Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve

The Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve () is a World Heritage Site containing most of the over-wintering sites of the eastern population of the monarch butterfly. The reserve is located in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt pine-oak forests ecoregion on the border of Michoacán and State of Mexico, 100 km (62 miles), northwest of Mexico City. Millions of butterflies arrive in the reserve annually. Butterflies only inhabit a fraction of the 56,000 hectares of the reserve from October–March. The biosphere’s mission is to protect the butterfly species and its habitat.
Most of the over-wintering monarchs from eastern North America are found here. Western researchers discovered these areas in 1975. Presidential decrees in the 1980s and 2000 designated these still privately held areas as a federal reserve. The Reserve was declared a Biosphere Reserve in 1980 and a World Heritage Site in 2008. The reserve remains predominantly rural. Reserve administrators continue to be concerned with deleterious effects of illegal logging and tourism. Conservation efforts sometimes conflict with the interests of local farmers, community-based landowners, private land owners and indigenous people.
History.
The reserve was established in 1980 by President José López Portillo. In the late 1980s reserve management was delegated to the Secretariat of Urban Development and Ecology. It was at this time assigned the category of “special biosphere reserve.” In 1986, the area and boundaries of the zones were defined. In 2000, it received its name (Reserva de la Biosfera Mariposa Monarca). UNESCO declared the biosphere a World Heritage site in 2008 as a Natural Asset. Currently the area is known for tourism, logging, mining and farming. It has remained mostly rural, noted for communities of Otomi and Mazahua.
Monarch migration.
Millions of butterflies travel south into Mexico, from Texas and then follow the Sierra Madre Oriental mountains to the preserve. The butterflies congregate, clustering onto pine and oyamel trees. To many, the trees appear orange and branches sag from the weight. In spring, these butterflies migrate across America, sometimes ending up in Eastern Canada. Over the time it takes them to make this journey, four generations of monarch butterflies are born and die. The monarch butterflies migration patterns are altered by climate change. During migration, monarchs fly north once they are exposed to cooler temperatures. Dense congregations are thought to conserve heat. If warmed by the sun, the butterflies take flight. The beating of their wings has been compared to the sound of a light rain. The reserve is susceptible to lethal, freezing temperatures.
Ecosystem.
Geography and forest cover.
The reserve extends from the mountainous forests of eastern Michoacán to western Mexico State 100 km northwest of Mexico City. The reserve in Michoacán contains the highest elevations in the state, including peaks that reach 2,700 masl (metres above sea level). The climate is classified as being temperate and somewhat moist with a rainy season in the summer. The average maximum temperature is 22 °C (71 °F). Sub-climates exist in this area: cool and semi moist, semi cold and semi moist, and cold and semi moist.
The reserve is characterized by outcroppings of basalt forming fissures, faults and cliffs in a northeast-southwest orientation. Rock formations have replaced older ones such as volcanic cones and old lava beds. The soil is highly permeable, resulting in little surface water. There are some small ponds and arroyos. The forests of pine and of drought-resistant oyamel fir trees provide microclimates that provide shelter when temperatures fall to freezing and/or there are winter rains. Scientists are concerned that the oyamel habitat in the reserve will shrink or disappear by the end of the 21st century, mainly due to climate change.
This area is predominantly covered in forests. The composition of the forest varies with altitude:
Below 2400 masl, there are small areas with junipers, cedars, and meadows. Areas have been modified by agriculture and human settlements.
Fauna.
The wildlife in the area ranges from the sub-tropical to the sub-arctic including a number of species that are endemic only to this area. These include white-tailed deer ("Odocoileus virginianus"), coyotes ("Canis latrans"), long-tailed weasels ("Mustela frenata"), grey foxes ("Urocyon cinereoargenteus"), rabbits ("Sylvilagus" spp.), crows ("Corvus corax"), turkey buzzards ("Cathartes aura"), horned owls ("Bubo virginianus")(A), as well as various types of hummingbirds, reptiles and amphibians.
There are fourteen major butterfly colonies located in these rugged forested mountains, which account for more than half of colonies of the monarch butterfly’s eastern U.S./Canada population. It is estimated that up to a billion individuals spend winter here in any given year. These colonies are dense, with between six and sixty million butterflies per hectare. The reserve areas are found in the municipalities of Ocampo, Angangueo, Zitácuaro and Contepec in Michoacán and Donato Guerra, Villa de Allende and Temascalcingo in the State of Mexico. They are divided into five principal zones or nuclei.
Eight of the fourteen colonies are in the protected area. The colonies proper cover only 4.7 hectares, but the protected biosphere area covers 56,259 hectares. Five colonies are open to visitors: Sierra Chincua and El Rosario in Michoacan, and La Mesa, Piedra Herrada and El Capulin in the State of Mexico. There are other colonies near San José Villa de Allende and Ixtapan del Oro, but they are not actively promoted for tourism because of the risk of harm to these butterfly colonies. El Rosario is the largest sanctuary in Michoacán, where the butterflies cover about 1,500 trees.
While the Biosphere still has problems with infrastructure, especially with trash around parking and merchant areas, a number of improvements have been recently made, most notably in the sanctuary of El Rosario. These include well-defined footpaths with security patrols and stone/or concrete steps in steep places to help against erosion. Horsepaths were also eliminated for erosion reasons. Only two areas have significant installations. In the Sierra Chincua there is a research facility dedicated to the monarch butterfly and a nursery for reforestation efforts. Cerro El Companario has facilities for tourism.
Conservation.
Conservation efforts were first intended to protect the butterflies. Research, conservation and other efforts are now focused on preserving the habitat. The interests of residents, land owners, farmers, farmer cooperatives, and local communities have been taken into account regarding conservation but conflicting interests remain. Even though the Mexican government designated the area as a biosphere reserve most of the area of the preserve is owned by 38 ejidos, seven indigenous communities and 16 private holdings.
The survival of the species depends on a large number of habitats from Canada, the United States and Mexico during its annual migration cycle. The three countries adopted a plan in 2008 for the conservation of the butterfly’s habitat through its migration routes. Within the Biosphere in Mexico, the greatest threats to the butterfly habitat are deforestation, illegal logging, unorganized tourism, forest fires and lack of cooperation among various authorities. Most of these dangers come from the surrounding human settlements, which put pressure on the natural areas to provide agricultural space and forestry products such as fuel and wood for manufacturing furniture and other crafts. The main human communities in the area are Contepec, Temascalcingo, Angangueo, Ocampo, San Felipe del Progreso, Zitácuaro, Villa de Allende and Donato Guerra. The closest urban center is Zitácuaro, whose growth has promoted the growth of the other, more rural settlements.
In spite of this, most of the area is still occupied by dispersed rural farming communities of Otomi and Mazahua peoples, especially on the Mexico State side. Many of the protected hectares do not belong to the government directly, but are divided among 59 ejidos, thirteen indigenous communities and 21 individual holdings. Because of this and the fact that the reserve is divided by a state line, conservation efforts are complicated. Many communities in this region are very poor, with high illiteracy rates and childhood malnutrition, and scarce access to basic services. In the past, mining provided many of the area’s jobs but mines have since been depleted and most live on subsistence agriculture. These communities also have a tradition of exploiting forest areas, mostly to obtain wood for furniture and other crafts. High unemployment, especially for youth, also provokes migration into other parts of Mexico and to the United States or Canada.
Most of the butterfly colony areas still host economic activities such as subsistence farming and livestock raising. Some areas, such as Sierra Chincua, Cerro Pelon and El Rosario, still have problems with illegal logging to supply local fuel needs and raw materials for handicrafts. El Rosario is named after the local "ejido", which belongs to about 10,000 "campesinos", rural farmers. Many make a living through farming and the sale of handcrafts and foods to tourists. Information about the butterflies is insufficient; the full extent of their wintering areas and the ecology of the area is not well known, so it is not known how large the reserve really needs to be to preserve the butterfly.
Conservation is mostly done through restrictions on the lands but the management of the reserve has not had direct participation by the communities affected by it. Some public and private entities have worked with communities to develop incentives to conserve forests and take advantage of the tourism that the butterflies bring. However, success in this has been spotty. Some communities are pushing back against the restrictions and demanding to be allowed to use more land for agriculture.
Since conservation efforts began, there has been progress. While infrastructure is still lacking, advances have been made in areas such as trash control and control of access into the protected areas. One effort by the World Wildlife Fund has been the coordination of international biologists and ecologists to improve the design of the reserve. A permanent monitoring system has been established to ensure the forests remain healthy and control clandestine logging and forest fires. On the Mexico State side, the largest sanctuary is located between San José Villa de Allende and Ixtapan del Oro. It is not actively promoted for tourism to keep damage to the area to a minimum.(StateMex) During winter 2008-2009, there are plans to tag as many of the wintering butterflies as possible using very light self-stick tracers as to not impede their flight. The purpose of this is to determine the butterflies exact migration route as they fly back north to the U.S. and Canada in the spring. Butterfly counts coming in from the United States and Canada in recent years were relatively stable in the 2000s, with a dozen confirmed colonies as of the 2007-2008 winter. Colonies number varies; in 2004/2005 there were only seven. In general, the number of colonies varies between eight and twelve.
Tourism.
Five of the eight colonies are located in Michoacán but only two are open to the public: Sierra Chincua in Angangueo and El Rosario in Ocampo. Both receive visitors starting from November until March. They offer guided tours. In the State of Mexico, La Mesa and El Capulin are open to the public. These reserves are visited by thousands of Mexican and international tourists, principally from the United States, Canada, Spain, France, Germany and Japan. The best known and most visited of the butterfly colonies is El Rosario.
In February, Angangueo celebrates its Festival de la Mariposa Monarca (Monarch Butterfly Festival) . This festival began in 1992 to promote awareness of the butterfly habitat, take advantage of the ecotourism it offers and promote the culture and arts of the area. The festival includes events related to food, music, dance and exhibitions of arts, crafts and more. Many of the surrounding communities participate including Aporo, Contepec, Hidalgo, Irimbo, Jungapeo, Maravatío, Ocampo, Senguio, Tuxpan, Tlalpujahua and Zitácuaro. In 2010, the festival included the participation of the Symphonic Orchestra of Michoacan, The Enrico Caruso Ensemble, and the showing of an exhibition called "Papaloapan" about the monarchs by visual artist Luis Moro, as well as dance and photography workshops. These events took place at venues in Angangueo and other nearby communities. A new photographic exhibition has been assembled to highlight the connection between the migration and the people of Michoacán.
In January 2016 Google search devoted its Google doodle to "The 41st anniversary of the discovery of the Mountain of the Butterflies".


Slate-colored solitaire

The slate-colored solitaire ("Myadestes unicolor") is a species of bird in the family Turdidae. It is found in Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, and Nicaragua. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests.


Cnemaspis ranganaensis

Cnemaspis ranganaensis is a species of diurnal gecko endemic to India.


American lady

The American painted lady or American lady ("Vanessa virginiensis") is a butterfly found throughout North America.
The larvae feed on various Asteraceae, such as the cudweeds (genus "Gnaphalium"), the pussytoes ("Antennaria"), and the everlastings ("Anaphalis"), which all belong to tribe Gnaphalieae. All stages of the life cycle can be found throughout temperate North America as well as Madeira and the Canary Islands. Occasionally individuals can be found as far as southwest Europe. It has been introduced to Hawaii where it is one of four "Vanessa" species.
Description.
"Vanessa virginiensis" is most easily distinguishable by its two large eyespots on the ventral side, whereas "V. cardui" has four small eyespots and "V. annabella" has none. "V. virginiensis" also uniquely features a white dot within the forewing subapical field, set in pink on the underside and usually also in the dorsal side's orange field.
The largest spot in the black forewing tips is white in "V. cardui", pale orange in this species, and orange in the West Coast species. The latter also has a purer orange background color of the dorsal side, as opposed to the darker and (especially in "V. virginiensis") redder hue of the other two.
A less reliable indicator is the row of black eyespots on the dorsal submarginal hindwing. In the American painted lady, those on the opposite ends of the row are often larger and have blue "pupils". In "V. annabella", this applies to the inner two spots, while in "V. cardui" some of the black eyespots may have tiny blue pupils in the summer morph, but usually have none at all, and the eyespots themselves are all roughly the same size. The size of the wings are about 5 cm (2 in) across.
Etymology and taxonomic history.
The name "painted lady" was in use among James Petiver, Adam Buddle and other naturalists in England for the closely related "Vanessa cardui". Petiver had described it as "Papilio Bella donna dicta". Fabricius called the American form of the butterfly as "Papilio huntera" based on a vagrant specimen captures in Britain and it was for sometime known as Hunter's butterfly. W. J. Holland identified the "Hunter" as an American Indian named John Dunn who had been noted for his hunting ability as the "hunter". John Dunn had later moved to Europe but this hypothesis has been pointed out as being implausible since John Dunn "Hunter" was born c. 1798 and that Fabricius most likely named it after his friend and collecting companion William Hunter.


Alopoglossus grandisquamatus

Alopoglossus grandisquamatus, the common largescale lizard, is a species of lizard in the family Alopoglossidae. It is endemic to Colombia.


Mountain noctule

The mountain noctule ("Nyctalus montanus") is a species of bat found in Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, and Nepal.


Cornufer hedigeri

Cornufer hedigeri, commonly known as the Treasury wrinkled ground frog or Solomon Islands giant treefrog, is a species of frog in the family Ceratobatrachidae, named after Henry B. Guppy who collected the holotype from the Treasury Islands. It is widespread in the Solomon Islands archipelago (Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands), though it is missing from New Georgia and Makira islands.
Description.
Specimens of the species "Cornufer hedigeri" are medium-sized frogs: the holotype measured in snout–vent length. Its back is light brown or pinkish, spotted or dotted with brown, whereas it is whitish below.
"Cornufer hedigeri" is a very common and abundant species that inhabits closed-canopy rainforest and old regrowth forest. They live in the trees, about above the ground. It might be threatened by logging, although its ability to persist in regrown forests suggests it is relatively resilient.


Kondana soft-furred rat

The Kondana soft-furred rat ("Millardia kondana"), also known as the Kondana rat or large metad, is an endangered species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is a nocturnal burrowing rat that is endemic to the Sinhgad plateau near Pune, Maharashtra, India. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests, subtropical or tropical dry lowland grassland, and urban areas.
Major threats are habitat loss, overgrazing of vegetation, and disturbance from tourism and recreational activities.


Hemimyzon confluens

Hemimyzon confluens is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus "Hemimyzon". It is known from a single location in the Nam Ngum drainage in Laos, a tributary of the Mekong. The known material suggests a maximum standard length of about . "H. confluens" is threatened by pollution from mining activities and hydro-power development.


So-iuy mullet

The so-iuy mullet ("Planiliza haematocheilus"), also known as the haarder, redlip mullet or "so-iny mullet", is a species of fish in the family Mugilidae.
Previously the species was included in the genus "Mugil" (as "Mugil soiuy"), but is now considered a member of the genus "Planiliza".
Range.
The natural range of the species is the Sea of Japan, from the estuary of the Amur River to South Korea. In the second part of the 20th century this fish species was artificially naturalised in the Sea of Azov, and also in the Black Sea. It has also been introduced into the Mediterranean Sea.
Parasites.
There are known 69 species of parasites of "Liza haematocheilus".


Bushy-crested jay

The bushy-crested jay ("Cyanocorax melanocyaneus") is a species of bird in the family Corvidae. It is found in Central America, where its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests and heavily degraded former forest. There are two subspecies, "C. m. melanocyaneus" which is found in Guatemala and southern El Salvador, and "C. m. chavezi" from Honduras and northeastern Nicaragua.
Description.
The adult bushy-crested jay has a length of . The tail is long and the central feathers are graduated. The sexes look alike; the head, neck, breast and upper mantle are black while the remaining upper parts are dark blue with a sheen of green or violet. The underparts are plain greenish-blue, the undersides of the wings are grey and the underside of the tail is blackish. The head bears a stubble-like erectile crown of feathers, the beak is black and relatively small, the irises are yellow and the legs black.
Distribution and habitat.
This jay is native to Central America where it is found in Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua at altitudes between about . Its habitat is humid forests, especially those with pine and oak, forest verges, glades and areas of scrub. It adapts well to degradation of its habitat and has become common in coffee plantations and around agricultural land.
Ecology.
The species is social and lives in small groups. These forage in the lower storey of trees and in the undergrowth, often descending to the ground to search through the leaf litter. The diet consists of invertebrates, seeds, nuts and fruits. The nest is built in dense undergrowth out of twigs and lined with plant fibres. One female lays a clutch of three or four eggs in late April or early May. Another female shares the incubation of the eggs with her, and many birds assist with the feeding of the young. In one nest, eleven different adults helped feed the brood, as well as some juveniles that had hatched earlier.
Status.
"Cyanocorax melanocyaneus" seems to be adaptable and is coping with the degradation of its natural environment by moving to manmade habitats such as coffee plantations and cropland. It has a wide range and the population is thought to be increasing, so the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated it as a species of least concern.


Sardinian warbler

The Sardinian warbler ("Curruca melanocephala") is a common and widespread typical warbler from the Mediterranean region. Like most "Curruca" species, it has distinct male and female plumages. The adult male has a grey back, whitish underparts, black head, white throat and red eyes. Plumages are somewhat variable even in the same locality, with the intensity of a reddish hue on upper- and/or underside varies from absent to (in some subspecies) pronounced. The female is mainly brown above and buff below, with a grey head. The Sardinian warbler's song is fast and rattling, and is very characteristic of the Mediterranean areas where this bird breeds.
Taxonomy and systematics.
The first formal description of the Sardinian warbler was by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1789 in the 13th edition of the "Systema naturae". He coined the binomial name "Motacilla melanocephala". The previous genus "Sylvia" was introduced in 1769 by the Italian naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli. The genus name is from Modern Latin "silvia", a woodland sprite, related to "silva", a wood. The specific "melanocephala" is from Ancient Greek "melas", "black", and "kephale", "head". Currently, the Sardinian warbler is placed in the genus "Curruca" by the IOC, along with most of the species formerly classified in the genus "Sylvia".
Together with Menetries' warbler the Sardinian warbler forms a superspecies. Both have white malar areas and light throats, and otherwise black heads in adult males, as well as a naked ring around the eye. The subalpine warbler, which seems the superspecies' closest relative, has a dark throat and breast and a dark gray upper head in males, but otherwise shares these characters. These three species are related to a dark-throated superspecies consisting of Rüppell's warbler and the Cyprus warbler, which also share the white malar area with blackish above.
This bird may be considered a superspecies, divided into the western "Curruca melanocephala" and Curruca momus from the more arid regions of the Near East and adjacent Africa.
Subspecies.
The geographical variation in the Sardinian warbler conforms to some extent with Gloger's rule, though not as strongly as in some other typical warblers. The validity of "leucogastra" and "norissae" is not accepted by some authors, and "valverdei" has been described very recently. On the other hand, "leucogastra" might be more than one subspecies.
Distribution and habitat.
It breeds in the southernmost areas of Europe and just into Asia in Turkey and the eastern end of the Mediterranean. This small passerine bird, unlike most "warblers", is not particularly migratory, but some birds winter in north Africa, and it occurs as a vagrant well away from the breeding range, as far as Great Britain.
Behaviour and ecology.
This is a bird of open country and cultivation, with bushes for nesting. The nest is built in low shrub or brambles, and 3-6 eggs are laid. Like most "warblers", it is insectivorous, but will also take berries and other soft fruit.


Amorphoscelis pantherina

Amorphoscelis pantherina is a species of praying mantis native to Iraq.


Gnorimus variabilis

Gnorimus variabilis, also known as the variable chafer, is a species of scarab beetle belonging to the subfamily Cetoniinae, the flower chafers. It was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. The species is native to Europe and is usually found in oak and beech woods or parkland.
Habitat.
When the "Gnorimus variabilis" is a larvae, it develops in wood mold like the trunks or the branches. Normally, larvae had a growing time of around 2 years. However that can depend on the environmental situation. "Gnorimus variabilis" is located in particular areas in different countries. For instance, it maybe found in conifers in Southern Europe. In the United Kingdom, it may be hidden in the old open-grown oak Quercus trees. In Spain, they may be located in oak forests and chestnut forests. In France, larvae lives in the wood mold of tree cavities, mainly Castanea and Quercus. In the Ukraine, the larvae develops in wood and stubs of oak Quercus, chestnut Castanea, willow Salix, and alder Alnus.


Bothrocophias colombianus

Bothrocophias colombianus, commonly known as the Colombian toad-headed pitviper, is a species of venomous snake in the family Viperidae. It is endemic to South America.
Geographic range.
It is found in western Colombia in the departments of Antioquia and Cauca.
Description.
In coloration and pattern "Bothrocophias colombianus" closely resembles its North American "cousin" "Agkistrodon contortrix mokasen", commonly known as the northern copperhead.


Holcocera cryptae

Holcocera cryptae is a moth in the family Blastobasidae which is endemic to Costa Rica.


Malayan tree rat

The Malayan tree rat ("Pithecheir parvus") is a species of rodent in the family Muridae.
It is found only in Malaysia.


Macrocoma bolivari

Macrocoma bolivari is a species of leaf beetle from Morocco. It was first described by Spanish entomologist in 1914, as a species of "Pseudocolaspis".
Subspecies.
There are two subspecies of "M. bolivari":


Korean brown frog

The Korean brown frog ("Rana coreana") is a species of frog in the genus "Rana". It is native to the Korean Peninsula and Shandong, China.
Taxonomy and systematics.
The Korean brown frog has earlier mostly been considered as subspecies of "Rana amurensis", that is, "R. a. coreana". However, morphological and genetic analyses support its status as a distinct species, though closely related to "R. amurensis". The boundary between these two species is unclear.
Until recently, Korean brown frog was considered Korean endemic. However, molecular and morphological evidence show "Rana kunyuensis" from Mount Kunyu in the Shandong province of China is the same species as Korean brown frog and its junior synonym.
Description.
It is the smallest of brown frogs in Korea, with males reaching up to and females to in snout-vent length.
Habitat and conservation.
Korean brown frog inhabits in coniferous, mixed and deciduous forests, shrublands, and grasslands. Most commonly it occurs in open, wet places (e.g., wet meadows, swamps, riverbanks, floodplains, etc.). They breed in shallow lakes, ponds, ditches, large puddles, and marshes. Hibernating frogs can be found in large numbers in the bottom mud of ponds and pools.
Korean brown frog may be locally threatened by habitat loss, but this common species is not threatened overall.
The now-synonymized "Rana kunyuensis" has been assessed as "Data Deficient" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).


Calosima tesserae

Calosima tesserae is a moth in the family Blastobasidae which is endemic to Costa Rica.


Maltese freshwater crab

The Maltese freshwater crab (") is a subspecies of freshwater crab, endemic to certain areas within the Maltese Islands. It is very rare and its numbers have been decreasing in recent years.
General features.
The Maltese freshwater crab (known as the " in Maltese) is a decapod (a crustacean with 10 legs). It can grow up to in width. It is greenish-grey with some occasional orange-yellow patches, and an overall purple hue on the legs.
Habitat.
The Maltese freshwater crab is found where fresh water / running water is present throughout the year although it does live near pools and springs too. It is found in , , Għajn Żejtuna in Mellieħa and San Martin in Malta and in Valley in Gozo.
When threatened, the crab takes shelter by hiding under rocks or stones in the water and among vegetation, or by entering the burrows it digs. These burrows are dug in mud or clay and can be more than 50 cm deep. Part of the burrow is normally flooded.
Food.
The Maltese freshwater crab is carnivorous and feeds on other smaller animals such as tadpoles. It usually feeds after sunset.
Population.
The numbers of this freshwater crab are steadily declining as a result of pollution of water, drying up of streams and because of its capture by humans.
References.
SCIBERRAS, A., SCIBERRAS, J. & VELLA, S. (2009) On the Occurrence of a New Population of Potamon Fluviatile Lanfrancoi at Wied Ghajn Zejtuna,Mellieħa. The Central Mediterranean Naturalist 5(1)24-27. Nature Trust Malta publications
SCIBERRAS, A. & SCIBERRAS, J. (2010) An Ecological Survey On The Valley Of Wied Għajn Żejtuna. Commissioned by Ghaqda tar-Residenti ta’ Santa Marija Estate. 42pgs


Orange-lined triggerfish

The orange-lined triggerfish ("Balistapus undulatus") is a demersal triggerfish. Although "Balistapus" is a monotypic genus, it is closely related to the genus "Balistoides".
Description.
The orange-lined triggerfish has a dark brown to dark green body with orange lines that start behind the head and cover the rest of its body. Their maximum body size is about 30 centimeters. Its body has a stocky appearance, oval shape, and is compressed laterally. The head is large and is about one third of the body length. The mouth is small and terminal and it has strong teeth.
The first dorsal fin has three spines, one of which is longer and stronger than the other. It is erectile and kept in a dorsal furrow at rest. The second dorsal fin is similar in shape and size to the anal fin, which is symmetrically opposed to it. The pelvic fin is reduced to a ventral protrusion. They also typically have a large block spot by their peduncular spines, and the caudal fin is orange.
In general, males tend to be larger and lack a concave snout, and also lose the lines on his snout as he matures. Females and juveniles are smaller and have a concave snout.
Distribution and habitat.
While other balistoid fishes, such as the filefish and leatherjacks, are typically found all across the Indo-western Pacific, the triggerfish are typically found in coral reefs ecosystems, coral lagoons, and external reef slopes within this area, as well off the coast of east Africa, the Red Sea, and Japan. They tend to stay around their burrows and dens within the reef. Within coral reefs, the orange-lined triggerfish are more versatile than other triggerfish species and can be found at depths up to 50 meters, although studies have found that they prefer depths of 2 to 8 meters. No relationship between the area of the reef and depth has been found in juveniles, and adults were found to vary their depth based on the region; in general, the species was found to have a broad distribution across the reef. There is also a difference between the types of substrata that the adults and juvenile orange-lined triggerfish prefer: the adults were found to prefer rock and branching coral, while the juvenile fish were found to prefer softer surfaces.
Ecological role and feeding.
The orange-lined triggerfish is an omnivorous feeder that can, because of its strong and heavy teeth, tackle a variety of benthic prey. Observed food items include cnidarians, molluscs, ctenophores, crustaceans, other fish, algae, and echinoderms. This species in particular, given its broad diet and distribution, is a crucial component in coral reef ecosystems through top-down control and especially through consumption of sea-urchins. The orange-lined triggerfish is a main and dominant predator of the burrowing urchin ("Echinometra mathaei)" in East African marine parks. Before being protected, the population was overfished, which allowed the burrowing sea urchin population to grow rapidly. In these ecosystems, the burrowing sea urchin affects coral reef health, the presence of other grazers and algae, and erosion. With all three of these influences intertwined, the burrowing sea urchin has the ability to degrade coral reef ecosystems if they are not being controlled by predators, such as the orange-lined triggerfish. When compared to other predators of the burrowing sea urchin in the East African marine parks, the orange-lined triggerfish was found to consume more burrowing sea urchins than others, which exemplifies this species’ influence on coral reef ecosystems.
Behaviour.
This triggerfish is diurnal, solitary, and territorial. It can be aggressive with other fish. It erects its first dorsal spine to intimidate opponents and predators.


Small bent-winged bat

The small bent-winged bat ("Miniopterus pusillus") is a species of vesper bat in the family Miniopteridae. A novel version of the Coronavirus has been identified in this species.
It can be found in the following countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam.


Nebria lafresnayei cantabrica

Nebria lafresnayei cantabrica is a subspecies of ground beetle in the Nebriinae subfamily that is endemic to Spain.


Tapsatella albocastanea


Rufous-tailed hummingbird

The rufous-tailed hummingbird ("Amazilia tzacatl") is a medium-sized hummingbird that breeds from east-central Mexico, through Central America and Colombia, east to western Venezuela and south through western Ecuador to near the border with Peru. The larger Escudo hummingbird from Isla Escudo de Veraguas in Panama is commonly considered a subspecies of the rufous-tailed hummingbird. This is a common to abundant bird of open country, river banks, woodland, scrub, forest edge, coffee plantations and gardens up to .
Description.
The adult rufous-tailed hummingbird is long and weighs approximately . The throat is green (edged whitish in the female), the crown, back and flanks are green tinged golden, the belly is pale greyish, the vent and rump are rufous and the slightly forked tail is rufous with a dusky tip.
The almost straight bill is red with a black tip; the black is more extensive on the upper mandible, which may appear all black. Immatures are virtually identical to the female. The call is a low "chut", and the male's song is a whistled "tse we ts’ we" or "tse tse wip tseek tse".
The female rufous-tailed hummingbird is entirely responsible for nest building and incubation. She lays two white eggs in a compact cup nest constructed from plant-fibre and dead leaves and decorated with lichens and mosses high on a thin horizontal twig. Incubation takes 15–19 days, and fledging another 20–26.
Diet.
The food of this species is nectar, taken from a variety of flowers, including " Heliconias" and bananas. Like other hummingbirds, it also takes small insects as an essential source of protein. Rufous-tailed hummingbirds are very aggressive, and defend flowers and shrubs in their feeding territories. They are dominant over most other hummingbirds.
Bibliography.
Stiles and Skutch, "A guide to the birds of Costa Rica"
Hilty, " Birds of Venezuela" by,


Sichuan takin

The Sichuan takin or Tibetan takin ("Budorcas taxicolor tibetana") is a subspecies of takin (goat-antelope). Budorcas from Greek bous ("ox" or "cow") and dorkas ("gazelle"); taxicolor from Latin taxus ("badger") and color ("hue") referring to badger-like coloration Listed as a vulnerable species, the Sichuan takin is native to Tibet and the provinces of Sichuan, Gansu and Xinjiang in the People's Republic of China.
Taxonomy.
It can be differentiated from its close cousin, the golden takin, largely by its coat color among other morphological differences, in addition to a different range of habitat. The takin was previously considered closely related to the Arctic muskox. Physical similarities have now been found to be due to convergent evolution and not through a common ancestor. DNA sequencing recently revealed various sheep are close relatives (goats, tahrs, sheep, bharal, Barbary sheep).
Habitat.
Takin inhabit the same dense bamboo forests as the better known giant panda. Sichuan takins live in these dense thickets and bamboo groves, in family groups of up to 30 individuals.
Despite being large, stocky and relatively slow moving, the Sichuan takin is quite agile in maneuvering its rocky habitat with often steep and challenging slopes. The inaccessibility of the takin's mountainous habitat has meant that there is little information on this species’ behavior and ecology; specifically on their distribution and population size.
Species threats.
Although considered a national treasure of China with the highest legal protection, the Sichuan takin is threatened by ongoing poaching and habitat destruction. The highest need for this species is further scientific knowledge to allow production of a valid long-term conservation and management plan. The principal threats to its survival include poaching by hunters for food and fur. This has led to their decline in the wild. A reliable count of the species has not been fully undertaken, but it may have indirectly benefited from the protections accorded to the giant panda and other species.
Behavior and ecology.
Takins have adaptations that help them stay warm and dry during the bitter cold of winter in the Himalayan Mountains. A thick, secondary coat is grown to keep out the chill. The large, moose-like snout has large sinus cavities to warm up the air a takin inhales before it gets to the lungs. Without this adaptation, takins would lose a large amount of body heat just by breathing. Yet another protection is their oily skin. Although they have no skin glands, their skin secretes an oily, bitter-tasting substance that acts as a natural raincoat in storms and fog. Streaks of this oily stuff can be seen where takins rub. They also have an odor that smells like a combination of horse and musk.
Takins eat in the early morning and again in the late afternoon, and they rest when they are not feeding. Since they live at altitudes above 14,000 feet (4,300 meters), they feed on many kinds of alpine and deciduous plants and evergreens. When it comes to food, takins eat almost any vegetation within reach. This includes the tough leaves of evergreen rhododendrons and oaks, willow and pine bark, bamboo leaves, and a variety of new-growth leaves and herbs. They can easily stand on their hind legs, front legs propped against a tree, to reach for higher vegetation if they need to.
Herding and migration.
Each spring, takins gather in large herds and migrate up the mountains to the tree line. As cooler weather approaches and food becomes scarce, the takins move down to forested valleys. As they move up, down, or across the mountains, takins use the same routes over and over. This creates a series of well-worn paths through the dense growths of bamboo and rhododendrons that lead to their natural salt licks and grazing areas.
The size of a takin herd changes with the seasons: during spring and early summer, herds can number up to 300 animals; during cooler months, when food is less plentiful, the large herds break up into smaller groups of 10 to 35 takins as they head down the mountain. Herds are made up of adult females (called cows), kids (which is what takin young are called), subadults, and young males. Older males, called bulls, are generally solitary except during the "rut," or mating season, in late summer.
Reproduction.
The cows give birth to a single kid in early spring. Within three days of its birth, a takin kid is able to follow its mother through most types of terrain. This is very important if predators are nearby or if the herd needs to travel a long distance for food.
Natural enemies.
Because of their large, powerful bodies and impressive horns, takins have few natural enemies other than bears or wolves. They are generally slow moving but can react quickly if angered or frightened. When needed, a takin can leap nimbly from rock to rock. If a takin senses danger, it warns the others with a loud "cough" that sends the herd running for cover. Takins can also make an intimidating roar or bellow.


Reed parrotbill

The reed parrotbill ("Calamornis heudei") is a special species of bird in the family paradoxornithidae. It is found in Manchuria and eastern China and the Russian Far East. It is threatened by habitat loss.
The northern subspecies "C. h. polivanovi" is sometimes regarded as a separate species, the northern parrotbill.


Tokay gecko

The tokay gecko ("Gekko gecko") is a crepuscular arboreal gecko in the genus "Gekko", the true geckos. It is native to Asia and some Pacific Islands.
Distribution and habitat.
This species occurs in northeast India, Bhutan, Nepal, and Bangladesh, throughout Southeast Asia, including Thailand, the Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia, and to western New Guinea. Its native habitat is rainforest, where it lives on trees and cliffs, and it also frequently adapts to rural human habitations, roaming walls and ceilings at night in search of insect prey. This is an introduced species in some areas outside its native range. It is established in Florida in the United States, Martinique, the islands of Belize, and possibly Hawaii. Increasing urbanization is reducing its range.
It is currently unclear whether the species is native but very uncommon in Taiwan, or whether the rare reports of individuals since the 1920s are based on repeated anthropogenic translocations that may or may not have resulted in established populations by now.
Physical characteristics and behavior.
The tokay gecko is a large gecko, reaching a total length (including tail) of up to . It is believed to be the third largest species of gecko, after the Giant leaf-tail gecko ("Uroplatus giganteus") and New Caledonian giant gecko ("Rhacodactylus leachianus"). It is cylindrical but somewhat flattened in body shape. The eyes have vertical pupils. The skin is soft to the touch and is generally gray with red speckles, but the animal can change the color of its skin to blend into the environment. The species is sexually dimorphic, the males being more brightly colored and slightly larger.
Tokay geckos are generally aggressive, territorial, and can inflict a strong bite. Females lay clutches of one or two hard-shelled eggs and guard them until they hatch. The tokay gecko feeds on insects, fruit, vegetation and small vertebrates. It is a strong climber with foot pads that can support the entire weight of the body on a vertical surface for a long period of time. Compared to other gecko species, the tokay gecko has a robust build, with a semi-prehensile tail, a large head and muscular jaws. Though common in the pet trade, the strong bite of the tokay gecko makes it ill-suited for inexperienced keepers. In addition, the strength of the bite depending on the gecko's size; larger (usually male) tokay geckos are capable of piercing skin, which often result in immediate bleeding.
Call.
The male's mating call, a loud croak, is variously described as sounding like "token", "gekk-gekk", "tuck-too" or "poo-kay" from which both the common and the scientific name (deriving from onomatopoeic names in Malay, Sundanese, Tagalog, Thai, or Javanese), as well as the family name "Gekkonidae" and the generic term "gecko" come. Most of the time, the call is often preceded by a quick "cackling", similar to the chirping sounds made by house geckos albeit much lower in pitch. When threatened or alarmed, tokay geckos usually "bark" while opening their mouth in a defensive posture.
The tokay gecko's call is also responsible for a slang name given to it by U.S. soldiers during the Vietnam War: the fuck-you lizard.
Conservation and relationship with humans.
The tokay gecko is culturally significant in many East Asian countries. Regional folklore has attributed supernatural powers to the gecko. In Southeast Asia it is a symbol of good luck and fertility. It is believed to be descended from dragons.
This species is poached for the medicinal trades in parts of Asia. The tokay gecko is an ingredient in Traditional Chinese medicine known as "Ge Jie" (蛤蚧). It is believed to nourish the kidneys and lungs, beliefs that are not substantiated by medical science. The animal remains highly sought after in China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore and other parts of Asia with Chinese communities, to the point where unscrupulous merchants have taken to disfiguring monitor lizards with prosthetics to pass them off as colossal tokay gecko specimens.
From 2009 to 2011 the poaching of Tokay geckos intensified due to a short lived belief that it was an effective HIV cure.
The tokay gecko is quickly becoming a threatened species in the Philippines due to indiscriminate hunting. Collecting, transporting and trading in geckos without a license can be punishable by up to twelve years in jail and a fine of up to Php 1,000,000.00 under Republic Act 9147 in addition to other applicable international laws. However, the trade runs unchecked due to the sheer number of illegal traders and reports of lucrative deals. Chinese buyers and other foreign nationals are rumored to pay thousands of dollars for large specimens, because of their alleged medicinal value or as commodities in the illegal wildlife trade.
Tokay geckos are becoming more popular as pets, due to their striking colors and large size. Most of them are wild caught imports, but captive bred ones are becoming more common. Wild caught adults can be difficult to keep due to their defensive nature and powerful bite, but captive bred babies can tame down if handled from a young age.
In captivity, tokay geckos eat commercially available insects, such as crickets, Dubia roaches, superworms, and mealworms. But some of them can also take premade diet replacements such as Grub pie.
The 18th meeting of the Conference of the parties to the Convention on International trade in Endangered species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)took place in Geneva, there Gecko was included for the first time under Appendix II, means species under Appendix II are not necessarily threatened with extinction, but in which trade must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival.
Subspecies.
Two subspecies are currently recognized.


Mordellistena nanuloides

Mordellistena nanuloides is a species of beetle in the genus "Mordellistena" of the family Mordellidae, which is part of the superfamily Tenebrionoidea. It was discovered in 1967.


Zabrus maroccanus

Zabrus maroccanus is a species of ground beetle in the "Pelor" subgenus that is endemic to Morocco, where it can be found in such provinces as Tangier, Rharb, Si Allel, Schou, and Tazi.


Aspidura ceylonensis

Aspidura ceylonensis, also known as the Ceylon keelback, black-spined snake, or slender mould snake, is a colubrid snake endemic to Sri Lanka. It is locally known as කුරුන් කරවලා (kurun karawala) or රත් කරවලා (rath karawala) in Sinhala.
Distribution.
"Aspidura ceylonensis" is a semi-fossorial snake from submontane forests. Restricted to submontane forests and plantations of the Central Highlands, including Pussellawa, Gampola, Hatton, Knuckles, Balangoda, Pundaluoya, Ramboda, Kotagala, Namunukula, Mousakanda, Gammaduwa, and Kotmale, up to about of elevation.
Description.
Head is long and snout is broadly rounded. Neck is indistinct. The body is slender with cylindrical, short tail. Dorsal side is crimson brown with a black vertebral line, hence given the name. Dorsum of fore body is brown. Laterally there are a series of black spots in a line. Neck region has a dark brown marking. Venter is crimson colored. Adults are in length.
Scalation.
Midbody has 17 scale rows. There are 162–207 ventral scales and 37–56 subcaudal scales. The scales are smooth and iridescent.
Ecology.
It is a nocturnal and terrestrial snake that lives in damp soil, silted-up drains, beneath heaps of decaying leaves, and in similar places where there are earthworms, its primary prey.
Reproduction.
Clutches of two to five eggs are produced in the months of August to November.


Nebria rotundicollis

Nebria rotundicollis is a subspecies of ground beetle in the Nebriinae subfamily that is endemic to Pakistan. Both of it subspecies, "Nebria rotundicollis rotundicollis" and "Nebria rotundicollis tenulis" are endemic to the same country.


Clinidium marginicolle

Clinidium marginicolle is a species of ground beetle in the subfamily Rhysodinae. It was described by Reitter in 1889.


Arthrosphaera ruginosa

Arthrosphaera ruginosa, is a species of pill millipedes in the family Arthrosphaeridae. It is endemic to Sri Lanka.


Philodromus pinetorum

Philodromus pinetorum is a spider species found from Portugal to Turkey.


Auzakia

Auzakia is a monotypic butterfly genus in the family Nymphalidae. It contains the single species, Auzakia danava, the commodore, which is found from Tibet to Sumatra.
Description.
The upperside of the male is fuliginous brown, paling on the terminal half of the wings. The forewing has the basal area below the cell, two broad bands across the latter, and a patch beyond its apex to the costa dark brownish black, the outer margin of the dark area crenulate (scalloped), extended angularly along the veins; this is followed by a pale olive-brown obscure band, a discal dark brown band widening below costa, and a subterminal narrower band of the same shade; between discal and subterminal bands is a series of faintly defined dark transverse spots in the interspaces. Hindwing: basal third dark brown, followed by a pale olive-brown interspace; discal, postdiscal and subterminal bands as on the forewing; tornus suffused with green. Underside pale ochraceous, suffused with lilacine; cell of forewing crossed by a medial and an apical brighter lilac band bordered with dark lines on both sides; base and cell of hindwing with the usual loop-like slender dark marks with pale centres; a lilac discal band, lunular and curved inwards anteriorly on the forewing, broad and straight on the hindwing, followed on both wings by a yellow postdiscal diffuse narrow band. Forewing with a patch of purplish white on apex: hindwing with a broad transverse subterminal diffuse lilac band traversed by a series of lunular obscure brownish marks; termen of both forewing and hindwing brownish yellow. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen dark brown; beneath, the palpi, thorax and abdomen pale lilacine white.
Female has the upperside similar to that of the male, but forewings and hindwings crossed obliquely by broad, outwardly somewhat diffuse, prominent white discal and postdiscal bands. These bands slightly tinged with fuliginous and on the forewing somewhat lunular. The postdiscal band on both forewing and hindwing outwardly traversed by a series of detached dark lunules; the dark interspace between the two bands much paler, suffused with green on its inner half. Underside as in the male but very much paler; the series of postdiscal detached lunules as on the upperside.


Lycodon rufozonatus

Lycodon rufozonatus is a species of snake in the family Colubridae. The species is native to East Asia. It is medium-sized, nocturnal, and is considered non-venomous. Two subspecies are recognised, one of which, "L. r. walli", is restricted to the Ryukyu Archipelago.
Etymology.
The subspecific name, "walli", is in honor of British herpetologist Frank Wall.
The generic name, "Lycodon", comes from the Greek words "lykos" (wolf) and "odon" (tooth).
Description.
"Lycodon rufozonatus" typically grows to a total length (including tail) of around , reaching up to in extreme cases. The head is long and relatively flat, and somewhat separate from the neck. The medium-sized eyes bulge slightly and have vertical pupils. The ventral scales have a strong keel, while the dorsal scales are only faintly keeled; the scale count is typically 17:17:15, but can be up to 21:19:17.
Geographic range.
"Lycodon rufozonatus" is found across a large part of East Asia, from the Korean Peninsula in the north (and extending just into easternmost Russia) to northern Laos and Vietnam in the south; the bulk of its range in found in eastern China. The continental populations are all placed in the nominate subspecies ("L. r. rufozonatus"); a second subspecies, "L. r. walli", is found in the Ryukyu Archipelago of southern Japan.
Behaviour and ecology.
"Lycodon rufozonatus" lives in a wide variety of habitats; it can be found from near sea level to as high as , and is most common near river plains. It is usually found on the ground, but is occasionally seen swimming in streams. It is nocturnal, feeding on fish, frogs, lizards, snakes and young birds. "D. rufozonatus" has a generally mild disposition, curling into a spherical mass with the head hidden when approached. Individuals can, however, be unpredictable, and some will bite readily. There are very few clinical reports on the toxinology of "D. rufozonatus" bites, but the species appears to be non-venomous. "L. rufozonatus" can harbour tapeworms of the genus "Spirometra", and the consumption of raw meat from "D. rufozonatus" has led to cases of human sparganosis in Korea and Japan.
Reproduction.
"L. rufozonatus is oviparous.
Taxonomic history.
The species was first described as ""Lycodon rufo-zonatus" " by Theodore Edward Cantor in an 1842 paper on the fauna of "Chusan" (Zhoushan, China) in the "Annals and Magazine of Natural History". Cantor included it among the "innocuous" (not venomous) species, and described it as "Brown, with numerous transversal crimson bands; the abdominal surface pearl-coloured, spotted with black on the tail".
Common names.
"L. rufozonatus" is known by several common names, including "Asian king snake", "banded red snake", "red banded krait", "red banded odd-toothed snake" and "red-banded snake".


Rhizotrogus chevrolati

Rhizotrogus chevrolati is a species of beetle in the Melolonthinae subfamily that is endemic to Spain.


Cornufer acrochordus

Cornufer acrochordus, also known as the Bougainville wrinkled ground frog, is a species of frog in the family Ceratobatrachidae. It is endemic to the Solomon Islands archipelago and occurs on Bougainville (Papua New Guinea), Choiseul, and Santa Isabel Islands (Solomon Islands), although its distribution in the archipelago is not properly known. The specific name "acrochordus" is Greek for "warty" and refers to the warty skin of this species.
Description.
Adult males measure and adult females in snout–vent length. The overall appearance is moderately broad and depressed. The eyes are moderately large. The snout is broadly rounded. The tympanum is distinct. The finger tips are round-pointed to pointed. The toe tips are pointed and slightly dilated. No webbing is present. Dorsal surfaces of the body and the limbs bear prominent, roundish tubercles. The dorsum also has some elongated folds. The venter bears coarse, rounded granules. Preserved specimens are dorsally grayish to black, usually mottled with a broad patch. blotched light and dark brown. The limbs have light and dark crossbars. Lips have dark bars.
Habitat and conservation.
"Cornufer acrochordus" occurs at elevations of above sea level on Bougainville and at , possibly higher, on Choiseul and Isabel. The lowland locations were in tropical rainforest where the frogs were active at night on the forest floor, whereas the Bougainville specimens were found on cliffs in steep mountains, and in cracks and fissures in the ground. Development is direct (i.e, there is no free-living larval stage) and the eggs are laid in fissures.
"Cornufer acrochordus" is generally rare and hard to find. It is potentially threatened by logging.


Lasaia agesilas

Lasaia agesilas, the glittering sapphire, black-patch bluemark or Narses metalmark is a metalmark butterfly (family Riodinidae). The species was first described by Pierre André Latreille in 1809. It is native to Central America and the north of South America. It ranges from Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela, Trinidad, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Guyana, to the Brazilian Amazon.
The top of the wings is metallic blue with black markings.


North American brown lemming

The North American brown lemming ("Lemmus trimucronatus") is a small North American lemming. Originally called the Siberian brown lemming ("Lemmus sibiricus") they were later formed into two distinct species.
Physical characteristics.
The lemmings are a brown in colour, with an reddish-brown back and rump, while the head and shoulders are grey. In the winter, the coat becomes longer and greyer. The female averages 12.5 cm (5.7 in) in length and weighs 58 g (2.4 oz), while the male averages 13 cm (5.9 in) and weighs 68 g (2.7 oz). Like other lemmings, it has small ears, short legs and a very short tail. The feet, both the soles and toes, are covered with bristles and are adapted for burrowing.
Habitat.
The lemming is found in the tundra areas of northern Canada (Nunavut, Northwest Territories, Yukon), and Alaska. It is also found on the west coast of British Columbia almost as far south as Vancouver Island. They feed mainly on grass shoots and will also eat tundra grass, sedge, moss, bark, berries, lichens, and roots. Predators include most carnivores and certain birds, and some evidence suggests caribou may sometimes eat them. In years when the brown lemming is scarce, some predators, such as the Arctic fox, may be unable to reproduce.
Colonies.
They live underground, in colonies, and may produce up to three litters each year, including under the snow in winter. With a gestation period of 23 days, the female will give birth from four to nine young. The brown lemming is not migratory and when overpopulated (and during mating season), they will fight amongst themselves.
Bylot Island has several wetlands with shallow polygons and many types of mosses, grasses and sedges, which suits the North American brown lemming very well for several reasons (Rochefort et al. 1996). On Bylot Island they prefer to live in the South plain of the island and mostly live in the polygon fen, also known as wetlands, which mostly supports the graminoids that they rely on for food (Bety et al. 2002). During winter brown lemmings live in insulated burrows in the ground made out of sedges and grasses (Reid et al. 2011). They make their nests in these confined burrows underground because it increases insulation and allows them to reproduce during winter (Duchesne et al. 2011). Studies on Bylot Island have shown that brown lemmings prefer to burrow under increasing snow depth rather than more dense. They believe that brown lemmings do this because the more snow depth the better energy is trapped and the number of nests increased. Deeper snow cover also protected lemmings and their nests from avian predators; mammalian predators can still forage for them but since their nests are so deep it decreases the ability of some predators to see, therefore, they are very well protected from predators (Duchesne et al. 2011; Reid et al. 2012). During summer, brown lemmings do not have the cover of snow and their territories become a lot more widespread across Bylot Island (Reid et al. 2012).


Ameerega berohoka

Ameerega berohoka is a species of poison dart frog that is endemic to Goiás and Mato Grosso in Brazil. It can be found near the Araguaia River and near Itiquira. It can be found in cerrado biome, open and forested areas, and cultivated lands. It is associated with "Brachiaria" grasses. It is threatened by deforestation, charcoal production and hydroelectric dam construction. It can be found in the protected area of Emas National Park.


List of extinct animals of India

This is a list of extinct animals of India.


Fauna of Singapore

Singapore has about 65 species of mammals, 390 species of birds, 110 species of reptiles, 30 species of amphibians, more than 300 butterfly species, 127 dragonfly species, and over 2,000 recorded species of marine wildlife.
The Central Catchment Nature Reserve and the nearby Bukit Timah Nature Reserve are the stronghold of the remaining forest animals on the mainland. These enclose the only remnants of primary forest on the island. The former includes four reservoirs (MacRitchie, Upper Peirce, Lower Peirce, Upper Seletar). The northeastern offshore islands of Pulau Ubin and Pulau Tekong are also rich in wildlife.
Other areas of note are Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve, Singapore Botanic Gardens, Bukit Batok Nature Park, Pulau Semakau, etc.


Forficula aetolica

Forficula aetolica is a species of earwig in the family Forficulidae. They can be found in the Palearctic realm, especially Turkey, Greece, Cyprus, and Ukraine.


Hierodula trimacula

Hierodula trimacula is a species of praying mantis found in Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Oman, and Yemen.


Dayak fruit bat

The dayak fruit bat or dyak fruit bat ("Dyacopterus spadiceus") is a relatively rare frugivorous megabat species found only on the Sunda Shelf of southeast Asia, specifically the Malay Peninsula south of the Isthmus of Kra, and the islands of Borneo and Sumatra. There are three species in the genus "Dyacopterus": "D. spadiceus", "D. brooksi" and "D. rickarti". All are found in the forests of Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines. Few specimens of any of the three species exist, due not only to their rarity, but also because they rarely enter the subcanopy of the forest where they can be caught in scientists' nets.
Distribution.
"D. spadiceus" is considered a very rare fruit bat species in Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo and none in Thailand. The species were netted in four sites at Poring, Kubah, Kota Samarahan and Pontianak, all on Borneo. The specimens, MTA96268 and MTA96269, that were held at Tanjungpura University, are the first record for this distinctive species in Kalimantan Barat, Indonesian Borneo. Specimens UMS0010, MTA96237, and MTA96238 from Sarawak and MTA96208 from Sabah are new additional records for the species in the sampling areas. These new sites have extended the range of "D. spadiceus" to the western and southern parts of Borneo.
Previous distribution records includes Selangor and Negeri Sembilan in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra; Sepilok and Baturong Caves in Sabah; Baram and Niah areas in Sarawak (Medway 1978, Payne et al. 1985).
Description.
The dayak bat averages less than 150 grams. It is gray-brown dorsally with a silver-gray ventral side. Its fur is short. It has a short tail, ranging from ten to twenty percent of its body length. Its wing membranes attach to the second toe on each foot.
"D. spadiceus" is the smallest of the bats in the genus "Dyacopterus". It has the smallest skull size, averaging less than 36.1 mm from the premaxilla to the base of the skull. It has a proportionally wide skull, however, when compared to the other bats in the genus.
Diet.
The dayak bat is frugivorous, feeding on fruits from trees extending into or past the canopy of the forests of Malaysia. Figs are a staple of its diet, as are whatever fruits are seasonally available in the high canopy. "D. spadiceus" seems to prefer the fruits of old-growth Paleotropical rainforest, or montane rainforest. This makes them particularly susceptible to deforestation. Frugivorous bats are one of the main agents of seed dispersal in the rainforest, making them essential to the ecosystem.
Biology and ecology.
A male and five female adults were mist-netted. Two females collected from Kalimantan Barat in September 1996 were in early and late pregnancy. Both bats were caught in a mist net placed near fruiting Ficus tree in disturbed peat swamp forest. Females from Kota Samarahan and Kubah were lactating in September 1994 and August 1996 respectively. Two individuals were caught in the subcanopy (between 10 – 15 m ) by using a vertically-hoisted mist net placed in the Sungai Rayu at Kubah. The individual from Poring was caught in the emergent tree above the main canopy (> 30 m from the ground level). However, the two specimens from Kalimantan Barat were taken from the ground level nets in a peat swamp forest.
There is no previous information on the biology and ecology for "D. spadiceus" as indicated by Medway (1978), Payne et al. (1985) and Mickleburg et al., (1992).
Reproduction.
As there are few samples of "Dyacopterus spadiceus", and no socioeconomic studies have been performed, there is little data available on the reproduction and habits of any of the "Dyacopterus" species. However, from information gained during studies of Malaysian fruit bats in general, "D. spadiceus" seems to be a monogamous species, with both sexes coming into sexual maturity when they reach 70 grams (approximately one-half adult body weight). While it is unknown how long the females gestate, females have been found carrying embryos from June to July, and have been found lactating from June until September. This would suggest a one- to two-month lactation time, after which the young is weaned and probably leaves the nest. Females have been found carrying either one or two embryos. In a study on the abundance of fruit bats in Malaysia, two fruit bats, one male, one pregnant female, were found roosting in a hollow limb of a fig tree.
Paternal lactation.
The male of the "D. spadiceus" species is one of the known natural occurrences of paternal lactation. While the reasons the male would lactate are currently unknown, it could be a mechanism to take some of the pressure of lactation off the female. This may confer an evolutionary advantage in lactating males over other non-lactating males.


Leerfish

The leerfish or garrick ("Lichia amia") is a species of marine fish in the family Carangidae, and is native to the Mediterranean and the coastal waters of western Africa to the coastal waters of eastern South Africa. Also recorded in the Black Sea. These fish can reach 1.5 m in length and more than 30 kg in weight. They inhabit the coastal wave zone where they form small shoals to hunt other smaller fish, favouring mullets.


Gudusia chapra

Gudusia chapra, or the Indian river shad, is a species of fish in the family Clupeidae, occurring in rivers of India and Bangladesh draining to the Bay of Bengal (e.g. the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi River), and also reported from Pakistan and Nepal. Outside the rivers it also occurs in ponds, beels, ditches and inundated fields.


White-lipped peccary

The white-lipped peccary ("Tayassu pecari") is a peccary found in Central and South America. Most of its range is in rainforests, but it is also known from a wide range of other habitats such as dry forests, grasslands, mangrove, Cerrado, and dry xerophytic areas. It lives in herds of 20–300 individuals that typically take up about to fully function. Members of this species are omnivorous, feeding mostly on fruit, and are usually found traveling great distances to obtain it. If this resource is in demand and difficult to find, peccaries eat leaves, stems, or animal parts. White-lipped peccaries have several unique attributes that allow them to stay with and identify their herd, which is essential for their survival in the wild.
Physical description.
The white-lipped peccary lives to be around 13 years old and can give birth to two young at a time. The head and body length ranges from , the shoulder height is between , the tail length is from , and the adult weight is . Their color is generally brown or black. The coat is bristly and has hairs running lengthways down the spine growing longer than the hairs running down the body, making a crest, which rises when the peccary becomes excited. The peccary has a round body with a long snout that ends in a circular disk where the nasal cavity starts. It has white markings that start below the snout and run to the cheek area just below the eyes.
Food.
White-lipped peccaries are omnivores feeding on fruits, nuts, vegetation, and small amounts of animal matter. Since the white-lipped peccary relies heavily on fruit, they travel to where the fruit and other essential resources are located. The fruiting season dictates most of their behavior. Fruit is more abundant in primary forests rather than secondary or coastal forests, so their populations are more dense in these regions. Generally, a period of fruit shortage occurs during the end of the wet season, so the consumption of secondary foods, such as leaves, stems, and animal parts, is increased.
Distribution, habitat, and movement.
The white-lipped peccary is native to Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. An example ecoregion of occurrence is the Belizean pine forests. The peccary is regionally extinct in El Salvador and Uruguay. They thrive in dense, humid, tropical forests, and can also be found in a wide range of other habitats such dry forests, grasslands, mangrove, Cerrado, and dry xerophytic areas. They range from sea level to an altitude of .
Behavior.
The white-lipped peccary is a diurnal feeder, and it performs all of its activities during the day, more specifically in the mornings and afternoons. It can spend up to two-thirds of its day traveling and feeding. Herds can number 20–300, including both males and females; some reports have described herds reaching 2,000 peccaries. The sex ratio within herds is about 1.4–1.8 females per male. The home range for the peccary is from in the Peruvian Amazon. The range lands of peccaries are massive due to the large number of individuals within the herd. Often, peccaries can be smelled before seen because they give off a skunk-like odor. White-lipped peccaries have a scent gland on their backs, which emits a scent, allowing a strong bond between members of the herd. They are a good indicator of the health of a forest, because they live in such large herds and in large areas.
They are known to be aggressive when cornered or feel threatened. They maintain contact with the herd by making a low moaning sound and will alert or intimidate others by proclaiming a loud “bark” and show their teeth in an attempt to avoid conflict. When these animals roam in their range land, they can be very loud, clattering their teeth and grunting to one another to communicate and stay within the herd. They communicate with olfactory, acoustic, and physical contact to keep together in the herd. This is essential when warding off predators such as the jaguar, because it may not attack when 200 peccaries are in a herd.
Breeding.
The white-lipped peccary can breed throughout the year depending on location. The breeding season is extremely variable and consists of two distinct peaks in areas such as Costa Rica, one occurring in February and one in July. Mexico has distinct breeding seasons in April and November. The breeding season follows the fruiting season, so the variability can be consistently different in each different region where they are found. Babies usually weigh about at birth. The young stay with the mother but are weaned by six months old. Sexual maturity is reached between one and two years old.
Major threats.
The two main threats to their survival are deforestation and hunting. Destruction and subdivision of their natural range can have devastating effects on their population. Loss of habitat can lead to exposure for poachers, who can easily kill many peccaries at one time. Natural predators include the jaguar and puma.
Endangerment status.
The white-lipped peccary is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN and listed on Appendix II on CITES.


Ichthyophis orthoplicatus

Ichthyophis orthoplicatus, also known as the Pattipola caecilian or brown caecilian, is a species of caecilian endemic to Sri Lanka. It is found in a range of natural and man-made habitats including evergreen forests, rubber and tea plantations, paddy fields, rural gardens and farms, wetlands (boggy areas), and cattle pastureland.
The holotype was estimated to have measured about in total length.


Italian agile frog

The Italian agile frog ("Rana latastei"), also known as Lataste's frog, is a species of frog in the family Ranidae (true frogs). The species is native to southern Europe.
Etymology.
The specific name, "latastei", is in honor of French herpetologist Fernand Lataste.
Description.
"Rana latastei" may attain a head-body length of . The throat is dark, with a light narrow central stripe.
Geographic range.
"Rana latastei" is endemic to the plains of northern Italy, the extreme southern tip of Switzerland, the Istrian region of Slovenia, and adjacent Croatia. In Italy, populations are reported from four regions: Lombardy, Venetia, Piedmont and Friuli-Venezia Giulia, but the species is most abundant in the former two. Its distribution mainly follows the Po River plains and tributaries.
Habitat.
"R. latastei" is a decidedly lowland species and rarely occurs above 400 m a. s. l., only going up to the lower foothills of mountains, where the colder climate affects larval development. The Italian agile frog inhabits oak and hornbeam-dominated plain woods, hygrophilous woods and riparian woods characterized by white poplar and white willow trees. This types of woods may regularly inundate. It has also been reported from open habitats like wet meadows or peat bogs.
Reproduction.
Between late February and mid-April, males and females gather at breeding sites. Reproduction activities occurs in small permanent or temporal water bodies with extensive aquatic vegetation or submerged plant material, such as ponds, ditches or floodplain puddles. The minimum water temperature for egg deposition is reported as 2°C, and eggs hatch after 10 to 15 days. As with other European frogs of the genus, metamorphosis is completed after circa 3 months. Females leave the breeding site immediately after spawning, whereas males and juveniles remain there for up to 5 weeks.
Conservation Status.
The IUCN lists this species as Vulnerable (VU). Major threats include habitat destruction and fragmentation, as it is highly adapted to the floodplain woods of the Po River basin. To enhance the protection of this species, several conservation areas were proposed in Italy, and frog tadpoles bred and translocated to suitable sites.


Wood turtle

The wood turtle ("Glyptemys insculpta") is a species of turtle endemic to North America. It is in the genus "Glyptemys", a genus which contains only one other species of turtle: the bog turtle ("Glyptemys muhlenbergii" ). The wood turtle reaches a straight carapace length of , its defining characteristic being the pyramidal shape of the scutes on its upper shell. Morphologically, it is similar to the bog turtle, spotted turtle ("Clemmys guttata"), and Blanding's turtle ("Emydoidea blandingii"). The wood turtle exists in a broad geographic range extending from Nova Scotia in the north (and east) to Minnesota in the west and Virginia in the south. In the past, it was forced south by encroaching glaciers: skeletal remains have been found as far south as Georgia.
It spends a great deal of time in or near the water of wide rivers, preferring shallow, clear streams with compacted and sandy bottoms. The wood turtle can also be found in forests and grasslands, but will rarely be seen more than several hundred meters from flowing water. It is diurnal and is not overtly territorial. It spends the winter in hibernation and the hottest parts of the summer in estivation.
The wood turtle is omnivorous and is capable of eating on land or in water. On an average day, a wood turtle will move , a decidedly long distance for a turtle. Many other animals that live in its habitat pose a threat to it. Raccoons are over-abundant in many places and are a direct threat to all life stages of this species. Inadvertently, humans cause many deaths through habitat destruction, road traffic, farming accidents, and illegal collection. When unharmed, it can live for up to 40 years in the wild and 58 years in captivity.
The wood turtle belongs to the family Emydidae. The specific name, "insculpta", refers to the rough, sculptured surface of the carapace. This turtle species inhabits aquatic and terrestrial areas of North America, primarily the northeast of the United States and parts of Canada. Wood turtle populations are under high conservation concerns due to human interference of natural habitats. Habitat destruction and fragmentation can negatively impact the ability for wood turtles to search for suitable mates and build high quality nests.
Taxonomy.
Formerly in the genus "Clemmys", the wood turtle is now a member of the genus "Glyptemys", a classification that the wood turtle shares with only the bog turtle. It and the bog turtle have a similar genetic makeup, which is marginally different from that of the spotted turtle ("Clemmys guttata"), the only current member of the genus "Clemmys". The wood turtle has undergone extensive scientific name changes by various scientists over the course of its history. Today, there are several prominent common names for the wood turtle, including sculptured tortoise, red-legged tortoise, and redleg.
Although no subspecies are recognized, there are morphological differences in wood turtles between areas. Individuals found in the west of its geographic range (areas like the Great Lakes and the Midwest United States) have a paler complexion on the inside of the legs and underside of the neck than ones found in the east (places including the Appalachian Mountains, New York, and Pennsylvania). Genetic analysis has also revealed that southern populations have less genetic diversity than the northern; however, both exhibit a fair amount of diversity considering the decline in numbers that have occurred during previous ice ages.
Description.
Wood turtles grow to between in straight carapace length, and reach a maximum of . They have a rough carapace that is a tan, grayish brown or brown color, with a central ridge (called a keel) made up of a pyramidal pattern of ridges and grooves. Older turtles typically display an abraded or worn carapace. Fully grown, they weigh . The wood turtle's karyotype consists of 50 chromosomes.
The larger scutes display a pattern of black or yellow lines. The wood turtle's plastron (ventral shell) is yellowish in color and has dark patches. The posterior margin of the plastron terminates in a V-shaped notch. Although sometimes speckled with yellowish spots, the upper surface of the head is often a dark gray to solid black. The ventral surfaces of the neck, chin, and legs are orange to red with faint yellow stripes along the lower jaw of some individuals. Seasonal variation in color vibrancy have been known to occur.
At maturity, males, who reach a maximum straight carapace length of , are larger than females, who have been recorded to reach . Males also have larger claws, a larger head, a concave plastron, a more dome-like carapace, and longer tails than females. The plastron of females and juveniles is flat while in males it gains concavity with age. The posterior marginal scutes of females and juveniles (of either sex) radiate outward more than in mature males. The coloration on the neck, chin, and inner legs is more vibrant in males than in females who display a pale yellowish color in those areas. Hatchlings range in size from in length (straight carapace measurement). The plastrons of hatchlings are dull gray to brown. Their tail usually equals the length of the carapace and their neck and legs lack the bright coloration found in adults. Hatchling's carapaces also are as wide as they are long and lack the pyramidal pattern found in older turtles.
The eastern box turtle ("Terrapene c. carolina") and Blanding's turtle are similar in appearance to the wood turtle and all three live in overlapping habitats. However, unlike the wood turtle, both Blanding's turtle and the eastern box turtle have hinged plastrons that allow them to completely close their shells. The diamondback terrapin ("Malaclemys terrapin") has a shell closely resembling the wood turtle's; however its skin is gray in color, and it inhabits coastal brackish and saltwater marshes. The bog turtle and spotted turtle are also similar, but neither of these has the specific sculptured surface found on the carapaces of the wood turtle.
Distribution and habitat.
The wood turtle is found in most New England states, Nova Scotia, west to Michigan, northern Indiana and Minnesota, and south to Virginia. Overall, the distribution is disjunct with populations often being small and isolated. Roughly 30% of its total population is in Canada. It prefers slow-moving streams containing a sandy bottom and heavily vegetated banks. The soft bottoms and muddy shores of these streams are ideal for overwintering. Also, the areas bordering the streams (usually with open canopies ) are used for nesting. Spring to summer is spent in open areas including forests, fields, bogs, wet meadows, and beaver ponds. The rest of the year is spent in the aforementioned waterways.
The densities of wood turtle populations have also been studied. In the northern portion of its range (Quebec and other areas of Canada), populations are fairly dilute, containing an average of 0.44 individuals per , while in the south, over the same area, the densities varied largely from 6 to 90 turtles. In addition to this, it has been found that colonies often have more females than males.
In the western portion of its range, wood turtles are more aquatic. In the east, wood turtles are decidedly more terrestrial, especially during the summer. During this time, they can be found in wooded areas with wide open canopies. However, even here, they are never far from water and will enter it every few days.
Evolutionary history.
In the past, wood turtle populations were forced south by extending glaciers. Remains from the Rancholabrean period (300,000 to 11,000 years ago) have been found in states such as Georgia and Tennessee, both of which are well south of their current range. After the receding of the ice, wood turtle colonies were able to re-inhabit their customary northern range (areas like New Brunswick and Nova Scotia).
Nesting behavior.
This species is oviparous, meaning these turtles produce offspring by laying eggs only and do not provide parental care outside of nest-building. Thus, the location and quality of nesting sites determine the offspring survival and fitness, so females invest significant time and energy into nest site selection and construction. Females select nest sites based on soil temperature (preferring warmer temperature nest sites), but not soil composition. Average nest size is four inches wide and three inches deep. Also, females build nests in elevated areas in order to avoid flooding and predation. After laying eggs, female wood turtles will cover the nest with leaves or dirt in order to hide the unhatched eggs from predators, and then the female leaves the nest location until the next mating season. Nesting sites can be used by the same female for multiple years. Because nest building occurs along rivers, females tend to spend more time along river areas, compared to male turtles.
Ecology and behavior.
During the spring, the wood turtle is active during the daytime (usually from about 7:00 a.m. and 7:00 p.m.) and will almost always be found within several hundred metres of a stream. The early morning and late afternoon are preferred foraging periods. Throughout this season, the wood turtle uses logs, sandy shores, or banks to bask in sunlight. In order to maintain its body temperatures through thermoregulation, it spends a considerable amount of time basking, most of which takes place in the late morning and late afternoon. The wood turtle reaches a peak body temperature of after basking. During times of extreme heat, it has been known to estivate. Several reports mention individuals resting under vegetation, fallen debris and in shallow puddles. During the summer, the wood turtle is considered a largely terrestrial animal. At night, its average body temperature drops to between and it will rest in small creeks or nearby land (usually in areas containing some sort of underbrush or grass).
During warmer weather, the wood turtle stays in the water for a larger percentage of the time. For this reason, during the winter months (and the late fall and early spring) it is considered an aquatic turtle. November through February or March is spent in hibernation at the bottom of a small, flowing river. The wood turtle may hibernate alone or in large groups. During this period, individuals bury themselves in the thick mud at the bottom of the river and rarely move. During hibernation, it is vulnerable to flash floods. Emergence does not occur until March or sometimes April, months that mark the beginning of its activation period (males are typically more active than females at this time).
Males are known to be aggressive, with larger and older turtles being more dominant. Larger males rank higher on the social hierarchy often created by wood turtle colonies. In the wild, the submissive turtle is either forced to flee, or is bombarded with physical abuses, which include biting, shoving, and ramming. Larger and more dominant males will sometimes try to remove a subordinate male while he is mating with a female. The defender will, if he does not successfully fight for his position, lose the female to the larger male. Therefore, among males, there is a direct relationship between copulation opportunities and social rank. However, the outcome of encounters between two turtles is more aggression-dependent than size-dependent. The wood turtle that is more protective of his or her area is the victor. Physical bouts between wood turtles (regardless of sex) increases marginally during the fall and spring (times of mating).
The wood turtle is omnivorous, feeding mainly on plant matter and animals both on land and in water. It eats prey such as beetles, millipedes, and slugs. Also, wood turtles consume specific fungi ("Amanita muscaria" and "Leccinum arcolatum"), mosses, grasses, various insects, and also carrion. On occasion, it can be seen stomping the ground with alternating hits of the left and right front feet. This behavior is thought to imitate the sound of falling rain, sometimes causing earthworms to rise to the surface where they quickly become easy prey. When hunting, the wood turtle pokes its head into such areas as dead and decaying logs, the bottoms of bushes, and in other vegetation. In the water, it exhibits similar behavior, searching algae beds and cavities along the sides of the stream or river.
Many different animals are predators of or otherwise pose a threat to the wood turtle. They include snapping turtles, raccoons, otters, foxes, and cats. All of these species destroy unhatched eggs and prey upon hatchlings and juveniles. Several animals that often target wood turtle eggs are the common raven and coyote, which may completely destroy the nests they encounter. Evidence of predatory attacks (wounds to the skin and such) are common on individuals, but the northern populations tend to display more scarring than the southern ones. In addition to these threats, wood turtles also suffer from leech infestations.
Movement.
The wood turtle can travel at a relatively fast speed (upwards of ); it also travels long distances during the months that it is active. In one instance, of nine turtles studied, the average distance covered in a 24-hour period was , with a net displacement of .
The wood turtle, an intelligent animal, has homing capabilities. Its mental capacity for directional movement was discovered after the completion of an experiment that involved an individual finding food in a maze. The results proved that these turtles have locating abilities similar to that of a rat. This was also proved by another, separate experiment. One male wood turtle was displaced after being captured, and within five weeks, it returned to the original location. The homing ability of the wood turtle does not vary among sexes, age groups, or directions of travel.
Life cycle.
The wood turtle takes a long time to reach sexual maturity, has a low fecundity (ability to reproduce), but has a high adult survival rate. However, the high survival rates are not true of juveniles or hatchlings. Although males establish hierarchies, they are not territorial. The wood turtle becomes sexually mature between 14 and 18 years of age. Mating activity among wood turtles peaks in the spring and again in the fall, although it is known to mate throughout the portion of the year they are active. However, it has been observed mating in December. In one rare instance, a female wood turtle hybridized with a male Blanding's turtle.
The courtship ritual consists of several hours of 'dancing,' which usually occurs on the edge of a small stream. Males often initiate this behavior: starting by nudging the females shell, head, tail, and legs. Because of this behavior, the female may flee from the area, in which case the male will follow. After the chase (if it occurs), the male and female approach and back away from each other as they continually raise and extend their heads. After some time, they lower their heads and swing them from left to right. Once it is certain that the two individuals will mate, the male will gently bite the female's head and mount her. Intercourse lasts between 22 and 33 minutes. Actual copulation takes place in the water, between depths between . Although unusual, copulation does occur on land. During the two prominent times of mating (spring and fall), females are mounted anywhere from one to eight times, with several of these causing impregnation. For this reason, a number of wood turtle clutches have been found to have hatchlings from more than one male.
Nesting occurs from May until July. Nesting areas receive ample sunlight, contain soft soil, are free from flooding, and are devoid of rocks and disruptively large vegetation. These sites however, can be limited among wood turtle colonies, forcing females to travel long distances in search of a suitable site, sometimes a trip. Before laying her eggs, the female may prepare several false nests. After a proper area is found, she will dig out a small cavity, lay about seven eggs (but anywhere from three to 20 is common), and fill in the area with earth. Oval and white, the eggs average in length and in width, and weigh about . The nests themselves are deep, and digging and filling it may take a total of four hours. Hatchlings emerge from the nest between August and October with overwintering being rare although entirely possible. An average length of , the hatchlings lack the vibrant coloration of the adults. Female wood turtles in general lay one clutch per year and tend to congregate around optimal nesting areas.
The wood turtle, throughout the first years of its life, is a rapid grower. Five years after hatching, it already measures , at age 16, it is a full , depending on sex. The wood turtle can be expected to live for 40 years in the wild, with captives living up to 58 years.
The wood turtle is the only known turtle species in existence that has been observed committing same-sex intercourse. Same-sex behavior in tortoises is known in more than one species.
The wood turtle exhibits genetic sex determination, in contrast to the temperature-dependent sex determination of most turtles.
Mating system.
Specific mating courtship occurs more often in the Fall months and usually during the afternoon hours from 11:00 to 13:00 when many of the turtles are out in the population feeding. Mating is based on a male competitive hierarchy where a few higher ranked males gain the majority of mates in the population. Male wood turtles fight to gain access to female mates. These fights involve aggressive behaviors such as biting or chasing one another, and the males defend themselves by retreating their heads into their hard shells. The higher ranked winning males in the hierarchy system have a greater number of offspring than the lower ranked male individuals, increasing the dominant male's fitness. Female wood turtles mate with multiple males and are able to store sperm from multiple mates. Although the mechanism of sperm storage is unknown for the Wood Turtle species, other turtle species have internal compartments that can store viable sperm for years. Multiple mating ensures fertilization of all the female's eggs and often results in multiple paternity of a clutch, which is a common phenomenon exhibited by many marine and freshwater turtles. Multiple paternity patterns have been made evident in wood turtle populations by DNA fingerprinting. DNA fingerprinting of turtles involves using an oligonucleotide probe to produce sex specific markers, ultimately providing multi-locus DNA markers.
Conservation.
Despite many sightings and a seemingly large and diverse distribution, wood turtle numbers are in decline. Many deaths caused by humans result from: habitat destruction, farming accidents, and road traffic. Also, it is commonly collected illegally for the international pet trade. These combined threats have caused many areas where they live to enact laws protecting it. Despite legislation, enforcement of the laws and education of the public regarding the species are minimal.
For proper protection of the wood turtle, in-depth land surveys of its habitat to establish population numbers are needed. One emerging solution to the highway mortality problem, which primarily affects nesting females, is the construction of under-road channels. These tunnels allow the wood turtle to pass under the road, a solution that helps prevent accidental deaths. Brochures and other media that warn people to avoid keeping the wood turtle as a pet are currently being distributed. Next, leaving nests undisturbed, especially common nesting sites and populations, is the best solution to enable the wood turtle's survival.
While considered nationally as threatened by COSEWIC, the wood turtle is listed as vulnerable within the province of Nova Scotia under the Species at Risk Act. The species is highly susceptible to human land use activities, and special management practices for woodlands, rivers and farmland areas as well as motor vehicle use restrictions and general disruption protection during critical times such as nesting and movement to overwintering habitat is closely monitored. Since 2012, the Clean Annapolis River Project (CARP) has provided research and stewardship for this species including the identification of crucial habitats, distribution and movement estimation, and outreach.


Acarolella stereopis

Acarolella stereopis is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in Argentina.


Buthus montanus

Buthus montanus is a scorpion species found in the mountain ranges of southeastern Spain.


Chinese water dragon

The Chinese water dragon ("Physignathus cocincinus") is a species of agamid lizard native to China and mainland Southeast Asia. It is also known as the Asian water dragon, Thai water dragon, and green water dragon. The genus name is Greek for "inflated jaw".
Description.
Chinese water dragons can grow up to in total length, including tail, and can live from 10 to 15 years. Coloration ranges from dark to light green, or sometimes purple with an orange stomach. Diagonal stripes of green or turquoise are found on the body, while the tail is banded from the middle to the end with green and white. Their undersides range from white, off white, very pale green, or pale yellow. But their throats are considered to be more attractive, which can be quite colorful (blue and purple, or peach), some with a single color, some with stripes. Adult males have larger, more triangular heads than females, and develop larger crests on the head, neck and tail, and are larger in general. The tail, slightly over two-thirds of the entire body length, can be used as a weapon, for balance, and to assist swimming.
Like many other reptiles the Chinese water dragon possesses a small, iridescent, photosensitive spot between their eyes referred to as the pineal eye (or parietal eye, or colloquially as the third eye) that is thought to help thermoregulate their bodies by sensing differences in light to assist with basking and seeking shelter after sunset. Since it recognizes differences in light, the parietal eye can also help the lizard avoid predation from birds and other aerial threats, and can awaken from deep sleep from even slight changes in light from overhead. These animals are very docile and allow physical activity.
Habitat and behaviors.
Native to the lowland and highland forests of southern China and southeastern Asia (Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Burma), Chinese water dragons are most commonly found along the banks of freshwater lakes and streams. They are active during the day (diurnal), and spend most of their time in the trees or plants (arboreal). If threatened, the dragon will drop from the trees into the water and either swim to safety or remain submerged for up to 90 minutes. Water dragons live in areas with average humidity levels of 40–80% and temperatures ranging from 80–90 °F (26–32 °C).
Diet.
Though they will also eat vegetation, the diet of the water dragon consists mainly of insects, supplemented with an occasional small fish, mammal or reptile.
Reproduction.
Chinese water dragons normally reproduce sexually, but sometimes reproduce by parthenogenesis instead.
Invasive species.
Chinese water dragons have established themselves in Hong Kong, probably from released pet animals.