Eurasian wolf

The Eurasian wolf ("Canis lupus lupus"), also known as the common wolf or Middle Russian forest wolf, is a subspecies of grey wolf native to Europe and the forest and steppe zones of the former Soviet Union. It was once widespread throughout Eurasia prior to the Middle Ages. Aside from an extensive paleontological record, Indo-European languages typically have several words for "wolf", thus attesting to the animal's abundance and cultural significance. It was held in high regard in Baltic, Celtic, Slavic, Turkic, ancient Greek, Roman, and Thracian cultures, whilst having an ambivalent reputation in early Germanic cultures.
It is the largest of Old World grey wolves, averaging in Europe; however, exceptionally large individuals have weighed , though this varies according to region. Its fur is relatively short and coarse, and is generally of a tawny colour, with white on the throat that barely extends to the cheeks. Melanists, albinos, and erythrists are rare, and mostly the result of wolf-dog hybridisation. The howl of the Eurasian wolf is much more protracted and melodious than that of North American grey wolf subspecies, whose howls are louder and have a stronger emphasis on the first syllable. The two are, however, mutually intelligible, as North American wolves have been recorded to respond to European-style howls made by biologists.
Many Eurasian wolf populations are forced to subsist largely on livestock and garbage in areas with dense human activity, though wild ungulates such as moose, red deer, roe deer and wild boar are still the most important food sources in Russia and the more mountainous regions of Eastern Europe. Other prey species include reindeer, argali, mouflon, wisent, saiga, ibex, chamois, wild goats, fallow deer, and musk deer.
Physical description.
Build.
In describing North American wolves, John Richardson used European wolves as a basis for comparison, summarising the differences between the two forms as:
The European wolf's head is narrower, and tapers gradually to form the nose, which is produced on the same plane with the forehead. Its ears are higher and somewhat nearer to each other; their length exceeds the distance between the auditory opening and the eye. Its loins are more slender, its legs longer, feet narrower, and its tail is more thinly clothed with fur.
The shorter ears, broader forehead, and thicker muzzle of the American Wolf, with the bushiness of the hair behind the cheek, give it a physiognomy more like the social visage of an Esquimaux dog than the sneaking aspect of a European Wolf.
Size.
The size of Eurasian wolves is subject to geographic variation, with animals in Russia and Scandinavia being larger than those residing in Western Europe, having been compared by Theodore Roosevelt to the large wolves of north-western Montana and Washington. Adults from Russia measure in length, in shoulder height, and weigh on average , with a maximum weight of . The largest on record was killed after World War II in the Kobelyakski Area of the Poltavskij Region in the Ukrainian SSR, and weighed . Larger weights of have been reported in Ukraine, though the circumstances under which these latter animals were weighed are not known. Although similar in size to central Russian wolves, Swedish and Norwegian wolves tend to be more heavily built with deeper shoulders. One wolf killed in Romania was recorded to have weighed . In Italian wolves, excepting the tail, body lengths range from 110–148 cm, while shoulder height is 50–70 cm. Males weigh between and rarely . The now extinct British wolves are known to have reached similar sizes to Arctic wolves.
Range.
Decline.
The extermination of Northern Europe's wolves first became an organized effort during the Middle Ages, and continued until the late 1800s. In England, wolf persecution was enforced by legislation, and the last wolf was killed in the early 16th century during the reign of Henry VII. Wolves survived longer in Scotland, where they sheltered in vast tracts of forest, which were subsequently burned down. Wolves managed to survive in the forests of Braemar and Sutherland until 1684. The extirpation of wolves in Ireland followed a similar course, with the last wolf believed to have been killed in 1786. A wolf bounty was introduced in Sweden in 1647, after the extermination of moose and reindeer forced wolves to feed on livestock. The Sami extirpated wolves in northern Sweden in organized drives. By 1960, few wolves remained in Sweden, due to the use of snowmobiles in hunting them, with the last specimen being killed in 1966. The grey wolf was exterminated in Denmark in 1772 and Norway's last wolf was killed in 1973. The species was almost wiped out in 20th-century Finland, despite regular dispersals from Russia. The grey wolf was present only in the eastern and northern parts of Finland by 1900, though its numbers increased after World War II. Although the Finnish wolf population rose by 2005 to around 250 individuals, by 2013, their numbers had again declined to the mid-1990s figure of around 140. This was despite government measures to keep breeding numbers viable. At the beginning of 2016, the wolf population was roughly 300-350 individuals.
In Central Europe, wolves were dramatically reduced in number during the early 19th century, due to organized hunts and reductions in ungulate populations. In Bavaria, the last wolf was killed in 1847, and had disappeared from the Rhine regions by 1899 and largely disappeared in Switzerland before the end of the 19th century. In 1934, Nazi Germany introduced the first legislation regulating the protection of wolves. The last free-living wolf to be killed on the soil of present-day Germany before 1945 was the so-called "Tiger of Sabrodt", which was shot near Hoyerswerda, Lusatia (then Lower Silesia), in 1904. Today, wolves have returned to the area.
Wolf hunting in France was first institutionalized by Charlemagne between 800 and 813, when he established the ', a special corps of wolf hunters. The ' was abolished after the French Revolution in 1789, but was re-established in 1814. In 1883, up to 1,386 wolves were killed, with many more by poison.
In Eastern Europe, wolves were never fully exterminated, due to the area's contiguity with Asia and its large forested areas. However, Eastern European wolf populations were reduced to very low numbers by the late 19th century. Wolves were extirpated in Upper Hungary during the first decade of the 20th century and, by the mid-20th century, could be found only in a few forested areas in eastern Poland. Wolves in the eastern Balkans benefitted from the region's contiguity with the former Soviet Union and large areas of plains, mountains, and farmlands. Wolves in Hungary occurred in only half the country around the start of the 20th century, and were largely restricted to the Carpathian Basin. Wolf populations in Romania remained largely substantial, with an average of 2,800 wolves being killed annually out of a population of 4,600 from 1955–1965. An all-time low was reached in 1967, when the population was reduced to 1,550 animals. The extermination of wolves in Bulgaria was relatively recent, as a previous population of about 1,000 animals in 1955 was reduced to about 100–200 in 1964. In Greece, the species disappeared from the southern Peloponnese in 1930. Despite periods of intense hunting during the 18th century, wolves never disappeared in the western Balkans, from Albania to the former Yugoslavia. Organized persecution of wolves began in Yugoslavia in 1923, with the setting up of the Wolf Extermination Committee in Kočevje, Slovenia. The committee was successful in reducing wolf numbers in the Dinaric Alps.
The grey wolf's range in the Soviet Union encompassed nearly the entire territory of the country, being absent only on the Solovetsky Islands, Franz-Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, and the Karagin, Commander, and Shantar Islands. The species was exterminated twice in Crimea, once after the Russian Civil War, and again after World War II. Following the two world wars, Soviet wolf populations peaked twice; 30,000 wolves were harvested annually from a population of 200,000 during the 1940s, with 40,000–50,000 harvested during peak years. Soviet wolf populations reached a low around 1970, disappearing over much of European Russia.
As of 2017, the grey wolf remains regionally extinct in eight European countries: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. However, as of 2020 multiple wolves have started making their permanent habitat in the Netherlands.
Recovery.
The recovery of European wolf populations began after the 1950s, when traditional pastoral and rural economies declined and thus removed the need to heavily persecute wolves. By the 1980s, small and isolated wolf populations expanded in the wake of decreased human density in rural areas and the recovery of wild prey populations.
In 1978, wolves began recolonising central Sweden after a 12-year absence, and have since expanded into southern Norway. As of 2005, the total number of Swedish and Norwegian wolves was estimated to be at least 100, including 11 breeding pairs. The grey wolf is fully protected in Sweden and partially controlled in Norway. The Scandinavian wolf populations owe their continued existence to neighbouring Finland's contiguity with the Republic of Karelia, which houses a large population of wolves. Wolves in Finland are protected throughout the country, and can be hunted only with specific permission. The decline in the moose populations has reduced the wolf's food supply. Since 2011, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Denmark have also reported wolf sightings presumably by natural migration from adjacent countries.
Wolf populations in Poland have increased to about 800–900 individuals since being classified as a game species in 1976, now for more than two decades under legal protection in Annex V and II of the FFH Directive. The number of wolf packs in western Poland has continued to increase. This is confirmed by the results of the wolf monitoring financed by the International Fund for Animal Welfare and the nature conservation foundation EuroNatur, which is carried out by the Polish nature conservation organisation Association for Nature Wolf (AfN Wolf). The Polish scientists estimated that at the end of the 2018/19 monitoring year, at least 95 resident wolf packs would be west of the Vistula, more than at any time since data collection began in 2003. For the first time, the scientists were also able to detect at least three reproducing packs in the Sudeten Mountains in the Czech-Polish border area.
Poland plays a fundamental role in providing routes of expansion into neighbouring Central European countries. In the east, its range overlaps with populations in Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, and Slovakia. A population in western Poland expanded into eastern Germany, and in 2000, the first pups were born on German territory. In 2012, an estimated 14 wolf packs were living in Germany (mostly in the east) and a pack with pups has been sighted within of Berlin. Since then, the population has steadily increased and the area of distribution has grown and extended to large parts of the Federal Republic. In the monitoring year 2018/19, there were a total of 105 packs, 25 pairs and 13 individual territorial animals in 11 federal states. The number of cubs was 393. Since summer 2019, around 1300 wolves, adults and young animals, are living in Germany.
The grey wolf is protected in Slovakia, though an exception is made for wolves killing livestock. A few Slovakian wolves disperse into the Czech Republic, where they are afforded full protection. Wolves in Slovakia, Ukraine, and Croatia may disperse into Hungary
, where the lack of cover hinders the buildup of an autonomous population. Although wolves have special status in Hungary, they may be hunted with a year-round permit if they cause problems.
Romania has a large population of wolves, numbering 2500 animals. The wolf has been a protected animal in Romania since 1996, although the law is not enforced. The number of wolves in Albania and North Macedonia is largely unknown, despite the importance the two countries have in linking wolf populations from Greece to those of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia. Although protected, many wolves are illegally killed in Greece annually, and their future is uncertain. Wolf numbers have declined in Bosnia and Herzegovina since 1986, while the species is fully protected in neighbouring Croatia and Slovenia.
Wolf populations throughout Northern and Central Asia are largely unknown, but are estimated in the hundreds of thousands based on annual harvests. Since the fall of the Soviet Union, continent-wide extermination of wolves has ceased, and wolf populations have increased to about 25,000–30,000 animals throughout the former Soviet Union, an increase of about 150%.
Legal protection.
The Eurasian wolf and the Italian wolf are legally protected in most European countries, either by listing in the annexes of the EU-FHH Directive or by the Bern Convention or both, depending on whether a country is a signatory of the Bern Convention or not.
For EU member states, an application for a change in the listing of the wolf in the annexes to the Habitats Directive requires the approval of the Division for Large Carnivores in the European Commission, in which members of the LCIE have an advisory role. States outside the EU which are signatories to the Bern Convention may submit a corresponding application for a change of protection status to the Standing Committee of the Berne Convention, in which the LCIE also has an advisory role. For example, Switzerland submitted such a request in 2006, which was rejected at the time. In 2018, Switzerland again requested the reduction of the protection status. Due to the passive behaviour of the Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe, processing is delayed. (See also Favourable conservation status of wolves in Europe).
Conflicts.
Attacks on grazing animals.
In Switzerland in 2018, about 500 wolf attacks occurred in a population of about 50 wolves in the presence of about 200 livestock guardian dogs. In Germany between 2000 and 2019, the number of wolf attacks on grazing animals increased from none to 890 in one year, while the number of animals injured and killed increased to 2900, indicating a specialisation in grazing animals and frequent surplus killing events.
In France, the number of animals captured in unprotected flocks decreased between 2010 and 2015 as more and more flocks were protected, but the number of animals killed in protected flocks increased. During this period the behaviour of the wolves changed in such a way that with increasing habituation the proportion of wolf attacks during the day increased. In 2018 there were about 12500 wolf attacks in the French Alpine arc with a population of about 500 wolves and several thousand livestock guardian dogs. Despite new measures to protect herds, there were 3838 sightings of wolves in 2019 in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region and compensation was paid for 12491 detected wolf attacks.
In some regions, livestock guardian dogs also became victims of wolves.
Attacks on humans.
According to documented data, man-eating (not rabid) wolves killed 111 people in Estonia in the years from 1804 to 1853, 108 of them were children, two men and one woman. Of the 108 children, 59 were boys aged 1 – 15 years (average age 7.3 years) and 47 girls aged 1 – 17 years (average age 7.2 years). For two children, gender and age were not specified." So in Estonia, 111 deaths wre reported in about 50 years, with an average of two per year over a country area of 45,227 km², and with some injured people who survived a wolf attack. The wolves that immigrated to Central Europe come from this Baltic population. Due to the abundance of game and many grazing animals still living in species-appropriate free range management, the wolves in Europe are not yet interested in children as prey.
In France, historical records compiled by rural historian Jean-Marc Moriceau indicate that during the period 1362–1918, nearly 7,600 people were killed by wolves, of whom 4,600 were killed by nonrabid wolves. Numerous attacks occurred in Germany during the 17th century after the Thirty Years' War, though the majority probably involved rabid wolves. In Latvia, records of rabid wolf attacks go back two centuries. At least 72 people were bitten between 1992 and 2000. Similarly, in Lithuania, attacks by rabid wolves have continued to the present day, with 22 people having been bitten between 1989 and 2001. Around 82 people were bitten by rabid wolves in Estonia during the 18th to 19th centuries, with a further 136 people being killed in the same period by nonrabid wolves, though the animals likely involved in the latter cases were a combination of wolf-dog hybrids and escaped captive wolves.
Several Russian zoologists after the October Revolution cast doubt on the veracity of records involving wolf-caused deaths. Prominent among them was zoologist Petr Aleksandrovich Manteifel, who initially regarded all cases as either fiction or the work of rabid animals. His writings were widely accepted among Russian zoological circles, though he subsequently changed his stance when he was tasked with heading a special commission after World War II investigating wolf attacks throughout the Soviet Union, which had increased during the war years. A report presented in November 1947 described numerous attacks, including ones perpetrated by apparently healthy animals, and gave recommendations on how to better defend against them. The Soviet authorities prevented the document from reaching both the public and those who would otherwise be assigned to deal with the problem. All mention of wolf attacks was subsequently censored.
Relationships with humans.
Myths.
The majority of pre-Christian wolf-related traditions in Eurasia were rooted in Hittite mythology, with wolves featuring prominently in Indo-European cultures, sometimes as deity figures. The wolf was held in high esteem by the Dacians, whose name was derived from the Gaulish "Daoi", meaning "wolf people". The wolf was viewed as the lord of all animals, and as the only effective power against evil. The Gauls associated wolves with Belenus, the god of light, whose name may have been derived from the Breton "", which itself means 'wolf'. Limping wolf was thought to be one of the manifestations of the Slavic sun god Dažbog. Also, the ancient Greeks associated wolves with their own sun god Apollo.
Less flattering portrayals occurred in Norse mythology, where the wolf Fenrir kills Odin during Ragnarok. Nevertheless, wolves were admired for their ferocity, and Germanic warriors often had the wolf as their totem, a trait later exported to other European cultures. In Lithuanian mythology, an iron wolf appears before Grand Duke Gediminas, instructing him to build the city of Vilnius. Tengrism places high importance on the wolf, as when howling, it is thought to be praying to Tengri, thus making it the only creature other than man to worship a deity.


Craugastor uno

Craugastor uno is a species of frog in the family Craugastoridae. It is endemic to Mexico and known from the Sierra Madre del Sur in Guerrero and southern Oaxaca. Common names Savage's robber frog and strange robber frog have been coined for it. The specific name "uno" refers to uniqueness of this species among its relatives (at the time of description, genus "Eleutherodactylus").
Description.
"Craugastor uno" was described based on a single specimen (holotype), an adult female measuring in snout–vent length. The appearance is robust; the head is broad and the limbs relatively short. The tympanum is elliptical. The fingers and toes have distinct discs; the toes have also slight webbing. The coloration is variable; specimens from have Guerrero have brown, grey, or orange ground color, while specimens from Oaxaca are generally tan or pink. Also the patterns vary, but all individuals had three paired black dorso-lateral blotches, a white mid-dorsal stripe, and a barred upper lip surface. Skin is covered by pustules that may small or large, giving skin an appearance that is smooth or rugose, respectively.
Habitat and conservation.
"Craugastor uno" inhabits mesic pine-oak forests at elevations of above sea level. It is threatened by habitat loss (deforestation) from logging, agriculture, and urban encroachment.


Taeniotes scalatus

Taeniotes scalatus is a species of flat-faced longhorn beetle in the subfamily Lamiinae of the family Cerambycidae.
Description.
"Taeniotes scalatus" can reach a length of . Basic color of body is black, with a yellow dorsal streak and small spots. Larval host plants are cultivated figs ("Ficus carica"), "Artocarpus altilis", "Artocarpus integrifolia", "Brosimum utile", "Castilla elastica", "Morus alba" and "Coffea arabica". These nocturnal flat-faced longhorn beetles can be found all year round, especially from March to June.
Distribution.
This species is very common and widely distributed in the Azores, in the Nearctic realm, in Mexico, and in Central America and northern South America (Belize, Bolivia, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama and Venezuela).


Mexican beaded lizard

The Mexican beaded lizard ("Heloderma horridum") is a species of lizard in the family Helodermatidae, one of the two species of venomous beaded lizards found principally in Mexico and southern Guatemala. It and its congener (member of the same genus) the Gila monster ("Heloderma suspectum") are the only lizards known to have evolved an overt venom delivery system. The Mexican beaded lizard is larger than the Gila monster, with duller coloration, black with yellowish bands. As it is a specialized predator that feeds primarily upon eggs, the primary use of its venom is still a source of debate among scientists. However, this venom has been found to contain several enzymes useful for manufacturing drugs in the treatment of diabetes, and research on the pharmacological use of its venom is ongoing.
Threatened throughout its range by overcollection and habitat loss, it is a CITES protected species. The Guatemalan beaded lizard ("H. charlesbogerti") is one of the rarest lizards in the world, with a wild population of fewer than 200.
Taxonomy.
The beaded lizards have one close living relative, the Gila monster ("H. suspectum"), as well as many extinct relatives in the Helodermatidae, whose genetic history may be traced back to the Cretaceous Period. The genus "Heloderma" has existed since the Miocene Epoch, when "H. texana" ranged over most of North America. Because the helodermatids have remained relatively unchanged morphologically, they are occasionally regarded as living fossils. Although the beaded lizards appear closely related to the monitor lizards (varanids) of Africa, Asia, and Australia, the wide geographical separation and unique features not found in the varanids indicate the beaded lizards are better placed in a separate family.
The species was first described in 1829 by Arend Wiegmann as "Trachyderma horridum", but he renamed it "Heloderma horridum" six months later. Its generic name "Heloderma" means "studded skin", from the Ancient Greek words "hêlos" (ἧλος)—the head of a nail or stud—and "dérma" (δέρμα), meaning skin. Its specific name, "horrĭdum", is the Latin word meaning rough or rude.
Species.
The four subspecies of beaded lizard, elevated to full species in 2013, are:
Description.
Adult beaded lizards range from in length. They are substantially larger than the Gila monster, which only reaches lengths of . The snout-to-vent length of a beaded lizard averages . The average body mass of an adult beaded lizard is , about 45% heavier than the average mass of a gila monster, with large specimens exceeding . Maximum weight known is Although males are slightly larger than females, the beaded lizards are not sexually dimorphic. Both males and females are stocky with broad heads, although the males' tend to be broader. The beaded lizards' scales are small, beadlike, and not overlapping. Except for the underside, the majority of its scales are underlaid with bony osteoderms.
Their base color is black and marked with varying amounts of yellow spots or bands, with the exception of "H. alvarezi", which tends to be all black in color. The beaded lizards have short tails which are used to store fat so they can survive during months of estivation. Unlike many other lizards, this tail does not autotomize and cannot grow back if broken. The beaded lizards have forked, pink tongues which they use to smell, with the help of a Jacobson's organ; they stick their tongues out to gather scents and touch them to the opening of the organ when the tongue is retracted.
Habitat and range.
Beaded lizards are found in the Pacific drainages from southern Sonora to southwestern Guatemala and two Atlantic drainages, from central Chiapas to southeastern Guatemala. Their habitats are primarily in the desert, tropical deciduous forests and thorn scrub forests, but are found in pine-oak forests, with elevations from sea level to 1500 m. In the wild, the lizards are only active from April to mid-November, spending about an hour per day above the ground.
The Mexican beaded lizard "H. horridum" is found in Mexico, from Sonora to Oaxaca. The Rio Fuerte beaded lizard ("H. exasperatum") is found from southern Sonora to northern Sinaloa. The Chiapan beaded lizard ("H. alvarezi") is found in northern Chiapas and the depression of the Río Lagartero in Huehuetenango to northwestern Guatemala. The ranges of these three species overlap, making them sympatric. The Guatemalan beaded lizard ("H. charlesbogerti") is the only allopatric one, separated from the nearest population ("H. alvarezi") by 250 km of unsuitable habitat. The Guatemalan beaded lizard is the most endangered of the species, if not of all lizards; it is found only in the dry valley of the Río Motagua in northeastern Guatemala; less than 200 are believed to exist in the wild.
Ecology.
Diet.
The beaded lizard is a specialized vertebrate nest predator, feeding primarily on bird and reptile eggs. A semi-arboreal species, it is found climbing deciduous trees in search of prey when encountered above ground. It occasionally preys upon small birds, mammals, frogs, lizards, and insects. Steve Angeli and Robert Applegate, noted captive breeders of the beaded lizard, have remarked that captive specimens do best on a diet of small vertebrates such as mice and rats. Confiscated wild-caught specimens can be made to feed by using egg on the prey item.
Venom.
The venom glands of the beaded lizard are modified salivary glands located in the reptile's lower jaw. Each gland has a separate duct leading to the base of its grooved teeth. When biting, the beaded lizard hangs on its victim and chews to get its venomous saliva into the wound. Although its jaw grip is strong, its unsocketed teeth are easily broken off at their bases. The beaded lizard's venom is a weak hemotoxin, and although human deaths are rare, it can cause respiratory failure. It consists of a number of components, including L-amino acid oxidase, hyaluronidase, phospholipase A, serotonin, and highly active kallikreins that release vasoactive kinins. The venom contains no enzymes that significantly affect coagulation. Almost all documented human bites (eight in the past century) have resulted from prodding captive lizards with a finger or bare foot.
While invertebrates are essentially immune to the effects of this venom, effects on vertebrates are more severe and varied. In mammals such as rats, major effects include a rapid reduction in carotid blood flow followed by a marked fall in blood pressure, respiratory irregularities, tachycardia, and other cardiac anomalies, as well as hypothermia, edema, and internal hemorrhage in the gastrointestinal tract, lungs, eyes, liver, and kidneys. In humans, the effects of bites are associated with excruciating pain that may extend well beyond the area bitten and persist up to 24 hours. Other common effects of bites on humans include local edema (swelling), weakness, sweating, and a rapid fall in blood pressure. Beaded lizards are immune to the effects of their own venom.
Some compounds in its venom have been shown to have pharmacological properties relating to the possible treatment of diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, and even HIV. One compound, a hormone named exendin-3, is marketed by Amylin Pharmaceuticals as the drug exenatide. A study in 1996 revealed that it binds to cell receptors in breast cancer cells and may stop the growth of lung cancer cells.
Reproduction.
The beaded lizard becomes sexually mature at six to eight years and mates between September and October. Males engage in ritual combat that often lasts several hours; the victor mates with the female. The female lays her clutch of two to 30 eggs between October and December, the clutch hatching the following June or July.
Young lizards are seldom seen. They are believed to spend much of their early lives underground, emerging at two to three years of age after gaining considerable size.
Conservation.
The beaded lizard is surrounded by myth and superstition in much of its native range. It is incorrectly believed, for example, to be more venomous than a rattlesnake, can cause lightning strikes with its tail, or make a pregnant woman miscarry by merely looking at her. As a result of this superstition, locals often kill the lizard on sight.
The seldom-seen lizard is poached and sold into the illegal exotic animal trade. It does not reproduce well in captivity, and its scarcity means a high price for collectors. As a direct result, the beaded lizard is protected by Mexican law under the category A (Threatened), and it dwells within the range of several protected areas. In Guatemala, it is protected by national legislation, and part of its range is within protected areas. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.
Fewer than 200 lizards remain in the dry forest habitat of the Motagua Valley, and this species of beaded lizard ("H. charlesbogerti") was facing extinction due to local extermination and loss of habitat for agricultural purposes. A conservation effort has been launched known as Project Heloderma to preserve the semiarid habitat of the Motagua Valley by the Nature Conservancy and partners such as ZOOTROPIC, CONAP, the International Reptile Conservation Foundation, Lincoln Park Zoo, Zoo Atlanta, and the San Diego Zoo. This effort has been successful in getting the Guatemalan government to list the beaded lizard under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species as an Appendix I animal, making it illegal to export the species.


Sibon noalamina

Sibon noalamina is a species of snail-eating snake discovered in 2012 from western Panama. It belongs to the genus "Sibon". It has a striking defensive mechanism from predators by mimicking the light and dark stripes of venomous coral snakes.
The species was listed among the "Top 10 New Species 2013" discovered in 2012 as selected by the International Institute for Species Exploration at Arizona State University out of more than 140 nominated species. Its distinctiveness is its resemblance to a venomous snake and its presence in an area of anthropogenic exploitation. The selection was publicised on 22 May 2013.
Nomenclature.
The specimens, three snakes, were found in the Serranía de Tabasará mountain range where ore mining is extensively degrading and diminishing the natural habitat. Hence the specific name is given as a contraction of the Spanish phrase "No a la mina", which in English translates to "No to the mine". This phrase is a campaign slogan to ban mining in the area, where animal habitat is being overexploited.
Discovery.
The snake inhabits the mountain range of Serranía de Tabasará in the Comarca Ngöbe-Buglé, an autonomous territory established in 1997 for the indigenous Ngöbe–Buglé people. The mountain is the natural habitat of several amphibians and reptiles, many of which are endemic, thus the mountain is a biodiversity hot spot that remains largely unexplored. Extreme poverty among the human inhabitants has prompted the highest deforestation rate within Panama, where more than one-fifth of the forests were lost in the 1990s. Moreover, the region's enormous ore deposits – especially the copper deposit in the Cerro Colorado area – are heavily subjected to mining. Zoologists of the Senckenberg Research Institute in Frankfurt, Germany made expeditions between 2008 and 2010 to study the rich but exploited biodiversity. They were able to catch three individuals of the new species. The holotype is an adult male collected from headwaters of Río Chiriquí Malí, by Andreas Hertz and Sebastian Lotzkat on 10 August 2010. The paratypes were two juvenile males collected on 29 October 2009, and a juvenile from Cerro Mariposa collected on 28 May 2008.
Description.
"S. noalamina" is quite similar to other colubrid snakes of America such as "Dipsas" species especially in the pattern of colouration. However, it differs distinctively from other snakes including its related species of "Sibon" in the specific alignment and shape of the scales. It has only five supralabial scales, the shape of the posterior supralabial are different, and some dorsal rows (3rd to 5th) are keeled in adults. The snake is nocturnal and hunts soft-bodied prey including earthworms and amphibian eggs, in addition to snails and slugs. The contrasting alternating dark rings on light background of the skin are also significantly different from those of other snakes, and consist of 15 dorsal rows throughout the body.
Significance.
"S. noalamina" is quite harmless. However, its elaborate resemblance with a highly venomous coral snake is impressive. As a vulnerable species, it represents an elegant Batesian mimic. It also is a medium for the message of the conservation campaign for biodiversity threats in Panama, as the discoverer Lotzkat remarked, ""Sibon noalamina" stands with its name against overexploitation of nature and for the conservation of the highland rainforests of western Panama."


Dolgoma nigrocribrata

Dolgoma nigrocribrata is a moth of the family Erebidae. It is found in Guangdong, China.
The length of the forewings is about . The forewings are bright yellow with numerous diffuse and irregular blackish spots and small strokes between the veins. The hindwings are yellow, often covered with black scales.


Purple-crowned plovercrest

Stephanoxis loddigesii is a species of hummingbird known by the common names purple-crowned plovercrest, violet-crested plovercrest, and violet-crowned plovercrest. It is native to Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay.


List of non-marine molluscs of Georgia

The non-marine molluscs of the country of Georgia are a part of the molluscan fauna of Georgia.
Georgia lies in the Caucasus ecoregion, that is a biodiversity hotspot. Georgia has majority of Caucasian endemic species of gastropods.
Land gastropods.
Species of land gastropods of Georgia include:
Cyclophoridae
Diplommatinidae
Aciculidae
Cochlostomatidae
Pomatiidae
Ellobiidae
Succineidae
Cochlicopidae
Orculidae
Pupillidae
Chondrinidae
Lauriidae
Vertiginidae
Enidae
Clausiliidae
Spiraxidae
Oxychilidae
Pristilomatidae
Vitrinidae
Trigonochlamydidae
Boettgerillidae
Milacidae
Agriolimacidae
Limacidae
Hygromiidae
Helicidae


Amphisbaena frontalis

Amphisbaena frontalis is a species of worm lizards found in Brazil.


Oncotylus punctiger

Oncotylus punctiger is a species of plant bugs belonging to the family Miridae, subfamily Phylinae that is endemic to Spain.


Hemidactylus romeshkanicus

Hemidactylus romeshkanicus is a species of gecko. It is endemic to Iran.


Aulocera brahminus

Aulocera brahminus, the narrow-banded satyr, is a brown (Satyrinae) butterfly that is found in the Himalayas. The species was first described by Émile Blanchard in 1853.
Range.
The butterfly is found in the Himalayas from Kashmir eastwards to Garhwal, Kumaon, Nepal and Sikkim.
Status.
In 1932 William Harry Evans reported that the species was common.
Description.
The barrow-banded satyr is 55 to 68 mm in wingspan.
The barrow-banded satyrs are large powerfully built Himalayan butterflies which are black or very dark brown above. They are characterised by a white discal band across both wings. The hindwing band is narrow and even in width. The white discal spots in 1 to 4 along the inner edge of the forewing are in line. The wings are rounded with convex termens and have chequered fringes. A dark apical spot or ocellus is present on the forewing. The under hindwing is dark below, with beautiful white variegations not as prominent as the dark background.
The tegumen is gradually sloped to the tip.
Earlier "Aulocera brahminoides" was considered a subspecies of "A. brahminus". In "A. brahminus", the under-forewing apical ocellus is well-defined and prominently pupilled while in "A. brahminoides" it is less well defined, much smaller and darker. The upper-hindwing discal band to dorsum, which is a characteristic feature in "A. brahminus" is much curved in the case of "A. brahminoides".


Lachesilla merzi

Lachesilla merzi is a species of Psocoptera from Lachesillidae family that is endemic to Spain.


Myrmecium bifasciatum

Myrmecium bifasciatum is an ant-mimicking spider species found in Brazil and French Guiana.


Saint Helena hoopoe

The Saint Helena hoopoe ("Upupa antaios"), also known as the Saint Helena giant hoopoe or giant hoopoe, is an extinct species of the hoopoe (family Upupidae), known exclusively from an incomplete subfossil skeleton. It was last seen around 1550.
It was endemic to the island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic. It was most likely flightless.
The first analysis of this species was given in 1963 by the British zoologist Philip Ashmole, who discovered, in the Dry Gut sediments east of Saint Helena, a left humerus which differed significantly from that of other Upupidae.
The incomplete skeleton, which was found in 1975 by the palaeontologist Storrs L. Olson, consists of both coracoids and the left femur.


Calotes manamendrai

Calotes manamendrai (Manamendra-Arachchi's whistling lizard) is an agamid lizard endemic to Sri Lanka. Locally known as මනමේන්ද්‍ර-ආරච්චිගේ උරුවන් කටුස්සා (Manamendra-Arachchigë Uruwan Katussa).
Etymology.
The specific name is as an honor to the herpetologist and taxonomist Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi for his remarkable contributions to the biodiversity and zooarchaeology of Sri Lanka for more than three decades.
Description.
Female with non enlarged pectoral scales. Dorsal scales keeled. Midgular scales smaller than the rest of the throat scales. Seven distinct stripes found on each side on gular area. Shoulder pit blackish.


Chilean seaside cinclodes

The Chilean seaside cinclodes ("Cinclodes nigrofumosus") is a species of bird in the family Furnariidae. It is endemic to rocky shorelines in Chile. Some authorities include the Peruvian seaside cinclodes as a subspecies while others list it as a separate species. The ranges of the two do not overlap.
Description.
The Chilean seaside cinclodes grows to a length of about . The upper parts are mainly a dark sooty brown, with a narrow whitish superciliary stripe and pale tips to the outer tail feathers. The wings have a rufous-buff bar that is chiefly visible in flight. The chin, throat and sides of the neck are white while the breast and belly are brown, streaked with white. The beak is charcoal grey and slightly curved and the rather short legs are dark grey.
Distribution and habitat.
This bird is endemic to Chile where it lives on the coast, typically on rocky shores with boulders and tidepools. Its range extends from Arica to Valdivia.
Ecology.
Chilean seaside cinclodes bob their tail as they walk. They have a loud trilling song, often uttered from the top of a boulder, and often flare their wings as they sing. They forage singly or in pairs, searching along the foreshore for the small crustaceans and other invertebrates on which they feed, often hunting in surf-exposed places. Breeding takes place in August and September. The nest is built in a rock crevice or in a hole excavated in an earth bank and is formed out of grasses, with two to four white eggs being laid.
Status.
The Chilean seaside cinclodes has a very wide range and is described as common. The population trend seems to be steady, and the total population is large. No particular threats have been identified and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed the bird's conservation status as being of "least concern".


Blue-and-white mockingbird

The blue-and-white mockingbird ("Melanotis hypoleucus") is a species of bird in the family Mimidae. It is found in El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and south-eastern Mexico. Its natural habitats are dry scrubland, woodland, second growth and forest edges at 1000–3000 m above sea-level.
It is about 25 cm long. It has blue-grey upperparts, white underparts, red eyes and a black mask. The song is high-pitched and rattling.


Flabellinopsis iodinea

Flabellinopsis iodinea, the Spanish shawl, is a species of aeolid nudibranch, a very colorful sea slug. This is a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Flabellinidae.
Distribution.
This species is native to the west coast of North America and farther south. It has been reported as far north as British Columbia, Canada, and as far south as Punta Asunción, Baja California Sur, Mexico. In addition it is found in the Gulf of California and the Galapagos Islands.
It has been found off the coast of Santa Catalina Island, California.
It has also been found off the coast of the Palos Verdes Peninsula and San Diego, California .
Description.
This nudibranch displays a stunning set of colors: the body is purple, the cerata are orange and the rhinophores are scarlet. The neon orange appendages on the back of "Flabellinopsis iodinea" are the cerata which extract oxygen from the sea water they are surrounded by and live in. The cerata are also extensions of the digestive system, and are used to store the stinging cells of the anemones and fan-like hydroids they eat. The red rhinophores are sensory structures used for detecting the presence of possible mates and prey. The purple, red, and orange colors are derived from a single carotenoid pigment, astaxanthin. The pigment appears in three modified states, leading to the three distinct colors.
Scientists think the reason why the Spanish Shawl's gills are orange is so they can camouflage with their prey while they are eating. The orange gills on their backs are also a warning to potential predators. The color tells their predators that they are either poisonous or distasteful.
Life habits.
Spanish shawls are hermaphrodites, which means they have both male and female reproductive organs. However, self-fertilisation very rarely occurs. When threatened by other predators, they can gracefully move away by flexing their body strongly and pushing off from the substrate and into midwater.


Craugastor rupinius

Craugastor rupinius is a species of frogs in the family Craugastoridae. It is found in the southeastern Mexico (Chiapas), southern Guatemala, El Salvador, and western Honduras. Common name cliffy stream frog has been coined for it.
Etymology.
The specific name "rupinius" is from Latin "rupina", meaning "rocky chasm", in reference to the rocky stream environments this species inhabits.
Description.
Adult males grow to and females to in snout–vent length. The upper eyelids have a few scattered, large tubercles. The canthus rostralis is moderately sharp and tympanum is distinct; supratympanic fold is moderately developed. Dorsal skin is rugose with scattered large tubercles. The coloration of the dorsum varies: various shades of brown, yellow-brown, reddish brown, or live-brown are all recorded. Some females show a whitish or pale yellow vertebral line or stripe. Most individuals have a black interorbital line. Some individuals have dark limb bars. The iris is gold or copper-colored.
Habitat and conservation.
Its natural habitats are steep, rocky streams, primarily in premontane wet forests, but also in lowland and lower montane wet forests, between above sea level. It also occurs secondary forests and shade coffee plantations. While a common species, it is threatened by habitat loss, and potentially, chytridiomycosis.


List of birds of Gibraltar

This is a list of the bird species recorded in Gibraltar. The avifauna of Gibraltar include a total of 311 species, of which seven have been introduced by humans and 128 are rare or accidental in Gibraltar. Five species are globally threatened. The majority of the introduced species are wanderers from introduced populations in Spain.
This list's taxonomic treatment (designation and sequence of orders, families and species) and nomenclature (common and scientific names) follow the conventions of "The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World", 6th edition with a few changes to match the list of the Gibraltar Ornithological & Natural History Society. The family accounts at the beginning of each heading reflect the Clements' taxonomy, as do the species counts found in each family account. Introduced and accidental species are included in the total counts for Gibraltar.
The following tags have been used to highlight categories. The commonly occurring native species do not fall into any of these categories.
Divers.
Order: GaviiformesFamily: Gaviidae
Divers, known as loons in North America, are a group of aquatic birds found in many parts of North America and northern Europe. They are the size of a large duck or small goose, but to which they are completely unrelated. There are 5 species worldwide and 3 species which occur in Gibraltar.
Grebes.
Order: PodicipediformesFamily: Podicipedidae
Grebes are small to medium-large freshwater diving birds. They have lobed toes and are excellent swimmers and divers. However, they have their feet placed far back on the body, making them quite ungainly on land. There are 20 species worldwide and 2 species which occur in Gibraltar.
Shearwaters and petrels.
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Procellariidae
The procellariids are the main group of medium-sized "true petrels", characterised by united nostrils with medium septum and a long outer functional primary. There are 8 species which have been recorded in Gibraltar.
Northern storm petrels.
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Hydrobatidae
The northern storm petrels are relatives of the petrels and are the smallest seabirds. They feed on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. The flight is fluttering and sometimes bat-like.
Gannets.
Order: SuliformesFamily: Sulidae
The sulids comprise the gannets and boobies. Both are medium to large coastal seabirds that plunge-dive for fish..
Cormorants.
Order: SuliformesFamily: Phalacrocoracidae
Phalacrocoracidae is a family of medium to large coastal, fish-eating seabirds that includes cormorants and shags. Colouration varies, with the majority having mainly dark plumage, some species being black-and-white and a few being colourful.
Herons, egrets, and bitterns.
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae
The family Ardeidae contains the bitterns, herons, and egrets. Herons and egrets are medium to large wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to have shorter necks and be more wary. Members of Ardeidae fly with their necks retracted, unlike other long-necked birds such as storks, ibises and spoonbills.
Ibises and spoonbills.
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Threskiornithidae
Threskiornithidae is a family of large terrestrial and wading birds which includes the ibises and spoonbills. They have long, broad wings with 11 primary and about 20 secondary feathers. They are strong fliers and despite their size and weight, very capable soarers.
Storks.
Order: CiconiiformesFamily: Ciconiidae
Storks are large, long-legged, long-necked, wading birds with long stout bills. Storks are mute, but bill-clattering is an important mode of communication at the nest. Their nests can be large and may be reused for many years. Many species are migratory.
Flamingos.
Order: PhoenicopteriformesFamily: Phoenicopteridae
Flamingos are gregarious wading birds, usually tall, found in both the Western and Eastern Hemispheres. Flamingos filter-feed on shellfish and algae. Their oddly shaped beaks are specially adapted to separate mud and silt from the food they consume and, uniquely, are used upside-down. There are 6 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in Gibraltar.
Ducks, geese and swans.
Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae
The family Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These are birds adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to an oily coating.
Osprey.
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Pandionidae
The family Pandionidae contains only one species, the osprey. The osprey is a medium-large raptor which is a specialist fish-eater with a worldwide distribution.
Hawks, eagles, and kites.
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Accipitridae
Accipitridae is a family of birds of prey, which includes hawks, eagles, kites, harriers and Old World vultures. These birds have powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons and keen eyesight.
Falcons.
Order: FalconiformesFamily: Falconidae
Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey. They differ from hawks, eagles and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their talons.
Pheasants, grouse, and allies.
Order: GalliformesFamily: Phasianidae
The Phasianidae are a family of terrestrial birds. In general, they are plump (although they vary in size) and have broad, relatively short wings.
Cranes.
Order: GruiformesFamily: Gruidae
Cranes are large, long-legged and long-necked birds. Unlike the similar-looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Most have elaborate and noisy courting displays or "dances". There are 15 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in Gibraltar.
Rails, gallinules, and coots.
Order: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae
Rallidae is a large family of small to medium-sized birds which include the rails, crakes, coots and gallinules. Typically they inhabit dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings and to be weak fliers.
Bustards.
Order: OtidiformesFamily: Otididae
Bustards are large terrestrial birds mainly associated with dry open country and steppes in the Old World. They are omnivorous and nest on the ground. They walk steadily on strong legs and big toes, pecking for food as they go. They have long broad wings with "fingered" wingtips and striking patterns in flight. Many have interesting mating displays. There are 26 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in Gibraltar.
Oystercatchers.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Haematopodidae
The oystercatchers are large and noisy plover-like birds, with strong bills used for smashing or prising open molluscs. There are 11 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in Gibraltar.
Avocets and stilts.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Recurvirostridae
Recurvirostridae is a family of large wading birds, which includes the avocets and stilts. The avocets have long legs and long up-curved bills. The stilts have extremely long legs and long, thin, straight bills. There are 9 species worldwide and 2 species which occur in Gibraltar.
Thick-knees.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Burhinidae
The thick-knees are a group of largely tropical waders in the family Burhinidae. They are found worldwide within the tropical zone, with some species also breeding in temperate Europe and Australia. They are medium to large waders with strong black or yellow-black bills, large yellow eyes and cryptic plumage. Despite being classed as waders, most species have a preference for arid or semi-arid habitats. There is 1 species which has been recorded in Gibraltar.
Pratincoles and coursers.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Glareolidae
Glareolidae is a family of wading birds comprising the pratincoles, which have short legs, long pointed wings and long forked tails, and the coursers, which have long legs, short wings and long, pointed bills which curve downwards. There are 17 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in Gibraltar.
Plovers and lapwings.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae
The family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels and lapwings. They are small to medium-sized birds with compact bodies, short, thick necks and long, usually pointed, wings. They are found in open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water.
Sandpipers and allies.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae
Scolopacidae is a large diverse family of small to medium-sized shorebirds including the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers and phalaropes. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil. Variation in length of legs and bills enables multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food. There are 18 species which have been recorded in Gibraltar.
Skuas.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Stercorariidae
Stercorariidae are, in general, medium to large birds, typically with grey or brown plumage, often with white markings on the wings. They nest on the ground in temperate and arctic regions and are long-distance migrants. There are 3 species which occur in Gibraltar.
Gulls, terns, and skimmers.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae
Laridae is a family of medium to large seabirds that includes gulls, terns, and skimmers. Gulls are typically grey or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have stout, longish bills and webbed feet. Terns are a group of generally medium to large seabirds typically with grey or white plumage, often with black markings on the head. Most terns hunt fish by diving but some pick insects off the surface of fresh water. Terns are generally long-lived birds, with several species known to live in excess of 30 years.
Auks.
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Alcidae
Alcids are superficially similar to penguins due to their black-and-white colours, their upright posture and some of their habits, however they are not related to the penguins and differ in being able to fly. Auks live on the open sea, only deliberately coming ashore to nest. There are 24 species worldwide and 3 species which occur in Gibraltar.
Sandgrouse.
Order: PterocliformesFamily: Pteroclidae
Sandgrouse have small, pigeon like heads and necks, but sturdy compact bodies. They have long pointed wings and sometimes tails and a fast direct flight. Flocks fly to watering holes at dawn and dusk. Their legs are feathered down to the toes. There are 16 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in Gibraltar.
Pigeons and doves.
Order: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae
Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere. There are 308 species worldwide and 5 species which occur in Gibraltar.
Cuckoos.
Order: CuculiformesFamily: Cuculidae
The family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners and anis. These are birds of variable sizes with slender bodies, long tails and strong legs. There are 138 species worldwide and 2 species which occur in Gibraltar.
Barn owls.
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Tytonidae
Barn owls are medium to large owls with large heads and characteristic heart-shaped faces. They have long strong legs with powerful talons. There are 16 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in Gibraltar.
Typical owls.
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Strigidae
The typical owls are small to large solitary nocturnal birds of prey. They have large forward-facing eyes and ears, a hawk-like beak and a conspicuous circle of feathers around each eye called a facial disk.
Nightjars.
Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Caprimulgidae
Nightjars are medium-sized nocturnal birds that usually nest on the ground. They have long wings, short legs and very short bills. Most have small feet, of little use for walking, and long pointed wings. Their soft plumage is camouflaged to resemble bark or leaves.
Swifts.
Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Apodidae
Swifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. Many swifts have long swept-back wings which resemble a crescent or boomerang.
Kingfishers.
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Alcedinidae
Kingfishers are medium-sized birds with large heads, long, pointed bills, short legs and stubby tails. There are 93 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in Gibraltar.
Bee-eaters.
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Meropidae
The bee-eaters are a group of near passerine birds in the family Meropidae. Most species are found in Africa but others occur in southern Europe, Madagascar, Australia and New Guinea. They are characterised by richly coloured plumage, slender bodies and usually elongated central tail feathers. All are colourful and have long downturned bills and pointed wings, which give them a swallow-like appearance when seen from afar. There are 26 species worldwide and 2 species which occur in Gibraltar.
Rollers.
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Coraciidae
Rollers resemble crows in size and build, but are more closely related to the kingfishers and bee-eaters. They share the colourful appearance of those groups with blues and browns predominating. The two inner front toes are connected, but the outer toe is not. There are 12 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in Gibraltar.
Hoopoes.
Order: BucerotiformesFamily: Upupidae
Hoopoes have black, white and orangey-pink colouring with a large erectile crest on their head. There are 2 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in Gibraltar.
Woodpeckers and allies.
Order: PiciformesFamily: Picidae
Woodpeckers are small to medium-sized birds with chisel-like beaks, short legs, stiff tails and long tongues used for capturing insects. Some species have feet with two toes pointing forward and two backward, while several species have only three toes. Many woodpeckers have the habit of tapping noisily on tree trunks with their beaks.
Larks.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Alaudidae
Larks are small terrestrial birds with often extravagant songs and display flights. Most larks are fairly dull in appearance. Their food is insects and seeds. There are 91 species worldwide and 7 species which occur in Gibraltar.
Swallows.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae
The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings and a short bill with a wide gape. Their feet are designed for perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partially joined at the base.
Wagtails and pipits.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Motacillidae
Motacillidae is a family of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They include the wagtails, longclaws and pipits. They are slender, ground feeding insectivores of open country.
Kinglets.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Regulidae
The kinglets, also called crests, are a small group of birds often included in the Old World warblers, but frequently given family status because they also resemble the titmice. There are 7 species worldwide and 2 species which occur in Gibraltar.
Wrens.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Troglodytidae
The wrens are mainly small and inconspicuous except for their loud songs. These birds have short wings and thin down-turned bills. Several species often hold their tails upright. All are insectivorous.
Accentors.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Prunellidae
The accentors are in the only bird family, Prunellidae, which is completely endemic to the Palearctic. They are small, fairly drab species superficially similar to sparrows. There are 13 species worldwide and 2 species which occur in Gibraltar.
Thrushes and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Turdidae
The thrushes are a group of passerine birds that occur mainly in the Old World. They are plump, soft plumaged, small to medium-sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs.
Cisticolas and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cisticolidae
The Cisticolidae are warblers found mainly in warmer southern regions of the Old World. They are generally very small birds of drab brown or grey appearance found in open country such as grassland or scrub. There are 111 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in Gibraltar.
Bush warblers and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Scotocercidae
Locustellid warblers.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Locustellidae
Acrocephalid warblers.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Acrocephalidae
Phylloscopid warblers.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Phylloscopidae
Sylviid warblers, parrotbills, and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sylviidae
The family Sylviidae is a group of small insectivorous passerine birds. They mainly occur as breeding species, as the common name implies, in Europe, Asia and, to a lesser extent, Africa. Most have generally undistinguished appearance, but many have distinctive songs.
Old World flycatchers.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Muscicapidae
Old World flycatchers and chats are a large group of small passerine birds native to the Old World. They are mainly small arboreal insectivores. The appearance of these birds is highly varied, and they mostly have weak songs and harsh calls.
Long-tailed tits.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Aegithalidae
The long-tailed tits are a group of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They make woven bag nests in trees. Most eat a mixed diet which includes insects. There are 9 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in Gibraltar.
Tits.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Paridae
The Paridae are mainly small stocky woodland species with short stout bills. Some have crests. They are adaptable birds, eating a mixed diet including seeds and insects. There are 59 species worldwide and 4 species which occur in Gibraltar.
Wallcreeper.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Tichodromidae
The wallcreeper is a small bird related to the nuthatch family, which has stunning crimson, grey and black plumage.
Treecreepers.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Certhiidae
Treecreepers are small woodland birds, brown above and white below. They have thin pointed down-curved bills, which they use to extricate insects from bark. They have stiff tail feathers, like woodpeckers, which they use to support themselves on vertical trees. There are 6 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in Gibraltar.
Old World orioles.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Oriolidae
The Old World orioles are colourful passerine birds. They are not related to the New World orioles. There are 29 species worldwide and 1 species which occurs in Gibraltar.
Shrikes.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Laniidae
Shrikes are passerine birds known for their habit of catching other birds and small animals and impaling the uneaten portions of their bodies on thorns. A typical shrike's beak is hooked, like a bird of prey. There are 4 species which occur in Gibraltar.
Crows, jays, ravens and magpies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Corvidae
The family Corvidae includes crows, ravens, jays, choughs, magpies, treepies, nutcrackers and ground jays. Corvids are above average in size among the Passeriformes, and some of the larger species show high levels of intelligence. There are 120 species worldwide and 8 species which occur in Gibraltar.
Starlings.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sturnidae
Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds. Their flight is strong and direct and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country. They eat insects and fruit. Plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen. There are 125 species worldwide and 2 species which occur in Gibraltar.
Weavers and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Ploceidae
The weavers are small passerine birds related to the finches. They are seed-eating birds with rounded conical bills. The males of many species are brightly coloured, usually in red or yellow and black, some species show variation in colour only in the breeding season. There are 116 species worldwide and 4 species which occur in Gibraltar.
Waxbills and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Estrildidae
The estrildid finches are small passerine birds of the Old World tropics and Australasia. They are gregarious and often colonial seed eaters with short thick but pointed bills. They are all similar in structure and habits, but have a wide variation in plumage colour and pattern. There are 141 species worldwide and 2 species which occur in Gibraltar.
Old World buntings.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Emberizidae
The emberizids are a large family of passerine birds. They are seed eaters with distinctively shaped bills. Many emberizid species have distinctive head patterns.
Cardinals and allies.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cardinalidae
The cardinals are a family of robust, seed-eating birds with strong bills. They are typically associated with open woodland. The sexes usually have distinct plumage.
New World blackbirds.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Icteridae
The icterids are a group of small to medium-sized, often colourful, passerine birds restricted to the New World and include the grackles, New World blackbirds and New World orioles. Most species have black as the predominant plumage colour, often enlivened by yellow, orange or red.
Finches.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Fringillidae
Finches are seed-eating passerine birds, that are small to moderately large and have a strong beak, usually conical and in some species very large. All have twelve tail feathers and nine primaries. These birds have a bouncing flight with alternating bouts of flapping and gliding on closed wings, and most sing well.
Old World sparrows.
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae
Old World sparrows are small passerine birds. In general, sparrows tend to be small, plump, brown or grey birds with short tails and short powerful beaks. Sparrows are seed-eaters, but they also consume small insects.


Amphisbaena filiformis

Amphisbaena filiformis is a species of worm lizards found in Brazil.


Pomacea glauca

Pomacea glauca is a species of freshwater snail, an aquatic gastropod mollusk in the family Ampullariidae, the apple snails.
The species varies greatly in color, shape and size, growing to around 70 mm. Its colors include a pale yellow with brown spiral bands to darker shades of brown or purple with darker bands.
Distribution.
The species is found in the Dominican Republic, the Lesser Antilles and northern South America including Venezuela, Colombia, Brazil and on the West Indian island of Dominica.
Ecology.
This snail generally inhabits clean, clear water, where it can reach high population densities. The eggs are bright green and around the size of a small pea.


Amaurobius candia

Amaurobius candia is a species of spider in the family Amaurobiidae, found in Crete.


Sevan trout

The Sevan trout ("Salmo ischchan") is an endemic fish species of Lake Sevan in Armenia, known as ishkhan (իշխան, ) in Armenian. It is a salmonid fish related to the brown trout.
The fish is endangered, because various competitors were introduced into the lake during the Soviet period, including common whitefish ("Coregonus lavaretus") from Lake Ladoga, goldfish ("Carassius auratus") and narrow-clawed crayfish ("Astacus leptodactylus"); and because of lake level change. On the other hand, the Sevan trout itself has been successfully introduced to Issyk Kul lake in Kyrgyzstan.
A resolution by Armenia's Council of Ministers in 1976 stopped the commercial fishing of Sevan trout and organized Sevan National Park. The fish are nowadays also reared in hatcheries.
The Sevan trout has four (or two) distinct strains differing in their breeding time and place, and growth rate:
The winter bakhtak is the largest form and can grow to considerable size, up to 90 cm and 15 kg. It breeds within the lake. The summer bakhtak is smaller (<50 cm), and breeds naturally both in rivers and within lake near river mouths. Gegharkuni is a migratory form that naturally breeds exclusively in rivers; it also feeds on plankton in addition to benthos. Bojak in turn is a dwarfed form that breeds within the lake in the winter, and does not exceed 33 cm and 0.25 kg.
Water level regulation has been destructive for sevan trout reproduction. Currently, the summer bakhtak and gegharkuni are mainly propagated by hatcheries. The winter bakhtak and bojak may be extinct within the lake.
From a study of historical samples, the four strains or forms are not diagnosable by their mitochondrial DNA sequences. As a whole, the Sevan trout is phylogenetically very close to the Caspian trout, within the brown trout complex.


Chinese francolin

The Chinese francolin ("Francolinus pintadeanus") or Burmese francolin is a species of game bird in the family Phasianidae.
Description.
On average, the length of the bird is and it weighs . Females are slightly smaller than males.
Distribution and habitat.
This species is found in Cambodia, China, India, Laos, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam. Introduced to Mauritius, the Philippines, Madagascar, United States, Chile and Argentina. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forest and subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest.


Babiacetus

Babiacetus is an extinct genus of early cetacean that lived during the late Lutetian middle Eocene of India ().
It was named after its type locality, the Harudi Formation in the Babia Hills (: paleocoordinates ), Kutch District, Gujarat, India.
"Babiacetus" was named by in an abstract based on the specimen's type (GSI 19647, left and right dentaries with cheek teeth). Gingerich and colleagues found a skull (GSP-UM 3005, much of a skull and lower jaws) while collecting a skeleton of a new species of Protosiren ("Protosiren sattaensis") in the Drazinda Formation (, paleocoordinates ) in the Sulaiman Range of Punjab, Pakistan. described both the original find and their new specimen.
 described "B. mishrai" from the specimen (RUSB 2512, a partial skull) collected in the Harudi Formation.
"Babiacetus" is one of the larger protocetids. Its hydrodynamic skull and pointed, anteroposteriorly (front-back) oriented incisors are typical of archaeocetes. A densely ossified auditory bulla and large mandibular canal indicate it was adapted for hearing in water. "Babiacetus" differs from pakicetids and ambulocetids (more primitive families) by the large mandibular foramen and a medially concave ascending ramus; distinct from remingtonocetids and basilosauroids (more derived families) by the single-cusped trigonid and talonid on the lower molars. Its long synostotic (fused) mandibular symphysis, which reaches as far back as P2, distinguishes it from "Pappocetus" and "Georgiacetus" (other protocetids). Its auditory bulla is more narrow than "Rodhocetus"'. "Babiacetus" lacks the prominent molar protocone present in "Indocetus".
The anterior premolars are large.
Its large size as well as robust teeth suggest that it fed on larger fishes or aquatic vertebrates, or both. To date, only cranial remains have been found, hence nothing is known of "Babicetus"' mode of locomotion or degree of aquatic adaptation.
The mandible is longer in "B. indicus" than in "B. mishrai", and P1 is single-rooted in the former but double-rooted in the latter. The diastemata between P1 and P4 in "B. indicus" is absent in "B. mishrai". "B. indicus" has larger cheek teeth and a larger M3.


Megalorhipida gielisi

Megalorhipida gielisi is a moth of the family Pterophoridae that is known from India (Himachal Pradesh).
The wingspan is .


Monnechroma tibiale

Monnechroma tibiale is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Giesbert in 1987. It is known from Costa Rica.


Heosemys

Heosemys is a genus of freshwater turtles ("terrapins" in British English) in the family Geoemydidae (formerly called Bataguridae). The genus "Heosemys" was split out of the related genus "Geoemyda" by McDowell in 1964.
Species.
Four species are placed under "Heosemys":
Some other species, initially placed here also, are now in different genera. The Sulawesi forest turtle is now classified under "Leucocephalon", the Philippine forest turtle under "Siebenrockiella", and the Cochin Forest cane turtle under "Vijayachelys".


List of non-marine molluscs of India

The non-marine molluscs of India are a part of the molluscan fauna of India.
There are 5070 species of marine and non-marine molluscs living in the wild in India. There are 3371 species of marine molluscs in India.
There are 1671 species of non-marine molluscs living in the wild in India. This includes 1488 terrestrial species in 140 genera and 183 freshwater species in 53 genera.
There are a total of species of gastropods, which breaks down to ?? species of freshwater gastropods, and 1488 species of land gastropods, plus ?? species of bivalves living in the wild.
Freshwater gastropods.
Neritidae
Viviparidae
Ampullariidae
Valvatidae
Littorinidae
Pomatiopsidae
Hydrobiidae
Assimineidae
Thiaridae
Lymnaeidae
Planorbidae
Land gastropods.
Species of gastropods of India include:
Hydrocenidae
Helicinidae
Achatinidae
Camaenidae
Cerastidae
Charopidae
Cyclophoridae
Diplommatinidae
Endodontidae
Enidae
Staffordiidae – this family lives only in India
Helicarionidae
Ariophantidae
Pupillidae
Pyramidulidae
Streptaxidae
Diapheridae
Succineidae
Subulinidae
Valloniidae
Veronicellidae
Vertiginidae
Pleurodontidae
unsorted:


Atlantic whitefish

The Atlantic whitefish ("Coregonus huntsmani") is a coregonine fish inhabiting some freshwater lakes within Nova Scotia, Canada. It is known to survive only in the Petite Rivière watershed as landlocked populations. Earlier it was also found in the Tusket and Annis rivers of Nova Scotia. Those populations were anadromous, migrating to the estuary to feed while breeding in freshwater.
"C. huntsmani" was originally designated "Coregonus canadensis", but the species name was changed in 1987. Other common names that "C. huntsmani" is known by are Acadian whitefish and sault whitefish. The species was designated as an endangered species by the World Conservation Union in 1986 and vulnerable in 1996. Nova Scotia prohibited the taking of Atlantic whitefish under the Canadian Fisheries Act.
The Atlantic whitefish has a typical salmonid body shape and is silvery on the sides and underside with a dark blue to dark green back. The landlocked populations feed on insects and small fish. The reproduction of Atlantic whitefish in nature has not been observed.
The narrowly endemic Atlantic whitefish is genetically distinct from the lake whitefish ("Coregonus clupeaformis") and the cisco ("Coregonus artedi"), which both are widespread across much of continental North America.


Alopoglossus lehmanni

Alopoglossus lehmanni is a species of lizard in the family Alopoglossidae. The species is endemic to western Colombia.
Etymology.
The specific name, "lehmanni", is in honor of Colombian biologist Federico Carlos Lehmann-Valencia.
Geographic range.
"A. lehmanni" is found in Valle del Cauca Department, Colombia.
Habitat.
The natural habitat of "A. lehmanni" is forest. The holotype was collected at an elevation of .
Reproduction.
"A. lehmanni" is oviparous.


Canonia

Canonia is an extinct genus of jawless fish found in Canada.


Northern viscacha

The northern viscacha ("Lagidium peruanum") is a species of viscacha, a rodent in the family Chinchillidae. It is known from Peru and Chile, at elevations from 300 to 5000 m, and may also be present in Bolivia.
Description.
The northern viscacha grows to a head and body length of some with a bushy tail nearly as long which can be curled in a coil. The adult weight is between . Its long ears are furry and its body fur is dense and soft, but the tail has coarser hairs. The dorsal (upper) surface ranges from dark grey at lower altitudes to brown at higher elevations. The ventral (under) surface is cream or pale grey and the tip of the tail is reddish-brown or black.
Distribution and habitat.
The northern viscacha is native to central and southern Peru and northern Chile, and may also be present in the area around Lake Titicaca in Peru and Bolivia. Its altitude range extends from above sea level. It makes its home in crevices in the rock and is found in various habitats where suitable rocky outcrops are found. Most populations occur between the tree line and the snow line, but the distribution is patchy with the animal being common in some localities and absent in others even though the habitat seems equally suitable.
Behaviour.
The northern viscacha is a herbivore and feeds on a variety of plant material, including grasses, roots, and seeds. Breeding usually takes place during October and November. A litter usually consists of a single pup born after a gestation period around 140 days. The young is weaned when about 8 weeks old.
It is preyed on by the Andean mountain cat ("Leopardus jacobitus"), the colocolo ("Leopardus colocolo"), and the culpeo ("Lycalopex culpaeus") in high-altitude desert regions. The northern viscacha is more often found on larger, steeper portions of cliffs. This preference is probably driven by a need to avoid predators, as land-based carnivores are more easily evaded on a steep slope. It rarely ventures far from rocks, as these provide a means of escaping from both aerial and terrestrial predators.
Status.
The northern viscacha is common within suitable habitat in its range. The population size is relatively stable, and although it is hunted locally for food, no other significant threats have been identified, so the IUCN lists the species as being of Least Concern in its Red List of Threatened Species.


List of mammals of Chile

This is a list of the mammal species recorded in Chile. As of January 2011, there are 152 mammal species listed for Chile, of which four are critically endangered, eight are endangered, eight are vulnerable, and eleven are near threatened.
The following tags are used to highlight each species' conservation status as assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature; those on the left are used here, those in the second column are used in some other articles:
Subclass: Theria.
Infraclass: Metatheria.
Superorder: Ameridelphia.
Order: Didelphimorphia (common opossums).
Didelphimorphia is the order of common opossums of the Western Hemisphere. Opossums probably diverged from the basic South American marsupials in the late Cretaceous or early Paleocene. They are small to medium-sized marsupials, about the size of a large house cat, with a long snout and prehensile tail.
Order: Paucituberculata (shrew opossums).
There are six extant species of shrew opossum. They are small shrew-like marsupials confined to the Andes.
Superorder: Australidelphia.
Order: Microbiotheria (monito del monte).
The monito del monte is the only extant member of its family and the only surviving member of an ancient order, Microbiotheria. It appears to be more closely related to Australian marsupials than to other Neotropic marsupials; this is a reflection of the South American origin of all Australasian marsupials.
Infraclass: Eutheria.
Superorder: Xenarthra.
Order: Cingulata (armadillos).
Armadillos are small mammals with a bony armored shell. There are 21 extant species in the Americas, 19 of which are only found in South America, where they originated. Their much larger relatives, the pampatheres and glyptodonts, once lived in North and South America but became extinct following the appearance of humans.
Superorder: Euarchontoglires.
Order: Rodentia (rodents).
Rodents make up the largest order of mammals, with over 40% of mammalian species. They have two incisors in the upper and lower jaw which grow continually and must be kept short by gnawing. Most rodents are small though the capybara can weigh up to .
Superorder: Laurasiatheria.
Order: Chiroptera (bats).
The bats' most distinguishing feature is that their forelimbs are developed as wings, making them the only mammals capable of flight. Bat species account for about 20% of all mammals.
Order: Carnivora (carnivorans).
There are over 260 species of carnivorans, the majority of which feed primarily on meat. They have a characteristic skull shape and dentition.
Order: Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates and cetaceans).
The weight of even-toed ungulates is borne about equally by the third and fourth toes, rather than mostly or entirely by the third as in perissodactyls. There are about 220 noncetacean artiodactyl species, including many that are of great economic importance to humans.
Infraorder: Cetacea (whales, dolphins and porpoises).
The infraorder Cetacea includes whales, dolphins and porpoises. They are the mammals most fully adapted to aquatic life with a spindle-shaped nearly hairless body, protected by a thick layer of blubber, and forelimbs and tail modified to provide propulsion underwater. Their closest extant relatives are the hippos, which are artiodactyls, from which cetaceans descended; cetaceans are thus also artiodactyls.


Clamorous reed warbler

The clamorous reed warbler ("Acrocephalus stentoreus") is an Old World warbler in the genus "Acrocephalus". It breeds from Egypt eastwards through Pakistan, Afghanistan and northernmost India to south China, southeast Asia and south to Australia. "A. s. meridionalis" is an endemic race in Sri Lanka.
Habitat.
Most populations are sedentary, but the breeding birds in Pakistan, Afghanistan and north India are migratory, wintering in peninsular India and Sri Lanka.
This passerine bird is a species found in large reed beds, often with some bushes. 3-6 eggs are laid in a basket nest in reeds.
Subspecies.
Nine subspecies are recorded.
Description.
Clamorous reed warbler is a large song thrush-sized warbler at 18–20 cm. The adult has an unstreaked brown back and whitish underparts. The forehead is flattened, and the bill is strong and pointed. The sexes are identical, as with most warblers. It is very like great reed warbler, but that species has richer coloured underparts.
There are a number of races differing in plumage shades. The migratory northern race has the richest brown upperparts, and the endemic Sri Lanka subspecies is the darkest form.
Like most warblers, clamorous reed warbler is insectivorous, but will take other small prey items.
The song is loud and far carrying, but less raucous than great reed warbler. It is a slow, chattering "" with typically acrocephaline whistles and mimicry added.


Melanophryniscus cupreuscapularis

Melanophryniscus cupreuscapularis is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae.
It is endemic to Argentina.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist shrubland, subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland, and intermittent freshwater marshes.
It is threatened by habitat loss.


Bokhara horseshoe bat

The Bokhara horseshoe bat ("Rhinolophus bocharicus") is a species of bat in the family Rhinolophidae. It is found in Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and possibly in Iran and Pakistan.


Porites astreoides

Porites astreoides, commonly known as mustard hill coral or yellow porites, is a colonial species of stony coral in the family Poritidae.
It is a common species in the Caribbean Sea and western tropical Atlantic Ocean in North, Central, and South America; and the eastern tropical Atlantic Ocean in western Africa.
Description.
When it grows in fast-flowing, shallow water, "Porites astreoides" is encrusting but in calmer water at medium depths it is a massive coral with a smooth, mounded, semi-spherical form and can grow to in diameter. At greater depths it is usually plate-like and in caves and under overhangs the plates are angled to receive the maximum amount of light. It is the only species within the genus "Porites" not to have a finger-like form. The corallites are small and tightly-packed and give the coral a porous appearance. The polyps each have six tentacles and are generally retracted during the day. This coral is yellow, yellowish-green, pale grey or pale brown, a colour given to it by the dinoflagellate zooxanthellae, microscopic algae that live symbiotically within the coral's tissue.
Distribution and habitat.
"Porites astreoides" is found growing in shallow water on reefs in the Caribbean Sea and in the western-central and southwestern Atlantic Ocean in the Caribbean region and tropical North America, Central America, and South America; and the eastern-central Atlantic Ocean in tropical western Africa. It is a common species on all parts of a reef and in lagoons.
It usually grows in water less than deep but may occasionally be found at depths of up to . It is sometimes free-living, growing on loose bits of coral, pebbles or mollusc shells. Large domed colonies sometimes appear to be separated into several lobes. This happens when part of the coral has died, and the living tissue in between the dead patches continues to develop, giving a clumped effect.
Biology.
The polyps of "Porites astreoides" feed mostly at night, extending their tentacles to catch zooplankton and bacteria. The coral also obtains an important part of its nutritional needs as a result of the photosynthesis performed by the zooxanthellae in sunlight.
Some colonies of "Porites astreoides" are female while others are hermaphroditic. Sexual reproduction occurs with male gametes being released into the sea around the time of the new moon. The sperm gets drawn into other polyps where fertilization takes place. The larvae are initially brooded but are liberated into the sea at about the time of the full moon. The planula larvae then drift with the currents for some time before settling onto the seabed and metamorphosing into new polyps. Each of these grows into a new colony by secreting a calcareous skeleton and budding. This is initially extratentacular budding, taking place at the side of the polyp, but at a later stage in the development of the colony, the budding is intratentacular, taking place within the ring of tentacles.
Ecology.
"Porites astreoides" often has the sponge "Mycale laevis", with prominent osculi, growing on its underside. This coral is also often associated with fan worms. The polyps contain stinging cells known as nematocysts to try to ward off the stoplight parrotfish, other reef fish, snails, worms and starfish that feed on it. It is also important to the coral to be in an unshaded position where its zooxanthellae can function fully. Sedimentation may limit this but under good conditions, this coral can grow at the rate of about per year.
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species ranks this coral as being of "least concern" as, within its range, it is widespread and common. Compared to other members of its genus, it is resistant to disease and bleaching and lives in deeper water so may be less affected by rising sea temperatures.


Cora aurea

Cora aurea is a species of damselfly in the family Polythoridae known commonly as the black-banded bannerwing. It is endemic to Colombia, where it has been noted at only three locations.


Short-faced mole

The short-faced mole ("Scaptochirus moschatus") is a species of mammal in the family Talpidae. It is monotypic within the genus "Scaptochirus". It is endemic to China.


Dolichoderus moggridgei

Dolichoderus moggridgei is a species of ant in the genus "Dolichoderus". Described by Forel in 1886, the species is endemic to Afghanistan, China and India.


Bosara maior

Bosara maior is a moth in the family Geometridae that is endemic to Sri Lanka.


Homonota septentrionalis

Homonota septentrionalis is a species of gecko. It lives in Paraguay and Bolivia.


Limnonectes sinuatodorsalis

Limnonectes sinuatodorsalis is a species of fanged frog in the family Dicroglossidae. It is endemic to Borneo, where it was found in the border region of East Kalimantan and Sarawak.


Nematopogon sericinellus

Nematopogon sericinellus is a moth of the Adelidae family. It is found in mainland Italy and on Sicily.


Six-lined racerunner

The six-lined racerunner ("Aspidoscelis sexlineatus") is a species of lizard native to the United States and Mexico.
Geographic range.
The six-lined racerunner is found throughout much of the southeastern and south-central portion of the United States, from Maryland to Florida in the east, across the Great Plains to southern Texas and northern Mexico. The species' range also reaches north to Wisconsin and Minnesota. A small disjunct population is found in Tuscola County, Michigan.
Description.
The six-lined racerunner is typically dark green, brown, or black in color, with six yellow or green-yellow stripes that extend down the body from head to tail. The underside is usually white in color on females, and a pale blue in males. Males also sometimes have a pale green-colored throat. They are slender-bodied, with a tail nearly twice the body length.
Behavior.
Like other species of whiptail lizards, the six-lined racerunner is diurnal and insectivorous. They are wary, energetic, and fast moving, with speeds of up to 18 mph (29 kmh), darting for cover if approached.
Habitat.
Due to its extensive range, "A. sexlineata" is found in a wide variety of habitats including grasslands, woodlands, open floodplains, or rocky outcroppings. It prefers lower elevations, with dry loamy soils.
Reproduction.
Breeding takes place in the spring and early summer, with up to six eggs being laid in mid-summer and hatching six to eight weeks later. A second clutch of eggs may be laid several weeks after the first.
Subspecies.
There are three recognized subspecies of "A. sexlineatus":
Conservation status.
The six-lined racerunner is listed as a species of concern in the state of Michigan, due to its limited population but otherwise holds no official conservation status.


Itapotihyla

Itapotihyla is a genus of frogs in the family Hylidae. It is monotypic, being represented by the single species Itapotihyla langsdorffii, commonly known as the ocellated treefrog. It is found in the Atlantic Forest biome of Brazil, with an isolated population in eastern Paraguay and adjacent Brazil and northeastern Argentina.
Description.
"Itapotihyla langsdorffii" are relatively large treefrogs. They show sexual dimorphism, with females (mean snout-vent length ) being larger than males ().
Reproduction.
Reproduction takes place in temporary and permanent pools inside rainforest. It is an explosive breeder with a mean brood size of over 6000 eggs. Breeding is associated with intense vocalization by males. In addition to vocalization, male–male interactions may involve grabbing and pushing and even direct physical combat. This kind of behaviour is more common in species where males are larger than females (see sexual selection in frogs).
Trophic interactions.
Its diet mainly consists of arthropods (in particular grasshoppers and crickets), but also vertebrate remains (other frogs including "Physalaemus crombiei" and "Scinax argyreornatus" as well as unidentified bird feathers) can be found in their stomach contents. These frogs themselves may be preyed upon by "Chironius bicarinatus", a colubrid snake.
Habitat and conservation.
"Itapotihyla langsdorffii" is an arboreal frog occurring on shrubs and trees inside rainforest. It is restricted to pristine habitats. "Itapotihyla langsdorffii" is locally abundant in suitable habitats in Brazil. The Paraguayan population is assumed to be in decline because of habitat loss and possibly seriously threatened; however, at the species level it is not considered threatened.


Grey-sided bush warbler

The grey-sided bush warbler ("Cettia brunnifrons") is a species of bush warbler (family Cettiidae). It was formerly included in the "Old World warbler" assemblage.
It is found from northern Pakistan to central China.


Eyebrowed wren-babbler

The eyebrowed wren-babbler ("Napothera epilepidota") is a species of bird in the family Pellorneidae.
It is found in Bhutan, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest and subtropical or tropical moist montane forest.


Coleophora bedella

Coleophora bedella is a moth of the family Coleophoridae that can be found in Iran and Tajikistan.
The larvae feed on "Salix australis" and "Populus nigra". They feed on the leaves of their host plant.


Oreobates zongoensis

Oreobates zongoensis is a species of frog in the family Craugastoridae. It is endemic to Bolivia from Valle del Zongo, in the Pedro Domingo Murillo Province.
Description.
The holotype, an adult male, measures in snout–vent length. The head is slightly wider than the body and slightly wider than it is long. The snout is subacuminate. The canthus rostralis is evident. The tympanum is visible. Skin of head, dorsum, flanks, and hind limbs strongly and uniformly tuberculate, while skin of forelimbs and ventral surfaces is smooth. The fingers and toes have small discs but no webbing or lateral fringes. The head, dorsum, and flanks are dark pinkish brown, without any markings. The upper surfaces of forelimbs and posterior hind limbs are purple to brown, while the chest and ventral sides of forelimbs pinkish and the venter and ventral sides of hind limbs are pinkish brown. The iris is orange and has fine, black reticulum.
Habitat and conservation.
"Oreobates zongoensis" is only known from Zongo Valley. The holotype was collected during daytime in a small cavity under a large stone in disturbed montane rainforest at elevation of above sea level. The type locality has been entirely destroyed with the construction of a hydroelectric power plant. In 2016, several more were discovered in an intact forest patch in the Zongo Valley.


Allobates gasconi

Allobates gasconi is a species of frog in the family Dendrobatidae.
It is endemic to the Acre and Amazonas states of Brazil.
Its natural habitats are tropical moist lowland forests and rivers.
It is threatened by habitat loss.


Brachinus testaceus

Brachinus testaceus is a species of ground beetle in the Brachininae subfamily that is endemic to Spain.


Hemidactylus granosus

Hemidactylus granosus is a species of gecko. It is found on the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt and in Saudi Arabia.


Atelopus eusebiodiazi

Atelopus eusebiodiazi is a species of toads in the family Bufonidae. It is endemic to northwestern Peru and only known from its type locality in Huamba, near Ayabaca, Piura Region. The specific name "eusebiodiazi" honors Eusebio Diaz, taxidermist at the Museum of Natural History, Lima, and the collector of the holotype.
Description.
"Atelopus eusebiodiazi" is a relatively large "Atelopus": adult males measure and females in snout–vent length. The head is longer than it is wide. There is no tympanum. The body is robust with relatively short limbs. The fingers are unwebbed whereas the toes have some webbing. Coloration of living specimens is unknown. In preservative, the dorsum is either chocolate brown with irregular black blotches and some yellowish cream blotches on flanks, or black with some irregular yellowish cream marks and a yellowish cream irregular dorso-lateral stripe. The venter is cream (sometimes with small black blotches), as are the palms and soles.
Habitat and conservation.
"Atelopus eusebiodiazi" lives in cloud forests at elevations of about above sea level. Specimens have been spotted in leaf litter and along small streams. Presumably, breeding takes place in fast-flowing streams.
As of 2011, the species had last been observed in 1997—surveys in 2006 failed to find it. It is possible that it is extinct, although some potentially suitable habitat remains unsurveyed. The type locality is threatened by habitat loss caused by increasing cattle grazing and agricultural land use.


Stenoptilodes sematodactyla

Stenoptilodes sematodactyla is a moth of the family Pterophoridae that is known from Argentina. The wingspan is . Adults are on wing in December. The larvae feed on a "Mentha" species.


Vesperus creticus

Vesperus creticus is a species of beetle in the Vesperidae family that is endemic to Greece.


Sooty mustached bat

The sooty mustached bat ("Pteronotus quadridens") is a species of bat in the family Mormoopidae. It is found in Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico.
Description.
Sooty mustached bat is the smallest species in the genus "Pteronotus". Color phases in this bat are indicators of age differences or bleaching due to high concentration of ammonia in the roost. As a result, color ranges from grayish brown to yellowish brown with some individuals reaching an orange-brown phase. The body is completely covered in fur except for the wings and tail membrane. The length of mandible is 8.0–9.1 mm and their forearm is less than 41 mm in length. The margin above nostril is lobulated and slightly convex.
Mating and reproduction.
"Pteronotus quadridens" are monoesturous and uniparous most of the time with twinning rarely occurring. Based on the testicular size, mating begins in January and most females are pregnant in May. The pregnant female undergoes an increase in body mass of 38%. The largest embryo reported weighed 1.8 g, or 30.2% of the female’s body mass.
Throughout the breeding season, either males or females might disappear completely for the caves. However, there was a marked shift in adult sex ratio favoring females. These evidences suggest sexual segregation during maternity period.
Ecology.
Habitats and distribution.
"Pteronotus quadridens" roost exclusively in caves. They are one of the most common bats in Cuba and Puerto Rico. All currently known fossils of "Pteronotus quadridens" are believed to be from late Pleistocene or Holocene era. The ancestors of "Pteronotus quadridens" are also expected to originate from the Central American mainland.
Diet.
"Pteronotus quadridens" is an insectivorous bat feeding almost exclusively on flying insects. They start foraging approximately 10 minutes before sunset and continue to do so overnight. Almost all foraging is done in flight.
Echolocation.
There are two respective patterns of echolocation calls in the field. First they call with quasi-constant frequency at 81–84 kHz, followed by a downward, frequency-modulated (FM) call. When the bats are flying in confined spaces, the call duration will be shorter and the bandwidth higher than the ones emitted during the search calls in the field.
Predation.
"Pteronotus quadridens" are susceptible to predation by diurnal birds since they are the first to leave just after the sunsets. Species such as American kestrel, red-tailed hawk and "Falco columbarius" (merlin) are among a few of "Pteronotus quadridens"’ predators.


Cayman least gecko

The Cayman least gecko ("Sphaerodactylus argivus") is a species of lizard in the family Sphaerodactylidae. It is endemic to Cayman Brac in the Cayman Islands.


Holcocera amicae

Holcocera amicae is a moth in the family Blastobasidae which is endemic to Costa Rica.


Indotrigonodon

Indotrigonodon is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the Paleocene epoch.