Antler

Antlers are extensions of an animal's skull found in members of the deer family. Antlers are a single structure composed of bone, cartilage, fibrous tissue, skin, nerves, and blood vessels. They are generally found only on males, with the exception of the reindeer/caribou. Antlers are shed and regrown each year and function primarily as objects of sexual attraction and as weapons in fights between males for control of harems.
In contrast, horns, found on pronghorns and bovids such as sheep, goats, bison and cattle, are two-part structures. An interior of bone (also an extension of the skull) is covered by an exterior sheath made of keratin, the same material as human fingernails and toenails, grown by specialized hair follicles. Horns are never shed and continue to grow throughout the animal's life. The exception to this rule is the pronghorn which sheds and regrows its horn sheath each year.
Etymology.
Antler comes from the Old French "antoillier " (see present French : "Andouiller", from" ant-, "meaning before," oeil, "meaning eye and" -ier", a suffix indicating an action or state of being) possibly from some form of an unattested Latin word "*anteocularis", "before the eye" (and applied to the word for "branch" or "horn").
Structure and development.
Antlers are unique to cervids. The ancestors of deer had tusks (long upper canine teeth). In most species, antlers appear to replace tusks. However, one modern species (the water deer) has tusks and no antlers and the muntjac has small antlers and tusks. The musk deer, which are not true cervids, also bear tusks in place of antlers.
Antlers are usually found only on males. Only reindeer (known as caribou in North America) have antlers on the females, and these are normally smaller than those of the males. Nevertheless, fertile does from other species of deer have the capacity to produce antlers on occasion, usually due to increased testosterone levels. The "horns" of a pronghorn (which is not a cervid but a giraffoid) meet some of the criteria of antlers, but are not considered true antlers because they contain keratin.
Each antler grows from an attachment point on the skull called a pedicle. While an antler is growing, it is covered with highly vascular skin called velvet, which supplies oxygen and nutrients to the growing bone. Antlers are considered one of the most exaggerated cases of male secondary sexual traits in the animal kingdom, and grow faster than any other mammal bone. Growth occurs at the tip, and is initially cartilage, which is later replaced by bone tissue. Once the antler has achieved its full size, the velvet is lost and the antler's bone dies. This dead bone structure is the mature antler. In most cases, the bone at the base is destroyed by osteoclasts and the antlers fall off at some point. As a result of their fast growth rate, antlers are considered a handicap since there is an immense nutritional demand on deer to re-grow antlers annually, and thus can be honest signals of metabolic efficiency and food gathering capability.
In most arctic and temperate-zone species, antler growth and shedding is annual, and is controlled by the length of daylight. Although the antlers are regrown each year, their size varies with the age of the animal in many species, increasing annually over several years before reaching maximum size. In tropical species, antlers may be shed at any time of year, and in some species such as the sambar, antlers are shed at different times in the year depending on multiple factors. Some equatorial deer never shed their antlers. Antlers function as weapons in combats between males, which sometimes cause serious wounds, and as dominance and sexual displays.
Function.
Sexual selection.
The principal means of evolution of antlers is sexual selection, which operates via two mechanisms: male-to-male competition (behaviorally, physiologically) and female mate choice. Male-male competition can take place in two forms. First, they can compete behaviorally where males use their antlers as weapons to compete for access to mates; second, they can compete physiologically where males present their antlers to display their strength and fertility competitiveness to compete for access to mates. Males with the largest antlers are more likely to obtain mates and achieve the highest fertilization success due to their competitiveness, dominance and high phenotypic quality. Whether this is a result of male-male fighting or display, or of female choosiness differs depending on the species as the shape, size, and function of antlers vary between species.
Heritability and reproductive advantage.
There is evidence to support that antler size influences mate selection in the red deer, and has a heritable component. Despite this, a 30-year study showed no shift in the median size of antlers in a population of red deer. The lack of response could be explained by environmental covariance, meaning that lifetime breeding success is determined by an unmeasured trait which is phenotypically correlated with antler size but for which there is no genetic correlation of antler growth. Alternatively, the lack of response could be explained by the relationship between heterozygosity and antler size, which states that males heterozygous at multiple loci, including MHC loci, have larger antlers. The evolutionary response of traits that depend on heterozygosity is slower than traits that are dependent on additive genetic components and thus the evolutionary change is slower than expected. A third possibility is that the costs of having larger antlers (resource use, and mobility detriments, for instance) exert enough selective pressure to offset the benefit of attracting mates; thereby stabilizing antler size in the population.
Protection against predation.
If antlers functioned only in male–male competition for mates, the best evolutionary strategy would be to shed them immediately after the rutting season, both to free the male from a heavy encumbrance and to give him more time to regrow a larger new pair. Yet antlers are commonly retained through the winter and into the spring, suggesting that they have another use. Wolves in Yellowstone National Park are 3.6 times more likely to attack individual male elk without antlers, or groups of elk in which at least one male is without antlers. Half of all male elk killed by wolves lack antlers, at times in which only one quarter of all males have shed antlers. These findings suggest that antlers have a secondary function in deterring predation.
Snow shoveling for feeding.
Reindeer (genus Rangifer, whose sole member species "R. tarandus" comprises several distinctive subspecies of reindeer and caribou) use their antlers to clear away snow so they can eat the vegetation underneath. This is one possible reason that females of this species evolved antlers. Another possible reason is for female competition during winter foraging. Male and female reindeer antlers differ in several respects. Males shed their antlers prior to winter, while female antlers are retained throughout winter. Also, female antler size plateaus at the onset of puberty, around age three, while males' antler size increases during their lifetime. This likely reflects the differing life history strategies of the two sexes, where females are resource limited in their reproduction and cannot afford costly antlers, while male reproductive success depends on the size of their antlers because they are under directional sexual selection.
Antenna for hearing.
In moose, antlers may act as large hearing aids. Equipped with large, highly adjustable external ears, moose have highly sensitive hearing. Moose with antlers have more sensitive hearing than moose without, and a study of trophy antlers with an artificial ear confirmed that the large flattened (palmate) antler behaves like a parabolic reflector.
Diversification.
The diversification of antlers, body size and tusks has been strongly influenced by changes in habitat and behavior (fighting and mating).
Homology and evolution of tines.
Antlers originated once in the cervid lineage. The earliest fossil remains of antlers that have been found are dated to the early Miocene, about 17 million years ago. These early antlers were small and had just two forks. As antlers evolved, they lengthened and gained many branches, or tines, becoming more complex. The homology of tines has been discussed since the 1900’s and has provided great insight into the evolutionary history of the Cervidae family.
Recently, a new method to describe the branching structure of antlers was developed. It is by using antler grooves, which are formed on the surface of antlers by growth, projecting the branching structure on the burr circumference, and making diagrams. Comparing the positional order among species on the diagram, the tine on the same position is homologous. The study revealed that three-pointed structures of Capreolinae and Cervini are homoplasious, and their subclades gained synapomorphous tines.
Exploitation by other species.
Ecological role.
Discarded antlers represent a source of calcium, phosphorus and other minerals and are often gnawed upon by small animals, including squirrels, porcupines, rabbits and mice. This is more common among animals inhabiting regions where the soil is deficient in these minerals. Antlers shed in oak forest inhabited by squirrels are rapidly chewed to pieces by them.
Trophy hunting.
Antlered heads are prized as trophies with larger sets being more highly prized. The first organization to keep records of sizes was Rowland Ward Ltd., a London taxidermy firm, in the early 20th century. For a time only total length or spread was recorded. In the middle of the century, the Boone and Crockett Club and the Safari Club International developed complex scoring systems based on various dimensions and the number of tines or points, and they keep extensive records of high-scoring antlers. Deer bred for hunting on farms are selected based on the size of the antlers.
Hunters have developed terms for antler parts: beam, palm, brow, bez or bay, trez or tray, royal, and surroyal. These are the main shaft, flattened center, first tine, second tine, third tine, fourth tine, and fifth or higher tines, respectively. The second branch is also called an advancer.
In Yorkshire in the United Kingdom roe deer hunting is especially popular due to the large antlers produced there. This is due to the high levels of chalk in Yorkshire. The chalk is high in calcium which is ingested by the deer and helps growth in the antlers.
Shed antler hunting.
Gathering shed antlers or "sheds" attracts dedicated practitioners who refer to it colloquially as "shed hunting", or "bone picking". In the United States, the middle of December to the middle of February is considered shed hunting season, when deer, elk, and moose begin to shed. The North American Shed Hunting Club, founded in 1991, is an organization for those who take part in this activity.
In the United States in 2017 sheds fetch around US$10 per pound, with larger specimens in good condition attracting higher prices. The most desirable antlers have been found soon after being shed. The value is reduced if they have been damaged by weathering or being gnawed by small animals. A matched pair from the same animal is a very desirable find but often antlers are shed separately and may be separated by several miles. Some enthusiasts for shed hunting use trained dogs to assist them. Most hunters will follow 'game trails' (trails where deer frequently run) to find these sheds or they will build a shed trap to collect the loose antlers in the late winter/early spring.
In most US states, the possession of or trade in parts of game animals is subject to some degree of regulation, but the trade in antlers is widely permitted. In the national parks of Canada, the removal of shed antlers is an offense punishable by a maximum fine of C$25,000, as the Canadian government considers antlers to belong to the people of Canada and part of the ecosystems in which they are discarded.
Carving for decorative and tool uses.
Antler has been used through history as a material to make tools, weapons, ornaments, and toys. It was an especially important material in the European Late Paleolithic, used by the Magdalenian culture to make carvings and engraved designs on objects such as the so-called Bâton de commandements and the "Bison Licking Insect Bite". In the Viking Age and medieval period, it formed an important raw material in the craft of comb-making. In later periods, antler—used as a cheap substitute for ivory—was a material especially associated with equipment for hunting, such as saddles and horse harness, guns and daggers, powder flasks, as well as buttons and the like. The decorative display of wall-mounted pairs of antlers has been popular since medieval times at least.
The Netsilik Inuit people made bows and arrows using antler, reinforced with strands of animal tendons braided to form a cable-backed bow. Several American Indian tribes also used antler to make bows, gluing tendons to the bow instead of tying them as cables. An antler bow, made in the early 19th century, is on display at Brooklyn Museum. Its manufacture is attributed to the Yankton Sioux.
Through history large deer antler from a suitable species (e.g. red deer) were often cut down to its shaft and its lowest tine and used as a one-pointed pickax.
Ceremonial roles.
Antler headdresses were worn by shamans and other spiritual figures in various cultures, and for dances; 21 antler "frontlets" apparently for wearing on the head, and over 10,000 years old, have been excavated at the English Mesolithic site of Starr Carr. Antlers are still worn in traditional dances such as Yaqui deer dances and carried in the Abbots Bromley Horn Dance.
Dietary usage.
In the velvet antler stage, antlers of elk and deer have been used in Asia as a dietary supplement or alternative medicinal substance for more than 2,000 years. Recently, deer antler extract has become popular among Western athletes and body builders because the extract, with its trace amounts of IGF-1, is believed to help build and repair muscle tissue; however, one double-blind study did not find evidence of intended effects.
Elk, deer, and moose antlers have also become popular forms of dog chews that owners purchase for their pet canines.


Ooperipatellus viridimaculatus

Ooperipatellus viridimaculatus is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatopsidae family. It is found in the South Island of New Zealand.


Heterodactyla hemprichii

Heterodactyla hemprichii is a species of sea anemone in the family Thalassianthidae. This sea anemone does not host any varieties of clownfish, but has been associated with some species of commensal anemone shrimp. This is a medium to large species of anemone characterized by "bunches of grape-like nematospheres," radially arranged, and densest on the outermost edges of its oral disc.


Callyspongia plicifera

Callyspongia plicifera, the azure vase sponge, is a species of sea sponge belonging to the family Callyspongiidae. It is native to the Bahamas where it is found at a depth of 31.5-44.2 m. It was first described in 1814 by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.
Characteristics.
The azure vase sponge is a vase shaped demosponge that grow up to 27 cm in height and 13.5 cm in diameter. Its outer surface consists of 0.5–1 cm deep rounded pits and grooves while the inner surface is smooth with 1–5 mm scattered openings. The vent at the top is up to 6.5 cm in diameter and has a thin, transparent collar. They are pink to purple in colour and fluoresce light blue.


Collicular artery

The collicular artery or "quadrigeminal artery" arises from the posterior cerebral artery. This small artery supplies portions of the midbrain, especially the superior colliculus, inferior colliculus, and tectum.
Structure.
The collicular artery originates from P1 segment of the posterior cerebral artery near the side of interpeduncular fossa. It arises just distal to the bifurcation of the basilar artery. It runs posteriorly along the cerebral peduncle passing the crural and ambient cisterns. It then gives off branches to supply quadrigeminal plate and the adjacent structures in the midbrain. The origin of this artery is proximal to the origin of medial and lateral posterior choroidal branch of the posterior cerebral artery. The main collicular artery also gives branch to an accessory collicular artery.
Branches.
Anteromedial branches are rare but sometimes observed to contribute as part of the interpeduncular fossa's lateral rami of the intermediate pedicle. Anterolateral branches are abundant branching from both main and accessory collicular arteries. They only exist on the lower part of celebral crus.
These lateral branches are found near lateral part of celebral crus arising from both main and accessory collicular arteries.
These branches originate from the terminal branch of the collicular artery.
Function.
This small artery supplies the superior colliculus, inferior colliculus, and tectum of midbrain.


Arthur Stanley Hirst

Arthur Stanley Hirst (1883 – 4 May 1930) also known as Stanley Hirst, was an English arachnologist and myriapodologist on the staff of the British Museum, and was an authority on Arachnida, especially Acari (ticks and mites) Myriapoda.
Born in Hackney, where his father practiced medicine, he was educated at the Merchant Taylor's School, and studied zoology at the University College London. In October 1905 he was appointed as an assistant at the British Museum, where he at first worked on the mammal collection and shortly after was put in charge of the Arachnida and Myriapoda collections, succeeding Reginald Innes Pocock. With the abundant material he had at his disposal, he initially described new spiders, harvestmen, scorpions and millipedes, but soon worked mainly on mites and ticks. He also did some work on the spiders of Australia, the islands of the Indian Ocean, India and Africa. In 1927 ill health forced him to leave the museum and go to Australia and a drier climate, where he continued his Acari studies at the University of Adelaide. In April 1930, taking advantage of an improvement in his health, he set off to return to England, but died at sea before arriving in Colombo.


Pigmy Pouter

The Pigmy Pouter is a breed of fancy pigeon developed over many years of selective breeding. Pigmy Pouters, along with other varieties of domesticated pigeons, are all descendants from the rock pigeon ("Columba livia").
Noted British poultry breeder Sir John Sebright (who later bred the Sebright Bantam) is believed to have first bred the Pigmy Pouter, though the issue is debatable.
North American reception.
Although the pigmy pouter has been heralded as a bizarre creature and its popularity has not increased much from its introduction to North American society, it still has a dedicated fanbase gathered together by groups such as the American Pigmy Pouter Club and The Canadian Pouter and Cropper Combine. Its low popularity makes obtaining such a bird a difficult task in North America. However, dedicated breeders have been striving to increase the bird's popularity and make it the most prevalent show bird.


Richard L. Hoffman

Richard Lawrence Hoffman (September 25, 1927 – June 10, 2012) was an American zoologist known as an international expert on millipedes, and a leading authority on the natural history of Virginia and the Appalachian Mountains. He was a biology professor at Virginia's Radford College for almost thirty years, and curator of invertebrates at the Virginia Museum of Natural History for another twenty years. He co-founded the Virginia Natural History Society, described over 400 species of millipedes, and produced more than 480 scientific publications. He is commemorated in the scientific and/or common names of over 30 animal species, including the valley and ridge salamander ("Plethodon hoffmani") and Hoffman's dwarf centipede ("Nannarrup hoffmani").
Biography.
Richard Hoffman was born in Clifton Forge, Virginia, on September 25, 1927. His father was a railroad machinist whose parents had emigrated from Germany in the late 1800s, and his mother was from a Virginia farming family. Hoffman's scientific publications began at the age of 16, and by the age of 24 he had 29 publications. He attended the University of Virginia until 1950, where he was influenced by Horton H. Hobbs, Jr. a crustacean biologist and recently hired professor. Unable to complete a freshman math class, Hoffman did not complete a degree at Virginia. Rather, in 1951 he was accepted into graduate school at Cornell University, who accepted his publication record as equivalent to passing a math class. When not working in the field or at Cornell, Hoffman worked as a chemist at the Radford Arsenal. He completed his a M.S. in entomology in 1959, and went on to earn a PhD in Zoology from Virginia Tech in 1960, during which he revised the genus "Cambarincola", a group of leech-like oligochaete worms that are commensal on crayfish. His doctoral advisor at Virginia Tech was Dr. Perry C. Holt.
After completing his PhD, Hoffman worked as professor of biology at Radford College (now known as Radford University) from 1960 to 1988. Over this 28-year period, Hoffman taught a number of courses including introductory biology and zoology, invertebrate zoology, entomology, herpetology, mammalogy, biogeography, and the history of science. From 1964 to 1970 Hoffman edited "The Radford Review", the college's scholarly journal. Hoffman made dramatic improvements to the collections of the Radford Natural History Museum. From 1989 to 2009, Hoffman worked as Curator of Recent Invertebrates at the Virginia Museum of Natural History.
Hoffman died on June 10, 2012 at Carilion Roanoke Memorial Hospital in Roanoke, Virginia following heart surgery. He was 84. His contributions to science and education were formally recognized by the Virginia General Assembly in 2013.
Research.
Hoffman was recognized as the world's leading authority of millipedes of his time. He authored or co-authored at least 380 scientific papers on millipedes, and described over 400 species and subspecies, as well as over 200 genera. In 1958, Hoffman co-authored with Ralph V. Chamberlin a checklist of millipedes of North America, the first such work since 1893, which represented an approximate 600% increase in species recorded. Four decades later, Hoffman's 1999 "Checklist of the millipeds of North and Middle America" built upon on his previous work with Chamberlin, as well as checklists of the Caribbean and Central America by Chamberlin and Loomis respectively, to include over 2,100 species. Hoffman founded and edited the journal "Myriapodologica" from 1978 to 2007. He is commemorated in the names of two families, six genera, 19 species, and two subspecies of millipedes, as well as two species of centipede. He coined new names for anatomical structures, including the terms "ozadene and "ozopore" for the defensive glands and accompanying openings of millipedes, and the term "ocellarium" for the patches of ocelli on each side of the head, also known as ocular fields or "eyes". He also published on fossil millipedes, describing extinct groups and producing a "classic summary" of the millipede fossil record for the "Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology". In 2007, a festschrift consisting of papers from 41 authors on four continents was assembled in honor of Hoffman's 80th birthday.
Hoffman also wrote over 70 papers on the natural history and conservation of reptiles and amphibians. The valley and ridge salamander ("Plethodon hoffmani)" is named in his honor. Hoffman also studied insects, mollusks, crustaceans, arachnids, and other invertebrates, and co-founded "The Insects of Virginia", a series of occasional publications which ran from 1969 to 2006. Nine insects, three crustaceans, a nematode, an annelid, and a genus of mites have been named after him.
Influences.
Roble and Mitchell write that Hoffman's meeting with Hobbs as an undergraduate was the "most significant event in shaping Richard's future career", from whom he learned how to be a good scientist, and whom Hoffman later considered his only true mentor. Hoffman also expressed admiration for the late Dutch biologist C. A. W. Jeekel, whose early correspondence and subsequent friendship affected Hoffman's approach to taxonomy. Hoffman wrote that Jeekel's 1971 "Nomenclator Generum et Familiarum Diplopodorum" "set the standard for milliped systematics in the era that is now ending" and that Jeekel was somewhat a role model, and "the only person who I conceded to be my master in our field of interest". Despite working with Chamberlin early in his career, Hoffman later described the period as "under the malign influence of R.V. Chamberlin, an exemplar of minimal taxonomy", while Hoffman favored rich descriptions synthesizing previous relevant literature rather than scant, isolated descriptions.
Eponymous taxa.
The following is a selection of taxa named after Hoffman.


Acanthella (sponge)

Acanthella is a genus of sponges in the family Dictyonellidae, which was first described in 1862 by Eduard Oscar Schmidt. The type species is "Acanthella acuta" Schmidt, 1862 (designated by Vosmaer in 1912).
Species.
According to the WoRMS database, accepted species are:


Parastygarctus

Parastygarctus is a genus of tardigrades, in the family Stygarctidae. It was first described and named by Jeanne Renaud-Debyser in 1965.
Species.
The genus includes seven species:


Glomerular basement membrane

The glomerular basement membrane of the kidney is the basal lamina layer of the glomerulus. The glomerular endothelial cells, the glomeular basement membrane, and the filtration slits between the podocytes perform the filtration function of the glomerulus, separating the blood in the capillaries from the filtrate that forms in Bowman's capsule. The glomerular basement membrane is a fusion of the endothelial cell and podocyte basal laminas, and is the main site of restriction of water flow.Glomeular basement membrane is secreted and maintained by podocyte cells.
Layers.
The glomular basement membrane contains three layers:
The glomerular membrane consists of mesangial cells, modified pericytes that in other parts of the body separate capillaries from each other. The podocytes adjoining them have filtration slits of diameter 25 nm that are formed by the pseudopodia arising from them. The filtration slits are covered by a diaphragm that includes the transmembrane protein nephrin.


Sanderia pampinosus

Sanderia pampinosus is a disc jellyfish in the family Pelagiidae from seas off northern Australia.


Fibulacamptus bisetosus

Fibulacamptus bisetosus is a species of harpacticoid copepod in the family Canthocamptidae. It is found in Australia.
The IUCN conservation status of "Fibulacamptus bisetosus" is "VU", vulnerable. The species faces a high risk of endangerment in the medium term. The IUCN status was reviewed in 1996.


Alala Kurosawa

, also known as Arara Kurosawa, is a Japanese adult video (AV) director who has specialized in producing videos in the Japanese porn genre of bukkake. He has been called the best in the industry at movies and by late 2011 had directed more than 300 adult videos.
Life and career.
Kurosawa began his career as a director with Waap Entertainment as did fellow directors Kingdom and (Jo)Style. Kurosawa directed the first videos produced by Waap, the "Dream Shower" series released in December 1998. In the "Dream Shower" series, Kurosawa combined bukkake with the gangbang genre. After several years at Waap where he directed more than fifty videos, Kurosawa went on to work for the recently formed Moodyz studio where he would direct more than 160 videos. At Moodyz he instituted a new bukkake series, "Dream Woman", which began in January 2002 with the release of with Mayu Koizumi. By mid-2010 the series, all directed by Kurosawa, had reached Volume 78 starring Hitomi Tanaka.
While at Moodyz, Kurosawa was given the Best Director Award at the 2002 and 2003 Moodyz Awards ceremony. At the 2004 Moodyz Awards, he was given both a Directors Award and a Special Directors Award. When the new studio, S1 No. 1 Style, was founded in November 2004, Kurosawa was one of their first directors, releasing his bukkake themed production, with Akane Mochida, in December 2004. Kurosawa also made a considerable number of videos for the IdeaPocket studio, mostly working in their popular "Digital Channel" series.
For the 2009 AV Grand Prix competition, Moodyz entered Kurosawa's video "Dream Woman DX" starring Maria Ozawa, Ryou Takamiya and Natsumi Horiguchi. In addition to Ozawa, over the years Kurosawa has also worked with such major AV Idols as Sora Aoi, An Nanba, Yua Aida, Honoka, Nao Oikawa, Yuma Asami and Bunko Kanazawa.


Sinosabellidites

Sinosabellidites huainanensis part of the small shelly fauna is a species of Early Neoproterozoic metazoans.


Herpetological Review


Docodon

Docodon (meaning 'beam tooth') was a mammaliaform from the Late Jurassic of western North America. It was the first docodontan cynodont to be named.
Description.
"Docodon" was the first docodontan cynodont found and named, and later gave its name to the family Docodontidae as well as the order Docodonta. Docodonts had more complex shaped teeth than other early non-mammalian mammaliaforms, with piercing and crushing surfaces that would have allowed members of this family to eat a wider range of food types. These complex teeth are more similar to those of later mammal groups, but evolved independently of them.
Unlike many of its coexisting mammal relatives from the Mesozoic, "Docodon" is known from a large number of teeth and jaws of differing growth stages. This has made it possible to study the growth of this docodontan, and has revealed how docodont jaws change from juvenile stages to adulthood.
Discovery.
"Docodon" was discovered and named by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1880. Like many other early small mammaliaforms, it is known mainly from fossilized teeth and jaws, as these are the hardest parts of the body and survive more easily in the fossil record. "Docodon" fossils are found most commonly in the Black Hills region of South Dakota.
Its height is estimated at 10 centimeters with an approximate weight of 30 grams, making it one of the larger mammaliaforms known from the Morrison Formation.
Species.
A number of species have been erected, but most are now considered to represent "D. victor", with differences being attributed to differing ages of the individuals represented. However, "D. apoxys" is still considered a separate species from "D. victor" due to differing numbers of tooth roots.<ref name="Schultz2018">Schultz, J. A.; Bhullar, B.-A. S. & Luo, Z.-X. (2018). "Re-examination of the Jurassic mammaliaform "Docodon victor" by computed tomography and occlusal functional analysis". "Journal of Mammalian Evolution". in press.


Lobulation

A lobulation is an appearance resembling lobules.
For instance, the thyroid gland may become large and lobulated in Hashimoto's thyroiditis.
Fetal lobulation, also known as fetal lobation, of the kidney is evident on scanning. Fetal lobation is a normal stage in the development of the kidney. In the adult a normal anatomic variant is that of persistent fetal lobulation of the kidney that may be mistaken for a tumour.


Tubiluchidae

Tubiluchidae is one of the two families of priapulimorphidan priapulid worms.
Taxa.
The family includes only the genus "Tubiluchus" van der Land 1968, and in some classifications "Meiopriapulus".
A full list of the included species:


Strophomenata

Strophomenata is an extinct class of brachiopods in the subphylum Rhynchonelliformea.
Orders.
Billingsellida.
An order that contains the suborder Clitambonitidina (and others?) .
Orthotetida.
An order or superfamily that includes the Chilidiopsoidea. Ontogeny given by Bassett and Popov (2017), resembling that of Kutorginides.
Believed to be sister to Strophomenides, = Strophomenida + Billinsellida + Productida.
Includes the Chileids (e.g. "Coolinia").


Monodelphis handleyi

Monodelphis handleyi (Handley's short-tailed opossum) is a species of mammal in the family Didelphidae. It is only known to exist in its type locality in Peru, and more recently in Brazil.
Taxonomy.
The holotype for the species was caught by Jessica Amanzo on February 5, 1997 in Peru.
The species is named after Charles O. Handley, Jr. to honor his contribution to the study of neotropical mammals.
Description.
The opossum is medium-sized and robust. It has short dorsal fur with the hair having pale gray bases and brown tips. It has dull cream underparts with a pale midventral stripe. It has a brownish head and rump, with short, white whiskers. A yellowish to orange throat gland is present. The pinnae are uniformly brown and are furless.
It has short, robust limbs.
Distribution and habitat.
The opossum is known only from Peru and Brazil. The specimens were caught swampy and well-drained forest bordering primary and secondary forests. The height of the tree canopy was 25-30 meters with a dense understory and abundant palms.
Conservation.
The opossum is assessed as data-deficient by the IUCN. There is lack of information about the animals habitat requirement, population, and habits, although probable threats include selective logging and deforestation in its range.


Dentaliidae

Dentaliidae is a family of relatively large tusk shells, scaphopod mollusks in the order Dentaliida.


Tholoarctus

Tholoarctus is a genus of tardigrades in the family Styraconyxidae. The genus was named and first described by Kristensen and Renaud-Mornant in 1983.
Species.
The genus includes two species:


Earless lizard

Earless lizards are two genera of small lizards native to the semiarid and grassland habitats of the Southwestern United States and Mexico. The genus "Cophosaurus" and the genus "Holbrookia" are both characterized by having no external ear openings, presumably to prevent sand from entering their bodies as they dig.
Distinctive features.
Earless lizards typically vary from long. Males tend to be larger than females. The male has two heavy black strips ahead of its hind legs (pictured). The female differs in that she has a black stripe behind each thigh. A pink throat and flanks indicate pregnancy. Earless lizards have two throat folds, large eyes, and 27 or fewer femoral pores. They are also described as having shorter fore legs compared to their hind legs and also rather long toes. Although they are called earless lizards, they are still completely capable of hearing, but their ears do not have an external opening. This feature is useful when they burrow underground without getting soil in their ears.
Behavior.
Earless lizards are most active during daylight; they hibernate during the winter and fall. When approached by a predator, their defense mechanism is raising and wagging their tails. To claim their territory, a combination of lateral body compression, head bobbing, and push-ups is done. Earless lizards are capable of homeostasis to a certain extent. As a feedback to temperature change, they acquire heat by conduction, convection, and radiation. In cooler temperatures, they raise their body temperature by turning their bodies broadside to the sun to absorb heat (infrared radiation). They can also align their bodies to the sun to reduced absorption to reduce body temperature. In warmer temperatures, they decreases their body temperature by conduction, such as climbing a tree to avoid elevated temperature from the ground.
Diet.
The diet of earless lizards consists of arthropods, such as butterflies, moths, beetles, grasshoppers, insects, and spiders.
Defense mechanism.
The earless lizard has a peculiar defense mechanism coupled to its cold-blooded metabolism. It has a small opening on the top of its head called a "blood sinus", which helps it gain heat quickly during the daytime. However, the blood can also be channeled to the eyes of the lizard when a predator approaches, efficiently spraying the blood onto the predator, giving it enough time to escape.
Reproduction.
Mating takes place in spring. Earless lizards lay their eggs between March and August, and about fifty days are needed for them to hatch. They tend to lay one to three clutches of eggs. Clutch sizes range from one to 10 eggs. When hatched, the hatchlings are about 2 in (5 cm) long.
Threats.
No major threat to them has been identified in the US or Mexico, but habitat loss and degradation would result in an decline in the species.
Geographic range.
Earless lizards are found from the Southwestern and Central United States, in Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, and as far north as Nebraska, South Dakota, and Wyoming. They are also found in Mexico, in the states of Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Sinaloa, Durango, Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, and Veracruz.


Bicuspidon

Bicuspidon is an extinct genus of Polyglyphanodontid lizard known from the Late Cretaceous of North America, Europe and Africa, two species, "B. numerosus" and "B. smikros" are known from the Cenomanian of Utah in the Mussentuchit Member of the Cedar Mountain Formation and the Naturita Formation respectively. While "B. hatzegiensis" is known from the Maastrichtian Sânpetru Formation of Romania and "B. hogreli" is known from the Cenomanian Kem Kem Beds of Morocco. An indeterminate taxon closely related to "B. hatzegiensis" referred to as "B. aff. hatzegiensis" is known from the Santonian Csehbánya Formation of Hungary. The dentition is heterodont, with conical anterior teeth and transversely orientated biscuspid posterior teeth.


Deep cervical artery

The deep cervical artery (Profunda cervicalis) is an artery of the neck.
Course.
It arises, in most cases, from the costocervical trunk, and is analogous to the posterior branch of an aortic intercostal artery: occasionally it is a separate branch from the subclavian artery.
Passing backward, above the eighth cervical nerve and between the transverse process of the seventh cervical vertebra and the neck of the first rib, it runs up the back of the neck, between the semispinalis capitis and semispinalis cervicis, as high as the axis vertebra, supplying these and adjacent muscles, and anastomosing with the deep division of the descending branch of the occipital, and with branches of the vertebral.
It gives off a spinal twig which enters the canal through the intervertebral foramen between the seventh cervical and first thoracic vertebrae.


Peripatus evelinae

Peripatus evelinae is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatidae family. The type locality is in Goiás, Brazil.


Septum (cell biology)

A septum in cell biology is the new cell wall that forms between two daughter cells as a result of cell division.
In yeast, septins form a ring structure, to which other proteins are recruited. In particular, chitinase 2 is required, an enzyme that synthesises chitin thereby building up the primary septum. A secondary septum of β-glucans and mannoproteins is then assembled using the enzyme 1,3-Beta-glucan synthase, and the primary septum degraded during cell separation. After degradation of the primary septum, a chitinous bud scar remains on both the mother and daughter cell.
Composition.
In Schizosaccharomyces pombe, the primary septum is composed of linear β(1,3)-D-glucan, β(1,6) branches, and α(1,3)-D-glucan. The secondary septum in Schizosaccharomyces pombe is composed of β(1,6)-D-glucan, β(1,6) branches, and α(1,3)-D-glucan. The synthesis of linear β(1,3)-D-glucan for the primary septum is done by the enzyme β(1,3)-D-glucan synthase and regulated by a Rho GTPase. Ags1/Mok1 enzyme is responsible for the synthesis of α(1,3)-D-glucan in the primary septum and secondary septum.


Dentalium nanum

Dentalium nanum is a tusk shell of the family Dentaliidae, endemic to New Zealand waters. The Dentalium shell was traditionally used for decorative purposes by Māori, such as rings and necklaces, and has typically found at archaeological sites around the Coromandel Peninsula.


Palawan treeshrew

The Palawan treeshrew ("Tupaia palawanensis") is a treeshrew species endemic to the Palawan Island, Philippines, where it occurs from sea level to an elevation of . The population is considered steady.
Formerly, it was considered a subspecies of the common treeshrew.
Habitat and ecology.
This species occurs in jungles rich with fresh water and rivers. It also can be found in agriculture or farming zones, for example, cashew and coconut farms, brushy regions, and logged-over areas. No threats to this species are known.


Aaptos rosacea

Aaptos rosacea is a species of sea sponge belonging to the family Suberitidae. The species was described in 1994.


Lobophyllia

Lobophyllia, commonly called lobed brain coral or lobo coral, is a genus of large polyp stony corals. Members of this genus are sometimes found in reef aquariums.
Species.
This genus includes the following species:


Manis

Asiatic pangolin ("Manis") is a genus of South Asian and East Asian pangolins from subfamily Asiatic pangolins (Maninae), within family Manidae.
Etymology.
Carl Linnaeus (1758) invented the Neo-Latin generic name "Manis" apparently as a feminine singular form of the Latin masculine plural Manes, the Ancient Roman name for a type of spirit, after the animal's strange appearance.
Phylogeny.
Phylogenetic position of genus "Manis" within family Manidae.


Coscinium (bryozoan)

Coscinium is an extinct genus of prehistoric bryozoans in the family Hexagonellidae. The species "C. elegans" is from the Paleozoic rocks of the western states and territories.


Hesioninae

Hesioninae are a subfamily of "phyllodocid" "bristle worms" (class Polychaeta). They are (like almost all polychaetes) marine organisms; most are found on the continental shelf.
They are divided into two tribes, of which at least the "Psamathini" seem to represent a good clade.


Banffia

Banffia is a genus of animals described from Middle Cambrian fossils. The genus commemorates Banff, Alberta, near where the first fossil specimens were discovered. Its placement in higher taxa is controversial. It is considered to be a member of the enigmatic phylum Vetulicolia.
Anatomy.
"Banffia constricta" is known from hundreds of fossils found in the Burgess Shales. It is up to 10 cm in length, and divided equally into anterior and posterior parts. The entire body is twisted in a clockwise spiral, as seen from the front. This is believed to be a secondary adaptation from an initial bilateral condition for a burrowing lifestyle. The anterior section is covered by two carapace-like un-mineralized shells that are fused together. A crown-like structure formed of three concentric circular features surrounds the mouth. An antenna-form structure just posterior to the mouth may be a sensory organ. The posterior section is composed of 40 to 50 segments. The gut is straight, and the anus is at the terminal tip of the posterior section. The gut appears to have a series of diverticula or pouches. A possible circulatory system is visible in the fossils. "B. constricta" and its relative "Skeemella" were probably filter or deposit feeders.
Classification.
There is no agreement on the classification of "Banffia". "B. constricta" was assigned to the annelids by Walcott in 1911. As of 2006, different proposals would place "Banffia" in Vetulicolia, Arthropoda, or Urochordata. While the body plan (equal anterior and posterior sections with segmentation) resembles that of the Vetulicolians, it is argued that the absence of gills and an endostyle, and the presence of gut diverticula makes "Banffia" unlikely to be a member of the deuterostomes. However, an apparent complete lack of appendages (aside from the antenna-like structures) makes "B. constricta"'s placement within Arthropoda equally unlikely. More recent finds of similarly shaped animals show structures thought to be a notochord, making "Banffia" and their relatives chordates, possibly the sister group to tunicates.
The species "Banffia confusa", known from fossils from the Chengjiang shales, was originally assigned to this genus, though, recent research shows that this species is not closely related to "B. constricta", having been renamed as its junior synonym, "Heteromorphus longicaudatus", and placed in a different class altogether, "Heteromorphida." Later, Aldridge, et. al. resurrected "B. confusa" as "Heteromorphus confusus", noting a variety of anatomical differences among the various specimens of "Heteromorphus", suggesting that there may be more species recognized with more fossils discovered.


Sycyssa

Sycyssa is a genus of calcareous sponges belonging to the family Lelapiidae. It is monotypic, containing a single species, Sycyssa huxley.


C20orf202

C20orf202 (chromosome 20 open reading frame 202) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "C20orf202" gene.
In humans, this gene encodes for a nuclear protein that is primarily expressed in the lung and placenta.
Gene.
C20orf202 is located on the plus strand of chromosome 20 at 20p13. The gene is 4,826 base pairs long. It spans from chr20:1,184,098-1,188,918, and contains 2 exons.
Transcript.
There is one transcript of C20orf202. The mRNA sequence is 1,609 base pairs long.
Protein.
The protein encoded by C20orf202 is 122 amino acids in length with a predicted molecular mass of 13591 Da and a predicted isoelectric point of 9.13 pl/MW. C20orf202 contains PFAM domain DUF3461 at amino acids 3-67. This domain codes for a protein of unknown function.
The structure of C20orf202 consists of 46.72% random coils, 42.62% alpha helixes, and 10.66% extended strands.
Regulation.
Gene level regulation.
The C20orf202 promoter has many transcription factor binding sites, most notably at the beginning and end of the promoter. These sites are shown in the figure to the right and are listed below with their respective functions.
Transcript level regulation.
MicroRNA binding sites are only found in the 3' UTR of C20orf202. Most of these sites are found in the beginning or end of the 3' UTR, with many located in close proximity to each other. These 3' UTR microRNA binding sites can be seen in the figure to the right.
Protein level regulation.
C20orf202 has many phosphorylation and glycosylation sites throughout the protein. A few of the phosphorylation sites are located in highly conserved regions of the protein.
Expression.
In humans, C20orf202 has moderate mRNA abundance across cells types, though higher than average expression in the kidney and heart, it is not significantly so. Additionally C20orf202 expression increases during fetal development of kidney, lung, and intestinal tissues.
Homology.
Paralogs.
C20orf202 has three known paralogs- FAM167a, FAM167b, and AARD.
Orthologs.
C20orf202 orthologs can be found in major groups such as mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and distantly fish.
This table lists several orthologs for C20orf202 including genus and species, common name, taxonomic group, evolutionary date of divergence, accession number, sequence length, sequence identity, and sequence similarity.
Interacting proteins.
Two hybrid prey pooling followed by two hybrid array revealed that C20orf202 is predicted to interact with two other proteins: SNAPAP and HNRNPCL1. SNAPAP (SNARE-associated protein) has a role in the SNARE binding complex, and is also associated with Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome and tricuspid valve stenosis. HNRNPCL1 (Heterogeneous Nuclear Ribonucleoprotein C Like 1) has a role in RNA binding and nucleosome assembly.
Clinical significance.
C20orf202 has been associated by GWAS to multiple sclerosis. Additionally, through in silico analysis, C20orf202 was identified as being involved in chromosome 20p inv dup del syndrome, a syndrome similar to trisomy 20p.


ACVR2A

Activin receptor type-2A is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "ACVR2A" gene.
ACVR2A is an activin type 2 receptor.
Function.
This gene encodes activin A type II receptor. Activins are dimeric growth and differentiation factors which belong to the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) superfamily of structurally related signaling proteins. Activins signal through a heteromeric complex of receptor serine kinases which include at least two type I (I and IB) and two type II (II and IIB) receptors. These receptors are all transmembrane proteins, composed of a ligand-binding extracellular domain with cysteine-rich region, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic domain with predicted serine/threonine specificity. Type I receptors are essential for signaling; and type II receptors are required for binding ligands and for expression of type I receptors. Type I and II receptors form a stable complex after ligand binding, resulting in phosphorylation of type I receptors by type II receptors. Type II receptors are considered to be constitutively active kinases.
Interactions.
ACVR2A has been shown to interact with:


Confluence of sinuses

The confluence of sinuses (Latin: confluens sinuum), torcular Herophili, or torcula is the connecting point of the superior sagittal sinus, straight sinus, and occipital sinus. It is found deep to the occipital protuberance of the skull. Blood arriving at this point then proceeds to drain into the left and right transverse sinuses. The superior sagittal sinus often drains into (either exclusively or predominantly) one transverse sinus, and the straight sinus drains into the other.
An older term often used for the confluence of sinuses "torcular Herophili," describes the veins as a gutter, or canal, and honors Herophilos, the Greek anatomist who was the first to use cadavers for the systematic study of anatomy. This term more precisely refers to the concavity in the bone which is the location of the confluence of sinuses.


Corrugator supercilii muscle

The corrugator supercilii is a small, narrow, pyramidal muscle close to the eye.
It is located at the medial end of the eyebrow, beneath the frontalis and just above orbicularis oculi muscle.
It arises from the medial end of the superciliary arch; and its fibers pass upward and laterally, between the palpebral and orbital portions of the orbicularis oculi muscle, and are inserted into the deep surface of the skin, above the middle of the orbital arch.
The name "corrugator supercilii" is Latin, meaning "wrinkler of the eyebrows".
Action.
The corrugator draws the eyebrow downward and medially, producing the vertical wrinkles of the forehead. It is the "frowning" muscle, and may be regarded as the principal muscle in the expression of suffering. It also contracts to prevent high sun glare, pulling the eyebrows toward the bridge of the nose, making a roof over the area above the middle corner of the eye and typical forehead furrows.
The muscle is sometimes surgically severed or paralysed with botulinum toxin as a preventive treatment for some types of migraine or for aesthetic reasons.


Chrysaora lactea

Chrysaora lactea is a sea nettle in the family Pelagiidae. This jellyfish has a bell diameter of up to , and it is native to the Atlantic coast of South America. It has also been reported from the Caribbean region, but genetic studies indicate that this population is closer to "C. chesapeakei". A comprehensive taxonomic review is necessary to resolve this matter.


Inferior nasal concha

The inferior nasal concha (inferior turbinated bone or inferior turbinal/turbinate) is one of the three paired nasal conchae in the nose. It extends horizontally along the lateral wall of the nasal cavity and consists of a lamina of spongy bone, curled upon itself like a scroll, ("turbinate" meaning inverted cone). The inferior nasal conchae are considered a pair of facial bones. As the air passes through the turbinates, the air is churned against these mucosa-lined bones in order to receive warmth, moisture and cleansing. Superior to inferior nasal concha are the middle nasal concha and superior nasal concha which arise from the cranial portion of the skull. Hence, these two are considered as a part of the cranial bones.
It has two surfaces, two borders, and two extremities.
Structure.
Surfaces.
The medial surface is convex, perforated by numerous apertures, and traversed by longitudinal grooves for the lodgement of vessels.
The lateral surface is concave, and forms part of the inferior meatus.
Borders.
Its upper border is thin, irregular, and connected to various bones along the lateral wall of the nasal cavity.
It may be divided into three portions: of these,
The inferior border is free, thick, and cellular in structure, more especially in the middle of the bone.
Extremities.
Both extremities are more or less pointed, the posterior being the more tapering.
Development.
The inferior nasal concha is ossified from a single center, which appears about the fifth month of fetal life in the lateral wall of the cartilaginous nasal capsule.


Prostasomes

Prostasomes are extracellular vesicles (40-500 nm in diameter) secreted by the prostate gland epithelial cells into seminal fluid. They possess an unusual lipid composition and a tight and highly ordered structure of their lipid bilayer membrane, resembling that of lipid raft domains. Prostasomes appear to improve sperm motility and protect against attacks from the female immune defense during the passage to the egg.
The name prostasomes was coined in the early 1980s by combining the terms "prosta"=prostate and "soma" (Greek for "body"). Around this time, the first functional studies of prostasomes were also performed.
Cancerous prostate cells and prostate cells with low differentiation continue to produce and secrete prostasomes. Possibly, the high incidence of prostate cancer in elderly men could be due to the immunomodulatory properties of prostasomes, protecting the cancer from attack by the immune system.
Immune regulating proteins found in prostasomes include: amino-peptidase N (CD13); dipeptidyl-peptidase IV (CD26); enkephalinase (neutral endopeptidase, CD10); angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE, CD143); tissue factor TF (CD142, thromboplastin); decay accelerating factor (CD55); protectin (CD59, inhibitor of MAC) and complement regulatory membrane cofactor protein (CD46). Prostasomes also contain high levels of the divalent cations: Zn2+, Ca2+ and Mg2+.


Podargus

Podargus is a small genus of birds in the frogmouth family, Podargidae. All members of this genus are found in Australia, with some species being found in Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, and the Solomon Islands, as well.<br>
It contains these species to date:


Organ system

An organ system is a group of organs that work together as a biological system to perform one or more functions. Each organ does a particular job in the body, and is made up of distinct tissues.
Organ systems and their functions.
There are 11 distinct organ systems in human beings, which form the basis of anatomy. Other animals have similar organ systems although simpler animals may have fewer organs in an organ system or even fewer organ systems Plants too have organs such as flowers and leaves, and these are grouped into organ systems as well
Notes.
There are other systems in the body that are not organ systems. For example, the Immune system protects the organism from infection, but it is not an organ system as it is not composed of organs.
Some organs are in more than one system. For example, the nose is in both the respiratory system and also is a sensory organ in the nervous system. The testes and ovary are both part of the reproductive systems and endocrine systems.


Rhynchonella pugnus

Rhynchonella pugnus is an extinct species of brachiopods.


Herpyllobiidae

Herpyllobiidae is a family of cyclopoid copepods in the order Cyclopoida. There are about 6 genera and more than 20 described species in Herpyllobiidae.
Genera.
These six genera belong to the family Herpyllobiidae:


Eocorona

Eocorona is an extinct genus of amphiesmenopteran from the Middle Triassic of Australia. It contains only one species, Eocorona iani, and is the type genus of the family Eocoronidae.
Discovery.
"Eocorona iani" was first described by the Australian anthropologist and entomologist Norman Tindale in 1980. The fossil was composed of a nearly complete forewing and a hindwing tentatively interpreted as belonging to the same species. It was recovered from Mount Crosby, Queensland, Australia. It dates from the Carnian age (228.0 – 216.5 million years ago) of the Middle Triassic.
Taxonomy.
"Eocorona iani" is the only species in the genus "Eocorona" and the family Eocoronidae. Tindale originally described "Eocorona iani" as a butterfly (order Lepidoptera). This has been challenged by a number of other authors.
Most recently, Minet "et al." (2010) considered "Eocorona" a 'true' member of the superorder Amphiesmenoptera, neither lepidopteran (butterflies and moths) nor trichopteran (caddisflies).


Peripatidae

Peripatidae is a family of velvet worms. The oldest putative representatives of the family herald from Burmese amber dated to the mid-Cretaceous, around 100 Ma, with representatives from Dominican and Baltic amber attesting to a broader distribution in the Palaeogene / Neogene; molecular variability suggests that the family's crown group may have arisen in the early Mesozoic.
Description.
The Peripatidae exhibit a range of derivative features. They are longer, on average, than the Peripatopsidae and also have more leg pairs, numbering between 22 and 43—the gonopore is always between the penultimate pair. There are no oviparous species—the overwhelming majority are viviparous. The females of many viviparous species develop a placenta with which to provide the growing embryo with nutrients.
Distribution.
The Peripatidae are restricted to the tropical and subtropical zones; in particular, they inhabit Central America, northern South America, Gabon, Northeast India, and Southeast Asia.
Genera.
The family consists of the following genera:


Epiblast

In amniote animal embryology, the epiblast (also known as the primitive ectoderm) is one of two distinct layers arising from the inner cell mass in the mammalian blastocyst or from the blastodisc in reptiles and birds. It derives the embryo proper through its differentiation into the three primary germ layers, ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm, during gastrulation. The amnionic ectoderm and extraembryonic mesoderm also originate from the epiblast.
The other layer of the inner cell mass, the hypoblast, gives rise to the yolk sac, which in turn gives rise to the chorion.
Discovery of the epiblast.
The epiblast was first discovered by Christian Heinrich Pander (1794-1865), a Baltic German biologist and embryologist. With the help of anatomist Ignaz Döllinger (1770–1841) and draftsman Eduard Joseph d'Alton (1772-1840), Pander observed thousands of chicken eggs under a microscope, and ultimately discovered and described the chicken blastoderm and its structures, including the epiblast. He published these findings in Beitrdge zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des Hiihnchens im Eye. Other early embryologists that studied the epiblast and blastoderm include Karl Ernst von Baer (1792-1876) and Wilhelm His (1831-1904).
Mammals.
In mammalian embryogenesis, differentiation and segregation of cells composing the inner cell mass of the blastocyst yields two distinct layers—the epiblast ("primitive ectoderm") and the hypoblast ("primitive endoderm"). While the cuboidal hypoblast cells delaminate ventrally, away from the embryonic pole, to line the blastocoele, the remaining cells of the inner cell mass, situated between the hypoblast and the polar trophoblast, become the epiblast and comprise columnar cells.
In the mouse, primordial germ cells are specified from epiblast cells. This specification is accompanied by extensive epigenetic reprogramming that involves global DNA demethylation, chromatin reorganization and imprint erasure leading to totipotency. The DNA base excision repair pathway has a central role in the process of genome-wide demethylation.
Upon commencement of gastrulation, the primitive streak, a visible, morphological groove, appears on the posterior epiblast and orients along the anterior-posterior embryo axis. Initiated by signals from the underlying hypoblast, formation of the primitive streak is predicated on epiblast cell migration, mediated by Nodal, from the lateral-posterior regions of the epiblast to the center midline. The primitive knot is situated at the anterior end of the primitive streak and serves as the organizer for gastrulation, determining epiblast cell fate by inducing the differentiation of migrating epiblast cells during gastrulation.
During gastrulation, migrating epiblast cells undergo epithelial-mesenchymal transition in order to lose cell-cell adhesion (E-cadherin), delaminate from the epiblast layer and migrate over the dorsal surface of the epiblast then down through the primitive streak. The first wave of epiblast cells to invaginate through the primitive streak invades and displaces the hypoblast to become the embryonic endoderm. The mesoderm layer is established next as migrating epiblast cells move through the primitive streak then spread out within the space between the endoderm and remaining epiblast, which once the mesoderm layer has formed ultimately becomes the definitive ectoderm. The process of gastrulation results in a trilaminar germ disc, consisting of the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm layers.
Epiblast diversity.
Epiblasts exhibit diverse structure across species as a result of early embryo morphogenesis. The human epiblast assumes a disc shape, conforming to the embryonic disc morphology; whereas, the mouse epiblast develops in a cup shape within the cylindrical embryo.
During implantation of the blastocyst, both the human and mouse epiblasts form a rosette shape in a process called polarization. Polarization results from the interaction between the mammalian blastocyst and β1-integrin from the extracellular matrix, produced from the extra-embryonic tissues. At this stage, both human and mouse epiblasts consist of a pseudostratified columnar epithelium. Shortly after, the human epiblast will assume a disc shape while the amniotic cavity forms. The epiblast cells adjacent to the trophoblast are specified to become amnion cells. The mouse epiblast transitions from a rosette structure to a cup. A pro-amniotic cavity forms, surrounded by the epiblast cup fused to extraembryonic ectoderm. Mouse epiblast cells are not specified to amnion cell fate.
Birds.
Gastrulation occurs in the epiblast of avian embryos. A local thickening of the epiblast, known as Koller's sickle, is key in inducing the primitive streak, the structure through which gastrulation occurs.
Studies on chick embryos have shown that mediolateral cell intercalation occurs before gastrulation. The intercalation event is guided by fibroblast growth factors from the hypoblast. It is suggested that the evolution of the amniote primitive streak from the blastopore was due to the acquisition of the mediolateral intercalation event, which positions the primitive streak and acts independently of mesendoderm formation.
Reptiles.
Ancestors of Amniotes (mammals, birds, reptiles) underwent gastrulation primarily by an infolding of the epiblast layer (involution). Mammals and birds have evolved to rely on ingression during gastrulation where epiblast cells converge at the midline and ingress at the primitive streak. Reptile gastrulation differs slightly from birds and mammals. Reptiles exhibit bi-modal gastrulation during embryogenesis and lack a primitive streak. Bi-modal gastrulation is characterized by involution of the cells in the anterior and lateral regions of the blastopore and ingression of the cells of the blastopore plate in the posterior region. Analogies between the blastopore plate and primitive streak suggest the blastopore plate was a precursor to the mammalian and avian primitive streak.


Human head

In human anatomy, the head is at the top of the human body. It supports the face and is maintained by the skull, which itself encloses the brain.
Structure.
The human head consists of a fleshy outer portion, which surrounds the bony skull. The brain is enclosed within the skull. There are 22 bones in the human head. The head rests on the neck, and the seven cervical vertebrae support it. The human head typically weights between
The face is the anterior part of the head, containing the eyes, nose, and mouth. On either side of the mouth, the cheeks provide a fleshy border to the oral cavity. The ears sit to either side of the head.
Blood supply.
The head receives blood supply through the internal and external carotid arteries. These supply the area outside of the skull (external carotid artery) and inside of the skull (internal carotid artery). The area inside the skull also receives blood supply from the vertebral arteries, which travel up through the cervical vertebrae.
Nerve supply.
The twelve pairs of cranial nerves provide the majority of nervous control to the head. The sensation to the face is provided by the branches of the trigeminal nerve, the fifth cranial nerve. Sensation to other portions of the head is provided by the cervical nerves.
Modern texts are in agreement about which areas of the skin are served by which nerves, but there are minor variations in some of the details. The borders designated by diagrams in the 1918 edition of Gray's Anatomy are similar but not identical to those generally accepted today.
The cutaneous innervation of the head is as follows:
Function.
The head contains sensory organs: two eyes, two ears, a nose and tongue inside of the mouth. It also houses the brain. Together, these organs function as a processing center for the body by relaying sensory information to the brain. Humans can process information faster by having this central nerve cluster.
Society and culture.
For humans, the front of the head (the face) is the main distinguishing feature between different people due to its easily discernible features, such as eye and hair colors, shapes of the sensory organs, and the wrinkles. Humans easily differentiate between faces because of the brain's predisposition toward facial recognition. When observing a relatively unfamiliar species, all faces seem nearly identical. Human infants are biologically programmed to recognize subtle differences in anthropomorphic facial features.
People who have greater than average intelligence are sometimes depicted in cartoons as having bigger heads as a way of notionally indicating that they have a "larger brain". Additionally, in science fiction, an extraterrestrial having a big head is often symbolic of high intelligence. Despite this depiction, advances in neurobiology have shown that the functional diversity of the brain means that a difference in overall brain size is only slightly to moderately correlated to differences in overall intelligence between two humans.
The head is a source for many metaphors and metonymies in human language, including referring to things typically near the human head ( "the head of the bed"), things physically similar to the way a head is arranged spatially to a body ("the head of the table"), metaphorically ("the head of the class"), and things that represent some characteristics associated with the head, such as intelligence ("there are a lot of good heads in this company").
Ancient Greeks had a method for evaluating sexual attractiveness based on the Golden ratio, part of which included measurements of the head.
Headhunting is the practice of taking and preserving a person's head after killing the person. Headhunting has been practiced across the Americas, Europe, Asia, and Oceania for millennia.
Clothing.
Headpieces can signify status, origin, religious/spiritual beliefs, social grouping, team affiliation, occupation, or fashion choices.
In many cultures, covering the head is seen as a sign of respect. Often, some or all of the head must be covered and veiled when entering holy places or places of prayer. For many centuries, women in Europe, the Middle East, and South Asia have covered their head hair as a sign of modesty. This trend has changed drastically in Europe in the 20th century, although is still observed in other parts of the world. In addition, a number of religions require men to wear specific head clothing—such as the Islamic Taqiyah (cap), Jewish yarmulke, or the Sikh turban. The same goes for women with the Muslim hijab or Christian nun's habit.
A hat is a head covering that can serve a variety of purposes. Hats may be worn as part of a uniform or used as a protective device, such as a hard hat, a covering for warmth, or a fashion accessory. Hats can also be indicative of social status in some areas of the world.
Anthropometry.
While numerous charts detailing head sizes in infants and children exist, most do not measure average head circumference past the age of 21. Reference charts for adult head circumference also generally feature homogeneous samples and fail to take height and weight into account.
One study in the United States estimated the average human head circumference to be in males and in females. A British study by Newcastle University showed an average size of 57.2 cm for males and 55.2 cm for females with average size varying proportionally with height
Macrocephaly can be an indicator of increased risk for some types of cancer in individuals who carry the genetic mutation that causes Cowden syndrome. For adults, this refers to head sizes greater than 58 centimeters in men or greater than 57 centimeters in women.


Cribella

Cribella is a genus of bryozoans in the family Bitectiporidae.


Kenkia glandulosa

Kenkia glandulosa, the pink planarian, is a flatworm in the family Kenkiidae. It is found only in the Devil's Icebox cave in Rock Bridge Memorial State Park in Boone County, Missouri, USA. The species is an eyeless and de-pigmented flatworm that lives on the undersides of rocks. It is currently a species of conservation concern in the state of Missouri.


Sulcus (morphology)

In biological morphology and anatomy, a sulcus (pl. "sulci") is a furrow or fissure. It may be a groove in the surface of a limb or an organ, notably in the surface of the brain, but also in the lungs, certain muscles (including the heart), as well as in bones, and elsewhere. Many sulci are the product of a surface fold or junction, such as in the gums, where they fold around the neck of the tooth.
In invertebrate zoology, a sulcus is a fold, groove, or boundary, especially at the edges of sclerites or between segments.


Laevipilina

Laevipilina is a genus of monoplacophoran molluscs. They are very small, mostly deepwater animals which have a superficially limpet-like shell. All species are at approximately 2–3 mm in length, have 5 pairs of gills (except for "Laevipilina hyalina", which has 6 pairs), and have 4-5 intestinal coils.


Oroperipatus omeyrus

Oroperipatus omeyrus is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatidae family. The type locality is in Peru.


Highfin snapper

Highfin snapper is a common name for several fish and may refer to:


Norman Joseph Favaloro

Norman Joseph Favaloro (15 August 1905 – 25 October 1989) was an Australian lawyer and amateur ornithologist and zoologist. Norman was born in Bendigo. He practiced law in Mildura, Victoria where he lived most of his life. In 1940 he was appointed an Honorary Associate in the Ornithology Department of the National Museum of Victoria, an association he retained the rest of his life. He made three trips to the subantarctic, visiting Macquarie Island, Heard Island and Kerguelen Island. At Macquarie Island he collected king penguins and their eggs for the National Museum of Victoria. His own notable egg collection was also bequeathed to the Museum.
He joined the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union (RAOU) in 1923 at the age of eighteen, and served the organisation as President 1952–1954, and Treasurer 1965–1968.


Edmund Byng, 6th Earl of Strafford

Edmund Henry Byng, 6th Earl of Strafford (27 January 1862 – 24 December 1951), styled Viscount Enfield between 1899 and 1918, of Wrotham Park in the parish of South Mimms, Middlesex (later in Hertfordshire) and 5, St James's Square, London, was an English peer.
Origins.
He was the second son (the first having died in infancy) of Reverend Francis Byng, 5th Earl of Strafford (1835–1918) by his wife Florence Louisa Miles (1840–1862), a daughter of Sir William Miles, 1st Baronet, who died giving birth to him.
Career.
He was a County Alderman in Middlesex and Hertfordshire. He was elected a Fellow of the Zoological Society of London (FZS) in July 1902.
Marriage and children.
He married Mary Elizabeth Colebrooke, a daughter of Sir Thomas Colebrooke, 4th Baronet by whom he had two daughters and co-heiresses:
Succession.
Upon his death in 1951, he was succeeded in the titles, but not in his estates, by his nephew, Robert Cecil Byng, 7th Earl of Strafford.


Lord Howe woodhen

The Lord Howe woodhen ("Hypotaenidia sylvestris") also known as the Lord Howe Island woodhen or Lord Howe (Island) rail, is a flightless bird of the rail family, (Rallidae). It is endemic to Lord Howe Island off the Australian coast. It is currently classified as endangered by the IUCN.
Description.
The Lord Howe woodhen is a small olive brown bird, with a short tail and a downcurved bill. Wings are chestnut with darker bars. The eyes have a red iris.
Ecology.
The species lives in sub-tropical forests, feeding on earthworms, crustaceans, fruit, and occasionally taking the eggs of shearwaters and petrels.
Woodhens mate for life and are usually encountered in pairs. They are territorial and will appear from the forest's understory to investigate the source of any unusual noise. A mated pair will defend an area of approximately three hectares, with offspring being expelled from this area once grown. The population of birds is thus restricted by the amount of available territory.
Decline and recovery.
When explorers first discovered Lord Howe Island in 1788, they identified 15 bird species including the then common woodhen. Being flightless, curious, and having never been hunted, they became a readily available source of food for visiting sailors and the island's early human population. Since its discovery and the arrival of settlers on the island in 1834, nine of these 15 species became extinct. The woodhen declined in numbers until the late 1970s, when surveys showed that the population had dropped to less than 30 birds, confined to the difficult to access summit regions of the island's two mountains, Mount Gower and Mount Lidgbird. The woodhen was at the very brink of extinction in 1980, with just 15 individuals found.
A comprehensive study was carried out to determine the cause of the decline, which was eventually attributed to the introduction of feral pigs. The elimination of the pigs and other disruptive animals (goats), plus a programme of ex-situ conservation (captive breeding) which commenced in May 1980 (the first egg was laid in June 1980), allowed the Lord Howe woodhen to recover its numbers. The captive breeding program was funded with $150,000 from the Foundation for National Parks & Wildlife, which was spent to construct the compound and to employ scientists involved in this project.
In 2007-08 there were about 250 birds on the island, which may be the optimal population size for this area. The population of adult birds in 2016 was 232.
The analysis of the threats to the Lord Howe woodhen, and the implemented solution, is considered a model for conservation biology. A number of possible causes of the decline were identified on the island, from introduced rats to Tasmanian masked owls. However, only the elimination of the pigs would have saved the species from extinction, and identifying the cause and solution in a timely manner was crucial to the success of the programme.
Following success with the woodhen, there have been recovery efforts for other endemic species on Lord Howe Island, including the Lord Howe flax snail ("Placostylus bivaricosus") and the Lord Howe currawong ("Strepera graculina crissalis").
Gilbert rail.
A rail, known only from a single specimen in the form of an alcohol-preserved skin at Harvard, was originally believed to have been collected on one of the Gilbert Islands and named as the Gilbert rail, "Gallirallus conditicius" (Peters & Griscom, 1928).
However, the island attributed to this holotype is low, rocky and sandy, and has no habitat suitable for a rail.
It now appears that a curatorial error led to the specimen being labeled to the wrong collection, and the specimen is actually an immature female Lord Howe woodhen. It differs from that species only in a paler crown, throat and underparts, and browner head, but long immersion in alcohol could have changed the colour. The island to which the specimen was originally attributed is 4,500 km from Lord Howe Island, and it appears improbable that two flightless rails could evolve separately with no morphological differences.


Chondrilla (sponge)

Chondrilla is a genus of sea sponges belonging to the family Chondrillidae.


Renal pyramids


Orogastrura

Orogastrura is a genus of springtails in the family Hypogastruridae. There are about eight described species in "Orogastrura".
Species.
These eight species belong to the genus "Orogastrura":


Segment polarity gene

A segmentation gene is a generic term for a gene whose function is to specify tissue pattern in each repeated unit of a segmented organism. Animals are constructed of segments; however, Drosophila segments also contain subdivided compartments. There are five gene classes which each contribute to the segmentation and development of the embryonic "drosophila". These five gene classes include the coordinate gene, gap gene, pair-rule gene, segment polarity gene, and homeotic gene. In embryonic "drosophila", the pair-rule gene defines odd-skipped and even-skipped genes as parasegments, showing 7 stripes in the embryo. In the next gene class, segment polarity gene, individual segments each have their own anterior and posterior pole, resulting in 14 segments. In the fruit fly "Drosophila melanogaster", segment polarity genes help to define the anterior and posterior polarities within each embryonic parasegment by regulating the transmission of signals via the Wnt signaling pathway and Hedgehog signaling pathway. Segment polarity genes are expressed in the embryo following expression of the gap genes and pair-rule genes. The most commonly cited examples of these genes are "engrailed" and "gooseberry" in "Drosophila melanogaster". The segment polarity is the last step in embryonic development and a repeated pattern where each half of each segment is deleted and a mirror-image is duplicated and reversed to replace that half segment; thus, forming a pattern element.
Segment polarity in Drosophila.
Segmentation polarity occurs during the release of morphogens, which functions to differentiate patterns within sections. The development of a pattern depends on the gradients of these morphogens.
"Engrailed".
In "Drosophila", the "engrailed" gene is expressed only in cells within the posterior section of every segment. Its role is to distinguish posterior from anterior sections of each segment. "Engrailed" expression is generally restricted to cells in the posterior compartment but research suggests it may have other functions.
"Gooseberry".
The "gooseberry" gene's role in segmentation was believed to be involved in segment-polarity class of segmentation genes required for the formation of larval segments because, during embryogenesis, half of the larval segments are replaced by the remain half segment, but in a reversed polarity, which suggested that "gooseberry" was a single gene. However, it is believed that this mechanism is controlled by two duplicated genes instead of one, which are called "gooseberry (gsb)" and "gooseberry neuro (gsbn)".
Development of the Central Nervous System (CNS).
Research into zygotes of "Drosophila" have indicated that several segment polarity genes are vital for segmentation involved in neuroblast formation and differentiation of cell into their neuroblast identity; thereby, developing the central nervous system. Research on the loss-of-function mutations in these genes of "Drosophila" suggests that segment polarity genes interactions are also responsible for neuroblast division, affecting the quantity of neuroblasts as well as their specificity.


Prolagus osmolskae

Prolagus osmolskae is an extinct species in the genus "Prolagus". It may have resembled a pika.
Range.
This species was the northernmost record of "Prolagus". Unlike other members of its genus, "Prolagus osmolskae" did not live near the Mediterranean Sea. Instead, this species lived in Poland.
Nomenclature.
This species was named in honour of Professor Halszka Osmólska.


African openbill

The African openbill ("Anastomus lamelligerus") is a species of stork in the family Ciconiidae. It is native to large parts of sub-Saharan Africa.
Description.
The African openbill is a stork long with a weight of . Its adult plumage is generally dark overall, with glossy green, brown, and purple on the mantle and breast. The bill is brownish and notably large. The legs are black and the eye is grey. The juvenile plumage is more dull and brown, with areas of pale feather tips.
Habitat and distribution.
The African openbill is found in throughout sub-Saharan Africa from Senegal east to Ethiopia and then south as far as KwaZulu-Natal in eastern South Africa.
It is a bird of shallow wetlands and can be found wherever its molluscan prey is available, including temporarily flooded pans, flood plains, swamps, marshes, ponds, streams, river shallows, dams, rice paddies, lagoons, lake margins and intertidal mud flats.
Behavior.
The African openbill feeds almost exclusively on aquatic snails and freshwater mussels. It will, however, also eat terrestrial snail, frogs, crabs, fish, worms, and large insects. It uses its bill to detects its prey, and can use it in such a way that it easily pries open molluscs. It tends to feed singly or in small groups.
The African openbill is mainly resident and non-migratory; however, it may undertake nomadic movements. Sometimes flocks move away from arid regions when the dry season begins.
Breeding.
African openbills breed during the rainy season, when snails are more available. During that period, they perform complex displays, often involving bobbing, bill-clattering, and rocking back and forth with the head held between the legs. They nest in colonies in trees, as is typical of storks. The nest is made of sticks and reeds, and is roughly 50 cm wide. Storks typically lay 3–4 oval, chalky-white eggs. Eggs are incubated by both sexes for 25–30 days. The chicks and downy and black, with a smaller bill, and they leave the nest 50–55 days later.


Esca (fish anatomy)


Cooperiidae

Cooperiidae is a family of nematodes that are one of the most common intestinal parasitic nematodes in cattle in temperate regions.


Projects


Halichondria aldabrensis

Halichondria aldabrensis is a species of sea sponge belonging to the family Halichondriidae.


Annella

Annella is a genus of soft corals belonging to the family Subergorgiidae.


Henry Meyners Bernard

Henry Meyners Bernard (29 November 1853 in Singapore – 4 January 1909 in London) was a British biologist, carcinologist, palaeontologist, mathematician and cleric, and an authority on solifuges, corals and trilobites. He was the third of six children born to Alfred George Farquhar Bernard and Elizabeth Antoinette Moor.
After graduating from Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, Bernard served curacies in Wells and Herefordshire before six years as chaplain of the English Church in Moscow, which he left to study biology and zoology under Professor Ernst Haeckel at Jena (promoter of Darwin's work and proponent of the 'recapitulation theory'). Bernard then catalogued corals and fossils at the British Museum, publishing numerous papers and monographs. In addition he wrote 'The Sense of Sight: Sketch of a New Theory' (1896), 'A Suggested Origin of the Segmented Worms', and 'The Problem of Metamerism' (1900), 'Studies in the Retina' (1906) and co-authored a 'Texbook of Comparative Anatomy' (1896). He became a Fellow of the Linnean and Zoological Societies. He was a socialist, and wrote The Scientific Basis of Socialism: Two Essays in Evolution (New Age Press 1908). He died at 109, West End Lane, London, N.W.
The crustacean family Apodidae was later renamed Triopsidae as it duplicated the family name used for swifts.
Personal life.
He married on 19 November 1883 in Vienna, Austria to Maida Mirrielees, Russian-born daughter of Archibald Mirrielees, founder of Muir & Mirrielees Co. (later renamed TsUM), a high end department store in Moscow. They had three children
His youngest brother Charles Grant Bugden Bernard was the great-great grandfather of Justin Trudeau, 23rd Prime Minister of Canada.


Booted eagles

Booted eagles are eagles that have fully feathered tarsi. That is, their legs are covered with feathers down to the feet. Most other accipitrids have bare lower legs, scaled rather than feathered.
They may be treated as an informal group, as distinct from "fish eagles" (or "sea eagles"), "snake eagles", and "giant forest eagles".
They may also be treated as a formal taxon, either as a tribe (Aquililae) or subfamily (Aquilinae).
The booted eagles, sea eagles, harpy eagles and buteonine hawks are heavily built birds that have traditionally been classified together in the large subfamily Buteoninae. In 2005, Heather Lerner and David Mindell proposed separating the eagles into their own subfamilies Aquilinae, Haliaeetinae, and Harpiinae, leaving only the buteo–buteogallus clade in a more restricted Buteoninae.
Included in the booted eagles are the genera "Aquila", "Hieraaetus" and "Clanga"; all species described as "hawk eagles" including the genera "Spizaetus" and "Nisaetus"; as well as assorted monotypical genera such as "Oroaetus", "Lophaetus", "Stephanoaetus", "Polemaetus", "Lophotriorchis" and "Ictinaetus".
"Aquila" eagles.
The genus "Aquila" is distributed across every continent but for South America and Antarctica. Up to 20 species have been classified in the genus but the taxonomic placement of some of the traditionally included species has recently been questioned. Traditionally, the "Aquila" eagles have been grouped superficially as largish, mainly brownish or dark-colored booted eagles that vary little in transition from their juvenile to their adult plumages.
Genetic research has recently indicated a clade containing the near-circumpolar golden eagle ("Aquila chrysaetos"), Verreaux's eagle ("A. verreauxii") of Africa, Asian Gurney's eagle ("A. gurneyi") and the Australian wedge-tailed eagle ("A. audax"). This identification of this particular clade has long been suspected based on similar morphological characteristics amongst these large-bodied species.
More surprisingly, the smaller, much paler-bellied species pair Bonelli's eagle ("A. fasciatus") and African hawk-eagle ("A. spilogaster"), previously included in the genus "Hieraaetus", have been revealed to be genetically much closer to the Verreaux's and golden eagle lineage than to other species traditionally included in the genus "Aquila".
Other largish "Aquila" species, the eastern imperial eagle ("A. heliaca"), the Spanish imperial eagle ("A. adaberti"), the tawny eagle ("A. rapax") and the steppe eagles ("A. nipalensis"), are now thought to be separate, close-knit clade, which attained some similar characteristics to the golden eagle clade via convergent evolution.
Spotted eagles.
Genetically, the "spotted eagles" ("A. pomarina, A. hasata & A. clanga"), have been discovered to be more closely related to the long-crested eagle ("Lophaetus occipitalis") and the black eagle ("Ictinaetus malaiensis"), and many generic reassignments have been advocated. Some authorities place the spotted eagles in a separate genus, "Clanga".
Hieraaetus.
The genus "Hieraaetus", including the booted eagle ("H. pennatus"), little eagle ("H. morphnoides") and Ayres's hawk-eagle ("H. ayresii"), consists of much smaller species, that are in fact the smallest birds called eagles outside of the unrelated "Spilornis" serpent-eagle genus. This genus has recently been eliminated by some authorities and its members included in "Aquila", although not all ornithological unions have followed this suit in this re-classification. The small-bodied Wahlberg's eagle ("H. wahlbergi") has been traditionally considered an "Aquila" species due to its lack of change from juvenile to adult plumage and brownish color, but it is genetically aligned to the "Hieraaetus" lineage. Cassin's hawk-eagle ("H. africanus") is also probably closely related to the "Hieraaetus" group rather than the "Spizaetus/Nisaetus" "hawk-eagle" group (in which it was previously classified) which is not known to have radiated to Africa.


Giovanni Canestrini

Giovanni Canestrini (26 December 1835 – 14 February 1900) was an Italian naturalist and biologist and translator who was a native of Revò.
Career.
He initially studied in Gorizia and Meran, then furthered his education in natural sciences at the University of Vienna. From 1862 to 1869, he was a lecturer at the University of Modena, and in 1869 became a professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at the University of Padua.
In 1862 he founded the "Società dei Naturalisti Modenesi" (Modena Society of Naturalists), and in 1871, the "Società Veneto-Trentina di Scienze Naturali" (Trento-Venetian Society of Natural Sciences). He is credited with establishment of the bacteriology laboratory at Padua.
Canestrini made contributions in several biological disciplines, performing important research in the field of acarology. He was an advocate of Darwinism, and was responsible for translating Darwin's works. In 1864, he was the first to translate Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" into Italian. Through these translations, Canestrini was a principal factor concerning the popularity of Darwinism in 19th century Italy. He wrote "Origine dell’uomo" ("The Origin of Man", 1866) which advocated common ancestry and defended Darwin from criticisms of Giovanni Giuseppe Bianconi and others, this work was published five years before Darwin's "The Descent of Man". However, although Canestrini was a supporter of many of Darwin's ideas, he rejected his theories of pangenesis and sexual selection.
During his career he was the author of almost 200 scientific publications.
Written works.
Translations


Dalophia ellenbergeri

Dalophia ellenbergeri is a species of amphisbaenian in the family Amphisbaenidae. The species is found in Angola and Zambia.


Rhopalonema

Rhopalonema is a genus of deep-sea hydrozoans of the family Rhopalonematidae.