Rosa canina

Rosa canina, commonly known as the dog rose, is a variable climbing, wild rose species native to Europe, northwest Africa, and western Asia.
Description.
It is a deciduous shrub normally ranging in height from , though sometimes it can scramble higher into the crowns of taller trees. Its stems are covered with small, sharp, hooked prickles, which aid it in climbing. The leaves are pinnate, with 5–7 leaflets. The flowers are usually pale pink, but can vary between a deep pink and white. They are in diameter with five petals, and mature into an oval, , red-orange fruit, or hip.
Synonyms.
From DNA analysis using amplified fragment length polymorphisms of wild-rose samples from a transect across Europe (900 samples from section "Caninae", and 200 from other sections), it has been suggested that the following named species are best considered as part of a single "Rosa canina" species complex, and are therefore synonyms of "R. canina":
Cultivation and uses.
The flesh (shells) of rose hips from dog roses contain high levels of antioxidants, mainly polyphenols and ascorbic acid, as well as carotenoids and vitamins B and E. Rose hips contain a high amount of carotenoids and ascorbic acid along with natural sugars, organic acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, phenolics, and essential oil, making them excellent for consumption. Rose hip essential oil is composed mainly of alcohols, monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes.
The fruit is noted for its high level of vitamin C, and is used to make syrup, tea, and marmalade. It has been grown or encouraged in the wild for the production of vitamin C from its fruit (often as rose-hip syrup), especially during conditions of scarcity or during wartime. The species has also been introduced to other temperate latitudes. During World War II in the United States, "Rosa canina" was planted in victory gardens, and can still be found growing throughout the country, including roadsides and in wet, sandy areas along the coastlines.
In Bulgaria, where it grows in abundance, the hips are used to make a sweet wine as well as tea. The hips are used as a flavouring in Cockta, a soft drink made in Slovenia.
Forms of this plant are used as stocks for the grafting or budding of cultivated roses. The wild plant is used for stabilising soil in land reclamation and specialised landscaping schemes.
Numerous cultivars have been named, though few are common in cultivation. The cultivar "Rosa canina" 'Assisiensis' is the only dog rose without thorns.
The flower is one of the national symbols of Romania.
Culinary use.
The fruit is used in the making of pies, stews, and wine. The flowers can be made into a syrup, or can be eaten in salads, or candied or preserved in vinegar, honey and brandy.
"Canina" meiosis.
The dog roses, the "Canina" section of the genus "Rosa" (20-30 species and subspecies, which occur mostly in Northern and Central Europe), have an unusual kind of meiosis that is sometimes called permanent odd polyploidy, although it can occur with even polyploidy (e.g. in tetraploids or hexaploids). Regardless of ploidy level, only seven bivalents are formed leaving the other chromosomes as univalents. Univalents are included in egg cells, but not in pollen. Similar processes occur in some other organisms. Dog roses are most commonly pentaploid, i.e. five times the base number of seven chromosomes for the genus "Rosa", but may be tetraploid or hexaploid as well.
Name and etymology.
The botanical name is derived from the common names 'dog rose' or similar in several European languages, including classical Latin and ancient (Hellenistic period) Greek.
It is sometimes considered that the word 'dog' has a disparaging meaning in this context, indicating 'worthless' as compared with cultivated garden roses. According to "The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable", the English name is a direct translation of the plant's name from classical Latin, "rosa canina", itself a translation of the Greek κυνόροδον ('kunórodon'); the name arose out of the belief in classical times that the root was a cure for the bite of a mad dog. It is known to have been used to treat the bite of rabid dogs in the 18th and 19th centuries. The origin of its name may be related to the hooked prickles on the plant that have resemblance to a dog's canines.
The Roman naturalist Pliny attributed the name dog rose to a belief that the plant's root could cure the bite of a mad dog. It is not clear if the dogs were rabid.
Other old folk names include dogberry and witches' briar.
Invasive species.
Dog rose is an invasive species in the high country of New Zealand. It was recognised as displacing native vegetation as early as 1895 although the Department of Conservation does not consider it to be a conservation threat.
The dog rose is a declared weed in Australia under the Natural Resources Management Act 2004 (NRM Act) as the plant out-competes native vegetation, provides shelter to pests such as foxes and rabbits, is unpalatable to stock, large shrubs are resistant to grazing, therefore do not get eaten by farm animals. The dog rose also invades native bushland therefore reducing biodiversity and the presence of desirable pasture species. It is also a biosecurity risk as it hosts fruit fly.
Birds and wild fruit eating animals are the main cause of seed dispersal. The plant seeds can also be carried in the hooves or fur of stock animals. They may also be carried by waterways.
In culture.
The dog rose was the stylised rose of medieval European heraldry. It is the county flower of Hampshire, and Ireland's County Leitrim is nicknamed "The Wild Rose County" due to the prevalence of the dog rose in the area. Legend states the Thousand-year Rose or Hildesheim Rose, which climbs against a wall of Hildesheim Cathedral, dates back to the establishment of the diocese in 815.
The first recorded significance of the flower dates back hundreds of years ago to The Academy of Floral Games (founded in 1323), which gifted poets a sprig of Dog-rose to reward them for their literary excellence. Due to this ritual, the branches became increasingly popular and can be found frequently mentioned in several famous poems. Most prevalent in the United Kingdom, William Shakespeare wrote about the flower in "A Mid-Summer Night's Dream", which in his time was called eglantine, though it can now also refer to Rosa rubiginosa (Sweet brier)
Oberon, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Act II, Scene I quoting his words:"With sweet musk-roses and with eglantine."
Symbolically, the meaning of this shrub is quite extensive since the two dominating themes surrounding the flower are pain and pleasure.
An old riddle, 'The Five Brethren of the Rose',
On a summer's day, in sultry weather
Five Brethren were born together
Two had beards and two had none
And the other had but half a one."
The riddle contains an effective way of identifying the differing roses of the canina group, where the "brethren' refers to the five sepals of the dog-rose, two of which are whiskered on both sides, two quite smooth and the last one whiskered on one side only.


Calceolaria rosmarinifolia

Calceolaria rosmarinifolia is a species of plant in the Calceolariaceae family. It is endemic to Ecuador.


Hydrothauma

Hydrothauma is a genus of African plants in the grass family.
The only known species is Hydrothauma manicatum, native to Zaïre and Zambia.


Machaerium cirrhiferum

Machaerium cirrhiferum, the espuela de gallo or espuela de gato, is a species of legume in the family Fabaceae. It is found in Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico, and Panama.


Pinus henryi

Pinus henryi, Henry's pine, is a species of conifer in the family Pinaceae.
Description.
"P. henryi" is a monoecious evergreen tree, reaching up to 30m tall and 100cm DBH, typically with a single straight trunk. The bark on mature "P. henryi" is scaly, fissured, and broken into large irregular plates, which are grey-brown in color, and flaky. The twigs are thick, with new shoots appearing reddish-brown in color. The needles are 7 - 12cm long, and in fascicles of 2, and persist for 2 - 3 years before falling off. Pollen cones appear in clusters at the base of new shoots, and are only 2cm long. Seed cones are thin and woody, and bear a short stout spine.
Distribution.
"P. henryi" is typically considered to be endemic to China, found in the Chongqing, Hubei, Hunan, Shaanxi, and Sichuan provinces. Some sources also place it in the Vietnamese provinces of Ha Giang and Bac Kan. "P. henryi" occurs in subtropical mountains, typically at elevations 1,100 - 2,000m, primarily on dry, sunny slopes.


Eriogonum latens

Eriogonum latens is a species of wild buckwheat known by the common name Inyo buckwheat. It is native to the western Great Basin region, in the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada and the Inyo Mountains of California and the White Mountains, which extend just into western Nevada. It is an uncommon member of the flora in the sagebrush and woodlands of these mountains, where it grows in granitic sandy soils.
Description.
"Eriogonum latens" is a perennial herb growing from a woody caudex in a basal patch of rounded to oval green leaves up to about 3 centimeters long on short petioles. The inflorescence arises on an erect, naked scape, or flowering stem, and bears many whitish or yellowish flowers in a spherical cluster.


Persicaria meisneriana

Persicaria meisneriana is a flowering plant species in the family Polygonaceae.


Baho-baho

Baho-baho is Filipino for 'smelly'. It is the common name of two flowering plants known for their pungent odors and may refer to:


Chenia (plant)

Chenia is a genus of mosses belonging to the family Pottiaceae.
The genus has cosmopolitan distribution.
Species:


Peripentadenia

Peripentadenia is a genus of two species of large trees from the family Elaeocarpaceae endemic to the rainforests of northeastern Queensland, Australia. Sometimes they have the common name quandong.
Botanists have formally described two species, both endemic to restricted areas of the Wet Tropics rainforests of northeastern Queensland.
Both species have official recognition of at risk of extinction in the wild.


Sceptridium jenmanii

Sceptridium jenmanii, the Alabama grapefern or Dixie grapefern, is a species of fern in the Ophioglossaceae native to the southeastern United States. It is a rare species, and is apparently in decline. Like other grape ferns, it depends on a mycorrhizal association in the soil to survive.


Viscum exile

Viscum exile is a species of mistletoe in the family Santalaceae. It is a parasitic plant native to Sulawesi.


Epilobium billardierianum

Epilobium billardierianum, commonly known as the glabrous willow herb, is a species in the family Onagraceae that is endemic to south western Australia.
The species is found in the South West, Great Southern and Goldfields-Esperance regions of Western Australia.


Melanophylla aucubifolia

Melanophylla aucubifolia is a species of plant in the Torricelliaceae family. It is endemic to Madagascar. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Micropolypodium

Micropolypodium is a genus of ferns in the family Polypodiaceae, subfamily Grammitidoideae, according to the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I).
It is native to China, Japan, and the Philippines.
Species.
Neotropical (the Americas) species formerly placed in the genus have been reclassified to "Moranopteris".
"Micropolypodium" now contains the following species according to the "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World" :


Portulacaceae

The Portulacaceae are a family of flowering plants, comprising 115 species in a single genus "Portulaca". Formerly some 20 genera with about 500 species, were placed there, but it is now restricted to encompass only one genus, the other genera being placed elsewhere. The family has been recognised by most taxonomists, and is also known as the purslane family. It has a cosmopolitan distribution, with the highest diversity in semiarid regions of the Southern Hemisphere in Africa, Australia, and South America, but with a few species also extending north into Arctic regions. The family is very similar to the Caryophyllaceae, differing in the calyx, which has only two sepals.
The APG II system (2003; unchanged from the APG system of 1998) assigns it to the order Caryophyllales in the clade core eudicots. In the APG III system, several genera were moved to the Montiaceae, Didiereaceae, Anacampserotaceae and Talinaceae, thus making the family monotypic and only containing the genus "Portulaca".


Bucida ophiticola

Bucida ophiticola is a species of plant in the Combretaceae family. It is endemic to Cuba. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Monnina chimborazeana

Monnina chimborazeana is a species of plant in the family Polygalaceae. It is endemic to Ecuador.


Christella cyatheoides

Christella cyatheoides is a species of fern found on islands of the central Pacific Ocean.


Lysinema

Lysinema is a small genus of flowering plants in the family Ericaceae.
The species, which are all endemic to the south west of Western Australia, include:
The genus was formally described in 1810 by botanist Robert Brown.


Oltmannsiellopsidaceae

Oltmannsiellopsidaceae is a family of green algae in the order Oltmannsiellopsidales.


Gentiana septemfida

Gentiana septemfida, the crested gentian or summer gentian, is a species of flowering plant in the family Gentianaceae, native to the Caucasus and Turkey. It is a low-growing herbaceous perennial growing to tall by wide, bearing up to eight bright blue trumpet-shaped blooms in summer, with striped interiors. It requires a rich, moist soil and full sun.
The Latin specific epithet "septemfida" means "with seven divisions".
In cultivation this plant and the darker-flowered variety "G. septemfida" var. "lagodechiana" have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Leptotes (plant)

Leptotes, abbreviated Lpt in horticultural trade, is a genus of orchids formed by nine small species that grow in the dry jungles of south and southeast Brazil, and also in Paraguay or Argentina. They are small epiphytic plants of caespitose growth that sometimes resemble little "Brassavola", as they share the same type of thin terete leaves, though they are more closely related to "Loefgrenianthus".
Some species of "Leptotes" are widely cultivated and form showy displays when completely in bloom although they are not among the easiest to grow. The majority of the species are not cultivated and some are so rare to be almost unknown; five of the nine species have been described since 2000. Besides being cultivated for their ornamental value, there are records of the flowers and fruits of "Leptotes bicolor" being used as a substitute for vanilla in milk, ice cream, tea and candies.
Distribution.
The species of "Leptotes" were originally discovered in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil and are always seen living epiphytically. Two species have since been found in other countries, "L. unicolor" in Argentina, and "L. bicolor" in Paraguay. Three species show a high degree of endemism in the south of Bahia State. The states of southeastern Brazil can be considered the center of its distribution since they host the highest number of species and the "Leptotes" are most abundant there, however, the range is from the Serra da Jibóia chain of mountains, in Bahia, to the North of Rio Grande do Sul state.
The species in the group that are characterized by wide open flowers, such as "Leptotes tenuis" and "L. pauloensis", are more frequently found in montane cloud forests. "L. bicolor" has the broadest range and can survive in both the cloud forests and the dryer woods on the plateaus of the Serra do Mar chain of mountains. "Leptotes unicolor" grows optimally in cooler areas, above 700 meters of altitude, and is frequently found growing on "Araucaria" and "Podocarpus" trees in the southern areas of Brazil.
Description.
Species assigned to the genus "Leptotes" have a short cylindrical rhizome. They have small pseudobulbs that almost imperceptibly prolongate in one, rarely two, terete fleshy leaves. They have variable characteristics and can be short or long, erect or hanging, dark green or purple, and often have a wrinkly surface and a deeper ridge in the face. The inflorescence is apical, generally short, and grows from the apex of the pseudobulb without a protecting spathe and bears up to seven flowers, although fewer are more common. The flowers are relatively large when compared to the overall plant dimensions, normally partially bent and in some species forming groups with a very showy aspect. They are fragrant and this perfume can last from ten to twenty days.
The appearance of the petals and sepals is similar, both are elongated although the petals are slightly more narrow. Flower colors are generally greenish, white or variable shades of pink and the labellum (a special petal attractive to pollinators) can be spotted in pale yellow, light purple or lilac. The labellum is located along the column and trilobed (three lobes). The lateral lobes are small and raised beside the column, although never involving it. The intermediate lobe is much bigger and quite variable between species. They can have either lanceolate or obovate shape, occasionally be fleshy, flat or bending backwards; in some species they have denticulated edges but are smooth in others. Rarely, calli are present, with claws holding them attached to the sides of the column. The column is short, thick and erect, normally greenish, biauriculated, and bears six pollinia of different sizes, two larger in the center and four smaller in two pairs held by a short caudicle in an arrangement that is unique among orchids. Their fruits are rounded, succulent and have a perfume reminiscent of "vanilla".
The agent for the pollination of "Leptotes" has never been observed. Cássio van den Berg postulates, judging from the colors and morphology of the flowers, that bees are the primary agent, while other orchidologists suspect pollination by hummingbirds is more important.
As the roots of "Leptotes" rot easily with excessive humidity, the best results for their culture are achieved when they are mounted on plaques of vegetal fiber or tree cork. Watering and fertilizer must be more frequent during active growth periods and less during dormant periods. Ideal growth conditions require an intermediate temperature and exposure to filtered sunlight.
Taxonomic notes.
In April 1833, an unknown species from the Serra dos Órgãos mountains of Brazil blossomed in the greenhouse of Mrs. Arnold Harrison, an English collector of orchids homaged in diverse descriptions of noted species such as "Bifrenaria harrisoniae" and "Cattleya harrisoniana". A short time later, Mrs. Harrison sent a drawing and cutting of this plant to the botanist John Lindley, who verified it to be not only a new species but a new genus. In its description, dated the same year, Lindley suggests the name of "Leptotes", from the Greek λεπτότητα for "mild", "delicate", in reference to the appearance of the plant's flowers. He affirmed that "Leptotes" was similar to "Tetramicra", from which it is distinguished by the structures of the pollinarium and by the smaller lateral lobes of the lip petal; and because they have no calcar attached to the ovarium. He also differentiated it from "Brassavola" by the pollinia and trilobed lip. Lindley then described its type-species, "Leptotes bicolor".
In 1838, Lindley received two similar but distinct plants, collected in Macaé de Cima and Ilha Grande, in Rio de Janeiro. He considered them different from the previously described species, because the lateral lobes of the lip were slightly serrated, their flowers were bigger and they occasionally had a second leaf by the pseudobulb; he proposed a new species with the name of "Leptotes serrulata". Five years later, the German Count Johann Centurius von Hoffmannsegg noticed that one plant he cultivated had a different green-bluish tone to its leaves and he described the plant calling it "L. glaucophylla". When reviewing all the known species of "Leptotes" at the time, in 1990, Carl Withner revisited the drawings published by Lindley and identified additional differences between "L. bicolor" and "L. serrulata", describing how the latter always bears more flowers, with up to seven per inflorescence, which is also much longer. Today it is accepted, however, that both descriptions are variations of "L. bicolor" that coexist due to its wide dispersion and multiplicity of populations.
In 1865, Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach received, from an unknown locality in Brazil, the second described species to be accepted today. The plant was quite different from "Leptotes bicolor", because of its fewer and smaller rounded flowers, with wide open pale yellowish segments and he published it as "L. tenuis". Twelve years later, the third species, "Leptotes unicolor", was described by Brazilian botanist João Barbosa Rodrigues. His account described a highly fragrant little species of orchid and he found some colonies with hundreds of plants living epiphytically along the banks of the Dourado and Sapucai rivers, nearby the city of Alfenas, in Minas Gerais. In 1881, Barbosa Rodrigues found another species, this one with longer leaves and slight differences in floral structure, and named it as "L. paranaensis" after Paraná State where he first found the plant, although today the location near Joinville is located in Santa Catarina. Today this species is considered to be just a variation of "L. unicolor", the species he had described four years earlier.
Robert Allen Rolfe received from Brazil, also without information of locality, a plant similar to the "Leptotes tenuis" species described by Reichenbach over 20 years earlier. Rolfe described it as "L. minuta" and noted it had much thicker and shorter leaves. This new species was included in Célestin Alfred Cogniaux's revision of Brazilian orchid species, published 1903, but in doing so he was unaware of the variability within the "Leptotes" species. At the time Cogniaux published his book he had not had the opportunity to check the types of all the other species then described, therefore, he accepted most of them with this remark. In retrospect, it is now more clear that the variation in leaves was due to both the isolation of various populations and because of the different growth conditions in each habitat, and today "L. minuta" is known as a variation of "L. tenuis".
While living in Brazil, the Danish Botanist Johan Albert Constantin Löfgren received an Orchid from Itatiaia, Rio de Janeiro, with flowers reminiscent of the "Leptotes", although its lip petal formed a pouch. He described it as "Leptotes blanche-amesiae", also noting it had a pending habit and thin flat leaves. Later work on the genus by Frederico Carlos Hoehne led him to conclude that this species, despite being closely related to the "Leptotes", would be better placed in another genus. He proposed the genus "Loefgrenianthus", in hommage to Loefgren. In 1934, Hoehne also described a new species, "Leptotes pauloensis", naming it so because it was found in São Paulo State. This species is closely related to "Leptotes tenuis" but its flowers have different colors. For decades taxonomists were divided on whether this should be considered a new species, partly due to the fact it was so rare, indeed, Guido Pabst considered it a synonym of "L. tenuis". Recently many new colonies have been discovered and Withner now proposes that "L. pauloensis" should be accepted as a separate species.
Consequently, as of 2004, four species of "Leptotes" were known, three sufficiently different that they can be regarded as well established species, "L. bicolor", "L. unicolor" and "L. tenuis", and one, "L. pauloensis", that is becoming more frequently accepted by taxonomists.
A recent explosion of descriptions has more than doubled the size of this genus, however, the history of these discoveries starts much earlier. In 1954, one of the associates of Círculo Paulista de Orquidófilos, an orchid society in São Paulo, presented a lecture where he talked informally about the innumerable varieties of "Leptotes" that he had collected throughout the years. This lecture was printed and distributed in the bulletin of the association. In 2004, Eric Christenson identified at least two of the several varieties mentioned in the lecture to be existing in collections throughout the United States and decided to describe them formally as independent species. One of these plants, "Leptotes harryphillipsii", is very similar to "L. pauloensis" already a problematic species by itself. The other one, "L. mogyensis", is unknown to Brazilian scholars and collectors. The sole example is the plant Christenson found in the US, supposedly originated from Mogi das Cruzes, a city nearby São Paulo.
Two other new species described in 2004 belong to the affinity of "Leptotes bicolor" and were both found by the same surveyor in the region of Buerarema, south of Bahia. "Leptotes bohnkiana", named after its finder, can be differentiated because it has a significantly smaller stature, the other, "L. pohlitinocoi", mostly by color.
Finally, in 2006 Sidney Marçal de Oliveira discovered the last species to be described, also from Bahia, although an inhabitant of Chapada Diamantina too. This new species, "Leptotes vellozicola", is quite distinct from the other species.
According to Cássio van den Berg et al., who studied their phylogeny, "Leptotes" is very closely related to "Loefgrenianthus" and both situated between "Pseudolaelia" and the genus which once used to be classified as "Schomburgkia", by some now considered part of "Laelia".
Species.
The three main characteristics that differentiate between the species of "Leptotes" are the general proportions of the leaves, the shape of the flowers, and the way the flowers open. From these, the species can be classified into two main groups.
One group is formed by the four species with flowers of elongated segments, which generally are not widely open. These species present malleable inflorescences that leave the flowers slightly or very overthrown, frequently facing down. Almost all the species of this group have long leaves, of comparatively lighter tones, generally with smooth surfaces, that are longer than the inflorescences.
The other group is formed by five smaller species that have more rounded flowers with petals and sepals that are wide open and flatter. The leaves are shorter wrinkly leaves, generally very dark green or purple colored. The species of this group often have only one or two flowers on each inflorescence. Four of them are very similar and sometimes difficult to distinguish.


Caobangia squamata

Caobangia squamata is a species of fern known only from Vietnam and from Guangxi Province in southern China. It is the only known species in its genus, distinctive because of the long, reddish-brown hair-like scales on the leaves. The plant is an herb spreading by rhizomes. Leaves are simple, elliptical. Sori are round, on the underside of the leaves. Spores white.


Elicitor

Elicitors in plant biology are extrinsic or foreign molecules often associated with plant pests, diseases or synergistic organisms. Elicitor molecules can attach to special receptor proteins located on plant cell membranes. These receptors are able to recognize the molecular pattern of elicitors and trigger intracellular defence signalling via the Octadecanoid pathway. This response results in the enhanced synthesis of metabolites which reduce damage and increase resistance to pest, disease or environmental stress. This is an immune response known as pattern triggered immunity or PTI. PTI is effective against necrotrophic microorganisms.
An example is chitosan which is found in insects, fungi and the shells of crustaceans. Chitosan is used in agriculture as a natural biocontrol agent, to improve plant health and increase crop yields.
Effectors and Hormones.
Effectors and hormones are other signalling molecules often confused with elicitors. Elicitors and effectors differ from hormones in that they are not produced within the organism that they are triggering a response in, and are usually not naturally occurring in the organism.
Plant Hormones.
Plant hormones are signalling molecules produced within the plant (i.e. they are endogenous). Hormones regulate cellular processes in targeted cells locally and can be moved to other parts of the plant. Examples of plant hormones are auxins, cytokins, gibberellin, ethylene, abscisic acid, salicylic acid and jasmonates. Hormones naturally occur in extremely low, finely balanced, concentrations.
Plant hormones act as plant growth regulators or modulators. Modulators are defined as molecules that "bind to a particular target protein, mainly to an enzyme, thereby directly changing its activity, i.e. increasing or decreasing". An example is salicylic acid which is a modulator of catalase isozymes activity and jasmonate, which modulates phenylalanine ammonia lyase activity.
Effectors.
Effectors are proteins secreted by microbial pathogens which can either trigger or compromise immunity depending on the ability of perception (presence of suitable receptor) and response (appropriate defence reaction) of the plant. Effector could be extracellular or injected directly into cells.
Microorganisms are able to inject effectors directly into host cells to by-pass induced defences in plants. This compromises the host plant's defence system and is referred to as effector-triggered susceptibility (ETS). The remaining immunity is called basal defense which can limit the spread of virulent pathogens in their hosts but it is typically insufficient to prevent disease.
In response to this threat, plant's have evolved effector recognition protein receptors to recognise, or monitor, effectors and initiate effector-triggered immunity (ETI). ETI is a strong immune response that efficiently protects plants from avirulent biotrophic pathogens and is often associated with the hypersensitive reaction (HR), a form of programmed death of plant cells at infection sites.
Crop Protection and Commercialisation of Elicitors.
Elicitors can protect crops from diseases, stress and damage. Elicitors do not need to be directly toxic for pathogenic organisms or pests to be of benefit. Therefore, they are an alternative to conventional pesticides which are often harmful for the environment, farmers and consumers and for which consumers are increasingly seeking safer alternatives.


Cansjera rheedei

Cansjera rheedei is a scandent shrub distributed from India, across Southeast Asia, China, Sumatra, Borneo and the Philippines. It was described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his work "System Naturae" ed. 13[bis]: 280 (1791).


Eucalyptus dumosa

Eucalyptus dumosa, commonly known as the white mallee, dumosa mallee, or Congoo mallee, is a species of mallee that is endemic to south eastern Australia. It usually has rough, flaky grey bark on the lower trunk, smooth bark above, lance-shaped to curved adult leaves, flower buds in groups of seven, white flowers and cup-shaped, cylindrical or barrel-shaped fruit.
Description.
"Eucalyptus dumosa" is a mallee that typically grows to a height of , occasionally and a width of with an open, bushy, spreading habit. It usually has rough, flaky or fibrous greyish bark on the base of the trunk, smooth, whitish or yellow-white, weathering to grey or pinkish-grey bark above. The bark sheds in long thin ribbons. Young plants and coppice regrowth have petiolate, egg-shaped to broadly lance-shaped leaves that are long and wide.
Adult leaves are the same dull bluish green to greyish green on both sides, lance-shaped to curved, long and wide on a petiole long. The flower buds are arranged in leaf axils in groups of seven on a peduncle long, the individual buds on a pedicel long. Mature buds are cylindrical, green or red, long and wide with a conical to turban-shaped, striated operculum. Flowering occurs from late summer to mid autumn and the flowers are white. The fruit is a woody, cup-shaped to cylindrical or barrel-shaped capsule long and wide.
Taxonomy and naming.
The name "Eucalyptus dumosa" was mentioned in John Oxley's "Journals of two expeditions into the interior of New South Wales" published in 1820. Oxley recorded that the name was used by the botanist Allan Cunningham who accompanied the expedition. Oxley referred to "those dreadful scrubs of eucalyptus dumosa" and "thick brushes of eucalyptus that spread in every direction around us "eucalyptus dumosa", or the dwarf gum, as they never exceed twenty feet in height, ... spreading out into a bushy circle from their roots in such a manner that it is impossible to see farther than from one bush to the other". The specific epithet ("dumosa") is a Latin word meaning "bushy", referring to the habit of the plant.
Distribution and habitat.
White mallee is found in the relatively dry country of South Australia from the northern Flinders Ranges and Murray Mallee eastwards to Dubbo in central western New South Wales and Swan Hill in north western Victoria. It is one of the most wide-spread mallee species.
Uses.
The leaves are steam distilled as a commercial source of cineole based eucalyptus oil.
It is used as a component of mass plantings along with other mallee species on wide roadside verges as a screen, wind-break, erosion control or a shade tree. Indigenous Australians use the tree as a source of food, drink, medicines and to make containers and implements. A sweet manna-like substance is produced upon the leaves of the tree, it is made into a drink. The bark of young roots is baked and eaten, it is sweet, resembling malt in flavour.
The 1889 book 'The Useful Native Plants of Australia’ records that common names included "Bastard Box" and "Coolibah" and that "These Eucalypts [sic.], amongst others, yield water from their roots...", and "a kind of manna called Lerp or Larp by the aboriginals [sic.]. It is the nidus of an insect, and consists of starch-like substance, which is eaten in summer by the aborigines [sic.] of the mallee country of Victoria. It somewhat resembles in appearance small shells; it is sweet, and in colour white or yellowish-white. According to Dr. Thomas Dobson, of Hobart, the insect which causes the Lerp to form is "Psylla Eucalypti". It is probably formed on the leaves of other mallee Eucalypts. This substance occurs on the leaves, and consists of white threads clotted together by a syrup proceeding from the insect ("Psylla Eucalypti") which spins those threads. It contains, in round numbers, of water 14 parts, thread-like portion 33 parts, sugar 53 parts. The threads possess many of the characteristic properties of starch, from which, however, they are sharply distinguished by their form. When lerp is washed with water the sugar dissolves and the threads swell but slightly, but dissolve to a slight extent, so that the solution is coloured blue by iodine. The threads freed from sugar by washing consist of a substance called Lerp-amylum. Lerp-amylum is very slightly soluble in cold water, not perceptibly more so in water at 100°".
It is also suitable to produce large amounts of biomass, able to make per hectare per year. In wheatbelt regions it is also beneficial as the tree will reduce salinity, give shade to stock, act as a windbreak and reduce erosion.


Ardisia opaca

Ardisia opaca is a species of plant in the family Primulaceae. It is found in Colombia, Costa Rica, and Panama. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Acer sutchuenense

Acer sutchuenense is an Asian species of maple. It is native to China (Hubei, Hunan, + Sichuan).
"Acer sutchuenense" is a deciduous tree up to 12 meters tall with smooth gray bark. Leaves are compound with 3 leaflets, each leaflet up to 15 cm wide and 6 cm across, thin and papery, with a few shallow teeth along the edges.


Phytophthora sojae

Phytophthora sojae is an oomycete and a soil-borne plant pathogen that causes stem and root rot of soybean. This is a prevalent disease in most soybean growing regions, and a major cause of crop loss. In wet conditions the pathogen produces zoospores that move in water and are attracted to soybean roots. Zoospores can attach to roots, germinate, and infect the plant tissues. Diseased roots develop lesions that may spread up the stem and eventually kill the entire plant. "Phytophthora sojae" also produces oospores that can remain dormant in the soil over the winter, or longer, and germinate when conditions are favourable. Oospores may also be spread by animals or machinery.
"Phytophthora sojae" is a diploid organism with a genome size of 95 Mbp (Millions of base pairs).
The natural chemical farinomalein (a metabolite from entomopathogenic fungus "Paecilomyces farinosus") has shown potent and selective inhibition (0.15-5 μg/disk) against eight isolates of plant pathogenic "Phytophthora sojae". These results suggest that farinomalein might be useful as a candidate pesticide for the treatment of "Phytophthora" stem rot in soybean.
"Phytophthora sojae" is so similar to "Phytophthora megasperma" that they're often mistaken for each other. In the early years of research, "Phytophthora sojae" and "Phytophthora medicaginis" were respectively known as "Phytophthora megasperma" f. sp. "glycines" and "Phytophthora megasperma" f. sp. "medicaginis". Recent discoveries about their molecular structure, however, proved that they were indeed unambiguous species.
Hosts and symptoms.
"Phytophthora sojae" infects soybean plants "(Glycine max)" and many members of the genus "Lupinus". They have the ability to infect soybeans at any point during its development process, including during seed development.
They cause seed decay and pre- and postemergence damping off when the soil is flooded after planting. Seedling roots may appear to have light brown soft rot as soon as the seedlings begin to sprout from the soil.
It also causes root and stem rot and the severity of the infection depends on how susceptible or tolerant the plant is to pathogens. In a highly-tolerant soybean plant, the root rot will simply cause the plant to be stunted and slightly chlorotic instead of killing the plant. In contrast, infection of a low-tolerant soybean plant will most likely lead to the death of the plant. Infection initiates in the roots and then progresses several nodes up the stem, turning the root and the stem brown and the leaves yellow. As the pathogen progresses, the entire plant transforms into an orange-brown color. The wilted leaves bend towards the plant and remain attached as it succumbs to death.
Foliar blight is also a symptom of "Phytophthora sojae", especially when the plant has recently experienced heavy rain. The soybean plant has an age-related resistance in which the older leaves are not susceptible to foliar blight.
Soybean fields infected with "Phytophthora sojae" can be easily spotted by looking for stunted soybean plants or looking for empty patches where the soybean seed had been planted.
Microscopic identification of an oospore that measure around 40 micrometers in diameter from a soybean plant sample is a definite sign of "Phytophthora sojae". Oospores, in general, measure around 20-45 micrometers in diameter and have very thick cellulose cell walls for overwintering.
Disease cycle.
"Phytophthora sojae" overwinters in plant debris and soil as oospores. Oospores are made after the male gamete, antheridium, and female gamete, oogonium, undergo fertilization and then sexual recombination (meiosis). They possess thick cell walls with cellulose that enables them to survive harsh conditions in the soil without germinating for several years. They begin to germinate once the environmental condition is favorable during spring (see § Environment) and produce sporangia. They can either germinate directly or indirectly. In direct germination, sporangia directly penetrate the host cells at the plant's root tips (if it's within reach). Indirect germination involves sporangia releasing zoospores (if the root is at a farther distance from the sporangia) which encyst on the host plant cells and germinate. Zoospores are biflagellate asexual motile spores. They are dispersed by water flow in the soil and are able to inoculate the roots of plants or seeds. Chemicals such as daidzeins and genistein are released at the tip of the plant roots which attract the liberated zoospores.
Once zoospores have made contact with the host root, they encyst on the surface, break down the plant cell wall with proteolytic enzymes and begin to germinate. Their hyphae will begin to grow through the intercellular space of the plant cells. After establishing its haustoria for nutrients, more oospores will begin to form in the cortical cells of the root. The host plant will begin to exhibit secondary symptoms such as stem canker, wilting, and chlorosis as "Phytophthora sojae" continue to reproduce. This continuous reproduction renders the plant dead at the end of the season. The oospores are then left to overwinter in the dead plant's debris and the soil. The cycle is repeated once again in the spring when environmental conditions are favorable (see § Environment). The disease is mostly localized where zoospores initially infected the host plant.
"Phytophthora sojae" is considered to be a monocyclic pathogen and has one effective infection in its cycle. This is because the oospores don't germinate together at the same time; rather they each have their own distinct favorable condition in which they'll initiate their germination.
Environment.
"Phytophthora sojae" favor fields that are poorly drained or highly-susceptible to flooding. Solving it only by creating optimal drainage does not restrict the pathogen because the field may be subject to continuous heavy rain which induces flooding. Similar to other "Phytophthora", warm soil, intermittent rain (including the rain splashes that results from rain), and windy weather are favorable conditions for development and the spread of the disease respectively. The optimum temperature for its disease development is above .
Management.
Host resistance is the primary method of control for "Phytophthora sojae". There are three types of resistance: R gene mediated resistance, root resistance, and partial resistance. Currently there are 14 "Rps" genes, meaning 14 different single-resistance genes, which have been identified for R-gene mediated resistance and mapped in the soybean genome. Effectively, the most damage that the oomycete can induce is a lesion. Root resistance is inherited and is generally expressed in the roots. In this case, the stem of a germinating seedling is most susceptible. Once the first leaves begin to emerge, the partial resistance of the plant is expressed. Colonization is reduced and lesions are smaller in comparison. This management prevents the zoospores from germinating in the root tip and therefore unable to produce hyphae, which it needs to survive.
"Phytophthora sojae" can also be controlled using fungicides. For example, Metalaxyl, a fungicide that is specifically used for oomycetes, is used for treating soybean seeds. It's used to prevent seed decay and pre-emergence damping off. This fungicide has been observed to be more effective on highly-tolerant soybean plants. Metalaxyl is most effective when applied to the soil as it allows the plant to take it up through the roots and elongate the control period in comparison to a seed application. Metalaxyl prevents the spores of "Phytophthora sojae" from entering the soybean plant tissues. As with all fungicides, Metalaxyl is effective for prevention only and should be applied before the disease has established itself inside the tissues of the soybean plant. Replanting must be done once severe pre-emergence damping off is observed.
Improving field drainage and soil tillage are cultural practices that can help minimize the effect of "Phytophthora sojae". Improving soil tillage can help eliminate oospores from the soil. Oospores are very sturdy and can remain stagnant in the soil for a long time and therefore crop rotation alone is not effective. Proper field drainage prevents flooding and therefore inhibit zoospore movement towards the host.
Importance.
"Phytophthora" root and stem rot of soybean was first observed in the United States in Indiana in 1948 and its causal agent, "Phytophthora sojae", first identified in 1958. In the 1970s, soybean plants only had one single-resistance gene, meaning they were more susceptible to an infection. Eventually plants with this gene were killed by new races of "Phytophthora sojae". As a result, several states suffered significant yield losses particularly in the state of Ohio, which lost 300,000 acres of soybean plants in a year. Soon thereafter, a variety of new disease prevention methods were implemented and as a result this disease is currently one of the well-managed and well-known soybean diseases in the USA.
Origin.
Recently there's been evidence that soybean plants from South Korea and China had a diversity of resistance that is much higher in these countries compared to other soybean-cultivating nations. This indicates that soybean plants have been around in these areas longer and thus had more time to develop resistance against a variety of diseases including "Phytophthora sojae".


Ribes maximowiczii

Ribes maximowiczii is a species of Ribes found in China, Japan, Korea, and Russia at elevations of 900–2700 meters.


Enhalus

Enhalus is a monotypic genus of marine flowering plants. The sole species is Enhalus acoroides. "Enhalus" is a large seagrass native to coastal waters of the tropical Indian and Western Pacific Oceans. It is the only species of seagrass that does aerial surface pollination in which the pollen and the styles remain dry. "Enhalus" is surface pollinated with male flowers that detach from the plant to float on the surface until they reach a female flower where pollination can occur. Enhalus acoroides is considered a slow-growing, "climax" species.
Description.
"Enhalus acoroides" massive rhizomes (1.5 cm in diameter) help it stay anchored in soft mud substrates, withstanding wave action and tidal currents. it has long strap like leaves (30–150 cm) which make up a significant volume of total plant biomass of shallow water seagrass beds, because of the large structure of the leaves and where they are in the water column, they provide greater surfaces for Epibiont organisms to inhabit. Fruit are round and large (4–6 cm in diameter) with dark, ribbed skin and 6-7 white seeds. The male plant bears a single pedunculate inflorescence or stem containing clusters of flowers, each is highly reduced in form to a small free floating device. Female Enhalus acoroides bears only a single inflorescence, but the peduncle of a female flower is much longer.
Distribution and habitat.
"Enhalus acoroides" is a littoral species living in shallow soft substrates like muddy or sand-flats and coral substrates depending the region of growth. It can be found as far east as Papua New Guinea and can range from the Red Sea south to northern Mozambique in the Indian Ocean. It can be found in mixed meadows of seagrasses comprising 90% of the meadow biomass mainly with "Thallassia hemprichii." it can also be found living in isolated areas. Enhalus acoroides grows best just above the level of mean low water springs and grows to generally 4 meters deep.
Reproduction.
"Enhalus acoroides" is dioecious and able to reproduce sexually and asexually. "Enhalus acoroides" create small isolated patches containing 25 to 200 shoots through lateral rhizome spreading. It can also produce pollen like other seagrasses but it is unique in that it is the only species of seagrasses that surface pollinates. During this process, the male flower will break off from the spathe and rise to the surface where it has numerous flowers inside its hydrophobic inflorescences. Once at the surface it will release its pollen to a female inflorescence where it has reached the surface of the water by means of an elongated stalk surface. The developing fruit is drawn under the water to finish ripening. Flowering is a year round phenomenon and the amount of flowers being produced are strongly related to variations in mean water temperatures.


Swertia cordata

Swertia cordata is an important medicinal plant of the family Gentianaceae and is found distributed throughout temperate regions of the Himalaya. The species used in various ethnomedicinal systems and as an adulterant of "Swertia chirayita".


Ephedra pedunculata

Ephedra pedunculata, common name Clap-weed, vine Mormon tea or Comida de Vívora, is a plant species native to southern Texas and to Mexico as far south as Zacatecas. It grows in sandy or rocky slopes and outcrops.
Most species of "Ephedra" (called "Mormon tea") are shrubs, but "Ephedra pedunculata" is a trailing or clambering woody vine up to long. Bark is gray, becoming cracked with age. Leaves are opposite, up to long. Microsporangial (pollen-producing cones) are 1–2 mm long, compared to less than 1 mm in many other species. Seed cones are long, each containing 2 ellipsoid seeds long.


Ixianthes

Ixianthes is a genus of flowering plants in the family Stilbaceae described as a genus in 1836.
There is only one known species, Ixianthes retzioides, native to Western Cape Province in South Africa.


Xanthophyllum clovis

Xanthophyllum clovis is a tree in the family Polygalaceae. The specific epithet "" is from the French meaning "nail" or "clove", referring to the clove-like appearance of the buds.
Description.
"Xanthophyllum clovis" grows up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The bark is greyish. The flowers are dark red when dry. The edible fruits are round and measure up to in diameter.
Distribution and habitat.
"Xanthophyllum clovis" is endemic to Borneo. Its habitat is lowland mixed dipterocarp or swamp forests.


Dactyladenia mannii

Dactyladenia mannii is a species of plant in the family Chrysobalanaceae. It is endemic to Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Delissea subcordata

Delissea subcordata is a rare species of flowering plant in the bellflower family known by the common names Koʻolau Range delissea and oha. It is endemic to Hawaii, where it is known only from the island of Oahu. It is now only found in the Waianae Mountains, and it is believed to be extirpated from the Koʻolau Range, where it once occurred. As of 2008 there were 40 individuals remaining, 28 of which were mature plants. This plant was federally listed as an endangered species of the United States in 1996.
This Hawaiian lobelioid is a shrub which grows up to 3 meters tall and bears white or greenish flowers. It grows in moist forest habitat. Other plants in the forests include ohia lehua ("Metrosideros polymorpha") and koa ("Acacia koa"), which dominate the canopy, and Ēlama ("Diospyros hillebrandii"), papala kepau ("Pisonia" spp.), and ʻĀlaʻa ("Pouteria sandwicensis") in the understory.
Threats to this rare species and its ecosystem include feral goats and pigs.


Parnassia

The genus Parnassia, also known as grass of Parnassus or bog-stars, are plants now placed in the family Celastraceae, formerly classified in Parnassiaceae or Saxifragaceae. The plants occur in arctic and alpine habitats, as well as in dune systems and fens, swamps, wet meadows, open seepage areas, moist woods, and across the Northern Hemisphere. It is actually not a grass, but an herbaceous dicot. The stalk of the plant can reach up to , the leaves up to and the petals can be up to wide. The flower has five white petals with light green venation. There are five three-pronged sterile stamens, each tipped with drop-like false nectaries, which (along with the visual cue of veins) attract pollinating flies and bees.
Some species are often found in wet calcareous habitats with low fertility, low canopy cover, and high plant diversity. "Parnassia glauca" is considered to be an indicator species of fens in New York State. Such habitats are often becoming rare, and so species of "Parnassia" may have high conservation value. For example "Parnassia palustris" is threatened and legally protected in Michigan while "Parnassia caroliniana" is considered imperiled in North Carolina.
Parnassus flowers are the symbol of the Clan MacLea, also known as the highland Livingstone clan, and said to be the favorite flower of St. Moluag, the Irish missionary whose staff the clan chiefs hold. Three Grass of Parnassus flowers appear on the Flag of Cumberland, a British county, since that flower grows on Cumberland's lofty fells.
Species include:


Camissoniopsis

Camissoniopsis is a plant genus in the evening primrose family (Onagraceae).
Species.
 "The Plant List" recognises 17 taxa (of species and infraspecific names):


Eucalyptus cinerea

Eucalyptus cinerea, commonly known as the Argyle apple, mealy stringbark or silver dollar tree, is a species of small- to medium-sized tree that is endemic to south-eastern Australia. It has rough, fibrous bark on the trunk and branches, usually only juvenile, glaucous, egg-shaped evergreen leaves, flower buds in groups of three, white flowers and conical to bell-shaped fruit.
Description.
"Eucalyptus cinerea" is a tree that typically grows to a height of tall and forms a lignotuber. It has thick, fibrous, reddish brown to grey brown, longitudinally fissured bark on the trunk to the small branches. The leaves on young plants and on coppice regrowth are arranged in opposite pairs, sessile, glaucous, broadly egg-shaped to more or less round, up to long and wide. Intermediate leaves are arranged in opposite pairs, glaucous, egg-shaped to lance-shaped, long and wide on a petiole long. Adult leaves are arranged alternately, lance-shaped, long and wide on a petiole up to long. The flower buds are arranged in groups of three in leaf axils on a peduncle long, the individual buds sessile or on a pedicel up to long. Mature buds are glaucous, diamond-shaped, long and wide with a conical operculum. Flowering occurs between May and November and the flowers are white. The fruit is a woody, conical to bell-shaped capsule long and wide with the valves level with the rim or slightly beyond.
Taxonomy and naming.
"Eucalyptus cinerea" was first formally described by the botanist George Bentham in 1867 from the herbarium of Ferdinand von Mueller, and the description was published in "Flora Australiensis". The specific epithet ("cinerea") is a Latin word meaning "ash-coloured" or "grey" referring to the white, waxy bloom on the foliage, buds and fruit of this species.
Two subspecies of "E. cinerea" have been described and the names accepted by the Australian Plant Census:
A third subspecies, subspecies "victoriensis" was described in 2018. It is the tallest subspecies and has adult leaves in its crown.
Distribution and habitat.
Argyle apple is typically found from north of Bathurst (33° S), in central west New South Wales, to the Beechworth area of Victoria (36° S). It is often part of grassy or sclerophyll woodland communities growing in shallow and relatively infertile soils usually as part of the understorey. Subspecies "cinerea" occurs in the Australian Capital Territory and Captains Flat in New South Wales and subspecies "triplex" in the Australian Capital Territory and Captains Flat in New South Wales. Subspecies "victoriensis" is only known from hilly country near Beechworth in Victoria.


Cycadidae

Cycadidae is a subclass of Equisetopsida in the sense used by Mark W. Chase and James L. Reveal in their 2009 article "A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III." This subclass comprises the cycads, which include the two families Cycadaceae and Zamiaceae.
Phylogeny.
The following diagram shows a likely phylogenic relationship between subclass Cycadidae and the other Equisetopsida subclasses.


Saxifraga stellaris

Saxifraga stellaris, the starry saxifrage or hairy kidney-wort, is an Arctic–alpine species of saxifrage. It produces panicles of 5–10 white flowers on a stem up to tall, rising from a basal leaf rosette. One subspecies is found from eastern Canada to Russia, including the British Isles, while another is found in the mountains of southern Europe.
Description.
"Saxifraga stellaris" grows as a leaf rosette, which produces a generally leafless stem up to tall. The leaves are toothed and somewhat fleshy, ovate or obovate, and without an obvious petiole. They are typically long (varying from ), with a cuneate (wedge-shaped) base.
The flowers are borne in a loose panicle comprising 5–10 flowers; each flower has deflexed sepals, surrounding five white petals, long, with two yellow or red spots near the base. The anthers are also red or yellow. Flowers are borne from June to August.
The seeds are dark brown, glabrous, long, and wide. They are elliptic, ovoid or reniform in shape, with longitudinal ribs bearing spines. "S. stellaris" has a chromosome number of 2"n" = 28.
Distribution and ecology.
"Saxifraga stellaris" has an Arctic–alpine distribution. It is found from Baffin Island, Labrador and Greenland to Arctic Russia, including Iceland, Scandinavia and the British Isles. Further south, it is found from the Sierra Nevada in southern Spain to the eastern Carpathians, including lower ranges such as the Massif Central.
In the Arctic, "S. stellaris" may occur down to sea level. Within the British Isles, "S. stellaris" is abundant in North Wales, Northern England and Scotland, reaching the summit of Ben Nevis (), but is only found locally in Ireland. Its southernmost stations in Great Britain are the slopes of Plynlimon and the Rheidol valley; it does not occur in the mountains of South Wales. In the Vosges, it occurs around , but only rarely below in the Swiss Alps. In the Sierra Nevada of southern Spain, it lives at up to .
"Saxifraga stellaris" lives in damp environments, such as wet flushes, beside streams or springs, or on wet rock ledges. It is self-compatible, but its flowers are protandrous, and are usually pollinated by flies.
Taxonomy.
"Saxifraga stellaris" was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 work "Species Plantarum". Linnaeus noted the species' occurrence in the mountains of Spitsbergen, Lapland, Switzerland, Styria and Westmorland. The nominate subspecies, "Saxifraga stellaris" subsp. "stellaris" is the northern subspecies, occurring from Canada to Russia, including the British Isles. The subspecies in the Alpide belt and other mountains in southern Europe is often called "S. stellaris" subsp. "alpigena", but an older name has priority – "S. stellaris" subsp. "robusta". The name "S. stellaris" subsp. "prolifera" is used for plants from the south-eastern Alps which have few flowers but produce bulbils along the stems.


Odontonia

× Odontonia, abbreviated as Odtna. in the horticultural trade, is the nothogenus for intergeneric orchid hybrids including the two orchid genera "Miltonia" and "Odontoglossum" (Milt. × Odm.).


Crassula tillaea

Crassula tillaea is a succulent plant known by its common names mossy stonecrop and moss pygmyweed. It is a small fleshy plant growing only a few centimeters in height. It is green when new and gradually turns orange and then deep red when mature. It has tiny triangular pointed leaves only a few millimeters long. A tiny flower or pair of flowers grows between each oppositely-arranged pair of leaves; the flowers are about two millimeters in length and width. The fruit is a minute follicle containing one or two seeds. This plant is native to Eurasia, particularly the Mediterranean Basin, but is known in other regions as an introduced species.


Molinadendron

Molinadendron is a genus of the Hamamelidaceae family, order Saxifragales, containing three reported species: "Molinadendron guatemalense", "Molinadendron hondurense", and "Molinadendron sinaloense". Relatives include witch-hazel and winter-hazel.
"M. sinaloense" is an evergreen tree native to the woodlands of western Mexico. It reaches a height of up to 20 ft (6.2 m). Leaves are oval, tapered, 3-6 inch (7.6-15.2 cm) in length, opening purplish and coppery on graceful branches.


Passiflora monadelpha

Passiflora monadelpha is a species of plant in the family Passifloraceae. It is endemic to Ecuador.


Centropogon baezanus

Centropogon baezanus is a species of plant in the family Campanulaceae. It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Acacia botrydion

Acacia botrydion is a shrub belonging to the genus "Acacia" and the subgenus "Phyllodineae". It is native to a small area in the Wheatbelt region of Western Australia.
The diffuse and spinose shrub typically grows to a height of . It blooms from July to September and produces yellow flowers.


Angraecum

The genus Angraecum, abbreviated as Angcm in horticultural trade, common name Angrek (Indonesian and Malay) or comet orchid, contains about 220 species.
Description.
They are quite varied vegetatively and florally and are adapted to dry tropical woodland habitat and have quite fleshy leaves as a consequence. Most are epiphytes, but a few are lithophytes.
The long-lasting flowers are racemose and grow from the leaf axils. They are mostly white, but a few are yellow, green or ochre. They all have a long spur at the back of the labellum (lip).
In the case of "Angraecum sesquipedale", a species from Madagascar, on observing the 30 cm spur in the lip, Charles Darwin made the hypothesis that, since the nectar was at the bottom of the spur, a pollinator must exist with a tongue at least that long. Otherwise the orchid could never be pollinated. At the time, he was not believed. However, in 1903, the predicted pollinator was discovered, a hawk moth then named "Xanthopan morganii praedicta" ("praedicta" meaning "the predicted one"). It has an appropriately long proboscis. The specific name "sesquipedale" means "one foot and a half", referring to the length of the spur. This is a perfect example of mutual dependence of an orchid and a specific pollinator.
Distribution.
Tropical Africa and Madagascar contain the majority of the genus with one outlier found on Sri Lanka, and three species once thought to belong to the genus in Japan and the Philippines. But these orchids can also be found on the Comoros, the Seychelles, and the Mascarenes. They occur between sea level and 2,000m in humid regions.
"Angraecum" conservation.
Many species of "Angraecum" orchid are considered to be at risk of extinction in the wild and are protected from international trade under CITES. The genus Angraecum is listed as one of the top conservation priorities by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Orchid Specialist Group. Many of the species, such as Angraecum sororium, are endemic to Madagascar and are threatened from over collecting, loss of hawkmoth pollinators, habitat fragmentation, and fire.
Growing "Angraecums".
Like all other orchids it is best to water in the mornings to avoid fungal rot due to overnight dampness. Feeding as per other orchids and similar light conditions: in humid and hot regions (sub tropical) feed fortnightly during growing season (Summer) with a certified orchid fertiliser following directions on packet, weaker solutions are also okay if you're worried. In summer water weekly or more depending on situation. Angraecums flower best when in a lighter position. Keep out of direct sunlight as this can damage (and eventually kill) the plant. Most Angraecums will have their leaves for a number of years so any sun burn spots are ugly for a significant period and also may expose your plant to disease. In indirect sunlight the Angraecums will reward you with blooms and attractive growth.
"Angraecum" Veitchii: a very rewarding orchid. In indirect light and watered/fed regularly this plant will produce blooms annually (usually in late Winter to Spring - for Australia this occurs in August). The flowers last a while if kept in a sheltered position and their strong heady fragrance is delightful. They only release their perfume at night. Flowers are large (4–9 cm across), waxy, white to greenish cream in colour and borne on stems of seven to ten depending on the faithfulness of your fertilising, watering, and indirect light provision. The leaves are large, thick straps that alternately fan out from a central (monopodal) stem. Pups (keikis) form at the base of the stem and can either be divided from the parent plant once they have at least three roots of their own or alternatively, left on the plant these will make a stunning specimen as when mature will produce blooms with the parent plant - many award-winning angraecum veitchiis are grown as such. In the right conditions these orchids are healthy and require little attention. As they are epiphytes the potting mixture should be loose and free draining. Prolific roots are formed from the base and also amongst the lower half of the foliage. These can be troublesome when moving the plant. Once your angraecum is big it is best to pot it in a heavy terracotta pot or place a brick in the bottom of the pot in order to ensure the plant does not get top heavy and risk snapping when blown over in the wind, especially since they flower during the windier times of the year. When watering a good soaking with a hose or watering-can is best (not just a misting from a spray gun) as this helps to flush away any salts from fertilisers that may be present in the potting mixture and also thoroughly wets the plant. Make sure the roots halfway up the stem get a soaking too, not just the potted roots.


Aggregate fruit

An aggregate fruit or etaerio () is a fruit that develops from the merger of several ovaries that were separated in a single flower. In contrast, a "simple fruit" develops from one ovary. In languages other than English, the meanings of aggregate and multiple fruit are reversed, so that aggregate fruits merge several flowers. The differences in meaning are due to a reversal in the terminology by John Lindley, which has been followed by most English-language authors.
Not all flowers with multiple ovaries form aggregate fruit; the ovaries of some flowers do not become tightly joined together to make a larger fruit. As a result, many fruits form which are commonly mistaken to be of the aggregate variety. Aggregate fruits may also be accessory fruits, in which parts of the flower other than the ovary become fleshy and form part of the fruit.
The individual parts of an aggregate fruit come in many forms. Common examples are:
The components of other aggregate fruit are more difficult to define. For example, sugar apple ("Annona" spp.) fruit are made up of individual berry-like pistils fused with the receptacle.


Cheilanthes sieberi

Cheilanthes sieberi is a small fern growing in many parts of Australia, New Zealand and nearby islands. Common names include poison rock fern and mulga fern.
This fern may grow up to 25 cm tall. It is a widespread plant, seen in a variety of different habitats: it occurs in arid areas as well as sites with over 1500 mm of annual average rainfall. In desert areas it grows in shaded rocky gullies. However, near the coast, it can grow in full sun in cracks of rocks, or in thin soils.
Consumption by stock.
Excessive consumption of this fern can cause health issues for sheep and cattle .


Chaetophyllopsis

Chaetophyllopsis is a genus of liverworts belonging to the family Cephaloziellaceae.
The species of this genus are found in Australia.
Species:


Allocasuarina monilifera

Allocasuarina monilifera, commonly known as necklace sheoak, is a shrub of the genus "Allocasuarina" native to Tasmania and Victoria.
The medium shrub typically grows to a height of less than . It grows in a variety of regions including coastal and sub-alpine.


Conostylis aculeata

Conostylis aculeata, commonly known as prickly conostylis, is a tufted perennial plant species in the family Haemodoraceae. It is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. Plants grow to between 5 and 60 cm high and produce yellow flowers between August and November in the species' native range.
The species was first formally described by botanist Robert Brown in 1810 in "Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae".
A number of subspecies are recognised:


Potentilla nitida

Potentilla nitida is a species of cinquefoil in the family Rosaceae that is endemic to the Alps where it grows on elevation of . The species is tall and wide. The flowers grow in pairs and are long.


Lithocarpus formosanus

Lithocarpus formosanus is a species of tree in the family Fagaceae. "L. formosanus" is a medium-sized tree with crooked trunk and many branches. It is endemic to Taiwan as it only occurs in the Hengchun Peninsula in the extreme south of the country. It grows in mixed mesophytic forests at altitudes of . Only single population of fewer than 50 individuals survives.
"Lithocarpus formosanus" is similar to "L. dodonaeifolius", and their identity as separate species has been questioned. Molecular methods suggest that they are closely related but distinct species.


Diospyros lunduensis

Diospyros lunduensis is a tree in the family Ebenaceae. It grows up to tall. The fruits are round, up to in diameter. The tree is named for Lundu in Malaysia's Sarawak state. "D. lunduensis" is endemic to Borneo.


Ephedra cutleri

Ephedra cutleri, the Navajo ephedra or Cutler's jointfir, is a species of "Ephedra" that is native to the Southwestern United States (Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, Nevada, Wyoming).
Description.
The rhizomatous shrubs form erect clumps, tall and wide. It grows on flat and dry sandy areas, and occasionally on rocky slopes. Anchored by the rhizomes and an advantageous root system, "Ephedra cutleri" leaves grow in an opposite orientation but can not sustain all growth. Because the leaves are too small to perform photosynthesis, it is conducted in the sticky stems of the plant.
Cultivation.
In one study, "E. cutleri" was the major plant found in Northeastern Arizona where dry, loamy, fine sand surfaced layers of Sheppard series soils dominate and form coppice dunes due their strong rhizomes.
Stabilized dunes are preferred at higher elevations.
Evapotranspiration of waste water studies have been performed where "E. cutleri" is the predominant established plant species. Their adaptation to the arid conditions of the desert landscape provide ideal functionality of evaporating the deposited water.
Uses.
A food source for animals, there are differing views as to whether the plant has any medicinal properties for humans with the exception of brewing Mormon tea. Another source indicated the stems contain ephedrine which can be used to treat respiratory symptoms.
Taxonomy.
The plant was originally described by Robert Hibbs Peebles in 1940. It was placed in section "Ephedra sect. Asarca".
The formation of the mountains and arid climatic variation conditions of the Southwestern United States and provides and ideal environment for the "Ephedra" species to develop. "E. cutleri" has diverged along with other variants such as "E. californica" and "E. viridis" during the Late Miocene and Pliocene epochs from one of the original "Ephedra" species "E. distachya".
Distribution.
USA (AZ, CO, NM, UT, WY)
Dispersal method is normally small mammals.
Wetland Indicator.
Not determined
External links.
Al Schneider - http://www.swcoloradowildflowers.com .
NatureServe Explorer - http://explorer.natureserve.org/index.htm
Integrated Taxonomic Information System - https://www.itis.gov/
USDA Natural resources Conservation Service - https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=EPCU


Rafflesia

Rafflesia () is a genus of parasitic flowering plants in the family Rafflesiaceae. The species have enormous flowers, the buds rising from the ground or directly from the lower stems of their host plants; one species has the largest flowers in the world. The genus contains approximately 28 species (including four incompletely characterized species as recognized in 1997 by Willem Meijer in the latest monograph on the genus), all found in Southeast Asia, mainly in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines. For Western Europe, it was first discovered by French surgeon and naturalist in Java between 1791 and 1794, but his notes and illustrations, seized by the British in 1803, were not available to western science until 1861. The first British person to see one was Joseph Arnold in 1818, in the Indonesia rainforest in Bengkulu, Sumatra, after a Malay servant working for him discovered a flower and pointed it out to him. It was later named after Stamford Raffles, the leader of the expedition.
Arnold was quite excited when he saw his first flower, the following is from his account:
"Rafflesia" is the national flower of Indonesia.
Description.
The plant has no stems, leaves or roots. It is a holoparasite of vines in the genus "Tetrastigma" (a plant in the Vitaceae, the grape vine family), spreading its absorptive organ, the haustorium, inside the tissue of the vine. The only part of the plant that can be seen outside the host vine is the five-petalled flower. In some species, such as "Rafflesia arnoldii", the flower may be over in diameter, and weigh up to . A "Rafflesia" that flowered in West Sumatra in 2019 was measured to be almost in diameter, the largest flower ever recorded – wider than the flower reported as the largest in 2017. Even one of the smallest species, "R. baletei", has diameter flowers.
The flowers look and smell like rotting flesh. The foul odour attracts insects such as carrion flies, which transport pollen from male to female flowers. Most species have separate male and female flowers, but a few have hermaphroditic flowers. Little is known about seed dispersal. Tree shrews and other forest mammals eat the fruits. The extremely tiny seeds have an extremely tiny elaiosomes, and are thus most likely dispersed by ants. The seeds are packed into berries, which contains hundreds of thousands of seeds.
Because "Amorphophallus" has the world's largest unbranched inflorescence, it is sometimes mistakenly credited as having the world's largest flower. Both "Rafflesia" and "Amorphophallus" are flowering plants, but they are unrelated to each other. "Rafflesia arnoldii" has the largest "single" flower of any flowering plant, at least in terms of weight. "Amorphophallus titanum" has the largest "unbranched" inflorescence, while the talipot palm ("Corypha umbraculifera") forms the largest "branched" inflorescence, containing thousands of flowers; the talipot is monocarpic, meaning the individual plants die after flowering.
"Rafflesia" are also remarkable for showing a large horizontal transfer of genes from their host plants. This is well known among bacteria, but not higher organisms. It also does not really occur in "Rafflesia", but in the mitochondria found within the cells of "Rafflesia", which were originally derived from bacteria, these appear to have exchanged genes with the mitochondria of the host tissue.
Names.
In Indonesian it is known as "padma". "R. arnoldii" is known as "padma paksasa" ("giant "padma""). In Javanese it is called "patma". In Malay, the 'normal' "R. hasseltii" is vernacularly known as "pakma", "patma" or "ambai-ambai", whereas the goliath "R. arnoldii" from Sumatra is called "krubut" or "kerubut", 'great flower'. The words "padma", "pakma" or "patma" originate etymologically from the word पद्म ("padma"), Sanskrit for 'lotus'.
A webpage for a class project by two American students, made in 2003, incorrectly stated that the local name translated to "corpse flower". A month later this sentence was copied to Wikipedia, but due to subsequent edits, by 2010 the sentence came to claim that the "English" name was "corpse flower", and by 2020 this name has been used numerous times in news articles and the like.
The name "corpse flower" referred to the titan arum ("Amorphophallus titanum") of the family Araceae.
According to a CNN reporter, the flower has been called the "monster flower".
Taxonomy.
Robert Brown introduced the genus "Rafflesia" to the wider scientific world in a presentation before the Linnean Society of London in June 1820, but his scientific paper on the subject was only published in late 1821.
In 1999 the British botanical historian David Mabberley pointed out that the genus "Rafflesia" was first validated by an anonymous report on the meeting published in the "Annals of Philosophy" in September 1820 (the name was technically an unpublished "nomen nudum" until this publication). Mabberley claimed the author was Samuel Frederick Gray. However, as that is nowhere stated in the "Annals", per Article 46.8 of the code of ICBN, Mabberley was wrong to formally ascribe the validation to Gray. The validation of the name was thus attributed to one Thomas Thomson, the editor of the "Annals" in 1820, by the IPNI. Mabberley admitted his error in 2017. This Thomson was not the botanist Thomas Thomson, who was three years old in 1820, but his identically-named father, a chemist, and "Rafflesia" is thus the only botanical taxon this man ever published!
Evolution and phylogeny.
Comparison of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences of "Rafflesia" with other angiosperm mtDNA indicated this parasite evolved from photosynthetic plants of the order Malpighiales. Another 2004 study confirmed this result using both mtDNA and nuclear DNA sequences, and showed the three other groups traditionally classified in Rafflesiaceae were unrelated. A 2007 study more specifically found "Rafflesia" and its relatives to be embedded within the family Euphorbiaceae as traditionally circumscribed, which was surprising, as members of that family typically have very small flowers. According to their analysis, the rate of flower size evolution was more or less constant throughout the family except at the origin of Rafflesiaceae, where the flowers rapidly evolved to become much larger before reverting to the slower rate of change.
To maintain monophyletic families, in 2016 the APG IV system separated the family Peraceae from the Euphorbiaceae. A summary cladogram is shown below, with family placements in the APG IV system.
A 2020 molecular phylogenetic study of 18 species of "Rafflesia" found that they fell into four clear-cut geographically defined groups:
However, the clear monophyly of the four geographical clades does not correspond to any clear difference in appearance. There is no consistency within the clades in the size of flowers, or the presence or absence of white warts; species in different clades resemble one another more than they do some other species within the same clade. Homoplasy – repeatedly gaining or losing traits – seems to be the rule within "Rafflesia".
Accepted species.
, Plants of the World Online accepted the following species:
Loss of the chloroplast genome.
Research published in 2014 revealed that one Philippine "Rafflesia" species from the island of Luzon, "R. lagascae" (a synonym of "R. manillana"), may have lost the genome of its chloroplast and it is speculated that the loss happened due to the parasitic lifestyle of the plant.
Distribution.
Malay peninsula.
Rafflesia can be found along the area of Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand in Malay peninsula.
Malaysia.
In Peninsular Malaysia, the flower can be found in few states such as Kelantan, Pahang, Perak and Terengganu. In Perak, three species of the flower can be found in Royal Belum state park and Gerik forest reserve of which are "Rafflesia kerrii", "Rafflesia cantleyi" and "Rafflesia azlanii". "Rafflesia azlanii" was named after the Sultan of Perak, Sultan Azlan Shah. Meanwhile, two species of the flower hosted by "Tetrastigma Planch" can be found in three location in Kelantan. The "Rafflesia cantleyi" species can be found in Ulut Sat and Chabang Tongkat while "Rafflesia kerrii" can be found in Lojing. Furthermore, two locations in Pahang where this flower can be found are Lembah Benum forest reserve and Lata Jarum. For Terengganu, the flower of "Rafflesia Cantleyi" species can be found in Kuala Berang. A rare sighting in happened in the area where a flower found hanging on the root of its host three metres above the ground unlike the common flowers found on the ground roots.
The locations of these flowers are turned into tourist attractions for biodiversity lovers and hikers and helps to generate income for the local people.
Thailand.
In Thailand "Rafflesia" can be observed in Khao Sok National Park where the flowers are numbered and monitored by the park rangers.
Bornean species.
Species native to Borneo include "Rafflesia arnoldii", "R. cantleyi", "R. hasseltii", "R. keithii", "R. kerrii", "R. pricei", "R. tengku-adlinii" and "R. tuan-mudae". "R. arnoldii" boasts the world's largest single bloom.
Malaysia.
"R. keithii" is an endemic species in Sabah and the largest among the three species of Rafflesia found in the Malaysian state. The flower size is between 60 cm to 80 cm. Due to its size, the flower is generally found on the forest floor growing on the underground stem or root of "Tetrastigma lanceolarium". "R. keithii" can be mostly found around the area of Poring, Sabah.
Mindanao species.
The Mindanao species is known as "Rafflesia schadenbergiana", after the naturalist Alexander Schadenberg, who first discovered the species at the foothills of Mount Apo in 1882. With a flower of nearly a meter, it is close to the size of a 7 year old child when seated. On Mindanao, the species has been seen in Davao del Sur, South Cotabato and Mount Kitanglad in Bukidnon. "R. mira" and "R. magnifica" are two names for a single species. Both were discovered at Mount Candalaga in Maragusan, Compostela Valley. The two forms differ in size measurements in which the scientific description of "R. magnifica" came from measurements of flowers in full bloom while that of "R. mira" was from photographs of nearly dead samples. The medium-sized "R. mira" flowers measure about half a meter in diameter and they have round or elliptic perigone wart. The third species on Mindanao is the "R. mixta" which has only been found so far in the town of Mainit, Surigao del Norte. It shows a combination of three features of Philippine "Rafflesia", namely: the shape and size of the conical process in "R. schadenbergiana", the floral size and sparsely distributed perigone warts of "R. speciosa", and the overall resemblance, floral size, faint scent, diaphragm and ramenta morphology of "R. mira". A fourth species is "Rafflesia verrucosa" which is found only in Mount Kampalili in Davao Oriental Province.
Ecology.
Species of "Rafflesia" are all thought to be holoparasites of lianas of the genus "Tetrastigma", vines which belong to the Vitaceae, the family of the grape vines. They are thus, in a way, hyperparasites, because "Tetrastigma" are themselves, in a way, structural parasites of the trees they use to climb up to the light. "Rafflesia" appear to be species-specific, with each "Rafflesia" species naturally only growing on one to three species of "Tetrastigma". Of the 57 known species of "Tetrastigma", only ten are known to be host plants. Of the 30 odd species of "Rafflesia", the host plants are only known from about half of the species. Strangely, a certain species of "Tetrastigma" is very popular among "Rafflesia", "T. tuberculatum" is a host plant for at least 15 species, only two Philippine species are not known to infect it. "T. papillosum" and "T. diepenhorstii" both host at least two species. The flowers may bud from different locations, "R. cantleyi" flowers from the vine some two meters from the ground,
 whereas "R. zollingeriana" always buds out of the roots and appears out of the ground.
The gender ratio may be skewed. In "R. lobata" there are approximately nine male flowers for every female flower. Rarely are there flowers of both sexes at one location to ensure pollination and thus sexual reproduction. This may not matter: female flowers usually form fruit anyway and may thus be agamospermous. Flowering is relatively constant, and sites may continue to flower for decades.
In "Rafflesia arnoldii" the flowers are visited by the flies "Drosophila colorata", "Chrysomya megacephala" and "Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis". Black ants of the genus "Euprenolepis" may feed on the developing flower buds, perhaps killing them. Mammals which are known to eat the flowers are the Javan treeshrew "Tupaia javanica" and the porcupine "Hystrix javanica". Mammals which have been recorded destroying the buds or flowers, often simply by stepping on and crushing them, are: pigs ("Sus scrofa"), wild cats ("Felis bengalensis"), rusa ("Cervus timorensis"), muntjak ("Muntiacus muntjak") and banteng ("Bos javanicus").
Uses.
In Thailand the buds and flowers of "R. kerrii" are considered a delicacy. They are also harvested for herbalism, a concoction is believed to act as a sexual stimulant and to help for fever or backache. In the Philippines the plants are also used in folk herbalism, but the flowers are also fed to swine as fodder. On Java the buds of "R. zollingeriana" are harvested and dried for use in "jamu", the ancient traditional herbalism of the island. It is unknown for what the buds are supposed to be good for; "jamu" concoctions are often complex mixtures and often are supposed to help with sexual prowess.
These plants also have some economic use in attracting ecotourists.
Research in Malaysia and Indonesia has made it possible to propagate the species for use in horticulture, with the famous Bogor Botanical Garden growing the first plants in the 1850s using grafts of infected vines. The Malaysian biologist Jamili Nais was the first to propagate the plants using the seeds around the year 2000.


Valerianella nuttallii

Valerianella nuttallii, or Nuttall's cornsalad, is a small dicot annual plant of the family Caprifoliaceae which can be found growing within the United States in areas of Oklahoma and Arkansas.


Eugenia oblongifolia

"Eugenia oblongifolia can refer to:


Punicoideae


Diospyros buxifolia

Diospyros buxifolia is a tree in the family Ebenaceae. It grows up to tall. Inflorescences bear up to five flowers. The fruits are ellipsoid, up to long. The specific epithet "" is from the Latin, referring to the leaves' resemblance to those of the genus "Buxus". Habitat is forests from sea level to altitude. "D. buxifolia" is found widely from India to Indochina and in Malesia as far as New Guinea.


Soyauxia talbotii

Soyauxia talbotii is a species of plant in the Peridiscaceae family. It is endemic to Nigeria.


Rhopalocarpus lucidus

Rhopalocarpus lucidus is a tree in the family Sphaerosepalaceae. It is endemic to Madagascar.
Distribution and habitat.
"Rhopalocarpus lucidus" is a widespread species in Madagascar. Its habitat is forests and thickets from sea-level to altitude. Some populations are within protected areas.
Threats.
Because "Rhopalocarpus lucidus" is used as firewood and for making tools and rope, subsistence harvesting is a threat.


Muhlenbergia richardsonis

Muhlenbergia richardsonis, known by the common name mat muhly, is a species of grass. It is native to North America, where it can be found throughout much of Canada, Alaska, the western half of the contiguous United States through California, and in Baja California, Mexico.
Description.
"Muhlenbergia richardsonis" is a rhizomatous perennial grass producing knotted, mat-forming stems up to about 40 centimeters long. The blue-green leaves are up to 5 or 6 centimeters long. The inflorescence is a narrow cylindrical series of tightly appressed branches bearing gray-green, single-flowered spikelets 2 or 3 millimeters long.
Habitat.
"Muhlenbergia richardsonis" grows in a number of habitat types including talus and meadows in alpine mountain environments, wet alkaline and saline soils, desert arroyos, chaparral, forests and woodlands. It is a species of botanical interest for being an alpine plant utilizing C4 carbon fixation, reported at higher altitudes than any other C4 plant in North America. It occurs at of elevation in California, such as in the White Mountains and meters high in Utah.
Prairie fens.
This grass is the only known food plant for the leafhopper "Flexamia huroni", which lives only in Michigan. The grass is limited to alkaline prairie fens in the area, an increasingly rare habitat type, making the leafhopper a species of concern itself.


Aristolochia obliqua

Aristolochia obliqua is a species of plant in the family Aristolochiaceae. It is endemic to China.


Tectaria morlae

Tectaria morlae is a species of fern in the family Tectariaceae. It is endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Eucalyptus macrandra

Eucalyptus macrandra, commonly known as long-flowered marlock, river yate or twet, is a species of mallee or small tree that is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It has smooth greyish bark, lance-shaped adult leaves, flower buds usually in groups of fifteen, pale yellow flowers and elongated cup-shaped to bell-shaped fruits.
Description.
"Eucalyptus macrandra" is a mallee, sometimes a small tree, that typically grows to a height of and forms a lignotuber. It has smooth, pale grey to light brown bark, sometimes with rough, blackish bark near the base. Young plants and coppice regrowth have glossy green, egg-shaped leaves arranged alternately, long and wide. Adult leaves are arranged alternately, the same shade of glossy green on both sides, lance-shaped, long and wide, tapering to a petiole long. The flowers are arranged in leaf axils in groups of between 13 and 31, usually fifteen, on a flattened, unbranched peduncle long, the individual buds on pedicels long. Mature buds are long and wide with an operculum up to five time as long as the floral cup. Flowering occurs from November to December or from January to April and the flowers are pale yellowish green. The fruit is a woody, elongated cup-shaped to bell-shaped capsule long wide with the valves at about rim level.
Taxonomy and naming.
"Eucalyptus macrandra" was first formally described in 1867 by George Bentham from an unpublished description by Ferdinand von Mueller. The type specimen was collected by George Maxwell "from valleys south of the Stirling range to Salt River and Phillips range" and the description was published in "Flora Australiensis". The specific epithet ("macrandra") means "large or long stamens".
The name "twet" is from the Noongar language.
Joseph Maiden reduced the species to a variety in 1911 as "Eucalyptus occidentalis" var. "macrandra" in the article 'Notes on Western Australian eucalypts, including description of new species' in the "Journal of the Natural History & Science Society of Western Australia" but the name change has not been accepted by the Australian Plant Census.
Distribution and habitat.
Long-flowered marlock is found in a variety of soil types in areas north of Albany and favours river plains or depressions. It occurs in semi-arid regions of the south-west of the state, such as the Dryandra Woodland in the Avon Wheatbelt, Esperance Plains, Jarrah Forest and Mallee biogeographic regions.
Conservation status.
This eucalypt is classified as "not threatened" in Western Australia by the Western Australian Government Department of Parks and Wildlife.
Use in horticulture.
"Eucalyptus macrandra" is easily grown from seed, but requires good drainage and a dry, frost-free climate. It is used for bonsai, suburban street trees and is cultivated in countries outside of Australia.


Blue mallee

Blue mallee is a common name for several plants and may refer to:


Bicarpellatae

Bicarpellatae is an artificial group used in the identification of plants based on Bentham and Hooker's classification system. George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker published an excellent classification in three volumes in between 1862 and 1883. As a natural system of classification, it does not show evolutionary relationship between plants but still is a useful and popular system of classification based on a dichotomous key especially for the flowering plant groups (angiosperms). It is the most popular system of classification based on key characteristics enabling taxonomic students to quickly identify plant groups based only on physical characteristics. However, it is not a scientific group and is used for identification purposes only based on similar plant characteristics. Under the system Bicarpellatae are a group of plants based on an artificial and non scientific series. The group Bicarpellatea are Gamopetalae and dicotyledons. The group comprises;


Gottschea

Gottschea is a genus of liverworts belonging to the family Schistochilaceae.
The species of this genus are found in Southern Hemisphere.
Species:


Xanthophyllum ramiflorum

Xanthophyllum ramiflorum is a plant in the family Polygalaceae. The specific epithet "" is from the Latin meaning "flowering on the branches".
Description.
"Xanthophyllum ramiflorum" grows as a shrub or tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The bark is pale brown. The flowers are white, drying yellowish. The roundish fruits are reddish brown and measure up to in diameter.
Distribution and habitat.
"Xanthophyllum ramiflorum" is endemic to Borneo. Its habitat is peatswamp and "kerangas" forests.


Faurea

Faurea is a genus containing 15 species of flowering plants in the protea family which occur in the summer rainfall area of southern Africa, extending to tropical Africa and Madagascar. The name honours South African soldier and botanist William Caldwell Faure (1822-1844) who was killed on active service in India.
Species.
Described species are:


Antimima eendornensis

Antimima eendornensis is a species of plant in the family Aizoaceae. It is endemic to Namibia. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry shrubland and rocky areas. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Blidingia marginata

Blidingia marginata is a species of seaweed in the Kornmanniaceae family.
Description.
The species is high, 100–200 μm (4–8×10−3 in) wide and thick. It has 15-20 cells, each of which is long.
Distribution.
It can be found in such African countries as Azores, South Africa, Algeria, and Morocco. It can be found in various gulfs, oceans and seas such as Gulf of Maine and Gulf of Mexico, in Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. It is also common on Bermuda, Cuba, and Tristan da Cunha. The North American distribution is varied by state in the United States but can be found in Canada and Mexico as well. The states that carry the species are Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts and New Jersey. In Asia it is found only in Japan while in South America it is found in Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay.
Australasian distribution.
It is found in New Zealand and southern Australia where it is found in Recherche Archipelago, Streaky Bay, Ardrossan and Port Adelaide.
European distribution.
In Europe, it is found in Belgium, Ireland, France, Spain, Sweden, and United Kingdom. It is also common on the shores of Portugal and Norway.
Habitat.
The species is commonly found with "Juncus" species.


Solanum incompletum

Solanum incompletum is a rare species of flowering plant in the family Solanaceae known by the common names thorny popolo and popolo ku mai. It is endemic to Hawaii, where it occurs today on the islands of Maui, Lanai, and Hawaii. It is threatened by the destruction and degradation of its habitat. It is a federally listed endangered species of the United States.
This plant is a shrub growing up to 3 meters tall. Its stems and leaves are covered in large red prickles, and it bears star-shaped white flowers. The plant grows in forest and shrubland habitat, and cinder cone habitat on Hawaii.
The species is extirpated from the islands of Kauai and Molokai. It was feared extirpated from Hawaii until a small population was discovered there in recent years. Now there are 83 individuals estimated on that island. Several have been outplanted into appropriate habitat.
The plant is threatened by feral ungulates such as feral pigs, feral goats, and Mouflon. The invasion of introduced species of plants such as "Pennisetum setaceum" (fountain grass) and "Kalanchoe tubiflora" (chandelier plant) degrades the habitat. The plants also appear to have trouble reproducing, as evidenced by low seed production, perhaps due to extinction of their preferred pollinators.