Pythium

Pythium is a genus of parasitic oomycetes. They were formerly classified as fungi. Most species are plant parasites, but "Pythium insidiosum" is an important pathogen of animals, causing pythiosis. The feet of the fungus gnat are frequently a vector for their transmission.
Ecological importance.
"Pythium"-induced root rot is a common crop disease. When the organism kills newly emerged or emerging seedlings, it is known as damping off, and is a very common problem in fields and greenhouses. Thus there is tremendous interest in genetic host resistance, but no crop has ever developed adequate resistance to "Pythium". This disease complex usually involves other pathogens such as "Phytophthora" and "Rhizoctonia". Pythium wilt is caused by zoospore infection of older plants, leading to biotrophic infections that become necrotrophic in response to colonization/reinfection pressures or environmental stress, leading to minor or severe wilting caused by impeded root functioning.
Many "Pythium" species, along with their close relatives "Phytophthora", are plant pathogens of economic importance in agriculture. "Pythium" spp. tend to be very generalistic and unspecific in their large range of hosts, while "Phytophthora" spp. are generally more host-specific.
For this reason, "Pythium" spp. are more devastating in the root rot they cause in crops, because crop rotation alone often does not eradicate the pathogen as "Pythium" spp. are also good saprotrophs, and survive for a long time on decaying plant matter.
In field crops, damage by "Pythium" spp. is often limited to the area affected, as the motile zoospores require ample surface water to travel long distances. Additionally, the capillaries formed by soil particles act as a natural filter and effectively trap many zoospores. However, in hydroponic systems inside greenhouses, where extensive monocultures of plants are maintained in plant nutrient solution (containing nitrogen, potassium, phosphate, and micronutrients) that is continuously recirculated to the crop, "Pythium" spp. cause extensive and devastating root rot and is often difficult to prevent or control. The root rot affects entire operations (tens of thousands of plants, in many instances) within two to four days due to the inherent nature of hydroponic systems where roots are nakedly exposed to the water medium, in which the zoospores can move freely. Various "Pythium" populations have been known to have resistance to mefenoxam since the 1980s and metalaxyl since 1984.
Several "Pythium" species, including "P. oligandrum", "P. nunn", "P. periplocum", and "P. acanthicum", are mycoparasites of plant pathogenic fungi and oomycetes, and have received interest as potential biocontrol agents.
Species.
"Globisporangium sylvaticum" was formerly placed here as "Pythium sylvaticum"


Actinidia rubus

Actinidia rubus is a woody climbing vine native to mountainous areas of the Chinese provinces of Sichuan and Yunnan. Branchlets and petioles are deep reddish brown. Flowers are yellow.


Abies flinckii

Abies flinckii, commonly known as the Jalisco fir, is a species of conifer in the genus "Abies". It is native to western and central Mexico.


Aspidosperma excelsum

Aspidosperma excelsum is a tree in the family Apocynaceae. It is native to Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Panama, and Costa Rica.


Castanopsis foxworthyi

Castanopsis foxworthyi is a tree in the family Fagaceae. It is named for the botanist Frederick William Foxworthy.
Description.
"Castanopsis foxworthyi" grows as a tree up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The smooth bark is blackish brown. The coriaceous leaves measure up to long. Its ovoid nuts measure up to long.
Distribution and habitat.
"Castanopsis foxworthyi" grows naturally in Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo. Its habitat is dipterocarp, peat swamp and "kerangas" forests from sea-level to altitude.


Dacrydium medium

Dacrydium medium is a species of conifer in the family Podocarpaceae. It is found in Indonesia and Malaysia.


Chaetopeltidales

Chaetopeltidales are an order of green algae in the class Chlorophyceae.


Brown ring patch

Brown ring patch is a recently described "Rhizoctonia"-like disease of turf grass caused by the fungus "Waitea circinata" var. "circinata". The disease primarily affects putting greens and causes yellow or brown rings up to in diameter. Brown ring patch was first observed in Japan and has since spread to the United States (approximately 2005) and China (2011).
Hosts and symptoms.
The fungus causing brown ring patch, "Waitea circinata" var. "circinata", was first identified in Japan in 2005 damaging creeping bentgrass. The disease was thought to be restricted to Japan until its first report in the United States in 2007 infecting annual bluegrass.
There is typically a period of six weeks or more between first infection of the roots and the presentation of symptoms. The disease causes circular or scalloped rings in the turf up to in diameter, with the width of the ring itself being up to . The rings turn from yellow to light or reddish brown as the disease progresses. The disease is most noticeable on putting greens and commonly occurs in the spring with rising temperatures. Brown Ring Patch is similar to other "Rhizoctonia" species, but appears to infect upper roots, crowns, and stems as well as foliage of individual plants. It also degrades thatch, gives rise to sunken rings, and acts somewhat like superficial fairy ring.
Environment.
Brown Ring Patch is most destructive when the weather is humid and temperatures are stressful to the grass. Thus, in cool-season grasses such as tall fescue and perennial ryegrass, the disease is most severe under high temperatures (highs above 85 F, lows above 60 F). Conversely, in warm-season grasses such as zoysia, Brown Patch is most severe in humid weather with moderate temperatures (45 - 70 F). This disease is limited to putting greens on golf courses and thrives in temperatures between 77 and 86 °F. Brown Ring Patch can be found on annual bluegrass, creeping bentgrass, and rough bluegrass; it is diagnosed predominately during periods of high humidity or periods of extended leaf wetness. Soil temperatures between 55-60 °F are associated with initial disease development. The disease is more severe on greens which have low nitrogen fertility and often develops first on areas that are dry or have other environmental stresses.
Management.
Most fungicides labeled for control of "Rhizoctonia" spp. are active against Brown Ring Patch. Research in 2008 demonstrated that 1 pound of nitrogen per 1,000 sq ft (nitrate, ammonium or urea) could reduce disease by 50 percent or more. It is important to note that greens need to be maintained with adequate nitrogen. Cultural skills include reducing thatch aggressively by verticutting and/or aerifying in the spring and fall when the turf is actively growing, and raise the mowing height prior to and during summer stress periods. Verticutting uses a machine to cut straight lines into a lawn. The depth of these lines is variable and a by-product of the slicing action is known as de-thatching. A verticut machine, like the aerator, has several blades attached to a drum. These blades slice the ground producing a proper seed bed, or corn-row, while removing thatch along the way. Following these cultural practices that promote healthy turf will promote turf recovery. Preventive fungicide applications are recommended when soil temperatures are between 55-60 °F. Brown ring patch is not controlled by thiophante-methyl or other benzimidazole fungicides. Fungicides can be applied in a water volume of 2 gal./1,000 sq. ft. and lightly watered in following application. Generally, curative applications are less effective, and repeated applications are often needed for complete control. Curative applications are best made as soon as symptoms are visible. The best treatment is to apply Medallion, polyoxin-D (e.g., Affirm and Endorse), ProStar, one of the QoI fungicides (e.g., Heritage or Insignia), Trinity, Triton Flo, and Torque now and repeat in two to three weeks to limit disease development later in the spring. Unlike yellow patch, brown ring patch can degrade the thatch in infested areas so fungicide applications are typically required to prevent significant damage.


Calycanthus occidentalis

Calycanthus occidentalis, commonly called spice bush or western sweetshrub, is a species of flowering shrub in the family Calycanthaceae that is native to California and, according to some sources, Washington state. It grows along streams and moist canyons in the foothills of mountains.
Description.
"Calycanthus occidentalis" is a deciduous shrub that can reach hight. Its leaves are opposite, and grow to about long and wide. They are more-or-less ovate with acute tips, a rounded base. The flowers appear from late spring to early fall. The flowers do not have distinctive sepals and petals, but have swirls of dark red to burgundy colored petal-like structures called tepals, long and wide. The flowers open to about wide. The tepals enclose about 10–15 stamens. The flowers are pollinated by beetles of the family Nitidulidae.
Distribution and habitat.
"Calycanthus occidentalis" is native to California and, according to some sources, Washington. It grows along streams and on moist canyon slopes at elevations of .


Selaginella substipitata

Selaginella substipitata, the stalked spikemoss, is a species of plant in the Selaginellaceae family, endemic to Caribbean islands, Colombia, and Venezuela.


Strychnos mellodora

Strychnos mellodora is a species of plant in the Loganiaceae family. It is found in Kenya, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe.


Sand forest

A sand forest is a type of rare subtropical forest region, distinctive due to its unique combination of plant (often rare plant) and animal species, and their restriction to ancient coastal dunes. Sand forests are found in Maputaland in South Africa, as well as parts of the Amazon basin in Brazil, Peru, and Colombia.
They are typically composed of clay soils and nutrient poor white sands. These forests are commonly referred to as "sand forests" in the South African regions. However, in Mozambique, they are known as the "Lucauati forests". In the Amazon, they are colloquially known as "campinaranas" and "campinas". Few studies have been carried out on the sand forests. Those studies that have been conducted, the majority of the research has been on the plant diversity within these forests.
Origins.
There have been no comprehensive studies undertaken in the white sand forests. A full understanding of the process in which they have emerged is lacking. However, it is thought that the sand forests are the fragments of coastal dunes which were separated from the ocean over millions of years as the shoreline and water level slowly shifted. Researchers have speculated that these forest systems have been related to the Late Pleistocene and Holocene dry periods.
Podsolization is a process in which the upper layer of soil becomes acidic due to the leaching of nutrients. This process combined with the lack of nutrients in the upper horizon results in only white sand being left behind. Because sandy soils can result from a number of different processes (nutrient leaching, tectonic activity, river dynamics, etc.), the sand forests are unique and, oftentimes, different from sand forests found elsewhere.
Characteristics.
Biodiversity.
Sand forests are well known for their unique biodiversity and high levels of endemism. To date there have been more than 2,500 species of vascular plants and of those, 230 species are endemic within the Maputaland region. Distinct sclerophylly, or vegetation with thickened, hardened foliage that slows moisture loss, is a characteristic of a vast number of the plants found in this region. Due to nutrient and water restrictions, the vegetation that grows in the sand forests is very specialized. Many of the trees and shrubs have evolved anti-herbivorous defenses. Herbivores seemed to favor vegetation of plants in clay soils over the white sandy soils. In no presence of herbivores however, the clay soil vegetation survived just as well as white sand specialists, but grew much taller and produced more leaf area.
Decomposition.
Sand forests have a thick humus layer due to the extremely low decomposition rates. Some sandy forests have even been recorded to have more than a meter of leaf litter on top of the white sand. Multiple reasons exist as to why there is such a large accumulation of organic matter including high acidity of the soil, high content of toxic compounds in the litter, and low nutrient quality of the litter.
Vegetation.
It is very common to find epiphytes, such as the wiry orchid ("Microcoelia exilis"), and other lichens growing on the trees. They derive their moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, and debris that has accumulated over time.
In contrast to tropical rainforests, campinas are "reduced in biomass and have relatively high light penetration." Due to nutrient deficiencies in campina soils, "shrubs and small trees typically have a dwarfed and rachitic aspect with reduced quantities of foliage" with many of the species being perennials and evergreens
Hydrology.
Sand forests have vegetation gradients that closely coincide with saturation gradients. These saturation gradients are affected by rainfall and topography and, therefore, the vegetation is also affected by these same factors. Vegetation lower to the ground tends to congregate in areas that have been saturated for the longest period of time.
Blackwater rivers (e.g. the Rio Negro) commonly begin in these sand forests due to their accumulation of humic matter that is easily washed downstream, particularly after heavy rainfall.
Birds.
The majority of bird species found in sand forests is known to prefer sand forest habitat and are found rarely, if at all, in other types of habitats. There have been no studies, however, evaluating the habitat specialization of sand forest birds to determine whether these habitats have unique bird fauna.
The majority of these birds are small ground dwellers. They often forage in the underbrush to find food because of the thick organic layers found in the sand forests. Their sharp beaks allow them to break through the thick coating of fruits and obtain the seeds inside.
The role of fire.
The exact role of fires in sand forests is not known and most studies disagree on the matter. However, evidence has shown that fires can help increase species diversity, particularly those that are specialized for such areas. For example, fire tolerant species may be more likely to colonize here.
Historically speaking, some sand forests may have been the result of anthropogenic burning done by indigenous people. They would burn swaths of sand forest to obtain better hunting and farming grounds.
Fires of any kind can have both positive and negative effects on the ecosystem. In some instances, a fire can cause one or just a few species to predominate when the forest begins to regenerate. However, fire can also promote more diversity within the regenerated forest.
Threats.
Because sand forests are isolated in small patches, they have been mostly protected from the destruction of the Amazon rainforest. However, they are still at risk of disturbance. Sand forests are extremely sensitive to destruction due to the harsh growth and survival conditions. Since the conditions are so tough to thrive in once an ecosystem declines, it may take hundreds of years for it to develop again.
Some sand forests overlap with protected areas and indigenous lands, but most do not. Although they are not immediately threatened, sand forests are still in danger from ever-increasing deforestation, hydroelectric projects, and mineral extractions.
Conservation.
Peru has actively incorporated sand forests in three protected areas. Authors who have done research in campinas have also made recommendations for conservation in their work.


Canarium apertum

Canarium apertum is a tree in the family Burseraceae. The specific epithet "" is from the Latin meaning "open", referring to the basal openings between petals.
Description.
"Canarium apertum" grows up to tall with a trunk diameter of up to . The scaly bark is grey-brown. The flowers are yellow-brown. The fruits are ovoid and measure up to long.
Distribution and habitat.
"Canarium apertum" grows naturally in Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo. Its habitat is lowland mixed dipterocarp forest from sea-level to altitude.


Clara Eaton Cummings

Clara Eaton Cummings (13 July 1855 – 28 December 1906) was an American cryptogamic botanist and Hunnewell Professor of Cryptogamic Botany at Wellesley College in Massachusetts.
Life and education.
Cummings was born in Plymouth, New Hampshire, on July 13, 1855 to Noah Conner and Elmira George Cummings. In 1876, she enrolled at the women's liberal arts college Wellesley, only one year after the opening of the institution.
Career.
Cummings primarily studied cryptogamous (spore-reproducing) plants such as mosses and lichens. She characterized hundreds of lichen specimens but was "very conservative" on declaring new species. Much of her work appeared in the books of other botanists, although she did publish a catalog of liverworts and mosses of North America in 1885.
She became a curator at the botanical museum at Wellesley from 1878–79 and was hired at Wellesley as an associate professor of botany for the 1879 school year. In 1886 and 1887 she studied under Dr. Arnold Dodel at the University of Ziirich where she did private work and prepared charts for a Cryptogamic Botany illustration. While in Europe, she traveled to various botanical gardens to study some of the great botanists. After returning from Zurich, Cummings became an associate professor of cryptogamic botany at Wellesey.
In 1904, she published a catalog of 217 species of Alaskan lichens collected during the Harriman Expedition which included 76 species new to Alaska and at least two species new to science.
In February and March 1905, Cummings took a trip to Jamaica where she collected lichens. After her death, her collection was sent to the New York Botanical Garden.
Cummings was an associate editor of "Plant World" and named a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. She became a member of the Society of Plant Morphology and Physiology and served as Vice President in1904. She was a member of the Mycological society, the Torrey Botanical Club, the Boston Mycological Club, and the Boston Society of Natural History.


Legousia

Legousia (Venus' looking-glass) is a genus of flowering plants in the family Campanulaceae, native to Europe. Species in the genus used to be placed under genus "Specularia" along with plants in genera "Triodanis" and "Heterocodon" as well as some species in genus "Campanula". However, the division has been confirmed evolutionarily comprehensive by a Campanulaceae phylogeny based on DNA molecular evidence.
Species.
"Legousia " species include:


Agelanthus uhehensis

Agelanthus uhehensis is a species of hemiparasitic plant in the family Loranthaceae, which is native to Tanzania.
Description.
A description of the plant is given in Govaerts "et al.", based on Polhill & Wiens (1999).
Habitat/ecology.
"A. uhehensis" commonly parasitises Bridelia on forest edges. It also parasitises Ficus.
Threats.
The major threat is habitat conversion to agriculture. However it has been found in some tea estates where the forests are protected.


Campylostachys

Campylostachys is a genus of flowering plants in the family Stilbaceae described as a genus in 1832.
There is only one known species, Campylostachys cernua, endemic to the Cape Province region of South Africa.
now in "Euthystachys Kogelbergia"
In 1843, Meyer used the same name to refer to some plants in the Cyperaceae, thus creating an illegitimate homonym. Meyer's genus name and the species name he created in the genus are invalid as well as illegitimate, as they were published without descriptions.


Tetraxylopteris

 Tetraxylopteris is a genus of extinct vascular plants of the Middle to Upper Devonian (around ). Fossils were first found in New York State, USA. A second species was later found in Venezuela.
Description.
Fossils of "Tetraxylopteris" have so far been discovered in two locations. "T. schmidtii" was named from the Catskill Clastic Wedge, New York State, United States of America, in rocks of Middle to Upper Devonian age (around ). "T. reposana" was found in the Campo Chico Formation, north-west Venezuela, in beds believed to be of Frasnian age ().
The overall shape of "Tetraxylopteris" consisted of a complex system of branches. The main stem was 'pseudomonopodial', i.e. it divided dichotomously to produce side stems while the main stem maintained its identity. The main and side stems then bore three orders of branches (i.e. the first branches from the stems divided twice more). (There were possibly four orders in "T. reposana".) The branches were arranged in opposite pairs with successive pairs at right angles (decussate). In "T. schmidtii", the final order of branches bore appendages arranged oppositely and decussately; in "T. reposana", the appendages were opposite and decussate on the penultimate order of branches and spirally or helically arranged on the final order. The appendages branched dichotomously up to three times and were three-dimensional, although some appear flattened in the fossilized specimens. They have been called "non-laminate proto-leaves" by Beerling and Fleming, reflecting the belief that such structures were precursors to true leaves, which evolved by first " – flattening to produce a two-dimensional branched structure – and then 'webbing' – tissue growing out between the flattened branches.
One consistent difference between the two species is that "T. schmidtii" had branches which very distinctly narrowed along their length whereas only the third order branches of "T. reposana" showed any tapering. Another is that "T. reposana" had swellings at the bases of first and second order branches.
In both species, the primary xylem strand was central to stems, branches and appendages. In the main stems and branches it was X-shaped in cross-section, corresponding to the four rows of branches. In the final appendages it became circular in cross-section. The xylem development was 'mesarch', i.e. the first maturing protoxylem had later maturing metaxylem on either side. Protoxylem occurred both at the tips of the lobes of the xylem strand and in the centre. The general anatomy of the woody stem resembles that of seed plants.
The spore-forming organs or sporangia of "Tetraxylopteris" were born on a very complex 'fertile branching system'. Firstly the main axis of the system branched twice dichotomously. Then each of the four resulting branches was three times pinnate. Each ultimate unit had an elongated sporangium at its end which split longitudinally to release the spores which were trilete, ranging from around 70 to 170 µm in diameter.
The complex three-dimensional branching pattern imples that both species would have been open bushy plants. The exact height cannot be determined from the fossils, which consist of broken-off portions. The longest known section of "T. schmidtii" is 50 cm – rather less for "T. reposana", which may nevertheless have been the taller species. An overall height of a few metres has been proposed. Hammond and Berry suggest that "T. reposana" may have grown in dense thickets so that plants supported one another.
Taxonomy.
The genus was created by Beck in 1957 for the species "Tetraxylopteris schmidtii". Initially Beck described the genus as possibly a precursor to the seed ferns or pteridosperms. In 1960, Beck created the name Progymnospermopsida for a class of plants which reproduced in a similar way to ferns, but had stems whose internal structure resembled gymnosperms. The class was divided into two orders, the more 'primitive' Aneurophytales and the more 'advanced' Archaeopteridales. (The former order had earlier been proposed by Kräusel & Weyland in 1941 for taxa ancestral to both ferns and pteridosperms.) "Tetraxylopteris" was placed in the Aneurophytales. Another specimen from the same location was initially described as "Sphenoxylon", but was later shown to be a poorly preserved stem of "Tetraxylopteris".
In 2005 a further species, "Tetraxylopteris reposana", was described by Hammond and Berry. The specific epithet "reposana" is derived from 'El Reposo', the name of the hacienda near the fossil locality. Hammond and Berry suggest that "Proteokalon" Scheckler & Banks (1971) may be synonymous with "Tetraxylopteris".
Hammond and Berry agree with Beck on the systematic taxonomy of the genus.
Phylogeny.
A cladogram published in 2004 by Crane et al. places " Tetraxylopteris" in a paraphyletic stem group, basal to the seed plants (spermatophytes). It is grouped with "Pertica", traditionally classified as a "trimerophyte" rather than a progymnosperm like "Tetraxylopteris".
Other researchers have produced rather different analyses. Rothwell's analysis separates the "trimerophytes" and progymnosperms, with only the latter being closely related to seed plants.


Elaphoglossoideae

Elaphoglossoideae is a subfamily of the fern family Dryopteridaceae. It has previously been regarded as the family Elaphoglossaceae. As circumscribed by the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group in their 2016 classification (PPG I), the subfamily excludes the Polybotryoideae, which are kept separate. It can be divided into three clades: the bolbitidoid ferns ("Arthrobotrya", "Bolbitis", "Elaphoglossum", "Lomagramma", "Mickelia", "Teratophyllum"), genus "Pleocnemia", sister clade to the bolbititoids, and the lastreopsid ferns ("Lastreopsis", "Megalastrum", "Parapolystichum", "Ruhmora"), sister to the combination of the first two clades.


Echinocereus knippelianus

Echinocereus knippelianus is a species of hedgehog cactus.


Pittosporum orohenense

Pittosporum orohenense is a species of plant in the Pittosporaceae family. It is endemic to French Polynesia.


Eagle Street Fig Trees

Eagle Street Fig Trees is a heritage-listed group of trees at 118A Eagle Street, Brisbane City, City of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. They were planted by Walter Hill. It is also known as Fig Tree Reserve and Plantation Reserve. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 13 May 2004.
History.
The small triangular reserve at the intersection of Eagle, Elizabeth and Creek Streets was granted to the (North) Brisbane Municipal Council by Queen Victoria, signed by the Governor of Queensland, Sir Henry Wylie Norman, on 16 May 1889.
It was gazetted on 17 May 1889 as, "745 Folio 210 101/11 perches... Reserve for Plantation, urinal etc. only and for no other purpose whatsoever... Rent: 1 peppercorn per year if demanded by the Queen Victoria and her heirs forever. Mineral Rights reserved by the Crown." The land could be resumed if these conditions were not observed.
Walter Hill planted the three fig trees located on the site. He was appointed Brisbane's first superintendent of the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1855 and remained a key figure in the management of the Gardens until 1881.
Public toilets were constructed on the reserve but were removed in the 1970s. The area has been paved, and 19th-century reproduction light fittings have been installed, as well as facilities such as garbage containers and seats.
Description.
The reserve is a triangular island located at the intersection of Eagle, Elizabeth and Creek Streets. The site, consisting of a partially paved and landscaped area, is dominated by the huge fig trees that provide a striking visual effect in the business precinct of the Eagle Street area.
The reserve is planted with three fig trees, two White Figs (Ficus virens) and one Banyan Fig (Ficus benghalensis). The branches of the Banyan Figs are supported with prop roots that develop from the aerial roots that are produced to gather moisture from the atmosphere. The White Fig is taller than the Banyan and has pale green foliage which first appears as a shade of pink or bronze. This species is found occurring naturally in Queensland and throughout tropical Asia.
There are two interpretive bronze plaques located on site. The first of the bronze plaques is mounted on a small plinth and contains an engraved inscription. The inscription describes the natural features of the site as it was in 1889, the history of the site prior to 1889 and the role it played in the commercial activities of the area. The second plaque contains a map showing the course of the creek that originally flowed through the site.
Heritage listing.
Eagle Street Fig Trees was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 13 May 2004 having satisfied the following criteria.
The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.
The Eagle Street Fig Trees are important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history. The Fig Trees or "Plantation Reserve" is important because it survives as a remnant of the development of the area during the first half of the nineteenth century. Early photographs of the area show rows of horse and carts lined up to service the wharf area and adjacent warehouses. The area was established as a Reserve in the late 19th century to provide an area for the carriers to rest and refresh themselves amidst an area of high activity.
The place demonstrates rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland's cultural heritage.
As a representative of a mid-Victorian era Reserve, the Eagle Street Fig Trees demonstrate rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland's cultural heritage. Located in a busy trading precinct, the Eagle Street Fig Trees provided workmen with respite from the hectic wharf trading area. The Fig Trees have retained this function in their current setting.
The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.
The Eagle Street Fig Trees have landmark value at the intersection of several major streets in Brisbane's central business district and provide shade and visual amenity.


Lesquerella

Lesquerella is the former name of a genus of flowering plants in the family Brassicaceae. Recent work has shown that "Lesquerella" is indistinct from the genus "Physaria" and both genera have been united under "Physaria". In addition, the former "Lesquerella" of the southeastern United States have been moved to the genus "Paysonia" since 2002. The genus "Lesquerella" is now no longer applied to any species and is considered defunct.
The genus is named in honor of Leo Lesquereux, 1805–1889, Swiss and American botanist.


Bell apple

Bell apple is a common name for several plants and may refer to:


Echinodorus trialatus

Echinodorus trialatus is a type of plant. In Rataj's taxonomy, "E. trialatus" is in Section Paniculati, Subgenus Echinodorus.
Description.
Leaves with blades about as long as the winged petioles and tapering into them, long tapered at the tip, with the upper pair of veins parallel to the midrib and leaving it at some distance from the base, 30 – 45 cm long. Blades longly oval, on both ends regularly narrowed, or lanceolate with 3 - 5 veins, without pellucid markings, 17 – 25 cm long x 2.5 – 5 cm wide.
Stem erect, along the whole length distinctly alate (3 - winged), 30 – 70 cm long. Inflorescence usually racemose, rarely branched in the lower whorl, having 6 - 13 whorls. Bracts longer than the pedicels with flowers, 1.5 – 2 cm long having 19 - 21 distinct ribs. Flowers sessile or subsessile on pedicels 2 – 4 mm long. Sepals about 5 mm long, with usually 18 ribs, corolla white. Aggregate fruit globular, 5 – 7 mm in diameter. Stamens usually 18, anthers 1.5 mm long, as long as the filaments. Achenes 2.5 – 3 mm long x 1 - 1.2mm wide, distinctly ribbed only in the lower part of the body, the upper third without ribs, lateral glands absent.
Distribution.
Panama, Colombia & Venezuela normally growing submersed.


Thuja

Thuja ( ) is a genus of coniferous trees in the Cupressaceae (cypress family). There are five species in the genus, two native to North America and three native to eastern Asia. The genus is monophyletic and sister to "Thujopsis". Members are commonly known as arborvitaes, (from Latin for "tree of life") thujas or cedars.
Description.
"Thuja" are evergreen trees growing from tall, with stringy-textured reddish-brown bark. The shoots are flat, with side shoots only in a single plane. The leaves are scale-like 1–10 mm long, except young seedlings in their first year, which have needle-like leaves. The scale leaves are arranged in alternating decussate pairs in four rows along the twigs. The male cones are small, inconspicuous, and are located at the tips of the twigs. The female cones start out similarly inconspicuous, but grow to about 1–2 cm long at maturity when 6–8 months old; they have 6-12 overlapping, thin, leathery scales, each scale bearing 1–2 small seeds with a pair of narrow lateral wings.
The five species in the genus "Thuja" are small to large evergreen trees with flattened branchlets. The leaves are arranged in flattened fan shaped groupings with resin-glands, and oppositely grouped in 4 ranks. The mature leaves are different from younger leaves, with those on larger branchlets having sharp, erect, free apices. The leaves on flattened lateral branchlets are crowded into appressed groups and scale-like and the lateral pairs are keeled. With the exception of "T. plicata", the lateral leaves are shorter than the facial leaves (Li "et al." 2005). The solitary flowers are produced terminally. Pollen cones with 2-6 pairs of 2-4 pollen sacked sporophylls. Seed cones ellipsoid, typically 9-14mm long, they mature and open the first year. The thin woody cone scales number from 4-6 pairs and are persistent and overlapping, with an oblong shape, they are also basifixed. The central 2-3 pairs of cone scales are fertile. The seed cones produce 1 to 3 seeds per scale, the seeds are lenticular in shape and equally 2 winged. Seedlings produce 2 cotyledons.
A hybrid between "T. standishi" and "T. plicata" has been named as the cultivar "Thuja" 'Green Giant'.
Another very distinct and only distantly related species, formerly treated as "Thuja orientalis", is now treated in a genus of its own, as "Platycladus orientalis". The closest relatives of "Thuja" are "Thujopsis dolabrata", distinct in its thicker foliage and stouter cones, and "Tetraclinis articulata" (Ancient Greek or , formerly classed in the genus and after which "Thuja" is named), distinct in its quadrangular foliage (not flattened) and cones with four thick, woody scales.
The genus "Thuja", like many other forms of conifers, is represented by ancestral forms in Cretaceous rocks of northern Europe, and with the advance of time is found to migrate from northerly to more southerly regions, until during Pliocene time it disappeared from Europe. "Thuja" is also known in the Miocene beds of the Dakotas.
Pruning on 'Emerald Green’ Thuja Arborvitae is rarely needed due to their growth rate and shape. However, if pruning is needed, the tops of arborvitae can be pruned to a point and the sides can be sheared back with a hedge trimmer or pruners to manage the width.
Species.
The five extant species are:
Species formerly placed in "Thuja" include:
and many more
The extant species "Thuja sutchuenensis" was believed to be extinct until 1999, when a small population was discovered in southeast China.
Ecology.
"Thuja" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including autumnal moth, the engrailed and juniper pug. The foliage is also readily eaten by deer, and where deer population density is high, can adversely affect the growth of young trees and the establishment of seedlings.
Distribution.
The genus "Thuja" has current populations in both North America and East Asia. "T. plicata" has wide distribution in the Pacific Northwest from Northern California to Alaska, reaching East into Idaho and central British Columbia. "T. occidentalis" has populations in the Northeastern United States, reaching north into Ontario and Quebec, with some distribution as far south as Tennessee.
"T. standishii" has populations in mountainous regions of Honshu and Shikoku islands in Japan, with no recorded population in the north of the country. "T. koraiensis" is native to both North and South Korea and has a small population in the Northern Chinese province of Jilin. The newly rediscovered species "T. sutchuenensis" has extremely limited distribution in the mountains of Chengkou county in southeastern China.
Genus Origin and Historical Migration.
Current research suggests that "Thuja" originated in the Americas and migrated to East Asia via the Bering Landbridge in the Miocene. Fossil records show that Thuja was significantly more widely distributed during the late Cretaceous and early Tertiary than we see today. The oldest known Thuja fossil is of "T. polaris" (an extinct species) from the Paleocene of Ellesmere Island in present-day Nunavut, Canada.
Other hypotheses of "Thuja" origin involved an East Asian origin, with the genus migrating twice—once east into Northwestern America and then west to the northeastern United States. However, no reliable fossil records of "Thuja" exist in either Western Asia or Europe, the possibility of a migration from Asia through Europe and into Northeastern America (the second dispersal event via the North Atlantic Landbridge as described above) can be eliminated.
Systematics.
Thuja is a monophyletic genus that sits within the order Pinales in the Cupressaceae. "Thuja" is in the Cupressoid clade and is sister to the genus "Thujopsis". The sister relationship between "Thuja" and "Thujopsis" is supported with 100% bootstrap support and 1.0 posterior probability.
Within the genus the taxonomy is in flux, but most recent research based on molecular analysis of plastomes in the genus "Thuja" showed evidence for a new grouping, with two sister clades: "T. standishii" and "T. koraiensis" together and "T. occidentalis" and "T. sutchuenensis" together, with "T. plicata" sister to "T. occidentails" and "T. sutchuenensis." This newest grouping is hypothesized to be the result of reticulate evolution and hybridization within the genus.
Uses.
They are widely grown as ornamental trees, and extensively used for hedges. A number of cultivars are grown and used in landscapes. Homeowners will sometimes plant them as privacy trees. The cultivar 'Green Giant' is popular as a very vigorous hedging plant, growing up to 80 cm/year when young.
The wood is light, soft and aromatic. It can be easily split and resists decay. The wood has been used for many applications from making chests that repel moths to shingles. "Thuja" poles are also often used to make fence posts and rails. The wood of "Thuja plicata" is commonly used for guitar sound boards. Its combination of light weight and resistance to decay has also led to "T. plicata" (western redcedar) being widely used for the construction of bee hives.
"Thuja plicata" is an important tree to the First Nations people of the Pacific Northwest and is sometimes called "Canoe Tree" because of its use as a material for Native American canoes.
Oil of thuja contains the terpene thujone which has been studied for its GABA receptor antagonizing effects, with potentially lethal properties. Cedarwood oil and cedar leaf oil, which are derived from "Thuja occidentalis", have different properties and uses.
The natives of Canada used the scaled leaves of "Thuja occidentalis" (Eastern White Cedar) to make a tea that has been shown to contain 50 mg of vitamin C per 100 grams; this helped prevent and treat scurvy.
In the 19th century "Thuja" was commonly used as an externally applied tincture or ointment for the treatment of warts, ringworm and thrush, and a local injection of the tincture was used for treating venereal warts.
"Thuja" is antibacterial. A 2017 trial showed that its extract effectively killed both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.
As many Cupressaceae, thuja can induce allergic reaction : skin, eye and breathing problems.


Bean yellow mosaic virus

Bean yellow mosaic virus is a plant pathogenic virus in the genus "Potyvirus" and the virus family "Potyviridae". Like other members of the Potyvirus genus, it is a monopartite strand of positive-sense, single-stranded RNA surrounded by a capsid made for a single viral encoded protein. The virus is a filamentous particle that measures about 750 nm in length. This virus is transmitted by species of aphids and by mechanical inoculation.
Geographic distribution and host range.
A mosaic disease, believed to be bean yellow mosaic virus, was first reported in the early 1900s infecting garden peas ("Pisum sativum") in the Northeastern United States. The virus is currently believed to be distributed worldwide.
In addition to peas, this virus is known to infect many other legumes (family Fabaceae) including green beans ("Phaseolus vulgaris"), peanuts ("Arachis hypogaea"), soybeans ("Glycine max"), Faba beans ("Vicia faba"), several species of clover ("Trifolium hybridum", "T. vesiculosum", "T. incarnatum", "T. pratense", "T. repens", "T. subterraneum"), alfalfa ("Medicago sativa"), vetch ("Vicia sativa"), lupine ("Lupinus luteus"), black locust ("Robinia pseudoacacia"), fenugreek ("Trigonella foenum-graecum"), and "Crotalaria spectabilis".
It also is known to infect several non-leguminous plants including "Gladiolus sp.", "Fressia sp.", opium poppy ("Papaver somniferum"), "Canna spp." and "Eustoma russellianum".
Symptoms in these plants include mosaic, leaf malformation and leaf mottling. This virus makes two kinds of viral inclusions, laminated aggregates and a nuclear inclusion.


Saxifraga burseriana

Saxifraga burseriana, called the early white-flowered saxifrage, is a species of flowering plant in the genus "Saxifraga", native to the eastern Alps; Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, Italy, and Slovenia. Its cultivar 'Crenata' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


Rosularia

Rosularia is a small genus of the family Crassulaceae. It includes about 28-35 species from Europe, the Himalayas, and northern Africa.
Taxonomy.
"Rosularia" was originally described by De Candolle (1828) as a section of the genus Umbilicus, and raised to the level of genus by Stapf (1923) Thus the genus bears the botanical authority of both authors.
In 1930 Berger included it in family Crassulaceae subfamily Sedoideae, as one of 9 genera. He further divided it into two sections (Eu-Rosularia and Ornithogalopsis) and further series, transferring some species of "Sedum" to it. Since then a number of species have been transferred in and out of the genus, including "S. sempervivoides", which at one stage was placed in "Prometheum". The genus "Sempervivella" was submerged in "Rosularia". The genus is now placed within the Leucosedum clade, tribe Sedeae, subfamily Sempervivoideae of the Crassulaceae, but is embedded within "Sedum" paraphyletically.
Species.
"Rosularia" contains about 28 species. The following species and subspecies were accepted by The Plant List (2013):
Distribution and habitat.
"Rosularia" is found in arid and semi-arid regions from N. Africa (Morocco, Ethiopia), through the eastern Mediterranean to Central Asia (north of Tien Shan and east of W Himalaya), including Pakistan.
Ecology.
"Rosularia" is an important larval host for the Central Asian butterfly "Parnassius apollonius".
Uses.
A number of species are cultivated as ornamental garden plants, and have been used in traditional medicine.


Linnaeaceae


Oenothera californica

Oenothera californica, known by the common name California evening primrose, is a species of flowering plant in the evening primrose family.
Distribution.
The plant is native to regions of southern and western California, the Southwestern United States, and Baja California, Mexico. It is found in desert and chaparral and woodlands habitats.
Desert ecoregions include the Mojave Desert, Sonoran Desert, and Great Basin Desert.
Chaparral and woodlands ecoregion locations include the southern California Coast Ranges, San Francisco Bay Area, Transverse Ranges, Channel Islands, and Peninsular Ranges.
Description.
"Oenothera californica" is a perennial herb producing a spreading or upright stem up to long. Young plants have a basal rosette of leaves, while older ones have leaves along the stem, lance-shaped to nearly oval in shape and up to 6 centimeters long.
Flowers occur in the upper leaf axils, drooping in bud and becoming erect as they bloom. The four petals are white, fading pink, and may exceed 3 centimeters long.
Subspecies.
There are currently three subspecies of "Oenothera californica":
Eureka Dunes evening primrose.
Oenothera californica" ssp. "eurekensis, the rare Eureka Dunes evening primrose, is a federally listed endangered species endemic to only a few occurrences in the Eureka Valley Sand Dunes in the Eureka Valley of Inyo County, eastern California. It grows alongside another local dune endemic, the endangered Eureka Valley dune grass ("Swallenia alexandrae"). It is sometimes listed as its synonym "Oenothera avita" ssp. "eurekensis".
The Eureka Valley Sand Dunes are within Death Valley National Park. The main threat to the Eureka Dunes evening primrose was off-road vehicle use. That threat has been reduced and the plant's population has improved, but is still threatened by other human activities and an invasive species of tumbleweed, Prickly Russian thistle ("Kali tragus"). The United States Fish and Wildlife Service had recommended the plant be removed from the endangered species list.
The former subspecies "Oenothera californica" ssp. "arizonica" [], is now considered to be a separate species, "Oenothera arizonica" [].


Rhipsalis

Rhipsalis is a genus of epiphytic flowering plants in the cactus family, typically known as mistletoe cacti. They are found in parts of Central America, the Caribbean and northern regions of South America. They also inhabit isolated locations in Africa and Asia, and are the only cactus group naturally occurring in the Old World. This is the largest and most widely distributed genus of epiphytic cacti (those which live on other plants without damaging them).
The scientific name "Rhipsalis" derives from the Ancient Greek term for wickerwork, referring to the plants' morphology.
History.
The genus was described by Joseph Gaertner in 1788. But when he described the plant, he had in fact not realised it was a cactus. Instead, he assumed he had found a new species of "Cassytha", a parasitic laurel from a completely different plant family.
Ecology and distribution.
"Rhipsalis" is found as pendulous epiphyte in tropical rainforests, some species may also grow epilithic or, rarely, terrestrial. The genus is found widely in Central America, parts of the Caribbean and a great part of northern and central South America. The center of diversity of "Rhipsalis" lies in the rainforests of the Mata Atlantica in southeastern Brazil. It is found throughout the New World, and additionally in tropical Africa, Madagascar and Sri Lanka. It is the only cactus with a natural occurrence outside the New World.
Morphology.
The morphology of "Rhipsalis" is very variable. The plants can grow mostly pendent, few grow more or less upright or sprawling. There are three main stem shapes: terete, angular and flattened. The stems are succulent, but the degree of succulence varies between the species. Some have very thick stems (e.g. "Rhipsalis neves-armondii"), whereas other have very thin, filiform stems (e.g. "Rhipsalis baccifera", "Rhipsalis clavata"). In the majority of species, spines are missing or occur only in the juvenile stage (this is most prominent in "Rhipsalis dissimilis"). "Rhipsalis pilocarpa" has stems and fruits densely covered by bristes, making this species easily distinguishable from all other "Rhipsalis".
The flowers are borne lateral or apical and are actinomorphic with a varying number of perianth segments, stamens and carpels. They are small, usually about 1 cm in diameter, white or whitish in most species. Yellowish flowers occur in "R. dissimilis" and "R. elliptica" and "R. hoelleri" is the only "Rhipsalis" species with red flowers. The fruits are always berries, they are whitish or coloured pink, red or yellow. Vivipary has been observed in "R. micrantha" and "R. baccifera".
Species.
In the taxonomic treatment in "The New Cactus Lexicon", 35 species were accepted, divided into five subgenera ("Phyllarthrorhipsalis", "Rhipsalis", "Epallagogonium", "Calamorhipsalis", "Erythrorhipsalis"). A molecular study in 2011 showed the paraphyly of three subgenera as previously circumscribed ("Rhipsalis", "Calamorhipsalis" and "Epallagogonium"). So a new subgeneric classification of "Rhipsalis" with only monophyletic subgenera "Rhipsalis", "Calamorhipsalis" and "Erythrorhipsalis" was proposed. Species accepted by Plants of the World Online are listed below, with subgeneric placements, where given, based on Calvente (2012).


Bonnetia lanceifolia

Bonnetia lanceifolia is a species of flowering plant in the Bonnetiaceae family. It is found only in Venezuela.


Anelsonia

Anelsonia is a monotypic genus in the family Brassicaceae containing the single species Anelsonia eurycarpa, which is known by the common name daggerpod. It is similar to "Phoenicaulis cheiranthoides", but at present they are treated in separate genera. This species is a fleshy, hairy plant of higher-elevation mountain habitats throughout the western United States. Above the rosette of velvety, fingerlike leaves it bears densely packed inflorescences of tiny white flowers. The distinctive fruits develop and dwarf the rest of the plant under an array of saillike pod structures, each on a pedicel. The fruits are each 2 to 3 centimeters tall, elliptic, and papery to leathery across a span between stiff septa. They are white, often with areas of purple coloration, or brown. Within the folds of the fruit are several seeds. "Anelsonia" was named for the botanist Aven Nelson.


Bastard rocket

Bastard rocket is a common name for several plants and may refer to:


Alisma

Alisma is a genus of flowering plants in the family Alismataceae, members of which are commonly known as water-plantains. The genus consists of aquatic plants with leaves either floating or submerged, found in a variety of still water habitats around the world (nearly worldwide). The flowers are hermaphrodite, and are arranged in panicles, racemes, or umbels. "Alisma" flowers have six stamens, numerous free carpels in a single whorl, each with 1 ovule, and subventral styles. The fruit is an achene with a short beak.
The nineteenth century British art and social critic John Ruskin believed that the particular curve of the leaf-ribs of "Alisma" represented a model of 'divine proportion' and helped shape his theory of Gothic architecture.
"Copóg Phádraig" ("Patrick's leaf") is the Irish name for the water-plantain. It is reputed to ward off fairies.
Water plantains are perennial plants. These herbs are usually emergent plants high. They have broad leaves that can be either tapered or rounded at the base. When submerged, the plant produces ribbon-like leaves. Inflorescences are highly branched. They produce whorls of perfect flowers either white or pinkish. The fruits are flat-sided nutlets in length. These herbs usually flower in late May to early September, but this can vary with conditions.
Water-plantains are wetland plants and found in saturated soils and shallow water as well as marshes, wooded swamps, shrub swamps and flooded farmland. When introduced to an area, water plantain can rapidly reproduce.
Species and subspecies.
The following taxa are recognized as of May 2014:


Schizocarp

A schizocarp is a dry fruit that, when mature, splits up into mericarps.
There are different definitions:


Jackiella


Tylimanthus pseudosaccatus

Tylimanthus pseudosaccatus is a bryophyte, a species from the liverwort family Acrobolbaceae. The family grows on logs, rocks, and soil. Under certain circumstances, however, they are epiphyte, growing on other plant species.
Features.
The leaves of "Tylimanthus pseudosaccatus", have a shallow depression at the tip, and the margin is finely toothed. The leaves are very fine and are translucent green. The "Tylimanthus pseudosaccatus" are also robust in size. The finely toothed margins distinguish "Tylimanthus pseudosaccatus" from other members in the Acrobolbaceae family. The most distinctive feature, however, is the reproductive structure. The position of the reproductive structures most accurately distinguishes the "Tylimanthus pseudosaccatus" from any other species. The sporophyte (reproductive structure) develops in a pouch at the shoot apex structure.
"Tylimanthus pseudosaccatus" was initially categorised as a member of "Marsupidium". Due to vegetative and morphological similarities, they were re-categorised due to the positioning of the gametangia (reproductive branches). Due to the similarities between the genera, "Tylimanthus pseudosaccatus" underwent reclassification as a member of the Acrobolbacea family.
Habitat.
"Tylimanthus pseudosaccatus" is located in the Southern Hemisphere, found in Australia. They are endemic to south-east Australia in New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania. Their habitat requirement consists of environments which retain moisture. Mostly in forests, wet sclerophyll forests or they could also be found in rainforests. The liverworts are found in environments which are either middle-aged or old-growth forests, as these provide the bryophytes with protection.
Liverworts are significant in their habitats as their presence in an environment offers microhabitats. The importance of the microhabitats is that it creates an environment which is essential for the survival of other organisms. These organisms include protozoa, invertebrates, and eukaryotes. The reasoning for why they create important microhabitats is due to bryophytes been nitrogen fixers. Other organisms depend on nitrogen as it allows for those species to grow and develop, overall improving the quality of the soil.


Atocion rupestre

Atocion rupestre, the rock campion, is a plant species of the genus "Atocion", native to Europe.


Hydnocarpus annamensis

Hydnocarpus annamensis is a tree in the Achariaceae family. It is found in Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, southern Yunnan and southern Guangxi in Zhōngguó/China.
It is threatened by habitat loss.
The plant produces low-quality wood and its fruit are used in traditional medicine.
Description.
"H. annamensis" is an evergreen tree, some 7-30m tall, with gray-brown bark. Leaves are either obovate, elliptic-long or oblong-lanceolwate, some 17-35cm by 7-12cm. The flowers are either solitary or in 2's or 3's, greenish, appearing April to May in Zhōngguó/China. The berry is reddish or brownish, seeds numerous, fruit appears December to January in Zhōngguó/China.
Habitat.
The species grows in secondary formations in Cambodia.
In Vietnam, the tree is common and found in primary broad-leaved closed forest in seasonally flooded stream valleys and very steep rocky slopes of isolated limestone mountains at 400-500 elevation.
It occurs on moist mountain slopes and thickets along stream in Zhōngguó/China.
Conservation status.
The habitat of the tree in Zhōngguó/China has suffered catastrophic damage because of clearance for agriculture and because of fruit harvesting, the plant has limited/scattered distribution, marking it as rare.
Overall "H. annamensis" and its lowland forest habitats are threatened by agriculture, including annual and & perennial non-timber crops and livestock farming & ranching, by the gathering of terrestrial plants and by logging and wood harvesting
Populations.
As noted above, the tree is found in Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, southern Yunnan and southern Guangxi in Zhōngguó/China.
The species is relatively common in central and northern Vietnam. It occurs in the Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park, Quảng Bình Province, central Vietnam.
It may have a presence in Laos.
In Zhōngguó/China, the scattered populations are found in Mengla, Jiangchen, Jinping Miao, Yao, and Dai Autonomous County, Hekou Yao Autonomous County and Pingbian Miao Autonomous County in south Yunnan and Longzhou County in south-west Guangxi.
Uses.
The wood is regarded as 3rd class (low quality) in Cambodia, and is used to make charcoal and short-lasting constructions. In Zhōngguó/China, the fruit are harvested for their medicinal value.
Common names.
The tree is known by a number of names, including: "krâbau" (Khmer); "nang trứng trung bộ", "lọ nồi trung bộ", "mạy ló", "mắc la" (Vietnamese); and 大叶龙角, "da ye long jiao" (Chinese)


Tylecodon aurusbergensis

Tylecodon aurusbergensis is a species of plant in the family Crassulaceae. It is endemic to Namibia. Its natural habitat is rocky areas. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Juniperus gamboana

Juniperus gamboana is a species of conifer in the family Cupressaceae. It is found in Guatemala and Mexico, where it is threatened by habitat loss.


Microgramma (plant)

Microgramma is a genus of ferns in the family Polypodiaceae, subfamily Polypodioideae, according to the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I). They are commonly known as vine ferns or snakeferns.
Species.
, "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World" accepted the following species:
Distribution.
Species in the genus are native to tropical ecoregions in the Americas and Africa.
Regions and countries include: Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America, South America (including Argentina and Brazil), tropical Africa, southern Africa, and western Indian Ocean islands.


Centropogon

Centropogon is a plant genus in the family Campanulaceae. In systems where the Lobeliaceae are recognized as distinct, "Centropogon" is placed there.


Brocchinia

Brocchinia is a genus of the botanical family Bromeliaceae, and is the sole genus of the subfamily Brocchinioideae, containing 20 species. The genus is named for Giovanni Battista Brocchi, Italian naturalist (1772–1826). "Brocchinia" species are native primarily to the ancient Guayana Shield in southern Venezuela and Guyana, with some species extending into Colombia and northern Brazil. Its species are generally restricted to areas of sand and sandstone of the Roraima Formation; a few occur on granite.
Based on chloroplast DNA sequence variation, "Brocchinia" appears to be sister to all other bromeliads. Calibration of the molecular family tree of bromeliads against the known ages of various fossil monocots suggests that "Brocchinia" lineage diverged from other bromeliads nearly 20 million years ago, and that some of the living species of "Brocchinia" began diverging from each other soon thereafter. The next lineage to diverge from other bromeliads included "Lindmania" and "Connellia", which are also endemic to the Guayana Shield; at least one other subfamily Navioideae is also almost entirely restricted to that region. Consequently, it is quite likely that the family as a whole arose in the Guayana Shield. Previously, "Brocchinia" was thought to be a member of the bromeliad subfamily Pitcairnioideae, based on its possession of winged seeds like those seen in other members of that group. This view has now been overturned after the recognition that Pitcairnioideae as originally circumscribed more than a century ago represents several morphologically similar but independently derived groups that share only ancestral (plesiomorphic) characters, not true synapomorphies (shared derived characters).
"Brocchinia" has undergone a spectacular adaptive radiation in mechanisms of nutrient capture, apparently in response to the unusually infertile, heavily leached substrates of the Guayana Shield. At least two species, "Brocchinia reducta" and "B. hechtioides", appear to be carnivorous. Like most species of "Brocchinia" – and indeed, of many other bromeliad genera – these two species impound rain water in a tank formed by tightly overlapping leaves arranged in a basal rosette. In these species, however, the leaves are nearly vertical, their inner surfaces are covered with fine wax that readily exfoliates, the tank fluid is highly acid (pH 3.0) and emits a sweet, nectar-like odor, and the tank itself is full of the dead remains of ants ("B. reducta") or bees and wasps ("B. hechtioides"). Recently, it has been shown that at least "B. reducta" secretes a phosphatase into its tanks.
Another species, "Brocchinia acuminata", is ant-fed myrmecophyte, apparently depending in part on nutrients and dead nestmates dropping into the tank from ants that live among the swollen, achlorophyllous leaf bases. The facultative epiphyte "B. tatei" – together with the tree-like "B. micrantha" with its massive, gutter-like leaf axils that hold liters of rainwater – captures a great deal of falling vegetable debris. One terrestrial population of "B. tatei" was discovered with heterocystous cyanobacteria in its tanks, suggesting nitrogen fixation.
The earliest divergent members of the genus – including "Brocchinia prismatica" in the Prismatica clade, and such species as "B. melanacra" and "B. vestita" in the Maguirei clade – lack tanks entirely and appear to depend solely on soil nutrients. Acquisition of the tank habit seems likely to have been the key innovation driving the evolution of specialized mechanisms of nutrient capture in "Brocchinia", and is associated with thin leaf cross-sections and the later evolution of carnivory, ant-fed myrmecophily, epiphytism, and N fixation in the Acuminata and Reducta clades. Each of the nutritionally specialized species have relatively large areas of live trichomes on the leaf bases that can absorb amino acids at high rates. Tanks and absorptive trichomes were later lost secondarily in "Brocchinia steyermarkii", a terrestrial species common in wet sandy areas in the Gran Sabana. "Brocchinia melanacra" is especially adapted to ground fires, with highly sclerotized leaf tips that protect that single bud in unexpanded leaves but appear to be useless (often dangling limply in the breeze) in fully expanded leaves. "Brocchinia serrata", a highly aberrant taxon with tough, serrate leaves that is found only on a few mesetas in Colombia, has now been shown to be completely unrelated and has been described as the sole member of a new genus "Sequencia", with its name reflecting its initial recognition based on DNA sequence data. The ecology of the dwarf species – "Brocchinia cataractarum, B. delicatula, B. rupestris" – remain enigmatic.


List of Lepidoptera that feed on Solanum

Solanum species are used as food plants by the larvae of a number of Lepidoptera species including:


Sterculioideae

Sterculioideae is a subfamily of the family Malvaceae containing evergreen and deciduous trees and shrubs.
A 2006 molecular study indicated the Sterculioideae was most likely to be a monophyletic group, and that it had four major clades within it. However, the relationships between the clades were not resolved.
The clades consist of a:


Fern moss

Fern moss may refer to several varieties of moss that produce feathery fronds and can form a moss carpet across grass or bare patches of ground:
Possibly also:


Metzgeria furcata

Metzgeria furcata, the forked veilwort, is a frequent liverwort growing on the bark of a wide range of tree and shrub species and occasionally on rocks. It is a slim, translucent thallose liverwort forming yellow-green mats of branches about 1mm wide.
Description.
"Metzgeria furcata" has a midrib which is clearly visible over the rest of the thallus (which is 1mm wide), which also extends to the tip of the thallus, although without an excurrent nerve. The defining characteristic is definitely the fact that the thalli and the midrib fork at the end, which is visible on most patches. The Forked Veilwort rarely makes sporophytes, although on the underside of quite a few patches an inflorescence can be found.
British distribution.
Found over the whole of the British Isles, but less widely in Ireland and some parts of the Highlands. Found on Scilly, Shetland, Orkney and the Isle of Man.
Similar species in Britain.
"Apometzgeria pubescens" is very hairy and "Metzgeria fruticulosa" and "M. temperata" constantly have gemmae on the thalli. "M. conjugata" grows on rock, and "M. furcata" can sometimes grow on rock too, but "M. conjugata" has thalli that are twice as wide as "M. furcata" and the margins are much more turned down.


Receptacle (botany)

In botany, the receptacle refers to vegetative tissues near the end of reproductive stems that are situated below or encase the reproductive organs.
Angiosperms.
In angiosperms, the receptacle or torus (an older term is thalamus, as in Thalamiflorae) is the thickened part of a stem (pedicel) from which the flower organs grow. In some accessory fruits, for example the pome and strawberry, the receptacle gives rise to the edible part of the fruit. The fruit of "Rubus" species is a cluster of drupelets on top of a conical receptacle. When a raspberry is picked, the receptacle separates from the fruit, but in blackberries, it remains attached to the fruit.
In the Daisy family (Compositae or Asteraceae), small individual flowers are arranged on a round or dome-like structure that is also called receptacle.
Algae and bryophyta.
In phycology, receptacles occur at the ends of branches of algae mainly in the brown algae or Heterokontophyta in the Order Fucales. They are specialised structures which contain the reproductive organs called conceptacles. Receptacles also function as a structure that captures food.


Lepidosperma viscidum

Lepidosperma viscidum, the sticky saw sedge, is a grass like plant found in south eastern Australia. Usually seen in heath and woodland on sandy and rocky sites, it may grow to 60 centimetres high. This is one of the many plants first published by Robert Brown with the type known as "(M.) v.v." appearing in his "Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen" in 1810. The specific epithet "viscidum" is derived from the Latin with a meaning of "sticky", which refers to the sticky resin from the base and margins of the leaves and stem margins. On drying, the resin turns a red colour.


Lithophragma heterophyllum

Lithophragma heterophyllum is a species of flowering plant in the saxifrage family known by the common name hillside woodland star. It is native to the coastal mountain ranges of California, where it can generally be found in shady habitat. It is a rhizomatous perennial herb growing erect or leaning with a slender naked flowering stem. The leaves are located on the lower part of the stem, each divided into rounded lobes. The stem bears 3 to 12 flowers, each in a cuplike calyx of red or green sepals. The five petals are white, up to 1.2 centimeters long, and usually divided into about three pointed lobes.


Champereia

Champereia is a genus of plants in the family Opiliaceae described as a genus in 1843.
It contains only one known species, Champereia manillana, native to China (Guangxi, Yunnan), Taiwan, Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and Christmas Island.


Drypetes

Drypetes is a plant genus of the family Putranjivaceae, in the order Malpighiales.
It was previously in the family Euphorbiaceae, tribe Drypeteae, and was the sole pantropical zoochorous genus of the family.
The genus comprises about 200 species, found in Africa, southern Asia, Australia, Central America, the Caribbean, southern Florida, Mexico, and various oceanic islands. They are dioecious trees or shrubs.
Along with "Putranjiva", also in the Putranjivaceae, "Drypetes" contains the only plants outside the Brassicales known to contain mustard oils.
Species.
The Kew "World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP)" lists:


Rotylenchulus parvus

Rotylenchulus parvus is a plant pathogenic nematode infecting papaya.


Ribes alpinum

Ribes alpinum, known as mountain currant or alpine currant, is a small deciduous shrub native to central and northern Europe from Finland and Norway south to the Alps and Pyrenees and Caucasus, Georgia; in the south of its range, it is confined to high altitudes. It is scarce in western Europe, in Britain being confined to a small number of sites in northern England and Wales.
"Ribes alpinum" grows to 2 m (6.5 feet) tall and 1.5 m (4.9 feet) broad, with an upright and dense shape. The bark is initially smooth and light grey, later it becomes brownish grey and eventually starts to flake off. The buds are scattered, compressed and light green to white. The leaves are palmate. The upper side of the leaves are dark green with scattered hair, while the bottom is light green. The male and female flowers are on distinct specimens. Both kinds of flowers are organized in clusters in the corners of the leaves, where the male's are the longest. The individual flowers are small and greenish-yellow. The fruit is red, clear and resembles a redcurrant, but has an insipid taste. The seeds germinate readily.


Cylindropuntia prolifera

Cylindropuntia prolifera, known by the common name Coastal cholla, is a species of cactus.
Description.
"Cylindropuntia prolifera" is a mostly erect, treelike cactus which can approach 3 meters in maximum height. The gray-green segments are narrow and cylindrical, surfaced in fleshy tubercles bearing many brown or reddish spines up to 2 centimeters long. The flowers are reddish purple and often borne on the fruits of previous seasons. Fruits grow in chains of up to 5 and are green in color.
Distribution.
"Cylindropuntia prolifera" is native to Southern California and Baja California, where it grows in coastal sage scrub, chaparral, and beach and bluff habitat. It occurs from Santa Barbara County south.


Sabatia campestris

Sabatia campestris (Texas star; also prairie rose-gentian, prairie sabatia, meadow pink) is a species of "Sabatia", native to the south-central United States, from Texas east to Mississippi and north to Iowa and Illinois. It is also locally naturalized in New England.
"Sabatia campestris" is an annual plant growing to tall with pairs of opposite leaves 8–40 mm long and 5–20 mm wide. The flowers are produced in open, long-stalked cymes at the top of the stems; the flower corolla is about 40 mm diameter, with five pink (rarely white) lobes with bluntly acute apices, and a contrasting bright yellow central 'eye'; they are hermaphrodite (contain both male and female organs). The fruit is a capsule containing numerous small seeds.
Habitat.
Its natural habitats are mainly fields, prairies (hence the name Prairie rose-gentian), open ground, woods and roadside edges.
Cultivation and uses.
"Sabatia campestris" is cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens, where it requires moist soil and partial to full sun.
It can be used for medical purposes as an anti-periodic and tonic. It is also possible to obtain a herbal tea from the plant.


Queen Elizabeth Oak

The Queen Elizabeth Oak is a large sessile oak tree in Cowdray Park near the village of Lodsworth in the Western Weald, West Sussex, England. It lies within the South Downs National Park. It has a girth of , and is about 800–1,000 years old. According to this estimate it began to grow in the 11th or 12th century AD. In June 2002, The Tree Council designated the Queen Elizabeth Oak, one of fifty Great British Trees, in recognition of its place in the national heritage. According to the Woodland Trust, the tree is the third largest sessile oak tree to be recorded in the United Kingdom after the Pontfadog Oak in Wales and the Marton Oak in Cheshire, although this tree is now fragmented.
According to legend, Queen Elizabeth I stood with an arrow ready in her bow waiting for a stag to be driven within range for her to shoot it, although she was unsuccessful.


Thalamiflorae

Thalamiflorae is a historical grouping of dicotyledons, arranged in the De Candolle system and in the Bentham and Hooker system. This group was named and published well before internationally accepted rules for botanical nomenclature. In these systems, a family was indicated as "ordo", and modern rules of botanical nomenclature accept that as meaning a family rather than an order.Article 18.2 Family names have also since been standardized (most family names now end in -"aceae").
Previous group.
Polypetalae.
Dome shaped plants with unexpanded flower receptacle (thalamus), polysepalous, hypogenous with a superior ovary
Thalamiflorae detailed view of subclass.
Within the dicotyledons ("classis prima "Dicotyledoneae"") the systems recognize this as subclass 1. Thalamiflorae. The full "Ordo", "Tribe" and genera are shown below
Ordo 1. "Ranunculaceae"
Ordo 2. "Dilleniaceae"
Ordo 3. "Magnoliaceae"
Ordo 4. "Annonaceae"
Ordo 5. "Menispermaceae"
Ordo 6. "Berberideae"
Ordo 7. "Podophyllaceae"
Ordo 8. "Nymphaeaceae"
Ordo 9. "Papaveraceae"
Ordo 10. "Fumariaceae"
Ordo 11. "Cruciferae"
Ordo 12. "Capparideae"
Ordo 13. "Flacourtianeae"
Ordo 14. "Bixineae"
Ordo 15. "Cistineae"
Ordo 16. "Violarieae"
Ordo 17. "Droseraceae"
Ordo 18. "Polygaleae"
Ordo 19. "Tremandreae"
Ordo 20. "Pittosporeae"
Ordo 21. "Frankeniaceae"
Ordo 22. "Caryophylleae"
Ordo 23. "Lineae"
Ordo 24. "Malvaceae"
Ordo 25. "Bombaceae"
Ordo 26. "Byttneriaceae"
Ordo 27. "Tiliaceae"
Ordo 28. "Elaeocarpeae"
Ordo 29. "Chlenaceae"
Ordo 30. "Ternstroemiaceae"
Ordo 31. "Camellieae"
Ordo 32. "Olacineae"
Ordo 33. "Aurantiaceae"
Ordo 34. "Hypericineae"
Ordo 35. "Guttiferae"
Ordo 36. "Marcgraviaceae"
Ordo 37. "Hippocrateaceae"
Ordo 38. "Erythroxyleae"
Ordo 39. "Malpighiaceae"
Ordo 40. "Acerineae"
Ordo 41. "Hippocastaneae"
Ordo 42. "Rhizoboleae"
Ordo 43. "Sapindaceae"
Ordo 44. "Meliaceae"
Ordo 45. "Ampelideae"
Ordo 46. "Geraniaceae"
Ordo 47. "Tropaeoleae"
Ordo 48. "Balsamineae"
Ordo 49. "Oxalideae"
Ordo 50. "Zygophylleae"
Ordo 51. "Rutaceae"
Ordo 52. "Simarubeae"
Ordo 53. "Ochnaceae"
Ordo 54. "Coriarieae"


Medusagynaceae


Solanum ovum-fringillae

Solanum ovum-fringillae is a species of plant in the family Solanaceae. It is endemic to Brazil.


Annual ryegrass

Annual ryegrass is a common name for several species of ryegrass and may refer to:


Ribes viburnifolium

Ribes viburnifolium, is an uncommon North American species in the gooseberry family. It is known by the common names Catalina currant, Santa Catalina Island currant, island gooseberry and evergreen currant.
Distribution.
"Ribes viburnifolium" is found in Southern California in the United States, especially on Santa Catalina Island in the Channel Islands, and also in northern Baja California in Mexico. It is a rare member of the California coastal sage and chaparral plant community. 'Evergreen currant' has become a popular plant in drought-tolerant gardens.
Description.
"Ribes viburnifolium" grows low to the ground, extending long reddish stems horizontally. The leaves are dark green and shiny on their top surfaces, and lighter green or yellowish and leathery on the undersides. The leaves have glands which exude a sticky, citrus-scented sap.
Clusters of deep red flowers bloom in late winter and into early spring. The plant yields small red fruits later in the spring.


Carnivorous Plants of Australia

Carnivorous Plants of Australia is a three-volume work on carnivorous plants by Allen Lowrie. The three tomes were published in 1987, 1989, and 1998, by University of Western Australia Press.
An entirely updated three-volume work by Lowrie was published by Redfern Natural History Productions in December 2013 as Carnivorous Plants of Australia Magnum Opus.
Content.
The first volume deals exclusively with tuberous sundews (genus "Drosera"). The second is devoted to pygmy sundews, but also includes three tuberous species described since the publication of the first volume, as well as two other sundews that do not fit elsewhere ("D. glanduligera" and "D. hamiltonii"). The final volume includes the remaining sundews of Australia, together with native species of "Aldrovanda", "Byblis", "Cephalotus", "Nepenthes", and "Utricularia". Each species is given a four-page treatment, with one page for a botanical description, one for a line drawing of the author's creation, one for a distribution map, and one for assorted colour photographs.
Reviews.
Volume 1.
Martin Cheek reviewed the first volume for the March 1988 issue of the "Carnivorous Plant Newsletter" ("CPN"). He compared it to Neville Graeme Marchant and Alex George's 1982 treatment of tuberous sundews in "Flora Australia" (F.A.):
Each plant is very clearly described in a page of text followed by a few interesting paragraphs on its most outstanding features and how to tell it apart from its closest relatives. There follows a full plate of the most superb drawings, far better, more beautiful and comprehensive than the F.A., a distribution map (needless to say, ten times better than F.A.) and outstanding colour plates showing, separately, habit and habitat and a close-up of the flowers.
Cheek identified a number of "[m]inor errors" in the text, including the species keys and glossary, but wrote that "we must not be over critical". He concluded: "This book is essential reading as the major reference work on Australian tuberous sundews: buy it."
Volume 2.
The second volume was reviewed by Donald Schnell in the March–June 1990 issue of the "CPN":
The descriptions are all excellent, as are the line drawings and range maps. The photos are true to color, sharply printed, and for the most part show what they are intended to.
Schnell suggested that some of the book's smaller images would benefit from enlargement, finding certain morphological details difficult to discern. He added that "some might question" the inclusion of many undescribed taxa and several newly described species of tuberous sundews, the latter appearing somewhat out-of-place in a book otherwise devoted to pygmy sundews.
Martin Cheek provided a more in-depth review of volume 2 for the September–December 1990 issue of the "CPN". He wrote that the book puts all other works on pygmy sundews "into the shade", with comprehensive treatment of every species known at the time. Minor criticisms included the "woolliness" of certain glossary definitions (which "has unfortunate consequences in the descriptions that follow"), issues with the main key, a lack of ranges for many measurements, truncated peduncles in some line drawings, and no mention of bract morphology in the species descriptions. More serious criticism was levelled at the inclusion of numerous informally named taxa and at Lowrie's reliance on original descriptions (without examination of type material) in making certain taxonomic determinations, particularly with respect to the confused "D. omissa". Cheek also added: "For the grower of pygmy "Drosera", a major disappointment is that the numerous cultivar names that so many pygmy sundew species, of direct wild origin, have been traded under for 10 years or more [...] are not accounted for, nor mentioned anywhere in the text." Summarising, Cheek wrote:
Even in view of the reservations expressed above, the keys, descriptions, maps and illustrations are vastly superior to those of previous authors. The works of Erickson and Marchant & George must now be considered completely out-of-date.
Volume 3.
Barry Rice gave a positive appraisal of the third volume in the September 1999 issue of the "CPN", writing: "If you are interested at all in Australian carnivorous plants you should buy this book!". He continued:
The descriptive text sections are good and the botanical drawings are well executed and clear, although many of the plates have much blank space that could have been used for additional sketches. (For example, Lowrie unfortunately did not include gemmae sketches for the new pygmy sundews.) The photography is excellent—as in his first two volumes Lowrie skillfully uses depth-of-field and background choices to highlight the plants. The addition of microphotographs is welcome.
Rice wrote that the range maps "are fine, although not particularly detailed" and considered the alphabetical arrangement of species, which differed from the first two volumes, "inconvenient" at times. Rice pointed out the omission of many "Utricularia" species ("only nineteen species are described, even though more than fifty species occur in Australia") and felt that the four-pages-per-species format was inadequate for treating some of the more "complicated taxa", like "D. binata", "U. dichotoma", and especially "D. peltata" (of which "only the Western Australia type was ever mentioned"—in the first volume).


Gayophytum heterozygum

Gayophytum heterozygum is a species of flowering plant in the evening primrose family known by the common name zigzag groundsmoke. It is native to the western United States where it grows mainly in forested mountain habitat. This is a spindly annual herb with a few forking branches which approaches 80 centimeters in maximum height. It has a sparse foliage of small, narrow leaves, most of which are on the lower half of the plant. It produces tiny white flowers toward the tops of the thin stems. The fruit is a lumpy-looking capsule.


Elijah Ateka

Elijah Miinda Ateka (born 20 August 1972) is a Professor of Plant Virology at the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology. He is involved with the diagnosis and characterisation of the sweet potato virus and the cassava virus, and is part of the Cassava Virus Action Project (CVAP).
Early life and education.
Ateka attended Menyenya High School in Kenya. Ateka studied agriculture at the University of Nairobi and graduated in 1995. He remained there for his graduate studies, earning a Master's degree in plant pathology in 1999 and a PhD in molecular virology in 2005. He worked under the supervision of Rose W. Njeru. During his PhD Ateka worked at the . He has worked as a Visiting Researcher at Nagoya University, as well as in the Kenyan Ministry of Agriculture. Ateka joined the Kenya Agricultural & Livestock Research Organisation, where he studied sweet potato viruses including feathery mottle, leaf curl and mild mottle virus.
Research and career.
Ateka joined the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology in 2006. He is involved with the monitoring of crops in east Africa, including cassava, tomato and sweet potato. Cassava is a plant with a tuberous root that it extensively cultivated in Africa. It is a staple food of the developing world and the third largest source of carbohydrates in the tropics. Unfortunately, Cassava plants are susceptible to circular single-stranded DNA viruses transmitted by whitefly. Ateka has been involved with chemotherapy and thermotherapy trials to eliminate the Cassava mosaic virus. He opened a new diagnostic facility and greenhouse in 2017. Ateka was the Country Team Leader for the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation grant "Cassava Disease Diagnostics"; one of the first programs run by and for people in East Africa.
Ateka works with Boykin at the University of Western Australia on the characterisation and diagnosis of viruses that impact the Cassava plant. He has been involved with training programmes for African farmers and researchers, leading collaborative courses with Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology and University of Eldoret. The programmes were supported by the Crawford Fund, and included the development of portable DNA sequencers (nanopore) to help farmers diagnose their crops early. During the project, the researchers identify the DNA sequence of the Cassava, a process which can generate up to 5 Gb of data. In 2019 Ateka and Boykin launched the KENET’s Virtual Lab, a high-speed data transfer platform to share information between Kenya and Australia. The collaboration has saved the researchers having to travel long distances to exchange data. He is developing a new breed of cassava that is more resilient to climate change; including drought, heat and cold.
Ateka has worked as an advisor for the United Nations.
Personal life.
Ateka is married to Azenath N. Ateka, with whom he has three children.


Frailea

Frailea is a genus of globular to short cylindrical cacti native to Brazil. These species are cleistogamous. They were first classified in the genus "Echinocactus".