Philip J. Currie

Philip John Currie (born March 13, 1949) is a Canadian palaeontologist and museum curator who helped found the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology in Drumheller, Alberta and is now a professor at the University of Alberta in Edmonton. In the 1980s, he became the director of the Canada-China Dinosaur Project, the first cooperative palaeontological partnering between China and the West since the Central Asiatic Expeditions in the 1920s, and helped describe some of the first feathered dinosaurs. He is one of the primary editors of the influential "Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs", and his areas of expertise include theropods (especially Tyrannosauridae), the origin of birds, and dinosaurian migration patterns and herding behavior. He was one of the models for palaeontologist Alan Grant in the film "Jurassic Park".
Biography.
Currie received his Bachelor of Science degree from the University of Toronto in 1972, a Master of Science degree from McGill University in 1975, and a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree in biology (with distinction) from the same institution in 1981. His master's and PhD theses were on synapsids and early aquatic diapsids respectively.
Currie became curator of earth science at the Provincial Museum of Alberta (which became the Royal Alberta Museum in 2005) in Edmonton in 1976 just as he began the PhD program. Within three seasons he had so much success at fieldwork that the province began planning a larger museum to hold the collection. The collection became part of the Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology, which was completed in 1985 (the "Royal" epithet was added in 1990), and Currie was appointed curator of dinosaurs.
In 1986, Currie became the co-director of the joint Canada-China Dinosaur Project, with Dale Russell of the Canadian Museum of Nature in Ottawa and Dong Zhiming of the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology in Beijing.
Contributions to palaeontology.
Over the last 25 years he has worked on fossil discovery in Mongolia, Argentina, Antarctica, Dinosaur Provincial Park, Dry Island Buffalo Jump Provincial Park, and many other locations.
His contributions to palaeontology include synonymising the genera "Troodon" and "Stenonychosaurus" in 1987 (with the former name taking precedence) and later reversing this in 2017. He has also synonymised the ceratopsian taxon "Rubeosaurus" with "Styracosaurus", the latter being the valid, senior synonym.
One of Currie's main interests has been the evolutionary link between modern birds and non-avian dinosaurs. The similarities between troodontids and birds in particular made him a major proponent of the theory that birds are descended from dinosaurs, as did his finding that tyrannosaurids, along with many other non-avian theropod lineages, possessed furculae, a trait previously believed to be exclusive to birds and absent from non-avian dinosaurs. As part of the joint China-Canada Dinosaur Project, he helped describe two of the first dinosaur specimens from the lagerstätten of the Liaoning in China that clearly showed feather impressions: "Protarchaeopteryx" and "Caudipteryx". In contrast with the 1996 discovery of "Sinosauropteryx", which only showed the impression of downy filaments, these were indisputably feathers. This not only helped cement the theory that birds are descended from dinosaurs, but indicated that many dromaeosaurids were feathered. He was later featured in numerous popular articles and documentaries.
In 1997, Currie teamed up with Microsoft's Chief Technical Officer Nathan Myhrvold to create a computer model demonstrating that diplodocids could snap their tails like whips, and create small sonic booms. He was involved in exposing a composite specimen that had been the subject of the 1999 National Geographic "Archeoraptor" scandal.
Currie became increasingly sceptical of the orthodox belief that large carnivorous dinosaurs were solitary animals, but there was no evidence for his hypothesis that they may have hunted in packs. However, circumstantial evidence came when he tracked down a site mentioned by Barnum Brown that featured 12 specimens of "Albertosaurus" from various age groups. Currie was also involved in the discovery of a bonebed which evidenced gregarious behaviour in the caenagnathoid "Avimimus".
Currie has made important contributions to the study of phylogenetics. He contributed to a comprehensive revision of the phylogenetic relationships of ankylosaurid species in 2015. He also reassessed the phylogenetic status of "Nipponosaurus sachalinensis", discovering that it was much more basal among the Lambeosaurinae than palaeontologists had previously thought.
Currie has published multiple papers on the cranial anatomy of various dinosaurs. Together with Rodolfo Coria, he published a detailed description of the braincase of the large carcharodontosaurid "Giganotosaurus carolinii" in 2003, which led him to believe that "Giganotosaurus" and "Carcharodontosaurus" were very closely related genera. In 2017, he and Ariana Paulina-Carabajal wrote a paper on the anatomy of the well-preserved braincase of "Murusraptor barrosaensis", finding it to be more similar to tyrannosaurids than to allosaurids or ceratosaurids. A year later, he coauthored a study detailing the endocranial morphology of the ankylosaurines "Talarurus plicatospineus" and "Tarchia teresae". In 2019, together with David Christopher Evans, Currie described newly discovered cranial material of the dromaeosaurid "Saurornitholestes langstoni" and found the poorly known tooth taxon "Zapsalis" likely to represent the same taxon as "Saurornitholestes".
Currie's contributions to the study of dinosaur dentition include helping discover the first known instance of alveolar remodelling in dinosaurs and revealing in a 2020 study that the dentition of "Sinraptor" bore extreme similarities to that of "Allosaurus", further concluding that "Sinraptor" would likely have actively hunted medium-sized dinosaurs such as "Jiangjunosaurus junggarensis".
Currie has extensively studied the subject of juvenile dinosaurs and dinosaur ontogeny. His publications on the subject have included studies on juveniles of "Chasmosaurus", "Pinacosaurus", "Daspletosaurus", and "Saurornithoides".
In addition to his work on dinosaurs, Currie has been involved in numerous research projects on pterosaurs. In 2011 and 2016, he was involved in the description of the first pterosaur fossils from the Northumberland Formation, a part of the Nanaimo Group, of Hornby Island in British Columbia, finding that they probably represented indeterminate members of Istiodactylidae and Azhdarchidae, respectively. In 2017, he assisted in the description of the first known pterosaur pelvic material from the Dinosaur Park Formation; he has also helped study pterosaur material from the Cenomanian found in Lebanon.
Currie helped rediscover the type localities of the Mongolian sauropods "Nemegtosaurus mongoliensis" and "Opisthocoelicaudia skarzynskii" in 2017; the location of both quarries had become unknown due to them being described several decades before and not having been studied for some time. The next year, he published a paper as the lead author in which he suggested the two taxa may represent the same species.
Currie's research interests have included ichnofossils as well as body fossils. In 1979, at the beginning of his career, he and William A. S. Sarjeant described "Amblydactylus kortmeyeri" from the Peace River Valley. In 1981, Currie authored in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology a description of the ichnospecies "Aquatilavipes swiboldae" from the Aptian Gething Formation of British Columbia. He went on to work on dinosaur footprints from the St. Mary River Formation. In 2004, he studied footprint assemblages from the Lance Formation and described the ichnospecies "Saurexallopus zerbsti". In 2018, Currie coauthored a study describing dinosaur footprints at the Nemegt locality.
Over the course of his career, Currie has described dozens of new species of dinosaurs as well as other animals. In 1980, he named the tangasaurid species "Acerosodontosaurus piveteaui" based on a partial skull and partial skeleton found in Madagascar. In 1993, he and Xi-Jin Zhao described "Sinraptor dongi" from the Shishugou Formation in Xinjiang. He was involved in the China-Canada Dinosaur Project as part of the research which described "Protarchaeopteryx robusta" and "Caudipteryx zoui". In 2000, he was part of a team describing the Mongolian oviraptorid "Nomingia gobiensis". In 2004, he was involved in the description of "Atrociraptor marshalli". In 2009, he contributed to the scientific paper describing "Hesperonychus elizabethae", the first known microraptorine found in North America. In 2012, Currie, along with David Christopher Evans and other colleagues, described the leptoceratopsids "Gryphoceratops morrisoni" and "Unescoceratops koppelhusae" from the Milk River Formation and Dinosaur Park Formation, respectively, of Alberta. In 2013, he worked with David Christopher Evans and Derek W. Larson to study and name the velociraptorine dromaeosaurid "Acheroraptor temertyorum", and with Dong Zhiming and other palaeontologists to describe "Nebulasaurus taito". In 2014, he and Victoria Megan Arbour described the ankylosaurid "Zaraapelta nomadis". In 2015, Currie, as part of a team of twelve scientists, described "Ischioceratops zhuchengensis" from Shandong Province. In 2016, he and Gregory Funston described "Apatoraptor pennatus", a novel caenagnathid taxon from the Horseshoe Canyon Formation of Alberta. In 2017, Currie helped describe "Aepyornithomimus tugrikinensis", the first species of ornithomimosaur found in the Djadokhta Formation of Mongolia, "Halszkaraptor escuilliei", a halszkaraptorine dromaeosaurid, and "Latenivenatrix mcmasterae", the largest known troodontid. In 2019, Currie coauthored a study describing the fossil hagfish "Tethymyxine tapirostrum" found in the Hâdjula Lagerstätte, a fossil site of Cenomanian age in Lebanon, as well as one which described "Mimodactylus libanensis", a pterosaur from that same locality. In 2020, Currie, together with longtime collaborator Rodolfo Coria, was part of a team of researchers that published a description of "Lajasvenator ascheriae", the oldest known carcharodontosaurid from the Cretaceous period.
Philip J. Currie Dinosaur Museum.
In 2015, the Philip J. Currie Dinosaur Museum was opened in Wembley, Alberta. It is located about a 15-minute drive west of Grande Prairie, and about northwest of Edmonton. The museum was designed by Teeple Architects, and has won several awards. It celebrates the Pipestone Creek bone bed, one of the world's richest dinosaur-bearing bone beds.
Personal life.
Currie is a lifelong fan of science fiction and the works of Edgar Rice Burroughs. He is married to the Danish palaeobotanist and palynologist Eva Koppelhus, and has three sons from a previous marriage.
Awards and recognition.
Dinosaur species named in honour of Currie include "Quilmesaurus curriei" (Coria, 2001), "Epichirostenotes curriei" (Sullivan et al., 2011), "Teratophoneus curriei" (Carr et al., 2011), "Philovenator curriei" (Xu et al., 2012), and "Albertavenator curriei" (Evans et al., 2017).
Bibliography.
As one of the world's foremost palaeontologists, Currie has been featured in many films, programs in radio and television, as well as in newspapers. Apart from this, he has also been accessorial to many books:


Neuquensaurus

Neuquensaurus (meaning "Neuquén lizard") is a genus of saltasaurid sauropod dinosaur that lived in the Late Cretaceous, about 80 million years ago in Argentina and Uruguay in South America. Its fossils were recovered from outcrops of the Anacleto Formation around Cinco Saltos, near the Neuquén river from which its name is derived.
History.
In 1893, Richard Lydekker named "Titanosaurus australis", based on a series of caudal vertebrae and limb elements. The remains had been found by Santiago Roth and F. Romero in the Neuquén Province of Argentina at the Neuquén River, and were by Lydekker assigned to a single individual. Six caudal vertebrae, with the inventory numbers MLP Ly 1-6-V-28-1, were the holotype of the species. They had probably been found in a layer of the Anacleto Formation.
Some elements that had been referred to "Titanosaurus australis" were reassigned to "Laplatasaurus araukanicus" by Friedrich von Huene in 1929. The same year, von Huene named a "Titanosaurus robustus", and claimed it differed from "T. australis" in the limb material. Von Huene described all the slender limb material to "T. australis", but did not identify any differentiating features between the vertebrae. When describing "T. robustus", von Huene did not really compare other genera and species to it. From the syntype material assigned by von Huene to "T. robustus" José Fernando Bonaparte "et al." in 1978 chose four lectotypes, specimens MLP 26-250, MLP 26-252, MLP 26-254, and MLP 26-259, a left femur, both ulnae, and a left radius.
In 1986, Jaime Eduardo Powell, concluding that "Titanosaurus australis" was less similar than "Laplatasaurus araukanicus" to "Titanosaurus indicus", named a separate genus: "Neuquensaurus". However, he did so in an unpublished dissertation which caused "Neuquensaurus australis" and "Neuquensaurus robustus" to remain invalid "nomina ex dissertatione". In 1990, the two species were assigned to "Saltasaurus" by John Stanton McIntosh, as a "Saltasaurus australis" and a "Saltasaurus robustus", claiming that the features found by Bonaparte were not of sufficient taxonomic importance to justify a generic separation.
In 1992 Powell validly named "Neuquensaurus", with as type species "Titanosaurus australis" of which the "combinatio nova" then is "Neuquensaurus australis". He also found "Titanosaurus robustus" to be assignable to the new genus, but considered it non-diagnostical, and so a "nomen dubium".
Description.
This dinosaur is believed to have possessed armor-like osteoderms. A relatively small sauropod, with a femur only long. It is one of the most completely known of Patagonian sauropods. In addition to the original fossils described by Lydekker in 1893, it is represented by fossils collected in the early twentieth century, and more recent material, including a well preserved and partially articulated specimen described in 2005 (with two associated osteoderms).
Cervical vertebrae are known from multiple specimens of "Neuquensaurus", although few are definitively associated with any other material. The centra are elongate, compressed vertically, and strongly , with an ovoid and rounded neural spine. Diagnostic of Saltasaurinae, the are shortened and robust and the extend far posteriorly to compensate. The lateral projections of the neural arch (transverse processes) are far more robust than in "Isisaurus". As in the cervicals, the dorsal vertebrae bear strongly opisthocoelous centra with lateral pneumatic openings. In the dorsals, however, the pleurocoels are posteriorly pinched and internally subdivided, a regular feature of titanosaurs. The pleurocoels of "Neuquensaurus" are proportionally taller than in "Trigonosaurus" or "Lirainosaurus". A ventral keel is lost throughout the dorsal series of probably 10 vertebrae, although the total count is uncertain. The vertebrae also lean less posteriorly towards the pelvis, initially inclined far beyond their individual centrum. However, they lack the of non-titanosaurs that limit vertebral motion. Two accessory are present in the dorsals of "Neuquensaurus" that are absent even in the close relatives "Saltasaurus" and "Rocasaurus". Unique among all sauropods, the sacrum of "Neuquensaurus" is composed of seven vertebrae. The last vertebra is convex anteriorly and posteriorly, and diagnostically the middle vertebrae are strongly compressed in width. Like other derived titanosaurs, all caudal vertebrae of "Neuquensaurus" are strongly and vertically compressed. There is a prominent ventral depression like in "Saltasaurus" and "Rocasaurus", but contrasting the other genera there is no ridge dividing this depression. Additionally, the neural spines of vertebrae become progressively more reclined, and a prespinal lamina is present in all vertebrae.
"Neuquensaurus" has an almost complete skeleton. Among the preserved elements are a scapula. The scapula is co-ossified with the coracoid, a feature also found in "Opisthocoelicaudia". In general aspect, the scapula resembles "Saltasaurus", "Opisthocoelicaudia", "Lirainosaurus", and "Alamosaurus". The coracoids of the scapulae are roughly quadrangular in shape, and are alike "Saltasaurus" and "Lirainosaurus", but not "Opisthocoelicaudia", "Rapetosaurus", or "Isisaurus", all of which have a rounded coracoid.
Many characters distinguish "Neuquensaurus" from other titanosaurians. The features found by Otero in 2010 are: the possession of posterior caudal centra that are dorsoventrally flattened, and strongly developed fibular lateral tuberosity.
Classification.
"Neuquensaurus" is a derived saltasaurine. Its closest relatives were "Saltasaurus", "Rocasaurus", and "Bonatitan", and together they made up Saltasaurinae.
Paleoecology.
"Neuquensaurus" is known from fossils from the Anacleto Formation.


Orygmaspis

 Orygmaspis is a genus of asaphid trilobite with an inverted egg-shaped outline, a wide headshield, small eyes, long genal spines, 12 spined thorax segments and a small, short tailshield, with four pairs of spines. It lived during the Upper Cambrian in what are today Canada and the United States.
Description.
The outline of the exoskeleton " Orygmaspis " is inverted egg-shaped, with a parabolic headshield (or cephalon less than twice as wide as long. The well-defined central raised area (or glabella), excluding the backward occipital ring, is ¾× as wide as long, moderately convex, truncate-tapering, with 3 pairs of shallow to obsolete lateral furrows. The occipital ring is well defined. The distance between the glabella and the border (or preglabellar field) is ±¼× as long as the glabella. Eyes small to almost medium, 12-20% of the length of the cephalon, positioned between the front and the middle of the glabella and about ⅓ as far out as the glabella is wide. The remaining parts of the cephalon, called fixed and free cheeks (or fixigenae and librigenae) are flat. The fracture lines (or sutures) that in moulting separate the librigenae from the fixigenae are divergent just in front of the eyes, becoming parallel near the border furrow and strongly convergent at the margin. From the back of the eyes the sutures are bending out, than in, diverging outward and backward at approximately 45°, cutting the posterior margin well within the inner bend of the spine (or opisthoparian sutures). The articulating middle part of the body (or thorax) has 12 segments. The anteriormost segment gradually narrows into a sideward directed point, while further to the back the spines are directed outward and the spine is of increasing length up until the ninth, while the spine on the tenth segment is abruptly much smaller, and 11 and 12 even more so. The small tailshield (or pygidium) is about ⅓× as wide as the cephalon, narrowly transverse about 2× wider than long. Its axis is slightly wider than the pleural fields to each side, and has up to 4 axial rings and a terminal and almost reaches the margin. Up to 4 pleural segments with obsolete interpleural grooves and shallow pleural furrows. The posterior margin has 3 or 4 pairs of spines, getting smaller further to the back. The surface has fine granules or is smooth.
Taxonomy.
"O. llanoensis" and "O. firma" seem to represent the extremes in morphology of a continuous grade.


Syops

Syops is an extinct genus of dicynodont therapsid. The type species "S. vanhoepeni" was first named in 1938 as "Dicynodon vanhoepeni". Fossils of the genus have been found in the "Cistecephalus" Assemblage Zone in the Usili Formation of the Ruhuhu Basin, Tanzania and Madumabisa Mudstone, Zambia.


Eurofluvioviridavis

Eurofluvioviridavis is a genus of extinct primitive birds from Middle Eocene of the Messel Pit, Germany.


Transverse Valleys

The Transverse Valleys (Spanish: "Valles transversales") are a group of transverse valleys in the semi-arid northern Chile. They run from east to west (traversing Chile), being among the most prominent geographical features in the regions they cross. They are located in the Chilean regions of Valparaíso, Coquimbo, and Atacama. They share some characteristics, such as reaching the Pacific Ocean without passing through an Intermediate Depression, being rather deep and dissecting the landscape, concentrating most agriculture and population in the areas through which they pass, and being intensively cultivated. They are one of the defining elements the Chilean natural region of Norte Chico. The area of the Transverse Valleys spans roughly a length of 600 km from north to south.


Selfoss (town)

Selfoss () is a town in southern Iceland on the banks of the Ölfusá river. It is the seat of the municipality of Árborg. The Icelandic Route 1 runs through the town on its way between Hveragerði and Hella. The town is a centre of commerce and small industries with a population of 6,934 (2016), making it the largest residential area in South Iceland.
Geography.
Selfoss is located about 11 km inland from the southwestern coast of Iceland, and 50 km from Reykjavík. It is the major town and the administrative seat of the Southern Region. The closest other towns are Eyrarbakki, Stokkseyri and Hveragerði.
Climate.
Similar to the rest of the southern coast of Iceland, Selfoss has a subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen: "Cfc") with cool summers and cold winters, although relatively mild for its high latitude. Precipitation is abundant year round, with October usually seeing the most precipitation.
History.
Overview.
Selfoss was settled by Þórir Ásason sometime after 1000; however, the Icelandic sagas mention that Ingólfur Arnarson was there during the winter of 873-74 under the Ingólfsfjall mountain, which is west of the Ölfusá river.
In the summer of 1891, due to the lobbying of Tryggvi Gunnarsson, a member of the Alþing, the first suspension bridge was built over the Ölfusá. This was a major breakthrough in Icelandic infrastructure. The bridge made the town a logical centre for services for the surrounding agricultural region. The current bridge was built in 1945 after the original structure collapsed.
In 1900 the town was home to only 40 inhabitants, but by 2011 the population had climbed to 6,500.
In 1931 the dairy firm Mjólkurbú Flóamanna and general store Kaupfélag Árnesinga were established. These two companies were the main employers in the area for several decades. During World War II the British stationed troops at Selfoss to guard the strategic bridge.
Present day.
Today, with more efficient transportation, Selfoss benefits from its proximity to the Reykjavík area and is predicted to grow further in the coming years as businesses and residents relocate to the town because of lower property prices. This has also led to many relocating their homes from Reykjavík to the much calmer Selfoss. It enjoys low rates of unemployment and is the home of one of the largest colleges in the country; FSU Fjölbrautaskóli Suðurlands.
In early August, the town holds a festival called "Sumar á Selfossi", meaning "Summer in Selfoss". Local residents decorate their gardens with ribbons, coloured according to neighbourhood, and a fete is held on the public grassland behind the civic library. The fete involves the selling of homemade goods on small stalls, performances by musicians and magicians on a temporary stage, and in 2011, a "Strongest Man" competition was held, with video recording by Icelandic television channel Stöð 2. In the evening, the revelry continues with a large bonfire and free fireworks display.
Former World Chess Champion Bobby Fischer is buried in Selfoss.
2008 earthquake.
According to the United States Geological Survey, an earthquake with a moment magnitude of 6.3 occurred near Selfoss on the afternoon of Thursday 29 May 2008, causing considerable damage to some buildings and roads. The earthquake was felt across southern Iceland, including in the capital Reykjavík and the airbase at Keflavik. At least 30 people were injured; however, there were no reports of human deaths. A number of sheep in the Selfoss area were killed.
New town center.
In 2018, the creation of a new town center has been decided. It will consist of reconstructions of historical buildings from all across the country.
Sports.
The town biggest sports club is the UMF Selfoss multi-sport club, which was founded in 1936. In May 2019, the Selfoss men's handball team won the national handball championship for the first time. In August 2019, the women's football team added the club's second major title in one year when it won the Icelandic Football Cup.
Its men's football team has played in the Icelandic leagues since 1966. The team spent two seasons in the top-tier Úrvalsdeild, in 2010 and 2012, but were relegated in both seasons.
The town also has a basketball club named Körfuknattleiksfélag Selfoss. Its men's team has had spells in the top-tier Úrvalsdeild karla. Part of the local college and the club serve as a development academy for young players that attend the school.
Transport.
Selfoss sits on Route 1, the Icelandic ring road, and is the first major stop east of Reykjavik.
Selfoss Airport is a privately run airstrip located just to the southwest of the town.


Taranaki Basin

The Taranaki Basin is an onshore-offshore Cretaceous rift basin on the West Coast of New Zealand. Development of rifting was the result of extensional stresses during the breakup of Gondwanaland. The basin later underwent fore-arc and intra-arc basin development, due to the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Australian Plate at the Hikurangi Subduction System. The basin covers approximately 100,000 km2 of which the majority is offshore. The basin contains mostly marine sediment, with significant terrestrial sediment from the Late Cretaceous to the Eocene. The majority of New Zealand's oil and gas production occurs within the basin, with over 400 wells and approximately 20 oil and gas fields being drilled.
Overview.
The Taranaki Basin lies on the West coast of the North Island of New Zealand in the Taranaki Region, and is approximately 400 km west of the current Pacific-Australian plate boundary. It covers approximately 100,000 km2 and contains up to 9 km in sediment. The basin is divided into two main components, the Western Platform and Eastern Mobile Belt, formerly known as the Taranaki Graben. The Western Platform is a relatively undeformed, stable block compared to the Eastern Mobile Belt. While it underwent block faulting throughout the Late Cretaceous to the Eocene, it has been stable since. This section of the basin contains between 2000 and 5000m of sediment, dating from the Late Cretaceous to present. The Western Platform is separated from the Eastern Mobile Belt on the East by the Cape Egmont fault zone, a northwest trending fault zone consisting of multiple subparallel reverse and normal faults. The Eastern Mobile Belt consists of multiple grabens and contains multiple compressional features, including overthrusts, reverse faults, and inversion structures. The Eastern Mobile Belt extends from this fault zone to the north-south trending Taranaki fault zone, which is adjacent to the a large upthrust basement block that divides the Taranaki Basin from the later-formed, eastward Wanganui Basin.
The Blue whale, Southern right whale and the critically endangered Maui's dolphin are living beings in the sea in Taranaki Basin, or live near the coast of Taranaki. For the Blue whale it is a breeding ground.
Tectonic Evolution.
Basement Structure.
Pre-rift rocks in the Taranaki Basin are typically considered basement rocks. The Taranaki basement is extremely heterogeneous, with metasediments and granites representing the original Gondwana Craton, and granitoids, volcanic and volcano-sedimentary rocks, and accretionary complexes representing later accretionary terrains and plutons.
Rifting.
Formation of the Taranaki Basin initiated in the Late Cretaceous, due to the separation of Australia and Zealandia during the breakup of Gondwanaland. This breakup caused the formation of the Tasman Sea, along with multiple extensional basins on the New Zealand subcontinent, including an intra-plate rift that formed the Taranaki Rift, which would develop into the Taranaki Basin.
Syn-rift sediments were deposited within rift controlled grabens across the basin, and are separated from the basement rock by a regional unconformity. These sedimentary layers contain faulting that is indicative of extension during deposition. They include sequencing from non-marine conglomerates to sand, silt, and then coals.
Drift.
After the end of extension in the Late Cretaceous, the Taranaki Basin became a passive margin setting, with drift resulting in marine transgression. Subsidence of the basin was slow enough to allow for the massive accumulation of sediment during the Paleocene and Eocene. These Paleocene and Eocene sandstones contain the majority of the petroleum reserves found within the basin. During drift, a decline in sediment deposition occurred, with a thinning of layers from the Cretaceous to the Eocene. The sediments in this sequence lead from coastal plain deposits, to shallow marine sands, to shelf sediments.
Stratigraphy.
Pakawau Group.
The Pakawau group contains the oldest sediment within the Taranaki Basin, deposited between the Late Cretaceous and Paleocene. It includes the Rakopi Formation (85-75 Ma) and the North Cape Formation (75-65 Ma). Rocks within this group include fluvial sandstones and marine, transgressive sandstones. In some areas within the basin, this group is more than 2000 m thick. It overlies the mostly igneous and metasedimentary basement.
Kapuni Group.
The Kapuni group contains multiple formations that span the Paleocene and Eocene. These formations are, in ascending order, the Farewell Formation, Kaimiro Formation, Mangahewa Formation, and McKee Formation.
The Farewell Formation (65-55 Ma) contains mostly fluvial sandstone.
The Kaimiro Formation (55-45 Ma) contains mostly poor to moderately sorted alluvial and coastal plain sandstones with some inter-bedded micaceous and carbonaceous mudstones and siltstones. This formation is not fossiliferous.
The Mangahewa Formation (45-34 Ma) consists mostly of sandstone, siltstone, mudstone and bituminous coal. This formation has good reservoir sandstones.
The McKee Formation (38-33 Ma) is easily recognizable by its coarse-grained, well sorted sandstones. Small clasts of mudstones and coal can be found throughout this formation.
Tikorangi Limestone.
The Tikorangi Limestone (33-23 Ma) is composed of mostly sandy, deep-water limestone along with calcareous mudstone interbedded with calcareous sandstone. It forms a conformable contact with an 8m thick layer of glauconitic sandstone, The Matapo Sandstone Member, which lies above the formation.
Mahoenui Group.
The Mahoenui Group consists of calcareous mudstones, with thinly interbedded sandstones, siltstones, and limestones. Sediment in this group was deposited during the Late Oligocene and the Early Miocene.
Mokau Group.
The Mokau Group is composed of shoreface sandstones with some interbedded siltstones. Layers of fluvial conglomerate and coal can be found as well. The sediment in this group represents deposition in the Early Miocene.
Wai-iti Group.
The Mohakatino Formation (~17-13 Ma) is composed of silty mudstones, with andesitic, volcaniclastic sandstones.
The Mt Messenger Formation (11-9 Ma), also known as the Waikiekie Formation, is a massive sandstone unit.
The Urenui Formation (9-5 Ma) is a silty mudstone that contains occasional conglomerates.
Matemateāonga Formation.
The Matemateāonga Formation (7-5 Ma) consists of shellbeds, siltstones and sandstones with interbedded conglomerate. This formation represents deposition during the Late Miocene and Early Pliocene.
Recent Deposits.
Andesitic volcanism began within the basin in the Miocene, and has continued until the present day.
Hydrocarbons.
The majority of New Zealand's petroleum production has been within the Taranaki Basin. Over 1.8 billion barrels of BOE have been discovered, of which 70% is gas. More than 400 wells have been drilled throughout the basin, in about 20 fields. A wide variety of petroleum play types, mostly structural, can be seen throughout the basin due to its complex history. The main trap styles found within the basin are fault-dependent closures, inversion anticlines, and overthrusts.
The majority of oil produced from the Taranaki basement are sourced from coals and marine shales from the Late Cretaceous and Paleogene.
Current oil and gas fields within the basin


Geology of the Gisborne District


Eolactoria

Eolactoria sorbinii is an extinct prehistoric boxfish that lived during the Lutetian epoch of the middle Eocene, in Monte Bolca. It had two pairs of long spines, one over each eye, and one pair beneath the anal and caudal fins, arranged very similarly to those possessed by the modern genus "Lactoria" (e.g., "cowfish"), but were, in comparison, much longer. "E. sorbinii" had a fifth spine between the two eye-spines, arranged and looking very much like a nose.
The only known fossil specimen is about 5 cm (2 in) long.


Xiphactinus

Xiphactinus (from Latin and Greek for "sword-ray") is an extinct genus of large () predatory marine bony fish that lived during the Late Cretaceous (Albian to Maastrichtian). When alive, the fish would have resembled a gargantuan, fanged tarpon (to which it was, however, not related). The species "Portheus molossus" described by Cope is a junior synonym of "X. audax". Skeletal remains of "Xiphactinus" have come from the Carlile Shale and Greenhorn Limestone of Kansas (where the first "Xiphactinus" fossil was discovered during the 1850s in the Niobrara Chalk), and Cretaceous formations all over the East Coast (most notably Georgia, Alabama, North Carolina, and New Jersey) in the United States, as well as Europe, Australia, the Kanguk and Ashville Formations of Canada, La Luna Formation of Venezuela and the Salamanca Formation in Argentina.
Paleobiology.
Species of "Xiphactinus" were voracious predatory fish. At least a dozen specimens of "X. audax" have been collected with the remains of large, undigested or partially digested prey in their stomachs. In particular, one fossil specimen was collected by George F. Sternberg with another, nearly perfectly preserved long ichthyodectid "Gillicus arcuatus" inside of it. The larger fish apparently died soon after eating its prey, most likely owing to the smaller prey's struggling and rupturing an organ as it was being swallowed. This fossil can be seen at the Sternberg Museum of Natural History in Hays, Kansas.
Like many other species in the Late Cretaceous oceans, a dead or injured individual was likely to be scavenged by sharks ("Cretoxyrhina" and "Squalicorax"). The remains of a "Xiphactinus" were found within a large specimen of "Cretoxyrhina" collected by Charles H. Sternberg. The specimen is on display at the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History.
Virtually nothing is known about the larval or juvenile stages. The smallest fossil specimen of "X. audax" consists of a tooth bearing premaxilla and lower jaws of an individual estimated to be about long.
The species and all other ichthyodectids became extinct near the end of the Late Cretaceous – see Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.
An incomplete skull of what may be a new species of "Xiphactinus" was found in 2002 in the Czech Republic, in a small town called Šachov next to Borohrádek city, by then 16-year-old student Michal Matějka.
In July 2010 the bones of a "Xiphactinus" were discovered near Morden, Manitoba, Canada. The specimen was about long and was found with the flipper of a mosasaur between its jaws.
"Unicerosaurus".
In 1982, a former Baptist minister, Carl Baugh, began excavations on the limestone beds of the Paluxy River, near Glen Rose, Texas, famous for its dinosaur tracks. Some of the tracks resembled human footprints and had been proclaimed since 1900 as evidence that dinosaurs and modern humans had once lived alongside one another. Scientists' investigations found the supposed human footprints to be "forms of elongate dinosaur tracks, while others were selectively highlighted erosional markings, and still others (on loose blocks) probable carvings." While excavating, he found a solitary "Y-shaped" fossil that he informally called "Unicerosaurus". In a 1987 popular article, John Armstrong described the fossil as a "Y-shaped petrified bone that appears to be the neural spine from a huge fish like the "Portheus" of Niobrara Chalk" that Baugh's museum "declared to be the forehead horn of a newly discovered dinosaur genus". The museum's exhibit told visitors that the "horn" belonged to "the unicorn of Job 38, one of three dinosaurs mentioned in Scripture; the others being behemoth and leviathan of Job 40 and 41", and that the horn was able to fold back like the blade of a jack knife. Although some Young Earth Creationists shared Baugh's interpretations of the biblical Behemoth and Leviathan, Baugh's claims were not taken seriously either by Christian organizations or the scientific community.
In popular culture.
In October 2010, Kansas House Rep. Tom Sloan (R-Lawrence) announced that he would introduce legislation to make "Xiphactinus audax", a.k.a. the "X-fish", the state fossil of Kansas.


Quercus macdougallii

Quercus macdougallii is a species of plant in the family Fagaceae.
Distribution.
The tree is endemic to Oaxaca state in southwestern Mexico. It grows in Sierra Madre de Oaxaca pine-oak forests habitat in the Sierra de Juarez, a subrange of the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca.
It is an IUCN Red List endangered species, threatened by habitat loss.


Chasicotherium

Chasicotherium is an extinct genus of a large notoungulate mammal known originally from a partial skull with mandible discovered in the Arroyo Chasicó Formation, in the stream of the same name of the Party of Villarino, Province of Buenos Aires, Argentina. The sediments in which the animal remains were discovered date to 10 to 9 million years (Chasicoan). It is known only from its type species, "C. rothi". Its weight was approximately , being the largest and most recent member of the family Homalodotheriidae. It was a great herbivore of the Miocene Pampas, closely related with "Homalodotherium", with it shares the reduced dental formula and the short premaxilla.


Cerro Napa

Cerro Napa is a Pliocene stratovolcano north of the Salar de Coposa, straddling the border between Bolivia and Chile.
The wide volcano rises about above its surrounding terrain and has a partially preserved summit crater. Part of its slopes are covered with pyroclastics; radiometric dating has yielded ages of 11.9 ± 0.6, 9.99 ± 0.1 and 1.38 million years ago. In the past the volcano was glaciated, with glaciers descending to elevations of . This low elevation probably relates to the easterly position of the volcano and likely correlates to lake highstands in Salar de Coposa, Salar de Empexa and Salar de Huasco.


Trucheosaurus

Trucheosaurus is an extinct genus of rhytidosteid temnospondyl from the Late Permian period of the Sydney Basin, New South Wales, Australia. It is known from the holotype materials MMF 12697a, a partially complete skull, AMF 50977, an articulated postcranial skeleton and BMNHR 3728, the counterpart of both skull and postcranial skeleton, recovered from the Glen Davis Formation. This genus was named by Watson in 1956, and the type species is "Trucheosaurus major".
Phylogeny.
Below is a cladogram from Dias-da-Silva and Marsicano (2011):


Bonny, Rivers

Bonny (or Ibani) is an island town and a Local Government Area in Rivers State in southern Nigeria, on the Bight of Bonny. It is also the capital of the Kingdom of Bonny. Traditionally (especially between the 15th and 19th centuries) it was a major trading post of the eastern delta. Bonny Island is a major export point for oil.
The region produces a type of crude oil known as Bonny Light oil. Much of the oil extracted onshore in Rivers State is piped to Bonny for export. It has the biggest LNG Gas Plant in Nigeria with six (6) trains.
Kingdom of Bonny.
The Kingdom of Bonny was a sovereign state in the Niger Delta.
The kingdom, comprising virgin lands and territorial areas, was founded before or about AD 1400. The founding group of the kingdom, who originated within the Isedani lineage of Kolokuma in the Ebeni-toru region (which is itself in the present day Kolokuma/Opokuma Local Government Area of Bayelsa State), was led by four direct descendants of Ebeni. These were Ndoli, Opuamakuba, Alagbariye and Asimini. From these leaders and the entire founding generation of the kingdom evolved the lineage/ward/house system of governance that is currently used to administer the state. The“Amanyanabo”, or monarch (lit. "owner of the land");), presided over a chieftaincy system composed of the "Ase-Alapu" (or "high chiefs of royal blood") and the “Amadapu” (or "district heads").
The four descendants of Ebeni became monarchs of the kingdom in turn, and are remembered today as its founding fathers. After their deaths, their own descendants ruled the kingdom as kings until the reign of King Awusa (alias Halliday) in the early modern era. It was after King Awusa Halliday, the twelfth king of the Bonny kingdom, that King Perekule I succeeded to the kingship. Since his reign, King Perekule's direct descendants have served as successors to the throne established by the founding generation of Bonny.
The Kingdom of Bonny was powerful beginning in the 15th century with the advent of the Portuguese and the following Atlantic slave trade. In the 19th century, it came under increasing pressure from the British to end the trade. It collapsed in the subsequent Bonny civil war of 1869. A remnant of it continues to exist as a part of the contemporary aristocratic structure of Nigeria. the people of Bonny are still in existence and the town is still occupy with people of different tribes.


Cayco (Cusco)

Cayco (possibly from Quechua for a type of hunt) is a mountain in the Vilcabamba mountain range in the Andes of Peru. It is situated in the Cusco Region, La Convención Province, on the border of the districts of Santa Teresa and Vilcabamba. Cayco lies southwest of Choquetacarpo and northeast of Pumasillo and a lake named Pumasillococha (possibly from in the Quechua spelling "Pumasilluqucha").


Mount Kulal

Mount Kulal is an eroded-down extinct volcano located in northern Kenya, just east of Lake Turkana. The mountain has an elevation of . The lakeside town of Loiyangalani is located west of Mount Kulal.
Mount Kulal has been a biosphere reserve since 1978.
Mount Kulal is the only place where Kulal white-eye ("Zosterops kulalensis") has been found.


Heterohyus

Heterohyus is an extinct genus of apatemyid from the early to late Eocene. A small, tree-dwelling creature with elongated fore- and middle fingers, in these regards it somewhat resembled a modern-day aye-aye.
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Three skeletons have been found at the early Eocene site at Messel Pit, Germany


Ceratoichthys

Ceratoichthys pinnatiformis is an extinct species of lookdown-like prehistoric jackfish that lived during the Lutetian epoch, of the Middle Eocene of Monte Bolca, Italy.
The dorsal and anal fins of "C. pinnatiformis" had very high, narrow crests, and it also had very long, thin pelvic fins. Its fins give it a superficial resemblance to a freshwater angelfish, leading some people to erroneously refer to "C. pinnatiformis" as an "angelfish," too.


Firura

Firura is an extinct volcano of the Central Andean Volcanic Belt, located in the Arequipa Region of southern Peru. Together with Sara Sara, Solimana and Coropuna it forms one of the Central Andean volcanoes. It is in the Andes, north of the Pucuncho Basin.
Description.
Two domes form the Firura volcano, which has a low relief of . Lava flows and stratovolcanoes form a long field. Aside from the main summit Firura, there also are Soncco Orcco (), Jahsaya () and separating Firura from Solimana Antapuna (). The complex has generated basaltic or basaltic andesite lava flows that reach down into inhabited areas, as well as an ignimbrite resulting from the collapse of the ancient crater. A collapse of the crater was also responsible for the formation of a landslide dam in the Cotahuasi River valley. The date of the last volcanic activity is Pleistocene to Holocene, but it does not appear to be a significant hazard.
Much of the southern side of the volcano above altitude is covered with perennial snow. A small glacier (>) is found on the southern summit of Firura and reaches down to . This glacier appears to be located above the local equilibrium line altitude.
Firura has well preserved moraine systems. A major moraine system with a relief of was left by the Last Glacial Maximum, although expansion of glaciers on the northern flank was constrained on a high plateau. The prevalent aridity of the climate impedes the degradation of these moraines.


Ubinas

Ubinas is an active stratovolcano in the Moquegua Region of southern Peru, approximately east of the city of Arequipa. Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, it rises above sea level. The volcano's summit is cut by a and caldera, which itself contains a smaller crater. Below the summit, Ubinas has the shape of an upwards-steepening cone with a prominent notch on the southern side. The gently sloping lower part of the volcano is also known as Ubinas I and the steeper upper part as Ubinas II; they represent different stages in the volcano's geological history.
The most active volcano in Peru, Ubinas has a history of small to moderate explosive eruptions as well as a few larger eruptions, such as in 1667, along with persistent degassing and ash emissions. Activity at the volcano began in the Pleistocene epoch, and led to the growth of the current mountain in two phases. Among the recent eruptions was the 2006–2007 event, which produced eruption columns and led to ash fall in the region, resulting in health issues and evacuations. During the most recent activity, from 2013 to 2017, a lava flow formed inside the crater, and further ash falls led to renewed evacuations of surrounding towns. Ubinas is monitored by the Peruvian geological service INGEMMET, which has published a volcano hazard map for Ubinas and regular volcanic activity reports.
Name and mythology.
The historian and geographer Mariano Felipe Paz Soldán relates the name Ubinas to two terms in two different languages. In the indigenous language Quechua, "uina" means "to stuff" or "to fill", and "uiña" is translated as "to grow" or "to increase". In Aymara, "hupi" means "weep" or "murmur"; "hupina" is the genitive of "hupi". Local inhabitants believed that Ubinas was infested by demons and the souls of people who had fallen from God. The volcano is also known as Uvillas or Uvinas.
Geography and structure.
Ubinas lies in the Ubinas District of the General Sánchez Cerro Province, Moquegua Region of Peru, east of Arequipa in the Peruvian Western Cordillera.
Like other Peruvian volcanoes, Ubinas belongs to the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes. The Central Volcanic Zone is one of four volcanic belts in the Andes; the others are the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone, and the Austral Volcanic Zone. The Central Volcanic Zone is long, and 69 of its volcanoes have been active in the Holocene epoch.
Peruvian volcanoes include stratovolcanoes, which are typically active for less than 500,000 years, long-lived clusters of lava domes, and monogenetic volcanic fields. Historical eruptions have been recorded at seven Peruvian volcanoes: El Misti, Huaynaputina, Sabancaya, Ticsani, Tutupaca, Ubinas, and Yucamane. The volcanoes Ampato, Casiri, Chachani, Coropuna, and Sara Sara are dormant.
Reaching an elevation of , Ubinas is a conical, truncated stratovolcano with upper slopes that reach angles of up to 45 degrees, and more gently sloping lower flanks. The more gently sloping lower part of the volcano is also known as Ubinas I and the steeper upper part as Ubinas II. The southern flank is cut by a noticeable notch, which is probably not an eruption vent and may have been formed by mudflows and rockslides. Due to weathering, the upper sector of the volcano has a worn appearance. Glacial valleys such as the Ubinas and Para valleys, as well as cirques and moraines down to and at the foot of the volcano, indicate that glaciers developed on Ubinas during the last glacial maximum. Other volcanic cones in the region all show heavy erosion by glaciation.
The volcano rises from a circular surface at the margin of a high plateau. Volcanic ash and some lava flows cover the terrain north and east of Ubinas. Four lava domes crop out around the volcano and may be related to it. The Ubinas and Para valleys border the volcano in its southeastern sector; the difference in elevation between the floor of the Ubinas valley and the plateau is about . The total volume of the mountain is estimated to be about .
The summit of the volcano is an elliptical caldera wide and deep, formed by collapses of the summit and explosive eruptions. The caldera walls are made of lava flows bearing traces of hydrothermal alteration; the caldera floor is covered by lava flows and pyroclastic debris from explosive eruptions. It contains one or two ash cones with a triangle-shaped crater wide and deep; its walls are fractured and hydrothermally altered. Geophysical surveys have indicated the presence of an even larger buried caldera in Ubinas.
A debris avalanche on the southeastern flank reached a distance of from the volcano, and left a collapse scar that is drained by the Volcanmayo River. This collapse took place early in the history of the volcano and removed a volume of about of rock from the mountain and underlying basement. Further collapses have occurred throughout the history of the volcano and into the Holocene epoch, including one collapse that left a hummocky deposit on the southern flank. The sloping terrain that Ubinas is built upon predisposes the mountain to south-directed landslides; future collapses in that direction are possible, with the heavily fractured southern flank of the caldera particularly at risk.
Hydrology and human geography.
In the 1970s, an ephemeral crater lake appeared in the crater after wet seasons; another lake formed in 2016 after the crater floor was covered by the ongoing eruptions with impermeable material. Acid springs occur in the crater, and their water is capable of corroding silicon after a few hours' exposure. Lake Piscococha is located on the volcano's western foot and during December–April receives meltwater from its slopes, while the Para River and Sacuaya River flow past its eastern and southern slopes, respectively. Other rivers on the slopes of Ubinas are the Quebrada Infiernillo on the southeastern, Volcanmayo River on the southern and Quebrada Postcone on the southwestern flank. The Sacuaya River becomes the Ubinas River and after confluence with the Para ends in the Tambo River which eventually flows into the Pacific Ocean; the Ubinas River valley is densely inhabited.
Ubinas lies in the Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve of Peru, which was founded in 1979. The town of Ubinas and the villages of Querapi, Tonohaya, Ubinas and Viscachani lie southeast, south, southeast and northwest of the volcano, respectively, and other villages in the area include Anascapa, Escacha, Huarina, Huatahua, Sacuaya, San Miguel and Tonohaya. In total about 5,000 people live within from the volcano, with Querapi being only away from Ubinas and thus the closest town to it. Agriculture and animal husbandry are the most important economic activities in these towns, agriculture prevailing at lower elevations. Water reservoirs and mining projects also exist in the wider region. Paved roads run along the northern and southern-southwestern foot of Ubinas, connecting towns close to the volcano to Arequipa and allowing access to the volcano over its western flank.
Geology.
Off the western coast of South America, the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South American Plate at a rate of in the Peru-Chile Trench. This subduction process is responsible for the formation of the Andes and the Altiplano-Puna plateau within the last 25 million years, as well as for volcanism and earthquakes. The magma erupted by the volcanoes is formed by the partial melting of the mantle after fluids originating in the downgoing slab have altered the mantle; the magmas often undergo fractional crystallization and absorb crustal material.
Southern Peru has been affected by volcanic activity since the Ordovician and the Permian-Jurassic period, subduction-related volcanism becoming important from the Cretaceous onwards. Beginning 91 million years ago, several volcanic arcs have been active in southern Peru: from the Toquepala arc 91 – 45 million years ago over the Andahuaylas-Anta 45–30 million years ago, the Huaylillas 24–10 million years ago, the two Barroso arcs 10–1 million years ago, to the recent arc in the last million years. The switching between the volcanic arcs was accompanied by northeastward or southwestward shifts of the zone of main volcanic activity. Furthermore, there was little relief in the region before about 45 million years ago when major uplift commenced.
Local setting.
Ubinas, Ticsani and Huaynaputina form a group of volcanoes that extend in north-south direction north of the chain of volcanoes that make up the rest of the Central Volcanic Zone. These volcanoes have erupted rocks with similar geochemical traits and they are located around a graben occupied by the Rio Tambo; the marginal faults of this graben are the sites of the volcanic vents and probably acted as magma conduits. The magmas erupted by all three volcanoes appear to originate in a common magma chamber at depth, with seismic activity localized along the margins of the chamber. Aside from this deep reservoir, Ubinas also has a shallower magma chamber at depth which appears to have a small size. An underground magmatic connection between Ubinas and Huaynaputina was postulated already by Antonio Vázquez de Espinosa after the 1600 eruption of the latter volcano, which was the largest historical eruption in the Andes and had an enormous impact, including causing a cold summer in the northern hemisphere.
The basement of Ubinas consists of volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The sedimentary rocks include the Jurassic Chocholate Formation, the Socosani Formation and the Yura Group. The oldest volcanic rocks of the Matalaque Volcanics date to the Late Cretaceous and crop out east and southeast of Ubinas, far away from the volcano. Most of the volcanics in proximity to Ubinas are the younger, Eocene-to-Oligocene Tacaza Group and the more restricted Miocene-Pliocene Barroso Group, which directly underlies the Ubinas mountain. Even older basement rocks include Paleoproterozoic plutons and the sedimentary Yura Group of Jurassic to Cretaceous age. A depression, whose margin is cut by landslide scars, cuts into the basement southeast of Ubinas and contains the Ubinas valley. Faults cut across the volcano and create unstable areas, especially in its southern sector, and NNW-SSE trending geological lineaments have influenced the stability and the hydrothermal system of Ubinas.
Composition.
Andesite and dacite are the dominant components of the volcano, though its rocks have compositions ranging from basaltic andesite to rhyolite. The volcanic rocks form a potassium-rich calc-alkaline suite. Phenocryst minerals vary between volcanic rocks of different composition and include amphibole, apatite, biotite, clinopyroxene, iron-titanium oxides, olivine, orthopyroxene, plagioclase and zircon. Assimilation of crustal material and fractional crystallization are involved in the genesis of this magma suite.
Lava composition has changed over time, dacites being represented mainly during the Ubinas II stage while stage I yielded mostly andesites. Silica content has decreased over time, with two phases of more silicic eruptions in the mid- and late Holocene. Holocene explosive eruptions were fed by silicic magma chambers that are now inactive as basaltic andesite is the major product of historical eruptions. There is a trend for more recent volcanic events to produce more diverse rocks than the early eruptions, probably owing to a change in the magma supply regime; after 25,000–14,700 years ago magma supply increased and became more irregular. Otherwise, the magma supply rate at Ubinas amounts to about , with an average rate of .
Eruptive history.
Ubinas started to develop in the middle and late Pleistocene epoch. The oldest pre-Ubinas volcanics crop out north and south of the volcano and include the volcanoes Parhuane Grande and Parhuane Chico directly to the north. Volcanic activity started after a change in regional tectonics, which may have triggered the formation of magma chambers. The volcano developed in two phases, Ubinas I and Ubinas II: Ubinas I is represented by lava flows at the foot of the volcano and debris and ignimbrite deposits in the south and southeast of Ubinas, and it forms a shield. It was later cut on its southern side by a debris avalanche that probably occurred over 376,000 years ago. The last activity of Ubinas I generated more than four units of pyroclastic flows, with a total volume of about , and possibly an old caldera 269,000 ± 16,000 years ago.
Ubinas II is steeper and rises above the Ubinas I shield. It consists mainly of lava flows but also several lava domes with accompanying block-and-ash flows, all of which formed between 261,000 ± 10,000 and 142,000 ± 30,000 years ago. A lack of more recent volcanic outcrops suggests a period of dormancy lasting until 25,000–14,700 years ago during which glaciation took place on the volcano.
Reactivated volcanic activity started between 25,000 and 14,700 years ago and led to the emplacement of ash flows, pumice layers and tephra from phreatomagmatic and explosive eruptions, with deposits having thicknesses ranging from in many places. The total volume of each eruption deposit ranges from and they crop out as far as from Ubinas. It is likely that the summit caldera formed during this time period, before 9,700 years ago.
Over the last 7,500 years, volcanic activity has been characterized mainly by various kinds of explosive eruptions. These eruptions have expelled less than of material each time and left widespread deposits of ash, volcanic blocks and lapilli. A Plinian eruption occurred 980 ± 60 years BP and expelled of pumice and tephra, which has formed a deposit with five separate layers of pumice, ash and lapilli.
More eruptions identified by tephrochronology took place 1,890 ± 70, 7,480 ± 40, 11,280 ± 70, 11,480 ± 220 and 14,690 ± 200 years ago, yielding scoria and pyroclastic flows. The various explosive eruptions of Ubinas have deposited material as far as away from the volcano. Landslides also took place in this time, including the collapse more than 3,670 ± 60 years ago.
Historical.
Ubinas is the most active volcano in Peru and one of the most active in the Central Volcanic Zone; at least 27 explosive eruptions have occurred since the 16th century at an average rate of one eruption every twenty to thirty-three years. Events are recorded from 1550, 1599, 1600, 1662, 1667, 1677, 1778, 1784, 1826, 1830, 1862, 1865, 1867, 1869, 1906, 1907, 1912, 1923, 1936, 1937, 1951, 1956, 1969, 1996, 2006–2009, 2013–2016, 2016–2017 and 2019. Most of these eruptions consisted of emissions of ash and gas, sometimes accompanied by explosions, while more intense events such as in 1667 also produced scoria falls and pyroclastic flows. The 1667 eruption was the largest in historical time, producing about of scoria and reaching a volcanic explosivity index of 3. These eruptions have damaged communities around the volcano, and occasionally caused epidemics and human and cattle fatalities resulting from the ingestion of ash.
Aside from regular eruptions, there are fumarolic-seismic events such as in 1995–1996 when sulfur dioxide and water vapour, emitted at temperatures of up to , formed clouds that rose over above the crater. Ubinas persistently emanates smoke, and lahars which have damaged fields, irrigation canals and paths have been recorded, such as the 2016 lahars caused by early 2016 precipitation events which mobilized ash that had fallen over the previous years. These lahars destroyed local water supplies and left the Matalaque and Ubinas districts temporarily isolated.
2006–2007 eruption.
The first episode of the 2006–2007 eruption sequence involved the ejection of large volcanic bombs at high speed and the emission of small quantities of ash. Gas and ash columns were emitted between April and October 2006 and reached heights of about . Volcanically induced melting of snow that had fallen on the summit during the 2006–2007 summer induced a mudflow in January 2007 that descended into the Ubinas River valley. Volcanic activity—degassing and of Vulcanian eruptions—decreased until late 2009. This eruption was probably triggered by the entry of fresh magma in the magma plumbing system and the subsequent interaction of ascending magmas with the hydrothermal system of Ubinas.
Despite its record of activity, Ubinas was essentially unmonitored before the 2006 event: the inhabitants of the area were largely unaware of volcanic hazards, and there were no emergency plans for future eruptions available. A "Scientific Committee" was formed on March 30, 2006 to remedy these issues. A region of about was hit by the effects of the eruption. The ash fall from the eruption caused health problems and disrupted pastures and agriculture in the region around the volcano, resulting in about of damage and the flight of local residents to Arequipa and Moquegua. The village of Querapi on the southern flank was temporarily evacuated to a location with shelters farther south, and two shelters were designated in low-risk areas around the volcano, one at Anascapa and the other at Chacchagen, away from Matalaque. Furthermore, Lake Salinas, an important source of water in the region, was threatened by the eruption.
2013–2014 eruption and later episodes.
A new eruption period started on 2 September 2013 with a phreatic explosion, which was followed by more events in the next few days. Strong but variable seismic activity, the observation of thermal anomalies in satellite images and the exhalation of gases characterized this eruption period. Lava effusion began in the summit crater in 2014 and increased after the 2014 Iquique earthquake, culminating in an explosive eruption on April 19, 2014. Volcanic activity decreased afterwards until September 2014. The eruptions were accompanied by earthquakes, rumbling noises from the volcano, ash fall and the forceful ejection of large blocks. In light of the volcanic activity, Peru declared a state of emergency in August 2013 and evacuated the village of Querapi at Ubinas, whose population returned in 2016; The evacuation of the town of Ubinas was also considered.
After these events, in 2015–2017 the volcano often persistently released ash and gas, accompanied by earthquakes as well as occasional explosions and eruption columns. In April 2015, for example, activity at Ubinas led to a declaration of emergency for the districts surrounding the volcano, then in September of the same year an eruption generated a eruption column that produced ash fall in the region, leading to evacuations.
On the 18th June 2019, earthquake activity increased and a new eruption commenced on the 24th June, with eruption columns rising above the summit crater. The most energetic eruption episode took place on the 19th July 2019 with three major explosions. The explosions and ash emissions triggered evacuations and impacted 29,703 people in various districts of the Puno and Tacna Regions, as well as Bolivia.
Hazards and management.
Hazards stemming from volcanic activity at Ubinas are mainly the fallout from explosive eruptions, lahars of different origins, large landslides that can generate debris flows and pyroclastic flows. Small explosive eruptions are the most likely occurrences at Ubinas, while large Plinian eruptions are considerably less likely. The area of the cone itself is the area most likely to be affected by volcanic phenomena, while pyroclastic flows and lahars are a danger for the valleys that drain Ubinas in southeastern direction and landslides are hazardous for an area of the southern flank. The town closest to the volcano is only away from Ubinas. Large Plinian eruptions could have effects on the city of Arequipa.
The Peruvian INGEMMET geological service monitors the seismic activity, any deformation of the mountain, and hot spring and gas composition at Ubinas. It regularly publishes a report on the activity of Ubinas. Hazard maps were created during the 2006 eruptive event to show the relative risk in various locations around the volcano, which is graded in a three-zone scheme with one high-risk, one intermediate-risk and one low-risk zone. A contingency map was created to show and explain the procedures to follow in case of various eruption scenarios. Both maps were widely disseminated after publication to aid in the response to future eruptions.
Fumarolic and geothermal system.
Fumaroles are active at the bottom of the inner crater, with about five separate fumarole areas identified within the crater before the 2006 eruption. In 1997, a gas cloud from the fumaroles filled the entire caldera during the nights. Fumarolic activity and degassing is limited to the crater; there is no evidence of such gas exhalations elsewhere on the volcano. Ubinas is a major source of volcanic carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere of Earth, producing at a rate of about . Reportedly, the sound of the fumaroles can be heard from the village of Ubinas.
The fumaroles along with the spontaneous potential of Ubinas indicate that the volcano hosts an active hydrothermal system below the caldera. About 41 springs occur in the area; of these two are hot springs, are found on the southeastern slopes of Ubinas and are known as Ubinas Termal and Ubinas Fria. Both lie at elevation, the waters flowing out of the springs have temperatures of and , respectively. The composition of the waters in these springs indicate that they originate from the mixing of deep saline water, fresh water and volcanic fluids. Additional springs associated with the volcano are Baños de Cura, Exchaje, Huarina and Lucca; these hot springs and others in the region are considered to be part of a geothermal province known as "Ubinas" which also includes El Misti, and which deliver large amounts of dissolved minerals including arsenic to the local rivers.
Climate and vegetation.
The climate of the area changes with elevation. The summit of Ubinas has a cold climate with temperatures frequently falling below ; at lower elevations temperatures can exceed during daytime, but night frosts are still possible. The region is arid overall, but during the summer wet-season rainfall can cause landslides at lower elevation, and the upper parts of the volcano including the caldera can receive a snow cover. Weather data are available for the town of Ubinas at elevation: the average temperature is and the average annual precipitation is about . The present-day snow line exceeds elevation, but during the Pleistocene epoch it descended to about .
Vegetation at elevation consists of grassland, bushes and low trees such as "Buddleja coriacea", "Escallonia myrtilloides", "Polylepis besserii" and "Ribes brachybothrys" forming a shrub vegetation in valleys. Farther up, between lies a vegetation form called "pajonal", which consists of creeping plants, grasses and shrubs made up of high Andean vegetation. Small lakes and areas of waterlogged soil form wetlands called "bofedales", in which aquatic plants and rosette-forming plants grow; both "bofedales" and "pajonal" also feature cushion plants. The upper sector of Ubinas is vegetation-free. Animal species have been described mainly in the context of the National Reserve; they include various birds and camelids such as alpacas, guanacos, llamas and vicuñas.
Human use.
Sulfur deposits in the crater of Ubinas were considered among the most important sulfur deposits in Peru and were mined in the 19th century. Ubinas has been considered a potential place for geothermal energy production.


Wellnhoferia

Wellnhoferia (named after Peter Wellnhofer) is a genus of early prehistoric bird-like theropod dinosaur closely related to "Archaeopteryx". It lived in what is now Germany, during the Late Jurassic. While "Wellnhoferia" was similar to "Archaeopteryx", it had a shorter tail and its fourth toe was shorter than in "Archaeopteryx". Andrzej Elżanowski (2001) of the Institute of Zoology of the University of Wrocław, Poland, determined the differences resulted from a "phylogenetic reduction rather than individual variation."
The type specimen is the Solnhofen Specimen of "Archaeopteryx" (BSP 1999). Discovered in the 1960s near Eichstätt, Germany and described in 1988 by Wellnhofer (as a specimen of "Archaeopteryx"), it is currently located at the Bürgermeister-Müller-Museum in Solnhofen. It was originally classified as a "Compsognathus" by an amateur collector.
Although Elżanowski found significant differences between "Wellnhoferia" and "Archaeopteryx", a 2007 study by Mayr "et al." found "Wellnhoferia" was a specimen of "Archaeopteryx lithographica". Senter and Robins (2003), however, supported Elżanowski's naming of a new genus.


Meledis Formation

The Meledis Formation is a geologic formation in Austria. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.


Sauerlandlinie


Victory (volcano)

Victory is a volcano on New Guinea island, Papua New Guinea. It is situated on Cape Nelson, 30 km from Tufi in an area with no Wadati-Benioff zone. It is one of four large stratovolcanos in Northern New Guinea island, the others being Hydrographers Range, Trafalgar and Lamington.
Morphology.
Victory is dominantly Andesitic in origin, but also has traces of Basalt and Dacite, the lavas erupted have an unusually high level of Chromium and Nickel. The volcano is densely forested in all but the summit crater. On the sides of the volcano (near the summit) are four lava domes, two on the SW flank and two on the NE flank. The summit crater is breached to the SE and was probably created by a landslide. The summit now contains a small crater lake where weak thermal activity continues.
Eruptions.
A small eruption may have occurred in 1810 (give or take 10 years), but this event is uncertain. The only known eruption from Victory was a long-term eruption that lasted from the late 19th century to the mid 20th century.
1890-1935 ± 5 years Eruption.
An eruption from Victory began in around 1890. The eruption extruded a Lava Dome. The eruption produced deadly Pyroclastic flows that probably resulted in the deaths reported by local residents in the 1890s. The constant glow from Victory's long-term eruption (which could have ended as late as 1940) provided a beacon for passing ships. The stop date for the eruption is unknown but it ended between 1930-1940.


Trematochampsa

Trematochampsa is a dubious extinct genus of crocodyliform from the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian age) In Beceten Formation of Niger.
Taxonomy.
The type species, "T. taqueti", was described by Eric Buffetaut in 1974. A second species, "T. oblita", was named from Madagascar in 1979, but was renamed "Miadanasuchus" in 2009.
"Trematochampsa" gives its name to the Trematochampsidae, a poorly known group of fossil crocodiles. However, the labile phylogenetic position of "Trematochampsa" in many studies has been attributed to character conflict, leading many authors to exclude this genus from many cladistic analyses, but Sertich et al. (2014) noted that the referred material of "Trematochampsa" consists of more than one crocodyliform taxon, so they opted to use only the cranial material in the dataset for the cladistic analysis of "Rukwasuchus" and recommended removing the postcranial material from "Trematochampsa". The analysis recovered "Trematochampsa" as a member of Peirosauridae, rendering Trematochampsidae a junior synonym of Peirosauridae.
A 2018 revision of "T. taqueti" found that its fossil material was a mixture of bones from peirosaurids, "Araripesuchus", "Anatosuchus", "Notosuchus"-like crocodyliforms, and neosuchians. No distinguishing characteristics were found in the holotype specimen, a lacrimal bone, thus rendering the genus a "nomen dubium".


Tetanopsyrus

Tetanopsyrus is a genus of Acanthodii. There are two species of this genus that lived through the lower Devonian (Lochkovian), some 416 to 359 million years ago.
"Tetanopsyrus lindoei".
Authority: Gagnier, Hanke and Wilson, 1999
Size: Length: 4 cm
Remains: Holotype (UALVP 39078): articulated skeleton.
Referred Materials: UALVP 32571, 38682, and 43026.
Age and Distribution: Horizon: lower Devonian (Lochkovian).
Locality: MOTH locality outcrop in the Mackenzie Mountains, western Northwest Territories, Canada.
Classification: Acanthodii Diplacanthiiformes Tetanopsyridae
"Tetanopsyrus breviacanthias".
Authority: Hanke, Davis and Wilson, 2001
Size: Length: 4 cm
Remains: (UALVP 43246): articulated skeleton
Referred Materials: UALVP 39062 (partial); UALVP 42512; UALVP 43089 (juvenile); UALVP 44030 (juvenile); UALVP 45153
Age and Distribution: Horizon: lower Devonian (Lochkovian)
Locality: MOTH locality outcrop in the Mackenzie Mountains, western Northwest Territories, Canada.
Classification: Acanthodii Diplacanthiiformes Tetanopsyridae


Mount Giluwe

Mount Giluwe is the second highest mountain in Papua New Guinea at (Mount Wilhelm being the highest), and the fifth highest peak on the island of New Guinea. It is located in the Southern Highlands province and is an old shield volcano with vast alpine grasslands. Ancient volcanic plugs form its two summits, with the central peak the highest and an east peak about away at . Giluwe has the distinction of being the highest volcano on the Australian continent and Oceania, and is thus one of the Volcanic Seven Summits.
Geology.
The original volcano on the site of Mount Giluwe formed roughly 650,000–800,000 years ago, probably as a stratovolcano of similar height to the current peak. Extensive Pleistocene glaciation eroded away much of the peak, leaving a series of volcanic plugs which form the present-day summits. A renewed episode of extensive volcanic eruptions formed the shield-like bulk of the current mountain between 220,000–300,000 years ago, and there is evidence that some of the lava erupted subglacially. During the last glaciations of the Ice Age, the upper slopes were covered by a massive ice cap over 150 m (500 ft) thick, from which only the main and east peaks protruded as nunataks above the ice surface. At its maximum extent, the ice cap was over 15 km (9 mi) across and covered an area greater than 100 km² (40 mi²). Outlet glaciers extended down as low as 3,200–3,500 m (10,500–11,500 ft), leaving a variety of deposits including glacial till and moraines. Although the glaciers are now long gone, numerous cirques and U-shaped valleys remain visible. The present-day climate on the summit plateau above roughly is cold enough for nightly frosts and occasional snowfall.
History.
Australian explorers Mick Leahy, and his brother Dan, were the first Westerners to reach the area and to discover and climb Mount Giluwe. However, another explorer Jack Hides also laid claim to be the first to discover Mount Giluwe after viewing the peaks from the west in 1935. Hides aptly named them the Minaret Mountains. However the name did not stick after Leahy went to London in 1935 and set up a hearing into the two opposing claims at the Royal Geographical Society. Leahy delivered his address on 21 November 1935 and the following year Leahy was awarded a grant from the Society and published his discoveries in their journal.
Flora and fauna.
The slopes of Mt. Giluwe exhibit a number of different biomes. Between and is the lower montane rainforest dominated by "Nothofagus" and "Elaeocarpus" with large "Pandanus" including the climbing "Freycinetia", climbing bamboo, many gingers, orchids, ferns, herbs and shrubs including "Begonia". Avian fauna include the endemic dwarf cassowary. Above this is the upper montane rainforest or moss forest, with stunted moss-shrouded trees such as "Quintinia" and conifers including "Papuacedrus" and "Podocarpus". The ground is covered in ferns of all types including "Blechnum", filmy ferns and the world's largest moss ("Dawsonia superba") up to tall. "Rhododendrons" grow as epiphytes in the trees as do specialised cloud forest orchids.
At , the moss forest opens into subalpine grassland. This transition marks the extent of glaciation during the last glacial maximum. The grassland is inhabited by towering endemic tree ferns. Tiny wildflowers grow amongst the tussock grasses including "Veronica", "Viola" and "Gaultheria". Streams flow in beds once scoured by glaciers, and wet bogs contain frog species found nowhere else on earth. This is also the domain of the endemic woolly ground cuscus, a species of possum. Patches of relict subalpine rainforest cling to the sheltered areas where frost is lessened. Scarlet "Rhododendron" and "Dimorphanthera" abound in the gnarled dwarf forest and white beard lichens hang in the branches. Above on the vast alpine plateau, creeping "Astelia", cushion plants and mosses can be found near the numerous tarns, along with alpine blueberries ("Vaccinium") and asters in rockier areas.


Achatella

Achatella is a genus of trilobite in the order Phacopida, which existed in what is now Ontario, Canada. It was named by Delo in 1935, and the type species is "Achatella achates", which was originally assigned to the genus "Dalmanites" by Billings in 1860. "Achatella" also contains the species "Achatella billingsi", and "Achatella truncatocaudata".


Albertosuchus

Albertosuchus is an extinct genus of crocodyloid crocodylian from the Late Cretaceous of Canada. The type species Albertosuchus knudsenii was named in 2015 from the Scollard Formation in Alberta. "Albertosuchus" is the northernmost-known Late Cretaceous crocodylian in North America. "Albertosuchus" lacks the notch in the upper jaw between the maxilla and premaxilla bones that is characteristic of most crocodyloids, and it also has a very short mandibular symphysis (the connection between the two halves of the lower jaw). Phylogenetic analysis indicates that it is one of the most basal members of Crocodyloidea and a close relative of "Arenysuchus" from the Late Cretaceous of Spain, although the incomplete nature of known material makes these findings uncertain.


Salmon River Dam Formation

The Salmon River Dam Formation is a formation cropping out in Newfoundland.


Dinosaur Quarry of Altamura

The Dinosaur Quarry of Altamura, also known as ' or ' , is an area of scientific interest located in the countryside of the city of Altamura, Italy, where about 4000 footprints of dinosaurs have been found (according to other sources, they are much more than 4000). It was originally an abandoned quarry located in an area named "Pontrelli" located on "Via Santeramo", where a kind of carbonate rock known as "calcare di Altamura" used to be extracted. It originally belonged to the De Lucia family and, after a few changes of ownership, in 2016 it was expropriated. Now it belongs to the Municipality of Altamura due to the remarkable scientific relevance of the discovery.
History of the discovery.
The dinosaur footprints were accidentally discovered on May 10, 1999 by two marine geologists of the University of Ancona, Michele Claps and Massimo Sarti, while they were carrying out research on behalf of the company Tamoil. Shortly thereafter, Italian paleontologist and ichnologist Umberto Nicosia searched the area, confirming the authenticity of the discovery and in 1999 he introduced, on the basis of the surveys inside the quarry and together with other collaborators, a new ichnospecies which was given the name of "Apulosauripus federicianus".
Characteristics.
The climate of the period the footprints date back to (Upper Cretaceous, 90-65 million years ago) was very different from today. The climate was somehow similar to today's Bahamas and the water levels were probably shallow. According to the most recent theories, the fossilization of the footprints took place thanks to the periodic rise and fall of the sea level (the tide), which allowed the mud to be trampled by various species of dinosaurs. The footprints were then hardened by the phenomenon of diagenesis and, with the return of the water, they were covered with carbonate rocks (formed from fragments of shells and microorganisms). The latter then covered the holes of the footprints, thus fossilizing them.
The discovery of the footprints shedlight on some essential paleographic questions about the climate and conditions of the territory at that time. Today's Apulia region was "a promontory of the African continent" and its "palaeographic domain" is known as the "Apulian carbonate platform"; because of the presence of footprints of dinosaurs of various species in this region, the area could never be, as previously assumed, almost totally covered with water.
The footprints.
The footprints are from various kinds of dinosaurs, most of which were herbivores, although there are also a few footprints of carnivorous dinosaurs. The footprints are approximately 4000 in number and they are from around two hundred dinosaurs belonging to at least five different species. Italian paleontologist and ichnologist Umberto Nicosia described it as the "most important Italian or even European site, both for paleobiogeography and ichnology".


Callista elegans


Pserimos

Pserimos () is a small Greek island in the Dodecanese chain, lying between Kalymnos and Kos in front of the coast of Turkey. It is part of the municipality of Kálymnos, and reported a population of 80 inhabitants at the 2011 census.
The main industry is tourism, with Greek and other European holidaymakers attracted by its remote location. There are several beaches and a number of taverns, some of which offer accommodation.
Pserimos is served by a daily ferry from Pothia, on the island of Kalymnos, and is a destination on the itinerary of a number of cruise boats in the area.


Aioloceras

Aioloceras is an ammonite, order Ammonitida, from near the end of the Early Cretaceous. The shell is compressed with the outer whorl covering much of the previous. Sides are slightly convex, converge toward a narrowly ached venter. Inner whorls have sharp falcoid ribs, outer are smooth. Umbilical tubercles are lacking. Similar related forms include "Neosaynella" and "Cleoniceras".
"Aioloceras" has been found in Albian (uL Cret) sediments in
Madagascar, Patagonia, and possibly Queensland.
References.
Mesozoic Ammonoidea, Arkell "et al"; Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, Part L. Geol Soc of America (1957) p. L394.


Galechirus

Galechirus is an extinct genus of anomodont therapsids. It was about 30 cm (1 ft) long.
Description.
"Galechirus" was lizard-like in appearance. It is considered to be a dicynodont by some paleontologists; others think "Galechirus" is a younger form of a larger therapsid. Judging from its teeth, it was an insectivore.


List of earthquakes in Mendoza Province

This is a list of earthquakes in Mendoza Province.


Pairique volcanic complex

Pairique volcanic complex is a volcanic complex in the Jujuy Province, Argentina.
The volcano features what was once thought to be a caldera, which contributed to the formation of regional ignimbrites of dacitic to rhyolitic composition. Later it was found that the volcanic complex is better described as a semicircular group of lava domes. These were emplaced on older and partly eroded lava flows. These domes in clockwise direction are known as Cerro Lucho, Cerro Lucha, Cerro Agua Dulce and Cerro Pairique Chico and rise above the Bajo de Pairique, the centre of the wide semicircle. Most of these domes have been affected by lateral or centre-ward sector collapses. Eruption products associated with Pairique are the Pairique Chico block and ash flow, the Arco Jara ignimbrite and the Cerro Lucho lavas. All of these do not exceed of volume. Right-lateral faults have affected the area.
Pairique formed during the late Miocene between 8 and 6.7 million years ago, when volcanism reactivated on the Argentine side of the Puna. Later dates imply volcanic activity between 11.5 and 10.3 million years ago. Pairique is part of the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex, although the volcanic eruptions of Pairique were less extensive than these from many other APVC volcanoes. Pairique is often considered to be the oldest caldera of the APVC.
The younger Cerro Morado volcanic centre is close. It erupted later than Pairique. The ignimbrites of Cerro Guacha and Coranzuli crop out northwest and east of Pairique, respectively. Some volcanic rocks once attributed to Pairique seem to come from neighbouring volcanic centres such as Lina, Nevado Torona-San Pedro and Pairique Grande.
The non-volcanic basement is formed by the Ordovician sediments which crop out in neighbouring mountain ranges, and by the Tertiary Peña Colorada formation. The Rio Pairique originates within the volcanic complex and together with the Rio Aguas Calientes from the northwest forms the Rio Rosario, which drains to the southeast. Hot springs are found in the area.
Volcanic rocks at Pairique include dacite with cordierite inclusions. Older lavas feature rhyodacite intrusions. Mineral deposits are associated with Pairique.


Rupnica

Rupnica is an outcrop of columnar-jointed rhyolite in Croatia. It lies in the southwest of Voćin. The site used to be a quarry but is now a natural heritage. On 14 October 1948 Rupnica was declared the first natural heritage site of Croatia.


Haute-Vienne

Haute-Vienne (; , ; English: Upper Vienne) is a department in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region in southwest-central France. Named after the Vienne River, it is one of the twelve departments that together constitute Nouvelle-Aquitaine. The neighbouring departments are Creuse, Corrèze, Dordogne, Charente, Vienne and Indre.
There are three arrondissements (administrative districts) in the department; the arrondissement of Limoges, the seat of which is Limoges; the arrondissement of Bellac, the seat of which is Bellac, some to the northwest of Limoges; and the arrondissement of Rochechouart, with its seat, Rochechouart to the west of Limoges. The prefecture and largest city in the department is Limoges, the other towns in the department each having fewer than twenty thousand inhabitants.
Geography.
Haute-Vienne is part of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. It is bordered by six departments; Creuse lies to the east, Corrèze to the south, Dordogne to the southwest, Charente to the west, Vienne to the northwest and Indre to the north. The department has two main rivers which cross it from east to west; the Vienne, on which the two main cities, Limoges and Saint-Junien, are situated, and the Gartempe, a tributary of the Creuse. To the southeast of the department lies the Massif Central, and the highest point in the department is Puy Lagarde, . The source of the Charente is in the department, in the commune of Chéronnac, near Rochechouart.
At the west end of the department is the Rochechouart crater, an impact crater caused by a meteorite that crashed into the earth's surface over 200 million years ago; because of subsequent erosion, little sign of the crater is in evidence today apart from the geologic effects on the surrounding rock.
History.
A few Paleolithic and Mesolithic remains have been found in the department, Neolithic inhabitants are attested to by standing stones and by burial chambers, like the dolmen Chez Boucher in La Croix-sur-Gartempe, and others at Berneuil and Breuilaufa. Artefacts from the Bronze Age include axe heads found at Châlus. With the coming of the Romans, trade was opened up and gold and tin were mined. Agriculture developed and grapes were grown; amphorae for storing wine were found at Saint-Gence. During the reign of Augustus, the city of Augustoritum was founded (later to become Limoges) at a strategic ford across the Vienne. The Romans built roads from here to Brittany, Lyon and the Mediterranean. The city declined in the 3rd Century when barbarian invasions of the region took place.
The domination of the Visigoths was short-lived and Clovis I seized control of Limousin after the battle of Vouillé in 507. By 674, the region was attached to the duchy of Aquitaine, and the Viscount of Limoges was created. There followed an unsettled period with various powers vying for control. In 1199, Richard Cœur de Lion was mortally wounded during the siege of the Château de Châlus-Chabrol. The region was much involved in the Hundred Years' War and at the Treaty of Brétigny in 1360, France granted England a large area of territory comprising much of Limousin. Limoges city rebelled and gave its allegiance to the French crown, and as a result was sacked in 1370. Further troubled years followed but when peace was restored, the department benefited economically; tanneries sprang up by the Vienne, paper was produced, printing developed and the area became known for fine enamelwork. After a revolt by the peasants, Henri IV brought peace and prosperity to the region of Limousin. He visited Limoges in 1607 and was greeted enthusiastically. The Counter-Reformation led to the creation of numerous convents and religious orders, especially in Limoges. In 1761, Anne Robert Jacques Turgot was appointed "intendent" (tax collector) of Limoges. He negotiated a reduction in taxes payable by the region and developed fairer methods of collecting taxes, as well as improving the road system and encouraging agricultural development. Around 1765, kaolin was discovered near Saint-Yrieix-la-Perche in the south of the department, and the porcelain industry developed.
The department was created on 4 March 1790, during the French Revolution, the southern half being a subdivision of the Region of Limousin while the northern half was carved out of the county of Marche, as well as some parts of Angoumois and Poitou. At first it was given the number 81, but in the nineteenth century, the number was changed to the 87th department, when further land to the east and northeast was added. It takes its name from the upper reaches of the Vienne which flows through it. In 1998, the southwest part of the department, together with the northern part of the region of Périgord was designated as the Parc Naturel Régional Périgord-Limousin.
Economy.
In 2013, twenty million euros were earned from agriculture in the province, as against twenty-one million three hundred thousand from Limousin. There were 351,475 cattle in Haute-Vienne, 22,780 pigs, 320,500 sheep and 6,500 goats. 723,340 hectolitres of milk were produced from cows and 30,690 hectolitres from sheep. In the same year, 1,897,800 hectares of cereals were grown and in the previous year, 12,294 hectares of land were producing organic foodstuffs.
Demographics.
In 1801, the population of the department was 245,150. It grew steadily over the next century so that in 1901 it was 381,753. It peaked at 385,732 in 1906, fell back slightly in 1911 to 384,736 and fell sharply to 350,235 in 1921, after the Great War. By 1954 it had dwindled to 324,429 but after that it began to rise again, and in 2007 stood at 371,102.
The three arrondissements of the Haute-Vienne department are:


Almadasuchus

Almadasuchus is an extinct genus of crocodylomorph known from the early Late Jurassic (early Oxfordian stage) Puesto Almada Member of the Cañadón Asfalto Formation of Patagonia, Argentina. It contains a single species, Almadasuchus figarii. It is known from the holotype MPEF-PV 3838, a well-preserved posterior region of the skull as well as other skull and postcranial remains.
Description.
According to a phylogenetic analysis that accompanied the first description of the species, "A. figarii" is the sister taxon or closest relative of the clade Crocodyliformes, a large group that originated in the Late Triassic and includes modern crocodilians. It is also a close relative of "sphenosuchians", a paraphyletic group of more basal non-crocodyliform crocodylomorphs. "Almadasuchus" is most closely related to the "sphenosuchian" "Junggarsuchus" from the Middle Jurassic of China. "Almadasuchus" is one of only four non-crocodyliform crocodylomorphs known from after the Early Jurassic, the others being "Junggarsuchus" and two "sphenosuchians" from the Late Jurassic Morrison Formation in the western United States, "Hallopus" and "Macelognathus". Crocodyliforms appeared in the Late Triassic and began a major evolutionary radiation in the Jurassic, making "Almadasuchus" one of the last non-crocodyliform crocodylomorphs.
"Almadasuchus" is considered a transitional form between crocodyliforms and earlier archosaurs with respect to its braincase. In nearly all diapsid reptiles the braincase is weakly connected to other bones that make up the back of the skull, making this region flexible or kinetic. In crocodyliforms, the braincase is strongly sutured to a bone called the quadrate, making the skull completely immovable or akinetic. The quadrate of "Almadasuchus" is not completely fused to the braincase, but makes connections with two braincase bones, the basisphenoid and the exoccipital. These two attachment points probably made the skull of "Almadasuchus" completely akinetic. "Jungarrsuchus", which is the second most closely related non-crocodyliform crocodylomorph to crocodyliforms, has a quadrate that only attaches to the exoccipital.
Phylogeny.
Below is a cladogram modified from Pol "et al." (in press).


Euganean Hills

The Euganean Hills ( ) are a group of hills of volcanic origin that rise to heights of 300 to 600 m from the Padovan-Venetian plain a few km south of Padua. The "Colli Euganei" form the first Regional park established in the Veneto (1989), enclosing fifteen towns and eighty one hills.
History.
The name memorializes that of the Euganei, an ancient people who inhabited the region upon contact with the Romans.
The Euganean Hills were formed in a sub-marine outwelling of basaltic lava during the Eocene, which was followed in the Oligocene by an episode of activity characterized by viscous magma, which formed deposits of trachyte.
The Euganean Hills, just visible from Venice, have been celebrated for their picturesque beauty and their hot springs. In the Euganean Hills, at Arquà, Petrarch found peace and harmony towards the end of his life, and the town now bears his name attached to it. He discovered the village in 1369; there, he stated in his letter to posterity, "I have built me a house, small, but pleasant and decent, in the midst of slopes clothed with vines and olives,"—a house that may be seen there today. The Euganean hills, like an archipelago of steep-sided wooded islands rising from the perfectly flat agricultural plain, inspired the setting of Percy Bysshe Shelley's "Lines Written Among the Euganean Hills". Shelley likens the hill he has found himself upon, at first to an island in "the deep wide sea of Misery", then he sees that:
This brings his thoughts to Venice "thou hast been/Ocean's child, and then his queen;/Now is come a darker day," and finally to a wish for an idyllic retreat.
The Euganean Hills Regional Park.
The "Parco Regionale dei Colli Euganei" was established in 1989 by the Veneto Region. It covers an area of about 18,000 hectares. The park offers a wide choice of recreational, natural world, historical and tourist activities.
Wines of the "Colli Euganei".
Thirteen wineries have grouped together under the recently established "Colli Euganei" denomination. Wines consist of the White, with its typical straw-yellow colour and jasmine scent, the Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon reds, the Chardonnay, the Fior d’Arancio, the very sweet yellow Moscato, the Merlot, the Novello, the dry , Pinot blanc, Red Wine, the sparkling and the "" ("Italic Tokay").


List of volcanoes in Iceland

This list of volcanoes in Iceland includes 31 active and extinct volcanic mountains, of which 18 have erupted since human settlement of Iceland began circa 900 CE.
Volcanic zones and systems.
Iceland has four major volcanic zones surrounding an hypothetic hotspot: the Reykjanes zone (RVZ), subdivided in the Reykjanes Ridge (RR) (the Mid-Atlantic Ridge South of Iceland) and the Reykjanes Volcanic Belt (RVB) (on the main island); the West Volcanic Zone (WVZ); the East Volcanic Zone (EVZ) (extended to the Westman Islands, South of the main island); and the North Volcanic Zone (NVZ). The Mid-Iceland Belt (MIB) connects them across central Iceland.
In the Iceland's East Volcanic Zone (EVZ), the central volcanoes, Vonarskarð and Hágöngur belong to the same volcanic system; this also applies to Bárðarbunga and Hamarinn, and to Grímsvötn and Þórðarhyrna.
North of Iceland, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is called Kolbeinsey Ridge (KR) and connected to the North Volcanic Zone via the Tjörnes Fracture Zone (TFZ). Also the South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ) is another fracture zone, that connects the East and West Volcanic Zones. Both fracture zones also include their own volcanic systems, smaller than those in the Mid-Iceland Belt.
Beside the hotspot area fragmenting the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, there are also two intraplate volcanic belts: Öræfajökull (ÖVB) on the Eurasian plate, and Snæfellsnes (SVB) on the North American plate. It is proposed that the east-west line going from the Grímsvötn volcano in the Mid-Iceland Belt (MIB) to the Snæfellsnes volcanic belt (SVB) shows the movement of the North American Plate over the Iceland hotspot.