Fauna of Azerbaijan

Fauna of Azerbaijan or animal kingdom of Azerbaijan refers to the diversity of various types of animals, which inhabit and populate a defined ground or water area in Azerbaijan.
The first reports on the richness and diversity of animal life in Azerbaijan can be found in travel notes of Eastern travelers. Animal carvings on architectural monuments, ancient rocks and stones survived up to the present times. The first information on the animal kingdom of Azerbaijan was collected during the visits of naturalists to Azerbaijan in the 17th century. Unlike fauna, the concept of animal kingdom covers not only the types of animals, but also the number of individual species.
The symbol of Fauna in Azerbaijan is the Karabakh horse (Azeri: Qarabağ atı) which is a mountain-steppe racing and riding horse which can only be found in Azerbaijan. The Karabakh horse has a reputation for its good temper, speed, elegance and intelligence. It is one of the oldest breeds, with ancestry dating to the ancient world. The horse was originally developed in the Azerbaijani Karabakh region in the 5th century and is named after it.
General information.
Animal resources are mainly used for food (meat, egg, butter canned food), as raw materials in industry (feather, leather, horns and technical oil). People use animals as working power in agriculture. At the same time drugs, perfumes, fertilizers and fodder are produced from animals` products.
Some animals in Azerbaijan are endangered because of threats from changing environments or predators. These animals are entered into the Red Book of the Azerbaijan. Presently the Red Book includes 108 species of animals (14 species of mammals, 36 species of birds, 13 species of reptiles and amphibians, 5 species of birds and 40 species of insects).
The natural habitat of various types of animals is very different within the country. Some species populate special restricted areas (lakes, parts of mountainous areas) while others are spread throughout the country. For example, passerines can be found anywhere in the territory of Azerbaijan. Protozoa parasites are also registered in all areas of the country, depending on natural habitat of carrier animals (cattle, poultry, etc.). Among mammals, jeyran gazelles populate plain areas, Caucasian goat inhabits the major Caucasus areas, most species of birds can be found in forests, some in water basins. Pest insects occupy different agricultural fields, while others populate defined biotopes only.
A number of natural preserves have been created and the hunting rules were brought into effect for protection of fur and hoofed animals in Azerbaijan.
Animal kingdom.
The animal kingdom of Azerbaijan is very rich, partly due to diversity of its natural complexes. There are 97 species of mammals, 357 species of birds, 67 species of reptiles and amphibians, 97 species of fish, and over 15 thousand species of invertebrates in Azerbaijan.
Mammals.
Some 107 species of mammals have been recorded in Azerbaijan, three of which are unique species. Popular species are Caucasus goats and west-Caucasus moufflons; which inhabit Nakhchivan and western slopes of the major Caucasus in Balakan, Qabala, Zaqatala and Ismayilly regions.
Jeyran gazelles are among the rarest and fastest species in Caucasus they can only be found in Shirvan natural preserve, Bendovan and Korchay regions of Azerbaijan. In 2014, 150 gazelles were returned to their historical territories as part of the four-year "Reintroduction of gazelles to their historical habitat areas in Caucasus" project.
Caucasus goat is generally found in high altitudes of the Caucasus where the air is very thin and predators are rarely found. Comparing with domestic goats Caucasus goat's fur is very thick, and thanks to it the animal is well adapted to low temperature of the mountains.
The Caucasus mouflon, a wild type of sheep, is bigger and muscular than domestic sheep. The mouflons prefer the plains where they can graze the whole year. These agile rock climbers have long and muscular legs. Thanks to this feature they can run very fast.
The Caucasian leopard ("Panthera pardus tulliana"), one of the rarest animals in the world, inhabits the southern Caucasus Mountains, Zangezur Range and the Talish Mountains in Azerbaijan. Caucasian leopards are endangered because of illegally hunt, human disturbance, etc. The World Wildlife Fund has stated that these animals are one of the most critically endangered species in the Caucasus Mountains.
The Caspian tiger, also called Hyrcanian tiger was found in Azerbaijan until the late 1950s. But it became extinct over 40 years ago. Scientific investigation in this field proved that the Caspian Tiger and the Siberian Tiger are distinguished by only one genetic code letter. The last Caspian tigers were seen in foothills of Talysh Mountains and the Lenkoran river basin which are situated in south of Azerbaijan in 1964.
The fauna of Greater Caucasus which is natural boundary in the north of Azerbaijan is very rich include mammals such as lynx, Caucasian brown bear, Asiatic wildcat, European badger, stone marten, red and roe deer, chamois, East Caucasian ibex, Caucasian squirrel, field mice, Daghestan pine vole. Ismayilli Nature Reserve near Gebele district of Azerbaijan is one of the places where you can see wild goats. Asiatic wildcat, jungle cat, and wild boar inhabit the Samur Forest, located at the Caspian coast near the Russian border.
Absheron National Park, which is located in the Absheron Peninsula, is famous for its gazelles and Caspian seal haulouts. Five-toed jerboas, social vole, grey dwarf hamster are common in the territory of Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan.
The natural inhabitants of Gobustan, Kyzylagach and Shirvan national parks are jackals, wolves, foxes, marbled polecats, hares, giant ditch frogs, huge flocks of migratory birds, jungle cat, golden jackal, boar, Eurasian water vole, etc. Gobustan is also famous for rock art.
Talysh Mountains of Azerbaijan are covered with dense forests, where Caspian shrew, Schelkovikov’s pine vole, and Hyrcanian field mouse, southern white-breasted hedgehog, Levantine mole, western barbastelle, steppe and Black Sea field mice, and Indian crested porcupine are common. Hirkan National Park is located here.
Nakhchevan Autonomous Republic of Azerbaijan have some rare mammals and reptiles. More common species such as Macedonian mouse, Vinogradov’s and Persian jirds, social vole, and Transcaucasian mole vole. Pallas’s cat is the rarest animal in the area.
Fish.
The country's fresh water basins and the Caspian Sea account for 97 species of fish of which eight introduced and seven of these have become widespread and over 15 thousand species of invertebrates in Azerbaijan. Most can be found in the Kura River, surrounding lakes, as well as in the Mingechevir reservoir. Most of fish are anadromous or semi-anadromous (the young grow up in salt water and migrate to fresh water to breed after they reach maturity). The most valuable of anadromous fish are salmon, sturgeon, stellate sturgeon and beluga. Aspius, Chalcalburnus and eel are also anadromous fish. Sturgeon meat and caviar are highly valuable. Beside, the water basins of Azerbaijan contain such valuable fish species as bream, sazan, rutilus kutum and others. Such fish species as herring are fished in the Caspian Sea. Due to the construction of a number of hydrotechnical plants on the Kura river after 1959, the regulation of the river water flow, as well as the Caspian water pollution led to the significant reduction in the number of valuable fish species. Three hatcheries (Kuragzi, Alibayramli and Kur experimental sturgeon hatchery) for melioration and fish-farming purposes were launched to restore the fish reserves and to increase the number of fish in species. Azerbaijan's fish-farming establishments and hatcheries account for breeding of 20 million sturgeons, 600 thousand salmons, over 800 thousand. A new hatchery with the capacity of 20 million sturgeons was put in commission in Khyly in 2000.
Two new fish species (Stone moroko (Pseudorasbora parva) and Korean sharpbelly (Hemiculter leucisculus)) have been discovered in Azerbaijan in 1970s. Stone morocco lives in all inland waters of Azerbaijan.
Korean sharpbelly also is river fish living in Kura and Araz rivers, in the rivers of Lankaran region, Mingachevir water reservoir. Both of them can be found in the Azerbaijani sector of the Caspian Sea from Absheron peninsula to Astara region. The oldest specimen of Korean sharpbelly found in the rivers is five years old with a length of 150 mm and weighs 25.4 grams.
Avifauna.
Azerbaijan is incredibly rich in avifauna. There are 363 species of birds recorded from about 60 families, ranges from the large birds such as vultures, eagles, flamingos, pelicans, cranes to different kinds of colorful little birds such as bee-eaters, Hoopoe, woodcock, little stint, as well as water fowls including ducks, geese and swans. Around 40% of the species are staying all year in Azerbaijan, 27% overwinter there, and 10% pass through on migration. One of the most inspiring bird species is the golden eagle which inhabits mainly mountainous areas such as Nakhchivan. The golden eagle has been printed on dozens of stamps and cards in Azerbaijan.
The winter in Azerbaijan is not cold, relatively mild. Therefore many birds from north migrate here in winter. Water birds such as swans, geese, ducks, flamingos, and waders like Black-tailed Godwit, curlews, and snipes usually collect in the wetlands, coastal and inland areas of Azerbaijan. Common and Great Black-headed Gulls may be found along the coast.
In winter some small birds from north also chose Azerbaijan for wintering. Most birds of the alpine zone, like Guldenstadt's Redstart and Great Rosefinch move to river valleys to winter.
In February waterfowl and shorebirds move north. Hoopoe and Barn Swallow arrive early from the south.
Other.
Ten species of amphibians from five families are recorded in Azerbaijan. There are 52 species of reptiles found in Azerbaijan. Most of these species are found in semi-desert areas in Shamakhi and Nakhchivan. Few are found in other lowlands or mountainous areas. In 1937, members of the "Opilio lepidus" species of harvestman were sited in the country.
Reserves.
Several reserves have been established in Azerbaijan to preserve the fauna, flora and their ecosystems:


Carabus elysii

Carabus elysii is a species of ground beetle in the Carabinae subfamily that is endemic to China. The species have black back and dark reddish pronotum.
Subspecies include:


Formicoxenus sibiricus

Formicoxenus sibiricus is a species of ant in the genus "Formicoxenus". It is endemic to Russia.


African crimson-winged finch

The African crimson-winged finch ("Rhodopechys alienus") is a pale-colored thickset finch with a heavy, dull yellowish bill. It is found in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco and Algeria. It was formerly considered a subspecies of the Asian crimson-winged finch. It has an average length of and a wingspan of ca. . It is light brown overall, with a whitish mid-belly, a black cap and a pinkish pattern on the wings and tail. The female is slightly duller than the male.
This species lives on rocky mountainsides, often at high elevation. It can be found in barren landscapes with little vegetation, and sometimes nests in rock crevices. It feeds on seeds, and during the winter descends in flocks to agricultural fields to find food. The female lays and incubates 4 or 5 blue, lightly speckled eggs.
This species has a disjunct range in the High Atlas of Morocco and on the Aurès Mountains in north-east Algeria.
Morphology.
Differences between African and Asian birds.
There are several differences between Asian crimson-winged finches and African birds:
African birds have a rosy-tinged grey-white central chin and throat, with a narrow brown breast-band below it, whereas this whole area is solidly tawny-brown on Asian birds; the brown breast and flank markings on Asian birds are more extensive than on African birds; and African birds have less black on the crown than Asian birds (on males it often tends to be restricted to the forecrown). Male birds also differ compared to the Asian birds in that they lack the extensive pink in their uppertail-coverts and have no black spots on their breast-sides, less distinct black markings on the mantle and ear-coverts, and almost no red on the face.


Feihyla palpebralis

Feihyla palpebralis is a species of frog in the family Rhacophoridae, sometimes known as the Vietnamese bubble-nest frog or the white-cheeked small treefrog. In addition to its type locality, Langbian Plateau in southeastern Vietnam, it is found in southern China (southern Yunnan and western Guizhou) and northern Vietnam south to Tam Dao, and is expected to be found in the intervening Laos and Vietnam.
Males from China are reported to grow to a snout–vent length of about . Males from the Central Highlands of Vietnam are reported to have a snout–vent length of and females . A late-stage tadpole measured .
Natural habitats of "Feihyla palpebralis" are pools and swampy riparian areas in forests; its habitat outside the breeding season is poorly known. They lay single eggs on plant stems above water. Reproductive season in the Central Highlands of Vietnam is April–May.
This species is threatened by habitat loss caused by forest degradation and water pollution.


Lacerta strigata

Lacerta strigata, the Caucasus emerald lizard, five-streaked lizard, or Caspian green lizard, is a species of lizard in the family Lacertidae.
It is found in Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Turkey, and Iran.


Coluber constrictor foxii

Coluber constrictor foxii, commonly known as the blue racer, is a subspecies of "Coluber constrictor", a species of nonvenomous, colubrid snakes commonly referred to as the eastern racer.
Distribution.
Blue racers prefer open and semi-open habitats, savanna, old field shoreline, and edge habitats. A mosaic of these habitats is likely required to fulfill the ecological needs of "C. c. foxii".
In the United States: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Oregon, Washington, South Dakota, Kentucky, and Iowa are now the only states with extant populations of blue racer. The last reliable record of the blue racer on mainland Canada was in Ontario in 1983. On Pelee Island in Ontario, the blue racer is restricted to the eastern two-thirds of the island.
Description.
Blue racers often have creamy white ventral scales, dull grey to brilliant blue lateral scales, and pale brown to dark grey dorsum. They also have characteristic black masks, relatively large eyes, and often have brownish-orange rostral scales (snouts). Unlike adults, hatchlings and yearlings (first full active season) have dorsal blotches that fade completely by the third year; however, juvenile patterning is still visible on the venter until late in the snake's third season.
The blue racer is one of Ontario's largest snakes, reaching 90 cm to 152 cm snout-to-vent length (SVL). The largest documented specimen captured on Pelee Island was 138 cm SVL. Although there has been some controversy regarding the designation of "C.c. foxii" as a subspecies distinct from "C.c. flaviventris" (the eastern yellow-bellied racer), most recent authorities agree that the subspecies "C.c. foxii" is valid.
Behavior/Adaptability.
Blue racers seem to be relatively intolerant of high levels of human activity and for most of the active season, they remain in areas of low human density.
Evidence to suggest this comes largely from radio telemetry data from both blue racers and eastern fox snakes that inhabited the same general areas on Pelee Island
(although studies were not conducted concurrently). In contrast to blue racers, eastern fox snakes were often found under front porches, in barns/garages, and in the foundations of houses; whereas, most (but not all) blue racers were observed in more "natural" settings. Therefore, blue racers are more confined to areas with minimal anthropogenic activity. Campbell and Perrin also noted that racers were among the first snakes to disappear from suburban areas.
Blue racers are active foragers. The younger snakes may consume crickets and other insects, whereas adults feed primarily on rodents, songbirds and other snakes. Adults engage in both terrestrial and arboreal foraging. Blue racers are diurnally active. Probable natural predators of adult blue racers include the larger birds of prey (e.g., red-tailed hawk, northern harrier, great horned owl) and carnivorous mammals such as raccoons, foxes and coyotes. Dogs and feral house cats are known to kill and/or harass juvenile blue racers. The eggs and young are likely vulnerable to a wider variety of avian and mammalian predators.
Reproduction.
The blue racer is oviparous and the average clutch size for seven females is 14.7 ± 2.53. Females can reproduce annually, but biennial cycles are likely more common. Males can mature physiologically at 11 months, but do not have the opportunity to mate until their second full year; similarly, females may mature at 24 months but are not able to reproduce until the following year. Mating begins in April and continues throughout May. Females oviposit in late June and eggs hatch from mid-August to late-September. The most common nesting microhabitats used by female blue racers are fallen decaying logs; however, eggs are also laid under large rocks and in mounds of decaying organic matter. Intra- and interspecific (with the eastern fox snake) communal nest sites have been documented and appear to be relatively common.
Conservation.
The snake has not yet been assessed for the IUCN Red List in terms of conservation, but is listed as endangered in Canada by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada.It is listed as a species of special concern in the state of Wisconsin.
The blue racer has been on Ontario's Endangered Species List since 1971. Consequently, habitat determined to be critical to the snake's persistence is protected (from destruction or significant alteration) under Ontario's Endangered Species Act (ESA). In 1998, blue racer "habitat" on Pelee Island was spatially delineated (primarily utilizing mark-recapture and radio telemetry data collected from 1990–1998) and formally identified for the Conservation Land Tax Incentive Program, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (OMNR). Subsequent to the spatial delineation (or mapping) of this habitat, the OMNR determined that these lands should be protected from destruction or human interference as is required under the ESA. The habitat protection afforded by the ESA has significant land-use implications, particularly because a substantial percentage of blue racer habitat identified occurs on private lands. Unfortunately, implementing a program to effectively protect endangered species habitat on private lands has been extremely difficult. Several areas are known to harbor blue racers and the important microhabitats used by them (e.g., hibernacula) are formally protected on Pelee Island. Lighthouse Point Provincial Nature Reserve and the Stone Road Alvar Complex (owned and managed by the Federation of Ontario Naturalists, Essex Region Conservation Authority, and Nature Conservancy Canada) are the two most important protected areas for the blue racer.


Brown eared pheasant

The brown eared pheasant ("Crossoptilon mantchuricum") is a large, 96– to 100-cm-long, dark brown pheasant endemic to the mountain forests of northeastern China (Shanxi and nearby provinces). The species was first described by Robert Swinhoe in 1863. It has stiff white ear coverts behind the eyes, which look like a moustache. The crown is black with red bare facial skin and its tail of 22 elongated, white feathers is curved, loose and dark-tipped. Both sexes are similar in plumage.
The rarest member in the genus "Crossoptilon", its diet consists mainly of roots, bulbs, and plant matter. The female lays five to eight large, pale stone green eggs, which take 28 days to hatch.
Due to isolated populations, deforestation, and poaching (despite being a protected species), the brown eared pheasant is evaluated as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. It is listed on Appendix I of CITES.


Nebria quezeli

Nebria quezeli is a species of ground beetle in the Nebriinae subfamily that is endemic to northern part of Morocco.


Osteochilus spilurus

Osteochilus spilurus is a cyprinid freshwater fish from Southeast Asia.
It is found in Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo.
It grows to SL.
Habitat.
"Osteochilus spilurus" is common and abundant in creeks and small water bodies in forests. It also occurs in peatswamp forest.


Andean hairy armadillo

The Andean hairy armadillo ("Chaetophractus nationi") is an armadillo found mainly in Bolivia, in the region of the Puna; the departments of Oruro, La Paz, and Cochabamba (Gardner, 1993). Nowark (1991) describes it as distributed in Bolivia and northern Chile. A recent publication of Pacheco (1995) also locates the species in the Puno Region of Peru. This species is also thought to be present in northern Argentina. However, this location may actually only contain a population of "C. vellerosus".
Physical description.
The Andean hairy armadillo averages a tail length of three to seven inches and a body length of eight to sixteen inches. This armadillo is found to have eighteen dorsal bands, in which eight are considered movable. The Andean hairy armadillo gets its name genuinely because this armadillo has hair covering all of its ventral side and its legs as well. This species comes in a variety of colors ranging from light brown to yellow/beige. Their teeth are unique because they are continuously growing and do not contain enamel. Their average weight tends to be four and a half to five pounds. They maintain an internal temperature and use limb countercurrent exchange as well.
Diet and activity.
Andean hairy armadillos are considered omnivores because they eat a variety of foods. Their diet can consist of grains, roots, fruits and even small vertebrates. These armadillos have even been found to eat rotting flesh and the maggots found within the corpse. These mammals find their food by digging through leaves and substrates while using their nose to detect possible meals. They prefer open high-altitude grasslands to live in.
This armadillo finds shelter in tunnels and burrows that it digs itself using fore-claws. Their territories are about eight acres in size. The Andean hairy armadillo's sleep schedule depend on the season and temperature of its habitat. In the summer months they are considered nocturnality so they do not overheat. They then switch to diurnality during the winter season to stay warm. The Andean hairy armadillo communicates with other armadillos through the use of chemicals, as well as through touch.
Reproduction.
Male Andean hairy armadillos only pair up with a female during mating season. They are a polygynandrous species and each adult lives a solitary life. The male armadillo is known to have the longest penises, in proportion to the body size, of any mammal. Males are called lister and females are called zed. Mating season begins in the fall and young are usually born in the summertime with a total of only two offspring. Females are pregnant for only two months though. This two months pregnancy, but births in the summer is because the family Dasypodidae is known for their ability to have delayed implantation and all the embryos produced are from a single zygote. Embryos within the mother still produce their own placenta. Armadillo's offspring are referred to as pups and are born helpless. They remain with their mother fully dependent for fifty days and are sexually mature by twelve months.
Threats and conservation aid.
The Andean hairy armadillo has been given a bad reputation of that with its nine-banded cousin "Dasypus novemcinctus" and thought to carry leprosy. The main threat to this species is being hunted and having its shell sold for musical instrument making, body parts for medical remedies, and for food. Others, simply are killed because they are seen as a pest in that they cause agriculture destruction with their burrow making. Another threat is the fact that they are losing much of their habitat to road construction, farming, and deforestation. However, there are a few aids out there to try to help this species of armadillo survive. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild (CITES) has banned all trading of the Andean hairy armadillo and the capture of it. Yet, the demand for this armadillo's products still remain and many are killed regardless.


Coleophora bazae

Coleophora bazae is a moth of the family Coleophoridae that is endemic to Spain.
The larvae feed on "Atriplex glauca". They feed on the generative organs of their host plant.


Anotosaura collaris

Anotosaura collaris, the collared anotosaura, is a species of lizard in the family Gymnophthalmidae. It is endemic to Brazil.


Gastrotheca dunni

Gastrotheca dunni is a species of frog in the family Hemiphractidae. It is endemic to the northern part of the Cordillera Occidental in northern Antioquia, Colombia. The specific name "dunni" honors Emmett Reid Dunn, an American herpetologist. Common name Dunn's marsupial frog has been coined for it.
Description.
Adult males measure and adult females in snout–vent length. The head is slightly wider than it is long. The snout bluntly rounded. The tympanum is brown. The finger discs are much wider than the digits. The toes are about half-webbed. The dorsum is tan or dull green and may have dark brown longitudinal paravertebral markings or dark flecks. Most specimens have a pale dorsolateral stripe. The flanks are uniform gray or marked with dark spots. The ventrum is pale creamy gray, rarely with dark flecks.
Habitat and conservation.
"Gastrotheca dunni" is a common and adaptable species that occurs in primary and secondary forests and grasslands, as well as anthropogenic habitats such as plantations, farmland, and urban gardens. Its altitudinal range is above sea level. The female broods her eggs in a pouch on her back, then carries the tadpoles to a pool where they develop further. This species is facing no major threats.


Hemidactylus persicus

Hemidactylus persicus, also known as the Persian leaf-toed gecko or Persian gecko, is a species of gecko found in West Asia.
Description.
It has a snout rather acuminate, as long as the distance between the eye and the upper border of the ear-opening, 1.3 the diameter of the orbit; forehead concave; interorbital space very narrow; upper eyelid strongly fringed; ear-opening large, obliquely crescentic, the concavity being directed forwards and upwards, its diameter equalling three fourths that of the eye. Body and limbs moderate. Digits free, moderately dilated, inner well developed; infradigital lamellae obliquely curved; 10 lamellae under the thumb, 10 under the third finger, 9 under the inner toe, and 12 under the third toe. Snout covered with large convex granular scales, largest between the eye and the nostril; hinder part of head with minute granules, and scattered ones of a larger size. Rostral four times as broad as deep (having fused with the anterior labial on each side); nostril above the rostral, between the latter and three nasals; 10 or 11 upper and 9 lower labials; mental large, triangular, twice as long as the adjacent labial, its point between two large chin-shields which are in contact behind it; a small chin-shield on each side of the large pair. Upper surface of body covered -with small irregular flat grannies and moderately large, trihedral, strongly keeled tubercles arranged in 14 or 16 rather irregular longitudinal series; the largest tubercles measure about one fourth the diameter of the eye. Abdominal scales small, smooth, rounded, imbricate. Male with a shore angular series of 8 preanal pores. Tail cylindrical, tapering, covered above with small, irregular, imbricate smooth scales and scattered pointed tubercles forming four or six longitudinal series, beneath with a series of transversely dilated plates. Pale yellowish brown, with six faint brownish transverse narrow dorsal bands, the tubercles in these areas being almost black; a dark brown streak from the nostrils through the eye above the ear, with a whitish line above it; lips whitish.
Distribution.
S Iran (Shiraz), Iraq, Saudi Arabia, N Oman, Bahrain
Pakistan (Sind, Waziristan), N India
Type locality: restricted to Shiraz, Persia (by Smith 1935)


Odorrana bolavensis

Odorrana bolavensis is a species of frog in the family Ranidae. It is endemic to the Bolaven Plateau, Laos. Its natural habitats are wet evergreen forest. It can be found at night on rocks and vegetation along rocky streams, occasionally on leaf-litter or tree branches away from streams. Its status is insufficiently known.


Rufous-throated sapphire

The rufous-throated sapphire ("Hylocharis sapphirina") is a species of hummingbird in the family Trochilidae. It is found at forest edge, savanna-like habitats and plantations in northern and central South America.


Cryptocheiridium elegans

Cryptocheiridium elegans is a species of pseudoscorpions in the family Cheiridiidae. It is found in Cuba.


Common buttonquail

The common buttonquail, Kurrichane buttonquail, small buttonquail, or Andalusian hemipode ("Turnix sylvaticus") is a buttonquail, one of a small family of birds which resemble, but are unrelated to, the true quails. This species is resident from southern Spain and Africa through India and tropical Asia to Indonesia.
This tiny buttonquail is notoriously difficult to see. It is a small, long drab running bird, which avoids flying. It inhabits warm grasslands or scrub jungle and feeds on insects and seeds. This species avoids thick forest and hilly country, and lives by preference in cornfields and stretches of grassy plain though it may also be found in any type of low herbage and open scrub jungle. It skulks and is flushed with difficulty, rising often close by one's feet. When flushed it flies low over the ground and soon settles again, after which it is very difficult to put up a second time.
The common buttonquail resembles the common quail. It has streaked sandy brown upperparts, buff underparts with black flank markings, and a plain face. In flight, a whitish wingbar contrasts with the grey wing. Sexes are similar, but immature birds are more spotted below.
The female initiates courtship and builds the ground nest. The male incubates the normally four speckled greyish eggs, and tends the young, which can run as soon as they are hatched. The nesting season is June to September. The nest is a slight pad of grass placed in a natural hollow in the ground where it is usually tucked away amongst the stems of a tuft of grass. Very occasionally the grass is bent over it in a sort of canopy.
The female calls with a deep "hoom-hoom-hoom" and the male replies "kek-kek-kek".
Widespread throughout its large range, the small buttonquail is evaluated as least concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. However, the nominate subspecies which is distributed in the Mediterranean region is critically endangered. It disappeared from most of its range during the 20th century and is currently only present in Morocco after Spain officially declared the extinction of the species in 2018.
This makes it the first bird species to become extinct in Europe since the Great Auk in 1852. Its name is derived from Kaditshwene (rendered as 'Kurrichane') in Botswana.


Nebria posthuma

Nebria posthuma is a species of ground beetle in the Nebriinae subfamily that is endemic to Italy.


Cymindis facchinii

Cymindis facchinii is a species of ground beetle in the subfamily Harpalinae. It was described by Kabak in 2006 and is endemic to India where it is found in Kashmir and Sonamarg provinces.


Hemidactylus acanthopholis

Hemidactylus acanthopholis is a species of house geckos from the Tirunelveli in southern Tamil Nadu. Bearing a superficial resemblance to "Hemidactylus maculatus", the species is usually found on large rocks or boulders. Growing in length, the species is an overall brown color, but has dark stripes on its back. It takes its name from the warty protuberances running along its dorsal surface.


Margarya bicostata

Margarya bicostata is a species of large operculate freshwater snail, an aquatic gastropod mollusk in the family Viviparidae, the river snails.
Distribution.
The distribution of "Margarya bicostata" includes Fuxian Lake in Yunnan Province, China. Former distribution also included Dian Lake.


White-faced heron

The white-faced heron ("Egretta novaehollandiae") also known as the white-fronted heron, and incorrectly as the grey heron, or blue crane, is a common bird throughout most of Australasia, including New Guinea, the islands of Torres Strait, Indonesia, New Zealand, and all but the driest areas of Australia.
It is a medium-sized heron, pale, slightly bluish-grey, with yellow legs and white facial markings. It can be found almost anywhere near shallow water, fresh or salt, and although it is prompt to depart the scene on long, slow-beating wings if disturbed, it will boldly raid suburban fish ponds.
Taxonomy.
The species was originally described by ornithologist John Latham in 1790. It was historically considered to be closely related to "Ardea" but for some time it was placed in its own genus—"Notophoyx"—because of the absence of the plumes typical in that genus. In his review of the family Ardeidae, American ornithologist Walter J. Bock placed the white-faced heron into "Ardea", holding it to be related to the white-necked heron, and synonymised "Notophoyx". Similarly, Swedish naturalist Kai Curry-Lindahl felt the species was a dwarf member of the genus "Ardea". Robert B. Payne and Christopher J. Risley placed the white-faced heron in the genus "Egretta" due to its skeletal anatomy resembling egrets more than "Ardea" herons. They noted that Bock had not given reasons why he had placed the species in "Ardea", and felt its closest relative was the little blue heron ("Egretta caerulea") on account of plumage and skull similarities. Using DNA-DNA hybridization in a 1987 study, Frederick Sheldon confirmed the white-faced heron was a member of the egret clade.
Subspecies "E. n. novaehollandiae" and "E. n. parryi" in Australia, "E. n. nana" from New Caledonia and "E. n. austera" from Irian Jaya have previously been described, but are now not recognised taxonomically.
Appearance and behaviour are more closely related to those in the genus "Egretta".
The Ngarrindjeri people of the Lower Murray region in South Australia knew it as "krawli".
Description.
The adult white-faced heron is medium-sized for the family and mostly pale blue-grey. The forehead, crown, chin and upper throat are white. The crown pattern is variable, with the white occasionally spreading down the neck; the variability makes identification of individuals possible. The iris may be grey, green, dull yellow or cinnamon. The regions between the eye and bill on the side of the head (lores) are black. The beak is black and often pale grey at the base. During the breeding season pinkish-brown or bronze nuptial plumes appear on the foreneck and breast, with blue-grey plumes appearing on the back.
The adult typically weighs and ranges from in height.
Immature birds are paler grey with only the throat white, and often have a reddish colour on the underparts. Chicks are typically covered with grey down.
Distribution and habitat.
The white-faced heron is found throughout most of Australasia, including New Guinea, the islands of Torres Strait, Indonesia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, the islands of the Subantarctic, and all but the driest areas of Australia. The species is now resident on Christmas Island but has not yet been recorded breeding there. It is also commonly found on Lombok, Flores and Sumbawa, and has appeared as a vagrant in China, the Cocos Islands and the Solomon Islands. It is mostly a winter visitor to the Northern Territory. It was self-introduced to New Zealand in the late 1940s. It is the only heron recorded breeding in Tasmania.
The white-faced heron is locally nomadic and found in both fresh and salty wetlands, farm dams, pastures, grasslands, crops, shores, saltmarsh, tidal mudflats, boat-harbours, beaches, golf courses, orchards or in garden fish-ponds. It is protected in Australia under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974.
Behaviour.
The white-faced heron typically perches on fence-posts, trees, telephone poles and house roofs. Its flight is slow and bouncing.
Call.
The most common call of the white-faced heron is a gravelly croak or gobble, "graak" or "graaw" and is typically given in flight, in interactions or in aggressive encounters. Another call, "gow, gow, gow" is typically given upon returning to a nest. High pitched "wrank, oooooooooh" or "aaarrrgh" calls are given as alarm calls.
Breeding.
Breeding generally takes place in the austral spring, but the birds may breed at other times in response to rainfall. Breeding generally takes place in southern Australia, and birds disperse for long distances at other times of year. Both sexes share the task of building the nest, incubating the eggs and caring for the young. The nest is an untidy shallow bowl, made of sticks and usually placed on a leafy branch 5–12 m high, at altitudes from sea level to over 1000 m. When breeding the birds have long feathers (nuptial plumes) on the neck, head and back. A typical clutch has three to five pale blue eggs. with an average size of 48.5×35 mm. Normally only one brood is raised per year. Incubation lasts approximately 25 days. The parents guard the chicks for 3–4 weeks and fledging takes place 40 days after hatching. Typical nestling predators include kookaburras, Australian magpies, hawks and owls.
Feeding.
White-faced herons eat most small aquatic creatures and their varied diet is fish, frogs, small reptiles and insects. It uses a variety of techniques to find food including standing still and waiting for prey movement (often employing a peculiarly rhythmic neck movement whether in water or on land), walking slowly in shallow water, wing flicking, foot raking or even chasing prey with open wings. White-faced herons generally feed solitarily or independently in small groups. White-faced herons are generally territorial during breeding season but may feed in groups during non-breeding season, particularly after rain or flooding.


Lark-like brushrunner

The lark-like brushrunner ("Coryphistera alaudina") is a species of bird in the family Furnariidae. It is the only member of the genus Coryphistera.
It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.
Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry shrubland.


Silver-throated bushtit

The silver-throated bushtit or silver-throated tit ("Aegithalos glaucogularis") is a species of bird in the family Aegithalidae.
It is widely spread throughout central and eastern China and south towards Yunnan. Its natural habitat is temperate forests.
Bird.
A paper on the silver-throated bushtit by the English naturalist Frederic Moore was read at a meeting of the Zoological Society of London on 27 June 1854. The English ornithologist John Gould then included the silver-throated bushtit in his book "The Birds of Asia" and cited Moore's paper. Gould used Moore's specific name but a different genus to obtain the binomial name "Mecistura glaucogularis". He specified the type locality as Shanghai. As Gould's work appeared in print in 1855 before the publication of the proceedings of the Zoological Society, under the rules of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature Gould's publication has priority. The name "glaucogularis" combines the Latin "glaucus" "glaucous" and the New Latin "gularis" "throated".
The silver-throated bushtit was formerly considered a subspecies of the long-tailed tit ("Aegithalos caudatus") but the plumage is distinctive and there are significant genetic differences.
Two subspecies are recognised:


Megophrys acuta

Megophrys acuta is a species of frog in the family Megophryidae. It is endemic to China and only known from its type locality, Heishiding Nature Reserve in Fengkai County, Guangdong Province, southern China.


Pseudohadena magnitudinis

Pseudohadena magnitudinis is a moth of the family Noctuidae which is endemic to Iran.


Dahira uljanae

Dahira uljanae is a moth of the family Sphingidae which is endemic to China.
The length of the forewings is about . It is similar to "Dahira taiwana" but the forewings are longer. The forewing upperside has a pale grey area between the antemedian and postmedian bands and a pale grey wavy submarginal band running from the apex. The ground colour of the hindwing upperside is yellowish-orange with a brown marginal band.


Brignolia ambigua

Brignolia ambigua, is a species of spider of the genus "Brignolia". It is endemic to Sri Lanka.


Potamotrygon tigrina

Potamotrygon tigrina, also known as the tiger river stingray, is a species of freshwater ray in the family Potamotrygonidae. This endangered species is endemic to black- and whitewater rivers in the upper Amazon basin in northeastern Peru. It is sometimes kept in aquariums and has been bred in captivity, but it is generally a sensitive species.
The tiger river stingray is closely related to "P. schroederi" of the Rio Negro–Orinoco. Prior to the scientific description of the tiger river stingray, some used the name "P. menchacai", but this is incorrect. "P. menchacai" is a synonym for the largespot river stingray ("P. falkneri").
The maximum size of the tiger river stingray is not known, but it reaches a disc width of at least and in captivity maturity is reached at a disc width of .


Archicebus

Archicebus is a genus of fossil primates that lived in the early Eocene forests (~55.8-54.8 million years ago) of what is now Jingzhou in the Hubei Province in central China, discovered in 2003. The only known species, A. achilles, was a small primate, estimated to weigh approximately , and is the only known member of the family Archicebidae. As of 2013, it is the oldest fossil haplorhine primate skeleton discovered, appearing to be most closely related to tarsiers and the fossil omomyids, although "A. achilles" is suggested to have been diurnal whereas tarsiers are nocturnal. Resembling tarsiers and simians (monkeys, apes, and humans), it was a haplorhine primate, and it also may have resembled the last common ancestor of all haplorhines as well as the last common ancestor of all primates. Its discovery further supports the hypothesis that primates originated in Asia, not in Africa.
Etymology.
"Archicebus achilles" was named for being the oldest known primate skeleton () and for its distinguishing calcaneus (heel bone). The generic name, "Archicebus", was constructed from "arche" (ἀρχή), the Ancient Greek word for "beginning", and "cebus", the Latin version of the Ancient Greek "kêbos" (κῆβος), which refers to a long-tailed monkey. The species name, "achilles", is a reference to Achilles, the Greek hero of the Trojan War from Greek mythology.
Evolutionary history.
"Archicebus achilles" exhibits similarities with simians with regard to the shape of its calcaneus and the proportions of its metatarsals, yet its skull, teeth, and appendicular skeleton resemble those of tarsiers. According to phylogenetic analysis, all of these traits taken together suggest it is the most basal member of the tarsiiform clade within the suborder Haplorhini. Considering its age, and since simians are a sister group to tarsiiforms, "A. achilles" may closely resemble the common ancestor of haplorhines and possibly the last common ancestor of all primates.
Biogeography.
The discovery of "A. achilles" adds further support to the hypothesis that primates originated in Asia, and not in Africa.
Anatomy.
"A. achilles" is estimated to have weighed , making it comparable in size to today's smallest living primates, mouse lemurs.
Range and ecology.
"A. achilles" lived in the forests of the warm Eocene epoch, approximately 54.8 to 55.8 million years ago in a part of Asia near what now is Jingzhou, in the southern Hubei Province of China.
Judging from its large canine teeth and sharp crests on its premolars, "A. achilles" was insectivorous. Unlike tarsiers, however, its smaller eyes suggest it was diurnal, a pattern previously suggested by other early haplorhines, such as "Teilhardina asiatica". Its hind limbs suggest it did a lot of leaping; however, its hips, shoulders, and feet also suggest that it was not a vertical clinger and leaper such as tarsiers and galagos are, but likely moved through the trees in a more generalized quadrupedal fashion by grasping tree limbs from above.


Xylocopa valga

Xylocopa valga is a species of carpenter bee common to: western, central and southern Europe, except for far northern latitudes; the Caucasus; Middle East; Central Asia; and Mongolia. The solitary bee has a black and blue coloured body, 20–27 mm in length, and densely covered with purple hairs. The small wings also have a purple tint. The bee creates cavity nests by gnawing the wood in the trunks of dead trees and in old wooden structures. It inhabits both forests and urban areas.
They have been observed pseudo-copulating on the petals of "Iris paradoxa" near Gosmaljan, Azerbaijan.


Hypsopygia bamakoensis

Hypsopygia bamakoensis is a species of snout moth in the genus "Hypsopygia". It was described by Patrice J.A. Leraut in 2006 and is known from Mali.


Tamigalesus munnaricus

Tamigalesus munnaricus is a species of spider in the family Salticidae. It is found in India and Sri Lanka.


Telmatobius oxycephalus

Telmatobius oxycephalus is a species of frog in the family Telmatobiidae.
It is endemic to Argentina.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forest and rivers.


Blanus tingitanus

Blanus tingitanus is a species of amphisbaenian in the family Blanidae.
Geographic range.
"B. tingitanus" is found in northern Morocco including Ceuta (a Spanish autonomous city).
Taxonomy and systematics.
"B. tingitanus" was formerly considered a subspecies of "Blanus cinereus", which is found in Portugal and Spain. The genus "Blanus" was formerly assigned to the family Amphisbaenidae.
Habitat.
The natural habitats of "B. tingitanus" are temperate forests, Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation, arable land, and pastureland.
Conservation stats.
"B. tingitanus" is threatened by habitat loss.


Boana stenocephala

Boana stenocephala is a species of frog in the family Hylidae that is endemic to Brazil. Its natural habitats are moist savanna and rivers. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Weddell seal

The Weddell seal ("Leptonychotes weddellii") is a relatively large and abundant true seal (family: "Phocidae") with a circumpolar distribution surrounding Antarctica. The Weddell seal was discovered and named in the 1820s during expeditions led by British sealing captain James Weddell to the area of the Southern Ocean now known as the Weddell Sea. The life history of this species is well documented since it occupies fast ice environments close to the Antarctic continent and often adjacent to Antarctic bases.
Description.
Weddell seals measure about 2.5–3.5 m (8 ft 2 in–11 ft 6 in) long and weigh 400–600 kg (880–1,320 lb). They are amongst the largest seals, with a rather bulky body and short fore flippers relative to their body length. Males weigh less than females, usually about 500 kg (1,100 lb) or less. Male and female Weddell seals are generally about the same length, though females can be slightly larger. However, the male seal tends to have a thicker neck and a broader head and muzzle than the female. A molecular genetic based technique has been established to confirm the sex of individuals in the laboratory. The Weddell seal face has been compared to that of a cat due to a short mouth line and similarities in the structure of the nose and whiskers.
The Weddell seal grows a thin fur coat around its whole body except for small areas around the flippers. The colour and pattern of the coat varies, often fading to a duller colour as the seal ages. This coat moults around the beginning of summer. Adults show a counter-shaded coloration that varies from bluish-black to dark gray dorsally and to light gray/silver ventrally. Coats may change to shades of brown before the annual molt. Adult males usually bear scars, most of them around the genital region.
Weddell seal pups are born with a lanugo of similar coloration and they moult after 3–4 weeks; later, they turn a darker color similar to that of adults. The pups are around half the length of their mother at birth, and weigh 25–30 kg (55–66 lb). They gain around 2 kg (4.4 lb) a day, and by 6–7 weeks old they can weigh around 100 kg (220 lb).
Behavior.
Movements.
Weddell seals are commonly found on fast ice, or ice fastened to land, and gather in small groups around cracks and holes within the ice. In the winter, they stay in the water to avoid blizzards, with only their heads poking through breathing holes in the ice. These seals are often observed lying on their sides when on land.
Weddell seals are non-migratory phocids that move regionally to follow the distribution of breathing holes and exit cracks within the ice changes between seasons. The species is primarily restricted to Antarctic waters: physical factors, such as glacial movement and tidal action, may increase fluctuations in distributions.
Foraging.
Weddell seals dive to forage for food, maintain breathing holes in fast ice, and explore to find more ice holes. They have been observed to dive as deep as 600 m for up to an hour. These seals exhibit a diel dive pattern, diving deeper and longer during the day than at night. After dropping away from a breathing hole in the ice, the seals become negatively buoyant in the first 30 to 50 m, allowing them to dive with little effort.
Weddell seals are top predators in the Antarctic. They eat an array of fish, bottom-feeding prawns, cephalopods and crustaceans. A sedentary adult eats around 10 kg (22 lb) a day, while an active adult eats over 50 kg (110 lb) a day. Antarctic cod and silverfish constitute the majority of their diet. Cephalopods are common prey, and crustacean remains are sometimes found in Weddell seal scat, but at much lower rates than other prey species. They are opportunistic feeders that hunt in different parts of the water column depending on prey availability. Weddell seals hunt in both pelagic and benthic-demersal habitats.
Although seabirds are not usually part of their diet, there have been several sightings of them chasing and killing penguins in the wild. Other Antarctic phocids are known to be seabird predators, resulting in implications that penguin hunting is a learned behavior. There are recordings of four different penguin species being attacked by Weddell seals: gentoo penguins, an emperor penguin, an Adélie penguin, and a chinstrap penguin. It has not been confirmed, however, if the penguins were consumed after being killed.
Scientists believe Weddell seals rely mainly on eyesight to hunt for food when there is light. However, during the Antarctic winter darkness, when there is no light under the ice where the seals forage, they rely on other senses, primarily the sense of touch from their vibrissae or whiskers, which are not just hairs, but very complicated sense organs with more than 500 nerve endings that attach to the animal's snout. The hairs allow the seals to detect the wake of swimming fish and use that to capture prey.
Weddell seals have no natural predators when on fast ice. At sea or on pack ice, they are prey for killer whales and leopard seals, which prey primarily on juveniles and pups.
Breeding.
Weddell seals return to fast ice colonies during the spring for birthing and breeding. Weddell seal populations will often return to the same breeding sites over consecutive breeding seasons. Depending on the latitude it inhabits, this marine mammal gives birth from early September through November, with those living at lower latitudes giving birth earlier. Weddell seals usually give birth to one pup per year, however the Weddell seal is one of the only species of seals that can give birth to twin pups. Birth of the pup only takes around one to four minutes. Newborn pups weigh about 25–30 kg and grow to two times their weight within their first week of life. The pups take their first swim around one to two weeks of age. During the first two weeks mother Weddell seals distinguish their pups through olfactory smells, specialized vocalizations, and stay in the same spatial area. After six to seven weeks, pups are weaned and begin to hunt independently.
Weddell seals show moderate polygyny and genetic analyses of mating success have suggested how factors such as size, diving ability, site-specific experience enhances success in male Weddell seals. Additionally, fast ice breeding grounds causes females to cluster in large aggregations, making it easier for males to take control over his own harem.
The mating season occurs during austral spring between late November and December after pups are weaned and females begin ovulating. During the mating season, Weddell seals make noises loud enough to be felt through the ice. Males defend underwater territories during the breeding season and have been observed to fight. Copulation has only been observed to occur under water, where the female submits to the male as he approaches her dorsal side. The female is often bitten on the neck by her partner if she tries to escape or terminate copulation. The seals are normally around six to eight years old when they first breed, but this can be much earlier for some females. Weddell seals undergo delayed implantation. The embryo is not embedded into the uterus until the beginning of austral summer, between mid-January and mid-February, allowing for birth under more favorable environmental conditions.
Juvenile Weddell seals (0–2 years old) have a high mortality probability, whereas no differences can be found between the mortality rate of animals older than 2 years and that of adults (Hastings et al., 1999). Maximum lifespan of the species is estimated at least 25 years.
Vocalization.
Male and female Weddell seals communicate through a variety of sounds, specifically males sometimes use “trills” to communicate. Weddell seals are also able to communicate to each other through different mediums. Weddell seals on ice are able to hear the calls of Weddell seals in the water as long as noise level on land is low and they are in close proximity of one another. Sound waves can be transmitted either through the ice itself or from water to breathing holes where female Weddell seals are usually breeding.
There have been recordings of Weddell seal vocalizations that are described as songs. Their songs consist of repetitive sequences of the same vocal elements, and they only vary slightly over time. Individual Weddell seals can each produce their own unique song, but singing behavior is not common when observed.
Vocalizations are also important in mother-pup Weddell seal interactions. Mother Weddell seals use vocalizations to call their pups from further distances when smell can no longer be used efficiently (Opzeeland et al., 2011). Pups also use higher, more urgent vocalizations when hungry to alert their mothers to feed.
Taxonomy.
Rice noted that the scientific name was misspelled in the past as "L. weddelli" and this synonym is no longer accepted, although it is still found commonly in the scientific literature prior to 1988.
Weddell seals can be confused with other two phocids that share the same range: Ross seal ("Ommatophoca rossii") and crabeater seal ("Lobodon carcinophagus").
Population status.
Weddell seals are the second most abundant species of Antarctic phocid, after the crabeater seal. The best available estimate suggests that the species greatly exceeds 1,000,000 individuals, which was considered the upper limit from previous estimations although there is large uncertainty in these figures. Because of their widespread distribution, population assessments are difficult and expensive to conduct, and are therefore infrequently undertaken.
Threats.
During the early periods of Antarctic exploration, Weddell seals suffered dramatic declines as they were hunted for food and oil. Populations have since recovered after the elimination of commercial sealing in the 1980s.
However, the effects of global climate change on Antarctic seals are still to be fully determined. Research estimates seal populations may decline as the availability of their habitat is extremely temperature sensitive thus making them potentially vulnerable. Climate changes affecting the duration and the extent of the sea ice and nutrients availability could potentially reduce pups’ survival and may have important implications for population growth rates. The fact that some populations breed on land (e.g., at South Georgia), could demonstrate an ability in the species to colonize different environments, although the extent of such plasticity is uncertain.
In the past, the establishment of Antarctic research bases has caused a measure of disturbance to these seals. In January 1998 the Environmental Protection Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty was ratified, implementing environmental measures such as the banning of mining and oil drilling in Antarctica for at least 50 years, along with the banning of refuse disposal and the use of pesticides in the region. However, the disturbance effects of the increasing seasonal tourism in the Antarctic and Sub-Antarctic on Weddell seal behavior, distribution, and foraging are still unknown.
Currently there are no reports of significant fisheries interactions. Although, the development of new fisheries in Antarctic waters, particularly one targeting the Antarctic toothfish, could have an impact on Weddell seal nutrition, and potential operational interactions should be considered in the management plans.
Conservation status.
The Weddell seal is protected by the Antarctic Treaty and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS). It is classified as being of "least concern" by the IUCN. This species is not listed by CITES.


Longitarsus ferruginipennis

Longitarsus ferruginipennis is a species of beetle in the subfamily Galerucinae that is endemic to Spain.


Cyrtodactylus septentrionalis

Cyrtodactylus septentrionalis is a species of gecko endemic to India.


Plebeia remota

Plebeia remota is a species of stingless bee that is in the family Apidae and tribe Meliponini. Bees of the species are normally found in a few states in southern Brazil and their nests can be found in tree cavities. Depending on the region, "P. remota" may have a different morphology and exhibit different behaviors. The bee's diet consists of nectar and pollen that are collected intensely from a few sources. Researchers have conducted a multitude of studies analyzing the changes that occur in the colony during reproductive diapause and what happens during the provisioning and oviposition process or POP.
Taxonomy and phylogeny.
"P. remota" is a member of the order Hymenoptera, which is the insect order comprising bees, wasps and ants. Within Hymenoptera, it belongs to the family Apidae. This bee belongs in the tribe Meliponini. The greatest number of Meliponini species reside in the Neotropics where there are about 420 species known. Within the genus "Plebeia", there are about 40 species described. Like the other species in Meliponini, "P. remota" is a stingless bee.
Description and identification.
"P. remota" is a small bee, roughly about 3–6 mm in length. It shows characteristics of bees in the genus "Plebeia" which include whitish or yellow stripes on the face and thorax. Like other species in Meliponini, it exhibits a trigoniform body structure, sparse hair and reduced wing venation.
The nests of "P. remota" normally consist of a small, propolis entrance that is only as large as the head of the worker bee, a pile of 8-10 horizontal combs away from the entrance, honey pots and pollen pots that are located close to the combs and entrance respectively, and sites for resin storage and waste materials. The waste materials are disposed of during the daytime.
Distribution and habitat.
The distribution range of "P. remota" is small compared to other bee species. They are normally found in southern Brazil in the states of Minas Gerais, São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul. The nests of "P. remota" are usually found in tree cavities; however, finding them in nature is difficult since the size of the entrance is very small. The nests of "P. remota" can house up to 5,000 bees.
In one study it was shown that two populations of "P. remota", one from Cunha in São Paulo state (SP) and the other from Prudentópolis in Paraná state (PR), had several differences in both morphology and behavior. Francisco and his colleagues believe that these differences are caused by the fact that the climate in SP and PR are very distinct. These differences may have caused the selection of different phenotypic characteristics of "P. remota" in each region. They observed that colonies from Cunha construct an extra layer of cerumen, or wax, in their nests in the shape of a roof during the reproductive period and that the duration of their diapause is shorter. It has also been observed that the external morphology of the queen's scutellum, the composition of the Dufour's gland secretions of queens and workers, the flight activity of foragers and the regulation of the nest temperature are different between these two populations. What is even more interesting is that during this study that lasted a decade, the two populations were kept in the same place that allowed for genes to be exchanged easily. However, there was no gene flow between the colonies and the high rates of classification indicated that there was no hybridization between the two groups and they maintained their original characteristics.
Colony cycle.
The majority of the time "P. remota" queens produce few young virgin queens, also known as gynes, a year. As such, the number of new colonies formed is relatively small. The gynes that live after emerging from their cells have the chance to form their own swarm and then leave the nest. Another equally viable option is that the gynes would just take over the nest once the current queen dies. The gynes that form their own colonies do not go far from where they were born; thus, there tend to be clusters of nests where the individuals in that area are related to each other.
Behavior.
Hygienic behavior.
Compared with other species of stingless bees such as "Melipona quadrifasciata" and "Tetragonisca angustula", "P. remota" shows incredibly efficient hygienic behavior in response to dead broods. Within a 24-hour period, "P. remota" remove an average of 69.6% of the dead brood, and by 48 hours 96.4% of the dead brood is removed. This is more efficient than "M. quadrifasciata" and "T. angustula," which in 72 hours only removed 1% and 30% of the dead brood, respectively. The "P. remota" bee's efficient hygienic behavior shows that they have a way to resist diseases.
Division of labor.
In "P. remota", the division of labor is based on the age of the worker. There are 7 different tasks that have been observed in the nest of "P. remota" and each of them occur at different times in the workers life. The first task that workers perform usually involves either using cerumen to build the bars between combs and walls or building and maintaining the storage pots and the connecting cerumen bar. This occurs a few days after emerging. The second task that workers do involves working on the old combs, helping the young bees to emerge, feeding them, and then gnawing off the remains of the cell. This happens when they are between the ages of 6 and 30 days. The third task is building the cells, which is limited to bees that are 12–24 days old. This is also the task where the fewest bees participate. The fourth task workers do is called dehydration, which simply describes the collection of nectar from the pots. This is done by workers that are older than 18 days or by the males. The fifth task is receiving nectar from foragers which is done by workers that are older than 24 days. The sixth task is foraging and it is normally done in the final stage of the workers' lives, which starts at day 30. The seventh task involves work around the royal chamber for the gynes, which include reconstruction and maintenance and are done by workers between the ages of 23 and 85 days. Task 1 is done by 94% of the workers, task 2 is done by 21% of the workers, task 3 is done by 12% of the bees, task 4 is done by 69%, task 5 is done by 60%, task 6 is done by 46% and task 7 is done by 27% of the workers.
Mating behavior.
Unlike bees in the Apini tribe where the queen exhibits polyandry, queens in "P. remota" are monandrous. The males will crowd around the entrance to the colony since this will increase the male's chances of mating with the virgin queen. The male will attempt to mate with the queen as she tries to leave the nest. The male that mated with the queen will then leave a mating plug to deter further chances of mating.
Changes during reproductive diapause.
In "P. remota", the bees undergo reproductive diapause during the autumn and winter in Brazil, during which there is little to no brood production. During reproductive diapause many changes happen in the colony. One change is that construction of cells and the allocation of food for the cells stop. The foraging patterns of the bees change as well. During diapause foraging will normally occur in the middle of the day whereas during the reproductive phase foraging was relatively constant throughout the entire day. There are also changes that occur in workers during reproductive diapause. Not only do workers that are born right before or right after diapause have longer lives, but also the age at which they start foraging changes from 43 to 90 days during the reproductive phase, to 42 to 107 during diapause.
The provisioning and oviposition process.
Stingless bees show mass provisioning of brood cells. In mass provisioning, once the egg is laid in the cell it is closed and not reopened until the young bee comes out of it. The provisioning which is started by signals sent by the queen, the oviposition of the queen and the workers capping off the cells only takes a few minutes. This process is called the Provisioning and Oviposition Process or POP. POP not only involves the synchronized actions of the workers but it also involves complex communication with the queen. Different species of stingless bees differ with the number of cells contained in on POP. In "Plebeia," POP is characterized by synchronous construction of cells and having all of them provisioned and oviposited very quickly followed by the construction of new cells soon after. One thing to note in "P. remota" is that the queen does not inspect the cells before her oviposition into them. This suggests that the queen is receiving signals from the workers that it is ok to oviposit into them. Another thing to note is that the first discharge may not be enough to cause continuous discharge of eggs since "P. remota" is also known to be able disrupt a series of discharge. Worker may also lay eggs during this time, they are mostly likely to be trophic eggs which are either given to the queen as an offering or eaten by the other worker. We also see that during POP worker when constructing the cells will act indifferent to the queen, but when see starts to oviposit, the will actively resist the queen and protect the cell they just built which is a very unusual behavior. This suggests that queens not only have no influence on cell construction, but it also shows that it is completely up to the workers when they start construction of the cells.
Kin selection.
Genetic relatedness.
In "P. remota", the relatedness of the colony is typical of a bee species that only mates once. Queens are 50% related to workers, workers are 75% related to each other, and males laid by the queen are 100% related to the queen and 25% related to the workers; these ratios are typical for haplodiploidy. As such, there is queen-worker conflict over the sex ratio. Workers will attempt to lay their own eggs instead because the males born from their eggs will be more related to them than the unfertilized egg laid by the queen. In the end, the queen usually wins the conflict because the majority of the colony's males are her sons. This occurs mainly because when the queen approaches a worker, the worker will either move away, offer food, or lay a trophic egg that either the queen or another worker will eat.
Life history.
Workers.
In one study that examined 37 brood combs from five colonies of "P. remota", it was shown that 73.40% of the individuals were workers. Workers are produced throughout the entire year and perform many of the functions needed to grow and maintain the nest. Starting from a few days after their birth until their death, they continually support the hive, from building the nest at an early age, to foraging near the end of their lives.
Queens.
A study showed that a typical nest would rear between 1–5 gynes during an observation period that varied between 6 and 18 months. However, it was also noted that on occasion "P. remota" may produce a high number of gynes, up to 46. Another thing to note is that gynes can be produced in the same cells that give rise to the worker class. The only difference between the queen and the workers is that queens are generally bigger, however this is not always the case since it has been documented that queens can be the same size as the workers. The same study also showed that there is no correlation between the queen's size and whether they are accepted or have a successful mating. Queens emerge always attractive, meaning that they cause changes in the intranidal behavior of the workers. Normally after gynes are produced, a majority of them are killed by the workers. The ones that survive can be kept alive in cerumen chambers protected by a barrier of wax called the royal camber. It is those survivors who will go on and form new colonies.
Miniature queens.
It is not uncommon to find that the size of the queen can vary in stingless bees. Miniature queens have been observed in six species of stingless bees including "P. remota", "Cephalotrigona femorata", "Plebeia juliani", "Schwarziana quadripunctata", "Plebeia emerina" and "Nannotrigona testaceicornis". In most of these species, the production of miniature queens is very rare. However, both large and miniature queens have been observed in some nests of "P. remota". Studies, done by M.F. Ribeiro and colleagues, have explored whether miniature queens have any adaptive significance by comparing the percentage of virgin and mating queens that were miniature versus normal and their egg laying performance.
In this study they found that their sample virgin queens were mostly miniature, while mating queens were mostly normal. However, excluding the colonies with abnormal gyne production, there was an equal proportion of miniature mating and virgin queens. In queens the oviposition rate is determined by the number of ovarioles. When comparing the normal sized queens with the miniature queens, Ribeiro found a constant number of four ovarioles. Also when queens of different sizes were under the same conditions for oviposition, they were both equally active in laying eggs. All these results show that miniature queens can mate and head colonies just as well and just as likely as normal sized queens.
Males.
In one study it was shown that in 37 broods from five colonies of "P. remota," 26.52% of the individuals or 2966 bees were male. Of the 2966 males, only two of them were produced in royal cells. Not all the samples in the experiment had males in the combs. 18.92% of the samples had no males. Out of the samples that contained males, 16.22% of the combs had males make up over half the population of individuals. This study also showed that brood combs collected in June and October 2003 showed the lowest frequency of males. It was shown in this study that there was a lot of variation in male production and male frequency in combs.
In "P. remota", as well as in other "Melipona" species, there are certain periods of time where there are more males produced. These periods are called male-producing periods. These periods are normally short and not synchronous with other colonies since each colony has their own schedule for when they reproduce. Also in "P. remota" most of the males born in the colony were produced only by the queen even though the workers are just as capable of producing males. It was also observed that in combs with lots of males, there was a lower percentage of workers indicating that when many males are produced, investment in workers decrease.
Diet.
The diet of "P. remota" normally consists of pollen and nectar. Depending on the time of year and various climatic factors, the amount of pollen and nectar collected can change. Similar to other species of stingless bees, "P. remota" only intensively uses a few floral resources to collect the pollen add nectar they need. They get their pollen from seven sources while they get their nectar from eight sources. These sources are manly from trees that are not that far from the colony, roughly about 100 meters. In a study conducted, "P. remota" was observed mainly foraging from "Archontophoenix", "Cecropia" and multiple "Eucalyptus" species. Others species that were also foraged from but to a lesser extent were "Piptadenia", "Tipuana speciosa", "Impatiens balsamina", "Cabralea s.l.", "Mimosa daleoides", and "Asparagus s.l." Within the family Apidae, "P. remota" occupies an intermediate position on the scale of polylecty that covers ten species.


Leptodactylus mystacinus

Leptodactylus mystacinus is a species of frog in the family Leptodactylidae. It is found in eastern Bolivia and eastwards to Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay and southwards to central Argentina. It is also known as the mustached frog.
Description.
Adult males measure and adult females in snout–vent length. The snout in males is more spatulate than in females. A pair of dorsolateral folds runs from behind the eye to the upper groin; a second pair is either incomplete or interrupt and starts from the forearm insertion and runs along the flanks. The toes lack fringes and fleshy ridges, the toe tips are narrow. The dorsum is uniform, striped, or bears small dark spots. The upper pair of dorsolateral folds is lined with a distinct dark brown stripe or band below and usually with a light pinstripe above; the latter becomes often broader and more distinct posteriorly. The lower dorsolateral folds along the flanks may have dark or cream highlights, or both. The upper lip typically has a distinct light stripe. The venter ranges from being immaculate to mottled.
Habitat and conservation.
"Leptodactylus mystacinus" is a terrestrial frog found in grasslands near standing bodies of water, its breeding habitat. Reproduction takes place in under-ground foam nests; the tadpoles develop in water. Some populations are found in forests and formerly forested areas. It is found at elevations below . It is a common species that adapts well to human disturbance. It occurs in several protected areas and is not considered threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).


Andinosaura laevis

Andinosaura laevis, the shiny lightbulb lizard, is a species of lizard in the family Gymnophthalmidae. It is endemic to Colombia.


Tiger attacks in the Sundarbans

Tiger attacks in the Sundarbans, in India and Bangladesh are estimated to kill from 0-50 (mean of 22.7 between 1947 and 1983) people per year. The Sundarbans is home to over 100 Bengal tigers, one of the largest single populations of tigers in one area. Before modern times, Sundarbans were said to "regularly kill fifty or sixty people a year".
These tigers are a little smaller and slimmer than those elsewhere in India but remain extremely powerful and are infamous for destroying small wooden boats. They are not the only tigers who live close to humans; in Bandhavgarh, villages encircle the tiger reserves, and yet attacks on people are rare. Although attacks were stalled temporarily in 2004 with new precautions, they have been on the rise. This is particularly due to the devastation on the Bangladeshi side of the swamp caused by Cyclone Sidr which has deprived tigers of traditional food sources (due to the natural upheaval) and has pushed them over towards the more populated Indian side of the swamp.
Precautions.
The locals and government officials take certain precautions to prevent attacks. Local Hindu fishermen will say prayers and perform rituals to the forest goddess "Bonbibi" before setting out on expeditions. Invocations to the tiger god "Dakshin Ray" are also considered a necessity by the local populace for safe passage throughout the Sundarbans area. Fishermen and bushmen originally created masks made to look like faces to wear on the back of their heads because tigers always attack from behind. This worked for a short time, but the tigers quickly realized it was a hoax, and the attacks reportedly continued. One local honey gatherer, Surendra Jana, 57, expressed that the tigers seem to have caught on to the mask trick, "Before we could understand the way they attacked. We don't feel safe any more, knowing our brothers have been attacked in spite of the tricks we use." Government officials wear stiff pads that rise up the back of the neck, similar to the pads of an American football player. This is to prevent the tigers from biting into the spine, which is their favoured attack method.
Causes of the attacks.
No one is exactly sure why the tigers of the Sundarbans are so aggressive towards humans, but scientists, biologists, and others have speculated about a number of reasons. These include:
About 5,000 people frequent the swamps and waterways of the Sundarbans. Fishing boats traverse the area and many stop to collect firewood, honey and other items. In the dark forest, tigers find it easy to stalk and attack men absorbed in their work. Even fishermen in small boats have been attacked due to tigers' strong swimming abilities.
Responses to the attacks.
Local villagers, who fear tiger attacks and resent the animal for killing their livestock, sometimes engage in revenge killings. On one occasion, a tiger had attacked and wounded the people in a village in south-west Bangladesh (near the Sundarbans) and frequently preyed upon their livestock. This roused the wrath of the villagers, and the feline became a target for their retribution. Poachers are also responsible for killing tigers in the reserve in an effort to sell them on the black market.
The human death rate has dropped significantly due to better management techniques and fewer people are killed each year. Even at the rate of fifty or sixty kills per year, humans would provide only about three percent of the yearly food requirements for the tiger population of the Sundarbans. Thus, humans are only a supplement to the tiger's diet; they do not provide a primary food source. This does not mean that the notoriety associated with this area is unfounded. Even if only 3% of a tiger's diet is human meat, that still amounts to the tiger killing and eating about one person per year, given the amount of food a tiger typically eats.
Villagers in the area have agreed to occasionally release livestock into the forest in order to provide an alternative food source for the tigers and discourage them from entering the villages. The government has agreed to subsidize the project to encourage village participation.


Spartan crow

The Spartan crow ("Euploea lacon") is a species of nymphalid butterfly in the Danainae subfamily. It is endemic to Papua New Guinea.


Carabus lefebvrei bayardi

Carabus lefebvrei bayardi is a subspecies of bluish-black coloured ground beetle in the subfamily Carabinae that is endemic to Italy.


Bachia talpa

Bachia talpa, Ruthven's bachia, is a species of lizard in the family Gymnophthalmidae. It is endemic to Colombia.


Red-breasted goose

The red-breasted goose ("Branta ruficollis") is a brightly marked species of goose in the genus "Branta" from Eurasia. It is currently classified as vulnerable by the IUCN.
Taxonomy and etymology.
The red-breasted goose is sometimes placed in its own genus "Rufibrenta" but appears close enough to the brant goose ("Branta bernicla") to make this unnecessary, despite its distinct appearance. Today all major authorities include the red-breasted goose in "Branta". Genetic studies indicate that the red-breasted goose may be one the few known examples of hybrid speciation in birds, being the result of ancient interbreeding between the ancestral brant goose and white-cheeked goose (the latter being the ancestral species that later split into all today's "Branta" species, except the brant and red-breasted geese). This interbreeding appears to have happened at least 3.5 million years ago, with the lineage of the red-breasted goose following its own evolutionary path since then.
"Branta" is a Latinised form of Old Norse "Brandgás", "burnt (black) goose and "ruficollis" is from the Latin "rufus" "red" and "collis" "necked".
Description.
All the species of the genus "Branta" are distinguished by their dark sooty colour, relieved by white, and as a distinction from the grey geese of the genus "Anser". Among the species from these two genera, the red-breasted goose is the smallest at in length. This brightly marked species is unmistakable, but can be surprisingly difficult to find amongst brant geese. At long distances, the red of the breast tends to look dark.
Distribution.
The red-breasted goose breeds in Arctic Siberia, mainly on the Taymyr Peninsula, with smaller populations in the Gyda and Yamal peninsulas. Most winter along the northwestern shores of the Black Sea in Bulgaria, Romania and Ukraine (occasionally moving further southwest to Greece), but some winter in Azerbaijan. It is a rare vagrant to Great Britain and other western European areas, where it is sometimes found with flocks of Brent or barnacle geese. However, since it is common in captive wildfowl collections, escapees outside its usual range are fairly frequent.
A large part of the population traditionally wintered in Kirov Bay in the Caspian Sea, but in the 1960s the area became unsuitable for the geese due to the agricultural change. Vineyards and cotton replaced the cereal crops used by the wintering geese. However, catastrophic population decline was avoided because they were able to alter their migration strategy and now winter in suitable habitats in Bulgaria and the Dobrogea region of Eastern Romania.
Late Pleistocene remains of the species have been found in Bulgaria, and it is featured on ancient Egyptian paintings, including the famous Meidum Geese.
Behaviour.
Calls of red-breasted goose – "ki-kui" or "ki-yik", shrill and staccato
The red-breasted goose often nests close to nests of birds of prey, such as snowy owls, peregrine falcons and rough-legged buzzards, which helps to protect this small goose from mammalian predators such as the Arctic fox. The closer the goose's nest to the eyrie (bird of prey nest), the safer it is from predation. Based on the size and how timid the geese are, they rely on the bird of prey for defense. It is extremely unusual for the bird of prey to attack, but is still possible. Additionally, the larger the colony the safer it is. This in turn positively influences the survival and reproductive success of the red-breasted goose. Aside from nesting close to birds of prey, red-breasted geese nest on islands on rivers which also protects them from land-based predators. However, there is evidence that the red-breasted goose will prefer to nest near birds of prey over the choice of a river island. In contrast to the birds of prey that offer the red-breasted goose protection from predators, which choose to place their nests in the open cliff side, this goose will create a cryptic nest hidden much better than the birds of prey nests. A typical red-breasted goose colony is around 4 pairs depending on nest location, food abundance, and bird of prey density. While incubating, the red-breasted goose stays within a range of its nest. Male red-breasted goose tend to guard the nest of their young from a distance while the females generally hide on the nest. The main predator for red-breasted geese eggs and goslings is the Taimyr Gull which have access to nests located on river islands.
While wintering, the red-breasted goose feeds on grasses, leaves and seeds. Since owl and buzzard populations fluctuate every few years, depending on lemming abundance, the only consistent protection from predators are river islands and the peregrine falcon.
Conservation.
In autumn of 1997 the population was estimated to be around 88,000 individuals. In the winter these numbers can shrink to around 70,000. The red-breasted goose is one of the species to which the "Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds" (AEWA) applies. The red-breasted goose is legally protected in many states, however hunting is still continued. The AEWA is monitoring the species and providing up to date information on the status of the species, its habitat, migrations, ecology, and conservation needs. It was considered a Vulnerable species by the IUCN. Over 80% of the population roost during the winter at just five sites, with nearby feeding areas threatened by changes in land use. In addition, there has been a strong decline in numbers in the last decades. However, it is possible that this decline may have been exaggerated, as it is possible that some birds may winter at unknown sites. The species' winter distribution has already changed significantly since the 1960s when much of the population occurred along the western coast of the Caspian Sea, in Iran, and in Iraq. Some birds may now be wintering farther west as indicated by recorded counts of 2,000 birds in Hungary as of the winter of 2014, whereas counts previously only accounted for a few hundred. As it is not clear to what extent the known population fluctuates in this species—as in other Arctic geese—and given the worsening outlook for the species as a whole, the red-breasted goose was uplisted from a species of Least Concern to Endangered status in the 2007 IUCN Red List. In 2015 it was relisted as Vulnerable. There have been attempts to conserve the species, such as in 2005–2008, a Life-funded project in Romania was implemented so that the habitat quality of an important salt water lake used by the species was increased. The Life Programme and AEWA hosted a workshop in February 2009 for the species that aimed to draft a new International Species Action Plan and report the results of the Life project.
In 2011, Ornithologists from the Bulgarian Society for the Protection of Birds (BSPB/BirdLife in Bulgaria) and the Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust enacted a project that would lead to a greater understanding of the red-breasted geese's migration patterns. Six red-breasted geese were branded and given miniature GPS transmitters. The red-breasted geese will now be tracked via satellite. Scientist and conservationists alike hope that learning about the geese's migration patterns will lead to proper conservation and more aggressive policies in the geese's territory. Some prior counts have revealed a more positive discovery, noting an increase in the geese's population. This led to a prediction which states there may be over a fifty percent increase in their population.
In February 2013, the Bulgarian court had overturned a decision which prohibited an energy wind project from continuing their work in an important winter site for the threatened red-breasted geese. The construction of wind turbines in the area not only threaten the geese by being an obstacle that they fly into. The area they are being constructed in will also deprive red-breasted geese of a critical feeding ground. As of now, an appeal had been sent to court to convince the court otherwise.


Arhopala eumolphus

Arhopala eumolphus, the green oakblue, is a lycaenid butterfly found in the Indomalayan realm. The species was first described by Pieter Cramer in 1780.
Range.
The butterfly is mostly seen in India, ranging from West Bengal and Sikkim to Arunachal Pradesh, and is also found in Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar.


Colombian four-eyed frog

The Colombian four-eyed frog (Pleurodema brachyops; in Spanish: "sapito lipon") is a species of frog in the family Leptodactylidae.
It is found in an area stretching from Guyana and northern Brazil (Roraima state) through Venezuela (including Isla Margarita) and Colombia into Panama as well as the Netherlands Antilles.
The common name "four-eyed frog" refers to two inguinal poison glands that resemble eyes. When threatened, the frog lowers its head and raises its rear. When the frog adopts this posture, the poison glands are also raised toward the predator. The predator may also confuse the frog's raised posterior for the head of a larger animal.
The natural habitat of the Colombian four-eyed frog is open savanna and grassland. It is a very common species. While these frogs use ephemeral or permanent small water pools for breeding, they can be found far from water. During the dry season, they hide in the soil and emerge when the rains start.


Porcellio expansus

Porcellio expansus is a species of woodlouse in the genus "Porcellio" belonging to the family Porcellionidae that can be found in mainland Spain.


Carcharodus alceae

Carcharodus alceae, the mallow skipper, is a butterfly of the family Hesperiidae. The scientific Latin species name "alceae" refers to the host plants "Althaea", which, in turn, are named after the ancient Greek poet Alcaeus of Mytilene.
Subspecies.
Subspecies include:
Distribution and habitat.
This widespread and common species can be found in most of southern and central Europe, in northern Africa (Morocco east to Tunisia and Libya), in the Middle East, in Asia Minor, the Caucasus, in northern India, in the Middle and Central Asia, in the western Himalayas and in the south of Western Siberia.
Description.
"Carcharodus alceae" has a wingspan of 28–32 mm. The background color of the forewings is pinkish brown, with approximately square brown markings, short, white transverse stripes running from the edge and clear patches on the discal area. Hindwings are brownish or grey-brown, with some prominent brighter spots on the underside. Males are without hair tuft on forewings underside. Antennae have cherry brown tips.
The eggs are yellowish and hemispherical and the surface is covered with elongated warts, connected each other with low ribs. The egg has a prickly appearance. In the course of the development they turn red. The caterpillars can reach a length of about . They are dark gray, covered with small white dots and short, white hairs. The head is black with yellow spots, separated by black stripes.
This species is very similar to the Marbled skipper ("Carcharodus lavatherae") and almost indistinguishable from the False mallow skipper ("Carcharodus tripolinus").
Habitat.
These quite common butterflies prefer dry warm and stony areas, wasteland, warm ruderals and gardens at an elevation up to above sea level. In Armenia they inhabit a wide variety of grasslands and woodlands.
Biology.
Mallow skippers lay their eggs on top of the leaves of different species of mallow (hence the common name of the species). The larvae mainly feed on "Malva sylvestris", "Malva moschata", "Althaea officinalis", "Lavatera thuringiaca" and "Hibiscus" species. The butterfly flies from April to October depending on the location. They get nectar from various herbaceous plants. In Central Europe usually this species has two generations (April–May and July), while in southern areas three or more generations are present. The fully grown caterpillars hibernate and pupate in the next Spring.


Grandala

The grandala ("Grandala coelicolor") is a bird species now placed in the family Turdidae. It is an arboreal insectivore. It ranges across the northeastern Indian Subcontinent and some adjoining regions, existing primarily in the low-to-mid altitudes of the Himalayas. It is found in Bhutan, India, Myanmar, and Nepal, as well as Tibet and other areas of China.


Crossodactylus schmidti

Crossodactylus schmidti is a species of frog in the family Hylodidae.
It is found in Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest and rivers.
It is threatened by habitat loss.
It is named after Karl Patterson Schmidt, American herpetologist.


Atelopus spurrelli

Atelopus spurrelli is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is endemic to Colombia and occurs in the Pacific lowlands and foothills of the Cordillera Occidental. The specific name "spurrelli" honors Herbert George Flaxman Spurrell, a British physician and zoologist. Common name Condoto stubfoot toad has been coined for this species.
Description.
Male "Atelopus spurrelli" grow to a snout–vent length of and females to . The body is elongated. The head is as long as it is wide. Skin is smooth to finely granular. The dorsum dark brown to black and has irregular yellow to olive green spots. The belly uniformly cream to white with small brown spots.
Skin of "Atelopus spurrelli" contains tetrodotoxin, although less than "Atelopus spumarius" and "A. varius".
Habitat and conservation.
"Atelopus spurrelli" occurs in primary and secondary tropical humid forest at elevations of above sea level. It lives in leaf-litter near water, and presumably breeds in streams. It can be locally common, but has also declined or disappeared from many sites where chytridiomycosis has been reported. It can also be locally threatened by deforestation caused by agricultural development, illegal crops, illegal mining activities, and logging. Its range includes several protected areas, e.g., Utría National Park and El Amargal Nature Reserve.


Cyrtodactylus nagalandensis

Cyrtodactylus nagalandensis is a species of gecko endemic to India.


Eligmodontia morgani


List of non-marine molluscs of Afghanistan

The non-marine molluscs of Afghanistan are a part of the wildlife of Afghanistan. Afghanistan is land-locked and has no marine molluscs, only land and freshwater species, including snails, slugs, and freshwater bivalves. The molluscan fauna of the country is poorly known and contains over 70 molluscan taxa.
History of malacozoology of Afghanistan.
The earliest reports on Afghanistan molluscs consists of scattered descriptions of materials gathered on various military expeditions. Only the reports of Thomas Hutton (zoologist) (1834, 1849–1850), who recorded 21 species, and César Marie Félix Ancey (1893), who listed 27 taxa, are at all comprehensive. Nelson Annandale & Baini Prashad (1919) issued a voluminous report on freshwater collections from the southwestern deserts, and Jaeckel (1956) recorded 27 species taken by an entomological survey team (see Klapperich, 1954). Jaeckel (1956) summarized previous work, evaluated records, and concluded that there were 37 species known from Afghanistan. Ilya Mikhailovich Likharev & Yaroslav Igorevich Starobogatov (1967) had available extensive materials taken from 127 collecting stations between 1957 and 1962. Their report covered 53 species represented by new material, with an additional 14 names carried over from earlier reports, but not verified from their collecting.
Alan Solem have reported 10 new taxa (3 newly described species and 6 found species) that were previously not known from Afghanistan in 1979. Up to 1979, 73 taxa of molluscs have been recorded from Afghanistan.
It is obvious that knowledge of the Afghanistan molluscan fauna is in a very preliminary stage. The same statements apply to surrounding areas, with the exception of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north (that were part of the U.S.S.R. at that time), where the summary volumes of Likharev & Rammel'meier (1962) and Anatoliy Alexeyevich Schileyko (1978) provide a solid basis of comparative knowledge. The probability of additional taxa existing is very high, particularly among the Helicoidea and Enidae. Since the Street collections (from Street Expedition of 1962-1963) were made incidentally to mammal collecting, the relatively high percentage of unrecorded taxa suggests that only the tip of Afghanistan molluscan diversity has been sampled. In the 2000s the molluscan fauna is still incompletely known (also with the neighbouring Iran).
Freshwater gastropods.
Viviparidae
Bithyniidae
Lymnaeidae
Planorbidae
Land gastropods.
Succineidae
Chondrinidae
Pupillidae
Valloniidae
Enidae
Gastrodontidae
Parmacellidae
Ariophantidae
Vitrinidae
Agriolimacidae
Ferussaciidae
Subulinidae
Bradybaenidae
Hygromiidae
Freshwater bivalves.
Unionidae
Corbiculidae
References.
This article incorporates public domain text from the reference


Ashibusa subelliptica

Ashibusa subelliptica is a moth of the family Cosmopterigidae. It was described Z.W. Zhang and H.H. Li in 2009 and is endemic to China.


Mordellistena ferruginipes

Mordellistena ferruginipes is a beetle in the genus "Mordellistena" of the family Mordellidae. It was described in 1966 by Ermisch.


List of species on Severnaya Zemlya

This is a list of species recorded on Severnaya Zemlya. Severnaya Zemlya is a archipelago in the Russian high Arctic. It lies off Siberia's Taymyr Peninsula, separated from the mainland by the Vilkitsky Strait. This archipelago separates two marginal seas of the Arctic Ocean, the Kara Sea in the west and the Laptev Sea in the east.
Flora.
Vascular plants.
Most common:
Less common:
Mosses.
Most common:
Less common:
Lichens.
Most common:
Less common: