Claude Stump

Claude Witherington Stump FRSE (28 October 1891–23 December 1971) was an Australian embryologist who served in two wars.
Life.
He was born at Austral Terrace in Malvern near Adelaide on 28 October 1891, the second child of Alfred Augustus Stump a well-known Tasmanian photographer, by his second wife, Rosa Ada Potter. He was educated at the Kyre College (now Scotch College, Adelaide) in Unley and the University of Adelaide.
He went to Edinburgh in Scotland to study medicine in 1910.
He joined the British Red Cross prior to the First World War to provide medical aid to the Serbian Army in the Balkan War 1912–1913. In 1914 at the onset of the First World War he joined the 8th battalion Kings Own Scottish Borderers. He was promoted to lieutenant in January 1915. He fought at Loos and on the Somme, then in 1916 he returned to Edinburgh to complete his degree, graduating with an MB ChB in 1917. He returned to Australia in December 1917 and joined the Australian Army Medical Corps (AAMC) as a captain, embarking from Adelaide in 1918 on HMAT "Borda" and returning to France to serve with the 11th Field Ambulance. He was demobbed in November 1919 at the rank of captain.
He received a Crichton Scholarship in 1920 and began lecturing in anatomy at the University of Edinburgh. He also worked as a surgeon in the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary. In 1922 he was appointed a Carnegie Research Fellow. In the same year he won the Gunning Victoria jubilee prize for his MD thesis "Histogenesis of the Bone". In 1924 he was appointed Professor of Anatomy and Histology at the University of Bangkok (partly funded by the Rockefeller Foundation. In 1926 he returned to Australia as associate professor of anatomy at Sydney University. Two years later the university made him the first Bosch Professor of Embryology and Histology and he remained in that role until retiral in 1956. His position as Bosch Professor was filled by Kenneth Wollaston Cleland.
In 1930 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. His proposers were Arthur Robinson, Sir Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer, James Lorrain Smith and Charles George Lambie.
From 1935 to 1938 he lived in Parramatta. He then moved to Bradfield. He retired to Palm Beach, New South Wales.
He died at Mona Vale on 23 December 1971. He was cremated with no religious service.
Family.
In 1920 he married Christina Margaret Calder Urquhart (1893–1965) from Eskbank near Edinburgh. They married at the North British Hotel in Edinburgh.
They had one son and two daughters.


Haliclona crowtheri

Haliclona crowtheri is a species of demosponge first found on the coast of South Georgia Island, in the south west Southern Ocean.


Vinctiplicata

The Vinctiplicata is a clade of Scalidophora uniting the Loricifera and the Priapulida, and representing the sister group to the Kinorhyncha. Its monophyly is supported on morphological grounds, although recent molecular studies indicate that the Loricifera may be more closely related to the Nematomorpha.


Eocoronidae

Eocoronidae is an extinct family of insects from the Carnian age of the Triassic period. It was established in 1981 by the Australian entomologist Norman Tindale. At present, it contains only one species and genus: "Eocorona iani".
The taxonomical placement of Eocoronidae is unclear. Originally considered to belong to the order Lepidoptera, it is now assumed to be basal and is classified under Amphiesmenoptera.
Fossils of "Eoses triassica", previously classified under the monotypic family Eosetidae and subjectively synonymized by E.F. Reik into the mecopterid species "Mesochorista proavita", has been proposed by Tindale to belong to this family.


Ceuthonectes rouchi

Ceuthonectes rouchi is a species of harpacticoid copepod in the family Canthocamptidae. It is found in Europe.
The IUCN conservation status of "Ceuthonectes rouchi" is "VU", vulnerable. The species faces a high risk of endangerment in the medium term. The IUCN status was reviewed in 1996.


Pterygospinous process

Pterygospinous process, also known as the Civinini process or processus pterygospinosus, is a sharp spine on the posterior edge of the lateral pterygoid plate of the sphenoid bone. The pterygospinous process is attached pterygospinous ligament which stretches towards the spine of the sphenoid.
References.
http://www.mondofacto.com/facts/dictionary?pterygospinous+process


Isaac Cowley Lambert

Isaac Cowley Lambert (1850 – 16 October 1918) was a British solicitor and Conservative Member of Parliament. Lambert was also a sportsman of note, and captained the Cambridge University rugby team in the very first Varsity Match.
Early life.
Lambert was born in 1850 in Stockwell, London; the fifth son of Thomas Lambert of Surbiton. He was educated at Rugby School before matriculating to Trinity College, Cambridge in 1868. Lambert was a keen footballer while at Rugby and because of his old school ties was allowed to join the newly formed Cambridge University rugby team. When the first Varsity Game between Cambridge and Oxford Universities was arranged in 1872, the Cambridge captain was E. Winnington Ingram, but because of Tripos work, he was unavailable to travel to Oxford. Lambert, who played at half back, was elected in his place and lead his team onto the Parks playing field on 10 February 1872. Cambridge lost by a goal to nil, but reports state that Lambert 'played splendidly, saving Cambridge many times.
While still completing his studies, Lambert was admitted at the Middle Temple in 1870, and was awarded his BA in 1873. On 26 January 1874, he was called to the Bar, and received his MA in 1876. Around this period, Lambert travelled to Asia, and published a short field guide, "A Trip to Cashmere and Ladak", which was published in 1877 by Henry S. King of London. He was also a Friend of the Royal Geographical Society and a Fellow of the Zoological Society of London.
Political career and later life.
Before entering a political career, Lambert followed his legal education, becoming a Justice of the Peace in Surrey. His one and only election victory was in 1886, when he stood as a Conservative candidate for Islington East. He retained the seat until the 1892 election.
He died 16 October 1918 in Eastbourne.


CFAP47

CFAP47, or cilia and flagella associated protein 47, is a human gene encoded on the X chromosome. in humans. CXorf59 is located on chromosome X at locus Xp21.1 of the human genome.
Protein.
CXorf59 is most commonly known as Cilia- and flagella- associated protein 47 (CFAP47) in other species.
Gene.
CFAP47 is a 3187 amino acid protein that has seven splice variants and contains 64 exons. Genecard listed aliases for CXorf59 as Cilia and Flagella Associated Protein 47 (CFAP47), Calponin Homology Domain-Containing Protein 2 (CHDC2), FLJ3660, CXorf22, and CXorf30
Orthologs and paralogs.
Orthologs have been found in mammalia, aves, reptilia, amphibia, osteichthyes; sarcopterygii and actinopterygii, ascidiacea, gastropoda, cephalopoda, insecta, and demospongiae. There are no paralogs within the human genome.
Expression.
CXorf59 is a protein coding gene that is confirmed to be expressed in 27 different tissues. The liver, testis, thyroid, brain, and endometrium were higher in reads per kilobase of transcript (RPKM). While this gene is associated with cilia and flagella, there is no current functional information available on this protein. CXorf59 is also related to Calponin, a calcium binding protein. In the 324 to 403 base pair region, there is a Calponin homology domain. Calponin homology domains are found in cytoskeletal and signal transduction proteins. They are composed of four alpha helices and are actin-binding.


Trochophore

A trochophore (; also spelled trocophore) is a type of free-swimming planktonic marine larva with several bands of cilia.
By moving their cilia rapidly, a water eddy is created. In this way they control the direction of their movement. Additionally, in this way they bring their food closer, in order to capture it more easily.
Occurrence.
Trochophores exist as a larval form within the trochozoan clade, which include the entoprocts, molluscs, annelids, echiurans, sipunculans and nemerteans. Together, these phyla make up part of the Lophotrochozoa; it is possible that trochophore larvae were present in the life cycle of the group's common ancestor.
Etymology.
The term "trochophore" derives from the ancient Greek (), meaning "wheel", and () — or () —, meaning 'to bear, to carry', because the larva is bearing a wheel-shaped band of cilia.
Feeding habits.
Trochophore larvae are often planktotrophic; that is, they feed on other plankton species.
Life cycle.
The example of the development of the annelid "Pomatoceros lamarckii" (family Serpulidae) shows various trochophore stages (image: D-F):

D - early trochophore ;

E - complete trochophore ;

F - late trochophore ;

G - metatrochophore.


Stigmatella (bryozoan)

Stigmatella is an extinct genus of bryozoans in the family Heterotrypidae.


Prototreta flabellata

Prototreta flabellata is one of several species of brachiopod that occur in the Cambrian rocks of central and southern Montana, Nixon Gulch section, Three Forks Quad. It is associated with the trilobite genus "Ehmania" near the base of the Middle Cambrian Meagher limestone.


Gastornithiformes

Gastornithiformes were an extinct order of giant flightless fowl with fossils found in North America, Eurasia, and possibly Australia. Members of Gastornithidae were long considered to be a part of the order Gruiformes. However, the traditional concept of Gruiformes has since been shown to be an unnatural grouping.
Beginning in the late 1980s and the first phylogenetic analysis of gastornithid relationships, consensus began to grow that they were close relatives of the lineage that includes waterfowl and screamers, the Anseriformes. Recognizing the apparent close relationship between gastornis and waterfowl, some researchers even classify them within the anseriform group itself. Others restrict the name Anseriformes only to the crown group formed by all modern species, and label the larger group including extinct relatives of anseriformes in the clade Anserimorphae (which this article and related pages have adopted). While the order is generally considered to be monotypic, a 2017 paper concerning the evolution and phylogeny of giant fowl by Worthy and colleagues have found phylogenetic support in finding the mihirungs (Dromornithidae) to be the sister taxon to the gastornis.
The mihirungs are also another family of giant flightless birds that have been classified as anserimorphs either as crown anseriforms closely related to the screamers (Anhimidae) or the sister taxon to Anseriformes. Worthy et al. (2017) incorporated several new taxa and character traits into existing matrices of Galloanserae resulted in several of their phylogenies to support this grouping. The authors did note the bootstrap support is weakly supported and one of their phylogenies even found gastornithiforms to be stem galliforms instead. These were also weakly supported. Below is a simplified phylogeny showing their one phylogeny supporting gastornithiforms as anserimorphs.
In a 2021 paper by Agnolin found the Argentinian genus "Brontornis" from the Miocene deposits, normally considered to be a terror bird, found to a gastornithiform sister to the mihirungs.


Cinderella fat-tailed mouse opossum

The Cinderella fat-tailed mouse opossum ("Thylamys cinderella") is a species of opossum in the family Didelphidae. It is found in northern Argentina and southern Bolivia, in the eastern foothills of the Andes. Its dorsal fur is gray brown to dark brown. Its ventral fur is gray-based, except for the white to yellowish chest hairs. It has been distinguished from "T. sponsorius" by the well-developed postorbital ridges of the latter, but mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis does not support separate species status for "sponsorius".


Fascia of Scarpa

The fascia of Scarpa is the deep membranous layer "(stratum membranosum)", of the superficial fascia of the abdomen. It is a layer of the anterior abdominal wall. It is found "deep" to the Fascia of Camper and "superficial" to the external oblique muscle.
Structure.
It is thinner and more membranous in character than the superficial fascia of Camper, and contains a considerable quantity of orange elastic fibers.
It is loosely connected by areolar tissue to the aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle, but in the midline it is more intimately adherent to the linea alba and the pubic symphysis, and is prolonged on to the dorsum of the penis, forming the fundiform ligament; above, it is continuous with the superficial fascia over the rest of the trunk; inferiorly, it is continuous with Colles fascia of the perineum; however, it doesn't extend into the thigh as it just attaches to its fascia, which is known as fascia lata; medially and below, it is continued over the penis and spermatic cord to the scrotum, where it helps to form the dartos.
From the scrotum it may be traced backward into continuity with the deep layer of the superficial fascia of the perineum (superficial perineal fascia or fascia of Colles).
In the female, it is continued into the labia majora and from there to the fascia of Colles.
History.
It is named for Italian anatomist Antonio Scarpa. His description of the membranous superficial fascia is vague in his 1809 hernia monograph. Life-size illustrations included by Scarpa do not identify the layer even though some show all the other anatomical layers of the abdominal wall in the inguinal region. A probable description of the fascia is in the text which discusses femoral (called crural) hernia in the male. Scarpa describes that 'below the skin' we find 'a layer of condensed substance forming the second covering of the hernia' which adheres to 'the aponeurosis of the fascia lata'. A little later he describes
this layer as being membranous and he believes it has a role in containing this particular herniation. In 1810, Abraham Colles described detailed methods of dissection to expose membranous superficial fascia in the lower abdomen and the inguino-perineal region including the penis and scrotum. Colles clearly associated the subcutaneous limitation of urine extravasation from a
ruptured urethra with the attachments of the membranous superficial fascia to deeper structures.
Clinical significance.
Scarpa's belief that the fascia stops hernias from forming is not thought to be true today. Some anatomists suggest the membranous superficial fascia is the scaffold which attaches the skin to the deeper structures so that the skin does not sag with gravity but still stretches as the body flexes or changes shape with exercise. The attachment of the fascia to deeper layers confines fluid which may have come from inside the body in certain diseases giving rise to clinical signs such as urethral disruption noticed by Colles and bruising in Cullen's sign or Grey Turner's sign.


Lepidasthenia elegans

Lepidasthenia elegans is a species of scaled Polychaete worms in the family Polynoidae. It is found in the Mediterranean Sea.


Eunoe subtruncata

Eunoe subtruncata is a scale worm described from the Sea of Japan.
Description.
Number of segments 42–45; elytra 15 pairs. Prostomium anterior margin comprising two rounded lobes. Lateral antennae inserted ventrally (beneath prostomium and median antenna). Elytra marginal fringe of papillae present. Notochaetae distinctly thicker than neurochaetae. Bidentate neurochaetae absent.


Trukrhysa pachystoma

Trukrhysa pachystoma is a species of air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Chronidae.
This species is endemic to the Solomon Islands, Micronesia.


Gerarus

Gerarus is an extinct genus of Archaeorthopteran insect, and is one of the most abundant genera of Carboniferous insects. They had a wingspan of up to , and an inflated thorax armed with sharp spines up to long.


Parathyroid artery

The parathyroid artery is the blood vessel that carries blood to each of the parathyroid glands. The parathyroid artery is the single individual artery that provides oxygenated blood supply to the parathyroid glands. While studies have concluded that most subjects' parathyroid glands are supplied by the thyroid arteries, up to 45% have been determined to have a "distinct anastomosing branch between the inferior and the superior thyroid arteries." Some have been shown to contain two or more parathyroid arteries.


Oymurania

Oymurania is an organophosphatic Cambrian small shelly fossil interpreted as a stem-group Brachiopod. It consists of a pair of "Micrina"-like shells that broadly follow a logarithmic coiling trajectory with a high rate of expansion.
Microstructure.
Its shell comprises an inner prismatic layer, with hexagonal prisms that run through the full depth of the layer, and an outer layer that contains an acrotretid-like microstructure of surface-parallel laminae punctuated by pore-bearing rod-like columns.


Cribrospongia

Cribrospongia is an extinct genus of prehistoric sponges in the family Cribrospongiidae. The species "C. elegans" is from the Jurassic period and has been found in Germany.


Chalazoscolex

Chalazoscolex is a genus of palaeoscolecidian worm known from the Sirius Passet. It had around 140 segments, each adorned with two rows of palaeoscolecid plates. Its body was organised into three transverse sections, the medial bearing three large sclerites acrosswise, the laterals bearing ridges.


Ryssota

Ryssota is a genus of air-breathing land snails, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the family Chronidae.
Species.
Species within the genus "Ryssota" include:


Andyrossia

Andyrossia is an extinct genus of wasp known from the Late Cretaceous Weald Clay of southern England, containing a single species, Andyrossia joyceae. It was first named by Rasnitsyn and Jarzembowski in 1998 as "Arossia"; this was later realised to be a junior homonym of a barnacle subgenus containing "Concavus panamensis", and was replaced by the name "Andyrossia" in 2000.


Spine apparatus

The spine apparatus (SA) is a specialized form of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that is found in a subpopulation of dendritic spines in central neurons. It was discovered by Edward George Gray in 1959 when he applied electron microscopy to fixed cortical tissue. The SA consists of a series of stacked discs that are connected to each other and to the dendritic system of ER-tubules. The actin binding protein synaptopodin (which was originally described in podocytes of the kidney) is an essential component of the SA. Mice that lack the gene for synaptopodin do not form a spine apparatus. The SA is believed to play a role in synaptic plasticity, learning and memory, but the exact function of the spine apparatus is still enigmatic.
Morphology.
The spine apparatus consists of membranous saccules (discs) and tubules surrounded by wispy filamentous material and is mainly found in large mushroom-shaped dendritic spines. The wispy filamentous material is the cytoskeletal network, mainly f-actin, which is responsible for the maintenance and alteration of spine shape. The spine apparatus is connected to the smooth-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum of the dendrite. Consisting of continuous parallel flattened cisternae, the spine apparatus has a large surface area which is important for its function.
The spine apparatus occupies a large portion of the volume of the spine stalk, which may increase the longitudinal resistance between spine and dendrite Therefore, the spine apparatus could have a direct effect on the membrane potential of the spine plasma membrane when the synapse is active. The connection to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum suggests a potential pathway for the transfer of proteins and lipids between the spine and dendrite. The spine apparatus could also function as a reservoir for calcium ions.
Function.
Local protein synthesis and trafficking.
For some time, the function of the spine apparatus has been considered enigmatic. Recent evidence, however, suggests the spine apparatus may possess several distinct functions. After elucidating the structure of the spine apparatus, Spacek and Harris noted a continuation of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum into the spine apparatus, where it then takes on a lamellar structure. This observation suggests the SA might play a role in vesicular transport, although a specific mechanism is not yet clear.
Furthermore, Pierce et al. proposed that the spine apparatus may be involved in post-translational protein processing, similar to that observed in the Golgi apparatus, and function in the post-translational processing of GluR1 and GluR2 subunits, which are locally translated in dentritic spines, of AMPA receptors. The spine apparatus has also been shown to be involved in the post-translational processing and spatial delivery of NMDA receptors, which also function as glutamate receptors and play a significant role in controlling synaptic plasticity. Considering immunostaining studies have identified NMDARs and AMPARs in the spine apparatus, it has been proposed that the spine apparatus may be critical to the localization of AMPARs and NMDARs to synapses during LTP formation.
The appearance of molecular markers for satellite secretory pathways provides further evidence that the spine apparatus plays a role in local integral membrane protein translocation and processing. More specifically, the protein translocation site marker (Sec61α) and the Golgi cisternae markers (giantin and α-mannosidase II) have been observed in the spine apparatus.
Calcium signaling.
Synaptic activity triggers Ca2+ influx into dendritic spines via NMDA receptors and voltage-dependent calcium channels. Free Ca2+ ions are rapidly removed from the cytoplasm through Na+/Ca2+ exchangers in the plasma membrane and by sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPases (SERCA pumps) that mediate Ca2+ uptake into the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (sER). The spine apparatus, as a sub-compartment of the sER, has a large surface area and is thought to act as an efficient calcium buffer inside the spine (Figure 2).
Recent studies have shown that the spine apparatus is also able to release Ca2+ through inositol trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) or ryanodine receptors (RyRs). The calcium-sensitive nature of IP3Rs and RyRs makes both receptors capable of regenerative calcium-induced calcium release (CICR). In dendritic shafts and spines of hippocampal neurons the presence of both RyRs and IP3Rs has been shown by immunostaining. Ca2+ release is triggered by glutamate release, activating Group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). The downstream signaling cascade leads to elevated IP3 levels inside the spine (Figure 2) which trigger Ca2+ release events only in those spines that contain sER.
Plasticity.
The spine apparatus’ ability to release calcium into the cytosol is thought to contribute to the development of synaptic plasticity. This was first shown in an experiment using synaptopodin(SP)-deficient mice, which do not show a spine apparatus in dendritic spines. These SP-deficient mice showed a decrease in long-term potentiation (LTP). Furthermore, LTP1 (short-term plasticity which requires post-translational protein modifications, but is protein synthesis independent), LTP2 (slowly decaying plasticity which is protein synthesis-dependent but does not require gene transcription modifications), and LTP3 (long-lasting LTP that is translation- and transcription-dependent) were decreased as a result of the absence of the spine apparatus.
Further studies have shown that altered expression and distribution of RyRs, IP3Rs, and L-type voltage-dependent calcium channels (L-VDCCs) can decrease LTP1, LTP2, and LTP3. This observation, combined with the observation that SP-deficient mice have decreased LTP, suggests the proper expression and distribution of calcium channels within the spine apparatus is required for controlling synaptic plasticity. Moreover, the spine apparatus is critical for maintaining the cytosolic calcium levels which are central to the formation of synaptic plasticity.
SP-deficient mice also exhibited behavioral changes, including decreased horizontal locomotor activity, decreased anxiety, and a decreased ability to acquire LTP3-related spatial memory, as shown in a radial arm maze. The decreased locomotor activity and decreased spatial learning suggest the spine apparatus’ role in inducing cerebellar LTP, in addition to hippocampal LTP. The exact mechanisms of these deficiencies are not fully understood. These behavioral modifications are thought to be epiphenomena of the absence of a spine apparatus and the changes in cytosolic calcium control mechanisms typically provided by the spine apparatus.
Synaptopodin, a protein that binds actin and α-actinin-2, is closely associated with the spine apparatus. Although SP-deficient mature mice both lack the spine apparatus and display impaired LTP, the relationship between SP, the spine apparatus, and plasticity is complicated by the following three findings: (1) In addition to being associated with the spine apparatus, SP is also located in the cisternal organelle, which is structurally similar to the spine apparatus. (2) The spine apparatus is generally found in mushroom spines of mature neurons, but ample levels of SP and expression of LTP have been detected in juvenile rats just 15 days old. (3) Unlike SP, the spine apparatus has not been found in cultured neurons. These findings have led some to the conclusion that the spine apparatus is implicated in plasticity only because this organelle is associated with SP.
Direct evidence for an essential function of the spine apparatus in mGluR-dependent long-term depression (LTD) has been provided by comparing plasticity of synapses on spines with or without spine apparatus. In this study, only synapses associated with sER displayed this form of depression. Blocking IP3-mediated Ca2+ release blocked synaptic depression, indicating a causal role of the spine apparatus in the induction of mGluR-dependent LTD.
Relevance to disease.
Recent evidence suggests that structural changes in the spine apparatus may be linked to brain disorders. When parkinsonian symptoms were induced in monkeys via treatment with MPTP, alterations in morphology were observed, including an increase in the ratio of spine apparatus volume to spine volume. Abnormal spine apparatus morphology has also been noted in peritumorous and edematous tissues of the human brain, and these changes in structure may result in compromised or altered function. Alterations to the morphology of the spine apparatus have also been observed in rats exposed to chronic levels of ethanol. Atrophied spine apparatuses were observed in these animals as well as in anesthetized animals.


Lesser wing of sphenoid bone

The lesser wings of the sphenoid or orbito-sphenoids are two thin triangular plates, which arise from the upper and anterior parts of the body, and, projecting lateralward, end in sharp points [Fig. 1].
In some animals they remain as separate bones called orbitosphenoids.
Structure.
The main features of the lesser wing are the optic canal, the anterior clinoid process, and the superior orbital fissure.
Surfaces.
The superior surface of each is flat, and supports part of the frontal lobe of the brain. The inferior surface forms the back part of the roof of the orbit, and the upper boundary of the superior orbital fissure.
This fissure is of a triangular form, and leads from the cavity of the cranium into that of the orbit: it is bounded medially by the body; above, by the small wing; below, by the medial margin of the orbital surface of the great wing; and is completed laterally by the frontal bone.
It transmits the oculomotor nerve, the trochlear nerve, and the abducent nerve, the three branches of the ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve, some filaments from the cavernous plexus of the sympathetic nervous system, the orbital branch of the middle meningeal artery, a recurrent branch from the lacrimal artery to the dura mater, and the ophthalmic vein.
Borders.
The anterior border is serrated for articulation with the frontal bone.
The posterior border, smooth and rounded, is received into the lateral fissure of the brain; the medial end of this border forms the anterior clinoid process, which gives attachment to the tentorium cerebelli; it is sometimes joined to the middle clinoid process by a spicule of bone, and when this occurs the termination of the groove for the internal carotid artery is converted into a foramen (carotico-clinoid).
The lesser wing is connected to the body by two roots, the upper thin and flat, the lower thick and triangular; between the two roots is the optic foramen, for the transmission of the optic nerve and ophthalmic artery.


Warbler

Various Passeriformes (perching birds) are commonly referred to as warblers. They are not necessarily closely related to one another, but share some characteristics, such as being fairly small, vocal, and insectivorous.
Sylvioid warblers.
These are somewhat more closely related to each other than to other warblers. They belong to a superfamily also containing Old World babblers, bulbuls, etc.
Passeroid warblers.
The two families of American warblers are part of another superfamily, which unites them with sparrows, buntings, finches, etc.
Other.
These are closely related to the titmice and chickadees
These are the most distinct group of warblers. They are not closely related at all to the others, but rather to the honeyeaters and fairy-wrens.


Opisthopatus

Opisthopatus is a genus of South African velvet worms in the family Peripatopsidae.
They give birth to live young.
Species.
The genus contains the following species:


Mental tubercle

The mandibular symphysis divides below and encloses a triangular eminence, the mental protuberance, the base of which is depressed in the center but raised on either side to form the mental tubercle. The two mental tubercles along with the medial mental protuberance are collectively called the mental trigone.


Nephron

The nephron is the minute or microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney. It is composed of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. The renal corpuscle consists of a tuft of capillaries called a glomerulus and an encompassing Bowman's capsule. The renal tubule extends from the capsule. The capsule and tubule are connected and are composed of epithelial cells with a lumen. A healthy adult has 1 to 1.5 million nephrons in each kidney. Blood is filtered as it passes through three layers: the endothelial cells of the capillary wall, its basement membrane, and between the foot processes of the podocytes of the lining of the capsule. The tubule has adjacent peritubular capillaries that run between the descending and ascending portions of the tubule. As the fluid from the capsule flows down into the tubule, it is processed by the epithelial cells lining the tubule: water is reabsorbed and substances are exchanged (some are added, others are removed); first with the interstitial fluid outside the tubules, and then into the plasma in the adjacent peritubular capillaries through the endothelial cells lining that capillary. This process regulates the volume of body fluid as well as levels of many body substances. At the end of the tubule, the remaining fluid—urine—exits: it is composed of water, metabolic waste, and toxins.
The interior of Bowman's capsule, called Bowman's space, collects the filtrate from the filtering capillaries of the glomerular tuft, which also contains mesangial cells supporting these capillaries. These components function as the filtration unit and make up the renal corpuscle. The filtering structure (glomerular filtration barrier) has three layers composed of endothelial cells, a basement membrane, and podocytes (foot processes). The tubule has five anatomically and functionally different parts: the proximal tubule, which has a convoluted section the proximal convoluted tubule followed by a straight section (proximal straight tubule); the loop of Henle, which has two parts, the descending loop of Henle ("descending loop") and the ascending loop of Henle ("ascending loop"); the distal convoluted tubule ("distal loop"); the connecting tubule, and the last part of nephron the collecting ducts. Nephrons have two lengths with different urine concentrating capacities: long juxtamedullary nephrons and short cortical nephrons.
The four mechanisms used to create and process the filtrate (the result of which is to convert blood to urine) are filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion. Filtration occurs in the glomerulus and is largely passive: it is dependent on the intracapillary blood pressure. About one-fifth of the plasma is filtered as the blood passes through the glomerular capillaries; four-fifths continues into the peritubular capillaries. Normally the only components of the blood that are not filtered into Bowman's capsule are blood proteins, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Over 150 liters of fluid enter the glomeruli of an adult every day: 99% of the water in that filtrate is reabsorbed. Reabsorption occurs in the renal tubules and is either passive, due to diffusion, or active, due to pumping against a concentration gradient. Secretion also occurs in the tubules and is active. Substances reabsorbed include: water, sodium chloride, glucose, amino acids, lactate, magnesium, calcium phosphate, uric acid, and bicarbonate. Substances secreted include urea, creatinine, potassium, hydrogen, and uric acid. Some of the hormones which signal the tubules to alter the reabsorption or secretion rate, and thereby maintain homeostasis, include (along with the substance affected) antidiuretic hormone (water), aldosterone (sodium, potassium), parathyroid hormone (calcium, phosphate), atrial natriuretic peptide (sodium) and brain natriuretic peptide (sodium). A countercurrent system in the renal medulla provides the mechanism for generating a hypertonic interstitium, which allows the recovery of solute-free water from within the nephron and returning it to the venous vasculature when appropriate.
Some diseases of the nephron predominantly affect either the glomeruli or the tubules. Glomerular diseases include diabetic nephropathy, glomerulonephritis and IgA nephropathy; renal tubular diseases include acute tubular necrosis and polycystic kidney disease.
Structure.
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. This means that each separate nephron is where the main work of the kidney is performed.
A nephron is made of two parts:
Renal corpuscle.
The renal corpuscle is the site of the filtration of blood plasma. The renal corpuscle consists of the glomerulus, and the glomerular capsule or Bowman's capsule.
The renal corpuscle has two poles: a vascular pole and a tubular pole. The arterioles from the renal circulation enter and leave the glomerulus at the vascular pole. The glomerular filtrate leaves the Bowman's capsule at the renal tubule at the urinary pole.
Glomerulus.
The glomerulus is the network known as a "tuft", of filtering capillaries located at the vascular pole of the renal corpuscle in Bowman's capsule. Each glomerulus receives its blood supply from an afferent arteriole of the renal circulation. The glomerular blood pressure provides the driving force for water and solutes to be filtered out of the blood plasma, and into the interior of Bowman's capsule, called Bowman's space.
Only about a fifth of the plasma is filtered in the glomerulus. The rest passes into an efferent arteriole. The diameter of the efferent arteriole is smaller than that of the afferent, and this difference increases the hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus.
Bowman's capsule.
The Bowman's capsule, also called the glomerular capsule, surrounds the glomerulus. It is composed of a visceral inner layer formed by specialized cells called podocytes, and a parietal outer layer composed of simple squamous epithelium. Fluids from blood in the glomerulus are ultrafiltered through several layers, resulting in what is known as the filtrate.
The filtrate next moves to the renal tubule, where it is further processed to form urine. The different stages of this fluid are collectively known as the tubular fluid.
Renal tubule.
The renal tubule is the portion of the nephron containing the tubular fluid filtered through the glomerulus. After passing through the renal tubule, the filtrate continues to the collecting duct system.
The components of the renal tubule are:
Blood from the efferent arteriole, containing everything that was not filtered out in the glomerulus, moves into the peritubular capillaries, tiny blood vessels that surround the loop of Henle and the proximal and distal tubules, where the tubular fluid flows. Substances then reabsorb from the latter back to the blood stream.
The peritubular capillaries then recombine to form an efferent venule, which combines with efferent venules from other nephrons into the renal vein, and rejoins the main bloodstream.
Length difference.
Cortical nephrons (the majority of nephrons) start high in the cortex and have a short loop of Henle which does not penetrate deeply into the medulla. Cortical nephrons can be subdivided into "superficial cortical nephrons" and "midcortical nephrons".
Juxtamedullary nephrons start low in the cortex near the medulla and have a long loop of Henle which penetrates deeply into the renal medulla: only they have their loop of Henle surrounded by the vasa recta. These long loops of Henle and their associated vasa recta create a hyperosmolar gradient that allows for the generation of concentrated urine. Also the hairpin bend penetrates up to the inner zone of medulla.
Juxtamedullary nephrons are found only in birds and mammals, and have a specific location: "medullary" refers to the renal medulla, while "juxta" (Latin: near) refers to the relative position of the renal corpuscle of this nephron - "near the medulla", but still in the cortex. In other words, a "juxtamedullary nephron" is a nephron whose renal corpuscle is near the medulla, and whose proximal convoluted tubule and its associated loop of Henle occur deeper in the medulla than the other type of nephron, the cortical nephron.
The juxtamedullary nephrons comprise only about 15% of the nephrons in the human kidney. However, it is this type of nephron which is most often depicted in illustrations of nephrons.
In humans, cortical nephrons have their renal corpuscles in the outer two thirds of the cortex, whereas juxtamedullary nephrons have their corpuscles in the inner third of the cortex.
Functions.
The nephron uses four mechanisms to convert blood into urine: filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion. These apply to numerous substances. The structure and function of the epithelial cells lining the lumen change during the course of the nephron, and have segments named by their location and which reflects their different functions.
Proximal tubule.
The proximal tubule as a part of the nephron can be divided into an initial convoluted portion and a following straight (descending) portion. Fluid in the filtrate entering the proximal convoluted tubule is reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries, including more than half of the filtered salt and water and all filtered organic solutes (primarily glucose and amino acids).
Loop of Henle.
The loop of Henle is a U-shaped tube that extends from the proximal tubule. It consists of a descending limb and an ascending limb. It begins in the cortex, receiving filtrate from the proximal convoluted tubule, extends into the medulla as the descending limb, and then returns to the cortex as the ascending limb to empty into the distal convoluted tubule. The primary role of the loop of Henle is to enable an organism to produce concentrated urine, not by increasing the tubular concentration, but by rendering the interstitial fluid hypertonic.
Considerable differences aid in distinguishing the descending and ascending limbs of the loop of Henle. The descending limb is permeable to water and noticeably less permeable to salt, and thus only indirectly contributes to the concentration of the interstitium. As the filtrate descends deeper into the hypertonic interstitium of the renal medulla, water flows freely out of the descending limb by osmosis until the tonicity of the filtrate and interstitium equilibrate. The hypertonicity of the medulla (and therefore concentration of urine) is determined in part by the size of the loops of Henle.
Unlike the descending limb, the thick ascending limb is impermeable to water, a critical feature of the countercurrent exchange mechanism employed by the loop. The ascending limb actively pumps sodium out of the filtrate, generating the hypertonic interstitium that drives countercurrent exchange. In passing through the ascending limb, the filtrate grows hypotonic since it has lost much of its sodium content. This hypotonic filtrate is passed to the distal convoluted tubule in the renal cortex.
Distal convoluted tubule.
The distal convoluted tubule has a different structure and function to that of the proximal convoluted tubule. Cells lining the tubule have numerous mitochondria to produce enough energy (ATP) for active transport to take place. Much of the ion transport taking place in the distal convoluted tubule is regulated by the endocrine system. In the presence of parathyroid hormone, the distal convoluted tubule reabsorbs more calcium and secretes more phosphate. When aldosterone is present, more sodium is reabsorbed and more potassium secreted. Atrial natriuretic peptide causes the distal convoluted tubule to secrete more sodium.
Connecting tubule.
This is the final segment of the tubule before it enters the collecting duct system.
Collecting duct system.
Each distal convoluted tubule delivers its filtrate to a system of collecting ducts, the first segment of which is the connecting tubule. The collecting duct system begins in the renal cortex and extends deep into the medulla. As the urine travels down the collecting duct system, it passes by the medullary interstitium which has a high sodium concentration as a result of the loop of Henle's countercurrent multiplier system.
Because it has a different origin during the development of the urinary and reproductive organs than the rest of the nephron, the collecting duct is sometimes not considered a part of the nephron. Instead of originating from the metanephrogenic blastema, the collecting duct originates from the ureteric bud.
Though the collecting duct is normally impermeable to water, it becomes permeable in the presence of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH affects the function of aquaporins, resulting in the reabsorption of water molecules as it passes through the collecting duct. Aquaporins are membrane proteins that selectively conduct water molecules while preventing the passage of ions and other solutes. As much as three-quarters of the water from urine can be reabsorbed as it leaves the collecting duct by osmosis. Thus the levels of ADH determine whether urine will be concentrated or diluted. An increase in ADH is an indication of dehydration, while water sufficiency results in a decrease in ADH allowing for diluted urine.
Lower portions of the collecting organ are also permeable to urea, allowing some of it to enter the medulla, thus maintaining its high concentration (which is very important for the nephron).
Urine leaves the medullary collecting ducts through the renal papillae, emptying into the renal calyces, the renal pelvis, and finally into the urinary bladder via the ureter.
Juxtaglomerular apparatus.
The juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) is a specialized region associated with the nephron, but separate from it. It produces and secretes into the circulation the enzyme renin (angiotensinogenase), which cleaves angiotensinogen and results in the ten amino acid substance angiotensin-1 (A-1). A-1 is then converted to angiotensin-2, a potent vasoconstrictor, by removing two amino acids: this is accomplished by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). This sequence of events is referred to as the renin–angiotensin system (RAS) or renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). The JGA is located between the thick ascending limb and the afferent arteriole. It contains three components: the macula densa, juxtaglomerular cells, and extraglomerular mesangial cells.
Clinical significance.
Diseases of the nephron predominantly affect either the glomeruli or the tubules. Glomerular diseases include diabetic nephropathy, glomerulonephritis and IgA nephropathy; renal tubular diseases include acute tubular necrosis, renal tubular acidosis, and polycystic kidney disease.


Orbital process of palatine bone

The orbital process of the palatine bone is placed on a higher level than the sphenoidal, and is directed upward and lateralward from the front of the vertical part, to which it is connected by a constricted neck. It presents five surfaces, which enclose an air cell. Of these surfaces, three are articular and two non-articular.
The articular surfaces are:
In some cases the air cell opens on this surface of the bone and then communicates with the posterior ethmoidal cells. More rarely it opens on both surfaces, and then communicates with the posterior ethmoidal cells and the sphenoidal sinus.
The non-articular surfaces are:


Cricoid cartilage

The cricoid cartilage , or simply cricoid (from the Greek "krikoeides" meaning "ring-shaped") or cricoid ring, is the only complete ring of cartilage around the trachea. It forms the back part of the voice box and functions as an attachment site for muscles, cartilages, and ligaments involved in opening and closing the airway and in producing speech.
Structure.
The cricoid cartilage sits just inferior to the thyroid cartilage in the neck, at the level of the C6 vertebra, and is joined to it medially by the median cricothyroid ligament and postero-laterally by the cricothyroid joints. Inferior to it are the rings of cartilage around the trachea (which are not continuous – rather they are C-shaped with a gap posteriorly). The cricoid is joined to the first tracheal ring by the cricotracheal ligament, and this can be felt as a more yielding area between the firm thyroid cartilage and firmer cricoid.
It is also anatomically related to the thyroid gland; although the thyroid isthmus is inferior to it, the two lobes of the thyroid extend superiorly on each side of the cricoid as far as the thyroid cartilage above it.
The posterior part of the cricoid is slightly broader than the anterior and lateral parts, and is called the lamina, while the anterior part is the band; this may be the reason for the common comparison made between the cricoid and a signet ring. The slender ventral half, and the most caudal of the palpable laryngeal landmarks, is also referred to as the anterior cricoid arch.
Composition.
It is made of hyaline cartilage, and so can become calcified or even ossified, particularly in old age.
Function.
The function of the cricoid cartilage is to provide attachments for the cricothyroid muscle, posterior cricoarytenoid muscle and lateral cricoarytenoid muscle muscles, cartilages, and ligaments involved in opening and closing the airway and in speech production.
Clinical significance.
When intubating a patient under general anesthesia prior to surgery, the anesthesiologist will press on the cricoid cartilage to compress the esophagus behind it so as to prevent gastric reflux from occurring: this is known as the Sellick manoeuvre. The Sellick Manoeuvre is typically only applied during a Rapid Sequence Induction (RSI), an induction technique reserved for those at high risk of aspiration.
The Sellick maneuver was considered the standard of care during rapid sequence induction for many years. The American Heart Association still advocates the use of cricoid pressure during resuscitation using a BVM, and during emergent oral endotracheal intubation. However, recent research increasingly suggests that cricoid pressure may not be as advantageous as once thought. The initial article by Sellick was based on a small sample size at a time when high tidal volumes, head-down positioning, and barbiturate anesthesia were the rule.
Cricoid pressure may frequently be applied incorrectly. Cricoid pressure may frequently displace the esophagus laterally, instead of compressing it as described by Sellick. Several studies demonstrate some degree of glottic compression reduction in tidal volume and increase in peak pressures. Based on the current literature, the widespread recommendation that cricoid pressure be applied during every rapid sequence intubation is quickly falling out of favor.
Gastric reflux could cause aspiration if this is not done considering the general anesthesia can cause relaxation of the gastroesophageal sphincter allowing stomach contents to ascend through the esophagus into the trachea.
A medical procedure known as a cricoidectomy can be performed in which part or all of the cricoid cartilage is removed. This is commonly done to relieve blockages within the trachea.
Fractures of the cricoid cartilage can be seen after manual strangulation also known as throttling.


Bootstrapping (biology)

The idea of bootstrapping is significant in a number of fields in the biological sciences. The process by which a fertilised ovum develops into an embryo, particularly the way in which the nuclear genome is expressed differently in its various cells as these differentiate, is one example of bootstrapping. The evolution of progressively better adapted organs through natural selection in a lineage of organisms is another.
Some biologists, including Graham Cairns-Smith, believe that the origin of life itself may have been a bootstrap process as one or more systems of biological information storage formed the foundation for successor systems that ultimately supplanted them culminating in the emergence of our current DNA-based system.


Greater palatine artery

The greater palatine artery is a branch of the descending palatine artery (a terminal branch of the maxillary artery) and contributes to the blood supply of the hard palate and nasal septum.
Course.
The descending palatine artery branches off of the maxillary artery in the pterygopalatine fossa and descends through the greater palatine canal along with the greater palatine nerve (from the pterygopalatine ganglion). Once emerging from the greater palatine foramen, it changes names to the greater palatine artery and begins to supply the hard palate. As it terminates it travels through the incisive canal to anastomose with the sphenopalatine artery to supply the nasal septum.


Presacral fascia

The presacral fascia lines the anterior aspect of the sacrum, enclosing the sacral vessels and nerves. It continues anteriorly as the pelvic parietal fascia, covering the entire pelvic cavity.
The presacral fascia is limited postero-inferiorly, as it fuses with the mesorectal fascia, lying above the levator ani muscle, at the level of the anorectal junction. These two fascias have been erroneously confused, though they are in fact, separate anatomical entities. The colloquial term, among colo-rectal surgeons, for this inter-fascial plane, is known as the holy plane of dissection first coined by Bill Heald. During rectal surgery and mesorectum excision, dissection along the avascular alveolar plane between these two fascias, facilitates a straightforward dissection and preserves the sacral vessels and hypogastric nerves.
Waldeyer's fascia (a.k.a. rectosacral fascia) originates from the presacral parietal fascia at the S2 to S4 level fusing with the rectal visceral fascia at the posterior aspect of the rectum. Waldeyer's fascia divides the retrorectal space into a superior and inferior compartments.
Identification and preservation of the presacral fascia is of fundamental importance in preventing complications and reducing local recurrences of rectal cancer. Hence attention to this anatomy is essential in contemporary rectal surgery.
History.
The mesorectal fascia, also known as the fascia propria or the pelvic visceral fascia, has been originally described as the fascia recti in Waldeyer's publication, Das Becken. Fascia recti is also a term commonly used among French surgeons to describe the mesorectal fascia. Confusingly, fascia recti is described in some anatomy books, referring to the fascia of the rectus abdominis muscle.


Inanidrilus fijiensis

Inanidrilus fijiensis is a species of annelid worm.


Stanley Smyth Flower

Major Stanley Smyth Flower FLS FZS (1 August 1871 – 3 February 1946) was an English army officer, science advisor, administrator, zoologist and conservationist.
Early years.
Second son of Sir William Henry Flower FRS and his wife Georgiana Rosetta, daughter of Admiral William Henry Smyth FRS, he was born on 1 August 1871 in the Hunterian Museum at the Royal College of Surgeons of which his father was then Curator, and was baptised in St Cross Church, Oxford on 3 September 1871. Among his first cousins were Sir Archibald Dennis Flower, head of the family brewery, the soldier Nevill Smyth VC, and Robert Baden-Powell, founder of the Boy Scout movement. Taking an early interest in natural history, from the age of eleven he regularly went to meetings of the Zoological Society of London with his father. After attending Wellington College, Berkshire, he studied at King's College London and joined the Artists' Rifles. In 1890 he joined the Northumberland Fusiliers, where he received a regular commission as second lieutenant on 23 April 1893, and was promoted to lieutenant on 19 December 1893. With his regiment he went to India and the Straits Settlements, where he studied the fauna.
Scientific career.
In 1896 the government of Siam was looking for a scientific advisor to manage the collections in the Royal Museum and he was awarded the post. Given leave by the British Army, he married his fiancée and the two set off for Bangkok. While there, they were able to make several trips in Siam and the Malay Peninsula to study the vertebrate fauna. A snake he collected there was named "Typhlops floweri" after him by George Albert Boulenger.
In 1898 the government of Egypt under Lord Cromer wanted to appoint a Director of the Zoological Gardens at Giza and he gained the post, which he held until his retirement. While still on leave from his regiment, he was promoted captain on 17 March 1900.
In 1913 Field-Marshal Lord Kitchener sent him to India to report on the collections of wild animals held in captivity there. In a letter from Egypt that year, Rudyard Kipling wrote that Flower was "one of the most interesting men I have ever met".
While in Egypt, he organised the Zoological Museum in a building in Giza Zoo, started the Fish Garden with aquarium on Gezira Island, and was appointed Ranger of Central Africa. As well as establishing and enforcing game laws in Egypt and Sudan, he was active both in identification of unknown species and conservation of known species at risk. To him is ascribed the preservation of the egret, threatened with extinction for its plumes, that was protected by law in Egypt from 1912.
First World War and aftermath.
Recalled to the British Army on 5 November 1914, his knowledge of Egypt and its animals was used to set up and run the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps, a logistical unit which carried much of the supplies needed by the British Empire forces fighting the Ottoman Empire in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign.
Once the Turks were beaten at the end of 1918, the Egyptians rose against British rule in the Egyptian Revolution of 1919. Acting as Inspector of the Interior and as Political Officer, he maintained order in Giza and for his role in this conflict was appointed an OBE.
Later years.
In April 1924, his health impaired, he resigned his post and with his wife returned to England to settle near Tring, where he could pursue his studies at the Walter Rothschild Zoological Museum. During his retirement, he visited many zoos around the world and wrote many papers on mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes and amphibians of Egypt as well as on animal longevity. He was vice-president of the Zoological Society of London from 1927 to 1929 and chair of the British Ornithologists' Club from 1930 to 1933.
Family.
On 30 September 1896 at Worplesdon in Surrey he married Sibylla Maria Peckham Wallace, known as Sybil (1876–1938), the elder daughter of Charles William Napier Wallace (1849–1910), a grandson of General Peter Margetson Wallace, and his first wife Frances Henrietta Peckham (1847–1893), a granddaughter of Bishop Robert James Carr.
They had four children -
After the death of his first wife, on 4 May 1939 he married Charlotte Dorothea Rose Stewart (1889–1981). He died at Tring on 3 February 1946, was buried in the town cemetery, and his will was proved at Oxford on 6 June 1946.


Henry Augustus Pilsbry

Henry Augustus Pilsbry (7 December 1862 – 26 October 1957) was an American biologist, malacologist and carcinologist, among other areas of study. He was a dominant presence in many fields of invertebrate taxonomy for the better part of a century. For much of his career, his authority with respect to the classification of certain substantial groups of organisms was unchallenged: barnacles, chitons, North American terrestrial mollusks, and others.
Biography.
Pilsbry (frequently misspelled "Pilsbury") spent his childhood and youth in Iowa. He was called "Harry" Pilsbry then, and developed an early fascination with the limited variety of mollusks he was able to find. He attended the University of Iowa, and received the Bachelor of Science degree there in 1882, but did not immediately find employment in his field of interest. Instead, Henry Pilsbry worked for publishing firms and newspapers for the next several years, but devoted most of his spare time to the study of mollusks.
In 1887, he found employment in New York City as a proofreader, but soon met George Washington Tryon, the resident expert on mollusks at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and architect and author of the ongoing multi-volume "Manual of Concology". This meeting led, within a few months, to Tryon's hiring Pilsbry as an assistant. He was, no doubt, impressed by the young man's talents as a proofreader, considerable expertise in technical illustration, and especially by his undeniable enthusiasm for the study of mollusks and substantial knowledge of the subject.
Less than three months after Pilsbry began his new job, George Tryon died and his new assistant, only 25 years old, perhaps to the surprise of some, inherited the titles of "Conservator of the Conchology Section" and "Editor" of the "Manual of Conchology".
Pilsbry soon proved capable of prodigious efforts, and his scientific output was remarkable. During the next five years he produced hundreds of detailed pages of the "Manual of Conchology", preparing many of the plates himself, and founded "The Nautilus", an influential journal of malacology which has survived into the 21st century. He also married during this period, to Adeline Avery. His college, the University of Iowa, honored him with a Doctor of Science degree in 1899 (and he later received two other honorary doctorates: University of Pennsylvania, 1940, and Temple University, 1941). In 1929 he participated in the Pinchot South Sea Expedition. Pilsbry was the first president of the American Malacological Union (Society) founded in 1931.
For almost all of the next 57 years of his long life, Henry Pilsbry spent his hours writing scientific papers, over 3,000 of them, mostly while at the Academy of Natural Sciences. Most of his longest papers were published by the Academy. The shorter ones could usually be found in "The Nautilus". The large majority of his work carried only his name, although there were sometimes joint or junior authors, some of whom were more patron than scientist. It is notable that Pilsbry did not always confine himself to the several areas of study with which he was already closely associated, but rather would sometimes stray into other fields of science, from geology and paleontology to the taxonomy of brachiopods.
His field work provided a steady supply of new specimens for study, dissection, and illustration, and a seemingly endless array of new species to name. Pilsbry named 5680 organisms; a full list was published in a 218-page volume. Pilsbry performed extensive amounts of field work, and was clearly an expert in dealing with the outdoors, no matter the conditions. He collected mollusks over virtually the entire United States, and in an atlas of countries: Argentina, Australia, Bahamas, Cocos Islands, Cuba, Galapagos Islands, Guatemala, Marquesas Islands, Mexico, Panama, Peru, and other locations as well. His intellectual reach extended even further, through joint efforts with other workers: especially notably Africa with Joseph Bequaert and the Japanese region with Yoichiro Hirase.
Pilsbry suffered a heart attack in late 1957 while working at the Philadelphia Academy. He seemed to recover from this serious occurrence, but died at his winter home in Florida, about a month and a half later, from a similar event.
Henry Augustus Pilsbry is buried in Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania, at St. Asaph's Church.
Tribute.
A species of Cuban dwarf boa, "Tropidophis pilsbryi", is named in his honor.
Bibliography.
Manual of Conchology.
Pilsbry was an assistant was of George Washington Tryon for two years, from 1887 to 1888. After Tryon's death in 1888, Pilsbry became an editor of an ongoing multi-volume "Manual of Conchology". He is credited (at title page) in "Manual of Conchology" since volume 12 from 1890.


Peritenon

Peritenon (from "peri-": around, "tenon": tendon) is the connective tissue sheath surrounding a tendon. Inflammation of a peritenon is called "peritendinitis" or "peritenonitis". Although Achilles tendon has no synovial sheath, it has a peritenon instead which has the same function.
Structure.
It consists of 3 layers: parietal, visceral and mesotenon in between.
Function.
Peritenon provides vascular supply for Achilles tendon along with vessels from musculotendinous junction proximally, the periosteum distally. There is a relatively avascular zone located 2–6 cm proximal to its insertion that is named "watershed area of the tendo Achilles". The watershed area's blood supply is mainly from the peritenon, specifically vessels in the mesotenon anteriorly.


Stratified columnar epithelium

Stratified columnar epithelium is a rare type of epithelial tissue composed of column-shaped cells arranged in multiple layers. It is found in the conjunctiva, pharynx, anus, and male urethra.
Location.
Stratified columnar epithelia are found in a variety of locations, including:
Embryology.
Stratified columnar epithelium is initially present in parts of the gastrointestinal tract in utero, before being replaced with other types of epithelium. For example, by 8 weeks, it covers the lining of the stomach. By 17 weeks, it is replaced by simple columnar epithelium. This is also found in the fetal esophagus.
Function.
The cells function in secretion and protection.


Carnegie stages

In embryology, Carnegie stages are a standardized system of 23 stages used to provide a unified developmental chronology of the vertebrate embryo.
The stages are delineated through the development of structures, not by size or the number of days of development, and so the chronology can vary between species, and to a certain extent between embryos. In the human being only the first 60 days of development are covered; at that point the term embryo is usually replaced with the term fetus.
It was based on work by Streeter (1942) and O'Rahilly and Müller (1987). The name "Carnegie stages" comes from the Carnegie Institution of Washington.
While the Carnegie stages provide a universal system for staging and comparing the embryonic development of most vertebrates, other systems are occasionally used for the common model organisms in developmental biology, such as the Hamburger–Hamilton stages in the chick.
Stages.
Days are approximate, and reflect the days since the last ovulation before pregnancy ("Postovulatory age").
Stage 1: 1 days.
Carnegie stage 1 is the unicellular embryo. This stage is divided into three substages.
Stage 1 a.
Primordial embryo. All the genetic material necessary for a new individual, along with some redundant chromosomes, are present within a single plasmalemma. Penetration of the fertilising sperm allows the oocyte to resume meiosis and the polar body is extruded.
Stage 1 b.
Pronuclear embryo. Two separate haploid components are present - the maternal and paternal pronuclei. The pronunclei move towards each other and eventually compress their envelopes where they lie adjacent near the centre of the wall.
Stage 1 c.
Syngamic embryo. The last phase of fertilisation. The pronuclear envelopes disappear and the parental chromosomes come together in a process called syngamy.
Stage 2: 2-3 days.
Carnegie stage 2 begins when the zygote undergoes its first cell division, and ends when the blastocyst forms a cavity and comprises more than 16 cells. At this point, it is called a morula.
The cleavage divisions of CS2 embryos do not occur synchronously. And the fate of the blastomeres is not yet determined.
The two-cell embryo is spherical and surrounded by the transparent zona pellucida. Each of the blastomeres that form are also spherical.
On approximately day 3, at the eight-cell stage, compaction usually begins.
Stage 3: 4-5 days.
Carnegie stage 3 begins when a cavity first appears in the morula and ends after the hatching from the zona pellucida when the embryo makes contact with the endometrial lining of the uterus.
There are only two stage 3 embryos in the Carnegie collection.
There are four characteristic processes that CS3 embryos go through: cavitation, collapse and expansion, hatching, and discarding of cells.
Cavitation.
The initiation of cavitation indicates the start of CS3. This process leads to the differentiation of blastocysts into outer trophoblast cells and inner embryoblasts.
Collapse and expansion.
This process is seen in vitro and it is not known whether this occurs in vivo. In vitro, the blastocyst rapidly collapses and slowly re-expands before hatching from the zona pellucida.
Hatching.
During this process, the blastocyst breaks through and escapes from the zona pellucida. This process must occur prior to implantation into the endometrium.
Discarding of cells.
TEM inspection of in vitro blastocysts has allowed us to identify two types of cells that the developing embryo apparently discards. These are sequestered cells and isolated cells. Sequestered cells are groups of cells that are located in between the zona pellucida and the trophoblast. Isolated cells are mainly found in the blastocystic cavity.


Robert Ridgway

Robert Ridgway (July 2, 1850 – March 25, 1929) was an American ornithologist specializing in systematics. He was appointed in 1880 by Spencer Fullerton Baird, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, to be the first full-time curator of birds at the United States National Museum, a title he held until his death. In 1883, he helped found the American Ornithologists' Union, where he served as officer and journal editor. Ridgway was an outstanding descriptive taxonomist, capping his life work with "The Birds of North and Middle America" (eight volumes, 1901–1919). In his lifetime, he was unmatched in the number of North American bird species that he described for science. As technical illustrator, Ridgway used his own paintings and outline drawings to complement his writing. He also published two books that systematized color names for describing birds, "A Nomenclature of Colors for Naturalists" (1886) and "Color Standards and Color Nomenclature" (1912). Ornithologists all over the world continue to cite Ridgway's color studies and books.
Biography.
Early life and family.
Ridgway was born in Mount Carmel, Illinois to David and Henrietta (née Reed) Ridgway. He was the oldest of ten children. He was educated at common schools in his native town, where he showed a special fondness for natural history. This interest to explore nature, both shooting with a gun given to him by his father, as well as drawing from life, was encouraged by his parents, his uncle William, and his aunt Fannie Gunn.
In 1871 he met Julia Evelyn Perkins, the daughter of one of the engravers for "The History of North American Birds." Ridgway's courtship of the girl who became known as "Evvie" lasted until she reached the age of eighteen, and they were married on October 12, 1875.
Ornithological training and the King expedition.
In 1864, at the age of thirteen, the young Ridgway wrote to the Commissioner of Patents, seeking advice on the identification of a bird he had seen. He enclosed a full-sized color drawing of what turned out to be a pair of purple finches. His letter eventually was referred to Spencer Fullerton Baird of the Smithsonian Institution. Baird replied, identifying the bird and praising the boy's artistic abilities, yet cautioning him to learn and use the scientific names of birds in further correspondence.
The mentor and protégé continued their exchange of letters, which led to Ridgway's appointment, in the spring of 1867, as the naturalist on Clarence King's Survey of the 40th Parallel. After a brief, intensive stint of training in Washington, where he learned to prepare study skins, Ridgway joined the expedition in May. Starting from Sacramento, California, the team explored parts of Nevada, Utah Territory, and Idaho Territory. A highlight of the trip was a stop at Nevada's Pyramid Lake. In the fall of 1868, the members of the team were reduced for funding reasons, but Ridgway returned in 1869 for more work in Utah. In an undertaking that lasted nearly two years, Ridgway collected 1,522 bird-related specimens (753 nests and eggs and 769 skins) and served as a key member on one of the four great surveys of the American West. He observed 262 species, most of these on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada. He had written most of his portion of King's report by 1872, but the "Ornithology" section was not published until 1877.
The Washington years.
Upon his return to Washington, Ridgway illustrated and wrote for Baird and Thomas M. Brewer's "History of North American Birds" project. He formally joined the Smithsonian in 1874, under the supervision of curator George Brown Goode. In 1880 he received the job title of curator (variously, of ornithology or of the department of birds); he was titled Curator of Birds from 1886 until his death. Working with the institution's collection of approximately fifty thousand bird skins, Ridgway devoted himself to unraveling the taxonomic relationships among North American bird species. As well, he continued his field work to collect new specimens, making several trips to his home state of Illinois, Florida, other states of the U.S., and Costa Rica. The Smithsonian exchanged study skins with other museums, either by donation or loan, and provided material and publications to collectors such as José Castulo Zeledón of the Costa Rican National Museum in exchange for specimens.
Ridgway was articulate and literate, and served as the Smithsonian's mouthpiece and representative for many years in the study of birds. He welcomed visits to the museum from colleagues and the general public alike, and would give tours. One of his responsibilities involved assembling public exhibits. In the interest of accessibility, he made books available for browsing and displayed examples of birds described in popular natural histories. As well, he showed birds from well-known poetry, species like the nightingale that are not found in North America. Returning the favor that Baird had paid him, he responded to letters from the public to identify birds and provided artist's materials to a painter in California. Nevertheless, friends and colleagues described him as almost painfully shy, and he generally shirked publicity and the limelight.
Among Ridgway's colleagues at the Smithsonian were Pierre Louis Jouy, who provided an important collection of Asian birds in 1883. Charles Wallace Richmond joined the institution in 1893 (at first, as a night watchman) and was soon tasked by Ridgway with writing reviews and other short pieces. During Samuel Pierpont Langley's tenure as Secretary, Ridgway assisted Langley's aviation research. He provided calculations of the wing loading and other aerodynamic characteristics of species like the wandering albatross, turkey vulture, and other soaring birds.
In 1883, Robert Ridgway was a founding member of the American Ornithologists' Union (AOU) and he became an associate editor of the organization's journal "The Auk". He was prevailed upon to serve as an officer of the organization, but on the condition that he not be required to preside at public meetings. He served as a vice president of the AOU (September 1883 – November 1891) and as its president (November 1898 – November 1900).
As scientific knowledge expanded quickly in the second half of the nineteenth century, the need for reorganizing the system of names used to describe North American birds grew commensurately. For example, certain names assigned by William Bartram in his catalog of 1791 were now deemed unusable. Robert Ridgway addressed this need with two publications in 1880 and 1881, while Elliott Coues published a competing checklist in 1882. Ridgway and Coues, along with Joel Asaph Allen, William Brewster, and Henry W. Henshaw, came together as a committee on nomenclature and classification, serving the newly founded AOU, to reconcile the various systems and catalogs. In 1886, the committee released "The Code of Nomenclature and Check-List of North American Birds", both a consistent checklist and a set of rules for the naming of birds to be described in the future. The Code settled the disagreement about capitalization of species names and established today's order of presentation, with waterbirds first and passerines last. Several of the handbook's innovations were adopted by other branches of zoology, and were incorporated into the 1905 version of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.
The committee's work served to standardize the way that birds are described, identifying them at the subspecies level and using a three-part trinomial name. While American ornithologists embraced the descriptive detail, European researchers of the time were reluctant to adopt it. Ridgway was an enthusiastic supporter of trinomial nomenclature, although his thinking in later life became more moderate.
Other affiliations.
Robert Ridgway was corresponding member of the Zoological Society of London; was associated with the Davenport (Iowa) Academy of Natural Sciences, the New York Academy of Sciences, the Brookville, Indiana, Society of Natural History, and the Chicago Academy of Sciences; and was a foreign member of the British Ornithologists' Union. He was a member of the permanent ornithological committee of the first international congress at Vienna in 1884. Ridgway was also honorary member of the Nuttall Ornithological Club of Cambridge, Massachusetts, for which he contributed illustrations and 48 articles to its "Bulletin".
The short-lived Ridgway Ornithological Club of Chicago, Illinois (active from 1883 to about 1890) was named in Ridgway's honor, and he was an honorary member.
Although he lacked formal post-secondary education, Ridgway received an honorary master's degree in science from Indiana University in 1884, as a sign of gratitude for his supplying them with bird specimens after their museum burned down. He was listed with the title of Professor in Smithsonian annual reports and staff directories, despite his lack of a teaching appointment. He is sometimes referred to as "Dr. Ridgway," particularly by writers from his home state of Illinois. Ella Dean's profile is an example.
The Harriman expedition.
In 1899, Robert Ridgway joined E. H. Harriman on his famous Harriman Alaska Expedition. John Muir, Louis Agassiz Fuertes, John Burroughs, Edward S. Curtis, and a number of other scientists and artists made a four-month expedition to study the flora and fauna of Alaska's coastline. However, the trip did not yield significant publications by Ridgway.
Other family members.
Robert and Julia Ridgway had one son, Audubon Whelock Ridgway (May 15, 1877 – February 22, 1901). "Audie" had begun a promising career in ornithology at the Field Museum of Natural History when his life was cut short by a fatal bout of pneumonia.
Robert Ridgway's second-born brother, John Livzey Ridgway (February 28, 1859 – December 27, 1947), was a nationally prominent bird illustrator who worked for many years at the United States Geological Survey, as well as the Smithsonian, the California Institute of Technology, and the Los Angeles County Museum of History, Science, and Art. The two brothers often collaborated on illustrations, sometimes with Robert doing the drawing and John the coloring.
Later life and death.
In early June 1913, Robert Ridgway and his wife Julia ("Evvie") moved to Olney, Illinois, to reduce physical and mental stress so that he might complete "The Birds of North and Middle America", of which five of eight parts had already appeared. They built a new house on that they had purchased in 1906, and named the place Larchmound for two large larch trees growing on the property. Ridgway also acquired a tract of located in the country, to be called Bird Haven, which he developed as a private nature reserve for birds and as a nursery for cultivation of non-native plants. His skill in landscaping and tending to the grounds was such that his expertise in that area was in some demand. Bird Haven, in part, is now an Olney city park.
Evvie's death on May 24, 1927 was a severe blow to Robert. Robert continued to live at Larchmound, tending to his beloved trees and shrubs, until his death on March 25, 1929, at the age of 78. Robert was buried at Bird Haven where Julia's ashes had been scattered.
Works.
Robert Ridgway's first publication, at the age of 18, was an article about the belted kingfisher. In the course of the next 60 years, he would go on to publish more than 500 titles and 13,000 printed pages, most of it concerning North American birds.
Ridgway collaborated with Brewer and Baird on the five-volume "History of North American Birds" (three volumes on the land birds published in 1874, and two volumes published as "The Water Birds of North America" in 1884). In its time, the work was considered the standard work on North American ornithology. While Ridgway primarily contributed illustrations to the land bird volumes, he wrote the bulk of the water bird volumes.
Ridgway provided full-color illustrations for his own books and those of others. He was at the peak of his artistic proficiency in the late 1870s. Even though certain of his contemporaries (for instance, Daniel Giraud Elliot) may have produced more artistically pleasing renderings, Ridgway's were the most accurate. In the words of his biographer Daniel Lewis, Ridgway "may have had the best grasp of bird coloration in the country."
With the publication of "A Manual of North American Birds" in 1887, Robert Ridgway condensed what was known about the continent's birds into a relatively compact 642 pages and 464 outline drawings. A prototype of today's field guides, it was quite successful, going into a second edition in 1896, and was described by Montague Chamberlain as "far away the best thing we have for the working naturalist." Nevertheless, its bulk was unwieldy for use in the field, and its identification keys depended on characteristics of the bird in the hand, not field marks. Harry Oberholser characterized the quality of the illustrations as "rarely equaled, never excelled" in beauty and accuracy.
With Stephen Alfred Forbes, he wrote a two-volume work, "The Ornithology of Illinois". Ridgway's contributions were published in two parts, in 1889 and 1895. Ridgway also published a number of papers dealing with the woody plants of his region. He contributed twenty short pieces to "Forest and Stream", a magazine edited by George Bird Grinnell.
The color books.
Robert Ridgway published two books whose goal was to standardize the names of colors used by ornithologists to describe birds. The first, "A Nomenclature of Colors for Naturalists," appeared in 1886, and was relatively small in scope, illustrating 186 colors. It proposed a simple classification system, doing away with many subjective and evocative names that were currently popular.
Ridgway sought to improve and expand upon this work. By 1898, he was in discussions with Secretary Langley about a new, expanded dictionary of color, to be published by (or at least supported by) the Smithsonian. An advisory committee was formed, with scientific illustrator William Henry Holmes as chairman and Richard Rathbun (newly appointed assistant secretary) as one of its five members. Children's game inventor Milton Bradley, who had devised a color wheel for instructional use, was consulted by the project. Langley thought it important that the work include spectral information about the colors to be cataloged, and he proposed physicist and color theorist Ogden Rood as a co-editor of the work. In 1901, however, the tension between the committee's broad vision of commercial applications for the project and Ridgway's narrow objective of a naturalist's reference book ended the Ridgway-Smithsonian collaboration in the endeavor.
Ridgway published "Color Standards and Color Nomenclature" himself in 1912, financed in part by a loan from his friend and colleague Zeledón. The work became a standard reference used by ornithologists for decades after Ridgway's death, as well as specialists in such wide-ranging fields as mycology, philately, and food coloring. The book named 1,115 colors, illustrated with painted samples reproduced on 53 plates. Special care was taken to ensure consistency of color reproduction across the edition, as well as the prevention of fading. The color samples were printed as large sheets by A. Hoen & Co., cut into swatches one inch by one-and-one-half inches, and pasted into each bound book.
In the book's foreword, Ridgway acknowledged the assistance of many, among them his brother John, Zeledón, and ornithologist John Thayer. With more than a thousand colors to be named, Ridgway devised some of his own imaginative identifiers (such as Dragons-blood Red and Pleroma Blue). He also paid tribute to colleagues, including Rood (with colors like Rood's Lavender), Bradley (Bradley's Blue), field guide pioneer Frank Chapman, watercolorist Samuel Prout, and others.
Descriptions of new forms.
A significant proportion of Ridgway's output consisted of formal scientific descriptions of new forms of birds (new genera, species, and subspecies), many of them native to Central and South America. Many of these papers were short reports dealing with a single taxon, but he also would describe tens of new forms in a single publication, as in a paper describing 22 species from the Galápagos Islands or his "Manual of North American Birds" (four new genera, 39 new species and subspecies). As subsequent research has revised the taxonomy of birds, not all of the forms that Ridgway described remain recognized as distinct, but his contributions are still substantial. During his lifetime, no other ornithologist described more new taxa of American birds than Ridgway.
While most of the forms described and named by Ridgway came from outside the United States, in one instance he identified a new taxon first collected no earlier than 1881, in the Catskill Mountains of New York, an area already well-explored by ornithologists. From two specimens collected by Eugene Bicknell, Ridgway wrote the description of Bicknell's thrush as a subspecies of gray-cheeked thrush, naming it for Bicknell. The bird, a breeder of New England and southern Canada, has since been recognized as a distinct species.
From specimens collected in 1888, Ridgway was the first to describe hood mockingbird, Española cactus finch, "Geospiza conirostris", and medium tree finch, all endemic to the Galápagos. The latter two are members of the so-called Darwin's finch group of tanagers, significant for their impact on Charles Darwin's reasoning about evolution and the emergence of new species.
"The Birds of North and Middle America".
Robert Ridgway's career-crowning work, on bird systematics, was the monumental 6,000-page "The Birds of North and Middle America," published by the Smithsonian in eleven volumes between 1901 and 1950. He began the work in 1894 at the direction of Goode. A major objective of the work was to resolve problems of naming and classification in the scientific literature of the time and to identify synonyms. Dry, rigorous, and technically detailed in its language, the book was not considered to be accessible by the general reading public. Continuing the pattern of the "Manual" (and Baird's earlier "Review of American Birds"), each volume featured an appendix of engraved outline drawings of generic characteristics.
Ridgway published the eighth installment of the work, commonly known as "Bulletin 50," in 1919. Although he continued to work on the project, outlining a projected two more volumes, it was incomplete at the time of his death in 1929. Following Ridgway's plan but doing his own writing, Herbert Friedmann of the Smithsonian completed the final three volumes.
"The Birds of North and Middle America" and "Color Standards and Color Nomenclature" are complementary works, and indeed Ridgway divided his time between the two projects in the first decade of the century. He used his own color terms extensively throughout "Bulletin 50".
Legacy and recognition.
Spencer Fullerton Baird and his followers emphasized precision of description, traceability through the literature, the accumulation of empirical evidence (that is, numerous specimens), and deductions drawn from facts — in opposition to the so-called "European school" of the time, which depended on personal authority. Harris calls Robert Ridgway and his "Birds of North and Middle America" the culmination of the "Bairdian school" of bird study. However, as ornithology around the turn of the twentieth century began to focus on bird behavior, reproduction strategies, and other aspects of the living organism, Ridgway fell behind the advances made by his colleagues of the succeeding generations. Paradoxically, because the overwhelming "Bulletin 50" was so authoritative, no new publication could replace it for many years. Accordingly, systematics declined in importance as a means to study birds.
Birds named for Ridgway include the buff-collared nightjar, "Caprimulgus ridgwayi" (once known as Ridgway's whip-poor-will); the turquoise cotinga, "Cotinga ridgwayi"; the Caribbean subspecies of the osprey, "Pandion haliaetus ridgwayi"; a Big Island subspecies of the elepaio, "Chasiempis sandwichensis ridgwayi"; Ridgway's hawk, "Buteo ridgwayi"; Ridgway's rail, "Rallus obsoletus"; and many other species and subspecies. The monotypic genus "Ridgwayia" is named for him; it consists of Aztec thrush, "R. pinicola".
In 1919, Ridgway was awarded the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal from the National Academy of Sciences for his "Birds of North and Middle America". The Academy elected him to membership in 1926. In 1921, he was the first to receive the AOU's William Brewster Memorial Award, which recognizes "an exceptional body of work on birds of the Western Hemisphere."
The American Birding Association has established the Robert Ridgway Award for Publications in Field Ornithology, which recognizes professional achievements in field ornithology literature.


Cystothalamia

Cystothalamia is an extinct genus of sea sponges in the family Guadalupiidae that existed during the Permian and Triassic in what is now Austria, Hungary, Slovenia, Tajikistan, Croatia, Iran, Italy, Russia, Thailand, Tunisia, the United States (New Mexico and Texas), and Venezuela. It was described by G.H. Girty in 1909, and the type species is "Cystothalamia nodulifera".


Helicoconchus

Helicoconchus is a microconchid genus that occurs in the Lower Permian of Texas. It forms small reef-like bodies of tubes branching from a common origin. The impunctate tubes are greatly elongated for microconchids and have occasional diaphragms with central pits. The tubes branch in two ways: budding from the tube wall and binary fission. They lived in shallow, normal marine environments.