Southern stingray

The southern stingray ("Hypanus americanus") is a whiptail stingray found in tropical and subtropical waters of the Western Atlantic Ocean from New Jersey to southern Brazil. It has a flat, diamond-shaped disc, with a mud brown, olive, and grey dorsal surface and white underbelly (ventral surface). The barb on its tail is serrated and covered in a venomous mucus, used for self-defense.
Description.
The southern stingray is adapted for life on the sea bed. The flattened, diamond-shaped body has sharp corners, making it more angular than the discs of other rays. The top of the body varies between olive brown and green in adults, dark grey in juveniles, whilst the underside is predominantly white. The wing-like pectoral fins are used to propel the stingray across the ocean bottom, whilst the slender tail possesses a long, serrated and venomous spine at the base, used for defence. These spines are not fatal to humans, but are incredibly painful if stepped on. The eyes are situated on top of the head of the southern stingray, along with small openings called spiracles. The location of the spiracles enables the stingray to take in water whilst lying on the seabed, or when partially buried in sediment. Water enters the spiracles and leaves through the gill openings, bypassing the mouth which is on the underside. Female stingrays can grow to a disc width of 150 cm, contrary to the smaller male stingrays that reach maximum size at 67 cm.
Behavior.
Southern stingrays are nocturnal predators, who spray water from their mouths or flap their fins vigorously to disturb the substrate and expose hidden prey. This bottom-dwelling species is often found singly or in pairs, and can reach population densities estimated up to 245 per km2 in certain shallow systems thought to be nursery grounds. "Hypanus americanus" exhibit wave-like locomotion using their pectoral fins. This wave-like motion is important for "Hypanus americanus" because it allows them to escape predators, forage efficiently, and generally maneuver quickly. Typically, they travel large distances and their foraging area is very expansive. One study provided observations that "Hypanus americanus" swim along the tide, because of the greater food availability along tides. "Hypanus americanus" are able to do this because of their high maneuverability and efficient wave-like locomotion. "Hypanus americanus" either remain solitary or form groups. Groups of "Hypanus americanus" are usually observed when they mate, for predator protection or even when they are just resting.
Foraging.
In one study, it was evident that when scientists revealed the contents of the stomach of one "Hypanus americanus, "they found evidence of a great variety of ingested prey (which represented a variety of phyla and families), such as small fishes, worms and crustaceans. As mentioned earlier in this article, the "Hypanus americanus" swim with a wave-like motion, thus making it easier for them to maneuver and help explain why their foraging area is so vast. They can be identified as opportunistic feeders and continuous foragers, since they exhibit continuous feeding of multiple organisms throughout the day (this helps to explain the stomach contents revealed in the previously mentioned study).
Predation.
To avoid predators, "Hypanus americanus" bury and cover themselves in substrate. Their tails contain venom and are also utilized as protection from predators. Some predators of "Hypanus americanus" are humans and Hammerhead Sharks.
Roles within their ecosystems.
In shallow waters, there is a commensal foraging relationship between "Hypanus americanus" fish and Phalacrocorax auritus birds in coastal areas generally like the Gulf of Mexico. When foraging, the "Hypanus americanus" dig through the substrate in search of food; however, this also helps to expose certain other fish hidden in the substrate after which the "Phalacrocorax auritus" will follow behind the "Hypanus americanus" and eat.
Reproduction.
"Hypanus americanus" are ovoviviparous. Mother's bodies protect unborn offspring, while they are developing inside their mother's body. The embryos receive nutrients from the yolk sack early in development. Later in development, however, when the yolk sac is absorbed, the embryos obtain nutrients from the histotroph (the mother's uterine milk). After the "Hypanus americanus" offspring are born, and are outside of the mother's body, parental care ceases. In captivity, gestation lasted 135 to 226 days, after which a litter of two to ten young were born.
There is little knowledge or published evidence about the mating systems of "Hypanus americanus". Mating stingrays are rarely encountered in the wild. One study, however, does provide detailed observations of" Hypanus americanus "mating. This study involves observations of one female mating with two males. The study mentions that the female was chased by the two males, with one of the male's biting (or "catching") the female's fin. After copulation, the male releases the female from his bite on her. In addition, soon after giving birth, "Hypanus americanus" females have the ability to mate again.
Sexual maturity and nursery type.
Geographical location plays a large role in the age of sexual maturity. Observations from studies of breeding behavior (of "Hypanus americanus" during August at Bimini, Bahamas, and early September in Grand Cayman, Cayman Islands). One study shows that when females were placed in captivity, they were considered mature when they were impregnated (around 5 or 6 years old). In this case, males who were 3 or 4 years old were considered to be mature. There is also a difference in the rate at which the females bear young, depending on whether they are raised in captive natural environments or in natural environments. Females raised in captivity bear offspring twice a year, and females that are raised in the wild bear offspring once a year. In addition, there is a positive correlation between the size of the mother and the number of offspring. There is a difference in nurseries for where the "Hypanus americanus" offspring are raised: there are primary and secondary nurseries which have a clear distinction. The primary nursery is defined as a habitat where a female" Hypanus americanus" gives birth to her young. On the other hand, the secondary nursery is a habitat where the juvenile "Hypanus americanus "are raised to mature adults. Little evidence about locations of and migrations between the primary and secondary nurseries is known. An example of a primary nursery is in Belize, where "Hypanus americanus" females pay seasonal visits for the purposes of mating and giving birth to offspring. During one study, juvenile" Hypanus americanus "were caught by scientists at 10 to 20 m depths on rock reef surfaces nearby during the months of May, November and December. This specific location of where these juvenile "Hypanus americanus" were collected was believed to be a secondary nursery.
Communication.
Studies of "Hypanus americanus" have shown that they communicate through pheromone signaling. Males communicate with females before copulating by touching and biting the females. Also, after the female gives birth, she releases pheromones that are most likely believed to be produced in her cloaca; one study reported that the birth of offspring attracted males. As previously mentioned in the article, since a female has the ability to mate soon after giving birth to her offspring, it is plausible that these are sex pheromones. The role of pheromones in communication also make sense since "Hypanus americanus" have strong senses of smell. They have many Ampullae of Lorenzini, usually heavily concentrated around the head. In addition, this gives them the ability to sense certain electric fields which are emitted from hidden prey. In addition, they have special mechanisms for senses vibrations in the water as well as for hearing.
Human interaction.
In many parts of the Caribbean such as Grand Cayman, Cayman Islands and Antigua, the southern stingray swims with divers and snorkelers, and are hand fed at locations such as Stingray City and the Sandbar. On Turks & Caicos, they can be hand fed at a location called Gibbs Cay. Some have become tame enough to be cradled in visitors' arms and feed with pieces of cut up fish. This docile and food-reward driven behaviour has led to many locals comparing the hand-fed and belly-rubbed stingray to an over-fed household canine. There are concerns that this feeding, and the high levels of interaction with humans, may be having some negative impacts on the behaviour and ecology of the stingrays.
The southern stingray may make its way into the aquarium trade. Despite its relative hardiness, it is best avoided as it requires an immense 4,200 gallon capacity system and will devour any fish or invertebrate it is able to capture. They are also housed within public aquariums and animal theme parks including Six Flags Discovery Kingdom in Vallejo, California and the Long Island Aquarium in Riverhead, New York where visitors are allowed to pet the rays in a touch pool. In public aquariums, female southern stingrays have been seen biting one another on the edges of their fins. Reproduction has also been known to occur within large public aquariums.


Zabrus apfelbecki

Zabrus apfelbecki is a species of ground beetle in the "Pelor" subgenus that is endemic to Bosnia and Herzegovina.


Ashy chinchilla rat

The ashy chinchilla rat ("Abrocoma cinerea") is a species of chinchilla rats in the family Abrocomidae found in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru.
Description.
Their total length is 21–43 cm, with the body being 15–25 cm and the tail being 6–8 cm. They have soft, thick, silver fur on the top of their bodies, and white or yellow fur on their abdomens. They have four toes on their front feet, and five toes on their back feet.
Distribution and habitat.
The ashy chinchilla rat is endemic to land at high elevations in southeastern Peru, southwestern Bolivia, northern Chile and northwestern Argentina. Its altitudinal range is from about above sea level. It lives in rocky areas, digging its burrows at the base of bushes, under rocks, among shale or at the base of stone walls.
Behavior and diet.
Ashy chinchilla rats live underground, with a group of up to six individuals occupying one burrow. Several colonial burrows may be grouped close together. Little is known of their breeding habits but the gestation period is about 118 days and one or two young are born at a time.
They are herbivores, so they eat seeds, fruit, and nuts, especially "Thola" spp. and "Yareta". They are sociable animals and make squeaking and grunting noises when they are scared or fighting, and gurgling sounds when grooming each other.
Status.
Ashy chinchilla rats are sometimes hunted for their pelts, which are sold in local markets, sometimes to tourists. They have a large range and are plentiful within that area. The population is presumed to be large and the population trend is steady. The animals are able to adapt to some degree of habitat modification and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated their conservation status as being of "least concern".


Gomalia elma

Gomalia is a monotypic genus of hesperiid butterfly. Gomalia elma, the marbled skipper or African marbled skipper, is found in Africa and parts of Asia.
Description.
The wingspan is 26–31 mm for males and 29–36 mm for females.
Distribution.
In Africa, "Gomalia elma" is found in the Cape region, Free State, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and other parts of Africa. In Asia, the butterfly ranges from Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Baluchistan and India.


Bothrops asper

Bothrops asper (common names Terciopelo [English], Cuatro Narices [Spanish], and often called the fer-de-lance among many other colloquial names, but see discussion under common names below) is a highly venomous pit viper species, ranging in distribution from southern Mexico to northern South America. It is found in a wide range of lowland habitats, often near human habitations. Because of its proximity to human habitations and its defensive temperament, it is more dangerous to people than many other snakes. This species is the main cause of snakebite incidents within its range. No subspecies are currently recognized.
Etymology.
The generic name, "Bothrops", comes from the Greek words "bothros" and "ops", which mean "pit" and "face" (or "eye"), respectively. This is a reference to these snakes' highly sensitive heat-detecting pit organs. The specific epithet, "asper", which is a Latin word meaning "rough" or "harsh", may allude to the species' keeled dorsal scales.
Common names.
Some of the common names applied to this snake are "terciopelo" ("velvet" in Spanish), "fer-de-lance", "mapepire balsain" (Trinidad), "carpet labaria" (Guyana), "barba amarilla" (Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua; "yellow beard"), "equis" (Ecuador and Panama; "x"), "talla equis" (Colombia), "cuaima" (Venezuela), "nauyaca" (México; from Nahuatl "nahui", four, and "yacatl", nose; "four noses"), and "yellow-jaw tommygoff" (Belize)."
The name fer-de-lance is French (or possibly Créole), translating to "iron of the lance", "iron spear point" or simply "spearhead" or "lancehead". In English the name lancehead is applied to the genus "Bothrops" as a whole, and in combination with the majority of the species within the genus (e.g.: Alcatrazes lancehead ("Bothrops alcatraz"), Patagonian lancehead, ("Bothrops ammodytoides"), Andean lancehead ("Bothrops andianus") etc.). The name fer-de-lance has been used inconsistently and very informally with several species in the genus "Bothrops" having been called fer-de-lance at one time or another, most commonly "Bothrops asper", "Bothrops atrox", "Bothrops caribbaeus", and "Bothrops lanceolatus". Several herpetologist have preferred and argued to restrict the name fer-de-lance to the Martinique lancehead ("Bothrops lanceolatus") from the Caribbean Island of Martinique but, popular usage has rarely recognized any distinction. In their seminal opus on the venomous reptiles of the western hemisphere, Campbell & Lamar stated: "The name fer-de lance, widely used in North America with reference to "B. asper" and "B. atrox", has no legitimate origin of use in regions inhabited by this snake." In an effort to establish standardized names for the amphibians and reptiles of North America, the Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles (SSAR), a not-for-profit organization and one of the largest international herpetological societies, applied the following nomenclature:
In recent decades, herpetologists have preferred the name 'terciopelo' for "Bothrops asper", although the term fer-de-lance is still common in popular usage.
Description.
"Bothrops" species can be distinguished by their broad, flattened heads which are set apart from the rest of their bodies. The head of this snake is light to dark brown or even black. Although usually absent, it may have occipital blotches or streaks that range from indistinct to distinct. The underside is most often pale yellow. This species has different patterns and colors on its dorsal and ventral sides and it exhibits a postorbital stripe. The ventral side is yellow, cream, or a whitish gray, with dark blotches that are more frequent closer to the posterior end. Ventrolaterally, "B. asper" has interchanging gray scales which are more pale towards the medial line. Dark triangles with pale edges can be seen laterally, which range in number from 18 to 25. Apices either alternate or are reflective of each other over the middorsal line. In the interspaces, there are dark, paravertebral blotches. Specimens may have a yellow zig-zag-shaped line on each side of the body. There is a great variety of colours on its dorsal side: olive, gray, light brown to dark brown, tan or sometimes nearly black. To prevent water loss where they occur in drier regions, this species has more scales.
Specimens of this species may weigh up to and are often in length. Very big females can reach lengths up to , although this is uncommon. These are among the most sexually dimorphic of all snakes. The two sexes are born the same size, but by age 7 to 12 months, females begin to grow at a much faster rate than males. Females have thick, heavy bodies and grow significantly larger than males. They also have heads two or three times the size of males relative to their size and proportionally bigger fangs (typically 2.5 cm), as well.
Across its geographic range, this species varies greatly phenotypically. As a result, great confusion between it and other related species, most notably "Bothrops atrox", which is similar in color but usually has yellow or rust-like tones and rectangular or trapezoidal blotches.
Distribution.
It is found on the Gulf - Atlantic versant of eastern Mexico as far north as the state of Tamaulipas, southward into Central America, including Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. An isolated population occurs in southeastern Chiapas (Mexico) and southwestern Guatemala. In northern South America, it is found in Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana and Venezuela. The type locality given is "Obispo, on the Isthmus of Darien" (Panama).
This is mostly a lowland species that, in Mexico and Central America, occurs from about sea level to altitude. In South America, it apparently ranges to considerably higher elevations: up to in Venezuela and at least in Colombia according to herpetologist Lancini.
According to Campbell and Lamar (2004), its range in Ecuador extends as far south along the Pacific coast as El Oro Province and the Vilcabamba area of the Río Catamayo Valley. This species is reported to occur from seven (Bolívar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Esmeraldas, Guayas, Los Ríos and Pichincha) of the fourteen provinces along the Pacific slope of Ecuador. There are even a few records from northern coastal Peru, with these snakes being reported in the Tumbes Region. It is also known from the island of Gorgona off the Pacific coast of Colombia.
"B. asper" occurs throughout the inter-Andes valleys of Colombia across the Caribbean coastal plain through central Venezuela north of the Orinoco as far east as the Delta Amacuro region. This is the only "Bothrops" species that occurs on the island of Trinidad, although the situation there is complicated due to proximity of Trinidad to the Orinoco Delta where it may be sympatric with "B. atrox".
Due to the casual and informal application of the name "Fer-de-lance" being applied to any number of species of Latin America pit vipers in the genus "Bothrops", there is much confusion and misunderstanding, particularly in popular literature, as to proper nomenclature. Populations of "Bothrops" often referred to as Fer-de-lance on the island of Saint Lucia are "Bothrops caribbaeus". Populations of "Bothrops" referred to as Fer-de-lance on the island of Martinique are regard as "Bothrops lanceolatus".
Habitat.
This species likes moist environments, and occurs in most life zones located at low or middle elevations (up to ), excluding those with strong seasonal dry periods. They are, however, sometimes found at much higher elevations. This is true in the premontane forest in Costa Rica, the cloud forest of Guatemala and Mexico, or the lower montane wet forest in the Caribbean Region of Colombia and Ecuador. It chiefly inhabits tropical rainforest and evergreen forest, but it also occurs in drier areas of tropical deciduous forest, thorn forest and pine savannah near lakes, rivers and streams. The home range of "B. asper" averages between 3.71 ha and 5.95 ha, which is comparatively small in relation to other pitvipers.
Behavior.
"B. asper" is nocturnal and solitary. It is less active in colder and drier periods. This species is often found near rivers and streams, basking in the sun during the day and lying still while well camouflaged in leaf litter or under forest cover waiting to ambush prey such as rats and mice that come within range during the night. When cornered or threatened, this species can be very defensive and may exhibit an S-coiled defense display. Juveniles are often semiarboreal, and even adults are sometimes encountered in bushes and low trees. Juveniles are also known to exhibit caudal luring, a use of their differently colored tail tips to lure prey. Although both males and females display this behavior, only males have bright coloured tail tips.
Compared to the common lancehead, "B. atrox", these snakes have been described as excitable and unpredictable when disturbed. They can, and often will, move very quickly, usually opting to flee from danger, but are capable of suddenly reversing direction to vigorously defend themselves. Adult specimens, when cornered and fully alert, are dangerous. In a review of bites from this species suffered by field biologists, Hardy (1994) referred to it as the "ultimate pit viper".
Diet.
"Bothrops asper" is a diet generalist and is known to prey on a remarkably wide range of animals. A generalized ontogenetic diet shift occurs, with a higher percentage of ectothermic prey in juveniles, changing to a greater percentage of endothermic prey in adults, particularly small mammals. However both juveniles and adults, regardless of size or age, are known to opportunistically prey on ectothermic and endothermic species. Reports of invertebrate and insect remains in the digestive tracts along with frog and lizard remains are believed to represent secondary ingestion, however the dissection of several specimens containing only insect remains such as beetles (Coleoptera), and bugs (Hemiptera) are believed to reflect insects as primary prey too. Cannibalism has been reported in both captive and wild juveniles and the species is known to scavenge on dead frogs and rodents.
Just a few of the documented ectothermic prey items include: centipedes ("Scolopendra"), beetles ("Coleoptera"), grasshoppers ("Orthoptera"), crayfish, eels ("Synbranchus"); caecilians ("Dermophis"), frogs ("Eleutherodactylus", "Leptodactylus", "Smilisca"), toads ("Rhinella"), amphisbaenians ("Amphisbaena"), lizards ("Ameiva", "Anolis", "Ctenosaura"), and snakes ("Bothrops", "Erythrolamprus", "Ninia"). Endothermic prey species include: bay wren ("Cantorchilus nigricapillus"), grey-headed tanager ("Eucometis penicillata"), wren ("Troglodytes"), blue-black grassquit ("Volatinia jacarina"), Central American woolly opossum ("Caluromys derbianus"), common opossum ("Didelphis marsupialis"), Desmarest's spiny pocket mouse ("Heteromys desmarestianus"), dusky rice rat ("Melanomys caliginosus"), Rothschild's porcupine ("Coendou rothschildi"), Brazilian cottontail ("Sylvilagus brasiliensis"), and least shrew ("Cryptotis parva").
Reproduction.
The timing of the reproductive cycle and the litter size of this species vary according to location: in some parts of Costa Rica, for example, it is more prolific than in others. Reproduction is highly seasonal and in Costa Rica, reproductive cycles are tightly related to rainfall patterns. The timing of breeding differs between populations in the Caribbean and Pacific lowlands. On the Pacific side, mating took place between September and November, with females giving birth between April and June. The average number of offspring was 18.6 (five to 40) in this population. Neonates ranged in total length from and in weight from . On the Atlantic side, mating was observed in March, and births occurred between September and November. The average number of offspring was 41.1 (14–86), whereas the total length of neonates ranged from , and weighed from . In both populations, gestation time ranged from six to eight months, and the size of a litter correlated significantly with the size of the female. This species is considered to be the most prolific of all snakes in the Americas.
Male-male combat in this species has not been observed. Females will mate with more than one male during mating season. Mating includes a series of movements of the male, which then slowly chases an accepting female. The female then stops movement and extends her posture to mate. It is not known whether this species exhibits annual or biannual reproduction.
Venom.
"B. asper", together with "Crotalus durissus", is the leading cause of snakebite in Yucatán, Mexico.
It is considered the most dangerous snake in Costa Rica, responsible for 46% of all bites and 30% of all hospitalized cases; before 1947, the fatality rate was 9%, but this has since declined to almost 0% (Bolaños, 1984), mostly due to the Clodomiro Picado Research Institute, responsible for the production of snake antiophidic sera (which are also exported to other countries in Latin America and Africa) and scientific research on serpents and their venoms, as well as educational and extension programs in rural areas and hospitals.
In the Colombian states of Antioquia and Chocó, it causes 50–70% of all snakebites, with a sequelae rate of 9% and a fatality rate of 6% (Otero et al., 1992).
In the state of Lara, Venezuela, it is responsible for 78% of all envenomations and all snakebite fatalities (Dao-L., 1971). One of the reasons so many people are bitten is because of its association with human habitation; many bites occur indoors (Sasa & Vázquez, 2003).
Herpetologist Douglas March died after being bitten by this species.
This species is irritable and fast-moving. It is also regarded as being more excitable and unpredictable than "B. atrox". Its large size and habit of raising its head high off the ground can result in bites above the knee. It has also been observed to eject venom over a distance of at least 6 ft (1.8 m) in fine jets from the tips of its fangs (Mole, 1924).
Bite symptoms include pain, oozing from the puncture wounds, local swelling that may increase for up to 36 hours, bruising that spreads from the bite site, blisters, numbness, mild fever, headache, bleeding from the nose and gums, hemoptysis, gastrointestinal bleeding, hematuria, hypotension, nausea, vomiting, impaired consciousness and tenderness of the spleen. In untreated cases, local necrosis frequently occurs and may cause gangrene which often requires amputation. In 12 fatal cases, the cause of death was sepsis (5), intracranial hemorrhage (3), acute kidney injury with hyperkalemia and metabolic acidosis (2) and hemorrhagic shock (1).
Venom yield (dry weight) averages 458 mg, with a maximum of 1530 mg (Bolaños, 1984) and an in mice of 2.844 mg/kg IP.
The venomous bite of "B. asper" has been suggested to have been a factor in the choice of certain Mayan settlements, such as Nim Li Punit, Belize Central America, where the thick jungle inhabited by these snakes was used as a defensive boundary.
Taxonomy.
This species was once regarded as a subspecies of "B. atrox" and can still often be confused with it.
Predators.
Goliath birdeater spiders sometimes prey on the snake, despite it being one of the most venomous snakes in Central and South America.


Cathartes emsliei

Emslie's vulture ("Cathartes emsliei") is an extinct species of vulture in the family Cathartidae. It is only known from a series of fossils found in western Cuba. The fossils were primarily found in caves or Quaternary asphault deposits. It is significantly smaller than the extant "C. aura". It likely became extinct during the Holocene following the extinction of Cuban Pleistocene megafauna whose bodies it would have fed on, coupled with the loss of the open savannas it would have inhabited.
Both its common and scientific names are named for Dr. Steven Emslie, a professor of paleontology at UNC Wilmington.


Maiestas variabilis

Maiestas variabilis (formerly "Recilia variabilis") is a species of insect from the Cicadellidae family that is endemic to India. It was formerly placed within "Recilia", but a 2009 revision moved it to "Maiestas".


Sand lark

The sand lark ("Alaudala raytal") is a small passerine bird in the lark family, Alaudidae, found in southern Asia. It is somewhat similar, but smaller than the short-toed larks.
Taxonomy and systematics.
The sand lark was originally assigned to the genus "Alauda". It was later placed in the genus "Calandrella" until it was moved back to "Alaudala" in 2014 although not all authorities have recognized this change yet. The alternate name Asian short-toed lark is usually used to refer to the species of the same name, "Alaudala cheleensis". Other alternate names include Ganges sand lark, Indian sand lark and Indian short-toed lark.
Subspecies.
Three subspecies are recognized:
Description.
The sand lark is about long. There is considerable geographic variation and three subspecies are recognized. All subspecies are dull brownish grey with faintly streaked upperparts and appears distinctly short-tailed with a fine bill. The bill length varies geographically short and stubby in the western part and long and fine tipped in the eastern part of its range. Subspecies "krishnakumarsinhji" found around Bhavnagar in Gujarat is greyer above with broad dark streaks on the upper plumage and breast. The lores and supercilium are white as is the area under the eye and the entire underside. The whitish breast has fine streaks in the subspecies other than "krishnakumarsinhji" and the streaking on the upperparts is faint. The nominate subspecies is found across the Gangetic plains and extends into southern Burma. Subspecies "adamsi" of West Asia (Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan) and parts of northwest India is paler.
The species name "raytal" is derived from the Hindi name of "retal" which is derived from "réth", the word for sand.
Distribution and habitat.
The species is found across the Gangetic plains, the sandy banks of the Indus, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy and Chindwin Rivers. It is also found along the Narmada River but is much rarer there. It is found mainly on sandy islands along rivers and nearby fields. They also occur on coastal dunes and dry mud-flats.
Behaviour and ecology.
The sand lark is usually found singly, in pairs or in small loose groups. They forage by making sudden zigzag spurts on the sandy banks near water, feeding on insects as well as seeds.
The breeding season is February to May. The song is varied and consists of rattling and tinkling notes high in the air followed by a series of dry rattling and whistled notes while descending lower. The flight includes soaring followed by rapid wing flapping and pauses before parachuting down in a series of steps with glides while the wing and tail are held spread out. In the last stage of the descent it dives vertically before perching on a clod. They may also sing while perched on the ground, often with a slightly raised crest. Calls of other birds are also incorporated into the song. The usual call notes is a clear tinkling "chissip". The nest is a deep cup placed on the ground in a patch of vegetation on the sand. The usual clutch consists of three greyish white eggs which are speckled in brown.


Holcocera fugae

Holcocera fugae is a moth in the family Blastobasidae which is endemic to Costa Rica.


Greek lamprey

The Greek lamprey ("Caspiomyzon hellenicus") (also known as the Greek brook lamprey) is a species of jawless fish in the Petromyzontidae family. It is endemic to Greece. Its natural habitats are rivers and freshwater springs. It is threatened by habitat loss. This species may be better included in the genus "Caspiomyzon". It is the most endangered species of lamprey. It lives only in the Strymon and Louros river basins.


Antioquian sac-winged bat

The Antioquian sac-winged bat ("Saccopteryx antioquensis") is a species of bat in the family Emballonuridae found in Colombia.
Etymology.
The species name "antioquensis" is in reference to the Colombian state of Antioquia. The only two individuals of this species ever encountered were both found in Eastern Antioquia.
Discovery.
The species was first discovered in March 1996, when an adult male was discovered on the wall of a church in the Colombian municipality of Sonsón. The second individual discovered was also an adult male, which was encountered in April 1996. That specimen was located near San Luis, Colombia, near a karst formation.
Description.
This bat is medium-sized for its genus. Its forearm measures . It has a total body length of . Its tail is long. Its ears are long. It has a dental formula of . Their teeth are overall small and delicate. It differs from other species in its genera by its lack of white dorsal lines. Two-thirds of the uropatagium is furred. Their dorsal fur is dark brown, with the hairs the same color throughout. Their ventral fur is lighter in color, and the hairs are bicolored; the proximate two-thirds of the hairs are dark brown like the dorsal hairs, while the distal third of the hairs are yellowish. Their coat is thick and woolly in texture, but their faces are hairless.
Biology.
While its diet has not been studied, all other bats of its genus are specialized aerial insectivores.
Range and habitat.
The only two individuals encountered were found in humid lowlands. Its occurrence could be associated with karst formations.
Conservation.
In 2008, the species was evaluated by the IUCN for the first time. The designation was data deficient. In 2016, the species was reevaluated as endangered. It was listed as endangered because it is thought to have a range of less than , it is found in fewer than five locations, and projected decline in the area and quality of their habitat. Its habitat is not protected, and this species could be threatened by the expansion of agriculture. Surveys conducted in 2006-2016 failed to locate any individuals. This species has not been seen since 1996.


Merulempista jucundella

Merulempista jucundella is a species of snout moth in the genus "Merulempista". It was described by Pierre Chrétien in 1911 and is known from Algeria (including Biskra, the type location).


Micropterix berytella

Micropterix berytella is a species of moth belonging to the family Micropterigidae which is endemic to Israel. It was described by Joseph de Joannis in 1886.
Adults are important pollinators of "Cyclamen persicum". The anther structure with channeled stamens of this plant, is suitable for buzz-pollination by bees. However, this is seldom observed. It might be that the plant coevolved originally with a large bee which performed buzz-pollination and is now extinct. The vacant flower's niche is now occupied by "Micropterix berytella". The plant supplies food, shelter, and a site for mating and laying eggs in a way that suits the size, senses, mouth structure organs and life cycle of the species.


Chestnut munia

The chestnut munia or black-headed munia ("Lonchura atricapilla") is a small passerine. It was formerly considered conspecific with the closely related tricoloured munia, but is now widely recognized as a separate species. This estrildid finch is a resident breeding bird in Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Burma, Nepal, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam and Hawaii. It also has been introduced to all the Greater Antilles and Martinique in the Caribbean.
Before 1995, it was the national bird of the Philippines,
where it is known as "mayang pula" ("red maya") because of its brick red patch on the lower back which is visible only when it flies. (This distinguishes it from other birds locally called "maya", notably the predominantly brownish "mayang simbahan" (tree sparrow) which is more common in urban areas.)
Subspecies.
The chestnut munia has several subspecies that are recognized, including:
Distribution.
Small, sexes alike, races differ slightly in intensity of color. in "jagori" Ad whole head, breast center of belly, and undertail coverts black; back, wing, and sides of belly chestnut, brighter on underparts, duller on wings; uppertail coverts dark reddish brown, underpart buff; uppertail coverts and tail as ad. Bill silvery gray; eye chestnut; lags gray.
Habitat.
The chestnut munia is a small gregarious bird which feeds mainly on grain and other seeds. It frequents open grassland and cultivation. The nest is a large domed grass structure in a bush or tall grass into which 4-7 white eggs are laid.
Characteristics.
The chestnut munia is 11–12 cm in length. The adult has a stubby pale grey-blue bill, black head, and brown body, with a brick red patch on the lower back, visible only when it flies. Some races also have a black belly.
The sexes are similar, but immature birds have uniform pale brown upperparts, lack the dark head and have white to pale buff underparts.
National bird of the Philippines until 1995.
The black-headed munia was the national bird of the Philippines until 1995, when that honorific was transferred to the Philippine eagle. There, due to urbanization and the resulting lack of awareness of local species, it is nowadays often confused for the Eurasian tree sparrow because that species, one of several also categorized as "maya" in the Philippines, is much more common in the urban areas.


Florida torpedo

The Florida torpedo ("Torpedo andersoni") is a rare and little-known species of electric ray in the family Torpedinidae. It is known only from two specimens and a some wild sightings. Torpedoes have been recorded from three scattered locations in the Florida Straits and the western Caribbean Sea, and appear to inhabit coral habitats.
A small species growing up to long, the Florida torpedo has a nearly circular pectoral fin disc with a short, thick tail. It can be identified by its distinctive dorsal coloration of many brown blotches on a tan background, and the relatively forward position of its first dorsal fin.
Taxonomy.
The sole two specimens of the Florida torpedo were caught over the western Grand Cayman Bank in November 1960 by the "Silver Bay", which was conducting exploratory shrimp trawling on behalf of the U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (a predecessor of the National Marine Fisheries Service). The species was described in a 1962 issue of "Bulletin of Marine Science of the Gulf and Caribbean" by Harvey Bullis, who named it after his colleague and mentor William Anderson. The larger, long adult male specimen was designated the holotype. This species belongs to the subgenus "Torpedo", and is most similar to the New Zealand torpedo ("T. fairchildi"), the panther electric ray ("T. panthera"), and the black-spotted torpedo ("T. fuscomaculata").
Distribution and habitat.
The two original specimens of the Florida torpedo came from a depth of on the upper continental slope of the western Grand Cayman Bank, in the Florida Straits. This ray has also been observed off the Grand Cayman and San Andreas Islands in the western Caribbean Sea, in both cases amongst scattered coral and gorgonians at depths of respectively.
Description.
Thick and flabby, the Florida torpedo has a nearly circular pectoral fin disc wider than long. The leading margin of the disc is scalloped, while the trailing margins are frilly. The eyes are immediately followed by trapezoidal spiracles, each of which has a small knob or papilla on the posterior rim. The nostrils are long and angled, with the skin between them merged into a curtain that reaches the mouth; the posterior margin of the nasal curtain is wavy. The mouth contains 14 upper and 16 lower tooth rows; each tooth has a single, slightly inward-curving cusp. There are five pairs of gill slits.
The tail is short and robust, with a prominent "keel" of skin running along either side. There are two dorsal fins with nearly straight trailing margins; the first is tall with a pointed apex, while the second is much smaller with a rounded apex. The bases of the pelvic fins extend past the first dorsal fin base. The caudal fin is broadly triangular, with a gently convex trailing margin. The skin is entirely devoid of dermal denticles. This species is light tan above and lighter below, darkening slightly towards the disc margins. The entire upper surface is covered by a mottled pattern of small, irregularly spaced brown blotches. The maximum known length is . The only other "Torpedo" species in the northwestern Atlantic Ocean, the Atlantic torpedo ("T. nobiliana"), is larger, uniformly dark in color, lacks papillae on its spiracles, and has a more posteriorly positioned first dorsal fin.
Biology and ecology.
Virtually nothing is known of the natural history of the Florida torpedo. Like other members of its family, it is capable of producing an electric shock for defense. Reproduction is presumably aplacental viviparous as in other electric rays.
Human interactions.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has noted the rare and range-limited Florida torpedo may merit conservation concern; potential threats are bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries and tourism-related coastal development. It is assessed as Least Concern at present.


Roman mole

The Roman mole ("Talpa romana") is a species of mammal in the family Talpidae. It is found in southern Italy. It was last recorded on Sicily in 1885. There is also an unconfirmed report about an isolated subpopulation in the Var region of southern France.


Atelopus peruensis

Atelopus peruensis is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae.
It is endemic to Peru.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical high-altitude grassland and rivers.


Coleophora pechi

Coleophora pechi is a moth of the family Coleophoridae that is endemic to Algeria.
The larvae feed on "Suaeda vermiculata". They feed within stem galls on their host plant.


Barronopsis barrowsi

Barronopsis barrowsi is a species of funnel weaver in the spider family Agelenidae. It is found in Canada, the United States, the Bahamas and Hispaniola.


Pied kingfisher

The pied kingfisher ("Ceryle rudis") is a species of water kingfisher widely distributed across Africa and Asia. Originally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, it has five recognised subspecies. Its black and white plumage and crest, as well as its habit of hovering over clear lakes and rivers before diving for fish, make it distinctive. Males have a double band across the breast, while females have a single gorget that is often broken in the middle. They are usually found in pairs or small family groups. When perched, they often bob their head and flick up their tail.
Taxonomy and evolution.
The pied kingfisher was one of the many bird species originally described by Linnaeus in the landmark 1758 10th edition of his "Systema Naturae", who noted that it lived in Persia and Egypt. He named it "Alcedo rudis". The German naturalist Friedrich Boie erected the genus "Ceryle" in 1828. The name is from classical Greek "kērulos", an unidentified and probably mythical bird mentioned by Aristotle and other authors. The specific epithet "rudis" is Latin for "wild" or "rude".
The pied kingfisher is the only member of the genus "Ceryle". Molecular analysis shows it is an early offshoot of the lineage that gave rise to American kingfishers of the genus "Chloroceryle". The pied kingfisher was initially believed to be descended from an ancestral American green kingfisher which crossed the Atlantic Ocean about one million years ago. A more recent suggestion is that the pied kingfisher and the American green kingfishers are derived from an Old World species, with the pied kingfisher or its ancestor losing the metallic colouration afterwards.
There are five subspecies:
Description.
This is a medium-sized kingfisher, about long with a white with a black mask, a white supercilium and black breast bands. The crest is neat and the upperparts are barred in black. Several subspecies are recognized within the broad distribution. The nominate race is found in sub-Saharan Africa, extending into West Asia. The subspecies "syriacus" is a larger northern bird similar to the nominate subspecies (following Bergmann's rule). Subspecies "leucomelanura" is found from Afghanistan east into India, Thailand and Southeast Asia. The subspecies "travancoreensis" of the Western Ghats is darker with the white reduced. The subspecies "C. r. insignis" is found in Hainan and southeastern China and has a much larger bill. Males have a narrow second breast-band while females have a single broken breast band.
Distribution.
It is common throughout sub-Saharan Africa and southern Asia from Turkey to India to China. It is resident, and most birds do not migrate, other than short-distance seasonal movements. In India it is distributed mainly on the plains and is replaced in the higher hills of the Himalayas by the crested kingfisher ("Megaceryle lugubris").
The pied kingfisher is estimated to be one of the three most numerous kingfishers in the world; the other two are the common kingfisher and collared kingfisher. It is a noisy bird, making it hard to miss.
Behaviour.
When perched the pied kingfisher often bobs its heads up and down and will sometimes raise its tail and flick it downwards. It calls often with sharp "chirruk chirruk" notes. Unlike some kingfishers, it is quite gregarious, and forms large roosts at night.
Feeding.
This kingfisher feeds mainly on fish, although it will take crustaceans and large aquatic insects such as dragonfly larvae. It usually hunts by hovering over the water to detect prey and diving vertically bill-first to capture fish. When not foraging, it has a straight rapid flight and have been observed flying at nearly 50 km/h.
In Lake Victoria in East Africa the introduction of the Nile perch reduced the availability of haplochromine cichlids which were formerly the preferred prey of these birds.
It can deal with prey without returning to a perch, often swallowing small prey in flight, and so can hunt over large water bodies or in estuaries that lack perches that are required by other kingfishers.
Breeding.
The breeding season is February to April. Its nest is a hole excavated in a vertical mud bank about five feet above water. The nest tunnel is four to five feet deep and ends in a chamber. Several birds may nest in the same vicinity. The usual clutch is three to six white eggs. The pied kingfisher sometimes reproduces cooperatively, with young non-breeding birds from an earlier brood assisting parents or even unrelated older birds. In India, nestlings have been found to be prone to maggot infestations (probably by "Protocalliphora" sp.) and in some areas to leeches. Nest holes may sometimes be used for roosting.
In 1947, British zoologist Hugh B. Cott noticed while skinning birds that hornets were attracted to certain birds but avoided the flesh of pied kingfishers. This led to a comparative study of edibility of birds and he suggested that more conspicuously plumaged birds may be less palatable. This suggestion was, however, not supported by a subsequent reanalysis of his data.


Haludaria

Haludaria is a genus of cyprinids native to freshwater habitats in the Western Ghats of India. Originally the genus was named "Dravidia" which is preoccupied by the dipteran genus "Dravidia" .
Etymology.
The name "Haludaria" is derived from "Haludar", the name of a young Bengali artist who provided the illustrations for Francis Day's book on the Ganges River fishes.
Description.
Adults are small, typically less than SL. Both rostral and maxillary barbels are present. Lateral line is complete and has 18–26 pored scales on body. There are one or two broad, black bars on flank, between bases of dorsal and anal fins.
Species.
There are currently four recognized species in this genus:


Wood snipe

The wood snipe ("Gallinago nemoricola") is a species of snipe which breeds in the Himalayas of northern India, Nepal, Bhutan and southern China. In winter, it occurs at lower altitudes in the Himalayas, as a regular visitor in small numbers to north Vietnam. it also occurs as a vagrant in central and southern India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, north Thailand and Laos.
This is a dark snipe, in length, with a short, broad-based bill. It breeds in alpine meadows above , moving to lower altitudes in the winter.
This species is classified as vulnerable, with a population of less than 10,000 birds. Major threats to its existence include habitat loss and hunting. It has been recorded in some protected areas, including Langtang and Sagarmatha National Parks in Nepal.


Mountain trogon

The mountain trogon ("Trogon mexicanus"), also known as the Mexican trogon, is a species of bird in the family Trogonidae. First described by William John Swainson in 1827, it is resident in Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico and has occurred in El Salvador as a vagrant. Like all trogons, the mountain trogon is sexually dimorphic. The male is metallic green on the crown, nape, upperparts and chest, the latter separated from its bright red belly and vent by a narrow band of white. The female is warm brown on the head, upperparts and chest, separated from its paler brown lower chest and red belly and vent by a narrow white band.
Its natural habitat is subtropical and tropical moist montane forests. It prefers pine-evergreen and pine-oak woodland between in elevation. Unlike some rarer trogons, this species shows some adaptability to human land use and has utilized coffee plantations with suitable shade trees like oaks.
Taxonomy.
When he first described the mountain trogon in 1827 from a specimen collected in Temascáltepec, Mexico, William John Swainson gave the species its current scientific name. Most ornithologists have agreed with this assignment, though Charles Lucien Bonaparte assigned it to the genus "Trogonurus", and several other ornithologists described it again later under other names. It has three subspecies:
DNA studies have shown that the mountain trogon is part of the "Elegant" sub-clade of the genus "Trogon"—along with the elegant trogon, the collared trogon, the black-throated trogon and the masked trogon—but have not revealed which species are its closest relatives.
The genus name "Trogon" is a Greek word meaning "grawing" or "nibbling". This may be a reference to the way trogons gnaw into rotting trees to make their nest holes. The species name "mexicanus" means "Mexico", a reference to where the first specimen was collected.
Description.
The mountain trogon measures in length. It weighs between , with a mean of . Like all trogons, it is sexually dimorphic. The adult male is green on the crown, nape and upperparts; the upper side of its tail is bluish-green, with black tips to the rectrices. His face and throat are blackish, with an orange-red orbital ring and a bright yellow bill. He is green on the chest and red on the belly and undertail; the two colors are separated by a narrow band of white. The underside of his tail is black with three large white blocks created by white tips to the outer rectrices. His primaries are blackish, with black and white vermiculations on the wing coverts. The female is warm brown on her head and upperparts; her tail is rufous-brown on the upperside, with black tips to the rectrices. She has a small white crescent in front of her eye and a bold white crescent behind her eye. Her bill is dark above. Her chest is warm brown, separated from her brown lower chest and red belly by a narrow band of white. Her undertail is black and white; the outer webs of the rectrices are barred black and white, while the inner webs are black, broadly tipped with white. Her primaries are blackish with white outer webs, which form white streaks along her folded wing. Her wing coverts are pale brown, with dusky vermiculations.
Similar species.
There are several species with which the mountain trogon might be confused; they differ primarily in the color and patterning on their tails. The male elegant trogon's tail is copper-colored (rather than green) above and finely vermiculated black and white (rather than all black) below, while the female has a white patch behind and below her eye. The male collared trogon is golden-green on the back and uppertail, and its undertail is black with narrow white barring. The female collared trogon's tail is grayish below with a narrow dark bar at the tip of each rectrice.
Range and habitat.
The mountain trogon is found in the highlands of Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras. Although it was formerly recorded as a resident in El Salvador, the area where it was found was ceded to Honduras in 1992 and it now occurs in El Salvador only as a vagrant. It also occurs in Nicaragua, though the origin of these birds is uncertain. The ornithological collection at Vassar College contains a mountain trogon that was purportedly shot in Texas, but the species is not on the list of accepted North American birds.
Found at elevations ranging from , the mountain trogon prefers pine or pine-oak woodlands and cloud forest.
Behavior.
The mountain trogon may associate with mixed species flocks. It joins such flocks sporadically and in small numbers, but is an active member of the flock, moving in the upper and middle levels of the forest, when it is present.
Food and feeding.
The mountain trogon eats insects and small fruits, which it catches or plucks while on the wing.
Breeding.
Like all trogons, the mountain trogon is a cavity nester. It is both a primary and secondary cavity nester, meaning that it both excavates its own nest cavities, and uses those cavities already excavated by another species. When it excavates its own nest, it uses its beak to gnaw a hole in rotting wood, either in a decaying stump or branch. The cavity is typically less than off the ground, but occasionally as high as . When it uses a cavity made by another species, it typically uses those made by large woodpeckers. The female lays two white eggs, which both parents incubate, though the female does far longer stints than the male. The eggs hatch after .
Voice.
The mountain trogon has several vocalizations. If alarmed, it gives a sharp, low-pitched call variously transcribed as ""cut" or "tuck". In flight, it gives a quick, low-pitched call transcribed as "cut-a-cut-cut". When perched, it makes a slow, repetitive "cowh" or a "tucka-tucka-tucka"". Young mountain trogons make quiet hissing calls when food begging, and when approached by potential predators.
Conservation and threats.
Because of its large range and large population, estimated to number between 50,000 and , the mountain trogon is rated as a species of least concern by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Its population appears to be stable.


Dolichognatha nietneri

Dolichognatha nietneri, is a species of spider of the genus "Dolichognatha". It is endemic to Sri Lanka. The name is after the collector John Nietner.


Lunartail puffer

Lagocephalus lunaris, also known as the lunartail puffer, is a species of fish in the family Tetraodontidae. It lives in areas in the Indo-Pacific, and its habitat is areas in coastal marine waters, at depths of up to 150 meters, in sandy bottoms, coastal reefs, estuaries and mangroves.
This fish is listed as least concern, due to it overlapping many marine protected areas.
It has a maximum length of 45 centimeters. It eats marine invertebrates as its food source, and contains poison that makes it dangerous to consume.
Endoparasites of the lunartail puffer include "Angusticaecum tetrodonti", "Bianium arabicum", "Bianium plicitum", "Caligus laminatus", "Maculifer indicus", "Neodiploproctodaeum karachiense", "Notoporus stunkardi", and "Opistholebes amplicoelus".


Zabrus poggii

Zabrus poggii is a species of ground beetle in the Pterostichinae subfamily that is endemic to Syria.


Osteochilus melanopleura

Osteochilus melanopleura is a cyprinid freshwater fish from Southeast Asia. It inhabits rivers, swamps, and marshlands, and is adapted to impounded waters and seasonally flooded habitats. It is found in the Mekong River and Chao Phraya River and elsewhere in most countries in Indochina as well as in Sumatra and Borneo. It is eaten as a foodfish and is often processed into fermented products. It grows to SL.


Muskrat

The muskrat ("Ondatra zibethicus") is a medium-sized semiaquatic rodent native to North America and an introduced species in parts of Europe, Asia, and South America. The muskrat is found in wetlands over a wide range of climates and habitats. It has important effects on the ecology of wetlands, and is a resource of food and fur for humans.
Adult muskrats weigh , with a body length of . They are covered with short, thick fur of medium to dark brown color. Their long tails, covered with scales rather than hair, are their main means of propulsion. Muskrats spend most of their time in the water, and can swim under water for 12 to 17 minutes. They live in families, consisting of a male and female pair and their young. To protect themselves from the cold and from predators, they build nests that are often burrowed into the bank with an underwater entrance. Muskrats feed mostly on cattail and other aquatic vegetation, but also eat small animals.
"Ondatra zibethicus" is the only species in the genus "Ondatra" and tribe Ondatrini. It is the largest species in the subfamily Arvicolinae, which includes 142 other species of rodents, mostly voles and lemmings. Muskrats are referred to as "rats" in a general sense because they are medium-sized rodents with an adaptable lifestyle and an omnivorous diet. They are not, however, members of the genus "Rattus". They are not closely related to beavers, with which they share habitat and general appearance.
Etymology.
The muskrat's name probably comes from a word of Algonquian (possibly Powhatan) origin, "muscascus" (literally "it is red", so called for its colorings), or from the Abenaki native word "mòskwas", as seen in the archaic English name for the animal, "musquash". Because of the association with the "musky" odor, which the muskrat uses to mark its territory, and its flattened tail, the name became altered to musk-beaver; later it became "muskrat" due to its resemblance to rats.
Similarly, its specific name "zibethicus" means "musky", being the adjective of "zibethus" "civet musk; civet". The genus name comes from the Huron word for the animal, "ondathra", and entered New Latin as "Ondatra" via French.
Description.
An adult muskrat is about long, half of that length being the tail, and weighs . That is about four times the weight of the brown rat ("Rattus norvegicus"), though an adult muskrat is only slightly longer. It is almost certainly the largest and heaviest member of the diverse family Cricetidae, which includes all voles, lemmings, and most mice native to the Americas. The muskrat is much smaller than a beaver ("Castor canadensis"), with which they often share habitat.
Muskrats are covered with short, thick fur, which is medium to dark brown or black in color, with the belly a bit lighter (countershaded); as the animal ages, it turns partly gray. The fur has two layers, which provides protection from cold water. They have long tails covered with scales rather than hair. To aid in swimming, their tails are slightly flattened vertically, a shape that is unique to them. When they walk on land, their tails drag on the ground, which makes their tracks easy to recognize.
Muskrats spend most of their time in water and are well suited to their semiaquatic life. They can swim underwater for 12 to 17 minutes. Their bodies, like those of seals and whales, are less sensitive to the buildup of carbon dioxide than those of most other mammals. They can close off their ears to keep water out. Their hind feet are semiwebbed, although when swimming their tails are their main means of propulsion.
Distribution and ecology.
Muskrats are found over most of Canada and the United States and a small part of northern Mexico. They were introduced to Europe in the beginning of the 20th century and have become an invasive species in northwestern Europe. They mostly inhabit wetlands, areas in or near saline and freshwater wetlands, rivers, lakes, or ponds. They are not found in Florida, where the round-tailed muskrat, or Florida water rat ("Neofiber alleni"), fills their ecological niche.
Their populations naturally cycle; in areas where they become abundant, they are capable of removing much of the vegetation in wetlands. They are thought to play a major role in determining the vegetation of prairie wetlands in particular. They also selectively remove preferred plant species, thereby changing the abundance of plant species in many kinds of wetlands. Species commonly eaten include cattail and yellow water lily. Alligators are thought to be an important natural predator, and the absence of muskrats from Florida may in part be the result of alligator predation.
While much wetland habitat has been eliminated due to human activity, new muskrat habitat has been created by the construction of canals or irrigation channels, and the muskrat remains common and widespread. They are able to live alongside streams which contain the sulfurous water that drains away from coal mines. Fish and frogs perish in such streams, yet muskrats may thrive and occupy the wetlands. Muskrats also benefit from human persecution of some of their predators.
The muskrat is classed as a "prohibited new organism" under New Zealand's Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996, preventing it from being imported into the country.
The trematode "Metorchis conjunctus" can also infect muskrats.
Behavior.
Muskrats normally live in groups consisting of a male and female pair and their young. During the spring, they often fight with other muskrats over territory and potential mates. Many are injured or killed in these fights. Muskrat families build nests to protect themselves and their young from cold and predators. In streams, ponds, or lakes, muskrats burrow into the bank with an underwater entrance. These entrances are wide. In marshes, push-ups are constructed from vegetation and mud. These push-ups are up to in height. In snowy areas, they keep the openings to their push-ups closed by plugging them with vegetation, which they replace every day. Some muskrat push-ups are swept away in spring floods and have to be replaced each year. Muskrats also build feeding platforms in wetlands. They help maintain open areas in marshes, which helps to provide habitat for aquatic birds.
Muskrats are most active at night or near dawn and dusk. They feed on cattail and other aquatic vegetation. They do not store food for the winter, but sometimes eat the insides of their push-ups. While they may appear to steal food beavers have stored, more seemingly cooperative partnerships with beavers exist, as featured in the BBC David Attenborough wildlife documentary "The Life of Mammals". Plant materials compose about 95% of their diets, but they also eat small animals, such as freshwater mussels, frogs, crayfish, fish, and small turtles. Muskrats follow trails they make in swamps and ponds. When the water freezes, they continue to follow their trails under the ice.
Muskrats provide an important food resource for many other animals, including mink, foxes, cougars, coyotes, wolves, lynx, bobcats, raccoons, bears, wolverines, eagles, snakes, alligators, bull sharks, and large owls, and hawks. Otters, snapping turtles, herons, bullfrogs, large fish such as pike and largemouth bass, and predatory land reptiles such as monitor lizards will prey on baby muskrats. Caribou, moose, and elk sometimes feed on the vegetation which makes up muskrat push-ups during the winter when other food is scarce for them. In their introduced range in the former Soviet Union, the muskrat's greatest predator is the golden jackal. They can be completely eradicated in shallow water bodies, and during the winter of 1948–49 in the Amu Darya (river in central Asia), muskrats constituted 12.3% of jackal faeces contents, and 71% of muskrat houses were destroyed by jackals, 16% of which froze and became unsuitable for muskrat occupation. Jackals also harm the muskrat industry by eating muskrats caught in traps or taking skins left out to dry.
Muskrats, like most rodents, are prolific breeders. Females can have two or three litters a year of six to eight young each. The babies are born small and hairless, and weigh only about . In southern environments, young muskrats mature in six months, while in colder northern environments, it takes about a year. Muskrat populations appear to go through a regular pattern of rise and dramatic decline spread over a six- to 10-year period. Some other rodents, including famously the muskrat's close relatives the lemmings, go through the same type of population changes.
In human history.
Native Americans have long considered the muskrat to be a very important animal. Some predict winter snowfall levels by observing the size and timing of muskrat lodge construction.
In several Native American creation myths, the muskrat dives to the bottom of the primordial sea to bring up the mud from which the earth is created, after other animals have failed in the task.
Muskrats have sometimes been a food resource for North Americans. In the southeastern portion of Michigan, a longstanding dispensation allows Catholics to consume muskrat as their Friday penance, on Ash Wednesday, and on Lenten Fridays (when the eating of flesh, except for fish, is prohibited); this tradition dates back to at least the early 19th century. In 2019, it was reported that a series of muskrat dinners were held during Lent in the areas along the Detroit River, with up to 900 muskrats being consumed at a single dinner. The preparation involved the removal of the musk glands and the gutting and cleaning of the carcass, before the meat was parboiled for four hours with onion and garlic and finally fried.
Muskrat fur is warm, becoming prime at the beginning of December in northern North America. In the early 20th century, the trapping of the animal for its fur became an important industry there. During that era, the fur was specially trimmed and dyed to be sold widely in the US as "Hudson seal" fur. Muskrats were introduced at that time to Europe as a fur resource, and spread throughout northern Europe and Asia.
In some European countries, such as Belgium, France, and the Netherlands, the muskrat is considered an invasive pest, as its burrowing damages the dikes and levees on which these low-lying countries depend for protection from flooding. In those countries, it is trapped, poisoned, and hunted to attempt to keep the population down. Muskrats also eat corn and other farm and garden crops growing near water bodies.
Royal Canadian Mounted Police winter hats are made from muskrat fur.


Black-throated bushtit

The black-throated bushtit ("Aegithalos concinnus"), also known as the black-throated tit, is a very small passerine bird in the family Aegithalidae.
Taxonomy.
The species has six currently recognised subspecies, and several others have been suggested. Genetic studies have suggested that these subspecies may represent separate species, but further research is needed.
Description.
The black-throated bushtit is a small passerine, around 10.5 cm long and weighing 4-9 g. There is considerable racial variation in the plumage, but all subspecies have a medium length tail (as opposed to the long tail of the related long-tailed tit), a black throat and a black 'bandit mask' around the eye. The nominate race has a chestnut cap, breast band and flanks and dark grey back, wings and tail, and a white belly. The other subspecies have generally the same pattern (minus the chest band) but with grey caps or all grey bellies and flanks. Both sexes are alike.
Distribution and habitat.
It ranges from the foothills of the Himalayas, stretching across northern India through north-eastern Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, northern Myanmar, Vietnam, and Taiwan. Disjunct populations also occur in southern Vietnam, the island of Hainan and further north in China up to the Yellow River. It lives in open broadleaf forest as well as pine forest, generally occurring in middle altitudes.
Behaviour.
The black-throated bushtit is highly social and will travel in large flocks of up to 40 birds.
Breeding.
The nest is constructed out of moss and lichen and hangs from the branches of trees.
Feeding.
The species feeds on small insects and spiders, as well as small seeds, fruits and berries (particularly raspberries). Group numbers swell during the non-breeding season, but smaller groups exist year round. These groups will often join mixed-species feeding flocks.


Uluella

Uluella is a monotypic genus of Panamanian jumping spiders containing the single species, Uluella formosa. It was first described by Arthur Merton Chickering in 1946, and is found in Panama.


Amphisbaena caiari

Amphisbaena caiari is a species of worm lizard endemic to Brazil.


Boiga barnesii

Boiga barnesii is a species of cat snake endemic to Sri Lanka. It is known as the Barnes' cat snake in English and -පදුරු මාපිලා in Sinhala. It is a member of the snake family Colubridae. It is distributed in the lowlands and midlands up to ~600m above sea level, with known localities include Matale, Kandy, Gannoruwa, Gampola, Ambagamuwa, Balangoda, Labugama and Sinharaja Rain Forest. Barnes' cat snake is mainly a forest-dwelling species but may occasionally be found in human habitats. It is the smallest cat snake in Sri Lanka and grows up to a maximum of in snout-vent length. Being a nocturnal and an arboreal hunter, it mainly feeds on agamid lizards and geckos. The day time is usually spent inside a tree hole or a crevice. It’s a very timid and a mildly venomous snake and rarely attempts to bite.
Etymology.
The specific name, "barnesii", is in honor of Richard Hawksworth Barnes (born 1831), who collected specimens in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) for the British Museum (Natural History), including the type specimen of this species.
Scalation.
Midbody scale rows 19. Pre-oculars 2–3. Ventrals 208–271. Subcaudals 98–120.
Description.
Dorsum reddish-brown with a purplish brown vertebral series of blotches running from nape to the mid-tail region. A lateral series of the same color also can be seen. Head is purplish black with a light gray post-ocular stripe. Ventral side is creamy with gray or brown spots.
Maximum length recorded is .
Toxicity.
Although is only mildly venomous, and bites on humans produce only local symptoms, there is a common misconception in Sri Lanka that all -මාපිලා (cat snakes) are highly venomous and could kill a human with its venom. This misconception may be because the name refers to different species in different parts of the island. Due to differences in local knowledge and nomenclature, the krait species found in Sri Lanka (common krait or "thel karawala-තෙල් කරවලා", Ceylon krait or "mudu karawala-මුදු කරවලා") are also referred to or misidentified as . Both krait species mentioned ("Bungarus caeruleus" and "Bungarus ceylonicus") are highly venomous.


Batrachyla antartandica

Batrachyla antartandica is a species of frog in the family Batrachylidae.
It is found in Argentina and Chile.
Its natural habitats are subantarctic forest, temperate forest, swampland, intermittent freshwater marshes, pastureland, and rural gardens.
It is threatened by habitat loss.


Porcellio nigrogranulatus

Porcellio nigrogranulatus is a species of woodlouse in the genus "Porcellio" belonging to the family Porcellionidae that can be found on Balearic Islands and mainland Spain.


Anisolophia cultrifera

Anisolophia cultrifera is a species of longhorn beetles of the subfamily Lamiinae. It was described by White in 1855, and is known from Brazil.


Curubis erratica

Curubis erratica is a species of spider of the genus "Curubis". It is endemic to Sri Lanka.


Scincella reevesii

Scincella reevesii (common name: Reeves's smooth skink) is a species of skink, a lizard in the family Scincidae. The species is endemic to Asia.
Etymology.
The specific name, "reevesii", is in honor of English naturalist John Reeves.
Geographic range.
"S. reevesii" is found in southern China (Guangxi, Guangdong, Hainan, Hong Kong), Indochina (Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam) and south to Western Malaysia, Myanmar, India, and Nepal. There is also a questionable record from Korea. Reports from Bangladesh represent "Sphenomorphus maculatus".
Reproduction.
"S. reevesii" is ovoviviparous.


Chrysopaa

Chrysopaa is a genus of frogs in the family Dicroglossidae. It is monotypic, being represented by the single species, Chrysopaa sternosignata. It is found in Balochistan, Pakistan, Kashmir (Pakistan and India) and in Afghanistan. Its common names include Baluch Mountain frog, karez frog, Malir paa frog, and Murray's frog.
"Chrysopaa sternosignata" is a highly aquatic frog living in rivers, swamps, and freshwater marshes. It is a relatively common species.


Sibon nebulatus

Sibon nebulatus, commonly known as the clouded snake, is a species of small, slender arboreal snake which is found in southern Mexico, Central America, northern South America, Isla Margarita, and Trinidad and Tobago.
Description.
The body colour of "S. nebulatus" varies from grey to brown with dark brown irregular ring-like crossbands. These crossbands are edged by fine, irregular, beige spots. The belly ranges from white to beige, speckled with tiny dark brown points. The labial scale on the upper lip behind the eye is enlarged. In cloud forests of northwestern Ecuador, "S. nebulatus" is often confused with another snake, the Elegant Snail-Eater ("Dipsas elegans"), which can be distinguished by its pairs of narrow vertical bars between which there is a more pale bar, as opposed to the unpaired vertical bars of "S. nebulatus".


Cochylidia oblonga

Cochylidia oblonga is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in China (Anhui, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Liaoning, Tianjin).
The wingspan is for males and for females. The ground colour of the forewings is yellowish white, the costal margin with a narrow brownish black stripe running from the base to the median fascia. The hindwings are pale grey.


Painted apple moth in New Zealand

The painted apple moth ("Teia anartoides" or "Orgyia anartoides") is an invasive species that was eradicated from New Zealand.
The moth is a native to Australia but in May 1999 it was found in Glendene, Auckland. A controversial spray programme was carried out to eradicate the moth.


Gnaphosa borea

Gnaphosa borea is a ground spider species with Holarctic distribution. It is found in boreal forests in Russia (Tuva, South Siberia), in the United States (Toolik Lake, Alaska, Mount Katahdin, Baxter State Park, Maine) and in Canada (Alberta, Saskatchewan, Yukon).
This species appears to be dependent on some of the conditions associated with wildfires as it is absent or rarely collected in harvest-origin stands.


Carabus exiguus evae

Carabus exiguus evae is a black-coloured subspecies of ground beetle in the subfamily Carabinae that is endemic to Qinghai, China.


Alopoglossus andeanus

Alopoglossus andeanus is a species of lizard in the family Alopoglossidae. It is endemic to Peru.


Brown-backed solitaire

The brown-backed solitaire ("Myadestes occidentalis") is considered a thrush and is placed in the family Turdidae. It is a medium-sized bird about 21 centimeters (8 inches) long. It is a mostly grayish bird with brown flight feathers (hence the "brown back" when it is perched), a white eye ring and white rectrices (tail) feathers.
Habitat and range.
It is relatively common in the mountains of Mexico and northern Central America. It tends to be found in semi-deciduous mountain forests, including mixed pine-oak forests. It is often found near streams.
In the American Birding Association Area, it is Code 5. One singing bird was found in Miller Canyon, in the Huachuca Mountains of Southeastern Arizona, and documented by the youth birding Victor Emanuel Nature Tours' Camp Chiricahua in July 2009. This bird was the first accepted record of this species in the ABA area, notable since several other previous records had been rejected due to question of origin.
The bird was located, identified, and documented by Benjamin Van Doren, Philippa Tanford, James Warren, Fer Farias, Ted Stiritz, Erich Lehner, Benjamin Vizzachero, Ethan Gyllenhaal, Megan O'Brien, Brian Magnier, Vincent Pellegrino, and leaders Robert Day, Dave Jasper, and Rebekah McIntyre. A heard-only bird in Morse Canyon, Chiricahuas, Arizona, was documented by John Yerger in May 2011, and is pending acceptance. A wildfire shut down the trail, and the bird was not refound.
Voice.
The brown-backed solitaire's song is a crescendo of accelerating, descending notes, often described as flute- or bell-like. This species also has a squealing, metallic call and a raspy alarm call.
Taxonomy.
Placed in the genus "Myadestes", the brown-backed solitaire is closely related to other thrushes sharing the common name of "solitaire."


Round-tongued floating frog

The round-tongued floating frog (Occidozyga martensii) is a species of frog in the family Dicroglossidae. "Occidozyga magnapustulosus", distributed in scattered locations of northern Thailand and Laos, might be included within it.
Range and habitat.
"Occidozyga martensii" is found throughout most of Indochina. It is found in Cambodia, southern China (Yunnan, Guangxi, Guangdong, and Hainan), Laos, northern peninsular Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, and possibly Myanmar.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest, rivers, intermittent rivers, swamps, freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marshes, ponds, irrigated land, and canals and ditches.


Micropterix avarcella

Micropterix avarcella is a species of moth belonging to the family Micropterigidae that was described by Aleksei Konstantinovich Zagulajev in 1994, and is endemic to Russia.


Hypolestes clara

Hypolestes clara is a species of damselfly in the family Megapodagrionidae. It is endemic to Jamaica. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and rivers. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Sauromalus slevini

Sauromalus slevini, also known as the Monserrat chuckwalla, is a species of chuckwalla belonging to the family Iguanidae. "S. slevini" is native to three small islands in the Sea of Cortés.
Taxonomy and etymology.
The generic name, "Sauromalus", is said to be a combination of two ancient Greek words: "sauros" meaning "lizard" and "omalus" meaning "flat". The proper ancient Greek word for "flat" is however "homalos" (ὁμαλός) or "homalēs" (ὁμαλής).
Its specific name, "slevini", is a latinized form of the surname of American zoologist Joseph Richard Slevin (1881–1957), who was Curator of Herpetology at the California Academy of Sciences from 1928 to 1957.
The species was first described by American herpetologist John Van Denburgh in 1922.
The common name, "chuckwalla", derives from the Shoshone word, "tcaxxwal", or the Cahuilla word, "caxwal", transcribed by Spaniards as "chacahuala".
Geographic range.
"S. slevini" is found on three islands in the Sea of Cortés: Isla del Carmen, Isla Coronados, and Isla Monserrate. It can be found at altitudes from sea level to .
Conservation status.
Due to its restricted range "S. slevinii" is a CITES protected animal.
Description.
"S. slevini" has the following coloration. The base color on its back is brown or olive green, with a yellow middorsal band, but can be spotted, marbled, or cross-banded with red or darker brown. The head, tail, and limbs are unicolor, and the tail may be faintly cross-banded with darker brown. The ventral surfaces are dull brown, marbled or spotted with dark brown, especially on the throat.
Habitat and diet.
The Montserrat chuckwalla prefers dwelling in lava flows and rocky areas with nooks and crannies available for a retreat when threatened. These areas are typically vegetated by creosote bush and cholla cacti, which form the staple of its diet as the chuckwalla is primarily herbivorous. The chuckwalla also feeds on leaves, fruit and flowers of annuals, perennial plants, and even weeds; insects represent a supplementary prey if eaten at all.
Reproduction.
"S. slevini" is oviparous.


Himalayan bluetail

The Himalayan bluetail or Himalayan red-flanked bush-robin also called the Orange-flanked bush-robin ("Tarsiger rufilatus") is a small passerine bird that was formerly classed as a member of the thrush family Turdidae, but is now more generally considered to be an Old World flycatcher of Muscicapidae. While currently under review, this taxon is not current recognized as a species by BirdLife international.
It is closely related to the red-flanked bluetail and was generally treated as a subspecies of it in the past, but as well as differing in its migratory behaviour (the red-flanked bluetail is a long-distance migrant), it also differs in the more intense blue colour of the adult males and the greyer colour of the females and juveniles.
Description and distribution.
The Himalayan bluetail is a short-distance altitudinal migrant species, breeding in the Himalaya in bush layer (dwarf rhododendron in wetter areas, deciduous bushes in drier) of conifer and mixed conifer-oak forest, main species fir ("Abies") but sometimes in areas with "Picea smithiana" or "Pinus wallichiana"/"Cupressus torulosa" forest; at 3000–4400 m, not penetrating beyond tree-line and in winters found at 1,500–2,500 m typically in broadleaf evergreen forest, dense dark undergrowth and thickets, clearings, treefall gaps with vine tangles, open woodland; commonly seen along tracks; favours ridges and mountain tops. It is insectivorous.


Oligoryzomys victus

Oligoryzomys victus, also known as the St. Vincent colilargo or St. Vincent pygmy rice rat, is a species of rodent in the genus "Oligoryzomys" of the oryzomyine tribe. Only one specimen is known, which was collected on Saint Vincent in the Lesser Antilles in about 1892, and it is now presumed extinct.
Taxonomy.
The only known specimen was collected by H. H. Smith at an unknown location on Saint Vincent and later presented to the British Museum of Natural History, where it was registered as specimen BMNH 97.12.26.1. In 1898, Oldfield Thomas described the specimen as the holotype of a new species of "Oryzomys" which he named "Oryzomys victus". Although Thomas placed it close to species now placed in "Oligoryzomys", later compilators considered the affinities of "O. victus" as unknown; one study placed it in the "Oryzomys tectus" group (more or less = "Oecomys"). In his 1962 study of Antillean oryzomyines, however, American paleontologist Clayton Ray reaffirmed its affinities with "Oligoryzomys", but he was unable to resolve its relation within the genus. On the one hand, he saw closer morphological similarities to small "Oligoryzomys" such as "O. fulvescens" and "O. delicatus", but on the other hand larger species such as "O. longicaudatus" are closer in size. Ray also considered the possibility that the St. Vincent population was in fact introduced from a still unknown mainland species, but considered this unlikely; no such species has since been found.
Description.
The holotype, a fluid-preserved adult female with the skull extracted, was described in Thomas' original description and in Ray's 1962 restudy. It is a relatively large "Oligoryzomys" and has the pelage dark reddish above and buffy white below. The short ears are brown in color. The tail nearly lacks hairs and is brown above and somewhat paler below. Like most oryzomyines, it has eight mammae, including a pectoral pair. The head and body length is 96 mm, the tail length 121 mm, the hind foot length (without claws) 25 mm, the ear length 14 mm, the greatest length of the skull 27.2 mm, the length of the upper molars is 3.9 mm, and the length of the lower molars is 4.0 mm.
Behaviour.
Little is known about the habits or the ecology of "O. victus"; in fact, the only direct information is a collector's note which calls it a "forest rat". Its morphology suggests that it was not arboreal or fossorial.
Extinction.
The extinction of "O. victus" may be associated with the introduction of the small Asian mongoose to St. Vincent in the 1870s. Ray suggests that the rice rat was an easier prey for the mongoose than introduced "Rattus", which may have become partly arboreal, thus creating a competitive disadvantage for the rice rat. Any remaining populations may have been wiped out when the Soufrière erupted in 1902, destroying the pristine vegetation on its slopes.


Singing bush lark

The singing bush lark ("Mirafra cantillans") is a species of lark found in Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia.
Taxonomy and systematics.
Alternate names for the singing bush lark include singing field-lark, singing lark and Western singing bush lark.
Subspecies.
Four subspecies are recognized:
Distribution and habitat.
The range of the singing bush lark is extensive, with an estimated global extent of occurrence of 10,000,000 km2. Its global population is thought to be large, though it has yet to be quantified.


Eupithecia robinsoni

Eupithecia robinsoni is a moth in the family Geometridae. It is found on the Juan Fernández Islands in Chile.


Bazaria fulvofasciata

Bazaria fulvofasciata is a species of snout moth in the genus "Bazaria". It was described by Rothschild in 1915. It is found in Algeria.


Pseudocalotes austeniana

Pseudocalotes austeniana, also known commonly as the Abor Hills agama or Annandale's dragon, is a rare species of lizard in the family Agamidae. The species is endemic to Asia.
Etymology.
The specific name, "austeniana", is in honor of English topographer Henry Haversham Godwin-Austen.
Geographic range.
"P. austeniana" is found in Bhutan and India (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh).
Type locality: "Hills near Harmatti, Assam" (= Dafla Hills, Assam, fide M.A. Smith 1935).
Rediscovery.
This species, "P. austeniana", was previously known only from its holotype, but was rediscovered in 2006 at Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh.
Description.
The holotype of "P. austeniana", a female, has a snout-to-vent length (SVL) of . The tail is very long, .
Reproduction.
"P. austeniana" is oviparous.


Leptothorax athabasca

Leptothorax athabasca has been discovered and described by Buschinger, A. & Schulz, A. in 2008. It is endemic to Alberta, Canada.


Cordulegaster trinacriae

Cordulegaster trinacriae is a species of dragonfly in the family Cordulegastridae. It is endemic to central-southern Italy, from Abruzzo south to Calabria, and then in Sicily, from where it was first described (hence the scientific name) (Corso, A. 2019, 2020). Its natural habitats are humid forests, rivers, and freshwater springs. It is threatened by habitat loss.
Sources.
Corso, A. 2019. Morphological variability of Cordulegaster trinacriae in Italy (Odonata: Cordulegastridae). Odonatologica 48 (3/4): 175-201.
Corso A., Penna V., Janni O., De Lisio L., Biscaccianti A., Holuša O. & Fabio Mastropasqua, 2020. New data on the distribution of the Italian endemic Cordulegaster trinacriae (Odonata: Cordulegastridae). Odonatologica 49 (3-4): 259-287. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.4268551


Rotoitidae

The Rotoitidae are a very small family of rare, relictual parasitic wasps in the superfamily Chalcidoidea, known primarily from fossils (14 extinct species in two genera, "Baeomorpha" and "Taimyromorpha"). Only two extant species are known, each in its own genus, one from New Zealand and one from Chile, and little is known about their biology. Females of the Chilean species, "Chiloe micropteron", have their wings reduced to tiny bristles. Most fossil species are known from the Taimyr amber of Russia and Canadian amber, but one species, "Baeomorpha liorum" is known from the Burmese amber.
Rotoitids are very close to the base of the chalcidoid family tree, presently considered to be the first "branch" taxon after the Mymaridae.


Aethria paula

Aethria paula is a moth of the subfamily Arctiinae. It was described by Schaus in 1894. It is found in Brazil.


Black-cheeked woodpecker

The black-cheeked woodpecker ("Melanerpes pucherani") is a resident breeding bird from southeastern Mexico south to western Ecuador.
This woodpecker occurs in the higher levels of wet forests, semi-open woodland and old second growth. It nests in an unlined hole high in a dead tree. The clutch is two to four glossy white eggs, incubated by both sexes.
The binomial commemorates the French zoologist Jacques Pucheran.
The black-cheeked woodpecker feeds on insects, but will take substantial quantities of fruit and nectar.
This common and conspicuous species gives a rattling "krrrrrl" call and both sexes drum on territory.
Description.
The adult is long and weighs . It has black upperparts with white barring on the back, white spotting on the wings and a white rump. The tail is black with some white barring, and the underparts are pale buff-olive with a red central belly. There is a black patch through the eyes and on the cheeks, a yellow forehead, and a red nape. The crown is red in the male and black in the female. Young birds are duller, have less white above and less red on the belly.


Ariadna taprobanica

Ariadna taprobanica is a species of spider of the genus "Ariadna". It is endemic to Sri Lanka.


Large pencil-tailed tree mouse

The large pencil-tailed tree mouse or greater pencil-tailed tree mouse ("Chiropodomys major") is a species of arboreal rodent in the family Muridae. It is endemic to Borneo where it is only known from Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia), although it is likely to also occur in Kalimantan.


Jamaican mango

The Jamaican mango ("Anthracothorax mango") is a species of hummingbird in the family Trochilidae.
It is endemic to Jamaica. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest and heavily degraded former forest. Although it has a limited range, it is not considered endangered, as its numbers are not decreasing.
Taxonomy.
The Jamaican mango was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his "Systema Naturae" under the binomial name "Trochilus mango". Linnaeus based his description on the "Mango bird" that had been described and illustrated in 1738 by the English naturalist Eleazar Albin. The Jamaican mango is now placed in the genus "Anthracothorax" that was introduced in 1831 by Friedrich Boie. The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised.


Bombay duck

Harpadon nehereus, called the Bombay duck, bummalo, bombil, and boomla is a species of lizardfish. Adults may reach a maximum length of 40 cm, but the usual size is around 25 cm.
Etymology.
The origin of the term "Bombay duck" is uncertain. One popular etymology claims that the overpowering smell of the dried fish when transported by mail train (the Bombay "Daak") led to the phrase "you smell like the Bombay Daak" in the days of the British Raj. However, the "Oxford English Dictionary" dates "Bombay duck" to at least 1850, two years before the first railroad in Bombay was constructed, making this explanation unlikely.
According to local Bangladeshi stories, the term Bombay duck was first coined by Robert Clive, after he tasted a piece during his conquest of Bengal. He is said to have associated the pungent smell with that of the newspapers and mail which would come into the cantonments from Bombay. The term was later popularized among the British public by its appearance in Indian restaurants in the UK.
In his 1829 book of poems and "Indian reminiscences", Sir Toby Rendrag (pseudonym) notes the "use of a fish nick-named 'Bombay Duck'" and the phrase is used in texts as early as 1815.
Distribution and fisheries.
The Bombay duck lives in the tropical areas of the Indo-Pacific. The fish is also known as "strange fish" because of its discontinuous distribution along the Indian coast. It has been traditionally caught in the waters off Maharashtra, Gujarat in the Lakshadweep Sea, where it is an important item of the yearly catch. This fish is also caught in the Bay of Bengal and in the South China Sea, although in smaller numbers.
The fish is sometimes dried before it is consumed. After drying, the odour of the fish is extremely powerful, and it is usually transported in air-tight containers. The Bombay duck is a popular food item in certain areas of India. Fresh fish are usually fried or cooked in curry.
International availability.
At one time, 13 tonnes of Bombay duck were eaten in the UK each year. Following the discovery of a batch of imported seafood contaminated by "Salmonella" in 1996, the European Commission (EC) prohibited fish imports from India other than from approved freezing and canning factories. As Bombay duck is not produced in a factory, this had the unintended consequence of banning the import of Bombay duck. After a campaign to "Save Bombay Duck", the Indian High Commission approached the EC about the ban, and the EC adjusted its regulations so that the fish can still be dried in the open air, but has to be packed in an "EC approved" packing station. A Birmingham wholesale merchant located a packing source in Mumbai, and the product became available again.
Bombay duck is available fresh in Canada in cities with large Indian populations, such as Toronto and Montreal, and is generally known as "bumla". Although mainly popular with Indians from Bengal, southern Gujarat, coastal Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka, it is increasingly consumed by the other South Asian populations, Bangladeshis in particular.


Panulirus guttatus

Panulirus guttatus, the spotted spiny lobster or Guinea chick lobster, is a species of spiny lobster that lives on shallow rocky reefs in the tropical West Atlantic and Caribbean Sea.
Description.
"Panulirus guttatus" has a pair of compound eyes on flexible stalks, long thick spiny antennae, six pairs of small appendages around the mouth and five pairs of walking legs which are not tipped by large claws. The antennular plate bears two large, widely separated spines. The maximum length of this spiny lobster is about but a more normal length is . The body color is purplish-black, heavily marked with conspicuous round white spots. The main leg segments are dark and spotted with white, but the penultimate leg segments have dark, longitudinal stripes on a pale background.
Distribution and habitat.
"Panulirus guttatus" is native to the tropical western Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea but it also extends into the Gulf of Mexico. Its range extends from Bermuda, the Bahamas, southern Florida and the West Indies, to Curaçao, Bonaire, Los Roques and Suriname. It is found on rocky reefs in shallow water, at depths down to about , often hiding in crevices or under large coral heads. During the daylight hours they are in the coral reefs and while at nighttime the animals move away from the protective sites to feed on food along the ocean floor.
Ecology.
"Panulirus guttatus" is nocturnal and feeds on bivalve molluscs, gastropod molluscs, crustaceans and chitons which it finds by touch and with chemical cues.
In Bermuda, breeding takes place from May to October, but in the warmer parts of its range, "Panulirus guttatus" breeds throughout the year. After mating, the female carries the eggs on her abdomen held under her tail. When ready to release the eggs, she migrates to the reef crest and their release is usually followed by moulting. The larvae have a very long developmental period and are planktonic at first, before becoming "pueruli" larvae, a transitional phase between planktonic larvae and benthic juveniles. They settle on the outermost shallow reef edges where there is vigorous water movement.
Uses.
There is no specific fishery for this species although it is caught incidentally when targeting other species, either by hand, with a spear or in traps. It is mostly marketed locally and eaten fresh.
Status.
"Panulirus guttatus" is a common species and has a wide range. It is not currently the subject of commercial fishing on any great scale but may become so as the Caribbean spiny lobster ("Panulirus argus") populations decline. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of "least concern".


Strabomantis laticorpus

Strabomantis laticorpus is a species of frog in the family Craugastoridae. It is found in Panama and possibly Colombia. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forest.


Moaciria moraveci

Moaciria moraveci is a parasitic worm infecting a "Hylophorbus" frog on Fergusson Island, Papua New Guinea. It is a member of the genus "Moaciria", a nematode in the family Heterakidae. The name of the species honours František Moravec. The genus "Moaciria" was first described, in 1956, from the Brazilian Noronha skink, but other species from more parts of the world have since been described.
"Moaciria moraveci" is a small but stout nematode. The male is smaller than the female. In males, total length is 2.59 to 2.85 mm, and in females, it is 2.94 to 4.16 mm.
The only known host is a frog in the genus "Hylophorbus" from Fergusson, close to but perhaps distinct from "Hylophorbus rufescens"; it is present in 10 out of 21 specimens examined. It infects the large intestine. Other parasites in this species include "Cosmocerca novaeguineae", "Cosmocerca tyleri", "Oswaldocruzia bakeri", and a species of "Physocephalus".


Elachista jaskai

Elachista jaskai is a moth of the family Elachistidae that is found in northern Russia.


Sarmarutilus rubilio

Sarmarutilus rubilio, known as the rovella or the South European roach, is a species of freshwater fish in the family Cyprinidae. It is native in the Tuscano-Latium district of Italy, both in waters draining to the Adriatic and Tyrrhenian Seas, and introduced further south in the country. Its natural habitats are rivers and freshwater lakes. It is threatened by introduced species and habitat loss.
"S. rubilio" is the single species in the genus Sarmarutilus, which was separated from the broader roach genus "Rutilus" in 2014. The "Sarmarutilus" lineage is thought to have originated in the Sarmatic area in the Middle Miocene and reached the Mediterranean area during the Lago Mare phase, and then survived only in the Tuscany-Latium district.
The sister group of "Sarmarutilus" is the genus "Leucos" of five roach species. Unlike "Rutilus" and "Leucos", "Sarmarutilus" is a riverine fish of running waters. It differs from "Leucos" by having large pearl organs on the central part of head and body scales of males. From "Rutilus" it differs in the pharyngeal teeth formula and by its small size.