Main Ridge, Tobago

Main Ridge is the main mountainous ridge on the island of Tobago, Trinidad and Tobago. It is a chain of hills which runs from southwest to northeast between the Caribbean Sea and the Southern Tobago fault system and reaches a maximum height of . The Main Ridge Forest Reserve, which was legally established in 1776, is one of the oldest protected areas in the world. It is a popular site for birdwatching and ecotourism. Main Ridge provides important habitat for native plants and animals, including several species endemic to Tobago.
History.
The Treaty of Paris in 1763 ended Tobago's status as a neutral territory and made it a British colony. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle in 1748 had designated Tobago neutral territory and left it in the hands of its remaining indigenous population, but the return to British control led to a rapid conversion of the island to a plantation economy. Under the direction of the Board of Trade, the island was surveyed, divided into plots, and sold to planters. The upper portions of the Main Ridge were reserved as "Woods for the Protection of the Rains" and thus remained uncleared and uncultivated.
The decision to preserve forests to maintain rainfall was driven by the efforts of Soame Jenyns, a commissioner of the Board of Trade and Member of Parliament. Jenyns was convinced of the importance of forests for preserving rainfall through the work of Stephen Hales on plant physiology and transpiration. It took Jenyns eleven years to convince the British Parliament of the importance of the endeavour, but on 13 April 1776, Parliament passed an ordinance establishing the reserve "for the purpose of attracting frequent showers of rain upon which the fertility of lands in these climates doth entirely depend". This action produced one of the oldest protected areas in the world geared towards conservation and has been described as "the first act in the modern environmental movement".
Beginning in 1904, the rain reserve was combined with adjacent Crown lands and proclaimed the Main Ridge Forest Reserve.
Geography.
Main Ridge forms the mountainous backbone of the island of Tobago, which is the smaller and more northern of the two main islands that make up the southern Caribbean nation of Trinidad and Tobago. The chain of hills is long and runs from the southwest to the northeast, roughly parallel to the orientation of the island. Main Ridge reaches an elevation of above sea level at Centre Hill, but lacks any well-defined peaks. To the northwest it is bounded by the Caribbean Sea and by the Southern Tobago fault system to the southeast.
Rainfall averages about per year. Most streams run along oblique-slip faults with a northwest orientation. Major streams draining the Main Ridge include the Coffee, Hillsborough, Goldsborough, and Queens Rivers. Streams which drain to the northwest are short and steep, while those which drain to the southeast are longer, with better-developed courses. Waterfalls, including the Argylle Waterfall (Tobago's highest) occur at major transitions between rock types. The northeastern slopes are steeper than the southwestern ones and are among the most landslide-prone parts of the island.
Geology.
Main Ridge is primarily underlain by the North Coast Schist Group (NCSG), which occupies the northern third of the island of Tobago. The island of Tobago is the main exposed portion of the Tobago terrane, a fragment of crustal material lying between the Caribbean and South American Plates. The rocks of the NCSG are metavolcanic; the underlying igneous rock was laid down during the Late Jurassic or Early Cretaceous. They underwent metamorphosis prior to the mid Cretaceous, when additional volcanic intrusion formed the rocks of the Tobago Volcanic Group. A combination of uplift, erosion, and faulting during the late Mesozoic and Paleogene led to the elevated horst block separated from the half graben of the southern lowlands by the Southern Tobago fault system.
Vegetation and ecology.
Main Ridge is dominated by lower montane rain forest (according to John Stanley Beard's classification of the vegetation of Tobago). In Tobago, these forests are characterised by an emergent canopy of "Licania biglandulosa" and "Byrsonima spicata", with the palm "Euterpe broadwayi" more common on exposed ridges and summits. Moist lowland forest dominates the lower-lying portions of the Main Ridge. The forests experienced limited human disturbance prior to the 1940s, but were badly damaged by Hurricane Flora in 1963.
Sixteen mammalian species including the nine-banded armadillo, the crab-eating raccoon and the red-rumped agouti, 210 species of birds, 24 snakes and 16 lizards have been recorded from the area. The ichthyofauna is limited - only four of Tobago's 13 freshwater fish species are found in its rivers and streams. The spotted algae-eating goby, "Sicydium punctatum", is the most widespread fish species in the area, while the jumping guabine, "Anablepsoides hartii", is found at the highest elevations and is the only fish species upstream of several waterfalls. Aquatic invertebrates include the decapods "Atya innocous", "Eudaniela garmani", "Macrobrachium faustinum", and the introduced gastropod "Melanoides tuberculata."
Conservation.
The Main Ridge Forest Reserve, a forest reserve, is one of the oldest protected areas in the world. The Trinidad and Tobago government submitted the Main Ridge Forest Reserve as a tentative listing for a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2011. The area is managed by the Department of Natural Resources and the Environment, a department of the Tobago House of Assembly. It has been identified as one of seven Important Bird Areas in Trinidad and Tobago by BirdLife International.
The Main Ridge Forest Reserve plays an important role in the protection of native biodiversity, particularly endemic plant species. The Main Ridge and the Northern Range (in northern Trinidad) are the areas in the country which support the largest numbers globally rare plant species. A gap analysis of endemic vascular plants of Trinidad and Tobago identified 15 endemic plant species in the area; species distribution modelling suggested that the reserve included suitable habitat for another nine plant endemic species.
Main Ridge provides critical habitat for two endemic amphibians, "Pristimantis turpinorum" (Turpin's frog) and "Mannophryne olmonae" (Bloody Bay tree frog), which are endemic to northeastern Tobago and for the coral snake mimic "Erythrolamprus pseudoreginae". The white-tailed sabrewing ("Campylopterus ensipennis") is endemic to northeastern Venezuela and the Main Ridge; after Hurricane Flora in 1963 the hummingbird was thought to be extirpated from Tobago, but was rediscovered in 1974. Plant species endemic to Tobago which have been recorded from Main Ridge include "Odontonema brevipes", "Duguetia tobagensis", "Phyllanthus acacioides", "Besleria seitzii", "Cybianthus pittieri", "Pilea tobagensis", and "Justicia tobagensis".
Ecotourism.
Main Ridge is an important ecotourism destination and birdwatching site. The site has a visitor centre and a network of nine trails which allow access to the site. Additional trails were constructed to reduce pressure on the most popular trail, Gilpin Trace, which is prone to over-use. The Main Ridge Forest Reserve was named the World's Leading Ecotourism Destination by the World Travel Awards from 2003 to 2006 and the World's Leading Green Destination in 2007 and 2009.
Threats.
Forests on the Main Ridge were damaged by Hurricane Flora in 1963, and its forests continue to be susceptible to hurricane damage. Given the small size of the area, fires started in surrounding agricultural lands can penetrate deep into the hills. Commercial and subsistence hunting and overuse for tourism pose threats to biodiversity, while the chytrid fungus "Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis" poses a threat to endemic amphibians.


Maolin National Scenic Area

The Maolin National Scenic Area () is a national scenic area in Kaohsiung and Pingtung County of Taiwan.
Geology.
The scenic area is located at the western side of Central Mountain Range foothill which covers three rivers. It is located within the boundary of Sandimen Township of Pingtung County and Maolin and Liouguei districts of Kaohsiung City. The average temperature of the area is 24 °C.
Facilities.
The scenic area features various hotels and other lodging facilities.
Seasonal Activities.
Austronesian Wedding (March).
The Austronesian wedding ceremony is a seasonal activity which combined with the traditional wedding of the aborigines based on the Majia Township of the Northern Pingtung, Sandimen Township, Paiwan of Wutai Township and Rukai, presented by Maolin National Scenic Area Management Office.
Purple Crow Butterflies Watching (November to March).
Every year in winter, the highlight of the Maolin National Scenic Area is the arrival of thousands and thousands of purple crow butterflies across the ocean to stay for the winter.
Fetrip of Whispering Flowers in the Mountains (November to January).
The Liouguei area of Kaohsiung County has the largest number of hot springs resources of all Southern Taiwan, and includes almost 40 hot spring hotels.


Old Goa

Old Goa (Konkani: "Pornnem Goem", "Adlem Gõi", "Goeam"; ) is a historical city situated on the southern banks of the Mandovi River in the Ilhas (present-day Tiswadi) sub-district of North Goa in the Indian state of Goa.
The city was established by the Bijapur Sultanate in the 15th century and served as capital of Portuguese India from the 16th century until its abandonment in the 18th century due to a plague. Under the Portuguese, it is said to have once been a city of nearly 200,000 wherefrom, before the plague, the Portuguese traded across continents. The remains of the city are a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Old Goa is approximately 10 kilometres east of the state capital Panaji ().
Etymology.
The name Old Goa was first used in the 1960s in the address of the Konkani monthly magazine, dedicated to spread the devotion of the Sacred Heart, "Dor Mhoineachi Rotti," which was shifted to the Basilica of Bom Jesus in 1964. Postal letters were returned to the sender, as the name "Old Goa" was unknown then, according to then- and long-time editor of the monthly, the great Goan historian late Padre Moreno de Souza, SJ.
The village panchayat uses the name Sé-Old Goa, while the post office and the Archaeological Survey of India use the name Velha Goa.
The place is known as Saibachem Goem (referring to St. Francis Xavier as "saib", i.e., master), Pornnem Goem, Adlem Goem or just Goem in Konkani.
Velha Goa should not be confused with another former Goan capital, Goa Velha, lying some villages away in the south. The names Vhoddlem Goem and Thorlem Goem refer to Goa Velha, while "Goem", besides referring to Velha Goa—i.e., Old Goa—also refers to the whole state of Goa in some contexts (Old Goa).
History.
The city was founded in the 15th century as a port on the banks of the Mandovi river by the rulers of the Bijapur Sultanate. It was built to replace Govapuri, which lay a few kilometres to the south and had been used as a port by the Kadamba and Vijayanagar kings. Old Goa was the second capital after Bijapur of the rule of Adil Shahi Dynasty. It was surrounded by a moat and contained the shah's palace, mosques, and temples. The city was captured by the Portuguese and was under Portuguese rule from 1510 as the administrative seat of Portuguese India.
The viceroy's residence was transferred in 1759 to the future capital, Panjim (a village about 9 kilometres to its west). Few remnants, if any, of the pre-Portuguese period remain at Old Goa.
During the mid-16th century, the Portuguese colony of Goa, especially Velha Goa, was the center of Christianisation in the East. The city was evangelized by all religious orders, since all of them had their headquarters there. The population was roughly 200,000 by 1543. Malaria and cholera epidemics ravaged the city in the 17th century and it was largely abandoned, only having a remaining population of 1,500 in 1775. It was then that the viceroy moved to Panjim. It continued to be the "de jure" capital of Goa until 1843, when the capital was shifted to Panjim (Ponnjê in Konkani, Nova Goa in Portuguese and Panaji in Hindi). The abandoned city came to be known as "Velha Goa" (in Portuguese, 'Old Goa'), to distinguish it from the new capital Nova Goa (Panjim) and probably also Goa Velha (also meaning "Old Goa"), which was the Portuguese name for the town on the old site of Govapuri.
Velha Goa was incorporated into the Republic of India after its annexation in 1961, with the rest of Goa. It retains its religious significance in modern-day Goa, notably in its relations with Roman Catholicism. The Archbishop of Goa and Daman holds title as the Patriarch of the East Indies. Unlike the patriarchs and the major archbishops of the Eastern Catholic Churches, the Patriarch of the East Indies only enjoys honorary title and is fully subject to the Pope. He has a place in the Latin Church similar to the Patriarchs of Venice and Lisbon. This title was conferred upon the Archbishop of Goa as part of a settlement between the Holy See and the Portuguese government concerning the link between religious and political aspects of its territories.
Churches of Old Goa.
Old Goa contains churches including the Se Cathedral (the seat of the Archbishop of Goa), the Church and Convent of St. Francis of Assisi, the Chapel of Our Lady of the Mount, the Church of St. Caetano and, notably, the Basilica of Bom Jesus which contains the relics of Saint Francis Xavier, who is celebrated every year on 3 December with novenas beginning on 24 November.


Galen Clark

Galen Clark (March 28, 1814 – March 24, 1910) is known as the first European American to discover the Mariposa Grove of Giant Sequoia trees, and is notable for his role in gaining legislation to protect it and the Yosemite area, and for 24 years serving as Guardian of Yosemite National Park.
Early life and education.
Galen Clark was born in Shipton, Canada East (now Quebec) in 1814.
Marriage and family.
He joined the westward migration as a youth and moved to Waterloo, Missouri in 1836. In Missouri, he met Rebecca McCoy, and they married in 1839. They had five children: Elvira Missouri Clark (1840-1912), Joseph Locke Clark (1842-1862), Mary Ann Clark (1844-1919), Calen Alonzo Clark (1847-1873), and Solon McCoy Clark (1848-1957). Only two of them survived until after their parents' deaths: Elvira Clark, who married and became a doctor in Oakland, California; and their other daughter, Mary Ann Clark, who married John T. Regan of Springfield, Massachusetts.
Move to California.
After his wife died young, Clark moved to California to seek his fortune in 1854 at the time of the California Gold Rush. In 1857, at the age of 43, Clark contracted a severe lung infection that was diagnosed as consumption (as tuberculosis was called in his time). Doctors gave him six months to live, as they had no antibiotic treatment at the time, but counseled rest and outdoor air.
Clark moved to the Wawona, California area. "I went to the mountains to take my chances of dying or growing better, which I thought were about even." (Galen Clark, 1856) Upon his discovery of the Mariposa Grove of Giant Sequoias, Galen Clark spent most of his time exploring the area and teaching others about the mysteries of the giant, cinnamon-colored trees.
He wrote about protecting the grove to friends and the US Congress. He contributed to the writing and passage of legislation to protect the area, gaining support of US Senator John Conness from California. The act for the Yosemite Grant was signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln. Ceding the land to the state of California for preservation, the grant was the first of its kind. The legislation was to protect Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove of Giant Sequoias for "public use, resort, and recreation ... to be left inalienable for all time." Galen became the first "guardian of the grant". His lungs healed, and he explored and climbed much of the area.
Clark did not seek to enrich himself from Yosemite Valley or the Sequoia trees. He ran a modest hotel and guide service. A poor businessman, he was constantly in debt. His Clark's Station, for example, had several more employees than required for the number of guests and its short season.
Toward the end of his life, Clark was desperately poor. He wrote three books on Yosemite. These include "Indians of the Yosemite" (1904) and "The Yosemite Valley" (1910). Clark's book on the sequoia trees is simple, factual, and direct. He left out his personal role in the discovery, popularization, and protection of the Mariposa Grove of Big Trees. He served as hotel keeper, guide, and guardian of Yosemite and the Mariposa Grove.
Clark spent some time living in Summerland, a Spiritualist colony in Southern California, near Santa Barbara. His house still stands on Shelby Street.
On March 24, 1910, he died at the home of his daughter Dr. Elvira M. Lee in Oakland, California. He was buried at a spot near Yosemite Falls which he personally selected and dug decades prior to his death. He had also selected the granite tombstone marker and planted around his gravesite seedlings from the Mariposa Grove sequoias.


Kizhi Island

Kizhi (, ) is an island near the geometrical center of the Lake Onega in the Republic of Karelia (Medvezhyegorsky District), Russia. It is elongated from north to south and is about 6 km long, 1 km wide and is about 68 km away from the capital of Karelia, Petrozavodsk.
Settlements and churches on the island were known from at least the 15th century. The population was rural, but was forced by the government to assist development of the ore mining and iron plants in the area that resulted in a major Kizhi Uprising in 1769–1771. Most villages had disappeared from the island by the 1950s and now only a small rural settlement remains. In the 18th century, two major churches and a bell tower were built on the island, which are now known as Kizhi Pogost. In the 1950s, dozens of historical wooden buildings were moved to the island from various parts of Karelia for preservation purposes. Nowadays, the entire island and the nearby area form a national open-air museum with more than 80 historical wooden structures. The most famous is the Kizhi Pogost, which is a UNESCO World Heritage site.
History.
Name.
The name Kizhi is believed to originate from ancient Veps or Karelian word “kizhat” or "kizhansuari" ("social gathering" or “island of games”). In Russian, it can be pronounced with stress on either syllable; the stress on the ultimate syllable is grammatically incorrect in Karelian language.
Industrial development.
Since at least the 14th century, the island was part of the exchange route between Novgorod and White Sea. The numerous settlements on Kizhi and neighboring islands (about 100 by the 16th century) comprised an administrative entity called Spas-Kizhi Pogost. Since the 13th and 14th century, the area acquired economical importance as a source of iron ores. By the early 18th century, as a consequence of the industrial reforms of Tzar Peter I, several ore mines and metallurgy plants were built on the Onega Lake, in particular on the place of modern Medvezhyegorsk and Petrozavodsk cities. Those plants required hard physical labor such as cutting forests for wood, coal burning, ground works, etc., which was mostly provided by the local peasants. The labor was forced; the disobeyed were punished by public beating and fines that sparked local riots. The largest one occurred in 1769–1771 and is known as Kizhi Uprising, which was sparked by a governor order to send peasants during the harvest season for works at Tivdiysk marble mine and construction of the Lizhemsky metallurgical plant. Peasants disobeyed and boycotted the order. They were soon joined by up to 40,000 people from all over Karelia led by Kliment Sobolev, Andrei Salnikov and Semen Kostin. The revolt was based in the Kizhi Pogost that resulted in its name. The peasants sent petitioners to St. Petersburg, but those were arrested and punished, and a military corps was sent to suppress the uprising. They arrived to Kizhi by the end of June, 1771, and after artillery fire the peasants quickly surrendered. The leaders and 50–70 other peasants were publicly beaten and sent to exile in Siberia. Many others were forced into military service, which was a form of punishment of the time. However, the recruitment of peasants for the construction of local plants and mineworks had stopped.
Farming and other traditional activities.
From the early times, the most important occupation of the islanders was farming. All available area, about half of the island was converted to fields; from the remaining half, a quarter was rocky and the rest occupied by swamps. On one occasion in the 18th century, two villages were moved from Kizhi island to the nearby infertile mainland to free land for farming. Until 1970, the island had about 96 hectares of fields yielding various grains and potato, and combine harvesters and tractors for field cultivation. The farming was stopped in 1971 by a government directive. Some fields were reconstructed in 2004 as part of the Kizhi museum. Those fields are an exhibit demonstrating major steps of the farming and harvesting work.
Other traditional activities of the area included embroidery, making beaded jewelry, weaving (including traditional birch bark weaving), knitting, spinning, woodcarving (which included making traditional Russian wooden toys) and pottery.
Original churches of Kizhi.
The first mentioning of churches on the island is dated to 1563. This document describes two domed wooden churches with a bell tower standing in the southern part of the island (on the site of the present Kizhi Pogost), and mentions their earlier description of 1496. A more detailed description was documented in 1628. In particular, contrary to the later, domed churches of the pogost, the first ones had pyramidal roofs. Those churches were burned by a fire caused by lightning in the end of the 17th century. The first church raised after the fire was the Church of the Intercession (, 1694) which was heated and held services all year long. It was reconstructed several times in 1720–1749 and in 1764 rebuilt into its present 9-dome design. In 1714, the 22-dome Transfiguration Church () was constructed and soon after the bell tower was added, thereby completing the Kizhi Pogost. The bell tower was entirely rebuilt in 1862. Much earlier, some time in the 17th century, a 300-meter long fence was built around the churches, which then served as a protection ground against Swedish and Polish incursions.
Kizhi churches were built on stones, without a deep foundation. Their major basic structural unit is a round log of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) about 30 cm in diameter and 3 to 5 meters long. Many thousands logs were brought for construction from the mainland which was a complex logistical task at that time. The logs were cut and shaped with axes and assembled without nails, using interlocking corner joinery — either round notch or dovetail. Flat roofs were made of spruce planks and the domes are covered in aspen.
Kizhi museum.
Open-air museum Kizhi is one of the first in Russia, which started functioning on the island in 1951 and currently contains about 87 wooden constructions. The most famous of them is the Kizhi Pogost, which contains two churches and a bell tower surrounded by a fence. The pogost was included in the UNESCO World Heritage list in 1990. Since 1951, a large number of historical buildings were moved to the island. They include Church of the Resurrection of Lazarus from Murom Monastery, which is regarded as the oldest remaining wooden church in Russia (second half of the 14th century), several bell towers, more than 20 peasant houses, mills, barns and saunas. In 1993, the museum was included into a short list a Russian Cultural Heritage sites. The museum contains more than 41,000 exhibits. Most of them are domestic artifacts: tools, dishes, utensils, furniture, etc. There are about 1000 icons of the 16th–19th centuries which includes Russia's only collection of "heavens". There are also church items, such as crosses early manuscript of 17th–19th centuries. The museum also contains exhibits of the 20th century, about 10,000 photographs and 1,500 drawings.
The museum conducts a wide range of scientific studies in the history, archeology, ecology, nature and other fields related to the island. It is based in Kizhi and Petrozavodsk, has an advanced web portal and a web camera on the island. Kizhi museum also publishes the monthly "Kizhi newspaper". In summer, it runs week-long education courses at the school and university level.
Church of the Resurrection of Lazarus.
Tradition says that the church was built by the monk Lazarus (1286 (?) – 1391) in the second half of the 14th century. The church became the first building of the future Murom Monastery located on the eastern shore of Lake Onega. Over time, the church became the main attractions of the monastery as it was reputed to miraculously cure illnesses. Clergy announced the monk Lazarus as a local saint, and every summer, on 23–24 June, the church was attracting pilgrims. The building is 3 meters tall and has a perimeter of 9×3 m.
The original two-tier iconostasis of the church is preserved; it consists of 17 icons of 16th–18th centuries.
Chapel of the Archangel Michael.
The Chapel of the Archangel Michael was moved to Kizhi in 1961 from the Lelikozero village.
It measures 12.0×3.0×11.0 metres and has a rectangular frame elongated from east to west and a two-slope roof. Above the entrance hall there is a belfry capped with a pyramid roof. The iconostasis of the chapel has two tiers and contains icons of 17th–18th centuries.
Demography.
By the end of the 16th century, there were 14 settlements on the island. By the early 1900s, their number reduced to nine, which were named Pogost, Bachurino, Bishevo, Bosarevo, Vasilyevo, Kyazhevo, Morozovo, Navolok and Yamka. By the end of World War II, seven of them disappeared and only Vasilyevo and Yamka remain. They are a part of the "Kizhi rural settlement" belonging to the larger Velikogubskoe rural settlement of Medvezhyegorsky District, Republic of Karelia, Russia.
Settlements.
The pogost settlement is located near the Kizhi Pogost. It was first mentioned in the early 17th century; then it consisted of four houses, two of which were burned down during a local revolt. By 1678, the number of houses increased to seven, six of which belonged to the Pogost priests and one to a peasant. The settlement shrank to five houses by the early 1900s and disappeared by 1950. Nowadays, on their place stands a historical house of Oshevnev, which was moved here in 1951 from Oshevnevo village, and which became the first exhibit of the Kizhi museum opened in 1960.
Bachurino was named after a peasant Fedor Bachurin; between the 17th and 19th centuries, it contained only two houses which then grew to three. This settlement was the poorest on the island – in 1876, it owned only one horse and two cows, and in the early 20th century, only two cows for 24 people living there.
Bishevo settlement was located in the north-eastern part of the island. In 1563, it had one house but there were four houses there by 1678. In 1820, from eight men of the settlement, six were wealthy – the settlement had 5 horses, 11 cows and 4 sheep. In the early 1900s, there were only 4 horses and 3 cows for 11 people, and by 1950 the settlement had disappeared.
Bosarevo settlement was formed in 1858-1869 with one house of 11 people, which became two by 1911.
Kyazehvo settlement was located on the northernmost shore of the island and had two houses in 1563. One more was built by 1876, but the houses were small and had almost no animals. Thirteen people lived there by 1905.
Morozovo settlement was known since 1582 and contained one big house which was taken apart in 1950. Nearby, there is the Chapel of the Three Saints. It stands 22 metres tall with a perimeter of 8.0×12.0 metres and was built in the late 18th century in the Kavgora village.
Navolok settlement was one of the largest and richest in the area with four houses in 1563 and seven from 1696. About 40 people lived there in the 19th century, most of whom were peasants but two were shoe makers and one carpenter. The settlement had a boat which was used for cargo.
While most Kizhi settlements were shrinking with time, Vasilyevo was growing from one house in 1840 to two in 1876, three in 1911 and five in 2009. Of the present five houses, two are original and others were moved here as museum exhibits. Near them, there is a historical Chapel of the Assumption of the Virgin () of 17th–18th century measuring 13.0×6.0×17.0 metres.
Yamka settlement had two houses in 1563, both of which were burned down in 1616. They were rebuilt later and by 1911, the settlement was the largest on the island with 11 houses. One of its inhabitants, Semen Kostin, was a leader of the Kizhi Uprising of the 1769. One of his neighbors became a wealthy merchant and a regular donor to the reconstruction of the Kizhi churches. Apart from historical houses and barns, in Yamka there is a windmill built in 1930 and two chapels. The Chapel of Spas () measures 13.0×3.0×8.0 metres. It was built in the 17th–18th centuries in Vigovo village and moved to Kizhi in the 1950s. Its style is similar to that of the Chapel of the Archangel Michael (see above). The Chapel of Petr and Pavel is smaller (5.0×3.0×3.0 m) and simpler in design. It was built in the early 18th century in the Tipinitsa village and then moved to Kizhi. Its interior could not be preserved.
Geography and nature.
Geology, flora and fauna.
The area of Kizhi island differs from most of other parts of Onega Lake. It is characterized by numerous small islands, which reduce the water flow, and relatively shallow and uneven lake bottom. Whereas the average depth of the lake is 31 meters, the depth is about 2–3 meters in the Kizhi and only in some places reaches 16–20 meters. Because of the weak flows and shallow depth, water is relatively warm and quiet that promotes growth of aquatic vegetation. Fish types include roach, some gobies, crucian carp, sabre carp, perch, ruffe, pike, common dace, silver bream, ide, gudgeon, carp bream, spined loach, European smelt, char, pike-perch, rudd and burbot.
Along the center of the island runs a narrow ridge, which is a remnant of the ice age. It has steep slopes in some parts and is up to 22 meters tall. There are no forests on the island, but only individual trees of elm, spruce, pine, birch, aspen and alder. The trees host about 28 species of polypores (tree mushrooms), and there are more than 100 species of moss. Most of the island is covered in meadows, which are quite varied and rich in colors and species, including rare and protected. A large part of them are of legume family. Common are cow parsley, various species centaurea, tansy and verbascum densiflorum.
About 180 bird species from 15 families are known in the Kizhi area, and about 45 types of them were observed on the island. Most of them are migratory and stop on the island either for rest or nesting, such as swans, geese, ducks, lake seagulls, sterna, but there are also more stationary birds like house sparrow, Eurasian siskin, common chaffinch, skylark, jackdaw and crow. Among animals and amphibians, there are only newts (smooth newt and great crested newt), vipers, common lizard, frogs and toads (common frog, common toad and moor frog) and mice – the island is too small for larger animals which are abundant in the area.
Climate.
The climate on the island is typical of the area, but is cold for most parts of the world. Low temperatures suppress bacterial activity, which is one of the major factors behind the longevity of the wooden structures of Kizhi.
Access.
Although Kizhi island is within a kilometer distance from major islands and peninsulas of Onega lake, there are no major cities and transport routes nearby. Access to Kizhi is provided by hydrofoil (several trips a day from Petrozavodsk during the summer months), cruise ship, helicopter and snowcat (in the winter). Transportation over the island is mostly on foot. During the winter, snowmobiles are also used. On nearby islands there are several guesthouses. There is an 8-room (20 beds) wooden guest house, TV and a restaurant.


Basilica of Bom Jesus

The Basilica of Bom Jesus (; Konkani: "Borea Jezuchi Bajilika") is a Roman Catholic basilica located in Goa, India, and is part of the Churches and convents of Goa UNESCO World Heritage Site. The basilica is located in Old Goa, former capital of Portuguese India, and holds the mortal remains of St. Francis Xavier.
'Bom Jesus' (literally, 'Good (or Holy) Jesus') is the name used for the Ecce Homo in the countries of Portuguese colonization. The Jesuit church is India's first minor basilica, and is considered to be one of the best examples of baroque architecture and Portuguese Colonial architecture in India. It is one of the Seven Wonders of Portuguese Origin in the World.
History.
Construction work on the church began in 1594. The church was consecrated in May 1605 by the archbishop, Dom Fr. Aleixo de Menezes. This world heritage monument has emerged as a landmark in the history of Christianity. It contains the body of St. Francis Xavier, a very close friend of St. Ignatius Loyola with whom he founded the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits). Francis Xavier died on Sancian Island, Chuandao (), Taishan while en route to continental China on (3 December 1552).
The body of Francis Xavier was first taken to Portuguese Malacca and two years later shipped back to Goa. It is said that the saint's body was as fresh as the day it was buried. The remains of the saint still attract a huge number of tourists (Christian and non-Christian alike) from all over the world, especially during the public viewing of his body every ten years (last held in 2014). The saint is said to have miraculous powers of healing.
This is one of the oldest churches in Goa and in India. The floor is of marble inlaid with precious stones. Apart from the elaborate gilded altars, the interior of the church is simple. The main altar holds a large statue of St. Ignatius of Loyola, the founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), and one of Francis Xavier's companions whose words drew him to a reformed life. "What does it profit a man," Ignatius had asked Francis, "if he gains the whole world and loses his soul?"
The gaze of the gilded statue of Ignatius of Loyola is fixed upwards in awe at the name of Jesus (IHS) on the gilded emblem of the Jesuits, encircled in radiant rays. Over the emblem, is the Holy Trinity -Father, Son and Spirit - the ultimate muse and focus of the pious Christian. The altar table which is used in Holy mass is gilded and adorned with the figures of Christ and his apostles at the Last Supper, along with the words "Hi Mhoji Kudd", which in Konkani means "This is my Body", from the Institution Narrative.
The church also holds paintings of scenes taken from the life of St. Francis Xavier. The mausoleum, on the top of which is placed the silver casket with the body of St. Francis Xavier (1696), was the gift of the last of the Medicis, Cosimo III, the Grand Duke of Tuscany.
The mausoleum was designed by the 17th-century Florentine sculptor Giovanni Battista Foggini. It took ten years to complete. The casket containing his body is made of silver. The holy relics of the saint are displayed every ten years during the anniversary of the saint's death. His liturgical feast is 3 December.
On the upper level, overlooking the tomb is the Bom Jesus Basilica Art Gallery, containing the works of the Goan surrealist painter, Dom Martin.
Author and fellow Jesuit Anthony De Mello was also from Goa and mentions the basilica in his writings.
The Basilica of Bom Jesus is more than 408 years old and is open to the public every day. The body of St. Francis Xavier is in a well-decorated casket, which can be seen in the photographs below. Solemn exhibitions of the 'body' are held every ten years. Some photos taken inside the church are attached for better understanding of the artwork of that time. These artworks are called "murals".


Phu Pha Thoep National Park

Phu Pha Thoep National Park (), formerly known as Mukdahan National Park (), is a national park in Mukdahan Province, Thailand. This park, one of the country's smallest national parks, is home to unusual rock formations and a cave with ancient hand paintings.
Geography.
Phu Pha Thoep National Park is located about south of Mukdahan in Mueang and Don Tan districts. The park's area is . The highest point is Phu Jongsi peak at .
History.
Phu Pha Thoep National Park is home to a cave with hand paintings estimated to be 3,000 to 5,000 years old. The cave name, Tham Fa Mue Daeng, means "red hand", referring to the red colour of the paintings.
Attractions.
Phu Tam Pra is a mainly seasonal waterfall. Above this waterfall is a cave grotto housing a three-foot wide Buddha image along with hundreds of smaller wooden Buddha images and animal models.
The park's namesake mountain Phu Pha Thoep hosts a complex of rocks in eroded formations thought to resemble mushrooms, temples, swans etc. The viewpoint atop Phu Mano affords views of Mukdahan city, the Mekong river and neighbouring Laos.
Flora and fauna.
The park features forest types including mixed and deciduous. Tree species include Malabar ironwood, Burmese ebony, makha, rosewood, "heang" (a dipterocarp), "tiew" (in the Guttiferae family), wild "champaka", Moulmein cedar, Siamese sal and "ingyin".
Animal species include deer and wild boar. The park's many birds include junglefowl, green peafowl and pheasant. In 2005, specimens of a new frog species, "Fejervarya triora", were discovered in the park.


Yorkshire Dales Rivers Trust

The Yorkshire Dales Rivers Trust was formed in 2004 with a remit to improve, restore and conserve the rivers Swale, Ure, Wharfe and Nidd whose headwaters lie within the Yorkshire Dales National Park and the Nidderdale Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The trust is a member of the Association of Rivers Trusts which set up as a charity in 2001 to represent member trusts and assist them with conserving river catchments across England and Wales.
Remit.
The trust's remit is to improve the catchments of the four rivers of interest from the headwaters to the Humber Estuary, starting with the upland sections of the rivers before moving work downstream. Many of the impacts on rivers arise close to the headwaters where annual rainfall is high and topography steep, resulting in rapid movements of water from land to river. This can be exacerbated by changes in land management including upland drainage channels on peat soils and soil compaction of in-bye land from heavy machinery and livestock.
There is some evidence to suggest that downstream flood events may become more regular and have higher peak flows due to such land management. However, the trust recognises that agricultural change has been driven by national and international economic drivers which have encouraged intensification, and that farmers are not at fault when it comes to river degradation. The trust works directly with the farming community to try to identify win-win situations that can both improve the condition of river ecology whilst reducing farming costs or saving time. A simple example of this is rerouting clean rain water from slurry stores. This can save irrigation and spreading costs, allowing farmers to utilise animal fertilisers more efficiently and so improve crop yields and reduce runoff to rivers and diffuse pollution. The Association of Rivers Trusts has assisted with this work through the PINPOINT project which, through funding from the Catchment Sensitive Farming Delivery Initiative, has provided training in delivering farm advice.
Measures such as gill planting (planting woodlands on gill or clough uplands) or blocking upland drainage channels have helped reduce impacts on rivers by slowing flow rates and decreasing sediment and nutrient loadings. The trust also works with farmers and uses modelling tools such as SCIMAP to identify the most risky locations of a river catchment in terms of diffuse pollution delivery. This helps targeting of resources and allows river restoration to occur in the most needed locations. Over the next few years work will continue on projects including Catchment Sensitive Farming Schemes and salmon restoration projects.


List of national parks in Malaysia

Malaysia has a number of national parks, but most of them are "de facto" state parks.
This page provides the list of protected areas and pictures associated with the facilities and activities available in each area.
Peninsular Malaysia.
All parks and reserves in Peninsular Malaysia are under the jurisdiction of the Department of Wildlife and National Parks of Malaysia.
East Malaysia.
Sarawak.
National Parks and other conservation areas in Sarawak are under the governance of the Sarawak Forestry Corporation.
Sabah.
National or state parks in Sabah are managed by Sabah Parks. Other reserves or protected areas are under the governance of the Sabah Forestry Department and Sabah Foundation.
Protected Forest Reserves:


List of World Heritage Sites in Sweden

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites are places of importance to cultural or natural heritage as described in the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, established in 1972. Cultural heritage consists of monuments (such as architectural works, monumental sculptures, or inscriptions), groups of buildings, and sites (including archaeological sites). Natural features (consisting of physical and biological formations), geological and physiographical formations (including habitats of threatened species of animals and plants), and natural sites which are important from the point of view of science, conservation or natural beauty, are defined as natural heritage. The Kingdom of Sweden accepted the convention on 22 January 1985, making its historical sites eligible for inclusion on the list.
As of 2020, there are fifteen World Heritage Sites in Sweden, including thirteen cultural sites, one natural site and one mixed site. The first Swedish site added to the list was the Royal Domain of Drottningholm, inscribed at the 15th session of the World Heritage Committee, held in Carthage, Tunisia, in 1991. The last site added to the current list is the Decorated Farmhouses of Hälsingland, inscribed in 2012.
There are two transnational sites. The High Coast / Kvarken Archipelago is shared with Finland, while the Struve Geodetic Arc is shared with nine other countries. , Sweden also has one site on the tentative list.
World Heritage Sites.
UNESCO lists sites under ten criteria; each entry must meet at least one of the criteria. Criteria i through vi are cultural, whereas vii through x are natural.
Tentative sites.
In addition to sites inscribed on the World Heritage List, member states can maintain a list of tentative sites that they may consider for nomination. Nominations for the World Heritage List are only accepted if the site was previously listed on the tentative list. As of 2020, Sweden recorded one site on its tentative list.


Rodney Fox

Rodney Winston Fox is a South Australian film maker, conservationist, survivor of an attack by a great white shark, and one of the world's foremost authorities on that species. He was inducted into the International Scuba Diving Hall of Fame in 2007.
Biography.
Rodney Fox was born in 9 November 1940 in Adelaide, Australia.
Shark attack.
On 8 December 1963, whilst participating in the 1963 South Australia Spearfishing Championship at Aldinga Beach, Fox was attacked by a great white shark, and badly bitten around the chest and arm. His story of the attack and escape has been published many times. He is regarded as a miracle survivor of one of the world's worst non-fatal shark attacks.
In the attack, Fox's abdomen was fully exposed and all his ribs were broken on his left hand side. His diaphragm was punctured, his lung was ripped open, his scapula was pierced, his spleen was uncovered, his artery was exposed, and he was minutes away from his veins collapsing due to the loss of large amounts of blood. The tendons, fingers, and thumb in his right hand were all cut and to this day he has part of a shark tooth embedded in his wrist. His wounds required 462 stitches after the attack.
Later life.
Fox went on to design and build the first underwater observation cage to dive with the great white shark, and for over 40 years has led major expeditions to film and study his attacker. He arranged and hosted the very first great white shark expedition to welcome sport divers, and has run hundreds of expeditions in the thirty years since.
Fox is regarded as a world authority on the great white shark and has a great reputation as an expedition leader and producer of shark documentaries. He has been involved in some way with most great white shark films made in the 20th century. He has hosted expeditions for over 100 major feature and documentary films with film makers and shark researchers from 16 different countries. Disney, Universal, IMAX, Cousteau Society and National Geographic have enlisted his help and have filmed and studied the great white shark from his cages.
Fox's life since the attack has involved consulting and co-ordinating film crews and arranging and guiding ecotourism adventure trips and expeditions specialising in great white sharks and other marine creatures. He also travels the world giving talks to people about his experiences with sharks and the need for conservation efforts to continue. His talks and films on the great white shark have educated swimmers and divers to the realistic potential of a shark attack. He delivers a firm message that "sharks are not all that bad, we have very few confrontations with them and we should look after all our fishes especially the great white". He positions it as an important "keystone predator" directly controlling the diversity and abundance of other species in the great web of life.
Fox has a large private collection of displays and items from 40 years film making on the ocean which are on tour around Australia and the world. They feature great white shark models, shark proof cages from the film "Jaws" (which he was one of the consultants for along with Ron and Valerie Taylor), giant and ancient fossil shark teeth, plus photos and video highlights from many films that he has been involved in.
Fox, along with his son, Andrew, after more than 40 years, still continue to run Rodney Fox Great White Shark Expeditions, a shark cage diving operation to view great white sharks in the wild off Southern Australia. This operation also acts as a platform for much needed further research of great white sharks as well as encouraging quality natural history documentaries on the species.
Fox and Andrew, along with shark researcher Dr. Rachel Robbins, founded the Fox Shark Research Foundation (FSRF) which is devoted to the study and conservation of the great white shark.
The great white shark is listed by the IUCN as a vulnerable species. The Fox Shark Research Foundation is endeavouring to expand our understanding of great white sharks, using the latest technologies and methods of research and working in collaboration with other scientific institutions.
Fox currently strives to further raise public awareness of the plight of all shark species through his dive operation and research foundation, via publications, public speaking, and the films his operations facilitate.
In 2009, Fox was nominated for the 2010 Indianapolis Prize, the world's largest individual monetary award for animal species conservation.


Gashaka Gumti National Park

Gashaka-Gumti National Park (GGNP) is a national park in Nigeria, It was gazetted from two game reserves in 1991 and is Nigeria’s largest national park. It is located in the eastern provinces of Taraba and Adamawa to the border with Cameroon. The total area covers about 6,402 km2, much of the northern GGNP is savannah grassland, while the southern GGNP sector of the park has a rugged terrain characterized by very mountainous, steep slopes as well as deep valleys and gorges, and is home to montane forests. Altitude ranges from ranging from about in the northern flatter corner of the park, up to at Chappal Waddi, Nigeria’s highest mountain in the park's southern sections. It is an important water catchment area for the Benue River. There is abundant river flow even during the markedly dry season. Enclaves for local Fulani pastoralists exist within the park boundary that allow for farming and grazing.
Fauna.
The fauna of the national park is very diverse. 103 species of mammals have been recorded at censuses. Species include yellow-backed duiker, African golden cat ("Profelis aurata"), The African buffalo, the largest population in Nigeria of chimpanzee ("Pan troglodytes") is found within the boundaries of the national park. To protect the animals and the ecosystem, the Gashaka Primate Project was launched. Living in the national park are also the African elephant ("Loxodonta africana"), the klipspringer ("Oreotragus oreotragus"), the West African wild dog ("Lycaon pictus manguensis"), the hartebeest ("Alcelaphus buselaphus"), the world's largest antelope, the giant eland ("Taurotragus Derbianus"), the roan antelope ("Hippotragus equinus"), the kob antelope ("Kobus kob"), the oribi ("Ourebia ourebi"), and the rare Adamawa mountain reedbuck ("Redunca fulvorufula") in larger stocks.
The avian fauna is very rich and diverse, there are stocks are up 1 million birds estimated. The park is officially labelled as one of Africa's "Important Bird Areas" - and with more than 500 species found, and visiting bird watching enthusiasts are constantly adding new species to the list. The red faced lovebird is only found here and in the Central African Republic's Bamingui-Bangoran National Park and Biosphere Reserve .
Flora.
In November 2002 an isolated population of the red sunbird bush, an ornate species of the acanthus family, was discovered in the 8 km2 Leinde Fadale forest in the uplands adjacent to the park. The species occurs here at 1,600 to 1,670 m.a.s.l., and some 1,200 km from the nearest populations in the Afromontane archipelago. It has been suggested that the park boundary should be extended to protect the forest.


Scotstown Moor

Scotstown Moor is in the north of Aberdeen, Scotland.
Scotstown Moor Local Nature Reserve (LNR) is located four miles to the north of Aberdeen City Centre, near the residential areas of Dubford and Bridge of Don, at grid reference NJ 935116. The reserve covers roughly 34 hectares and is owned by Aberdeen City Council, who established it as a nature reserve in 1994. It contains the only example of species rich lowland heath in Aberdeen City.
Site history.
Scotstown Moor once formed part of extensive areas of heath and bog around Aberdeen. Other similar habitats such as Ferryhill Moss and Stocket Moor, lying closer to the city, have long since disappeared, being lost to housing. Scotstown Moor remained largely intact up to the 20th century, mainly as a result of its status as a Commonty. This system of land tenure protected the site from enclosure and reclamation by local landowners. Records from 1894 show that the site was not maintained without a struggle, being "coveted by neighboring lairds", and that several encroachments had been made onto the site.
Although the site's status gave the public free access, Scotstown Moor was the property of the Bishopric of Aberdeen and was farmed by the proprietor of Perwinnes. Furthermore, the feuars of Old Aberdeen were granted rights of common grazing, sod cutting, and peat cutting, although little direct evidence of these activities remains today. A Children's Camp was built on the site and ran from the early 1900s until the start of the Second World War. The camp catered for undernourished children, convalescents, and those showing symptoms of tuberculosis.
Throughout the early part of this century Scotstown Moor suffered some habitat degradation, largely due to drainage operations. However, the Second World War brought major problems for the site. The need for increased agricultural output led to the reclamation of part of the site, which was then put under intensive cattle grazing. This probably resulted in extensive areas of heather being replaced by grassland. The overall effect has led to fragmentation of the site, particularly serious for the bogs which became more and more isolated, and therefore vulnerable to external influences.
In 1869, there was a much larger area of moorland and rural setting compared with today. Currently, Scotstown Moor is surrounded on three sides by housing. There is a new road and conifer plantations to the north.
In April 1943, Aberdeen was bombed heavily by the Luftwaffe, a number of bombs were dropped on Scotstown wood adjacent to the moor.
During the 1970s, the site faced further pressures. Ownership of the site had passed to the tenant of Perwinnes, who intended to either convert the site fully to agriculture or sell it for housing development. At this time the local authority felt that the site area should remain as a "green wedge" within new housing planned for the area. However, since the council's "Environmental Improvement Scheme" involved the clearance of scrub and the afforestation of the moor, this option was hardly less destructive than full scale development.
In 1972 the site was notified as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) by the Nature Conservancy Council (now Scottish Natural Heritage) largely on the strength of its wet heath and bog. This designation probably protected the site from various planned land-uses which would have proved highly damaging, including drainage, afforestation, housing, and conversion to a golf course. However, housing developments continued around Scotstown Moor, increasing pressure to the site.
In 1980, despite the opposition of the NCC, the University of Aberdeen and the Scottish Wildlife Trust (SWT), a new road (Dubford Road) was constructed across one of the wettest and most species rich areas of boy. This resulted not only in the loss of valuable habitat, but also created a new source of pollution close to the moor and almost certainly affected the site's drainage patterns. In 1983 planning permission was granted for housing on over 0.5 ha of land within the SSSI. The remaining part of the SSSI passed into the hands of the local authority, which also acquired land to the north in 1986. The Local Nature Reserve now consists of these two areas.
In January 2013 Aberdeen city council announced that Scotstown moor would be converted into a long term "travellers" site. This announcement was made without any public consultation with local residents of the Bridge of Don.
Changes in the vegetation over the last 130 years.
A comparison of vegetation surveys of Scotstown Moor, performed in 1968 and 1998, shows that the number of plant species in the area has declined. Species have been lost from all habitat types, although those of the open water and open/waste ground have suffered the most. For example, marsh arrowgrass ("Triglochin palustris"), early marsh orchid ("Dactylorhiza incarnata"), common twayblade ("Listera cordata"), corn spurrey ("Spergula arvensis") and various species of dead nettle ("Lamium" spp.) have all been lost from the site.
The proportion of introduced species at the site has increased significantly from <1% in 1896 to >5% in 1998. This is partly due to planting of non-native conifers ("Pinus contorta", "Picea abies", "Picea sitchensis" and "Larix decidua") and broadleaves ("Acer platanoides"), but others, such as "Matricaria discoides" and "Veronica persica" (annuals) and "Reynoutria japonica" (a more persistent and highly invasive species) appear to have colonized naturally.
Native tree species which have appeared since 1868 include "Betula pendula", "Quercus robus", "Crataegus monogyna", "Prunus avium" and "Prunus padus". These are all likely to be present in nearby woodland and have probably invaded as a result of natural succession. Willows such as "Salix aurita" and "Salix cinerea" are also found in the reserve, although two other species of willow have been lost since 1868.
Site description.
The site forms a gentle south facing slope, falling from 80 m to about 60 m above sea level. As a result, drainage is from north to south. The moor falls into the catchment of the Silver Burn, which flows to the south of the site. Seepage of groundwater from the north and west, combined with flow from several springs, feeds the bog formed in a shallow basin at the south end of the reserve. The major soil type is a peaty podzol, freely drained beneath an iron pan. In the southern part of the site, the soils are freely drained iron podzols formed from fluvio-glacial sands and gravel.
The reserve is bordered to the east and the west by housing development. Also to the west lies Galshie How, an area of woodland, scrub, and amenity grassland. To the north of the reserve there is an area of unmanaged heathland, grassland, and gorse scrub. More housing is found to the south, as well as mature mixed woodland (part of the Denmore Park estate).
Summary of habitat types and species at Scotstown Moor
Scotstown Moor consists of four main habitat types including gorse scrub, plantation woodland, marshy grassland, and bog/nutrient rich flushes/standing water. The presence of the nutrient rich flushes makes the site unique in the area, providing the basis for a diverse plant community containing several species of interest.
Mainly restricted to the southern part of the site, gorse scrub occurs in patches of varying sizes bordered by both bog and grassland. It has been extending into the bog area in recent years. Dominants plants include gorse ("Ulex europaeus"), cross-leaved heath ("Erica tetralix") in wet patches, bell heather ("Erica cinerea"), heather ("Calluna vulgaris") and bramble ("[Rubus fruticosus"). Other species of note include broom ("[Cystisus scoparius") and bracken ("Pteridium aquilinum").
Gorse is a nitrogen-fixing legume which can invade heathlands and grasslands. It regrows after burning or cutting. Its young shoots may be grazed, but mature branches are too spiny. Gorse provides a nesting site for birds such as the yellowhammer and whitethroat. Broom is another invasive woody N-fixing legume. Bracken is one of the commonest and most widespread ferns in the world. It is often the dominant vegetation on heaths, moors, open woods and neglected pastures, especially on acid light soils. Burning encourages its spread since this destroys other plants but does not harm the deep rhizomes of bracken.
A 50m wide strip of conifers runs across the top of the reserve and extends for approximately 200 m down the eastern boundary. The trees, originally planted as a shelterbelt, include Scots pine ("Pinus sylvestris"), lodgepole pine ("Pinus contorta"), Norway spruce ("Picea abies"), sitka spruce ("Picea sitchensis") and larch ("Larix decidua").
Of the five tree species listen above, only one (Scots pine) is native. The trees provide a feeding and nesting ground for many birds. The ground flora in this area of the reserve is sparase due to the dense tree canopy, but understory species include the nettle ("Urtica diocia"), bramble ("Rubus fruticosus") and broad buckler fern ("Dryopteris dilatata") - plants which often characterise pine plantations on areas cleared of alder ("Alnus glutinosa") which is still found on site.
This is the most natural and species rich habitat in Scotstown Moor, supporting plant species now rare in north-east Scotland. The bogs and flushes occur mainly in the southern half of Scotstown moor, although there is a pond in the north-west corner of the site, and a small acid bog in the eastern part of the conifer plantation. Some of the more unusual bog plants include bogbean ("Menyanthes trifoliata"), grass of parnassus ("Parnassia palustris"), northern marsh orchid ("Dactylorhiza purpurella"), lesser butterfly orchid ("Platanthera bifolia"), common butterwort ("Pinquicula vulgaris"), round-leaved sundew ("Drosera rotundifolia") and black-bog rush ("Schoenus nigricans").
The 'bog plants' are so called because they are restricted to waterlogged sites, surviving anoxic soil conditions and low fertility. "P. vulgaris" and "D. rotundifolia" are insectivorous, supplementing the poor supply of minerals in boggy areas by digesting insects. "S. nigricans" is a regionally important species in Aberdeenshire, since although a fairly common species on the west of Scotland, it is only found at Scotstown Moor in the east of Scotland.
Other species found in these areas include rushes ("Juncus"), sedges ("Carex"), cotton-sedges ("Eriophorum"), cross-leaved heath ("Erica tetralix"), marsh bedstraw ("Galium palustre"), tufted hair grass ("Deschampsia cespitosa") and "Sphagnum" species.
The grassland at Scotstown Moor includes both unimproved and improved areas. The area at the top of Corse hill, north of the conifer plantation, has been grazed in the past, but has not been drained or reseeded. The grassland south of the plantation, however, was ploughed, seeded, and fertilized during the Second World War.
The dominant grasses, particularly in the improved grassland, are Yorkshire fog ("Holcus lanatus") and cocksfoot ("Dactylis glomerata").
Yorkshire fog a very widespread and versatile grass able to exploit widely different soil conditions and management practices. It may, however, be limited by grazing or heavy trampling. It is most frequent on relatively fertile soils (pH 5.0–6.0) and is more abundant on moist rather than waterlogged soils, although it can survive in anaerobic conditions. Cocksfoot, another widespread grass, tolerates summer grazing but fares better where grazing is infrequent. It is usually considered to be susceptible to trampling but survives light burning.
Other grasses at Scotstown Moor include species of "Poa", "Lolium", "Deschampsia" and "Agrostis". Heath bedstaw ("Galium saxatile") and soft rush ("Juncus effusus") are also common but species diversity is unexpectedly low in the grasslands.
Scotstown Moor Fauna.
There is evidence of rabbits ("Oryctolagus cuniculus") and moles ("Talpa europaea") at Scotstown Moor and foxes ("Vulpes vulpes") and roe deer ("Capreolus capreolus") have also been seen in the area. Rabbits graze especially in the grasslands, reducing the biomass of dominant grasses. Voles (Family Muridae) and shrews (Family Soricidae) inhabit the grassland and are preyed on by owls ("Asio" spp.), sparrowhawks ("Accipitur nisus") and kestrels ("Falco tinnunculus"). Bird life also includes skylarks ("Alauda arvensis"), which nest in the rough grassland, and various birds that nest in the scrub and woodland.
Several species of moths, butterflies, and freshwater invertebrates are also found on the site (listed in "Scotstown Moor - a children's guide") and the two small ponds provide a habitat for frogs as well as ducks and other wildfowl.
Military use.
The Ministry of Defence owns a small 25 acre driver training area, attached to Aberdeen University Officers' Training Corps.


Tisma Lagoon Natural Reserve

Tisma Lagoon Natural Reserve is a nature reserve in Nicaragua. It is one of the 78 reserves that are under official protection in the country.


Villa del Balbianello

The Villa del Balbianello is a villa in the comune of Lenno (province of Como), a province in the north of the Lombardy region of Italy, overlooking Lake Como. It is located on the tip of the small wooded peninsula of Dosso d'Avedo on the western shore of the south-west branch of Lake Como, not far from the Isola Comacina and is famous for its elaborate terraced gardens.
History.
A Franciscan monastery had existed on the tip of the peninsula of Dosso d'Avedo since the 13th century. The two towers which remain on the property are the remnants of the campanili of the monastery's church.
After failing in his attempts to buy the nearby Isola Comacina, Cardinal Angelo Maria Durini purchased this property in 1785. In 1787, he converted the monastery structure into a villa for use during the summer and added a loggia, which allowed viewers to obtain two different panoramas of the lake.
After the cardinal’s death in 1796, the villa passed to his nephew, Luigi Porro Lambertenghi. During his ownership, the villa became a center for republican activity and meetings, where Italian patriots and Carbonari met. Among Lambertenghi's guests at the villa was the writer Silvio Pellico, who tutored Lambertenghi's sons. In 1820, Pellico was arrested at the villa by the Austrian government and Lambertenghi was forced to move to Belgium, where he was supported by the Arconati-Visconti family. Lambertenghi subsequently sold the villa to his friend, Giuseppe Arconati
Visconti, grandfather of Luchino Visconti.
Visconti made improvements to its gardens and the loggia. To this day the balustrade in front of the church bears the Visconti emblem of a serpent with a man in its mouth. During the period of Visconti ownership, the villa hosted politicians and writers Giovanni Berchet, Alessandro Manzoni, Giuseppe Giusti, as well as the artist Arnold Böcklin. The gradual decline of the family resulted in a neglect of the villa for more than 30 years.
Just prior to World War I American businessman Butler Ames saw the villa for the first time. He made an offer to purchase it from the Arconati Visconti family and was initially rejected. He kept returning with ever-larger cash offers, until in 1919 he was successful in obtaining ownership. Ames renovated the villa and its garden.
In 1974, Ames's heirs sold the villa to businessman and explorer Count Guido Monzino (leader of the first Italian expedition to climb Mount Everest). While Monzino left the exterior essentially unchanged he had the interior of the villa completely re-decorated, installing artifacts acquired on his expeditions as well as important pieces of English Georgian and French antique furniture from the 18th and 19th centuries, Beauvais tapestries, French boiseries and Oriental carpets. After the assassination of Aldo Moro in 1978 by the Red Brigade, Monzino became worried about his safety, and added a system of hidden passages, linking parts of the property.
Monzino died in 1988 and left the villa along with most of the Dosso d'Avedo and an endowment to pay for maintenance, to the Fondo Ambiente Italiano (FAI), the National Trust of Italy. Its grounds now form part of the Grandi Giardini Italiani. Today, the Villa del Balbianello is the most visited among the 52 FAI properties with over 135,000 visitors in 2019.
In 2016 the Fondo per l'Ambiente Italiano commenced a €413,000 project to restore and improve the villa’s jetty, install new signage, new security, emergency lighting and fire prevention systems. The villa's existing diesel fuel system will be replaced with a modern heating system, new visitors bathrooms and drainage systems, and improvements to the bookshop and ticket office space.
In November 2018 Indian movie star and Bollywood's famous couple Ranveer Singh and Deepika Padukone's wedding took place at the villa.
Film appearances.
A number of feature films have used the villa for location shooting, including "A Month by the Lake" (1995), "His Demise" starring Paul Zukowski (2016 disaster movie), "Casino Royale" (2006). The villa was also used for the lake retreat scenes in "" (2002), with computer-generated imagery used in place of the building's true exterior.


Veliko Blato (ornithological reserve)

Veliko Blato is an ornithological reserve on the Croatian island of Pag.
Description.
The reserve has a length of about 2 km and an average width of 1.2 km. It forms a shelter for a wide variety of marsh birds, especially during the nesting, migration and hibernation period.
Flora.
The northern part of the reserve is surrounded by reeds, mainly "Phragmites", which are especially well-developed in the southeastern part of the reserve. Besides reeds, there are some varieties of sedges like "Carex" species, rushes including "Juncus acutus", "Juncus conglomeratus" and "Juncus maritimus" and other marsh varieties like "Scirpus" species and "Sparganium erectum". The edge of the lake is covered with meadows which are sometimes flooded in spring and fall. The southern part of the reserve is surrounded by karst terrain covered with karst plants like "Euphorbia spinosa", "Helichrysum italicum", "Salvia officinalis", "Inula candida" and "Stachis salviaefolius".
Fauna.
Many birds visit the reserve throughout the year. Some of the visiting species are the Eurasian coot, little grebe, great crested grebe, grey heron, great egret, bittern, glossy ibis, ferruginous duck and the common spoonbill. Many species also nest in the area. These species include the gadwall, Montagu's harrier, and the calandra lark. Other animals present in the reserve include the Italian wall lizard.
Tourism.
The reserve is an important bird-watching location and has a watch tower and an infoboard. Tickets for sightseeing in the Veliko Blato reserve are sold by the tourist board in Povljana.


Conservation in Pakistan

Conservation in Pakistan is the act of preserving, guarding, or protecting, biodiversity, environment, and natural resources of Pakistan.
Protected areas.
The protected areas serve the purpose of conserving the forests and wildlife of Pakistan. National Conservation Strategy of 1993 was a major landmark of start of conservation of natural resources and wildlife in Pakistan. Resource-managed man-made forests like Changa Manga, Kamalia plantation and Chichawatni plantation have also been planted to serve purpose and conserve forests. Through conservation, a large region of Thal desert has been afforested.
Endangered species.
Cheer pheasant, which became extinct in Pakistan, was planned to be reintroduced in the region. The World Pheasants Association sent 90 eggs of the species to the Dhodial Pheasantry. Among the eggs which hatched, the mortality was high and remained high till 1995. This situation got better in 1996. In 1997, a parent flock of 40 pairs was raised and eventually reintroduction of the cheer pheasant in Hazara District was carried out. As of 2007, there are around 60 pairs of cheer pheasant in the Dhodial Pheasantry.
Pakistan Crane Center is a conservation center for the captive breeding of common crane and demoiselle crane. It is located west of Kurram River in Lakki Marwat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, south of Peshawar. The center is equipped with a total of 15 circular aviaries as well as an education block for visitors. The center is operated by the Bannu Wildlife Division, Bannu and Pakistan Wetlands Programme of Ministry of Environment (Pakistan). The programme is funded by WWF - Pakistan, GEF, UNDP and Darwin Initiative.
Notable conservation organisations.
World Wide Fund For Nature
Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (PEPA)
Himalayan Wildlife Foundation (HWF)


Konark Sun Temple

Konark Sun Temple (Konark Surya Mandir) is a 13th-century CE (year 1250) Sun temple at Konark about northeast from Puri on the coastline of Odisha, India. The temple is attributed to king Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty about 1250CE.
Dedicated to the Hindu Sun God Surya, what remains of the temple complex has the appearance of a high chariot with immense wheels and horses, all carved from stone. Once over high, much of the temple is now in ruins, in particular the large shikara tower over the sanctuary; at one time this rose much higher than the mandapa that remains. The structures and elements that have survived are famed for their intricate artwork, iconography, and themes, including erotic kama and mithuna scenes. Also called the "Surya Devalaya", it is a classic illustration of the Odisha style of Architecture or Kalinga Architecture.
The cause of the destruction of the Konark temple is unclear and still remains a source of controversy. Theories range from natural damage to deliberate destruction of the temple in the course of being sacked several times by Muslim armies between the 15th and 17th centuries. This temple was called the "Black Pagoda" in European sailor accounts as early as 1676 because it looked a great tiered tower which appeared black. Similarly, the Jagannath Temple in Puri was called the "White Pagoda". Both temples served as important landmarks for sailors in the Bay of Bengal.
The temple that exists today was partially restored by the conservation efforts of British India-era archaeological teams. Declared a UNESCO world heritage site in 1984, it remains a major pilgrimage site for Hindus, who gather here every year for the Chandrabhaga Mela around the month of February.
Konark Sun Temple is depicted on the reverse side of the Indian currency note of 10 rupees to signify its importance to Indian cultural heritage.
Etymology.
The name "Konark" derives from the combination of the Sanskrit words "Kona" (corner or angle) and "Arka" (the sun). The context of the term "Kona" is unclear, but probably refers to the southeast location of this temple either within a larger temple complex or in relation to other sun temples on the subcontinent. The "Arka" refers to the Hindu sun god Surya.
The Sun temple of Konark, The Puri Jagannth Temple and The Lingaraj Temple of Bhubaneswar form a bilateral triangle and Konark temple is one Kone (angular point of a triangle). Thus the word 'Kone' has a meaning in making the nomenclature.
Location.
Temple is located in an eponymous village (now NAC Area) about northeast of Puri and southeast of Bhubaneswar on the Bay of Bengal coastline in the Indian state of Odisha. The nearest airport is Bhubaneswar airport. Both Puri and Bhubaneswar are major railway hubs connected by Indian Railways'
The Konark Sun Temple was built in 1250 A.D. during the reign of the Eastern Ganga King Narsimhadeva-1 from stone in the form of a giant ornamented chariot dedicated to the Sun god, Surya. In Hindu Vedic iconography Surya is represented as rising in the east and traveling rapidly across the sky in a chariot drawn by seven horses. He is described typically as a resplendent standing person holding a lotus flower in both his hands, riding the chariot marshaled by the charioteer Aruna. The seven horses are named after the seven meters of Sanskrit prosody: Gayatri, Brihati, Ushnih, Jagati, Trishtubha, Anushtubha, and Pankti. Typically seen flanking Surya are two females who represent the dawn goddesses, Usha and Pratyusha. The goddesses are shown to be shooting arrows, a symbol of their initiative in challenging the darkness. The architecture is also symbolic, with the chariot's twelve pairs of wheels corresponding to the 12months of the Hindu calendar, each month paired into two cycles (Shukla and Krishna).
The Konark temple presents this iconography on a grand scale. It has 24 elaborately carved stone wheels which are nearly in diameter and are pulled by a set of seven horses. When viewed from inland during the dawn and sunrise, the chariot-shaped temple appears to emerge from the depths of the blue sea carrying the sun.
The temple plan includes all the traditional elements of a Hindu temple set on a square plan. According to Kapila Vatsyayan, the ground plan, as well the layout of sculptures and reliefs, follow the square and circle geometry, forms found in Odisha temple design texts such as the "Silpasarini". This mandala structure informs the plans of other Hindu temples in Odisha and elsewhere.
The main temple at Konark, locally called the "deul", no longer exists. It was surrounded by subsidiary shrines containing niches depicting Hindu deities, particularly Surya in many of his aspects. The "deul" was built on a high terrace. The temple was originally a complex consisting of the main sanctuary, called the "rekha deul", or "bada deul" (lit. big sanctum). In front of it was the "bhadra deul" (lit. small sanctum), or "jagamohana" (lit. assembly hall of the people) (called a "mandapa" in other parts of India.). The attached platform was called the "pida deul", which consisted of a square "mandapa" with a pyramidal roof. All of these structures were square at their core, and each was overlain with the "pancharatha" plan containing a variegated exterior. The central projection, called the "raha", is more pronounced than the side projections, called "kanika-paga", a style that aims for an interplay of sunlight and shade and adds to the visual appeal of the structure throughout the day. The design manual for this style is found in the "Silpa Sastra" of ancient Odisha.
Twice as wide as they were high, the walls of the "jagamohana" are tall. The surviving structure has three tiers of six "pidas" each. These diminish incrementally and repeat the lower patterns. The "pidas" are divided into terraces. On each of these terraces stand statues of musician figures. The main temple and the "jagamohana" porch consist of four main zones: the platform, the wall, the trunk, and the crowning head called a "mastaka". The first three are square while the "mastaka" is circular. The main temple and the "jagamohana" differed in size, decorative themes, and design. It was the main temple's trunk, called the "gandhi" in medieval Hindu architecture texts, that was ruined long ago. The sanctum of the main temple is now without a roof and most of the original parts.
On the east side of the main temple is the "Nata mandira" (lit. dance temple). It stands on a high, intricately carved platform. The relief on the platform is similar in style to that found on the surviving walls of the temple. According to historical texts, there was an "Aruna stambha" (lit. Aruna's pillar) between the main temple and the Nata mandira, but it is no longer there because it was moved to the Jagannatha at Puri sometime during the troubled history of this temple. According to Harle, the texts suggest that originally the complex was enclosed within a wall by , with gateways on three sides.
The sun temple was made from three types of stone. Chlorite was used for the door lintel and frames as well as some sculptures. Laterite was used for the core of the platform and staircases near the foundation. Khondalite was used for other parts of the temple. According to Mitra, the Khondalite stone weathers faster over time, and this may have contributed to erosion and accelerated the damage when parts of the temples were destroyed. None of these stones occur naturally nearby, and the architects and artisans must have procured and moved the stones from distant sources, probably using the rivers and water channels near the site. The masons then created ashlar, wherein the stones were polished and finished so as to make joints hardly visible.
The original temple had a main sanctum sanctorum ("vimana"), which is estimated to have been tall. The main "vimana" fell in 1837. The main "mandapa" audience hall ("jagamohana"), which is about tall, still stands and is the principal structure in the surviving ruins. Among the structures that have survived to the current day are the dance hall ("Nata mandira") and the dining hall ("Bhoga mandapa").
Reliefs and sculpture.
The walls of the temple from the temple's base through the crowning elements are ornamented with reliefs, many finished to jewelry-quality miniature details. The terraces contain stone statues of male and female musicians holding various musical instruments including the vina, mardala, gini, Other major works of art include sculptures of Hindu deities, "apsaras" and images from the daily life and culture of the people ("artha" and "dharma" scenes), various animals, aquatic creatures, birds, legendary creatures, and friezes narrating the Hindu texts. The carvings include purely decorative geometric patterns and plant motifs. Some panels show images from the life of the king such as one showing him receiving counsel from a guru, where the artists symbolically portrayed the king as much smaller than the guru, with the king's sword resting on the ground next to him.
The "upana" (moulding) layer at the bottom of the platform contains friezes of elephants, marching soldiers, musicians, and images depicting the secular life of the people, including hunting scenes, a caravan of domesticated animals, people carrying supplies on their head or with the help of a bullock cart, travelers preparing a meal along the roadside, and festive processions. On other walls are found images depicting the daily life of the elite as well as the common people. For example, girls are shown wringing their wet hair, standing by a tree, looking from a window, playing with pets, putting on makeup while looking into a mirror, playing musical instruments such as the "vina", chasing away a monkey who is trying to snatch items, a family taking leave of their elderly grandmother who seems dressed for a pilgrimage, a mother blessing her son, a teacher with students, a yogi during a standing "asana", a warrior being greeted with a namaste, a mother with her child, an old woman with a walking stick and a bowl in her hands, comical characters, among others.
The Konark temple is also known for its erotic sculptures of "maithunas". These show couples in various stages of courtship and intimacy, and in some cases coital themes. Notorious in the colonial era for their uninhibited celebration of sexuality, these images are included with other aspects of human life as well as deities that are typically associated with tantra. This led some to propose that the erotic sculptures are linked to the "vama marga" (left hand tantra) tradition. However, this is not supported by local literary sources, and these images may be the same "kama" and "mithuna" scenes found integrated into the art of many Hindu temples. The erotic sculptures are found on the temple's Shikhara, and these illustrate all the "bandhas" ("mudra" forms) described in the "Kamasutra".
Other large sculptures were a part of the gateways of the temple complex. These include life-size lions subduing elephants, elephants subduing demons, and horses. A major pillar dedicated to Aruna, called the "Aruna Stambha", used to stand in front of the eastern stairs of the porch. This, too, was intricately carved with horizontal friezes and motifs. It now stands in front of the Jagannatha temple at Puri.
Hindu deities.
The upper levels and terrace of the Konark Sun temple contain larger and more significant works of art than the lower level. These include images of musicians and mythological narratives as well as sculptures of Hindu deities, including Durga in her Mahishasuramardini aspect killing the shape-shifting buffalo demon (Shaktism), Vishnu in his Jagannatha form (Vaishnavism), and Shiva as a (largely damaged) linga (Shaivism). Some of the better-preserved friezes and sculptures were removed and relocated to museums in Europe and major cities of India before 1940.
The Hindu deities are also depicted in other parts of the temple. For example, the medallions of the chariot wheels of the Surya temple, as well as the "anuratha" artwork of the "jagamohana", show Vishnu, Shiva, Gajalakshmi, Parvati, Krishna, Narasimha, and other divinities. Also found on the "jagamohana" are sculptures of Vedic deities such as Indra, Agni, Kubera, Varuna, and Âdityas.
Style.
The temple follows the traditional style of Kalinga architecture. It is oriented towards the east so that the first rays of the sunrise strike the main entrance. The temple, built from Khondalite rocks, was originally constructed at the mouth of the river Chandrabhaga, but the waterline has receded since then. The wheels of the temple are sundials, which can be used to calculate time accurately to a minute.
Other temples and monuments.
The Konark Sun Temple complex has ruins of many subsidiary shrines and monuments around the main temple. Some of these include:
A collection of fallen sculptures can be viewed at the "Konark Archaeological Museum", which is maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India. The fallen upper portion of the temple is believed to have been studded with many inscriptions.
History.
Ancient texts.
The oldest surviving Vedic hymns, such as hymn1.115 of the Rigveda, mention "Surya" with particular reverence for the "rising sun" and its symbolism as dispeller of darkness, one who empowers knowledge, the good, and all life. However, the usage is context specific. In some hymns, the word Surya simply means sun as an inanimate object, a stone, or a gem in the sky (Rigvedic hymns 5.47, 6.51 and 7.63) while in others it refers to a personified deity. In the layers of Vedic texts, Surya is one of the several trinities along with Agni and either Vayu or Indra, which are presented as an equivalent icon and aspect of the Hindu metaphysical concept called the Brahman.
In the Brahmanas layer of Vedic literature, Surya appears with Agni (fire god) in the same hymns. Surya is revered for the day, and Agni for its role during the night. According to Kapila Vatsyayan, the concept of a Surya–Agni relationship evolves, and in later literature Surya is described as Agni representing the first principle and the seed of the universe. It is in the Brahmanas layer of the Vedas, and the Upanishads that Surya is explicitly linked to the power of sight, and to visual perception and knowledge. He is then internalized and said to be the eye, as ancient Hindu sages suggested abandonment of external rituals to gods in favor of internal reflection and meditation of the gods within, in one's journey to realize the Atman (soul, self) within, in texts such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chandogya Upanishad, Kaushitaki Upanishad, and others.
The Mahabharata epic opens its chapter on Surya by reverentially calling him the "eye of the universe, soul of all existence, origin of all life, goal of the Samkhyas and Yogis, and symbolism for freedom and spiritual emancipation". In the Mahabharata, Karna is the son of Surya and an unmarried princess named Kunti. The epic describes Kunti's difficult life as an unmarried mother, then her abandonment of Karna, followed by her lifelong grief. Baby Karna is found and then adopted, and grows up to become one of the central characters in the great battle of Kurukshetra where he fights his half-brothers.
Konark in texts.
Konark, also referred to in Indian texts by the name "Kainapara", was a significant trading port by the early centuries of the common era. The current Konark temple dates to the 13thcentury, though evidence suggests that a sun temple was built in the Konark area by at least the 9thcentury. Several Puranas mention Surya worship centers in Mundira, which may have been the earlier name for Konark, Kalapriya (Mathura), and Multan (now in Pakistan). The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim and traveler Hiuen-tsang (also referred to as Xuanzang) mentions a port city in Odisha named "Charitra". He describes the city as prosperous, with five convents and "storeyed towers that are very high and carved with saintly figures exquisitely done". Since he visited India in the 7thcentury, he could not have been referring to the 13th-century temple, but his description suggests either Konark or another Odisha port city already featuring towering structures with sculptures.
According to the Madala Panji, there was at one time another temple in the region built by Pundara Kesari. He may have been Puranjaya, the 7th-century ruler of the Somavasmi Dynasty.
Construction.
The current temple is attributed to Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty, . It is one of the few Hindu temples whose planning and construction records written in Sanskrit in the Odiya script have been preserved in the form of palm leaf manuscripts that were discovered in a village in the 1960s and subsequently translated. The temple was sponsored by the king, and its construction was overseen by Siva Samantaraya Mahapatra. It was built near an old Surya temple. The sculpture in the older temple's sanctum was re-consecrated and incorporated into the newer larger temple. This chronology of temple site's evolution is supported by many copper plate inscriptions of the era in which the Konark temple is referred to as the "great cottage".
According to James Harle, the temple as built in the 13thcentury consisted of two main structures, the dance "mandapa" and the great temple ("deul"). The smaller "mandapa" is the structure that survives; the great "deul" collapsed sometime in the late 16thcentury or after. According to Harle, the original temple "must originally have stood to a height of some ", but only parts of its walls and decorative mouldings remain.
Damage and ruins.
The temple was in ruins before its restoration. Speculation continues as to the cause of the destruction of the temple. Early theories stated that the temple was never completed and collapsed during construction. This is contradicted by textual evidence and evidence from inscriptions. The Kenduli copper plate inscription of 1384CE from the reign of NarasimhaIV seems to indicate that the temple was not only completed but an active site of worship. Another inscription states that various deities in the temple were consecrated, also suggesting that construction of the temple had been completed. A non-Hindu textual source, the Akbar-era text Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl dated to the 16thcentury, mentions the Konark temple, describing it as a prosperous site with a temple that made visitors "astonished at its sight", with no mention of ruins. 200 years later, during the reign of the Marathas in Odisha in the 18th century, a Maratha holy man found the temple abandoned and covered in overgrowth. The Marathas relocated the temple's Aruna stambha (pillar with Aruna the charioteer seated atop it) to the Lion's Gate entrance of the Jagannath Temple in Puri.
Texts from the 19th century do mention ruins, which means the temple was damaged either intentionally or through natural causes sometime between 1556 and 1800CE. The intentional-damage theory is supported by Mughal era records that mention the Muslim invader Kalapahad attacking and destroying Jagannath Puri and the Konark temple. Other texts state that the temple was sacked several times by Muslim armies between the 15th and 17th centuries. Islamic texts describing the raids of Kalapahar mention his army's first attempt to destroy the temple in 1565, but they failed. They inflicted only minor damage and carried away the copper "kalasa".
The Hindu text "Madala Panji" and regional tradition state that Kalapahad attacked again and damaged the temple in 1568. After the Sun Temple ceased to attract faithful, Konark became deserted, left to disappear in dense forests for years.
The natural-damage theory is supported by the nearness of the temple to the shore and the monsoons in the region that would tend to cause damage. According to NCERT's history text book, the shikhara of the temple reached as high as 70m, which proved heavy for the site and it fell in the nineteenth century. However, the existence of nearby stone temples in the Odisha region that were built earlier and have stood without damage casts doubt to this theory. According to P.Parya, the number of rings of moss and lichen growth found on the stone ruins suggests the damage occurred sometime around the 1570s, but this approach does not indicate why or by whom.
According to Thomas Donaldson, evidence suggests that the damage and the temple's ruined condition can be dated to between the late 16thcentury and the early 17thcentury from the records of various surveys and repairs found in early 17th-century texts. These also record that the temple remained a site of worship in the early 17thcentury. These records do not state whether the ruins were being used by devotees to gather and worship, or part of the damaged temple was still in use for some other purpose.
Aruna Stambha.
In the last quarter of the 18th century, the Aruna stambha ("Aruna pillar") was removed from the entrance of Konark temple and placed at the "Singha-dwara" (Lion's Gate) of the Jagannath temple in Puri by a Maratha "Brahmachari" named Goswain (or Goswami). The pillar, made of monolithic chlorite, is tall and is dedicated to Aruna, the charioteer of the Sun god.
Preservation efforts.
In 1803 the East India Marine Board requested the Governor General of Bengal that conservation efforts be undertaken. However, the only conservation measure put in place at the time was to prohibit further removal of stones from the site. Lacking structural support, the last part of the main tower still standing, a small broken curved section, collapsed in 1848.
The then-Raja of Khurda, who had jurisdiction over this region in the early 19thcentury, removed some stones and sculptures to use in a temple he was building in Puri. A few gateways and some sculptures were destroyed in the process. In 1838 the Asiatic Society of Bengal requested that conservation efforts be undertaken, but the requests were denied, and only measures to prevent vandalism were put in place.
In 1859 the Asiatic Society of Bengal proposed, and in 1867 attempted to relocate an architrave of the Konark temple depicting the "navagraha" to the Indian Museum in Calcutta. This attempt was abandoned as funds had run out. In 1894 thirteen sculptures were moved to the Indian Museum. Local Hindu population objected to further damage and removal of temple ruins. The government issued orders to respect the local sentiments. In 1903, when a major excavation was attempted nearby, the then-Lieutenant governor of Bengal, J.A. Bourdillon, ordered the temple to be sealed and filled with sand to prevent the collapse of the "Jagamohana". The Mukhasala and Nata Mandir were repaired by 1905.
In 1906 casuarina and punnang trees were planted facing the sea to provide a buffer against sand-laden winds. In 1909 the Mayadevi temple was discovered while removing sand and debris.
The temple was granted World Heritage Site status by the UNESCO in 1984.
Reception.
The Konark Sun Temple has been rated as one of the greatest architectural marvels of the Indian subcontinent. According to Coomaraswamy, the Konark Sun Temple marks the high point of the Odisha style of Nagara architecture.
The Nobel Laureate Tagore wrote,
The colonial-era reception of the temple ranged from praise to derision. Andrew Sterling, the early colonial-era administrator and Commissioner of Cuttack questioned the skill of the 13th-century architects, but also wrote that the temple had "an air of elegance, combined with massiveness in the whole structure, which entitles it to no small share of admiration", adding that the sculpture had "a degree of taste, propriety, and freedom which would stand a comparison with some of our best specimens of Gothic architectural ornament". The Victorian mindset saw pornography in the artwork of Konark and wondered why there was no "shame and guilt in this pleasure in filth", while Alan Watts stated that there was no comprehensible reason to separate spirituality from love, sex, and religious arts. According to Ernest Binfield Havell, the Konark temple is "one of the grandest examples of Indian sculpture extant", adding that they express "as much fire and passion as the greatest European art" such as that found in Venice.
Cultural significance.
Religion is frequently at the centre of the Odia (previously Orissan) cultural expression, and Konark occupies an important space in it as part of The Golden Triangle (Jagannath Temple, Puri, and the Lingaraja Temple of Bhubaneswar completing it) which represents the pinnacle of Odia (previously Orissan) masonry and temple architecture.
Literature.
Numerous poems, stories, and novels have been written about Konark, most of which explore or expand or reinterpret the tragedies inherent in the legends and stories around the temple. Most recently, Mohanjit's book of poems, Kone Da Suraj, which revolves around Konark, won the Kendra Sahitya Akademi Award (one of the top awards for literature in India) for Punjabi language.
The following is a list of notable Odia literary works based on or inspired by Konark:
Additionally, the Sun Temple is the setting of "Interpreter of Maladies," a short story in Jhumpa Lahiri's Pulitzer Prize winning collection of the same name.
In heraldry.
The Warrior and Horse statue found in the temple grounds forms the basis of the state emblem of Odisha.


Dumbrava Sibiului Natural Park

The Dumbrava Sibiului Natural Park () (natural park category V IUCN) is a protected area situated in central Romania, in Sibiu County, in administrative territory of Sibiu city. Current King and Queen: Maxim & Sugar, the rightful glorious ruler of the Kingdom of Dumbrava
Description.
Dumbrava Sibiului Natural Park was declared a natural protected area by Law Number 5, of March 6, 2000. It consists of a forest area ("Dumbrava Forest") crossed by the Trinkbach River, forming on its course three anthropic-type lakes.
The natural park was a favoured promenade location for inhabitants of Sibiu as early as the 18th century. It is known nowadays for the ASTRA National Museum Complex. The defunct tram line connecting Sibiu with Rasinari can also be seen from there. The Municipal Cemetery, opened in 1907, is located on the south side of the park's woods.
Flora and fauna.
Vegetation of forest.
Species of trees: English oak ("Quercus robur"), sessile oak ("Quercus petraea"), European hornbeam ("Carpinus betulus"), elm ("Ulmus"), field maple ("Acer campestre"), European beech ("Fagus sylvatica"), linden ("Tilia"), pine ("Pinus");
Species of shrubs: common hawthorn, common privet ("Ligustrum vulgare"), dog rose ("Rosa canina"), alder buckthorn ("Rhamnus frangula"), blackthorn ("Prunus spinosa").
Species of grass: great willowherb ("Epilobium hirstum"), wall letuce ("Lactuca muralis"), red campion ("Melandium rubrum"), autumn crocus ("Colchicum autumnale").
Fauna.
Species of mammals: roe deer ("Capreolus capreolus"), fox ("Vulpes vulpes"), wild boar ("Sus scrofa"), squirrel ("Sciurus carolinensis");
Species of birds: sparrow (in family "Emberizidae"), Eurasian jay ("Garrulus glandarius"), woodpecker (family "Picidae"), blackbird ("Turdus merula"), common chaffinch ("Fringilla coelebs"), turtle dove ("Streptopelia turtur"), common raven ("Corvus corax"), common cuckoo ("Cuculus canorus").