Fritz Frech

Fritz Daniel Frech (26 March 1861 – 28 September 1917) was a German geologist and paleontologist.
Frech was born in Berlin. He studied natural sciences at the universities of Leipzig, Bonn and Berlin, receiving his doctorate in 1882 with a thesis on the coral fauna of the Late Devonian period in Germany. In 1887 he obtained his habilitation from the University of Halle, and in 1897 was appointed a full professor of geology and paleontology at the University of Breslau. In 1912 he was named vice-president of the newly formed Paläontologischen Gesellschaft. During World War I, he died in Aleppo while serving as a senior geologist under the command of the German army.
He published extensively on fossil invertebrates, being especially interested in extinct fauna from a stratigraphic-geological perspective. From 1913 he was an editor of the "Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Geologie and Paläontologie".


Morondava Basin

Morondava Basin is one of the major sedimentary basins of Madagascar. It encompasses the large Tsimiroro heavy oil field and giant Bemolanga ultra heavy oil field.


Aayemenaytcheia

Aayemenaytcheia paragranulata is a Middle Devonian proetid trilobite.
Etymology.
The genus name is the vocalisation of the acronym AMNH of the American Museum of Natural History and the suffix -ia (Aay-Em-En-Aytche-ia), as gratitude for funding Lieberman's research.
The species epithet "paragranulata" refers to the fact that the species was first regarded as closely related to "Dechenella granulata".
Distribution.
"A. paragranulata" has been collected from the Devonian of Canada (Emsian and Eifelian, Blue Fjord Formation, Bathurst Island, Nunavut).
Taxonomy.
"Aayemenaytcheia paragranulata" was originally described as a species belonging to the genus "Dechenella". Recent cladistic analysis however makes it likely the species is in fact the earliest branch of a clade that further includes "Lacunoporaspis", "Dechenella," "Schizoproetus" and "Schizoproetoides". So in order to retain the monophyly of the genus "Dechenella", a new genus was erected for "D. paragranulata".


Lanthanostegus

Lanthanostegus is an extinct genus of non-mammalian synapsids from the Capitanian Tapinocephalus Assemblage Zone, Koonap Formation (Beaufort Group) of South Africa.


Ankarafantsika Formation

The Ankarafantsika Formation is a Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian) geologic formation of the Mahajanga Basin in the Boeny region of Madagascar, Africa. The fine-grained sandstones of the formation were deposited in a fluvial to lacustrine environment.
Fossil content.
The following fossils have been reported from the formation:


Xiphodolamia

Xiphodolamia is a rare extinct genus of mackerel shark which lived during the Eocene epoch. It is only known from isolated teeth, but has been found in Europe, Africa, and Asia. It is assumed to be pelagic, occurring more frequently in deeper water deposits, most notably the London Clay and Eocene deposits in Denmark. It is distinguished by its rectangular root and twisted blade, unique among Mackerel sharks. It is unclear what niche this specialized dentition helped exploit.
Taxonomy and Affinities.
The following species have been attributed to "Xiphodolamia":
"X. barbadica" was described from the Lutetian-aged Scotland Formation of the West Indies, and "X eocaena" was treated as the Ypresian-aged North American and European representative. "X. ensis" was originally described out of the early-middle Eocene of Central Asia and Jordan. However, "X. barbadica" and "X. eocaeana" are not easily discernable from the type species "X. ensis", and most recent authors have treated them as junior synonyms. "X. serrata" is a serrated variety known from the Upper Eocene of Africa and Arabia. It appears to be the culmination of a singular evolving lineage, and thus "Xiphodolamia" is an example of anagensis. The development of serrations in "Xiphodolamia" mirrors that of "Otodus" in the Ypresian, and thus is an example of convergent evolution. This genus is not known to have survived into the Oligocene. Though in the past the genus has been placed in many orders, it is now the consensus "Xiphodolamia" is an unusual member of the order Lamniformes. However, its placement within Lamniformes is uncertain, especially its relationship to Lamnidae and "Isurus". Some have placed it in its own family, Xiphidolamnidae. It is unlikely this matter will be resolved until associated material or transitional fossils are found and described.
Paleobiogeography.
"Xiphodolamia" is widely but thinly spread. The following places have produced "Xiphodolamia" teeth:


Apoquindo Waterfall

The Apoquindo Waterfall is a waterfall in Waters of Ramon Natural Park (Spanish: "Parque Natural Aguas de Ramón") on the east side of Santiago, Chile, near Apoquindo. It is fed by melting snow from Cerro San Ramon and Cerro Provincia. The waterfall has a main drop of about .


Mesosuchus

Mesosuchus is an extinct genus of basal Rhynchosaur from early Middle Triassic (early Anisian stage) deposits of Eastern Cape, South Africa. It is known from the holotype SAM 5882, a partial skeleton, and from the paratypes SAM 6046, SAM 6536, SAM 7416 and SAM 7701 from the "Aliwal North Euparkeria site". "Mesosuchus" is quite small, spanning around 30 cm in length. "Mesosuchus" was discovered and named by David Meredith Seares Watson in 1912.
Fossil discovery.
SAM 5882, the holotype for "Mesosuchus", consists of a partial rostrum, palate, braincase, lower jaws, sections of articulated presacral vertebral column, nine articulated caudal vertebrae, portions of scapula and pelvic girdle, and partial forelimb and hindlimbs.
SAM 6046, one of the paratypes of "Mesosuchus", consists of an incomplete right maxilla, an articulated series of the last ten presacrals, both sacrals, and first six caudals, partial forelimbs, left and right pelvic girdles, right hind limb, as well as element of left tarsus.
SAM 6536, another paratype, consists of a virtually complete skull with lower jaws, articulated cervical vertebrae and ribs, dorsal vertebrae and ribs, complete left scapulocoracoid and partial right scapula, interclavicle, clavicles, distal end of left humerus, and gastralia.
SAM 7416, another paratype, consists of an articulated vertebral column composed of the last dozen presacrals, both sacrals and at least the first 15 caudal vertebrae, fragments of right forelimb, pelvic girdle, complete right femur, right crus and partial left crus, and right and left tarsi and pedes.
Description.
Diagnosis.
All diagnostic traits of "Mesosuchus" come from the diagnosis of "Mesosuchus browni", as it is the only known species. Most of the autapomorphies used to identify "Mesosuchus browni" pertain to the skull due to the relatively large amount of skull material known. It was a small rhynchosaurian diapsid with multiple rows of maxillary and dentary teeth, with each row consisting of only a small number of teeth. The two premaxillary teeth are approximately twice the size of the maxillary teeth. The maxillary teeth are inset medially and project below the internal naris. There is also an occlusion between the vomerine teeth and dentary teeth with saddle-shaped vomers that overhang the dorsal side of the premaxillary symphysis. Looking at the spine, the length of the axis neural spine is greater than the length of axis centrum. It also has a craniocaudally narrow neural spine of the third cervical and a prominent midventral groove on the first two caudal centra.
Skull.
The skull of "Mesosuchus" has a broadly triangular shape with a wide temporal region that tapers sharply along the orbits, expands abruptly at the prefrontals, and then tapers to the blunt rostrum. There is a large, median external naris located at the front of the rostrum that faces dorsally and cranially. The orbits face laterally and slightly cranially. One feature on the skull that can distinguish the "Mesosuchus" from all other rhynchosaurs, with possible exception of "Howesia", is the presence of a beak-like rostrum, formed primarily by huge premaxillary teeth rather than by tapering, edentulous premaxillae.
The palate has a pronounced, sagittally elongated vault that is formed primarily by the vomers. The vomers contact the premaxillae at a level with the maxillary tooth margin towards the tip of the rostrum. However, it does curve strongly dorsally towards the palatines, and so we see the choanae very far above the tooth margin. To withdraw the choana further from the oral cavity, the vomerine and palatine borders of the choana are recessed dorsally.
On the maxilla, there is a distinct notch that contributes most of the border of a dorsal fenestra. It appeared to be the cranialmost of a series of maxillary foramina that extended across the lateral face of the maxilla. This most likely hinted to cutaneous blood vessels and nerves in that area. This notch is hidden by an overlap of the premaxilla by the maxilla.
The postorbital is composed of the anteroventral, posterodorsal, and dorsomedial processes in equal length. The anteroventral process does not come into contact with the ectopterygoid but it does indeed reach farther down the medial side of the jugal. The posterodorsal process forms a great portion of the smooth cranial rim of the upper temporal fenestra and contacts the parietal below the postfrontal.
Information of the lower jaw had to be put together from the pieces of the different SAM fossils as there is not one that had a complete lower jaw. When looking at the different parts however, there are indications of at least six elements present in the lower jaw of the "Mesosuchus": dentary, splenial, surangular, angular, prearticular, and articular.
Dentition.
Evident on SAM 5882, 6046, and 6536 was a clear line of separation between the tooth and surrounding bone indicating that the teeth are implanted in the jaw, which went against the previous idea that the marginal teeth of "Mesosuchus" were ankylosed to the jaws. Although there are indications of deep implantation, it is still uncertain whether the mode of attachment could be described as thecodont. Looking at the maxillary teeth, a circular cross-section is maintained throughout the teeth and the majority are worn out heavily to short, blunt pegs. This suggests that "Mesosuchus" is in fact an herbivore.
In 1963, M.E. Malan observed an interesting pattern in the positioning of the maxillary and dentary teeth. The middle section, where the medial expansion of the maxilla is wideset, had a zig-zag arrangement of teeth while the first and last four teeth are aligned in a row that is parallel to the maxilla. In the dentary, a simpler arrangement with only a slight zig-zag arrangement. Comparing this feature to "Captorhinus aguti", which also possessed a zig-zag pattern of teeth, they hypothesized that "Mesosuchus" could have had multiple teeth on at least the maxilla. This hypothesis was supported when examining the erosional features on SAM 6536.
Discovery & etymology.
Bones of "Mesosuchus" were first found by David Meredith Seares Watson in 1912 after examining a block of sandstone kept in a private collection of Mr Alfred Brown. This block was found in the middle deposits of the Burgersdorp Formation, in the Cynognathus Assemblage Zone near the town of Aliwal North in the Cape Province of South Africa. The block of sandstone contained many intermingled partial skeletons of several small reptiles and after careful sorting, Watson considered the unidentified skeletons to belong to a single new species which he named "Mesosuchus browni". As the etymology of the name suggests, Watson believed that "Mesosuchus" was an ancestral crocodile with close affinities to other presumed primitive crocodilians such as "Proterosuchus", "Erythrosuchus", and "Ornithosuchus". However, in 1913, Robert Broom looked more closely at the partial skeletons and immediately determined it to be in fact skeletons of two distinct, though related, species. Broom designated an articulated skeleton with a single external naris and a pair of supposed acrodont premaxillary teeth as the type of "Mesosuchus", and the remainder of the specimens were assigned to a new genus and species "Euparkeria capensis". Looking back, we see the confusion Watson had when giving the name "Mesosuchus" as the data for his opinion were derived from the skeletons of "Euparkeria", in particular the slender lower jaw with thecodont implantation, the crocodilian-like ilium, and the construction of the tarsus and pes.


Dahalokely

Dahalokely is an extinct genus of carnivorous abelisauroid theropod dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous (Turonian) of Madagascar.
Discovery.
In 2007, during an expedition by Andrew Farke to the north of Madagascar, Joseph Sertich discovered near Antsiranana the remains of a theropod new to science. In 2010, these were completely excavated by Sertich and Liva Ratsimbaholison. The fossils were then transported to the United States of America to be prepared, repaired and scanned in the Stony Brook University. After casts had been made and stored in the Raymond M. Alf Museum of Paleontology with inventory number RAM 16010, the original fossils were returned to Madagascar and added to the collection of the University of Antananarivo.
The type species "Dahalokely tokana" was named by Farke and Sertich in 2013. The generic name "Dahalokely" means "small thief" in Malagasy, deriving from its estimated length of smaller than those of known abelisaurids. The specific name "tokana" means "lonely" in the same language in reference to the isolation of the Madagascan subcontinent. During the Turonian, Madagascar and India were part of the same landmass that had separated from the rest of Gondwana. "Dahalokely" is the only dinosaur known from Madagascar when the island was separate from Gondwana but still connected with India, forming Indo-Madagascar. In the ZooBank the genus has the Life Science Identifier 8147803A-D4BE-4BA9-9701-D853E 37DE411 and the species the LSID AFAE32BB-123A-45D4-B931-4FF2A ABAF41C.
The holotype, UA 9855, was uncovered in what is informally named the Ambolafotsy Formation, a Turonian-age deposit of the Diego Basin in northern Madagascar, about 93 million years old. It consists of a partial skeleton lacking the skull, of a subadult individual, preserving vertebrae and ribs. These include the fifth neck vertebra, the first, second, sixth, seventh, eighth and ninth dorsal vertebrae, the left dorsal rib, the upper parts of two right ribs, the lower ends of two ribs and some rib fragments. The identification of the position of these elements is tentative. They were not found in articulation but were assumed to represent the same individual as they were discovered not a metre apart.
Description.
Initial size estimates of "Dahalokely", at , were based on the assumption it was built like an abelisaurid. Should it have had the more elongated build of the noasaurids, it would have been long. It was estimated as being in length in 2016.
The describing authors established several unique derived traits, autapomorphies. The cervical vertebra has a lamina, bone sheet, between the front joint process, the prezygapophysis, and a rear process, the epipophysis, the edge of which lamina is markedly convex, the convex part being longer than the vertebral body and separated from both the prezygapophysis and the epipophysis by conspicuous notches. With the first and second dorsal vertebrae, the prezygapophysis and the lamina between it and the vertebral body are arranged on a vertical line, the joint facet of the prezygapophysis and the front vertebral body face being positioned in the same plane. With the second dorsal vertebra, the joint facets of the rear joint processes, the postzygapophyses, are strongly concave. From at least the sixth dorsal vertebra onwards, the "fossa" or hollowed out area, below the prezygapophysis is divided into two smaller depressions.
Classification.
In 2013 "Dahalokely" was assigned to the Abelisauroidea. The phylogenetic position of "Dahalokely" among abelisauroids is uncertain. Its vertebrae and ribs have features of both main groups of abelisauroids, the Noasauridae and the Abelisauridae. A phylogenetic analysis published along with its first description found "Dahalokely" to be a basal noasaurid, but this result was only weakly supported. The incompleteness of the remains and the lack of material that overlaps with known skeletal elements of other abelisauroid species means that the relationships of "Dahalokely" within the Abelisauroidea are hard to determine.


Sphenosuchus

Sphenosuchus is an extinct genus of crocodylomorph from the Early Jurassic Elliot Formation of South Africa, discovered and described early in the 20th century. The skull is preserved very well but other than elements of the forelimb and isolated parts of the hind limb, the "Sphenosuchus" material is incomplete. It was probably quadrupedal, but may have been a facultative biped.
"Sphenosuchus" was first thoroughly described in 1972 by the British palaeontologist Alick Walker, in a paper in the journal "Nature". Walker suggested, based on detailed (but still preliminary at that time) studies of the skull of "Sphenosuchus" and modern birds, that crocodylomorphs and birds might share an immediate common ancestor. Walker recanted his hypothesis in 1985, but restated and elaborated on it (in essence 'de-recanting') in a monograph published in 1990, which provided the most comprehensive description and discussion of "Sphenosuchus" yet published.
Broom believes with the evidence present in the specimens that "Sphenosuchus" is a Pseudosuchian which is well along the line that leads to the true Crocodiles.
In a paper published by V Huene he emphasizes "Sphenosuchus" as a very important stage of crocodile evolution.
Species.
The type species, "Sphenosuchus acutus" is the only described species in this genus.
Description.
Out of the early crocodylomorphs, "Sphenosuchus" was one of the largest. The skull was 192 mm in the length and the body an estimated total length of 1.4m. This genus is considered to have been carnivorous and cursorial. The found specimen consists of a nearly perfect but slightly crushed skull, a shoulder girdle, and a few limb bones so most of the known features come from the skull. The primary head of the quadrate meets the prootic and squamosal. The quadrate and pterygoid are not fused to the braincase and the basipterygoid articulation is free.The dentary is not gracile and has anterior swelling. The parietals are fused together. The post temporal fenestrae are known for the "Sphenosuchus" with the sizes being very variable among early Archosaurs but rather small in size for "Sphenosuchus" Has a scapula blade in a triangular shape. No clavicles present. Metatarsal I is reduced, II and IV are symmetrical and III is the longest. The nasals are long and narrow and pass from near the plane passing through the front of the orbits to the extreme anterior points of the snout. The frontals are large relatively and help to form a small part of the upper orbital margin and a large portion of the upper temporal fossa. The jugal is a large bone forming the whole of the lower orbital and almost all of the lower temporal bar. The parietal is a good sized element forming nearly the entire intertemporal region along with the majority of the occiput. There is no parietal foramen present. The dentary is slender and moderate in length, it appears to have roughly fourteen teeth with a third of them being larger than the others. Overall the skull is similar to those of crocodiles however it is slightly deeper.
From one of the forelimbs it appears that "Sphenosuchus" has a carpus with the radius and ulna elongated and metacarpal like in structure.
Specimens.
A new specimen of "Hesperosuchus agilis" was found from the Upper Triassic of New Mexico. According to Colbert "Hesperosuchus" is in a close relationship with "Sphenosuchus" and this assessment has been widely accepted since. There are several physical similarities between the two. The maxilla of the specimen lacks a lateral lamina that would conceal the medial wall of the fossa in lateral view similar to "Sphenosuchus". The quadrate is similar as well in that it has a distinct lateral ridge along the anterior margin.
Another new specimen of an early Crocodylomorph was found in Arizona at the Petrified Forest National Park from the Upper Triassic. A major synapomorphy shared by the specimen and "Sphenosuchus" is the swelling of the anterior end of the dentary. Parrish and his team constructed 27 parsimonious trees and in every one the new specimen was placed as the sister group to "Sphenosuchus". The specimen was rather incomplete therefore if more of the fossil is to be found this could be subject to revision. Also there is a slight issue with the synapomorphy that relates the two so closely. The swelling of the denture could be in part an ontogenetic feature. However the lack of this feature in the other specimens up for debate to be related to the specimen suggests that is in fact phylogenetically significant.
Classification.
In Alick Walker's first paper looking at the origin of birds and crocodiles it is suggested that they could in fact have a close common ancestor with "Sphenosuchus". The evidence being similarities in several features including: quadrate articulation, inner ear regions, pneumatic spaces connected with the middle ear, the palatal structure, occiput and odd bsipterygoid process, and the upper temporal bar positioning in the skull. According to these findings Walker thought that the conclusion that birds and crocodiles could be more closely related than previously thought could not be ignored.
In 1990 Walker revised his previous work with a new, more comprehensive paper regarding "Sphenosuchus" and the relationship with modern crocodiles and birds. Several homologies were discussed. Main cavities in the crocodilian skull are also present in "Sphenosuchus", sometimes in a less clearly defined state. Certain pneumatic spaces in the "Sphenosuchus" skulls are not found in modern crocodiles but are of closer resemblance to cavities in the bird skull. The otic capsule of "Sphenosuchus" closely resembles those of birds and crocodiles. Modern crocodiles head is in the same morphological position as in "Sphenosuchus" although reduced in comparison. Due to these homologies Walker concludes that the most important steps of crocodylmorph evolution, especially the skull, took place in "Sphenosuchians" and therefore they should be included in the same taxon as "Protosuchians".
In 1995 Johann Welman published a paper "Euparkia and the origin of birds". where he argues that while "Sphenosuchus" had been thought to potentially be related to birds he finds the brain case structures of "Sphenosuchus" to be too specialized to be the sister group of birds. Another feature he found to be different was the eustachian system. Crocodiles and "Sphenosuchus" have a median eustachian system while birds do not. The internal carotid arteries in birds run on the lateral sides of the basiparaspehnoid while in "Sphenosuchus" arteries are more or less parallel in ventral view. Also in "Sphenosuchus" the facial nerve exits anteriorly to the otic capsule which is much more derived then birds, birds facial nerve passes between the two parts of the otic capsules.
Welman finds that the evidence he presented makes it clear that crocodilomorphs are too specialized in a number of key characteristics to be closely related to birds.


Santa Ana Formation, Mexico

The Santa Ana Formation is a geologic formation in Mexico. It preserves fossils dating back to the Neogene period.


Europasaurus

Europasaurus is a basal macronarian sauropod, a form of quadrupedal herbivorous dinosaur. It lived during the Late Jurassic (middle Kimmeridgian, about 154 million years ago) of northern Germany, and has been identified as an example of insular dwarfism resulting from the isolation of a sauropod population on an island within the Lower Saxony basin.
Discovery and naming.
In 1998, a single sauropod tooth was discovered by private fossil collector Holger Lüdtke in an active quarry at Langenberg Mountain, between the communities of Oker, Harlingerode and Göttingerode in Germany. The Langenberg chalk quarry had been active for more than a century; rocks are quarried using blasting and are mostly processed into fertilisers. The quarry exposes a nearly continuous, thick succession of carbonate rocks belonging to the Süntel Formation, that ranges in age from the early Oxfordian to late Kimmeridgian stages and have been deposited in a shallow sea with a water depth of less than . The layers exposed in the quarry are oriented nearly vertically and slightly overturned, which is a result of the ascent of the adjacent Harz mountains during the Lower Cretaceous. Widely known as a classical exposure among geologists, the quarry had been extensively studied, and visited by students of geology for decades. Although rich in fossils of marine invertebrates, fossils of land-living animals had been rare. The sauropod tooth was the first specimen of a sauropod dinosaur from the Jurassic of northern Germany.
After more fossil material was found, including bones, excavation of the bone-bearing layer commenced in April 1999, conducted by a local association of private fossil collectors. Although the quarry operator was cooperative, excavation was complicated by the near-vertical orientation of the layers that limited access, as well as by the ongoing quarrying. The sauropod material could not be excavated directly from the layer but had to be collected from lose blocks that resulting from blasting. The exact origin of the bone material was therefore unclear, but could later be traced to a single bed (bed 83). An excavation conducted between July 20–28 of 2000 rescued ca. of bone-bearing blocks containing vertebrate remains. Fossils were prepared and stored in the Dinosaur Park Münchehagen (DFMMh), a private dinosaur open-air museum located close to Hanover. Due to the very good preservation of the bones, consolidating agents had to be applied only occasionally, and preparation could be conducted comparatively quickly as bone would separate easily from the surrounding rock. Bones of simple shape could sometimes be prepared in less than an hour, while the preparation of a sacrum required a workload of three weeks. By January 2001, 200 single vertebrate bones had already been prepared. At this point, the highest bone density was found in a block measuring 70 x 70 cm, which contained ca. 20 bones. By January 2002, preparation of an even larger block had revealed a partial sauropod skull – the first to be discovered in Europe. Before complete removal of the bones from the block, a silicon cast was made of the block to document the precise three-dimensional position of the individual bones.
Part of the "Europasaurus" fossil material got damaged or destroyed by arson fire in the night from the 4th to the 5th of October, 2003. The fire destroyed the laboratory and exhibition hall of the Dinosaur Park Münchehagen, resulting in the loss of 106 bones, which account for 15% of the bones prepared at the time. Furthermore, the fire affected most of the still unprepared blocks, with firefighting water hitting the hot stone causing additional crumbling. Destroyed specimens include DFMMh/FV 100, which included the best preserved vertebral series and the only complete pelvis.
In 2006, the new sauropod taxon was formally described as "Europasaurus holgeri". The given etymology for the genus name is "reptile from Europe", and the specific name honours Holger Lüdtke, the discoverer of the first fossils. Given the comparatively small size of the bones, it was initially assumed that they stem from juvenile individuals. The 2006 publication, however, established that the majority of specimens were adult, and that "Europasaurus" was an island dwarf. The number of individual sauropod bones had increased to 650 and include variously articulated individuals; the material was found within an area of squared. From these specimens, the holotype was selected, a disarticulated but associated individual (DFMMh/FV 291). The holotype includes multiple cranial bones (premaxilla, maxilla and quadratojugal), a partial braincase, multiple mandible bones (dentary, surangular and angular), large amounts of teeth, cervical vertebrae, sacral vertebrae and ribs from the neck and torso. At least 10 other individuals were referred to the same taxon based on overlap in material.
A large-scale excavation campaign commenced in the summer of 2012, with the goal to excavate "Europasaurus" bones not only from lose blocks but directly from the rock layer. Access to the bone-bearing layer required the removal of some 600 tons of rock using excavators and wheel loaders, and the constant pumping out of water from the base of the quarry. Excavations continued in spring and summer 2013. The campaign resulted in the discovery of new fish, turtle, and crocodile remains, as well as valuable information of the bone-bearing layer; additional "Europasaurus" bones, however, could not be located. By 2014, around 1300 vertebrate bones had been prepared from bed 83, the majority of which stemming from "Europasaurus"; an estimated 3000 additional bones await preparation. A minimum number of 20 individuals was identified based on jaw bones.
Description.
"Europasaurus" is a very small sauropod, measuring only as an adult. This length was estimated based on a partial femur, scaled to the size of a nearly complete "Camarasaurus" specimen. Younger individuals are known, from sizes of to the youngest juvenile at . The titanosaur "Magyarosaurus" is similarly sized, being compared to "Europasaurus" at approximately . Another small titanosaur, "Neuquensaurus",
is larger than either taxon, being up to long and weighing
Distinguishing characteristics.
Aside from being a very small neosauropod, "Europasaurus" was thought to have multiple unique morphological features to distinguish it from close relatives by its original describers, Sander "et al." (2006). The nasal process of the premaxilla was thought to curve anteriorly while projecting upwards (now known to be preservational), there is a notch on the upper surface of the centra of cervical vertebrae, the scapula has a prominent process on the posterior surface of its body, and the astragalus (an ankle bone) is twice as wide as tall.
When compared to "Camarasaurus", "Europasaurus" has a different morphology of the postorbital where the posterior flange is not as short, a short contact between the nasal and frontal bones of the skull, the shape of its parietal (rectangular in "Europasaurus"), and the neural spines of its vertebrae in front of the pelvis are unsplit. Comparisons with "Brachiosaurus" (now named "Giraffatitan") were also mentioned, and it was identified that "Europasaurus" has a shorter snout, a contact between the quadratojugal and squamosal, and a humerus (upper forelimb bone) that has flattened and aligned proximal and distal surfaces. There were finally quick comparisons to the potential brachiosaurid "Lusotitan", which has a different ilium and astragalus shape, and "Cetiosaurus humerocristatus" (named "Duriatitan"), which has a deltopectoral crest that is less prominent and extends across less of the humerus.
Skull.
Nearly all external skull bones have been preserved among "Europasaurus" specimens, except the prefrontals. Some additional bones are only represented by very fragmented and uninformative fossils, such as the lacrimals. Eight premaxillae are known, with a generally rectangular snout shape as found in "Camarasaurus". The anterior projection of the premaxilla identified in Sander "et al." (2006) was re-identified as a preservational artifact in Marpmann "et al." (2014), similar to the anatomy found in "Camarasaurus" and "Euhelopus" to a lesser degree. The dorsal projection of the premaxilla, the one which contacts the nasal bone, begins as a postero-dorsal projection, before becoming straight vertical at the point of the subnarial foramen, until it reaches the nasal. This weak "step" is seen in "Camarasaurus" and "Euhelopus", and is present more strongly in "Abydosaurus", "Giraffatitan" and a possible skull of "Brachiosaurus". These latter taxa also have a longer snout, with more distance from the first tooth until the nasal process of the premaxilla. As well, "Europasaurus" shares with the basal camarasauromorphs (brachiosaurids, "Camarasaurus", "Euhelopus" and "Malawisaurus") a similarly sized orbit and nasal fenestra, whereas the nasal opening is significantly reduced in derived titanosaurs ("Rapetosaurus", "Tapuiasaurus" and "Nemegtosaurus").
A single maxilla is present in the well-preserved material of "Europasaurus", DFMMh/FV 291.17. This maxilla has a long body, with two elongate processes, a nasal and a posterior process. There is only a weak lacrimal process, like in most sauropods except "Rapetosaurus". The nasal process is elongate and covers the anterior and ventral rim of the antorbital fenestra. This process extends about 120º from the horizontal tooth row. The base of the nasal process also forms the body of the lacrimal process, and at their divergence is the antorbital fenestra, similar in shape to those of "Camarasaurus", "Euhelopus", "Abydosaurus" and "Giraffatitan", but about 1/2 taller proportionally. The pre-antorbital fenestra, a small opening in front of or beneath the antorbital opening, is well developed in taxa like "Diplodocus" and "Tapuiasaurus", is nearly absent, like in "Camarasaurus" and "Euhelopus". There were about 12–13 total teeth in the maxilla of "Europasaurus", fewer than in more basal taxa (16 teeth in "Jobaria" and 14–25 in "Atlasaurus"), but falling within the range of variation in Brachiosauridae (15 in "Brachiosaurus" to 10 in "Abydosaurus"). All of the unworn teeth preserved display up to four small denticles on their mesial edges. A small amount of the posterior tooth crowns are slightly twisted (~15º), but much less than in brachiosaurids (30–45º).
Among the nasal bones of "Europasaurus", several are known, but few are complete or undistorted. The nasals are overlapped posteriorly by the frontal bones, and towards the side, they articulate bluntly with the prefrontals. Unlike the nasals of "Giraffatitan", those in "Europasaurus" project horizontally forwards, forming a small portion of the skull roof over the antorbital fenestrae. Four frontals are known from "Europasaurus", three being from the left and one being from the right. Because of their disarticulation, it is likely that the frontals never fused during growth, unlike in "Camarasaurus". The frontals form a portion of the skull roof, articulating with other bones such as the nasals, parietals, prefrontals and postorbitals, and they are longer antero-posteriorly than they are wide, a unique character among a eusauropodan. Like in diplodocoids ("Amargasaurus", "Dicraeosaurus" and "Diplodocus"), as well as "Camarasaurus", the frontals are excluded from the frontoparietal fenestra (or parietal fenestra when frontals are excluded). The frontals are also excluded from the supratemporal fenestra margin (a widespread character in sauropods more derived than "Shunosaurus"), and they only have a small, unornamented participation in the orbit. Several parietal bones are known in "Europasaurus", which show a rectangular shape much wider than long. the parietals are also wide when viewed from the back of the skull, being slightly taller than the foramen magnum (spinal cord opening). The parietals contribute to about half the post-temporal fenestra (opening above the very back of the skull) border, with the other region enclosed by the squamosal bones and some braincase bones. Parietals also form part of the edge of the supratemporal fenestra, which is wider than long in "Europasaurus", like in "Giraffatitan", "Camarasaurus" and "Spinophorosaurus". Besides the before mentioned fenestra, the parietals also have a "postparietal fenestra", something rarely seen outside of Dicraeosauridae. A triradiate postorbital bone is present in "Europasaurus", which evolved as the fusion of the postfrontal and postosbital bone of more basal taxa. Between the anterior and ventrally projecting processes the postorbital forms the margin of the orbit, and between the posterior and ventral processes it borders the infratemporal fenestra.
Multiple jugals are known from "Europasaurus", which are more similar in morphology to basal sauropodomorphs than other macronarians. It forms part of the border of the orbit, infratemporal fenestra and the bottom edge of the skull, but does not reach the antorbital fenestra. The posterior process of the jugal are very fragile and narrow, showing a bone scar from the articulation with the quadratojugal. There are two prominences projecting from the back of the jugal body, which diverge at 75º and form the bottom and front edges of the infratemporal fenestra. Like in "Riojasaurus" and "Massospondylus", two non-sauropod sauropodomorphs, the jugal forms a large part of the orbit edge, from the back to the front bottom corner. This feature has been seen in embryos of titanosaurs, but no adult individuals. The quadratojugal bone is an elongate element that has two projecting arms, one anterior and one dorsal. Like in other sauropods, the anterior process is longer than the dorsal, but in "Europasaurus" the arms are more similar lengths. The horizontal process is parallel to the tooth row of "Europasaurus", similar to in "Camarasaurus" but unlike in "Giraffatitan" and "Abydosaurus". There is a prominent ventral flange on the anterior arm of the bone, which is a possibly synapomorphy of Brachiosauridae, although it is also found in some "Camarasaurus" individuals. The two quadratojugal processes diverge at a nearly right angle (90º), although the dorsal process curves as it follows the shape of the quadrate. Squamosals found from "Europasaurus" show the same approximate shape in lateral view as "Camarasaurus", that of a question mark. The squamosals articulate with many skull bones, including those of the skull roof, those of the ventral skull, and those of the braincase. Like the postorbitals, the squamosals are triradiate, with a ventral, anterior and medial
process.
There are thirteen preserved elements of the palate of "Europasaurus", including the quadrate, pterygoid and ectopterygoid. The quadrates articulate with the palate and braincase bones, as well as the external skull bones. They are similar in shape to those of "Giraffatitan" and "Camarasaurus", and have well developed articular surfaces. A single shaft is present for a majority of the quadrates length, with a pterygoid wing along the medial side. Pterygoids are the largest of the sauropod palate bones, and it has a triradiate shape, like the postorbitals. An anterior projection contacts the opposite pterygoid, while a lateral wing contacts the ectopterygoid, and a posterior wing supports the quadrate and basipterygoid (a bone that provides connection between the palate and the braincase). The ectopterygoid is a small palate bone, which articulates the central palate bones (pterygoid and palatine) with the maxilla. Ectopterygoids are 'L' shaped, with an anterior process attaching to the maxilla, and a dorsal process that meets the pterygoid.
Vertebrae.
The cervical vertebrae of "Europasaurus" are the best preserved and most represented of the vertebral column. However, not the entire neck is known, so the cervical number could be between "Camarasaurus" (12 vertebrae) and "Rapetosaurus" (17 vertebrae). Additionally, the multiple cervical vertebrae come from different-aged individuals, and the centrum length and internal structure are known to change throughout development. The adult cervical centra are elongated and (anterior end is ball-shaped), with a notch in the top of the rear end of the centrum. This feature was described as characteristic of "Europasaurus" but is also known in "Euhelopus" and "Giraffatitan". In the side of the centra of "Europasaurus" there is an excavation which opens into the internal of the vertebrae. Unlike in "Giraffatitan" and brachiosaurids, "Europasaurus" does not have thin ridges () dividing this opening. "Europasaurus" shares laminae features on the upper vertebrae with basal macronarians and brachiosaurids. Differing from the anterior and middle cervicals, the posterior cervical vertebrae are less elongate, and taller proportionally, like in other macronarians, with significant changes in the positions of articular surfaces.
Front dorsal vertebrae are strongly opisthocoelous like the cervicals, and can be placed in the series based on the absence of the and low placement. The internal structures are open and like "Camarasaurus", "Giraffatitan" and "Galvesaurus", but unlike these taxa this pneumaticity does not extend into the middle and posterior dorsal vertebrae. The arrangement and presence of anterior laminae in "Europasaurus" is similar to other basal macronarians, but unlike more basal taxa (e.g. "Mamenchisaurus", "Haplocanthosaurus") and more derived taxa (e.g. "Giraffatitan"). The middle dorsals possess a pneumatic cavity that extends upwards into the , like in "Barapasaurus", "Cetiosaurus", "Tehuelchesaurus", and "Camarasaurus". The ventral edge of this opening is rhomboidal and well-defined. In the posterior vertebrae, the lateral pneumatic cavity has shifted higher on the centrum, a change seen in other basal macronarians. These are wide anteriorly, and narrow to become acutely angled posteriorly. The of "Europasaurus" stands vertically, a basal feature not seen in "Brachiosaurus" or more derived sauropods.
A series of all complete is only known from a single specimen, DFMMh/FV 100, which was destroyed in a fire in 2003. All five vertebrae, the characteristic number of more basal neosauropods, are incorporated into the . The third and fourth sacrals represent the primordial sacrals, present in all dinosaur groups. The second, S2, is the ancestral sauropodomorph sacral that was added in basal sauropodomorphs, who all share three sacrals to the exception of "Plateosaurus". The fifth sacral, fused behind the primordial pair, is a caudosacral, migrated from the tail into the pelvis in taxa around "Leonerasaurus". The first sacral, articulated with the ilium but not fused to the other vertebrae, represents the dorsosacral, bringing the count to five vertebrae found in all neosauropods. The level of fusion of the dorsosacral confirms the evolutionary history of the sauropod sacral count: the primordial pair incorporating first a dorsal (total of three), then a caudal (total of four), then another dorsal to make a total of five vertebrae.
Skin.
Among macronarians, fossilized skin impressions are only known from "Haestasaurus", "Tehuelchesaurus" and "Saltasaurus". Both "Tehuelchesaurus" and "Haestasaurus" may be closely related to "Europasaurus", and the characteristics of all sauropod skin impressions are similar. "Haestasaurus", the first dinosaur known from skin impressions, preserved integument over a portion of the arm around the elbow joint. Dermal impressions are more widespread in the material of "Tehuelchesaurus", where they are known from the areas of the forelimb, scapula and torso. There are no bony plates or nodules, to indicate armour, but there are several types of scales. The skin types of "Tehuelchesaurus" are overall more similar to those found in diplodocids and "Haestasaurus" than in the titanosaur embryos of Auca Mahuevo. As the shape and articulation of the preserved tubercles in these basal macronarians are similar in other taxa where skin is preserved, including specimens of "Brontosaurus excelsus" and intermediate diplodocoids, such dermal structures are probably widespread throughout Neosauropoda.
Classification.
When it was first named, "Europasaurus" was considered to be a taxon within Macronaria that didn't fall within the family Brachiosauridae or the clade Titanosauromorpha. This indicated that the dwarfism of the taxon was a result of evolution, instead of being a characteristic of a group. Three matrices were analysed with the inclusion of "Europasaurus", that of Wilson (2002) and Upchurch (1998) and Upchurch "et al." (2004). All analyses resulted in similar phylogenetics, where "Europasaurus" placed more derived than "Camarasaurus" but outside a clade of Brachiosauridae and Titanosauromorpha (now named Titanosauriformes). The results of the favoured analysis of Sander "et al." (2006) are shown below on the left:
During a description of the vertebrae of "Europasaurus" by Carballido & Sander (2013), another phylogenetic analysis was conducted (right column above). The cladistic matrix was expanded to include more sauropod taxa, such as "Bellusaurus", "Cedarosaurus" and "Tapuiasaurus". The taxon "Brachiosaurus" was also separated into true "Brachiosaurus" ("B. altithorax") and "Giraffatitan" ("B. brancai"), based on Taylor (2009). Based on this newer and more expansive analysis, "Europasaurus" was found to be in a similar placement, as a basal camarasauromorph closer to titanosaurs than "Camarasaurus". However, "Euhelopus", "Tehuelchesaurus", "Tastavinsaurus" and "Galvesaurus" were placed between "Europasaurus" and Brachiosauridae.
Placement as a brachiosaurid.
In a 2012 analysis of the phylogeny of Titanosauriformes, D'Emic (2012) considered "Europasaurus" to belong to Brachiosauridae, instead of being basal to the earliest brachiosaurids. The phylogeny resolved the most true brachiosaurids to date, although several potential brachiosaurids were instead determined to belong to Somphospondyli ("Paluxysaurus", "Sauroposeidon" and "Qiaowanlong"). However, D'Emic was tentative in considering "Europasaurus" to be a confirmed brachiosaurid. While there was strong support in the phylogeny for its placement, "Europasaurus", one of few basal macronarians with a skull, lacks multiple bones that display characteristic features of the group, such as caudal vertebrae. The cladogram below on the left illustrates the phylogenetic results of D'Emic (2012), with Euhelopodidae and Titanosauria collapsed.
A later analysis on titanosauriformes agreed with D'Emic (2012) in the placement of "Europasaurus". It formed a polytomy with "Brachiosaurus" and the "French "Bothriospondylus"" (named "Vouivria") as the basalmost brachiosaurids. Next most derived in the clade was "Lusotitan", with "Giraffatitan", "Abydosaurus", "Cedarosaurus" and "Venenosaurus" forming a more derived clade of brachiosaurids. The "twisted" teeth of "Europasaurus" were found to be one of the unique features of Brachiosauridae, which could mean a confident referral of isolated sauropod teeth to the clade.
A further phylogenetic analysis was performed on Brachiosauridae, based on that of D'Emic (2012). This phylogeny, conducted by D'Emic "et al." (2016), resolved a very similar placement of "Europasaurus" within Brachiosauridae, although "Sonorasaurus" was placed in a clade with "Giraffatitan", and "Lusotitan" was placed in a polytomy with "Abydosaurus" and "Cedarosaurus". The remaining tree was the same as in D'Emic (2012), although "Brachiosaurus" was collapsed into a polytomy with more derived brachiosaurids. Another phylogeny, Mannion "et al." (2017) found similar results to D'Emic (2012) and D'Emic "et al." (2016). "Europasaurus" was the basalmost brachiosaurid, with the "French Bothriospondylus", or "Vouivria", as the next most basal brachiosaurid. "Brachiosaurus" was placed outside of a poltomy of all other brachiosaurids, "Giraffatitan", "Abydosaurus", "Sonorasaurus", "Cedarosaurus" and "Venenosaurus". A 2017 phylogeny, that of Royo-Torres "et al." (2017), resolved more complex relations within Brachiosauridae. Besides "Europasaurus" as the basalmost brachiosaurid, there were two subgroups within the clade, one containing "Giraffatitan", "Sonorasaurus" and "Lusotitan", and another including almost all other brachiosaurids, as well as "Tastavinsaurus". This second clade would be termed Laurasiformes under the group's definition. "Brachiosaurus" was in a polytomy with the two subclades of Brachiosauridae. The phylogeny of Royo-Torres "et al." (2017) can be seen above, in the right column.
Paleobiology.
Growth.
It was identified that "Europasaurus" was a unique dwarf species, and not a juvenile of an existing taxon like "Camarasaurus", by a histology analysis of multiple specimens of "Europasaurus". The youngest specimen (DFMMh/FV 009) was shown by this analysis to lack signs of aging such as growth marks or laminar bone tissue, and is also the smallest specimen at in length. Such bone tissue is an indicator of rapid growth, so the specimen is probably a young juvenile. A larger specimen (DFMMh/FV 291.9) at shows large amounts of laminar tissue, with no growth marks present, so is likely a juvenile as well. The next smallest specimen (DFMMh/FV 001) has shows the presence of growth marks (specifically annuli), and at the length of is possibly a subadult. Further larger, DFMMh/FV 495 displays mature osteons as well as annuli, and is . The second largest analysed specimen (DFMMh/FV 153) also shows growth marks, but they are more frequent. This specimen is . A single partial femur represents the largest known "Europasaurus" individual, at a body length of . Unlike all other specimens, this one (DFMMh/FV 415) shows the presence of lines of arrested growth, indicating it died after reaching full body size. The internal bone is also partially lamellar, which shows it had stopped growing recently.
These combinations of growth factors show that "Europasaurus" developed its small size because of a largely reduced growth rate, gaining size slower than larger taxa such as "Camarasaurus". This slowing growth rate is the opposite of the general trend of sauropods and theropods, who reached greater sizes with increased growth rates. Some of the close relatives of "Europasaurus" represent the largest dinosaurs known, including "Brachiosaurus" and "Sauroposeidon". Marpmann "et al." (2014) proposed that the small size and reduced growth rate of "Europasaurus" was an effect of pedomorphism, where the adults of taxa retain juvenile characteristics, such as size.
Dwarfism.
It has been suggested that an ancestor of "Europasaurus" would have quickly decreased in body size after emigrating to an island that existed at the time, as the largest of the islands in the region around northern Germany was smaller than squared, which may not have been able to support a community of large sauropods. Alternately, a macronarian may have shrunken concurrently with a larger landmass, until achieving the size of "Europasaurus". Previous studies on insular (island) dwarfism are largely restricted to the Maastrichtian of Haţeg Island in Romania, home to the dwarf titanosaur "Magyarosaurus" and the dwarf hadrosaur "Telmatosaurus". "Telmatosaurus" is known to be from a small adult, and although it is very small, "Magyarosaurus" specimens of small sizes are known to be from adult to old individuals. "Magyarosaurus dacus" adults were a similar body size to "Europasaurus", but the largest of the latter had longer femora than the largest of the former, while "Magyarosaurus hungaricus" was significantly larger than either taxon. The dwarfism in "Europasaurus" represents the only significant rapid body mass change in derived Sauropodomorpha, with the general trend of taxa being a growth in overall size in other groups.
Palaeoecology.
The Langenberg locality in Germany, from the early Oxfordian to late Kimmeridgian, displays the variety of plant and animal life from an island ecosystem from the late Jurassic. During the Kimmeridgian the locality would have been marine, being located between the Rhenisch, Bohemian, and London-Brabant Massifs. This does not indicate that the taxa present were marine, as the animals and plants may have been deposited allochthonously (albeit only by a short distance) from the surrounding islands. The sediments to show that there was an occasional influx of fresh or brackish water, and the fossils preserved display that. There are large numbers of marine bivalve fossils, as well as echinoderms and microfossils present in the limestone of the quarry, although many of the animals and plants were terrestrial.
Many marine taxa are preserved at Langenberg, although they would not have co-existed often with "Europasaurus". There are at least three turtle genera, "Plesiochelys", "Thalassemys" and up to two unnamed taxa. Actinopterygian fish are abundant, being represented by "Lepidotes", "Macromesodon", "Proscinetes", "Coelodus", "Macrosemius", "Notagogus", "Histionotus", "Ionoscopus", "Callopterus", "Caturus", "Sauropsis", "Belonostomus", and "Thrissops". Also present are at least five distinct morphologies of hybodont sharks, the neoselachians "Palaeoscyllium", "Synechodus" and "Asterodermus". Two marine crocodyliforms are known from Langenberg, "Machimosaurus" and "Steneosaurus", which likely fed off turtles and fish, and the amphibious crocodyliform "Goniopholis" has also been found.
Conifer cones and twigs can be identified as the araucarian "Brachyphyllum", from the terrestrial fossils of the site. Deposited in the locality are many taxa, including a large accumulation of "Europasaurus" bones and individuals. At least 450 bones from "Europasaurus" were recovered from the Langenberg Quarry, with about 1/3 bearing tooth marks Of these tooth marks, the sizes and shapes match well with the teeth of fish, crocodyliforms or other scavengers, but no confirmed theropod marks. The high number of individuals present suggests that a herd of "Europasaurus" was crossing a tidal zone and drowned. While the dominant large-bodied animal present is "Europasaurus", there is also material from a diplodocid sauropod, a stegosaurian, and multiple theropods. Three cervicals of the diplodocid are preserved, and from their size it is possible that the taxon was also a dwarf. The stegosaurian and variety of theropods only preserve teeth, with the exception of a few bones possibly from a taxon in Ceratosauridae. Isolated teeth show that there were at least four different types of theropods present at the locality, including the megalosaurid "Torvosaurus sp." as well as an additional megalosaurid and indeterminate members of the Allosauridae and Ceratosauria; and there are also the oldest teeth known from Velociraptorinae.
Besides the dinosaurs, many small-bodied terrestrial vertebrates are also preserved in the Langenberg quarry. Such animals include a well-preserved three-dimensional pterosaur skeleton from Dsungaripteridae, and isolated remains from Ornithocheiroidea and Ctenochasmatidae; a paramacellodid lizard; and partial skeletons and skulls from a relative of "Theriosuchus" now named as the genus "Knoetschkesuchus". Teeth from dryolestid mammals are also preserved, as well as a docodont, a taxon in Eobaataridae, a multituberculate with similarities to "Proalbionbataar" (now named "Teutonodon").
Extinction.
Dinosaur footprints preserved at the Langenberg Quarry display a possible reason for the extinction of "Europasaurus", and potentially other insular dwarfs present on the islands of the region. The footprints are located above the deposit of "Europasaurus" individuals, which shows that at least 35,000 years after that deposit there was a drop in sea level which allowed for a faunal overturn. The inhabiting theropods of the island, that coexisted with "Europasaurus", would have been about , but the theropods that arrived over the land bridge preserve footprints
up to , which indicates a body size between if reconstructed as an allosaurian. It was suggested by the describers of these tracks (Jens Lallensack and colleagues), that these theropod taxa likely made the specialized dwarf fauna extinct, and the bed from which the footprints originated (Langenberg bed 92) is probably the youngest in which "Europasaurus" is present.


Cerani (mountain)

Cerani (possibly from Aymara "sira" fart, flatulence, "-ni" a suffix to indicate ownership, "the one with flatulence") is a mountain in the west of the Chila mountain range in the Andes of Peru, about high. It is located in the Arequipa Region, Castilla Province, on the border of the districts Chachas and Choco. Cerani lies northeast of the lake Chachas, southeast of a lake named Cochapunco (possibly from Quechua for "lake reservoir") and southwest of Yuraccacsa and Casiri near the volcanic zone in the west.


Nevado Tres Cruces Central

Nevado Tres Cruces Central is the second summit of an extinct volcanic massif, located in the Andes mountain range in the Atacama region of northern (Chile).
This summit, the second in altitude of the Tres Cruces massif, reaches 6629 meters above sea level, and a topographic prominence of nearly 610 meters in relation to the main or south summit. It is the highest summit located entirely in Chilean territory. Along with the south summit, it is the most visited of the massif; the col that connects them allows the ascent of both during the same expedition. That is the case of the first summiters, the Poles Stefan Osiecki and Witold Paryski, on 26 February 1937.
It has a crater of about one kilometer diameter.


Garcorops jadis

Garcorops jadis is a possibly extinct species of Wall crab spider, family Selenopidae, and at present, it is one of four known species in the genus "Garcorops". The species is solely known from copal found on the beach near Sambava, on the northeast coast of Madagascar.
History and classification.
"Garcorops jadis" is known only from one fossil, the holotype. The single, adult male individual is preserved in a clear "Hymenaea verrucosa" copal specimen. The copal measures with several dipterans, a cockroach, a mite and a juvenile araneid spider also included within. The copal is currently housed in the Royal Museum for Central Africa in Tervuren, Belgium. "G. jadis" was first studied by Jan Bosselaers, with his March 2004 type description being published in the journal "Zootaxa". The specific name was coined by Jan Bosselaers as a reference to Jadis, the White Witch from the 1950 children's fantasy novel "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe" by C. S. Lewis in reference to the beautiful quality of preservation in the holotype specimen, which seems "enclosed in ice, frozen in time forever". In September 2004 paleoarachnologist Jörg Wunderlich published the description of "?Anyphops cortex", for which he was uncertain of the generic placement. After reviewing the type specimens of both "?Anyphops cortex" and "Garcorops jadis", David Penney, Hirotsugu Ono & Paul A. Selden determined the two specimens were from the same species belonging to "Garcorops". As a result of the name "Garcorops jadis" being published first, "?Anyphops cortex" was declared a junior synonym.
Description.
"Garcorops jadis" is with a carapace that is . The carapace is a yellow-brown in color with some darker marking still visible and a coating of white hairs while the abdomen is also yellow-brown with some darker markings and pale pointed hairs. The legs are a similar in coloration to the body and show faint dark banded markings. The overall structure and positioning of the eyes indicates placement into the genus "Garcorops". Of the extant species of "Garcorops", "G. jadis" is most similar to the endemic "G. madagascar". Both species have a well developed cymbial dorsal scopula with long embolus circling the bulbus. However the retrolateral tibial apophysis on the pedipalps of "Garcorops jadis" is more pointed then that of "G. madagascar". Due to the preservation of the holotype and only known specimen in copal, it is uncertain as to the age and status of the species. It is possible that "Garcorops jadis" is an extant species which has not been recovered as live specimens. It is also possible, however, that the species is already extinct.


Vitu Islands

The Vitu Islands are a volcanic group with an area of 37 sq mi (96 km²) located in the Bismarck Sea off New Britain, in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. They are not technically part of the Bismarck Archipelago. Administratively they are part of Papua New Guinea. Formerly called the French Islands, the group is sometimes known as the Witu Islands.
Geography.
The islands are volcanic ocean peaks, much as they are reef-ringed, not atolls, and are thereby highly fertile. Garove (Vitu, or Big Witu) and Unea (Bali) are the largest islands. The group was the chief copra center of Papua New Guinea, although cocoa is now the main crop harvested due to the depressed prices available for copra.
The islands are situated west of north of Talasea peninsula, Nth Coast New Britain, with Unea some E of south of the main group, and the remaining other islands Mundua (Ningau), situated eleven kilometers (7 mi.) northwest of Garove, and Naragé some twenty-four km (15 mi.) northwest of Mundua, the final extension of the sub-aqueous peaks chain being the Ottilian Reef (Attilian Reef) a further twenty-two km northwest of Naragé, this last all but totally submerged at all tide states, and dangerous to shipping. Sometimes the submerged Whirlwind Reef a further fifty-eight km to the southwest of the Ottilian Reef is included in the island arc.
History.
Naragé is a post-explosive-eruption volcanic remnant of approx of what was an island of prior to an eruption that occurred in approximately 1892. The resulting tsunami reached 100 metres on impact on Ningau, wiping out all but two persons of the lowest-lying of three villages - Goru - (they were absent on Garove) and caused major disruption and reduction of population over a wide area of the north coastal areas of New Britain and quite possibly New Guinea and the Western Islands group, plus other islands. A wave of such magnitude would have made the 1997 Itape wave little more than a reef or shore break.
In German times prior to World War I this was - outside of Kokopo, at Rabaul - the stomping ground and major enterprise of the American-Samoan, Queen Emma, whose island group H/Q was Langu plantation, Vitu, and whose manager, a Dane named Peter Hansen, became quite famous for his retinue of concubines, some 26 in number, this the more surprising as the male:female birth ratio in Vitu proper was of the order of 103 males:100 females post-weaning. That is reversed upon Unea, and the social doyens of the upper Witus are or were the ladies happily bride-stolen by the Mundua and Witu lads on wife raids, there being no bride price to pay, and this keeping the populations pretty much stable and balanced wrt genders and genetic make-up. These figures are from the late 1960s and may not apply today, as one in fifty persons in Nuigini are now positive to HIV (Air Nuigini In-Flight magazine, Sept. 2009). Nonetheless it is an extremely rare occurrence wrt population make-up.
On expulsion of the Germans post World War I the group was acquired by the island trading group Burns Philp, plantations comprising Lama, Meto, Ilia and Langu on "Big Vitu" - Garove - and Ningau as the plantation whole for Mundua-Naragé. Edward Hann was plantation manager on Ningau for approx. 36 years. During World War 2 the Japanese landed on one end of the Ningau and he was lucky enough to escape on the other side of the island. Langu was ceded by Burns Philp to the Coote family post World War II as compensation for the execution of their family head and Burns Philp Rabaul store manager by the Japanese for refusing them the keys to Burns Philp's Rabaul enterprises on invasion, and for the duration of the war Vitu was occupied by Japanese who had the sense to treat the native population well.
Nonetheless, Coast-Watch activities proceeded, and one Tumbuan Tuagolo, or "Talasea" of Mundua acted as guide to Eric Feldt within the New Britain area.
One of the greater claims to international fame of Vitu is that a daughter of the Langu manager for the Coote family, and later, owner, Richard {"Dick"] Doyle became Miss Nuigini.
Under the German Roman Catholic mission at Vuonopope, Kokopo, a mission was established inside the caldera which is the bulk of Garove, a wise choice considering the Group's exposure and sea-states at times of both the NW Monsoon and the SE Trades, the island comprising basically at places only the precipitous higher ground of the caldera rim.
This mission, Peterhafen, was the redoubt of the notorious militant German Archbishop Wolffe, and was to the left of the passage outside the entrance to which the Australian Navy laid blockade to the German raider of the same name - Wolf - which lay behind the entrance island to the caldera with her masts dropped to not be in visibility, all guns laid. in hope of luring the Australians in. Her call there was both protective and for purposes of de-fouling of the hull, her max speed being just eleven knots with economical cruise of eight knots, clean.
Peter Hanson pioneered Witu plantings his headquarters was at the Meto plantation not at Langu. Langu was planted in 1911. The Coote Family acquired Langu after 1946 when Dianna Martell (née Coote) inherited 50% when Mrs Baker died late 1946. Coote family bought out the other 50% from GB Sowerby. Dick Doyle acquired Langu 100% in 1993 his daughter Tania won Miss PNG a year later (1994).
A tsunami passed through Witu in 1888 when the Ritter volcano near Gloucester collapsed into the sea. The wave was about immediately in the Ritter area, about at Witu and in Rabaul.
In 1952 a Catholic mission was established on Witu inside the big caldera that forms Johanne Albrecht Harbour.


Monte Pissis

Monte Pissis is an extinct volcano on the border of La Rioja and Catamarca provinces, Argentina, from the Chilean border. The mountain is the third-highest in the Western Hemisphere, and is located about north of Aconcagua.
Monte Pissis is named after Pedro José Amadeo Pissis, a French geologist who worked for the Chilean government.
Due to its location in the Atacama Desert, the mountain has very dry conditions but there is an extensive glacier (with crevasses, which is unique in the region)
Elevation.
A 1994 Argentine expedition claimed —using GPS technology available at the time— that the elevation of Monte Pissis was , higher than Ojos del Salado. Ten years later, with the use of higher precision systems, several other surveys proved that those measurements were inaccurate: in 2005, an Austrian team performed a DGPS survey of Pissis' summit and found the elevation to be . In 2006 an international expedition surveyed the height on the summit, and found results in agreement with an elevation around . This was later confirmed by a 2007 Chilean-Argentine-European expedition, which surveyed both Ojos del Salado and Monte Pissis and provisionally found the former to be and the latter .
Geology.
Monte Pissis is a large andesitic-dacitic volcanic centre. It was formed between 6.6 and 6.2 million years ago. Like Cerro Bonete Chico it is one of the large volcanic complexes formed at that time over a deforming Nazca slab. Volcanism in the area ceased about 2 million years ago.
Monte Pissis, Cerro Bonete Chico and Incapillo form a large volcanic complex that is among the highest in the world. Incapillo formed after Monte Pissis had ceased erupting, and hydrothermal activity at Incapillo may continue to this day.
Climbing.
Until recently, this mountain had received very little attention. The first successful recorded ascent was achieved in 1937 by Polish climbers Osiecki and Szczepanski. The mountain was not climbed again until 1985.
The opening of mining in the area has resulted in the construction of basic roads in the last 15 years. This has developed the tourism in the Atacama Desert and now more people ascend the mountain, usually with a previous stop in Fiambalá to organise the climb. Approaching it from neighbouring Chile is also possible but involves a longer way.
As the mountain is very high and remote, a long approach is required but the ascent is easy and does not require any specific climbing skill. Nevertheless, warm clothing and good shoes are required as temperature during the night can drop as low as and winds can be very strong. Usually most teams ascend the peak during December to March, the warmest period of the year.
The peak is one of the most heavily glaciated peaks in the Atacama Desert, although the glaciated area starts only at and the size of the glacier is small compared to the overall surface of the mountain.
From the base of the mountain several days of hike are required. The summit is usually reached directly from a high camp at at the edge of the glacier.


Muskeg Formation

The Muskeg Formation is a geologic formation of Middle Devonian (Givetian) age in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin. It extends from the plains of northwestern Alberta to northeastern British Columbia, and includes important petroleum and natural gas reservoirs in the Zama lake and Rainbow Lake areas of northwestern Alberta.
Lithology.
The Muskeg Formation consists primarily of anhydrite, with dolomite, halite (rock salt) and limestone.
Environment of Deposition.
The Muskeg Formation was deposited at the northern end of an embayment called the Elk Point Basin, adjacent to an extensive reef complex called the Presqu'ile Barrier. The reef had developed across the mouth of the embayment, blocking the area from the open ocean and restricting the inflow of sea water. The low water levels and excessive evaporation resulted in the deposition of anhydrite, halite and carbonate rocks.
Distribution and Thickness.
The Muskeg Formation is present in the northern half of the Elk Point Basin, in northeastern British Columbia and northwestern Alberta. It reaches a maximum reported thickness of .
Stratigraphy.
The Muskeg Formation is part of the Elk Point Group and was established by J. Law in 1955, based on core from a well (California Standard Steen River 2-22-117-5W6M) that was drilled north of Zama Lake.
The formation is usually divided into five members. The Black Creek Member at the base consists of halite. The overlying Lower Anhydrite Member consists of microcrystalline anhydrite with minor beds of fine- to medium-crystalline dolomite. The Zama Member at the center consists of fragmental carbonate, and is overlain by the Upper Anhydrite which consists of interbedded microcrystalline anhydrite and fine- to medium-crystalline dolomite. The Bistcho Member at the top is a fragmental carbonate unit.
Relationship to other units.
The Muskeg Formation is disconformably overlain by the Watt Mountain Formation and conformably underlain by the Keg River Formation. It is correlated with the Pine Point Formation, Presqu'ile Formation and Sulphur Point Formation. It grades into the halite-rich Prairie Evaporite Formation to the southeast through a decrease in its anhydrite content and an increase in its halite content.
Petroleum and Natural Gas.
The porous carbonate units of the Muskeg Formation contain important oil and natural gas reservoirs in the Zama and Rainbow Lake areas of northwestern Alberta. The impermeable anhydrite and halite beds of the formation act to seal the reservoirs.


Harbour My God Point Formation

The Harbour My God Point Formation is a formation cropping out in Newfoundland.


Soledad Beds

The Soledad Beds is a Mesozoic geologic formation in Mexico. Dinosaur remains are among the fossils that have been recovered from the formation, although none have yet been referred to a specific genus.


Nimravus

Nimravus is an extinct genus of "false" saber-toothed cat in the family Nimravidae, that was endemic to North America during the Oligocene epoch 33.3—26.3 mya, existing for approximately . Not closely related to true saber-toothed cats, they evolved a similar form through parallel evolution. Fossils have been uncovered in the western U.S. from Oregon to southern California and Nebraska.
Description.
"Nimravus" was around in body length. With its sleek body, it may have resembled the modern caracal, although it had a longer back and more dog-like feet with partially retractile claws. It probably hunted birds and small mammals, ambushing them like modern cats, rather than chasing them down. "Nimravus" competed with other false sabre-tooths such as "Hoplophoneus".
Pathology.
A "Nimravus" skull, found in North America, had been pierced in the forehead region, the hole exactly matching the dimensions of the sabre-like canine of "Eusmilus". This particular individual of "Nimravus" apparently survived this encounter, as the wound showed signs of healing. Another "Nimravus" fossil from Nebraska was described in 1959 by paleontologist Loren Toohey, and comprises a "Nimravus" skull with saber-teeth embedded into the scapula of another "Nimravus", indicating a fatal incidence of intra-specific combat.


Smithers Formation

The Smithers Formation is a geologic formation in British Columbia. It preserves fossils dating back to the Jurassic period.


Hochsimmer

The Hochsimmer is a volcanic cone, , in the Eifel Mountains in Germany. It rises near Ettringen in the Rhineland-Palatine county of Mayen-Koblenz. At the summit is an observation tower, the Hochsimmer Tower.
Geography.
Location.
The Hochsimmer rises within the High Eifel (East Eifel) around 1.7 km west-northwest of the village of Ettringen. Flowing past its western foot roughly from north to south is part of the middle reaches of the Rhine tributary, the Nette. Through its valley runs the Landesstraße 83, which links Weibern to the northwest with Mayen to the southeast. At the eastern foot of the hill is the L 82 road to Bell, and, at its southern foot is the village of St. Johann.
Height and summits.
The Hochsimmer has two domed summits or "kuppen": the West Top () is 587.9 m high and the East Top () is 583.3 m high. About 600 metres southwest of the summit is the Kleiner Simmer (514.7 m).
Towers.
On the east top of the Hochsimmer stands the 18-metre-high Hochsimmer Tower, an observation tower built in 1909 and 1911. From its viewing platform there is a view of the Eastern High Eifel, the Middle Rhine Basin and of Ettringen; in good visibility, even Cologne Cathedral may be seen. About 30 metres northwest of the viewing tower is a transmission tower.


Claudiosaurus

Claudiosaurus ("claud" is Latin for "lameness" and "saurus" means "lizard") is an extinct genus of diapsid reptiles from the Permian Sakamena Formation of the Morondava Basin, Madagascar. "Claudiosaurus" is the most basal neodiapsid. "Claudiosarus" are found to be a sister group of the Neodiapsida. The pattern of the vertebrate, girle, and limbs indicates that "Claudiosaurus" and "Thadeosaurus" share a common ancestor.
History and discovery.
"Claudiosaurus" is known from the Sakamena Formation of Madagascar. Originally claudiosaurs were found from the Late Permian, but they have been recently also found in Early Triassic deposits of Madagascar.
Biology and description.
"Claudiosaurus" was one of the first members of the Neodiapsida, a group of reptiles containing diapsids more derived than the primitive Araeoscelidia. It had a relatively long body and neck, reaching on overall length of about . It is presumed to have been partially oceanic, living its life in a way similar to the modern marine iguana. The main reason for this theory is that the skeleton included substantial amounts cartilage, instead of bone, indicating it had trouble supporting its weight on land. In particular, the sternum was poorly developed, which would have made walking difficult out of water. Instead, it probably swam by undulating its body and tail, and holding its legs close to the body to increase streamlining. A more recent study however indicates that its vertebral column tail and leg proportions are closer to those of terrestrial reptiles, though it is noted that marine iguanas similarly only differ from terrestrial counterparts very subtly. The mean vertebral is approximately twice of "Hovasaurus". "Claudiosaurus" have a more slender tail than "Hovasaurus". The frontal contributes the dorsal orbital margin. This prevents the prefrontal from contacting the post frontal. The post frontal is ventrally expanded posteriorly and contributes to the orbital rim. The anterior process of the pterygoid is straight. The closest skull comparison can be with the genus "Anarosaurus". "Claudiosaurus" differs from "Acerosodontosaurus" and "Hovasaurus" in the presence of a proportionately long neck.
Behavior.
Locomotion.
It is theorized that "Claudiosaurus" was semi-aquatic. The discovery of pachyostotic thickening of the limb bones and vertebrae supports this theory. The margins of contact in the carpals are poorly defined and therefore retained a lot of cartilage, providing a greater ‘ degree of flexibility’ that would be beneficial for swimming.
Feeding ecology.
There is evidence of aquatic feeding habits. Supporting this is the small size of the skull, nature of the palate and marginal dentition and the long neck.
Classification.
"Claudiosaurus" is recovered as a relative of turtles by Li et al. (2018), forming a clade with the basal neodiapsid "Acerosodontosaurus".
Further reading.
Caldwell, M. (1995). Developmental Constraints and Limb Evolution in Permian and Extant Lepidosauromorph Diapsids. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 14(4), 459-471. Retrieved February 5, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/4523588


Youngina

Youngina is an extinct genus of diapsid reptile from the Late Permian Beaufort Group ("Tropidostoma"-"Dicynodon" zones) of the Karoo Red Beds of South Africa. This, and a few related forms, make up the family Younginidae, within the Order Eosuchia (proposed by Broom in 1914). Eosuchia, having become a wastebasket taxon for many probably distantly-related primitive diapsid reptiles ranging from the Late Carboniferous to the Eocene, Romer proposed that it be replaced by Younginiformes (that included Younginidae and the Tangasauridae, ranging from the Permian to the Triassic).
"Youngina" is known from several specimens. Many of these were attributed to as separate genera and species (such as "Youngoides" and "Youngopsis"), but it was later realized that they were not distinct from "Y. capensis". The holotype specimen of "Youngina" was described briefly in 1914. The "Youngoides romeri" specimen was first attributed to "Youngina", but later given its eponymous and separate designation in a later paper. "Acanthotoposaurus" is also a junior synonym of "Youngina".
"Youngina" was once thought to be closely related to "Acerosodontosaurus", and more distantly to tangasaurids ("Kenyasaurus", "Hovasaurus", "Thadeosaurus", and "Tangasaurus"), but the monophyly of younginiforms has not been demonstrated in published analyses of diapsid reptiles, and it is likely this group is paraphyletic. "Acerosodontosaurus" is probably closer to other former "younginiforms", rather than being closely related to "Youngina". Below is a cladogram from the analysis of Reisz "et al." (2011) showing the phylogenetic position of "Youngina" among early diapsids:
"Youngina" could have been a moderately sized early reptile (skull length < ), comparable to size to some medium-sized monitor lizards such as Gould's monitor. The braincase anatomy was redescribed in 2010, and "Youngina" shows a mosaic of features found in more primitive diapsids and more derived taxa such as archosauromorphs and lepidosauromorphs suggesting a non-orthogenetic evolution of these characters. Though the palatobasal articulation is open, it was probably immobile, similar to the skull of the tuatara, contrary to some earlier claims made about the metakinetic mobility of basicranial joints in "Youngina" and other early diapsid reptiles.


List of volcanoes in Ethiopia

This is a list of volcanoes in Ethiopia. It includes both active and extinct vents.


Villafortuna oil field

The Villafortuna oil field is an oil field located in Trecate, Piedmont. It was discovered in 1984 and developed by Eni. It began production in 1984 and produces oil. The total proven reserves of the Villafortuna oil field are around 300 million barrels (40×106tonnes), and production is centered on .
Accident.
An accident occurred 28 Feb. 1994


Stanwell-Fletcher Lake

Stanwell-Fletcher Lake is the largest lake on Somerset Island, the tenth-largest island of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The lake, along with most of Somerset Island, is located within the Qikiqtaaluk Region of the Canadian territory of Nunavut.
Geography and hydrology.
Stanwell-Fletcher Lake is located in a central area of Somerset Island that is west of Creswell Bay, which indents the eastern coastline of the island, and east of Four Rivers Bay, part of Peel Sound. A few small, unnamed islands exist on the lake. It is fed by several inflows, with the largest being the Stanwell-Fletcher River, which flows from Fiona Lake to the north end of Stanwell-Fletcher Lake. The outflow of the lake is the Union River, which flows from the eastern end of the lake to Creswell Bay, for an approximate distance of . The drainage basin of the lake covers an area of , which is about 8% of the total area of Somerset Island. The lake itself has an area of .
Due to its tundral climate, the lake and the surrounding rivers and creeks are frozen for most of the year, allowing little flow in or out of the lake. Although when first studied in the 1960s, the lake maintained ice cover over several years, with little thawing in the summer, its ice cover, as of a 2015 study, has recently become more seasonal in nature, with more regular and intense thawing, with the most significant thawing in July and August.
Stanwell-Fletcher Lake is monomictic and isothermal in nature, with the water in the lake mixing at only one point each year, and maintaining a relatively constant average temperature of . The lake consists completely of fresh water, although the lake basin was previously a tidal or seasonal extension of a salt water fjord until around 2400 Before Present (BP), when it became lacustrine, and the salt water was gradually replaced through circulation.
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Geology.
Stanwell-Fletcher Lake is glacial in origin, with the basin it lies within being formed during the Pleistocene by glacial scouring of sediment in a Cretaceous graben. After the glacier, specifically part of the Innuitian Ice Sheet receded, the basin either became part of a fjord, connected to Creswell Bay or Four Rivers Bay, or if connected to both, became part of a strait that would have split Somerset Island. Post-glacial rebound gradually uplifted the area; by around 3500 BP the uplift had isolated the lake, although seasonal or tidal saltwater inflow from the sea continued until around 2400 BP.
The rock surrounding the lake is largely Precambrian in origin, while the rock to the northwest and underlying the lake is most likely Cretaceous and Tertiary. The topography rises steeply to the west, southwest, and northeast of the lake, while the uplifted lowland in the southeast leads to Creswell Bay, and the land surrounding the Stanwell-Fletcher River in the northwest has a more gradual slope.
Sediments at the bottom of the lake mostly consist of mud from decomposed plant material, and pebbles, although there are finer-grain sediments in the northeast, where several rivers draining the surrounding highlands have built up significant deltas. The main bathymetric feature of the lake is a u-shaped trough extending from the northwest to southeast of the lake, that reaches a maximum depth of around . The lakebed drops steeply down to this trough in the northwest of the lake, while shallower shelves exist in the southwest and northeast.
History.
Somerset Island was inhabited by Inuit or pre-Inuit cultures for large parts of its history. Remnants of Pre-Dorset and/or Dorset settlements have been found on the northwest shore of the lake, along steeply walled valleys that lead to the west coast of the island and may have previously surrounded a fjord connected to the lake.
Although the coastline of Somerset Island had been mapped by several European expeditions in the 19th century, inland areas were not extensively explored during that time period. Stanwell-Fletcher Lake was named at some point between 1943 and 1965, after USAAF Major J.F. Stanwell-Fletcher, who parachuted into Fort Ross in 1943. The jump was the first parachute jump north of the Arctic Circle, and was made to assist in evacuation efforts of the then-active trading post in the southeast of Somerset Island.