MT. They are characterised by having a peak response to visual motion in two, opposing, directions. They were discovered in 1984 by Albright et al.


Post-tetanic potentiation

Post-tetanic potentiation (PTP) is a form of synaptic plasticity which is short-lived and results in increased frequency of miniature excitatory postsynaptic potentials (mEPSPs) or currents (EPSCs) with no effect on amplitude in the spontaneous postsynaptic potential. It usually lasts in the range of several minutes (shorter potentiations are usually referred to as 'augmentations'). PTPs are observed when synapses are stimulated with repetitive (tetanic) pulses, by means of prolonged trains of stimuli applied at high frequencies (10 Hz to 200 Hz stimuli applied for .2 seconds to 5 seconds).
PTPs are thought to result primarily from the buildup of calcium concentration in the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron during the stimulus train. However, this is a topic under debate as changes that last this long outlive the rate at which calcium is transported out of the presynaptic neuron.
In some cases, depression can be observed instead of potentiation following the tetanic stimulus.


Rhinal cortex

The rhinal cortex is the cortex surrounding the rhinal fissure, including the entorhinal cortex and the perirhinal cortex.
It is a cortical region in the medial temporal lobe that is made up of Brodmann areas 28, 34, 35 and 36.
Input from all sensory cortices flows to the perirhinal and parahippocampal cortices, whence it continues to the entorhinal cortex and then the hippocampus. After feedback from the hippocampus, information then returns in the reverse sequence to the sensory cortices.
Explicit memory.
The rhinal cortex is proposed to be part of the neural circuit for explicit memory.
Studies comparing the results of selective lesions of the hippocampus and of the rhinal cortex found that lesions of the hippocampus alone did not impair performance on object recognition tests, but that lesions of the rhinal cortex alone caused severe anterograde and retrograde impairments on these tests. The conclusion was that object recognition (semantic memory) depends on the rhinal cortex.


Raluca Ripan

Raluca Ripan (27 June 1894 – 5 December 1972) was a Romanian chemist, and a titular member of the Romanian Academy. She wrote many treatises, especially in the field of analytical chemistry.
Biography.
She was born in Iași, in the Moldavia region of Romania; her parents were Constantin and Smaranda Ripan, both originally from Huși. She attended the local girl's high school, after which she enrolled in the Faculty of Science of the University of Iași, graduating in 1919. For her graduate studies she went to the University of Cluj in Transylvania, obtaining her PhD in 1922 under the direction of Gheorghe Spacu, with thesis "Double amines corresponding to double sulphates in the magnesium series". She is recognized as the first woman from Romania to earn a Ph.D. in the chemical sciences.
After obtaining in 1930 her Habilitation and the title of Docent, Ripan became an associate professor of analytic chemistry at the Faculty of Science of the University of Cluj. During World War II, when Cluj passed under Hungarian administration under the terms of the Second Vienna Award, the university moved to Timișoara. In July 1942 (by which time she had 53 publications), she was promoted to full professor through a decree published in Monitorul Oficial. After the war she returned to Cluj, where she served as Dean of the Faculty of Chemistry from 1948 to 1952.
In 1948, Ripan was elected titular member of the Romanian Academy, thus becoming the first woman to be inducted in that academy. In 1951 she founded the Institute of Chemistry, consisting of three sections (inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, and physical chemistry); she headed the institute until 1970. From 1951 to 1955 she served as Rector of the University of Cluj, the first woman to hold a rectorship in Romania. In 1952 she was elected deputy to the Great National Assembly for the Cluj-Nord constituency of the Cluj Region, serving in this capacity until 1957. In 1963 she was awarded an honorary degree by the Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń.
Ripan worked in the domain of complex combinations and their use in analytical chemistry. She discovered and studied new classes of complex combinations used in the determination of metals, as well as new methods of assay for thallium, lead, tellurium, selenic acid, and selenocyanates. One of her students at the University of Cluj was Ionel Haiduc (a future President of the Romanian Academy), who wrote an undergraduate thesis on polyoxometalates under her direction in 1959.
She died in Cluj-Napoca in 1972, and is buried at the city's Hajongard Cemetery. The "Raluca Ripan Institute for Research in Chemistry" is now part of Babeș-Bolyai University. A vocational high school in Cluj-Napoca also bears her name, as does a national Chemistry competition for high school students.


Synaptic vesicle

In a neuron, synaptic vesicles (or neurotransmitter vesicles) store various neurotransmitters that are released at the synapse. The release is regulated by a voltage-dependent calcium channel. Vesicles are essential for propagating nerve impulses between neurons and are constantly recreated by the cell. The area in the axon that holds groups of vesicles is an axon terminal or "terminal bouton". Up to 130 vesicles can be released per bouton over a ten-minute period of stimulation at 0.2 Hz. In the visual cortex of the human brain, synaptic vesicles have an average diameter of 39.5 nanometers (nm) with a standard deviation of 5.1 nm.
Structure.
Synaptic vesicles are relatively simple because only a limited number of proteins fit into a sphere of 40 nm diameter. Purified vesicles have a protein:phospholipid ratio of 1:3 with a lipid composition of 40% phosphatidylcholine, 32% phosphatidylethanolamine, 12% phosphatidylserine, 5% phosphatidylinositol, and 10% cholesterol.
Synaptic vesicles contain two classes of obligatory components: transport proteins involved in neurotransmitter uptake, and trafficking proteins that participate in synaptic vesicle exocytosis, endocytosis, and recycling.
The stoichiometry for the movement of different neurotransmitters into a vesicle is given in the following table.
Recently, it has been discovered that synaptic vesicles also contain small RNA molecules, including transfer RNA fragments, Y RNA fragments and mirRNAs. This discovery is believed to have broad impact on studying chemical synapses.
Effects of neurotoxins.
Some neurotoxins, such as batrachotoxin, are known to destroy synaptic vesicles. The tetanus toxin damages vesicle-associated membrane proteins (VAMP), a type of v-SNARE, while botulinum toxins damage t-SNARES and v-SNARES and thus inhibit synaptic transmission. A spider toxin called alpha-Latrotoxin binds to neurexins, damaging vesicles and causing massive release of neurotransmitters.
Vesicle pools.
Vesicles in the nerve terminal are grouped into three pools: the readily releasable pool, the recycling pool, and the reserve pool. These pools are distinguished by their function and position in the nerve terminal. The readily releasable pool are docked to the cell membrane, making these the first group of vesicles to be released on stimulation. The readily releasable pool is small and is quickly exhausted. The recycling pool is proximate to the cell membrane, and tend to be cycled at moderate stimulation, so that the rate of vesicle release is the same as, or lower than, the rate of vesicle formation. This pool is larger than the readily releasable pool, but it takes longer to become mobilised. The reserve pool contains vesicles that are not released under normal conditions. This reserve pool can be quite large (~50%) in neurons grown on a glass substrate, but is very small or absent at mature synapses in intact brain tissue.
Physiology.
The synaptic vesicle cycle.
The events of the synaptic vesicle cycle can be divided into a few key steps:
Synaptic vesicle components are initially trafficked to the synapse using members of the kinesin motor family. In "C. elegans" the major motor for synaptic vesicles is UNC-104. There is also evidence that other proteins such as UNC-16/Sunday Driver regulate the use of motors for transport of synaptic vesicles.
Once at the synapse, synaptic vesicles are loaded with a neurotransmitter. Loading of transmitter is an active process requiring a neurotransmitter transporter and a proton pump ATPase that provides an electrochemical gradient. These transporters are selective for different classes of transmitters. Characterization of unc-17 and unc-47, which encode the vesicular acetylcholine transporter and vesicular GABA transporter have been described to date.
The loaded synaptic vesicles must dock near release sites, however docking is a step of the cycle that we know little about. Many proteins on synaptic vesicles and at release sites have been identified, however none of the identified protein interactions between the vesicle proteins and release site proteins can account for the docking phase of the cycle. Mutants in rab-3 and munc-18 alter vesicle docking or vesicle organization at release sites, but they do not completely disrupt docking. SNARE proteins, now also appear to be involved in the docking step of the cycle.
After the synaptic vesicles initially dock, they must be primed before they can begin fusion. Priming prepares the synaptic vesicle so that they are able to fuse rapidly in response to a calcium influx. This priming step is thought to involve the formation of partially assembled SNARE complexes. The proteins Munc13, RIM, and RIM-BP participate in this event. Munc13 is thought to stimulate the change of the t-SNARE syntaxin from a closed conformation to an open conformation, which stimulates the assembly of v-SNARE /t-SNARE complexes. RIM also appears to regulate priming, but is not essential for the step.
Primed vesicles fuse very quickly in response to calcium elevations in the cytoplasm. This fusion event is thought to be mediated directly by the SNAREs and driven by the energy provided from SNARE assembly. The calcium-sensing trigger for this event is the calcium-binding synaptic vesicle protein synaptotagmin. The ability of SNAREs to mediate fusion in a calcium-dependent manner recently has been reconstituted in vitro. Consistent with SNAREs being essential for the fusion process, v-SNARE and t-SNARE mutants of "C. elegans" are lethal. Similarly, mutants in "Drosophila" and knockouts in mice indicate that these SNARES play a critical role in synaptic exocytosis.
This accounts for the re-uptake of synaptic vesicles in the full contact fusion model. However, other studies have been compiling evidence suggesting that this type of fusion and endocytosis is not always the case.
Vesicle recycling.
Two leading mechanisms of action are thought to be responsible for synaptic vesicle recycling: full collapse fusion and the "kiss-and-run" method. Both mechanisms begin with the formation of the synaptic pore that releases transmitter to the extracellular space. After release of the neurotransmitter, the pore can either dilate fully so that the vesicle collapses completely into the synaptic membrane, or it can close rapidly and pinch off the membrane to generate kiss-and-run fusion.
Full collapse fusion.
It has been shown that periods of intense stimulation at neural synapses deplete vesicle count as well as increase cellular capacitance and surface area. This indicates that after synaptic vesicles release their neurotransmitter payload, they merge with and become part of, the cellular membrane. After tagging synaptic vesicles with HRP (horseradish peroxidase), Heuser and Reese found that portions of the cellular membrane at the frog neuromuscular junction were taken up by the cell and converted back into synaptic vesicles. Studies suggest that the entire cycle of exocytosis, retrieval, and reformation of the synaptic vesicles requires less than 1 minute.
In full collapse fusion, the synaptic vesicle merges and becomes incorporated into the cell membrane. The formation of the new membrane is a protein mediated process and can only occur under certain conditions. After an action potential, Ca2+ floods to the presynaptic membrane. Ca2+ binds to specific proteins in the cytoplasm, one of which is synaptotagmin, which in turn trigger the complete fusion of the synaptic vesicle with the cellular membrane. This complete fusion of the pore is assisted by SNARE proteins. This large family of proteins mediate docking of synaptic vesicles in an ATP-dependent manner. With the help of synaptobrevin on the synaptic vesicle, the t-SNARE complex on the membrane, made up of syntaxin and SNAP-25, can dock, prime, and fuse the synaptic vesicle into the membrane.
The mechanism behind full collapse fusion has been shown to be the target of the botulinum and tetanus toxins. The botulinum toxin has protease activity which degrades the SNAP-25 protein. The SNAP-25 protein is required for vesicle fusion that releases neurotransmitters, in particular acetylcholine. Botulinum toxin essentially cleaves these SNARE proteins, and in doing so, prevents synaptic vesicles from fusing with the cellular synaptic membrane and releasing their neurotransmitters. Tetanus toxin follows a similar pathway, but instead attacks the protein synaptobrevin on the synaptic vesicle. In turn, these neurotoxins prevent synaptic vesicles from completing full collapse fusion. Without this mechanism in effect, muscle spasms, paralysis, and death can occur.
"Kiss-and-run".
The second mechanism by which synaptic vesicles are recycled is known as kiss-and-run fusion. In this case, the synaptic vesicle "kisses" the cellular membrane, opening a small pore for its neurotransmitter payload to be released through, then closes the pore and is recycled back into the cell. The kiss-and-run mechanism has been a hotly debated topic. Its effects have been observed and recorded; however the reason behind its use as opposed to full collapse fusion is still being explored. It has been speculated that kiss-and-run is often employed to conserve scarce vesicular resources as well as being utilized to respond to high-frequency inputs. Experiments have shown that kiss-and-run events do occur. First observed by Katz and del Castillo, it was later observed that the kiss-and-run mechanism was different from full collapse fusion in that cellular capacitance did not increase in kiss-and-run events. This reinforces the idea of a kiss-and-run fashion, the synaptic vesicle releases its payload and then separates from the membrane.
Modulation.
Cells thus appear to have at least two mechanisms to follow for membrane recycling. Under certain conditions, cells can switch from one mechanism to the other. Slow, conventional, full collapse fusion predominates the synaptic membrane when Ca2+ levels are low, and the fast kiss-and-run mechanism is followed when Ca2+ levels are high.
Ales "et al." showed that raised concentrations of extracellular calcium ions shift the preferred mode of recycling and synaptic vesicle release to the kiss-and-run mechanism in a calcium-concentration-dependent manner. It has been proposed that during secretion of neurotransmitters at synapses, the mode of exocytosis is modulated by calcium to attain optimal conditions for coupled exocytosis and endocytosis according to synaptic activity.
Experimental evidence suggests that kiss-and-run is the dominate mode of synaptic release at the beginning of stimulus trains. In this context, kiss-and-run reflects a high vesicle release probability. The incidence of kiss-and-run is also increased by rapid firing and stimulation of the neuron, suggesting that the kinetics of this type of release is faster than other forms of vesicle release.
History.
With the advent of the electron microscope in the early 1950s, nerve endings were found to contain a large number of electron-lucent (transparent to electrons) vesicles. The term synaptic vesicle was first introduced by De Robertis and Bennett in 1954. This was shortly after transmitter release at the frog neuromuscular junction was found to induce postsynaptic miniature end-plate potentials that were ascribed to the release of discrete packages of neurotransmitter (quanta) from the presynaptic nerve terminal. It was thus reasonable to hypothesize that the transmitter substance (acetylcholine) was contained in such vesicles, which by a secretory mechanism would release their contents into the synaptic cleft (vesicle hypothesis).
The missing link was the demonstration that the neurotransmitter acetylcholine is actually contained in synaptic vesicles. About ten years later, the application of subcellular fractionation techniques to brain tissue permitted the isolation first of nerve endings (synaptosomes), and subsequently of synaptic vesicles from mammalian brain. Two competing laboratories were involved in this work, that of Victor P. Whittaker at the Institute of Animal Physiology, Agricultural Research Council, Babraham, Cambridge, UK and that of Eduardo de Robertis at the Instituto de Anatomía General y Embriología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina. Whittaker's work demonstrating acetylcholine in vesicle fractions from guinea-pig brain was first published in abstract form in 1960 and then in more detail in 1963 and 1964, and the paper of the de Robertis group demonstrating an enrichment of bound acetylcholine in synaptic vesicle fractions from rat brain appeared in 1963. Both groups released synaptic vesicles from isolated synaptosomes by osmotic shock. The content of acetylcholine in a vesicle was originally estimated to be 1000–2000 molecules. Subsequent work identified the vesicular localization of other neurotransmitters, such as amino acids, catecholamines, serotonin, and ATP. Later, synaptic vesicles could also be isolated from other tissues such as the superior cervical ganglion, or the octopus brain. The isolation of highly purified fractions of cholinergic synaptic vesicles from the ray "Torpedo" electric organ was an important step forward in the study of vesicle biochemistry and function.


Prism adaptation

Prism adaptation is a sensory-motor adaptation that occurs after the visual field has been artificially shifted laterally or vertically. It was first introduced by Hermann von Helmholtz in late 19th-century Germany as supportive evidence for his perceptual learning theory (Helmholtz, 1909/1962). Since its discovery, prism adaptation has been suggested to improve spatial deficits in patients with unilateral neglect.
Prism adaptation paradigm.
During prism adaptation, an individual wears special prismatic goggles that are made of prism wedges that displace the visual field laterally or vertically. In most cases the visual field is shifted laterally either in the rightward or leftward direction. While wearing the goggles, the individual engages in a perceptual motor task such as pointing to a visual target directly in front of them. A prism adaptation session includes three components: the pre-test, prism exposure, and the post-test. The effects of the prism adaptation paradigm are observed when the performance on the perceptual motor task of the pre-and post-test are compared.
The initial pointing errors induced by the prismatic goggles are caused by the misalignment of the observer's motor and proprioceptive maps. Once the error has been detected, the observer makes a conscious effort to try and fix the error via strategic recalibration. The reduction in error is also helped by an unconscious process referred to as spatial realignment, which gradually realigns the visual and proprioceptive maps (Newport and Schenk, 2012). This means that over a series of repeated attempts, the observer is able to reduce the margin of error and become more accurate in pointing to the visual target despite the visual displacement. Usually it takes an individual as few as 10 trials to adapt to the visual displacement and successfully point to the target (Rosetti et al., 1993).
3) "Post-test": During the post test the prismatic goggles are removed. The direct effect adaptation observed as a result of prism exposure persists and results in what is known as the prism adaptation negative after-effect. The negative after-effect causes the initial attempts in pointing to the visual target during the post-test to be in the direction opposite that of the visual shift. For example, if the observer was exposed to rightward shifting prisms, then the initial pointing errors induced by the after-effect would be to the left of the target. The extent of the observed after-effects reflects the amount of realignment that has taken place in visual and proprioceptive spatial maps during prism exposure (Newport and Schnek, 2012). The negative after-effect is not permanent but varies in its duration depending on the number of sessions and time the patient is exposed to prism adaptation sessions. Eventually the after-effect wears off and pointing abilities return to pre-test levels.
Neural mechanisms underlying prism adaptation.
Different regions of the brain are activated throughout the duration of prism exposure and have proven to contribute to the error reductions in pointing to a visual target. An fMRI study done in 2009 by Laute et al. examined the neural activation patterns associated with the error correction phase of prism adaptation and found that the left anterior intraparietal sulcus was activated proportional to pointing deviation, and its activation gradually decreased with adaptation, while an increase in activation of the parieto-occipital sulcus was observed as movement plans were adjusted on a trial-by-trial basis. It was suggested that the intraparietal sulcus is involved in error detection whereas the parieto-occipital sulcus is involved in error correction. Another fMRI study done in 2010 by Chapman et al. found that the neural mechanisms underlying the later, spatial realignment phase of prism adaptation recruited the right cerebellum and inferior parietal lobule.
Prism adaptation therapy.
Prism adaptation can be used to rehabilitate the visuo-spatial deficits of neurological disorders such as unilateral neglect. It has become clear that with respect to being used as a long-term rehabilitative tool, prism adaptation is only effective when it is repeated over many sessions and with sufficiently strong prism goggles (Newport and Schenk, 2012). Typically, unilateral neglect patients unconsciously ignore the left spatial hemifield due to right parietal or right hemisphere brain damage attributed to stroke, traumatic brain injury or other disorders. These patients are unaware that they exhibit deficits of perception, attention, mental imagery, and movements within the neglected hemifield. Since these patients are unaware of their attentional deficits, they cannot voluntarily orient their attention toward the neglected side of space unlike patients with hemianopsia. Unilateral neglect therefore induces various functionally debilitating effects on everyday life.
Prism adaptation has been introduced as a form of rehabilitation therapy for patients with unilateral neglect. The main issue faced by unilateral neglect patients is that their frame of visual attention is not only pathologically smaller but also biased towards the right visual hemifield. This in turn results in the complete negligence of the left visual hemifield. With the use of prism adaptation, their visual-attention frame is realigned so that some of the neglected left visual field comes into attentional focus. The use of right-deviating prisms shifts the patient's entire visual field to the right and realigns the left visual field into attentional focus. This spatial realignment has proven to persist long after prism exposure and ameliorate unilateral neglect symptoms by allowing the patient to be aware of the previously neglected side of space. A proposed mechanism behind such improvements involves increased ocular movements towards the neglected side after prism adaptation (Serino et al. 2006 and Shiraishi et al. 2010). Prism exposure promotes the resetting of the ocular-motor system in the brain and results in improved higher order visual spatial representations that allow for the sustained improvement of unilateral neglect symptoms (Serino et al., 2006).
Prism adaptation and improvements of unilateral neglect symptoms.
The positive effects of prism adaptation on symptoms of neglect have been shown to vary in the amount of time they persist and in their generalization to other sensory modality tasks besides visual-motor tasks. The short term (2-hour) amelioration of unilateral neglect introduced by Rosetti et al., 1998 sparked an interest in converting this short-term effect into a long-term rehabilitative effect. The following is the progression of scientific studies conducted to investigate prism adaptation's potential rehabilitative effects:
Rossi et al., 1990, was the first article to establish the use of prism adaptation as a tool in rehabilitation of symptoms of both hemianopia and of Unilateral neglect. Rossetti et al., 1998 then published a group of stroke survivors with neglect which reported performance improvement of neglect deficits was in all patients immediately after and 2 hours after prism exposure. These results were obtained via comparison of the patients’ performance on a series of neuropsychological test before and after the prism adaptation session. The neuropsychological tests used included line bisection, line cancellation, copying a simple drawing made of five items, drawing of a daisy from memory, and reading a simple text.
Prism adaptation was also shown to improve representational neglect in a case study in by Rode et al., 2001. Two unilateral neglect patients demonstrated spatial cognitive improvements when asked to mentally image the map of France in their minds and name all of the towns they could “see” within a time frame of two minutes. After prism adaptation these patients named an increased number of towns, specifically naming towns that were located on the left side of the map. The results indicate that prism adaptation can also induce higher cognitive changes in spatial representation.
Significant reductions in unilateral neglect symptoms were seen in 2002 by Frassinetti et al. Improvements in visual-motor, visual-verbal, behavioral, and spatial cognitive tasks were observed to last up to 5 weeks after a twice-daily, two-week prism adaptation program. The standard tests included visual motor tasks such as line cancellation, line bisection and drawing by copying or memory. The visual-verbal tasks included object description, object naming and word reading. The behavioral tests included picture scanning, telephone dialing, menu and article reading, address and sentence copying, telling and setting the time, coin and card sorting and map navigation tests. The spatial cognition tests included the room description test and an object reaching test.
In a 1-month follow-up study, a placebo treatment (pointing with non-deviating goggles) was included to compare with the prism adaptation treatment. It was found that only prism adaptation yields significant long-term reduction of neglect symptoms that lasted at least one month after the prism adaptation session. (Serino et al., 2009).
Improvements of neglect symptoms have been shown to last up to six months (Laute et al., 2009 and Serino et al., 2007) and in a more recent study improvements were recorded to last 2-3.5 years after prism adaptation (Shiraishi et al., 2010).
Problems with the application and translation of prism adaptation in clinical treatment of spatial neglect.
Barrett et al. (2012), in a review of 48 articles using prism adaptation for spatial neglect, called for critical work to be performed in order to bring this treatment to a stage where useful information can be generated in a clinical trial. Noting that previous experiments (e.g. Fortis et al., 2011 ) report that spatial "aiming" deficits may selectively respond to prism adaptation treatment, and that the classical visual-attentional spatial "where" deficits may not improve with therapy, the authors questioned the validity of including consecutive, unselected patients with neglect in a randomized treatment-control study—more stroke survivors with one type of deficit may end up in either the treatment, or the control group, altering the expected treatment effect size. The fundamental issue of an effective treatment dosage range is only beginning to be examined—either number of treatments, duration, or degree of prismatic shift—which would be unthinkable in drug development for stroke deficits. Lastly, functional impact of prism adaptation treatment (improvements in real-life activities and participation) is woefully underexamined.


Actin remodeling of neurons

Actin remodeling is a biochemical process in cells. In the actin remodeling of neurons, the protein actin is part of the process to change the shape and structure of dendritic spines. G-actin is the monomer form of actin, and is uniformly distributed throughout the axon and the dendrite. F-actin is the polymer form of actin, and its presence in dendritic spines is associated with their change in shape and structure. Actin plays a role in the formation of new spines as well as stabilizing spine volume increase. The changes that actin brings about lead to the formation of new synapses as well as increased cell communication.
Actin remodeling consists of the dynamic changes in actin polymerization that underlie the morphological changes at the neural synapse. Actin is only able to cause all of the changes that promote long-term potentiation (LTP) through its formation from G-actin into F-actin. When F-actin is unable to form, long-term depression (LTD) is induced, which promotes opposite results. Stimulation of the neuron that promotes LTP causes larger spine volume, increased cell communication, and a greater ratio of F-actin to G-actin. In the LTD environment, spine volume is decreased, cell communication is decreased, and there is a far greater ratio of G-actin to F-actin.
Structural overview of actin.
Actin exists in two states in the axonal and dendritic processes: globular or G-actin and filament/filamentous or F-actin. G-actin are the monomer building blocks that assemble via weak noncovalent interactions to form F-actin. F-actin is a two-stranded asymmetrical helical polymer. The asymmetrical quality of F-actin allows for different binding specificities at each end. One end shows an indentation and is referred to as the barbed end while the other resembles an arrow head and is referred to as the pointed end.
F-actin can be found in the presynaptic bouton surrounding synaptic vesicle clusters and acting as scaffolding. Additionally, actin is present at the active zone and plays a role in moving vesicles to the active zone for exocytosis into the synapse. The active zone is the portion of the presynaptic membrane opposite the postsynaptic density across the synaptic cleft. It is the site of synaptic vesicle docking and neurotransmitter release. Postsynaptically, F-actin can be found in the postsynaptic density zone (PSDZ) and throughout the spine head and neck. G-actin is uniformly distributed throughout the axon and the dendrite.
The balance of F and G-actin is in a constant state of flux, which can be attributed to actin treadmilling. Actin treadmilling is the process of turnover of actin filaments where F-actin is rapidly assembled and disassembled. G-actin subunits preferentially add to the barbed end of the F-actin polymer and older units are removed from the pointed end. The concentration of free G-actin monomers decreases until it reaches a critical concentration where the rate of assembly to disassembly or the F to G-actin ratio reaches a steady state.
Role in short-term synaptic communication.
Non-LTP inducing stimuli cause alterations in spine morphology due to changes in actin polymerization. Presynaptically, axonal boutons undergo submicron displacements that indent the dendritic spines. Postsynaptically, innervation causes dendritic spines to remodel by as much as 30% over a period of seconds. The spines show a lateral expansion that envelops the presynaptic axonal indentation. The changes due to non-LTP inducing stimuli dissipate after 5 minutes.
Role in LTP and LTD.
Actin is necessary for the induction of LTP. This protein allows for many changes both presynaptically and postsynaptically.
In the presynaptic region, actin allows for the formation of new axonal branches that result in new boutons. It also facilitates vesicle recruitment to the bouton.
Postsynaptically, actin filaments traffic AMPA receptors to the PSDZ, while also providing scaffolding for plasticity products such as CAMKII. F-actin could serve as a synaptic tag because the scaffolding space for plasticity products is increased during LTP actin polymerization. Furthermore, the actin cytoskeleton in the neck of the spine compartmentalizes the LTP induced response to the innervated dendritic spine, which leads to the specificity of LTP. Actin plays a role in the formation of new spines as well as stabilized spine volume increase. All of these changes that actin brings about leads to the formation of new synapses as well as increased cell communication.
LTP inducing high frequency stimulation leads to NMDA receptor activation and calcium influx. Rho GTPases are then activated to polymerize G-actin to F-actin through the activity of actin binding proteins. An increase in the F-actin/G-actin ratio is observed 40 seconds after the LTP inducing stimulus. The increase in polymerized F-actin is due to the recruitment of G-actin monomers and the translation of actin mRNA in the dendrite. The stimulus induced change persists for approximately 5 weeks.
Actin is only able to cause changes that promote LTP through its formation into F-actin. When F-actin is unable to form, LTD is induced, which promotes opposite results.
"This figure demonstrates the morphological effects on the dendrites in LTP and LTD environments. In LTP we can see the larger spine volume as well as a greater ratio of F-actin to G-actin. This demonstrates the role of actin in LTP as well as the increased communication LTP creates. In the LTD environment, spine volume is decreased and there is a far greater ratio of G-actin to F-actin, demonstrating the importance of the F-actin to G-actin ratios in both LTP and LTD."
Actin binding proteins in LTP and LTD.
Actin binding proteins prove significant in actin remodeling, as the LIMK1/ADF/Cofilin Pathway facilitates the development of F-actin. Actin Depolymerizing Factor, or ADF, normally disassembles actin and hampers the induction of LTP. However, synaptic activity favors the activation of LIMK1, a protein that phosphorylates the ADF/Cofilin complex at its phosphorylation site, Ser3, which inactivates the complex, promoting the formation of F-actin. If this pathway is disrupted, then G-actin is unable to polymerize and LTP is inhibited. One particular actin binding protein that plays a major role in disrupting this pathway is Gelsolin. This protein caps the barbed end of F-actin, thus preventing G-actin subunits from binding to F-actin and blocking actin treadmilling. Activation of Gelsolin not only blocks LTP, but induces LTD. In LTD, the F to G-actin ratio is shifted towards G-actin and leads to a decrease in spine volume, as well as the occasional disappearance of spines altogether.
Implications for learning and memory.
Being associated with long term structural changes at the synapse and LTP, it is no surprise that actin dynamics influence learning and memory. Experiments have shown that drugs like cytochatasin C and Latrunculin A that inhibit the assembly of G-actin into F-actin disrupt both the acquisition and extinction of fear responses in mice. Disruption of actin dynamics can also affect visuospatial learning.
LIMK1, an actin binding protein, phosphorylates ADF/cofilin, allowing the formation of F-actin. LIMK1 knockout neurons are unable to form a cytoskeletal matrix within the dendritic spine, which has interesting implications for learning. One of the primary functions of actin is to compartmentalize a neuron's response to stimulation – that is, to keep molecules essential for LTP within the stimulated spine. Upon low frequency stimulation of knockout cells, these molecules are likely to diffuse out of the cell before a concentration significant enough to produce LTP builds up. Upon high frequency stimulation, however, there is an overabundance of these essential molecules, which are present in high enough concentrations to produce LTP not only at the stimulated spine but at the adjacent spines into which they diffuse as a result of a lack of compartmentalization. The result is an overall increase in potentiation.
In humans, many heritable disorders characterized by mental retardation are linked to mutations in genes important to the actin polymerization pathway. Williams syndrome, fragile X, fetal alcohol syndrome, and Patau syndrome have all been linked to these genes. Neurons from people affected by these disorders show minimal dendritic arborization and underdeveloped spine structure, similar to neurons in animal models of molecular defects in actin polymerization.


Table of neurotransmitter actions in the ANS

Respiratory system.
✱ The bronchioles have no sympathetic innervation, but are instead affected by circulating adrenaline


Vesical nervous plexus

The vesical nervous plexus arises from the forepart of the pelvic plexus.
The nerves composing it are numerous, and contain a large proportion of spinal nerve fibers.
They accompany the vesicle arteries, and are distributed to the sides and fundus of the bladder.
Numerous filaments also pass to the seminal vesicles and vas deferens; those accompanying the vas deferens join, on the spermatic cord, with branches from the spermatic plexus.


John E. Corbally

John Edward Corbally Jr. (October 14, 1924 – July 23, 2004) was an American academic administrator and university president. Corbally led Syracuse University from 1969–71 before becoming president of the University of Illinois system from 1971 to 1979. He held roles in numerous non-profit organizations, including a decade as the first president of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation.
Early life.
Corbally was born in South Bend, Washington on October 14, 1924 to John E. Corbally Sr., a University of Washington education professor, and Grace (née Williams) Corbally.
During World War II, Corbally held the rank of lieutenant junior grade in the United States Navy. He saw battle in the Pacific Ocean theater and received a Purple Heart.
After the war, Corbally returned to school, where he met his wife Marguerite Walker; they married in 1946.
In 1947, with a bachelor's degree from the University of Washington, he took a job as a high school chemistry teacher in Tacoma. He pursued further education at the University of Washington, graduating with a master's degree in 1950. He earned a doctorate in 1955 from the University of California, Berkeley and put his degree in educational administration and finance to work by taking an associate professor position at Ohio State University, where he would eventually become provost and vice president of academic affairs, positions held until he accepted the chancellor position at Syracuse University in 1969.
University president.
Syracuse University.
Corbally replaced William Pearson Tolley as chancellor at Syracuse and reorganized the school's administration structure to match what he had experienced at Ohio, adding a provost and multiple vice president positions as opposed to the single vice chancellor position that the university had before.
During his short time as chancellor, Corbally faced crises spurred on by civil unrest surrounding the Vietnam War and race relations. Tolley, his predecessor, was a proponent of military education on campus; this included the establishment of a Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) program. By the time Tolley left office, the university faced major financial issues and there was uncertainty regarding the future of the ROTC program. Corbally advocated for keeping the program and its academic accreditation, an idea which was opposed by students hostile to a military presence on campus, some of whom participated in a sit-in of the ROTC building in February 1970. The matter was referred to the school senate, a democratic body composed of students, faculty, and administrators, which voted to keep the program open, a move which many students felt was forced by the chancellor.
Later that same year, on May 4, the shooting of four students at Kent State protesting against the United States' invasion of Cambodia led directly to the student strike of 1970, a nationwide protest by students on college campuses against US involvement in Vietnam, including at Syracuse. Early protests on campus led to firebombing and window-breaking, but Corbally's decision to cancel classes and allow the students to protest without police or administration interference arguably resulted in more moderate protests than at other colleges.
The peace was short lived, however, as in August 1970, eight black players on the Syracuse Orange football team did not show up for preseason practice, citing systemic racism in the program and discrimination by coach Ben Schwartzwalder. The move was a continuation of a boycott of spring practice by the players, and they were automatically suspended as a result. A university report released in December of that year declared that there was a chronic problem of racism in the Syracuse athletics programs, though in some cases the discrimination was unintentional. In response, Corbally reinstated the players and approved the creation of the Athletic Policy Board to oversee athletics at the school. The board would include input from students and ensure that all students, regardless of race, were entitled to fair treatment.
In early 1971, Corbally was offered the presidency of the University of Illinois system, which he readily accepted. The board chair called the resignation, "quite unexpected". The suddenness of his resignation at Syracuse led to speculation that he had been pressured to leave due to the tense events of 1970 or that he wanted to jump ship from a school still facing financial difficulties.
However, John Robert Greene, in a 1998 book on the history of Syracuse, argues that none of that is true: Corbally handled the student protesters and football boycott admirably, despite criticism at the time from some alumni of the school, and he, along with his vice chancellor Ronald Brady, had improved the financial status of the school much in the two years since Corbally took office. According to Greene, the chancellor took the new job "simply because he received a better job offer". Corbally was succeeded by his provost Melvin A. Eggers.
University of Illinois.
At Illinois, Corbally replaced David D. Henry, who stated he was stepping down in favor of a younger president with fresh ideas. Almost immediately, Corbally sought to raise capital to fund construction and programs at what was then the ninth-largest university system in the country, especially focusing on the Chicago campus and the school's veterinary medicine and agriculture programs. Corbally enlisted the help of alumni from these programs to raise money for two new buildings on the Urbana-Champaign campus.
In 1976–1977, Corbally sought to preserve funding to University of Illinois at a time when Governor Dan Walker was seeking cuts to state university budgets. Continued funding was secured from the state legislature in 1977 by way of a campaign by current and former students of the school organized by Corbally.
MacArthur Foundation.
Corbally was elected to the board of directors of the Chicago-based MacArthur Foundation in 1979. He later resigned his position at the University of Illinois to become the first president of the foundation, serving from 1979–89, after which he remained on the board of directors, and as chairman of the board from 1995 to 2002. He is credited with starting the MacArthur Fellows Program, as well as guiding the foundation through its legal troubles of the late 1970s and early 1980s, when J. Roderick MacArthur – son of founder John D. MacArthur – sued several board members over alleged mismanagement of foundation funds.
Personal life.
Corbally was a Presbyterian and the first of that denomination to become chancellor of Syracuse, a historically Methodist university. After his time at the MacArthur Foundation, Corbally retired to his home state of Washington, where he served as a board member for various Seattle-area organizations, including the Rural Development Institute, now known as Landesa. He died on July 23, 2004 from brain cancer, aged 79, at his home in Mill Creek, Washington.


Alpha-2B adrenergic receptor

The alpha-2B adrenergic receptor (α2B adrenoceptor), is a G-protein coupled receptor. It is a subtype of the adrenergic receptor family. The human gene encoding this receptor has the symbol ADRA2B.
ADRA2B orthologs have been identified in several mammals.
Receptor.
α2-adrenergic receptors include 3 highly homologous subtypes: α2A, α2B, and α2C. These receptors have a critical role in regulating neurotransmitter release from sympathetic nerves and from adrenergic neurons in the central nervous system.
Clinical significance.
This gene encodes the α2B subtype, which was observed to associate with eIF-2B, a guanine nucleotide exchange protein that functions in regulation of translation. A polymorphic variant of the α2B subtype, which lacks 3 glutamic acids from a glutamic acid repeat element, was identified to have decreased G protein-coupled receptor kinase-mediated phosphorylation and desensitization; this polymorphic form is also associated with reduced basal metabolic rate in obese subjects and may therefore contribute to the pathogenesis of obesity. This gene contains no introns in either its coding or untranslated sequences.
A deletion variant of the α2B adrenergic receptor has been shown to be related to emotional memory in Europeans and Africans. This variant also predisposed people who had it to focus more on negative aspects of a situation. This predisposition remained present in people with the variant gene who took a single dose of the noradrenergic antidepressant reboxetine, but was weakened in people without the variant.
Evolution.
The "ADRA2B" gene (sometimes referenced as "A2AB") is used in animals as a nuclear DNA phylogenetic marker. This intronless gene has first been used to explore the phylogeny of the major groups of mammals, and contributed to reveal that placental orders are distributed into four major clades: Xenarthra, Afrotheria, Laurasiatheria, and Euarchontoglires. Comparative analysis of the primary protein sequence of ADRA2B across placentals also showed the high conservation of residues thought to be involved in agonist binding and in G protein–coupling. However, great variations are observed in the very long, third intracellular loop, with a polyglutamyl domain displaying pervasive length differences.


Feet of clay

Feet of clay is an expression now commonly used to refer to a weakness or character flaw, especially in people of prominence.
Origin and meaning.
The phrase derives from the interpretation of the dream of Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, by the prophet Daniel as recounted in the Book of Daniel:
Notable uses.
A well known instance of this phrase is in Byron's poem, "Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte":
<poem>
Thanks for that lesson—it will teach
 To after-warriors more
Than high Philosophy can preach,
 And vainly preach’d before.
That spell upon the minds of men
Breaks never to unite again,
 That led them to adore
Those Pagod things of sabre sway,
With fronts of brass, and feet of clay.</poem>
In the Abba song Happy New Year, written by Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson, man is said to have feet of clay:
<poem>
Oh yes, man is a fool
And he thinks he'll be okay
Dragging on, feet of clay
Never knowing he's astray
Keeps on going anyway
</poem>


The Cerebellum

The Cerebellum is a bi-monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal founded in 2002. It is published by Springer Science+Business Media on behalf of the Society for Research on the Cerebellum and Ataxias. It is entirely devoted to research about the cerebellum and its roles in ataxias and other disorders.
Abstracting and indexing.
The journal is abstracted and indexed in Academic Search, Chemical Abstracts Service EBSCO databases, BIOBASE, EMBASE, Neuroscience Citation Index, PsycINFO, PubMed/MEDLINE, Science Citation Index Expanded, Scopus, Summon by Serial Solutions, and VINITI. According to the "Journal Citation Reports", the journal's 2009 impact factor is 3.280.