Java mouse-deer

The Java mouse-deer ("Tragulus javanicus") is a species of even-toed ungulate in the family Tragulidae. When it reaches maturity it is about the size of a rabbit, making it the smallest living ungulate. It is found in forests in Java and perhaps Bali, although sightings there have not been verified.
Taxonomy.
The Java mouse-deer's common scientific name is "Tragulus javanicus", although other classification names for it exist, including "Tragulus javanica", "Cervus javanicus", and the heterotypic synonym "Tragulus fuscatus". The Java mouse-deer is also known by many common names, including Javan chevrotain, Javan mousdeer, or Java Mousedeer. The taxonomic status of the Java mouse-deer is questionable, but recent craniometric analyses have begun to shed light on the taxonomic discrepancies. Previously, the Java mouse-deer, "Tragulus javanicus", was commonly thought to represent the wider class of large chevrotains, but it was found that these, unlike the Java mouse-deer, do not likely reside on Java. Three species groups of "Tragulus" have been identified based on craniometric skull analyses and coat coloration patterns. These three species groups are "Tragulus javanicus", "Tragulus napu", and "Tragulus versicolor". Based upon these craniometric analyses, "Tragulus javanicus" was then further separated based on the organisms’ known geographic locations: "Tragulus williamsoni" (found in northern Thailand and possibly southern China), "Tragulus kanchil" (found in Borneo, Sumatra, the Thai–Malay Peninsula, islands within the Greater Sunda region, and continental Southeast Asia), and "Tragulus javanicus" (found in Java). Thus, because of its uniqueness to the island of Java, the Java mouse-deer is now considered a distinct species, although this fact has not significantly affected its current classification.
Appearance and biology.
Mouse-deer possess a triangular-shaped head, arched back, and round body with elevated rear quarters. The thin, short legs which support the mouse-deer are about the diameter of an average pencil. Although Java mouse-deer do not possess antlers or horns like regular deer, male Java mouse-deer have elongated, tusk-like upper canines which protrude downward from the upper jaw along the sides of their mouth. Males use these “tusks” to defend themselves and their mates against rivals. Females can be distinguished from males because they lack these prominent canines, and they are slightly smaller than the males. Java mouse-deer can furthermore be distinguished by their lack of upper incisors. The coat coloration of the Java mouse-deer is reddish-brown with a white underside. Pale white spots or vertical markings are also present on the animal's neck.
With an average length of and an average height of , the Java mouse-deer is the smallest extant (living) ungulate or hoofed mammal, as well as the smallest extant even-toed ungulate. The weight of the Java mouse-deer ranges from , with males being heavier than females. It has an average tail length of about . Mouse-deer are thought to be the most primitive ruminants based on their behaviour and the fossil record, thus they are the living link between ruminants and non-ruminants.
The Java mouse-deer is endothermic and homoeothermic, and has an average basal metabolic rate of about 4.883 watts. It also has the smallest red blood cells (erythrocytes) of any mammal, and about 12.8% of the cells have pits on them. The pits range in diameter from 68 to 390 nanometres. Red blood cells with pits are unique and have not been reported before either physiologically or pathologically.
Ecology.
Geographic range.
"Tragulus javanicus" is usually considered to be endemic to Java, Indonesia. There have been unverified reports of sightings on Bali.
Habitat.
The Java mouse-deer prefers habitats of higher elevations and the tropical forest regions of Java, although it does appear at lower elevations between above sea level. During the day, Java mouse-deer can be seen roaming in crown-gap areas with dense undergrowth of creeping bamboo, through which they make tunnels through the thick vegetation which lead to resting places and feeding areas. At night, the Java mouse-deer moves to higher and drier ridge areas. It has been argued that Java mouse-deer are an “edge” species, favoring areas of dense vegetation along riverbanks. Additionally, Java mouse-deer have been found to be more prevalent in logged areas than in the more mature forests, and their densities tended to decrease proportionately as the logged forests matured.
Behavior.
Diet.
Java mouse-deer are primarily herbivores, although in captivity they have been observed to eat insects as well as foliage. Their diet consists primarily of that which they find on the ground in the dense vegetation they inhabit, and they prefer the plants of the faster-growing gap species over the closed forest understory species, likely due to the increased richness of secondary protective compounds which the gap species provide. They are often classified as folivores, eating primarily leaves, shrubs, shoots, buds, and fungi, in addition to fruits which have fallen from trees. The fruits which Java mouse-deer commonly consume range from , while the seeds range from .
Social behavior.
Groups of Java mouse-deer are commonly referred to as “herds,” while females are termed “does,” “hinds,” or “cows.” Males are referred to as either “bucks,” “stags,” or “bulls,” and their young are commonly called “fawns,” or “asses”.
It was previously believed that Java mouse-deer were nocturnal, but more recent studies have shown that they are neither truly nocturnal nor diurnal, but instead crepuscular, meaning they prefer to be active during the dim light of dawn and dusk. This behavior has been observed in both wild and captive Java mouse-deer. Although Java mouse-deer form monogamous family groups, they are usually shy, solitary animals. They are also usually silent; the only noise they make is a shrill cry when they are frightened.
Male Java mouse-deer are territorial, marking their territory and their mates with secretions from an intermandibular scent gland under their chin. This territorial marking usually includes urinating or defecating to mark their area. To protect themselves and their mates or to defend their territory, mouse-deer slash rivals with their sharp, protruding canine “tusks.” It has also been observed that, when threatened, the Java mouse-deer will beat its hooves quickly against the ground, reaching speeds of up to 7 beats per second, creating a “drum roll” sound.
The territories of "Tragulus javanicus" males and females have been observed to overlap considerably, yet individuals of the same sex do not share their territories. When giving birth, however, females tend to establish a new home range. Female Java mouse-deer have an estimated home range of , while males inhabit, on average, . Additionally, male Java mouse-deer, in nature, were observed to travel distances of daily on average, while females average daily.
Reproduction.
Java mouse-deer are capable of breeding at any time during the year, and this has been observed during captivity. However, some sources have observed that the breeding season for the Java mouse-deer in nature occurs from November to December. Additionally, female mouse-deer have the potential to be pregnant throughout most of their adult life, and they are capable of conceiving 85–155 minutes after giving birth. The Java mouse-deer's gestation period usually lasts 4.5 months, or 144 days. Typical litters consist of a single fawn, which resembles a miniature adult, although the tusk-like incisors prevalent in males are not visible in the young mouse-deer. The average mass of a newborn fawn is , and these precocial young are capable of standing within 30 minutes after birth. Fawns are capable of eating solid food within two weeks, yet it takes around 12 weeks to completely wean the fawns. On average, it takes the young, both male and female, 167 days (~5 months) to reach sexual maturity. Mouse-deer have been observed to live up to 14 years in captivity, but their lifespan in nature is still an open question.
Predators.
One of the main predators which the Java mouse-deer face is humans. Through the destruction of their habitat, as well as from hunting and trapping the mouse-deer for food, their pelts, and for pets, humans have considerably reduced the Java mouse-deer population. Mouse-deer are particularly vulnerable to being hunted by humans at night because of their tendency to freeze when illuminated by having a spotlight shone on them. Because of the small size of the Java mouse-deer, dogs are also a common predator for them, as well as crocodiles, big cats, birds of prey, and snakes.
Diseases.
Although research into the diseases and parasites which affect the Java mouse-deer are still nascent, bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV 1), a pestivirus of the family flaviviridae has been detected in Java mouse-deer. Mouse-deer acquire this virus through fetal infection during early pregnancy. Once acquired, individuals with BVDV can gain lifelong immune tolerance.
Conservation status.
Java mouse-deer is currently categorized as “Data Deficient” on the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List. This data deficiency is due to the inconclusiveness regarding the distinct separation of "Tragulus" species, in addition to the lack of information on "Tragulus javanicus". Even comparison of past observed numbers of Java mouse-deer with those presently observed does not greatly aid researchers because of the high likelihood of inaccuracy in past observations. Although listed as “Data Deficient,” it is highly probable that a decline in the numbers of Java mouse-deer is occurring, and upon further investigation of this issue, the Red List status of "Tragulus javanicus" could easily change to “Vulnerable”. Some conservation actions which have been implemented include legally protecting the species, which, although it has been in effect since 1931, makes no significant difference since hunting of Java mouse-deer still occurs. Additionally, some areas of Java which the Java mouse-deer frequents have been protected, yet enforcement of these regulations is still needed. One of the greatest conservation efforts needed is simply more information about the species: a more complete definition of its taxonomy, as well as more information on its habitat and behavior.
Indonesian folklore.
Historically, the mouse-deer has featured prominently in Malay and Indonesian folklore, where it is considered a wise creature. This character, Sang Kancil (pronounced “Kahn-cheel”), is a diminutive but wise mouse-deer. Sang Kancil is a tiny and cunning hero who, through his intelligence, is able to prevail over his larger tyrants and foes.


Singapore blue

The Singapore blue ("Omothymus violaceopes") is a large, arboreal species of tarantula from Malaysia and Singapore. These spiders have been known to grow in excess of 9 inches (23 cm) across. The legs are an intense blue with a brown or gold carapace. The male is usually not as vibrant, the species exhibiting sexual dimorphism. The generic placement of the species has been questioned, and specimens identified as males of this species may actually be from a different species.
Taxonomy.
"Omothymus violaceopes" was first described by H. C. Abraham in 1924, under the name "Lampropelma violaceopedes". However, specific names under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature cannot be plural, so "violaceopedes" was corrected to "violaceopes".
In August 2019, the species was transferred to the genus "Omothymus".
Food.
Diet consists primarily of large beetles, cockroaches, large crickets, mantids, and other large arthropods. Occasionally, young mice, birds and other small vertebrates are taken. During feeding, the abdomen (opisthosoma) will often increase its size two-fold.
In captivity.
Singapore blues are commonly kept as pets because of their beautiful colours. Caution should be taken, as Singapore blues are a relatively aggressive species and tend to bite as the first line of defense.
Recommended feeding includes four to six live crickets every few weeks. Gut loading, or providing prey with vitamins and other nutrients, provides tarantulas with a healthy meal. Uneaten prey should be removed after one day. Fasting, or not eating, for days or weeks at a time is sometimes an indication of an upcoming moult. A water dish should be supplied and the water changed regularly to prevent harmful bacterial growth.


Gastrotheca monticola

Gastrotheca monticola is a species of frog in the family Hemiphractidae. It is endemic to Peru; records from Ecuador probably refer to other species. "Gastrotheca lojana" was formerly considered a subspecies of this species, but is now treated as a full species.
"Gastrotheca monticola" occurs in a range of montane habitats with trees at elevations of above sea level; it has been recorded shrubs in humid montane tropical forests, arboreal bromeliads, and from a variety of modified habitats (villages, banana and coffee plantations, brush and riparian forest patches within plots of arable land). The female carries the eggs in pouch on her back and deposits the tadpoles in a stream.
It is a common species in northern Peru. It can be locally threatened by habitat loss.


Whitespotted bamboo shark

The whitespotted bamboo shark ("Chiloscyllium plagiosum") is a carpet shark with an adult size that approaches one metre in length. This small, mostly nocturnal species is harmless to humans. The whitespotted bamboo shark is occasionally kept as a pet in larger home aquaria. It can grow up to long.
Features and Nuggets.
Dorsal fins with convex posterior margins. Color pattern of purple and pink spots, with dark bands and a white body. The coloration is unique in this family making it very simple for identification. The teeth of bamboo sharks are not strongly differentiated. Each tooth has a medial cusp and weak labial root lobes with 26–35 teeth on the upper jaw and 21–32 teeth on the lower jaw. Bamboo Sharks commonly rest on the bottom of their habitat with their head and trunk propped up by resting on their bent and depressed pectoral fins. Whitespotted bamboo sharks have a very distinct dorsal fin that can alter or effect where they choose to live, as well as their mobility methods.
Distribution.
These sharks are found on coral reefs of the Pacific Ocean. They are common in the coastal areas of Indonesia and surrounding waters, but the species' range extends from Japan to India. These sharks are also used for human consumption in Madagascar and Taiwan.
Feeding.
These sharks feed at night, preying on small fish and invertebrates. They have small teeth that can be used for grasping or crushing prey. Soft prey is grasped when the tips of the teeth sink into the flesh, but the teeth pivot backwards when biting hard prey. This protects the tooth tip and allows the flattened front surface of the teeth to form a continuous plate for crushing crabs. Juvenile sharks need a higher intake of carbon than adults sharks, especially during the wet seasons. White spotted bamboo sharks have an advantage in finding carbon sources because they are benthic predators (meaning they prey on fish near the sea-bottom), as opposed to pelagic sharks like the spadenose shark. That, combined with the fact that these species of sharks have, like most sharks, electroreceptors (ampullae of lorenzini) along their snout to help them locate prey that is buried in the sand and mud, makes them very efficient users of detrital carbon resources.
Reproduction.
Whitespotted bamboo sharks are oviparous (egg laying). The eggs are approximately five inches long and hatch after 14 or 15 weeks. The young hatch out at approximately 6 inches in length. Doug Sweet, curator of fishes at the Belle Isle Aquarium in Detroit reported that in July 2002 a clutch of eggs from a female whitespotted bamboo shark hatched without any apparent fertilization. This appears to be the first reported example of parthenogenesis in this species.
Virgin Egg-laying.
A female "Chiloscyllium plagiosum" that had no contact with a male for 6 years, laid eggs which hatched 3 young at the Belle Isle Aquarium in Detroit, Michigan. There are many theories for this incident but none are confirmed. The species have been found and collected at Ternate Island and Halmahera Island, Indonesia and generally the palearctic region in Asia. Among these theories, the three most likely would be that the female contains both the male and the female reproductive organs; the female has the ability to store sperm for that long; and lastly that the female has somehow stimulated the eggs without sperm, process called parthenogenesis. The offspring kept away from males produced asexually viable offspring.
Albino mutations.
Albinism is a very rare occurrence for sharks, and has only occurred on a few occasions. There is no exact statistic, but it is estimated that 1 in 10,000 of this species are born albino. Three albino whitespotted bamboo sharks have hatched at SeaWorld of Orlando. Downtown Aquarium in Denver Colorado has had annual hatchings of albino whitespotted bamboo sharks since 2007 and they currently have some displayed on exhibit.
As pets.
Because of their small size and bottom-dwelling lifestyle, these are one of the more common species of sharks to be kept in home aquariums. They feed and breed readily in captivity. Because of this, they can be purchased from many sources. Adult specimens will require tanks of at least 180 gallons, and preferably more. Captive specimens may be fed chunks of squid, shrimp, clams, scallops and marine fish, as well as live ghost shrimp.
See also.
"Web of Science [v.5.15] - All Databases Full Record." Web of Science [v.5.15] - All Databases Full Record. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2014.


Hemiphyllodactylus jinpingensis

Hemiphyllodactylus jinpingensis, also known as the Jinping slender gecko, Jinping gypsy gecko, or Jinping dwarf gecko, is a species of gecko. It is found in China (Yunnan). It is named after its type locality, Jinping.


Mesoleptos

Mesoleptos was a genus of mosasauroid from the Late Cretaceous period of Europe and the Middle East.


Saint Helena cuckoo

The Saint Helena cuckoo ("Nannococcyx psix") is an extinct bird. It was confirmed to have previously existed by a single humerus. Compared to other cuckoos, it was relatively small, and it probably lived in forests on the island of Saint Helena. Its extinction was a result of deforestation on the island in the 18th century.


Ptychohyla salvadorensis

Ptychohyla salvadorensis (common name: Salvador stream frog) is a species of frog in the family Hylidae found in El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, rivers, pastureland, and heavily degraded former forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Striped keelback

The striped keelback, Xenochrophis vittatus, is a species of snake found mainly in Indonesia (Bangka, Java, Sumatra, We, Sulawesi) and Singapore (introduced).
The species is also known as Coluber vittatus, Coluber vittatus , Natrix vittata, Natrix vittatus ,Tropidonotus vittatus ,Tropidonotus vittatus ,Tropidonotus vittatus ,Ceratophallus [vittatus], Natrix vittata ,Fowlea vittata ,Xenochrophis vittata, Xenochrophis vittatus, Xenochrophis vittatus ,Xenochrophis vittatus, Ceratophallus vittatus.
Ecology.
This diurnal snake is found in rice paddies, ponds, small ditches, and sometimes suburban backyards and home gardens. The striped keelback is rear-fanged and mildly venomous, and is considered harmless; it typically feeds on amphibians, fish, and small lizards and poisonous toads.
In captivity.
In central Java, it is also not uncommon for striped keelbacks to be kept by children as pets. It has a reputation for being very mild-mannered and rarely bites. In the United States, wild-caught striped keelbacks are frequently imported and sold as "garter snakes", typically "Canadian garter snakes" or "Indonesian garter snakes", but they are not related to "Thamnophis".


Hellinsia aegyptiacus

Hellinsia aegyptiacus is a moth of the family Pterophoridae. It is known from Egypt.


Panulirus pascuensis

Panulirus pascuensis is a species of spiny lobster found around Easter Island and the Pitcairn Islands in the Pacific Ocean. It is known in English as the Easter Island spiny lobster and in Spanish as . This lobster is fished on a small scale for local consumption.
Description.
Adults grow to a total length of , with a carapace long. The antennal plate is visible in front of the carapace and has two large spines. The first pair of antennae are forked and the second pair are long, thick and spiny. There are long, slender flagella at the tips of the antennae. There are no claws on the first four pairs of walking legs. The colour of this spiny lobster is dark greenish purple with pale transverse bands on the posterior edge of the abdominal segments. The base of the tail fan has pale spots and the antennae are a uniform colour. The walking legs have slender longitudinal pale stripes.
Distribution and habitat.
"Panulirus pascuensis" is native to the south eastern Pacific Ocean, round the coasts of Easter Island and Pitcairn Island at depths of up to . It is also reported from the Austral Islands in French Polynesia. It is found on rocky shores and tends to hide during the day under boulders and in crevices.
Biology.
Like other spiny lobsters, "Panulirus pascuensis" feeds at night and is an omnivore and scavenger. Its diet consists of slow moving prey such as molluscs, echinoderms, crustaceans and chitons, supplemented with fish carcases or other carrion. Although it has no crushing claws, its mandibles are powerful and can break open bivalve and gastropod shells. The larvae spend over a year as part of the plankton before settling on the seabed and undergoing metamorphosis into juveniles.
Status.
"Panulirus pascuensis" is collected by hand or with a spear for human consumption on Easter and Pitcairn Islands. Gill nets and lobster pots are also sometimes used and at night a torch is employed. The IUCN has listed this lobster in the Red List of Threatened Species as "Data Deficient" because insufficient information is available to assess its population size and trend. The main threat to this lobster may be tourism, as the Easter Islanders are keen to attract more visitors and the Easter Island spiny lobster is the seafood dish of choice to serve to them at local restaurants. It is a traditional food of the Rapanui, the native Polynesian inhabitants of the island, and is represented on many rock engravings.


Norfolk golden whistler

The Norfolk golden whistler ("Pachycephala pectoralis xanthoprocta"), also known as the Norfolk Island whistler or Norfolk Island thickhead, and locally as the “tamey”, is a small bird in the whistler family, Pachycephalidae. It is a subspecies of the Australian golden whistler and endemic to Norfolk Island, an Australian territory in the Tasman Sea, between Australia and New Zealand.
Description.
Males of the Norfolk Island subspecies differ from those of other subspecies in lacking the bright yellow, white and black markings and being similar to the females, though somewhat yellower. Relative to most other subspecies it is smaller, with a longer tail and heavier bill.
Distribution and habitat.
The whistler is restricted to Norfolk Island, where it is largely confined to the Mt Pitt section of the Norfolk Island National Park and remnant wooded areas within 2 km of the park. It inhabits shrubby understorey in subtropical rainforest, palm forest and Norfolk Island pines, as well as in regenerating forest. It also visits gardens.
Status and conservation.
After a period of decline during the 1960s and 1970s, the population of the Norfolk golden whistler was estimated in 2005 at 535 breeding pairs. Ongoing threats include habitat degradation and predation by black rats and feral cats. It is considered vulnerable because of the restricted size of the population and area of its distribution. Ongoing conservation management actions include control of rats and feral cats to minimise predation as well as control of invasive weeds to minimise habitat degradation. It is proposed to reintroduce the whistler to nearby Phillip Island when the regenerating habitat there is suitable.


Common tody-flycatcher

The common tody-flycatcher or black-fronted tody-flycatcher ("Todirostrum cinereum") is a very small passerine bird in the tyrant flycatcher family. It breeds from southern Mexico to northwestern Peru, eastern Bolivia and southern, eastern and northeast Brazil.
Taxonomy.
The common tody-flycatcher was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1766 in the twelfth edition of his "Systema Naturae" under the binomial name "Todus cinereus". Linnaeus based his description on the "Grey and Yellow Fly-catcher" that had been described and illustrated in 1760 by George Edwards from a specimen collected in Suriname. The specific epithet "cinereum" is from Latin "cinereus" meaning "ash-grey". The common tody-flycatcher is now the type species of the genus "Todirostrum" that was introduced by René Lesson in 1831.
Eight subspecies are recognised:
Description.
The common tody-flycatcher is a tiny, big-headed bird, long, weighing , and with a long, flattened, straight black bill. The upper head is black, shading to dark grey on the nape and dark olive-green on the rest of the upperparts. The usually cocked tail is black with white tips, and the wings are blackish with two yellow wing bars and yellow edging to the feathers. The underparts are entirely yellow. Sexes are similar, but young birds have a greyer upper head, buff wing markings, and paler underparts.
Males of this species have a rapid grasshopper-like ticking "te’e’e’e’e’e’t "call something like a tropical kingbird, and a dawn song consisting of a very fast high "tic" repeated up to 110 times a minute for minutes on end.
Distribution and habitat.
It is a very common inhabitant in gardens, shady plantations, second growth and the edges and clearings of forest, although it avoids the dense interior of mature woodland and also arid areas. The common tody-flycatcher is usually seen in pairs, making rapid dashing sallies or hovering to pick small arthropods off the vegetation. It often wags its tail as it moves sideways along branches.
Behaviour and ecology.
Breeding.
It breeds from sea level to altitude, locally to . Both male and female birds build a pouch nest with a visored side entrance, which is usually suspended from a thin branch or vine high in a tree, though occasionally it can go up to . The female incubates the two usually unspotted white eggs for the 15–16 days prior to hatching.


Luteostriata graffi

Luteostriata graffi is a species of Brazilian land planarian in the subfamily Geoplaninae.
Description.
"Luteostriata graffi" is a relatively small land planarian, reaching up to in length when crawling. The dorsal color is gold-yellow with five black longitudinal stripes: one median, two paramedian and two lateral, the median being the thinnest and the paramedian the broadest. The anterior end has a slight orange tinge and the ventral side is yellowish white.
Etymology.
The specific epithet "graffi" honors the zoologist Ludwig von Graff, who first described the species, but misidentified it as "Geoplana marginata" .
Distribution.
"Luteostrata graffi" is known to occur in areas of Araucaria moist forest and Seasonal forests in the northeastern region of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. It occurs in the São Francisco de Paula National Forest and in the Aparados da Serra National Park.


Arctocephalus forsteri

Arctocephalus forsteri (common names include the Australasian fur seal, South Australian fur seal, New Zealand fur seal, Antipodean fur seal, or long-nosed fur seal) is a species of fur seal found mainly around southern Australia and New Zealand. The name "New Zealand fur seal" is used by English speakers in New Zealand; kekeno is used in the Māori language. , the common name long-nosed fur seal has been proposed for the population of seals inhabiting Australia.
Although the Australian and New Zealand populations show some genetic differences, their morphologies are very similar, and thus they remain classed as a single species. After the arrival of humans in New Zealand, and particularly after the arrival of Europeans in Australia and New Zealand, hunting reduced the population near to extinction.
Description.
Males have been reported as large as 160 kg; their average weight is about 126 kg. Males can be 2 metres long. Females are between 30–50 kg on average, and can be as long as 1.5 metres. Pups are 3.3–3.9 kg on average, and between 40 and 55 cm long. At 290 days old males are about 14.1 kg, and females are about 12.6 kg. They have external ears and hind flippers that rotate forward, which visibly distinguish them from other seals. They have a pointy nose with long pale whiskers. The fur seals are covered by two layers of fur. The coat is grey-brown on their back, and lighter on their belly. Some have white tips on longer upper hairs, which can give them a silver-like appearance.
So called "Upland Seals" once found on Antipodes Islands and Macquarie Island have been claimed as a distinct subspecies with thicker furs by scientists although it is unclear whether these seals were genetically distinct.
Distribution.
The species occurs in Australia and New Zealand. It is found in the coastal waters and on the offshore islands of southern Australia, from the south-west corner of Western Australia to just east of Kangaroo Island in South Australia, and also in southern Tasmania and the subantarctic Macquarie Island. Small populations are forming in Bass Strait and coastal waters of Victoria and southern New South Wales. Before the arrival of humans in New Zealand, the species bred around all the New Zealand mainland and its subantarctic islands. There are now established and expanding colonies around the entire South Island, on Stewart Island and all of the New Zealand subantarctic islands. There are also newly established breeding colonies on the North Island.
Behaviour.
Diving.
The species can "porpoise" out of the water when travelling quickly at sea. They can dive deeper and longer than any other fur seal. Females can dive for about 9 minutes and to a depth of about 312 metres, and can dive deeper and longer in autumn and winter. Males can dive for about 15 minutes to a depth of about 380 metres. On average, the species typically only dives for 1–2 minutes. When they dive for food they dive deeper during the day but shallower at night, because during the day their prey typically migrates to deeper depths and migrates back up during the night.
Lactating females alter their dive patterns in order to regularly care for their young. Dives are shorter, from around 9 minutes down to 5 minutes. Several longer trips may be taken at first to find patches of prey. The shorter dives then utilise these patches. Due to the differences in diving pattern between males and females, there is very little inter-sexual competition for food sources. Males typically forage over continental shelf breaks in deeper water, while females typically utilise the continental shelf as foraging grounds. It is believed that differences in diving abilities and depths could be the cause of some sexual dimorphism between males and females.
Diving behaviour by the pups begins in the months leading up to weaning, when the pups are nursing less. The pups begin to dive from the age of 6–10 months, yet weaning is known to occur between the ages of 8 and 11 months, so the young pups do not have much time to learn to forage. The pups need to progressively develop nocturnal diving skills while they still have their mothers' milk to fall back on if dives are unsuccessful. Age, physiological development, and experience are important factors for success in hunting and contribute to the development of the pups' diving ability and behaviour. This transitional period when young pups are becoming nutritionally independent while their foraging efficiency is rather low, is a time of high risk, and mortality can be very high. Based on scat samples, it has been found that the pups start by eating cephalopods and eventually making their way to fish, but this may just be a result of prey availability during different times of the year.
Communication.
Males vocalise through a bark or whimper, either a guttural threat, a low-intensity threat, a full threat, or a submissive call. Females growl and also have a high-pitched pup attraction wail call. Pup-attraction calls allow communication from longer distances. Once together, females use olfactory recognition to confirm the pup as their own. In males, the full neck display is a non-combative posture that functions as a threat to surrounding males by which they are able to assess each other's dominance status.
Reproduction.
Females mature between 4 and 6 years old, and males mature between 8 and 10 years old. These seals are polygynous. Males obtain and guard territory in late October before females arrive. Often females mate only once a year, and this usually occurs eight days postpartum for about 13 minutes on average. Females have a delayed implantation of the fertilised egg, so that implantation on the uterine wall does not occur for 3 months. Gestation occurs for 9 months Females are more aggressive near the time of birth, and do not like to be approached right after birth. Females will continue to reproduce until their death which is on average between 14 and 17 years of age.
Females first arrive on the shore between November and January, just a few days before giving birth, and stay close to the birth site for up to ten days. When they are close to labour they become very restless and irritable. When beginning labour, which can last as much as five hours, they lie down and toss their head in the air, straining forward on their fore flippers, lifting their hind quarters, or moving laterally, before slowly lowering their head down, a process they repeat until they finally give birth. In one study, observations of the actual birth, starting from when the pup was first seen, found an average of 2 minutes for a head-first delivery, but an average of 6.5 minutes if the pup came out tail first. Immediately after birth the mother begins frequently sniffing the newborn pup to better identify when she has to find it after a trip out to sea. Pups are fairly mature at birth, and within 60 minutes they start suckling for about 7 minutes. Eventually the suckling can exceed 33 minutes.
The mothers may take from 45 minutes to 3 days before leaving the pups to swim, and 6–12 days to go on longer feeding trips. Even then the mothers tend to not leave the pups for longer than 2 days. When the pups are about 21 days old they have been seen to congregate into little pods while their mothers are away. When the females return they only feed their own pups, and have been seen to be hostile toward pups that are not their own.
Female seals have been documented to have a gradual increase in trips for feeding throughout lactation. It has been found that mothers who have sons made longer foraging trips then the mothers who had daughters during the lactation period. When observing growth patterns in the male and female pups within two cohorts, it is recognised that the growth patterns are similar, however the males grow faster and are weaned off nursing heavier in some years. Suckling can occur for about 300 days. Pups start to eat solid food just before weaning, and are eventually weaned around September, when they disperse.
Pup mortality has been attributed to both natural factors and human interaction. The biggest natural cause of death for pups is starvation, followed by suffocation in the amnion, stillbirth, trampling, drowning, and predation. Human factors include the handling of pups, tagging, and human presence in general.
Diet.
Their diet includes cephalopods, fish, and birds. Octopus and arrow squid make up most of their cephalopod diet. Individuals located near their southern range limit have been known to eat penguins as part of their diet. Stomach contents have been analysed and shown to include anchovy, barracuda, flounder, hagfish, lamprey, red cod, school shark, and many other species. Further analysis of otoliths from their scat show that for fish prey species, lantern fish composed the majority of their fish diet, followed by anchovies, pink cod, and hoki. There are different factors that affect their diet, such as season, sex, breeding, surrounding colony, oceanography, and climatic patterns.
Predators.
Known predators are killer whales, sharks, male New Zealand sea lions, and possibly leopard seals. New Zealand sea lions are also known to target pups as their prey. Several regurgitations by sea lions have been found to contain remains of fur seal pups, some with plastic tags previously attached to female fur seal pups.
Human impact.
Before the arrival of humans, the seals bred around all of New Zealand. Hunting by the first New Zealand settlers, the Maori, reduced their range. Commercial hunting from shortly after the European discovery of New Zealand in the 18th century until the late 19th century reduced the population near to extinction.
Today commercial fisheries are one of the main sources of death of New Zealand fur seals usually by entanglement and drowning. Monitoring of these pinnipeds in the Kaikoura region found that entanglements with green trawl nets and plastic strapping tape were the most common. A little less than half of the individuals were successfully released with good chances of survival even after significant entanglement wounds. It has been estimated by the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society that over 10,000 seals could have drowned in nets between 1989 and 1998. They are also known to have been shot by commercial and recreational fishermen, because they are assumed to interfere with fishing gear. How often these shootings occur is unknown, but pressure groups have stated that the conflict between the seals and commercial fisheries is expected to increase. On 21 August 2014, two decomposing animals were found beheaded near Louth Bay in South Australia. The circumstances of their deaths were considered suspicious and an investigation followed their discovery. In 2015, several conservative members of Parliament encouraged public debate around the potential implementation of seal culling in South Australia in response to increasing interactions with South Australian commercial fisheries. , the killing of long-nosed fur seals remains an illegal act.
Human activity near seal rookeries have been correlated to distress and panic, resulting in indirect deaths of pups. The use of metal cattle ear tags on pups has also been associated with a decrease in pup fitness due to incomplete healing of the tag site.
Legislative protection.
Australia.
In Australian Commonwealth waters, "Arctocephalus forsteri" is protected under the "Environment Protection Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act 1999" under which it is listed as a protected marine species. The species is also protected within the jurisdictions of the following Australian states:
The species received protection by the creation of a 16 million hectare Marine Park located on the eastern side of Macquarie island in 2000. The Tasmanian government has also extended to Macquarie Island Nature Reserve by 3 nautical miles surrounding the island.
New Zealand.
In New Zealand, the species is protected by the "Marine Mammals Protection Act 1978", which works to conserve marine animal species; it specifies that all wild Pinnipeds cannot be touched or fed.


Xerocrassa salvanae

Xerocrassa salvanae is a species of air-breathing land snail, a pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Hygromiidae, the hairy snails and their allies. This species is endemic to Spain.
Taxonomic note.
IUCN considers "X. salvanae" a synonym of "Xerotricha madritensis", which is itself a subject of taxonomic ambiguity.


Laudakia wui

Laudakia wui, also known as Wui's rock agama, is a species of agamid lizard. It is found in Tibet.


Forest tuco-tuco

The forest tuco-tuco ("Ctenomys sylvanus") was formerly considered a species of rodent in the family Ctenomyidae. It is endemic to Salta and southeast Jujuy Provinces in northwest Argentina. The IUCN currently recognizes it as a subspecies of "C. frater".


Black-eared shrike-babbler

The black-eared shrike-babbler ("Pteruthius melanotis") is a bird species in the vireo family, Vireonidae. It was traditionally considered as an aberrant Old World babbler and formerly placed in the family Timaliidae. It was long noted that their habits resembled those of vireos, but this was previously ascribed to the result of convergent evolution. It is found in Southeast Asia from the Himalayas to western Malaysia. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests.


Philautus hosii

Philautus hosii is a species of frog in the family Rhacophoridae. It is endemic to Borneo and has been found at above sea level. The specific name of the synonym, "Polypedates chlorophthalmus", refers to its "remarkable green iris", from the Greek for "green-eyed". Accordingly, the common name green-eyed tree frog has been coined for the species.
Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.
Description.
This species can be in snout–vent length. The body is elongate. The dorsum is brown, with a thin dark gray line at back of the forehead. The lower flanks and anterior edge of thighs have dark blotches. The throat has dark pigmentation. The tympanum is distinct. The iris is bright green and the toes are webbed but the fingers lack webbing.


Coleophora altaicolella

Coleophora altaicolella is a moth of the family Coleophoridae that is endemic to Mongolia.


Menemerus desertus

Menemerus desertus is a jumping spider species in the genus "Menemerus" that lives in Algeria. It was first described by Wanda Wesołowska in 1999. The female and male are very distinctive. The female is larger, in length, with characteristic ridges. The male is smaller, long, with a very large dorsal tibial apophysis and characteristic embolus.


Patagonian weasel

The Patagonian weasel ("Lyncodon patagonicus") is a small mustelid that is the only member of the genus "Lyncodon". Its geographic range is the Pampas of western Argentina and sections of Chile. An early mention of the animal is in the Journal of Syms Covington, who sailed with Charles Darwin on his epic voyage aboard "HMS Beagle".
Description.
The Patagonian weasel has a head and body length of , with a tail that is . Its fur is whitish with black and dark brown tones mixed in. It has small ears, short legs and a bushy tail. The animal has not been thoroughly studied in the wild, and knowledge of its behavioral patterns is unsure. It reportedly has been kept as a working pet by local ranchers to destroy rodents.


Morpho aega

Morpho aega, the Aega morpho, is a Neotropical butterfly found in Paraguay, Argentina and Brazil.
"Morpho aega" is a species group which may be composed of several species.
Many subspecies have been described.
Description.
"M. aega", one of the best known and in the male one of the commonest Morphids, shows a tendency, within its relatively narrow range of distribution, to interesting geographical variation. The name-type, "aega" Hbn. (66 b), probably came from the state of Rio de Janeiro, although according to von Bonninghausen the species does not occur in the town of Rio itself, but only in the north-west of the province of this name, and is probably distributed as far as Sta. Catharina. The female was first figured by Staudinger; it differs from our figure (mellinia, 66 b) in the darker colouring, the smaller transcellular patches of the forewing and the far larger submarginal spots of the hindwing. — "mellinia" Fruhst. differs from females from Rio de Janeiro in the more extended black border of both wings and the much more broadly black thickening of the veins of the forewing. In addition on the forewing in the broader black spot at the apex of the cell and the larger yellow circumcellular patches. Lower median at its base, submedian in the middle, bordered with broad patches of black scales. The hindwing darker red-brown. Distal border more broadly black with the yellowish rounded patches considerably smaller. — "bisanthe" Fruhst. (66 b), with the type from Sta. Catharina, describes the southern form of the collective species, in the female recognizable at once by the almost uniformly large yellowish submarginal spots, which mostly extend from the anal angle to the apex, whilst in "aega" and "mellinia" they do not reach beyond the median part of the forewing. The circumcellular spots are larger and lighter. The black spot before the apex is narrower, more diffuse, and only extends to the middle of the anterior wall of the cell. The ground-colour of the yellow female much paler, on the hindwing without brown tinge ; the submarginal patches of the forewing more uniform, forming a more complete row. The females are among the most variable Morphids and three principal forms may be distinguished, including the normal (most commonly occurring), predominantly brown-yellow female, analogous to that of "mellinia", and probably the ancestral form, still recalling the Brassolids, thus phyletically the oldest. Besides this we have "mixta" Fruhst., with partial blue reflections on the forewing (66 b), and finally "pseudocypris" Fruhst. (66 c), in which the yellow-brown gives place to a dark or light blue, which overspreads the whole upper surface. Whilst the males before me from Rio de Janeiro, Parana and Blumenau show "inter se" no differences worth mentioning, the males of "bisanthe" from Rio Grande do Sul can be at once separated from their more northern representatives by the predominantly white-grey instead of purple-brown under surface, which in addition is traversed by more sharply defined, i.e. more strongly black-bordered and consequently more distinct, grey-white or pale yellow longitudinal bands. Also the "bisanthe" females are paler yellow beneath and in the form pseudocypris with more prominent light areas than in mellinia. Thus in the north Espírito Santo with an almost uniform hot, damp climate all the year round, which produces a continuous, vast forest area covering the still almost unknown interior of the province, has a deep-coloured, one might say rainy-season form. Rio Grande do Sul, on the contrary, with pronounced separation of the seasons and great extremes in temperature, produces, on account of the dry prairies extending from Argentina, which restrict the primeval forest to a relatively narrow tract in the eastern slopes of the coast-mountains, a pale race with all the characteristics of a product of a dry region. Mabilde says that "bisanthe" occurs for 10–15 days in the spring and 20–40 days in the autumn on forest-paths. Of the rare females about 10—15 are found to males Burmeister knew an "aega" race with blue females from the Missiones in the state of Argentina, discovered there by Carlos Berg
Biology.
The larvae feeds on Gramineae ("Arundo mitis", "Bambusa", "Bambusa trinii", "Chusquea", "Chusquea meyeriana", "Merostachys claussenii")
Etymology.
Aega was a daughter of Helios and of such dazzling brightness that the Titans in their attack upon Olympus became frightened and requested their mother Gaia conceal her in the earth.


Lesser swallow-tailed swift

The lesser swallow-tailed swift or cayenne swift ("Panyptila cayennensis") is a resident breeding bird from southern Mexico and Tobago south to Ecuador, eastern Peru and Brazil.
This small swift is found in range of habitats including forest clearings, more open woodland, and cultivation. The nest is tubular, wider at the top, and with the entrance at its base. It is made of plant material and attached to a branch or a vertical surface. In the latter case, the entire length is fixed to the wall or trunk. Two or three white eggs are laid on a shelf in the upper part of the nest, and incubated by both parents.
The lesser swallow-tailed swift is a slender species, 12.7–13 cm long, and weighing 18 g. It has long narrow wings and a long forked tail, which is usually held tightly closed. It is mainly black with a white throat and upper breast and squarish white patches on the rear flanks. The sexes are similar.
The flight is very fast and dashing, although it will glide at height in a more leisurely fashion. The flight call is a high-pitched ', replaced at the nest by a chattering '.
The northern race "P. c. veraecrucis", which breeds from Mexico to northern Honduras is similar to the nominate "P. c. cayennensis", but slightly larger.
The lesser swallow-tailed swift feeds in flight on flying insects, especially winged ants. It is less gregarious than other swifts and is usually seen as individuals or pairs. If other swift species are present it will normally feed above them, although it stays below "Cypseloides" species such as chestnut-collared swift.
The bird is part of the folklore of Central and Northwestern South American countries (where it is known as "pajaro macuá"), and magical or mystical properties are attributed either to its song or its nest.


Yanomamia guianensis

Yanomamia guianensis is a South American lizard of the family Gymnophthalmidae. It has been found only at higher elevations on Mount Ayanganna and Mount Roraima in west-central Guyana.


Little yellow-shouldered bat

The little yellow-shouldered bat ("Sturnira lilium") is a bat species from South and Central America. This species is a frugivore and an effective seed disperser. It roosts alone in tree cavities, on branches, vines, and under palm leaves, usually keeping to the same roosts day to day. There is evidence to suggest hypothermia is a thermoregulatory strategy to help adjust metabolic levels. In terms of mating, ambient temperature has been noted as a greater influence as compared to food availability. Its wing shape can also be affected by pregnancy in order to make flight more efficient.


Dwarf pygmy goby

The dwarf pygmy goby or Philippine goby ("Pandaka pygmaea") is a tropical species of fish in the subfamily Gobionellinae from brackish water and mangrove areas in Southeast Asia. It is one of the smallest fish species in the world. Males reach maturity at a standard length of and can reach up to in standard length, while the females can grow up to in total length. Adults weigh around . It is known as "bia" and "tabios" in the Philippines.
Distribution and habitat.
"P. pygmaea" was initially reported as being endemic to Malabon, Metro Manila in the Philippines, where found at shady river banks. The species has now been extirpated from this area as it was reclaimed, leading to its status as critically endangered by the IUCN. More recently, it has been discovered at a range of other locations in Southeast Asia, including Culion Island, Bali, Sulawesi and Singapore. As part of the aquarium trade, it was imported into Germany in 1958.
"P. pygmaea" lives in shallow, tropical brackish water and mangrove areas where mainly found on muddy bottoms or among plants. Also known before as National Fish in the Philippines on 1994 until recently they changed it to milk fish
Appearance and anatomy.
A colorless and nearly transparent species, the dwarf pygmy goby has a moderately elongated and robust body. Males are slender with nearly straight dorsal and ventral profiles, while the females appear stouter with the dorsal profile slightly curved, the belly protuberant, and the ventral outline strongly arched.
The head of the "P. pygmaea" is large and blunt. The head and nape are naked. The upper and lower profiles converge and are pointed if viewed from the sides. The head is characteristically broader than deep. The head is very short, broad and rounded. The mouth is very oblique, with a projecting lower jaw and chin. The posterior angle of the maxillary extends beneath the anterior part of the eye, up to the middle of pupil. It possesses two rows of teeth in each jaw. The outer row of teeth inside the upper jaw is larger and more widely spaced, while the inner row is characteristically minute. The first dorsal fin is low, much in advance of the second dorsal fin but not reaching the second dorsal fin when depressed. The pectoral and ventral fins are pointed, with the latter about as long as the former or longer. The anal papilla is very short and rounded in females, but is longer and very slender in males.
"P. pygmaea" have dark spots, which forms 4 cross-bands, over the sides of its body. The bases of the fins are heavily pigmented, except for the ventral fins. It has 22 to 25 scales in longitudinal series.
Behavior.
Feeding.
This species feeds on plankton.
Reproduction.
"P. pygmaea" is an oviparous species.
Miscellaneous.
"Pandaka pygmaea" was once portrayed on a Philippine ten centavo coin where, uniquely for a wildlife portrayal on coinage, it is depicted at life-size. The genus name is derived from the Filipino word "pandak", meaning "dwarf" or "short of stature".


Centrolene solitaria

Centrolene solitaria (common name: lonely Cochran frog) is a species of frog in the family Centrolenidae. Known only from its type locality in Florencia, Caquetá, it is endemic to Colombia.
"Centrolene solitaria" occurs in vegetation near streams in cloud forests, including secondary forests. A major threat to this species is habitat loss.


Millangoda Raja

Millangoda Raja () (also known as Millangoda tusker)(1938-30 July 2011)was a Sri Lankan elephant, which was considered as the longest tusked Asian elephant, when he was living. He was captured at Nawagaththegama jungles in Anamaduwa, Puttalam District in 1945 and thereafter was owned by M. R. A. Millangoda Appuhamy of Molagoda, Kegalle.
Millangoda Raja participated at the Esala Perahera in Kandy for nearly 40 years and also carried the casket of tooth relic, an opportunity enjoyed by only a few elephants in Sri Lanka. The tusker died on 30 July 2011 and was about 73 years old at the time of his death. After his death the body of Millangoda Raja was Preserved and placed on public display in a museum, which was constructed by Ananda Millangoda at the Elephant Village in Molagoda, Kegalle.


Nebria tenella megrelica

Nebria tenella megrelica is a subspecies of ground beetle in the Nebriinae subfamily that is endemic to Georgia.


Culpeo

The culpeo ("Lycalopex culpaeus"), sometimes known as the zorro culpeo, Andean zorro, or Andean fox, is a species of South American fox. Regardless of the name, it is not a true fox, but more closely related to wolves and jackals. Its appearance resembles that of foxes due to convergent evolution.
It is the second-largest native canid on the continent after the maned wolf. In appearance, it bears many similarities to the widely recognized red fox. It has grey and reddish fur, a white chin, reddish legs and a stripe on its back that may be barely visible.
The culpeo's diet consists largely of rodents, rabbits, birds and lizards, and to a lesser extent, plant material and carrion. The culpeo does attack sheep on occasion and is, therefore, often hunted or poisoned. In some regions, it has become rare, but overall the species is not threatened with extinction.
The culpeo was domesticated to form the Fuegian dog, but this animal is now extinct.
Description.
The culpeo is a canid intermediate in size between a red fox and a coyote. The average weight of the male is , while the typically smaller females average . Overall, a weight range of has been reported. Total length can range from , including a tail of in length. The pelt has a grizzled appearance. The neck and shoulders are often tawny to rufous in color, while the upper back is dark. The bushy tail has a black tip.
Range.
Its distribution extends from Ecuador and Peru to the southern regions of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. Some populations live in the southern regions of Colombia. It is most common on the western slopes of the Andes, where it inhabits open country and deciduous forests.
Habitat.
The culpeo lives in a wide variety of habitats of western South America. They are found in broadleaf "Nothofagus" temperate rainforest, sclerophyllous matorral, deserts, and plateaus, like the Altiplano, up to the tree line ().
Diet.
The culpeo is an opportunistic predator that will take any variety of prey. This fox mainly feeds on rodents and lagomorphs (especially the introduced European rabbit and European hare); however, it occasionally feeds on domestic livestock and young guanacos. Culpeos are considered beneficial because they are significant predators of the rabbits introduced in 1915; such introduced rabbit populations are believed to have allowed culpeos to spread from the Andean foothills across the Patagonian plain. They sometimes take young lambs up to 1 week old. In limited studies, the larger culpeo appears to dominate potential competitors, including South American gray foxes, Geoffroy's cats, pampas cats, grisons and various raptorial birds. Its range also overlaps that of the much larger puma, but the size difference ensures that the two species have limited competition. They are known to eat the carcasses of vicuñas. the culpeo when hunting beavers uses a watch approach Attack-ind Capture walk away and rest
in central Chile scurblands during a period of drought lagomorphs coati goats and cattle make up a large amount of their diet
but if cattle is hunted or scavenged isn't known
Reproduction.
The typical mating period is between August and October. After a gestation period of 55–60 days, the female gives birth usually to between two and five pups.
Classification.
Taxonomy.
The taxonomy of the culpeo has been the topic of debate due to their high phenetic variability and the scarcity of research, among other things. Over the past three decades, they have been placed variably in the genera "Dusicyon" (Clutton-Brock, "et al.", 1976; Wozencraft, 1989), "Canis" (Langguth, 1975; Van Gelder, 1978), "Pseudalopex" (Berta, 1987; Wozencraft, 1993; Tedford "et al.", 1995) and "Lycalopex" (Zunino, 1995; Wozencraft, 2005).
This canid, like other South American foxes, is still sometimes classified as a member of the genus "Pseudalopex". As "Pseudalopex" and "Lycalopex" have largely come to describe the same genus, either classification is acceptable, although the modern practice is to give "Lycalopex" prominence.


Plain-capped starthroat

The plain-capped starthroat ("Heliomaster constantii") is a large-sized hummingbird. It is 11–12 cm long (4.33–4.72 inches), and weighs approximately 7-8 g.
Adults are colored predominantly metallic bronze on their upper-parts, tail, back and crown. The bird has a dark eye-stripe with a white stripe above and below. The starthroat also has a white patch on the rump. The throat patch, or gorget, is a metallic violet-red. The breast and underparts are a grayish white. The bill is straight, long and very slender. It is darkly colored. The female is slightly less colorful than the male.
The breeding habitat occurs in various habitats of western Mexico, (the Sierra Madre Occidentals), to southern Costa Rica. It has occasionally been recorded in south-easternmost Arizona of the United States, the Madrean sky islands of the Sierra Madre ranges. In the U.S. the bird is usually seen between mid-June and mid-Sept, in the Chiracahua and Huachuca Mountains of Arizona. It is not present in the U.S. every year. Most recently it has been seen at Tucson's Agua Caliente Park in June 2007, at California Gulch (Arizona) in June 2008 and at Patagonia (Arizona) in September 2010.
These birds feed on nectar from flowers and flowering trees using a long extensible tongue or catch insects on the wing.


Liolaemus darwinii

Liolaemus darwinii is a species of iguanid lizard endemic to Argentina.
Etymology.
The specific name, "darwinii", is in honor of Charles Darwin, English naturalist and author of "On the Origin of Species".
Description.
The males are brown with two yellow dorsal stripes that run along the spine, one on each side of the back. The females are solely brown.
Diet.
"L. darwinii" eats various insects or less in length, including beetles and locusts.
Behavior.
They are diurnal. During nights and cold days, they bury underground. They are solitary animals and territorial. Males and females compete for territory.
Reproduction.
Mating season is in mid-February, and the nesting time is 8 months later. The newborns are long, and the litter size is typically between 10 and 12.


Paradise threadfin

The paradise threadfin ("Polynemus paradiseus") is a species of catadromous ray-finned fish, a threadfin from the family Polynemidae which is found in south and southeast Asia in freshwater rivers where it is a valued food fish.
Description.
The paradise threadfin is a medium-sized species of threadfin which attains a maximum length of , although the type of measurement used was not given, a more normal length is a total length of . It has a pointed snout and the head's dorsal profile is almost horizontal. There are two separate dorsal fins, the first dorsal fin has 8 spines with each one having a base of a similar size to the others. The second dorsal fin contains a single spine and 14 or 15 soft rays. The anal fin has 2 spines and normally has 12 soft rays, its base is shorter in length than the base of the second dorsal-fin. The pectoral fins contain 15 to 18 unbranched rays and its tip almost reaches to the origin of the anal-fin origin, although it is relatively longer in juvenile. There are 7 pectoral filaments the longest being up to 2.5 times the standard length. The caudal fin is deeply forked and neither of its lobs are filamentous. The lateral-line is simple and runs from the upper end of the gill slit to the middle of the rear margin of the caudal fin, the lateral line contains 66-71 pored scales. The head and body are greyish-black above and yellow below, The front parts of both dorsal fins are greyish black with the rest of the fins being pale yellow. The pectoral and pelvic fins are completely a vivid yellow. The pectoral filaments are bright yellow at their base fading to whitish yellow at their tips. The anal fin is wholly coloured yellow. The rear edge of the caudal fin is yellow and the rest of the tail is greyish black.
Distribution.
The paradise threadfin is found in the Indo-Pacific region. It occurs from Pakistan, on both coasts of India, the Bay of Bengal and the Philippines. It countries it has been recorded from include Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia Vietnam, Indonesia and the Philippines. In India it is found in the basins of the Brahmaputra and the Ganges and in Indonesia it has only been recorded from Sumatra, although these needs confirmation. Its presence in Malaysia is uncertain.
Habitat and biology.
The paradise threadfin occurs where there are sand substrates in estuaries and in offshore waters down to depths of but it breeds in fvresh water so it has to regularly migrate into rivers. It is a carnivorous species which feeds on crustaceans, small fishes and benthic organisms. This species has separate sexes and there is no evidence of hermaphroditism. It is thought that paradise threadfins in the Hooghly River spawn from April to September and females sampled during October are almost all spent.
Fisheries.
The paradise threadfin is one of the most important species for fisheries in eastern India and in Myanmar.


Goniurosaurus hainanensis

Goniurosaurus hainanensis is a nocturnal species of gecko endemic to China, more specifically the island Hainan. Its common name is the Chinese cave gecko or simply cave gecko.
Characteristics.
They can grow in size up to 16 centimeters (6.3 in) long including tail and are often found close to bodies of water. They have typically large red eyes with movable eyelids much like the leopard gecko. In terms of color these animals are usually gray with black spots and yellow or orange bands in the dorsal area. Ventral area is nearly white and translucent. Five clawed fingers allow easy climbing of rocky terrain. They prefer high humidity and low temperatures of 22–25°C. Goniurosaurus geckos lack adhesive toepads.<br>
The main source of food for these lizards are roaches, crickets and other insects.
Captivity.
Since the 1990s these lizards can often be found at various reptile shows or online animal shops. The key to success in captivity is daily misting, enough hiding places and space for adult animals. Males tend to be territorial and fight. Problems with shedding are common and often the main cause of death.


Bryophryne cophites

Bryophryne cophites, also known as the Cusco Andes frog or the Cuzco Andes frog, is a species of frog in the family Craugastoridae. It is endemic to Peru and known only from slopes of the Abra Acanacu (also spelled Acjanaco or Acanaco) in the Cordillera de Paucartambo, Cusco Region. There is an unconfirmed record from a neighboring mountain range, so this species might be more widespread than current knowledge suggests.
Description.
Adult males measure and adult females in snout–vent length. The head is narrower than the body. The snout is short, rounded in dorsal view and rounded to truncate in lateral view. Tympanum is absent. The canthus rostralis is moderately sharp. Skin is dorsally finely areolate, becoming coarser towards the flanks and the ventrum. The hind limbs are very short. No inter-digital webbing is present. Dorsal coloration is dull brown to pale tan, or has a
mottled pattern of olive-brown and black to brown and greenish yellow or red. The venter is dull gray. The throat in males has an orange cast.
Reproduction occurs through direct development (i.e., there is no free-living larval stage): females lay about 20 eggs that hatch as long froglets; they guard their eggs in a nest of moss.
Habitat and conservation.
"Bryophryne cophites" is a terrestrial frog that is primarily found in wet puna grasslands and elfin forests at elevations of above sea level. It has also been recorded in cloud forest but is very rare in that habitat.
The species occurs in the Manú National Park. It can be very abundant in a suitable habitat, but is only known with confidence from three locations. Habitat loss is occurring along the western boundary of the park, caused by grazing cattle and fires; a fire has led to documented loss of at least one local occurrence of this species. The chytrid fungus "Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis" has been detected in this species, but it is not considered a threat for direct-developing frogs such as this one.


Callimedusa baltea

Callimedusa baltea is a species of frog in the family Phyllomedusidae. It is endemic to the western slope of the Serrania de Sira, Department of Huánuco, Peru. Common name purple-sided leaf frog has been proposed for it. The specific name "baltea" is Latin for "border" and refers to the salmon line that separates the dorsal and ventral colors of this frog.
Description.
The type series consists of three specimens: an adult female (the holotype), an adult male, and a juvenile. The adult specimens measure, respectively, in snout–vent length. The head is as wide as the body. The snout is truncate. The parotoid gland is rounded. The tympanum is partly covered by the diffuse supratympanic fold. The fingers bear large discs but no webbing is present. The toes bear some what smaller discs than the fingers and are similarly unwebbed. The dorsum is lime green while the ventrum is purple but has some white spots. The flanks are purple, with a continuous salmon-colored stripe separating the purple coloration from the dorsal green. The iris is greenish gray.
Habitat and conservation.
"Callimedusa baltea" inhabits low cloud forest at elevations of above sea level. Adult frogs have been found at night on vegetation by a pond. The tadpoles develop in temporary ponds. It is not a common species although it was recorded by surveys in both 2013 and 2014 at rate of about one individual per person hour. Outside the two sites where this species is known to occur, it is threatened by habitat loss. It is present in the El Sira Communal Reserve.


Calosima helicae

Calosima helicae is a moth in the family Blastobasidae which is endemic to Costa Rica.


Golden-browed warbler

The golden-browed warbler ("Basileuterus belli") is a species of bird in the family Parulidae, the New World warblers.
It is found in El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico.
Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests.


Large elaenia

The large elaenia ("Elaenia spectabilis") is a species of bird in the family Tyrannidae. It is found in South America from western Amazonia to eastern Brazil and central Bolivia. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest and heavily degraded former forest.


Blackspotted stickleback

The blackspotted stickleback ("Gasterosteus wheatlandi") is a fish species, found in the western Atlantic from the coasts of Newfoundland (Canada) to Massachusetts (United States). Brackishwater / marine benthic fish, up to 7.5 cm length.


Supramontana irritata

Supramontana irritata is a species of Brazilian land planarian in the subfamily Geoplaninae. It is the type species of the genus "Supramontana".
Description.
"Supramontana irritata" is a medium-sized land planarian up to in length when crawling. The dorsum has a light straw-yellow background color that is covered by very fine dark-brown to black spots. The spots form two wide diffuse lateral bands that become less marked towards the posterior end. The spots also concentrate at the margins of the bands, forming an irregular marginal stripe on each side of the body and two poorly marked paramedian stripes that run on each side of a thin median brown line. Sometimes the dark spots turn the median line inconspicuous, especially when the animal is contracted. The anterior end has an orange tinge that gradually fades posteriorly into the straw-yellow color of the dorsum. The ventral side is yellowish white.
The numerous eyes are very small and hardly visible to the naked eye. They are distributed marginally on the first millimeters of the body and posteriorly become dorsal, occupying about 20% of the body width on each side.
When crawling, "S. irritata" usually maintains the anterior end raised with the sides slightly curved downwards, giving it a U shaped in cross-section. In order to move forward, it usually stretches the anterior end, touches the substrate and contract the posterior region. If stimulated, it moves nervously and quickly, hence the name "irritata" (Latin for "irritated").
Distribution.
The only known place of occurrence of "S. irritata" is the São Francisco de Paula National Forest in southern Brazil.


Guadalcanal honeyeater

The Guadalcanal honeyeater ("Guadalcanaria inexpectata") is a species of bird in the family Meliphagidae. It is monotypic within the genus Guadalcanaria. It is endemic to Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands, where it is found high in montane forest.


Cornufer bufoniformis

Cornufer bufoniformis, commonly known as the warty webbed frog or Treasury Island webbed frog, is a species of frog in the family Ceratobatrachidae. It is endemic to the Solomon Islands archipelago where it is widespread, but it is missing from Guadalcanal and Makira islands. It is a common species though it occurs patchily. It inhabits small streams in lowland rainforests. It also tolerates some habitat degradation, provided that vegetation is left along the streams. It is locally impacted by habitat loss caused by logging, and it is also used for human consumption.


Argenteohyla

Argenteohyla siemersi, commonly known as red-spotted Argentina frog, is a species of frog in the family Hylidae. It is monotypic within the genus Argenteohyla.
It is found in the catchment of Paraná River in Argentina and Paraguay and in the southern coast of Uruguay.
There are two subspecies that might be distinct species: "Argenteohyla siemersi siemersi" and "Argenteohyla siemersi pederseni" . "A. s. pederseni" occurs in leaf axils of terrestrial "Aechmea" bromeliads in gallery forests along main river systems. It reproduces in temporary pools close to the bromeliads. The nominal subspecies occurs and reproduces in wetlands and the delta of Río Paraná. This rare frog is threatened by habitat loss.


Eutropis greeri

Eutropis greeri is a species of skink found in Sri Lanka.


Stephensia armata

Stephensia armata is a Central American moth of the family Elachistidae and Gelechioidea superfamily, discovered in 1998 at Las Cuevas Research Station, in Belize's Chiquibul Forest Reserve.
Physiology.
The wingspan is approximately , with a forewing length of . It is distinguishable by the 2-3 teeth arming the valvae, from which it gets its name. The species is remarkable for the single transverse fascia of the forewing, and long lobes of the valvae and juxta.
Coloration is largely pale ochre or grey-brown. The underside and head are paler, while its back and wings are grey-brown or dark ochre. Pale ochre scales spread across every segment distally.
"S. armata" is distinct from congeneric American species of moth in the deep split between the juxta lobes, and its relatively small uncus. It is noticeably apomorphic in its phylogeny.
Habitat.
Samples of "S. armata" were collected in April, during the rainy season Belize#Climate. The local vegetation was largely evergreen, with some deciduous trees.
Discussion of nomenclature.
"S. armata" is named on the convention assigning three genera to Lepidoptera, due to the researchers’ preference for a more stable taxonomy and the characteristics of "Armata" that place it squarely within "Stephensia".


Pleurodema nebulosum

Pleurodema nebulosum is a species of frog in the family Leptodactylidae.
It is endemic to Argentina.
Its natural habitats are temperate shrubland, subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, temperate grassland, subtropical or tropical dry lowland grassland, subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland, subtropical or tropical high-altitude grassland, intermittent freshwater marshes, arable land, pastureland, ponds, irrigated land, and seasonally flooded agricultural land.


Phyllomedusa tetraploidea

Phyllomedusa tetraploidea is a species of frog in the family Phyllomedusidae. It is found in northern Argentina (Misiones Province), extreme southeastern Paraguay (Itapúa Department), and southern Brazil (São Paulo and Paraná states). It occurs in rainforest on herbaceous vegetation near swamps at elevations of above sea level. It also occurs in secondary forest and pastures. The eggs are deposited in leaf nests above the water in permanent forest pools; the tadpoles develop in the pools. It is a common species in Brazil and Argentina. Habitat loss caused by agricultural activities is a threat to it. It is present in several protected areas.


Hyloxalus idiomelus

Hyloxalus idiomelus (Rivero's rocket frog) is a species of frogs in the family Dendrobatidae. It is endemic to the northern part of the Cordillera Central of northern Peru.
Description.
Males measure and females in snout–vent length. The body is robust. Skin on dorsum is smooth to shagreen. Dorsum is dull tan to rich orange-brown to grayish tan in colour, with green tint in some places. Dorsolateral stripe is pinkish tan, yellowish orange, or cream coloured. Free-swimming tadpoles are up to in total length, whereas tadpoles transported on the back of their father measure .
Habitat and conservation.
Its natural habitats are humid tropical montane forests, typically near seepages and along small streams. It has also been recorded from disturbed forest and cultivated land. Tadpoles develop in slow-moving and sometimes marshy streams where they are carried on the back of their father.
Major threats to "Hyloxalus idiomelus" are unknown, although chytridiomycosis is a potential threat. The species is not known to occur in any protected areas.


Grass snake

The grass snake ("Natrix natrix"), sometimes called the ringed snake or water snake, is a Eurasian non-venomous colubrid snake. It is often found near water and feeds almost exclusively on amphibians. The barred grass snake, "Natrix helvetica", was split off as a separate species in 2017.
Subspecies.
Many subspecies are recognized, including:
"Natrix natrix helvetica" (Lacépède, 1789) was formerly treated as a subspecies, but following genetic analysis it was recognised in August 2017 as a separate species, "Natrix helvetica", the barred grass snake. Four other subspecies were transferred from "N. natrix" to "N. helvetica", becoming "N. helvetica cettii", "N. helvetica corsa", "N. helvetica lanzai" and "N. helvetica sicula".
Description.
The grass snake is typically dark green or brown in colour with a characteristic yellow or whitish collar behind the head, which explains the alternative name ringed snake. The colour may also range from grey to black, with darker colours being more prevalent in colder regions, presumably owing to the thermal benefits of being dark in colour. The underside is whitish with irregular blocks of black, which are useful in recognizing individuals.
Distribution.
The grass snake is widely distributed in mainland Europe, ranging from mid Scandinavia to southern Italy. It is also found in the Middle East and northwestern Africa.
Grass snakes in Britain were thought to belong to the subspecies "N. n. helvetica" but have been reclassified as the barred grass snake "Natrix helvetica". Any records of "N. natrix" in Britain are now considered to have originated from imported specimens.
Ecology.
Feeding.
Grass snakes mainly prey on amphibians, especially the common toad and the common frog, although they may also occasionally eat ants and larvae. Captive snakes have been observed taking earthworms offered by hand, but dead prey items are never taken. The snake will search actively for prey, often on the edges of the water, using sight and sense of smell (using Jacobson's organ). They consume prey live without using constriction.
Habitat.
Grass snakes are strong swimmers and may be found close to freshwater, although there is evidence individual snakes often do not need bodies of water throughout the entire season.
The preferred habitat appears to be open woodland and "edge" habitat, such as field margins and woodland borders, as these may offer adequate refuge while still affording ample opportunity for thermoregulation through basking. Pond edges are also favoured and the relatively high chance of observing this secretive species in such areas may account for their perceived association with ponds and water.
Grass snakes, as with most reptiles, are at the mercy of the thermal environment and need to overwinter in areas which are not subject to freezing. Thus, they typically spend the winter underground where the temperature is relatively stable.
Reproduction.
As spring approaches, the males emerge first and spend much of the day basking in an effort to raise body temperature and thereby metabolism. This may be a tactic to maximise sperm production, as the males mate with the females as soon as they emerge up to two weeks later in April, or earlier if environmental temperatures are favourable. The leathery-skinned eggs are laid in batches of eight to 40 in June to July and hatch after about 10 weeks. To survive and hatch, the eggs require a temperature of at least , but preferably , with high humidity. Areas of rotting vegetation, such as compost heaps, are preferred locations. The young are about long when they hatch and are immediately independent.
Migration.
After breeding in summer, snakes tend to hunt and may range widely during this time, moving up to several hundred metres in a day. Prey items tend to be large compared to the size of the snake, and this impairs the movement ability of the snake. Snakes which have recently eaten rarely move any significant distance and will stay in one location, basking to optimize their body temperature until the prey item has been digested. Individual snakes may only need two or three significant prey items throughout an entire season.
Ecdysis (moulting).
Ecdysis occurs at least once during the active season. As the outer skin wears and the snake grows, the new skin forms underneath the old, including the eye scales which may turn a milky blue/white colour at this time — referred to as being 'in blue'. The blue-white colour comes from an oily secretion between the old and new skins; the snake's coloration will also look dull, as though the animal is dusty. This process affects the eyesight of the snakes and they do not move or hunt during this time; they are also, in common with most other snakes, more aggressive. The outer skin is eventually sloughed in one piece (inside-out) and normal movement activity is resumed.
Defence.
In defence they can produce a garlic-smelling fluid from the anal glands, and feign death (thanatosis) by becoming completely limp when they may also secrete blood (autohaemorrhage) from the mouth and nose. They may also perform an aggressive display in defence, hissing and striking without opening the mouth. They rarely bite in defence. When caught they often regurgitate the contents of their stomachs.
Grass snakes display a rare defensive behavior involving raising the front of the body and flattening the head and neck so that it resembles a cobra's hood, although the geographic ranges of grass snakes and of cobras overlap very little. However, the fossil record shows that the extinct European cobra "Naja romani" occurs in Miocene-aged strata of France, Germany, Austria, Romania, and Ukraine and thus overlapped with "Natrix" species including the extinct "Natrix longivertebrata", suggesting that the grass snake's behavioral mimicry of cobras is a fossil behavior, although it may protect against predatory birds which migrate to Africa for the winter and encounter cobras there.
Protection and threats.
The species has various predator species, including corvids, storks, owls and perhaps other birds of prey, foxes, and the domestic cat.
In Denmark it is protected, as all five species of reptiles were protected in 1981.
Two of the subspecies are considered critically endangered: "N. n. cetti" (Sardinian grass snake) and "N. n. schweizeri".
Mythology.
Baltic.
In the Baltic mythology, the grass snake (Lithuanian: žaltys, Latvian: zalktis) is seen as a sacred animal. It was frequently kept as a pet, living under a married couple's bed or in a special place near the hearth. Supposedly, snakes ate food given to them by hand.
After the Christianization of Lithuania and Latvia, the grass snake still retained some mythological significance. In spite of the serpent's symbolic meaning as a symbol of evil in Christianity, in Latvia and Lithuania there were various folk beliefs, dating even to the late 19th century, that killing grass snakes might bring grave misfortune or that an injured snake will take revenge on the offender. The ancient Baltic belief of grass snakes as household spirits transformed into a belief that there is a snake (known or not to the inhabitants) living under every house; if it leaves, the house will burn down. Common Latvian folk sayings include "who kills a grass snake, kills his happiness" and "when the Saulė sees a dead grass snake, she cries for 9 days".
Well-known literary works based on these traditions include Lithuanian folk tale Eglė the Queen of Serpents ("Eglė žalčių karalienė") and the Latvian folk fairytale "The grass snake's bride" ("Zalkša līgava"). These works include another common theme in Baltic mythology: that grass snakes wear crowns (note grass snake's yellow spots) and that there is a king of snakes who wears a golden crown. In some traditions the king of snakes changes every year; he drops his crown in spring and the other snakes fight for it (possibly based on the mating of grass snakes).
Today grass snakes hold a meaning of house blessing among many Latvians and Lithuanians. One tradition is to put a bowl of milk near a snake's place of residence, although there is no evidence of a grass snake ever drinking milk. Driven by late 19th century and 20th century Romantic nationalism, grass snake motifs in Latvia have gained a meaning of education and wisdom, and are common ornaments in the military, folk dance groups and education logos and insignia. They are also found on the Lielvārde Belt.
Roman.
Virgil in his 29 BC "Georgics" (book III, lines 425-439: ) describes the grass snake as a large feared snake living in marshes in Calabria, eating frogs and fish.


Orthaga bipartalis

Orthaga bipartalis is a species of snout moth in the genus "Orthaga". It is known from Singapore.


Strongylognathus christophi

Strongylognathus christophi is a species of ant in the genus "Strongylognathus". It is endemic to Russia.


Cyrtodactylus peguensis

Cyrtodactylus peguensis, also known as the Thai bow-fingered gecko or Pegu forest gecko, is a species of gecko that is found in Thailand, western Malaysia, and Myanmar.


Fauna of Greece

Fauna of Greece may refer to:


Arrhenodes digramma

Arrhenodes digramma is a species of Brentidae family. It occurs in Papua New Guinea


Bufoides meghalayanus

Bufoides meghalayanus is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae, the true toads. It is also known as the Mawblang toad, rock toad, or Khasi Hills toad. It is endemic to northeastern India where it is known from Meghalaya and Mizoram. However, records from Mizoram may represent an undescribed species, and this species might have a very restricted range in the Khasi Hills near Cherrapunji.
"Bufoides meghalayanus" occur in montane forests dominated by screw pines "Pandanus furcatus". They can be found in crevices of sandstone boulders and in rocky ravines near wet seasonal streams at elevations of above sea level. Breeding takes place in leaf axils of screw pines and in boulder pot-holes.
This species is threatened by rock quarrying and use of forest resources (logging and extraction of firewood and timber). The populations representing the undescribed form occur in Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary and Dampa Tiger Reserve.


Nebria patruelis

Nebria patruelis is a species of ground beetle in the Nebriinae subfamily that is endemic to Georgia.


Duttaphrynus atukoralei

Duttaphrynus atukoralei (common names: Yala toad, Atukorale's dwarf toad) is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is endemic to Sri Lanka where it is found on the coastal lowlands of southern half of Sri Lanka below asl.
Etymology.
The specific name "atukoralei" honors Mr. Vicky Atukorale, a Sri Lankan naturalist who collected the holotype .
Habitat and conservation.
"D. atukoralei" is a terrestrial toad found in wet evergreen tropical forests, dry lands, and areas of human habitation. It is a common species, and more common in areas outside primary forests. It is facing no major threats.


Palmated chorus frog

The palmated chorus frog ("Microhyla palmipes") is a species of frog in the family Microhylidae. It is found in Indonesia and Malaysia.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, rivers, and freshwater marshes. It is not considered threatened by the IUCN.
Description.
The palmated chorus frog is a very small species measuring about from in snout–vent length. It has a relatively small head with a rounded tubercle on its upper eyelid but apart from this its skin is smooth. Its digits have slightly enlarged tips and are partially webbed. The dorsal surface of this frog is pale greyish-brown with a central double arrowhead pattern of darker brown and dark, blackish sides. The tadpole is black with transparent fins on its tail which has a pointed end. Its eyes are located on the sides of its head and the spiracle is central and sheathed with a flap of skin.
Distribution and habitat.
This frog is known from several widely separated locations in Malaysia. These include the Batu Caves, the Taman Negara National Park, and the Sekayu waterfalls in Trengganu-Berry. It is also found in Sumatra, Nias, Java, Madura and Bali. Its distribution within Indonesia is fragmented. Its habitat is among grasses in marshy land at altitudes of up to and in forests and forest fringes. It breeds in slow-flowing streams and stagnant water.
Status.
This frog has a wide range and although the population seems to be declining, the IUCN rates it as being of "Least Concern" as it considers that the rate of decline is insufficient to justify listing it in a more threatened category. It is common in some parts of its range but is inconspicuous because of its small size and no particular threats to this species have been identified apart from some degradation of its forest habitat.


Enhydrina schistosa

Enhydrina schistosa, commonly known as the beaked sea snake, (), hook-nosed sea snake, common sea snake, or the Valakadiyan sea snake, is a highly venomous species of sea snake common throughout the tropical Indo-Pacific. This species is implicated in more than 50% of all bites caused by sea snakes, as well as the majority of envenomings and fatalities.
Description.
The rostral scale is longer than broad, and is in contact with four shields; frontal more long than broad, shorter than the parietals; nasals in contact with the two anterior labials; sometimes partially divided; one pre- and one or two postoculars; temporals l–3; seven or eight upper labials, fourth or third and fourth entering the eye, the last sometimes divided; anterior chin-shields rather indistinct, separated. Scales with a tubercle or keel, in 50–70 rows; ventrals 230–314, slightly enlarged. The snake is usually uniformly dark grey above; sides and lower parts whitish. Young specimens olive or grey with black transverse bands, broadest in the middle. Length of head and body 1110 mm; tail 190 mm.In Kerala state of India it is called the Valakadiyan.
Distribution.
It is found in the Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf (off Oman), south of the Seychelles and Madagascar, the seas off South Asia (Pakistan, India and Bangladesh), Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam).
Snakes from Australia (Northern Territory and Queensland) and New Guinea are now provisionally identified as "Enhydrina zweifeli", due to DNA tests that have shown they are not related to "Enhydrina schistosa".
Habitat and behavior.
These snakes are generally found in the coast and coastal islands of India. They are amongst the most common of the 20 kinds of sea snakes found in that region.
They are active both during the day and at night. They are able to dive up to 100 m and stay underwater for a maximum of five hours before resurfacing. Sea snakes are equipped with glands to eliminate excess salt. They are venomous and notably aggressive, with some herpetologists describing them as "cantankerous and savage". About 1.5 milligrams of its venom is estimated to be lethal
Their principal food is fish.
Venom.
The venom of this species is made up of highly potent neurotoxins and myotoxins. This widespread species is responsible for the vast majority of deaths from sea snake bites (up to 90% of all sea snake bites). The value is 0.1125 mg/kg based on toxicology studies. The average venom yield per bite is approximately 7.9–9.0 mg, while the lethal human dose is estimated to be 1.5 mg.


Bachia intermedia

Bachia intermedia, Noble's bachia, is a species of lizard in the family Gymnophthalmidae. It is endemic to Peru.


Coleophora pathana

Coleophora pathana is a moth of the family Coleophoridae that is endemic to Afghanistan.


Labeobarbus reinii

Labeobarbus reinii is a ray-finned fish species in the family Cyprinidae. It is retained in the genus "Labeobarbus". The IUCN for example notes that the taxonomy of this species is in need of revision.
It does seem to be fairly close to the core group around the typical barbels ("Barbus", "Luciobarbus" and "Messinobarbus"). But it is closer still to "Carasobarbus" and the yellowfish ("Labeobarbus"), and either is a lineage of the former, or part of a distinct genus, or included in the latter (maybe together with the former).
It is endemic to Morocco, where its natural habitat is the Kasab and Tensift Rivers. Though these are major watercourses and the species is still quite plentiful, water pollution (particularly with domestic waste) and unsustainable water extraction (particularly for irrigation agriculture) causes it to decline in numbers. It is therefore classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN.


Nebria schrenckii

Nebria schrenckii is a species of ground beetle in the Nebriinae family that is endemic to Kazakhstan.


Leopard fringe-fingered lizard

The leopard fringe-fingered lizard ("Acanthodactylus pardalis"), also known commonly as the Egyptian fringe-fingered lizard, is a species of lizard in the family Lacertidae. The species is endemic to North Africa.
Geographic range.
"A. pardalis" is found in Egypt and Libya.
Habitat.
The natural habitats of the leopard fringe-fingered lizard are subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, subtropical or tropical dry lowland grassland, and intertidal flats.
Reproduction.
"A. pardalis" is oviparous.
Conservation status.
"A. pardalis" is threatened by habitat loss.


Wild yak

The wild yak ("Bos mutus") is a large, wild cattle native to the Himalayas. It is the ancestor of the domestic yak ("Bos grunniens").
Taxonomy.
The ancestor of the wild and domestic yak is thought to have diverged from "Bos primigenius" at a point between one and five million years ago. The wild yak is now normally treated as a separate species from the domestic yak ("Bos grunniens").
Description.
The wild yak is among the largest extant bovid species. Adults stand about tall at the shoulder, and weigh . The head and body length is , not counting the tail of . The females are about one-third the weight and are about 30% smaller in their linear dimensions when compared to bull wild yaks. Domesticated yaks ("Bos grunniens)" are somewhat smaller.
They are heavily built animals with a bulky frame, sturdy legs, and rounded cloven hooves. To protect against the cold, the udder in females and the scrotum in males are small, and covered in a layer of hair. Females have four teats. Both sexes have long shaggy hair, with a dense woolly undercoat over the chest, flanks, and thighs for insulation against the cold. In males especially, this undercoat may form a long "skirt" that can reach the ground. The tail is long and horse-like, rather than tufted like the tails of cattle or bison. The coat is typically black or dark brown, covering most of the body, with a grey muzzle (although some wild golden-brown individuals have been reported). Wild yaks with gold coloured hair are known as the wild golden yak (). They are considered an endangered subspecies in China, with an estimated population of 170 left in the wild.
Two morphological types have been identified, so-called "Qilian" and "Kunlun".
Distribution and habitat.
Wild yak once ranged up to southern Siberia to the east of Lake Baikal, but became extinct in Russia around the 17th century.
Today, wild yaks are found primarily in northern Tibet and western Qinghai, with some populations extending into the southernmost parts of Xinjiang, and into Ladakh in India. Small, isolated populations of wild yak are also found farther afield, primarily in western Tibet and eastern Qinghai. In historic times, wild yaks were also found in Bhutan, but they are now considered extinct there.
The primary habitat of wild yaks consists of treeless uplands between , dominated by mountains and plateaus. They are most commonly found in alpine tundra with a relatively thick carpet of grasses and sedges rather than the more barren steppe country.
The wild yak was thought to be regionally extinct in Nepal in the 1970s, but was rediscovered in Humla in 2014. This discovery later made the species to be painted on Nepal's currency.
Ecology.
The diet of wild yaks consists largely of grasses and sedges, such as "Carex", "Stipa", and "Kobresia". They also eat a smaller amount of herbs, winterfat shrubs, and mosses, and have even been reported to eat lichen. Historically, the main natural predator of the wild yak has been the Himalayan wolf, but Himalayan brown bears and snow leopards have also been reported as predators in some areas, likely of young or infirm wild yaks.
Thubten Jigme Norbu, the elder brother of the 14th Dalai Lama, reported on his journey from Kumbum in Amdo to Lhasa in 1950:
Behaviour.
Wild yaks are herd animals. Herds can contain several hundred individuals, although many are much smaller. Herds consist primarily of females and their young, with a smaller number of adult males. On average female yaks graze 100m higher than males. Females with young tend to choose grazing ground on high, steep slopes. The remaining males are either solitary, or found in much smaller groups, averaging around six individuals. Groups move into lower altitude ranges during the winter. Although wild yaks can become aggressive when defending young, or during the rut, they generally avoid humans, and may flee for great distances if approached.
Reproduction.
Wild yaks mate in summer and give birth to a single calf the following spring. Females typically only give birth every other year.
Conservation.
The wild yak is currently considered to be Vulnerable by the IUCN. It was previously classified as Endangered, but was downlisted in 1996 based on the estimated rate of population decline and current population sizes. The latest assessment in 2008 suggested a total population of no more than 10,000 mature individuals.
The wild yak is experiencing threats applied by several sources. Poaching, including commercial poaching, has remained the most serious threat; males are particularly impacted because of their more solitary habits. Disturbance by and interbreeding with livestock herds is also common. This may include the transmission of cattle-borne diseases, although no direct evidence of this has yet been found. Conflicts with herders themselves, as in preventive and retaliatory killings for abduction of domestic yaks by wild herds, also occur but appear to be relatively rare. Recent protection from poaching particularly appears to have stabilized or even increased population sizes in several areas, leading to the IUCN downlisting in 2008. In both China and India, the species is officially protected; in China it is present in a number of large nature reserves.
Impact on humans.
The wild yak is a reservoir for zoonotic diseases of both bacterial and viral origins. Such bacterial diseases include anthrax, botulism, tetanus, and tuberculosis.