Jaguarundi

The jaguarundi ("Herpailurus yagouaroundi") is a wild cat native to the Americas. Its range extends from central Argentina in the south to northern Mexico, through Central and South America east of the Andes. The jaguarundi is a medium-sized cat of slender build. Its coloration is uniform with two color morphs, gray and red. It has an elongated body, with relatively short legs, a small, narrow head, small, round ears, a short snout, and a long tail, resembling mustelids in these respects. It is about twice as large as a domestic cat ("Felis catus"), reaching nearly at the shoulder, and weighs .
Secretive and alert, the jaguarundi is typically solitary or forms pairs in the wild, though captive individuals are more gregarious. Unlike other sympatric cats such as the ocelot, the jaguarundi is more active during the day and hunts mainly during daytime and evening hours. Individuals live in large home ranges, and are sparsely distributed within a region. The jaguarundi is an efficient climber, but typically prefers hunting on ground. It feeds on various kinds of prey, especially ground-feeding birds, reptiles, rodents and small mammals. Mating occurs throughout the year, with peaks at different times of the year across the range. After a gestation period of 70 to 75 days, a litter of one to four kittens is born. Lifespan of up to 15 years has been recorded in captivity.
The jaguarundi inhabits a broad array of closed as well as open habitats ranging from tropical rainforests and deciduous forests to deserts and thorn scrubs. It is fairly common in Brazil, Peru and Venezuela, but may be locally extinct in the United States. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, but populations are in decline in many parts of its range due to loss and fragmentation of habitat and persecution for killing poultry.
Etymology.
The common name "jaguarundi" () comes from the Old Guarani word "yaguarundi", similar to the Old Tupi word "yawaum'di". In some Spanish-speaking countries, the jaguarundi is also called "gato colorado", "gato moro", "león brenero", "leoncillo" and "tigrillo". It is also called "eyra", "gato-mourisco", "gato-preto", "gato-vermelho" and "maracajá-preto" in Brazilian Portuguese.
Taxonomy.
In 1803 Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire described two jaguarundi skins and skulls from unknown locations in Central America and proposed the scientific name "Felis yagouarundi". In the 19th and 20th centuries, several more zoological specimens were described:
The generic name "Herpailurus" was proposed by Nikolai Severtzov in 1858 for the jaguarundi. Later authors classified the jaguarundi in the genus "Puma" along with the cougar ("P. concolor"). Phylogeographical analysis of jaguarundi samples from across its range found no genetic evidence for subspecies. In 2017, the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy and recognises the jaguarundi as a monotypic taxon of the genus "Herpailurus".
Phylogeny and evolution.
The jaguarundi is most closely related to the cougar; the jaguarundi-cougar clade is sister to the cheetah. These three species comprise the "Puma" lineage, one of the eight lineages of Felidae; the "Puma" lineage diverged from the rest . The sister group of the "Puma" lineage is a clade of smaller Old World cats that includes the genera "Felis", "Otocolobus" and "Prionailurus".
The three species of the "Puma" lineage may have had a common ancestor during the Miocene, about . "Acinonyx" possibly diverged from the lineage in the Americas; some authors alternatively suggest that the cheetah diverged in the Old World.
The "Puma" lineage appears to have migrated from Asia to North America after crossing the Bering Strait, arriving in South America via the Isthmus of Panama by the Late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene. This was possibly followed by the bifurcation of the lineage into the cougar and "Herpailurus" (represented by "H. pumoides") in South America around between the Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene. "H. pumoides" went extinct around Middle Pleistocene, around the time the modern jaguarundi came into existence; the oldest fossils of the modern jaguarundi date back to the Late Pleistocene in Brazil around . The original North American cougars were extirpated during the Pleistocene extinctions around 10,000 years ago; North America was then recolonized by South American cougars and jaguarundis 10,000–8,000 years ago. The extinct North American genus "Miracinonyx" is another member of this clade.
Characteristics.
The jaguarundi is a medium-sized cat of slender build and uniform coloration that differs significantly from other neotropical cats — such as the small, spotted cats in the genus "Leopardus" — in its external appearance. This has been attributed to variations in its karyotype — the jaguarundi has 38 chromosomes, unlike the 36 in other small South American cats, and the chromosomal features resemble those of Old World cats such as the leopard cat ("Prionailurus bengalensis"). In fact, the jaguarundi shows several features seen in mustelids such as otters and weasels — it has an elongated body with relatively short legs, a small, narrow head, small, round ears, a short snout and a long tail. The head-and-body length is between ; the strong, muscular tail is long. Around twice as large as the domestic cat, the jaguarundi reaches nearly at the shoulder and weighs , though larger individuals weighing around have been reported. Males are slightly larger than females.
The coat is uniformly colored with at most a few faint markings on the face and the belly, though kittens are spotted for a short duration. Black and white marks on the lips and the snout, similar to those of the cougar, can be clearly seen in juveniles and some adults. Two color morphs are known (though intermediate shades are also seen) — gray (blackish to brownish-gray fur with a grizzled look due to bright and dark rings on individual hairs) and red (foxy red to chestnut); earlier these morphs were considered two different species. Individuals of both colors can be born in the same litter. Blackish brown individuals superficially resemble the tayra ("Eira barbara"), but the latter can be told apart by the clear, yellowish patch on the throat. The red morph is seen more often in dry, open areas. Melanistic individuals have been reported, but the coat is not completely black; the head and the throat are clearly paler than the rest of the body. The widely spaced ears are long without any spots on the back. The jaguarundi has a total of 30 teeth; the dental formula is .
Among felids, the jaguarundi is closely similar to the flat-headed cat ("Prionailurus planiceps"), but has a longer body and proportionately longer legs, is heavier and lacks the dark markings on the cheeks of the flat-headed cat. Tawny jaguarundis bear a similar coloration as the significantly larger cougar.
The diploid number of chromosomes in jaguarundi is 2n=38.
Distribution and habitat.
The jaguarundi inhabits a wide variety of habitats, from tropical rainforests and deciduous forests to deserts and thorn scrubs. It can also be found in cloud forests, mangroves and savannas. Unlike the sympatric margay, ocelot and oncilla, the jaguarundi can live in open areas as well. In open habitats the jaguarundi prefers areas with vegetative cover such as cacti, which would generally be difficult for potential predators to penetrate; there may be a few clearings at the periphery of such areas. Jaguarundis tend to stay close to a source of running water. The jaguarundi is noted for its resistance to environmental disturbances in its habitat; it can thrive in reforested areas. While commonly inhabiting elevations from lowlands up to above sea level, this cat has been reported at altitudes as high as in Colombia.
The range extends from central Argentina in the south to northern Mexico, through Central and South America east of the Andes — second only to the cougar in the latitudinal extent of its distribution. However, not all parts of its range have been studied well. The jaguarundi is fairly common in Brazil, Peru and Venezuela. It is possibly extirpated in the US; a 1999 study refuted claims of sightings in Arizona. The last confirmed sighting in the US was probably of a roadkilled individual near Brownsville (Texas) in 1986.
The occurrence of the jaguarundi in Florida has remained in doubt for decades, where they have been reported since 1907. They were allegedly introduced in the region by a writer from Chiefland who at some point imported the animals from their native habitat and released them near his hometown and in other locations across the state. W. T. Neill noted that jaguarundis occurred throughout peninsular Florida in the 1950s, but the numbers had plummeted by the late 1970s. Jaguarundis were also reported in the coastal area of Alabama in the 1980s, which may be evidence of the Florida population migrating northward. The jaguarundi has also been recorded from Cerro Largo in Uruguay, where its presence was uncertain.
Behavior and ecology.
The jaguarundi is shy and reclusive, and apparently very cautious of traps. There have been only a few radio telemetry studies of jaguarundis in Belize, Brazil and Mexico. Though activity has been observed throughout the day and at night, jaguarundis seem to prefer hunting during daytime and evening hours; for instance, a study in Belize reported that jaguarundis started moving before dawn and remained active through most of the day till sunset with a peak in hunting from late morning to noon. The cat appears to be more diurnal than most other cats, especially spotted cats that tend to be more active at night. The jaguarundi can swim across medium-sized rivers; an individual in Bolivia was recorded swimming across the Tuichi River. Jaguarundis are efficient climbers as well, but hunt mainly on ground; the coat color works as a good camouflage for terrestrial activity. They can leap up to into the air to catch birds. Predators recorded for jaguarundis include boa constrictors, cougars and domestic dogs. Parasites such as hookworms ("Ancylostoma" species), tapeworms (such as "Spirometra" and "Toxocara" species) and the lung fluke have been found in jaguarundis.
Studies have mostly observed jaguarundis alone or in pairs; pairs could probably be formed between mothers and older kittens or between individuals of opposite sexes during the mating season. Individuals in captivity have been found to be more gregarious. Home ranges tend to be large; a study in Brazil recorded home ranges in size for females, while those of males measured in area. Two males in Belize were recorded to have exceptionally large home ranges spanning an area of and , while the home range of a female in the same region measured in size. Population densities are typically low, around in Brazil, though Tamaulipas (Mexico) and the Llanos in Costa Rica and Venezuela have recorded figures as high as .
Marking behavior could serve as a means of olfactory or visual communication among jaguarundis; individuals in captivity have been observed scraping areas with their hind feet (sometimes with urination), clawing on logs, rubbing objects with their heads and leaving feces uncovered. Social behavior such as grooming, growling and sniffing has been recorded. The jaguarundi has a broad vocal repertoire; 13 different calls have been recorded including chattering, purring, screaming, a 'wah-wah' call, whistling, yapping and a peculiar bird-like chirp. In captivity, females in estrus have been observed making faint sounds as they scent mark the area around their enclosures.
Diet.
The jaguarundi typically feed on small-sized prey weighing less than , including ground-feeding birds, reptiles, rodents and small mammals. Jaguarundis will also take larger prey such as domestic poultry, fish, marmosets, rabbits and opossums; a study recorded small deer (possibly carrion) in the diet. Vegetation such as grasses have also been recorded in their diet. A study showed jaguarundis take vertebrate prey on an average everyday. The broad array of prey recorded for the jaguarundi across its range and varying proportions of different prey in its diet could indicate that the cat tends to feed on the most abundant and easily catchable prey in the area.
Reproduction.
Jaguarundis have been observed mating all year round, with peaks at different times of the year across the range; for instance, in Mexico breeding peaks in January and March. Estrus lasts three to five days, marked by the female regularly rolling onto her back and spraying urine. Sexually mature males will pursue the female, not reacting to any aggressive behavior from her side. As in many other felids, the male bites the fur on the female's neck on mounting; the female lets out a loud scream on penetration.
After a gestation period of 70 to 75 days, a litter of one to four kittens is born in a den constructed in a dense thicket, hollow tree, or similar cover. The kittens are covered well with fur and the underside is marked with spots, which disappear as they age; the coat color gradually changes as the kittens grow older. The mother starts bringing solid food for the kittens when they are around three weeks old, but they simply play with it until the mother ultimately ingests it. Kittens are capable of taking solid food like birds and guinea pigs at around six weeks. Jaguarundis become sexually mature at one to three years of age. Lifespan up to 15 years has been recorded in captivity.
Threats and conservation.
The jaguarundi has been listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List since 2002. Mexican populations, except those in the northeast, appear to be stable. The huge protected areas in the Amazon Basin are probably the only conservation units that can sustain long-term viable populations. IUCN Red List assessors noted that it should be listed as Near Threatened, but the data were not sufficient to extend this classification throughout the jaguarundi's range. The jaguarundi is not particularly sought after for its fur due to its poor quality and low value, but is suffering decline due to habitat loss. Other threats include risks of habitat fragmentation and persecution for killing poultry. The North and Central American jaguarundi populations are listed in CITES Appendix I and all the other populations are listed in CITES Appendix II. Populations in the US are protected under the Endangered Species Act; the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department has expressed concern that its presence in South Texas may be imperiled due to loss of the cat's native habitat. Populations in Mexico are listed under the Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010. Hunting jaguarundi is restricted in Peru and banned in Argentina, Belize, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, Uruguay, the US and Venezuela.


Zabrus reflexus

Zabrus reflexus is a species of ground beetle in the "Pelor" subgenus that is endemic to Greece.


List of Lepidoptera of the Dutch Caribbean

This list of Lepidoptera of the Dutch Caribbean includes the butterflies and moths that have been recorded from the Dutch Caribbean, consisting of the islands of Aruba, Sint Maarten, Curaçao, Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius.
According to a recent estimate, there are 110 Lepidoptera species in the Dutch Caribbean.


Amplinus bituberculosus

Amplinus bituberculosus is a species of millipede in the family Aphelidesmidae that is endemic to San Vito, Costa Rica, where it was found on 17–18 April 1972.
Description.
The males of the species are long and wide, while females are of the same length but in width. The colour is a bit different from "A. magnus". The head have a deep median sulcus, which is sharply impressed and is extended between antennae and almost next to the posterior edge of the vertex. The vertex is swelled in front and is large. Their clypeus have 4 macrosetae, which are equidistant across the middle. The surface of the first segment is almost smooth and have dorsum of segments that are coriaceus and shining at the end of the body. The metazonites ventral surface is conic and tuberculate at the same time, and is located next to the keels, or rather to the posterior base which is next to it. Tubercles are continued throughout the surface and are advancing into the posterior margin. Segment 17 sternum is adjacent to the whole coxa which is elevated. The ridge is elongated and ends on anterior sterna, which have a rounded tubercle. The last segments sides are parallel and end up with a rounded and acute apex. The gonopods have a bent mesad branch, which goes over the opposite branch. The opening of the gonopod have a posterior with raised rim that ends into an angular and sometimes rounded shoulder.


Paraponera clavata

Paraponera clavata is a species of ant, commonly known as the bullet ant, named for its extremely painful sting. It inhabits humid lowland rainforests from Nicaragua and the extreme east of Honduras and south to Paraguay.
Etymology.
The specific epithet of the ant, ', means "club-shaped". The generic name, "Paraponera", translates to "near-"Ponera"". Due to its notoriety, the ant has several Native American, Spanish, and Portuguese local names in different geographical areas. Perhaps the best known name is the Venezuelan ' (the "24 ant" or "24-hour ant"), referring to the full day of pain that follows being stung; it can also refer to the time it takes to kill a human. In Brazil, the Portuguese names given by locals include ', ', or "" (big black ant), and Native American-derived names are "tocandera", "tocandira", and "tocanquibira". These names derive from the Tupi–Guarani "tuca-ndy", which translates to "the one wounding deeply". Other names by which it is referred include "chacha", "cumanagata", "munuri", "siámña", "yolosa", and "viente cuatro hora hormiga". In Costa Rica, "P. clavata" is known as "bala", meaning "bullet". "P. clavata" also has several common names; it is most commonly known as the bullet ant because of the extreme pain it delivers following a sting, similar to that of getting shot. Other names are the lesser giant hunting ant and conga ant.
Taxonomy.
"Paraponera clavata" was first described by Danish zoologist Johan Christian Fabricius in 1775, who named it "Formica clavata" in his "Systema entomologiae", based on a worker he collected. Fabricius incorrectly listed the type locality as India, as these ants are only found in Central and South America. In 1804, "P. clavata" was transferred to the genus "Ponera" by the French zoologist Pierre André Latreille. The genus "Paraponera" was established by the British entomologist Frederick Smith in 1858, and "P. clavata" was designated as the type species by monotypy (the condition of a taxonomic group having only a single taxon described). In his book, Smith would synonymise multiple taxa under "Paraponera clavata", including "Formica armata", "Formica spininoda", "Ponera tarsalis" and "Ponera clavata". Later publications would also synonymise more taxa, including "Formica aculeata" and "Formica clavata". The genus was placed in a monotypic tribe, the Paraponerini, in 1901 by the Italian entomologist Carlo Emery, who stressed the importance of certain morphological characteristics of "Paraponera"; Emery had also placed the tribe close to the Ectatommini. This classification was accepted by the entomological community until 1958, where the American entomologist William Brown Jr. synonymised Paraponerini and transferred "Paraponera" to Ectatommini. It was treated as a valid tribe in 1994, but in 2003, the English myrmecologist elevated the rank of the tribe to subfamily level as Paraponerinae, being a part of the Poneromorph subfamilies.
Under the present classification, the bullet ant is a member of the genus "Paraponera" in the tribe Paraponerini, subfamily Paraponerinae. It is a member of the family Formicidae, belonging to the order Hymenoptera, It was once the sole member of its own genus and tribe until the extinct "Paraponera dieteri" was described in 1994 by the entomologist Cesare Baroni Urbani. The ant, described from Dominican amber, existed during the Early Miocene 15 to 45 million years ago. "P. dieteri" can be distinguished from "P. clavata" by its much narrower head, length, pronotum width, petiole width and other features. The good preservation of the fossil allowed comprehensive comparisons between the two species; the body sculpture of "P. dieteri" suggests that the genus as a whole exhibits a slow evolutionary rate.
"P. clavata" is the only living species in its subfamily. Although "P. dieteri" was the first extinct relative of "P. clavata" to be described, another "Paraponera" fossil had been examined earlier in the 1980s. The fossil, which was from the Miocene, was found embedded in Dominican Amber from Hispaniola; at the time of discovery, the ant was the largest fossil of its kind. It showed similar characteristics to "P. clavata", although it was considerably smaller. The fossil also has biogeographic importance. As "P. clavata" is not found in the Greater Antilles, but rather in Central and South America, this suggests that moister tropical forests covered the island during the Tertiary period. This is further supported by the fact that "P. clavata" is a forest ant that forages on the ground and up into bushes and trees.
Description.
Worker ants are long and resemble stout, reddish-black, wingless wasps. "Paraponera" is predatory, and like all primitive poneromorphs, does not display polymorphism in the worker caste; the queen ant is not much larger than the workers. They are not aggressive ants but are vicious when defending the nest, when they produce a stridulating sound and sting with ferocity.
Distribution and habitat.
"Paraponera" is distributed throughout Central and South America, commonly found in the wet Neotropical realm. These ants are found in Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica from the north, and in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil from the south. Colonies are found in lowland areas, at elevations ranging from sea level to 750 m (2,460 ft). However, specimens have been collected at elevations of 1,500 m (4,920 ft) in Parque La Amistad.
Colonies consist of several hundred individuals and are usually situated at the bases of trees. Workers forage arboreally in the area directly above the nest for small arthropods and nectar, often as far as the upper canopy; little foraging occurs on the forest floor. Nectar, carried between the mandibles, is the most common food taken back to the nest by foragers. Two studies in Costa Rica and on Barro Colorado Island (BCI) found about four bullet ant nests per hectare of forest. On BCI, the nests were found under 70 species of trees, six species of shrubs, two species of lianas, and one species of palm. Nests were most common beneath the canopies of "Faramea occidentalis" and "Trichilia tuberculata", but these trees are also the most abundant in the forest. Nests were present more frequently than would be expected based on the abundance of the trees under "Alseis blackiana", "Tabernaemontana arborea", "Virola sebifera", "Guarea guidonia", and "Oenocarpus mapora". The large number of nest plants suggests little active selection of nest sites by bullet ants. Small shrubs, however, are underused, probably because they do not provide access to the forest canopy. The study on BCI concluded that bullet ants may select trees with buttresses and extrafloral nectaries.
Enemies.
This ant is a predator of "Greta oto", the glasswing butterfly. This butterfly attempts to combat "P. clavata" by producing chemical extracts during the larval stage that are unpalatable to these ants.
Parasites.
The small (1.5- to 2.0-mm-long) phorid fly, "Apocephalus paraponerae", is a parasite of injured workers of "P. clavata", of which the supply is constant because frequent aggressive encounters occur between neighbouring colonies, resulting in maimed workers. The flies are able to parasitise healthy ants if the ants are artificially restrained, but healthy ants are agile and able to repel them. Both male and female flies are attracted by the scent of injured ants; the females lay eggs, as well as feed, and the males feed and possibly mate with the females. The flies are attracted to a crushed ant within two to three minutes and 10 or more flies may be attracted to each ant. Each ant can harbour 20 fly larvae. Carl Rettenmeyer observed "P. clavata" actively trying to attack "A. paraponerae" when they approached the entrance to their nest.
Relationship with humans.
Sting.
The bullet ant's sting is currently the highest on Schmidt's sting pain index, at 4.0+. According to Justin O. Schmidt, the pain is like ”Walking over flaming charcoal with three inches of nails embedded in your heel". Some victims compared the pain to that of being shot, hence the name of the insect. It is described as causing "waves of burning, throbbing, all-consuming pain that continues unabated for up to 24 hours". Lymphadenopathy, edema, tachycardia and fresh blood appearing in human victim feces are common symptoms. Poneratoxin, a paralyzing neurotoxic peptide isolated from the venom, affects voltage-dependent sodium ion channels and blocks the synaptic transmission in the central nervous system. It is being investigated for possible medical applications.
Initiation rites.
The Sateré-Mawé people of Brazil use intentional bullet ant stings as part of their initiation rites to become warriors. The ants are first rendered unconscious by submerging them in a natural sedative, and then 80 of them are woven into gloves made of leaves (which resembles a large oven mitt), stingers facing inward. When the ants regain consciousness, an initiator repeatedly blows smoke at the ants, with the objective of making them agitated and aggressive. Once this is done, they make the boy wear the gloves on his hands. The goal of this initiation rite is to keep the glove on for 5 to 10 minutes. When finished, the boy's hand and part of his arm are temporarily paralyzed because of the ant venom, and he may shake uncontrollably for days. The only "protection" provided is a coating of charcoal on the hands, supposedly to confuse the ants and inhibit their stinging. To fully complete the initiation, however, the boys must go through the ordeal 20 times over the course of several months or even years.


Helicella orzai

Helicella orzai is a species of land snail in the family Geomitridae, the hairy snails and their allies. It is endemic to Spain.
This snail occurs in the eastern Basque Country and in northern Navarre. It can be found in the Aizkorri and Aralar Ranges and on Lindux Mountain. It lives under rocks in dry, open habitat types. The population is thought to be stable and there are few threats.


Kurixalus verrucosus

Kurixalus verrucosus (Boulenger's bushfrog, small rough-armed tree frog) is a species of frog in the family Rhacophoridae found in Myanmar, Thailand, China, and Vietnam. In the past, it has been considered synonym of "Rhacophorus appendiculatus" (="Kurixalus appendiculatus"), which, together with other confusion regarding the identity of this species, makes interpreting older literature difficult. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, rivers, and intermittent rivers. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Anaxarcha intermedia

Anaxarcha intermedia is a species of praying mantis found in India.


Oreolalax jingdongensis

Oreolalax jingdongensis (Jingdong lazy toad or Jingdong toothed toad) is a species of amphibian in the family Megophryidae. It is endemic to China: it is only found in the Ailao Mountains region in Yunnan, including the Jingdong County that has given it its name.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests and rivers.
It is threatened by habitat loss.
Male "Oreolalax jingdongensis" grow to about in snout-vent length and females to about . Tadpoles are in length.


Catostomus wigginsi


Acragas fallax

Acragas fallax is a species of jumping spider in the genus "Acragas". The scientific name of this species was first published in 1896 by Peckham & Peckham. These spiders are usually easily found in Panama.


Zilla diodia

Zilla diodia is an orb-weaver spider species found from Europe to Azerbaijan. This species was originally described by Charles Athanase Walckenaer in 1802 as "Aranea diodia".


List of mammals of Slovenia

There are 75 mammal species in Slovenia, of which seven are vulnerable and four are near threatened.
The following tags are used to highlight each species' conservation status as assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature:
Some species were assessed using an earlier set of criteria. Species assessed using this system have the following instead of near threatened and least concern categories:
Order: Rodentia (rodents).
Rodents make up the largest order of mammals, with over 40% of mammalian species. They have two incisors in the upper and lower jaw which grow continually and must be kept short by gnawing. Most rodents are small though the capybara can weigh up to .
Order: Lagomorpha (lagomorphs).
The lagomorphs comprise two families, Leporidae (hares and rabbits), and Ochotonidae (pikas). Though they can resemble rodents, and were classified as a superfamily in that order until the early 20th century, they have since been considered a separate order. They differ from rodents in a number of physical characteristics, such as having four incisors in the upper jaw rather than two.
Order: Erinaceomorpha (hedgehogs and gymnures).
The order Erinaceomorpha contains a single family, Erinaceidae, which comprise the hedgehogs and gymnures. The hedgehogs are easily recognised by their spines while gymnures look more like large rats.
Order: Soricomorpha (shrews, moles, and solenodons).
The "shrew-forms" are insectivorous mammals. The shrews and solenodons closely resemble mice while the moles are stout-bodied burrowers.
Order: Chiroptera (bats).
The bats' most distinguishing feature is that their forelimbs are developed as wings, making them the only mammals capable of flight. Bat species account for about 20% of all mammals.
Order: Cetacea (whales).
The order Cetacea includes whales, dolphins and porpoises. They are the mammals most fully adapted to aquatic life with a spindle-shaped nearly hairless body, protected by a thick layer of blubber, and forelimbs and tail modified to provide propulsion underwater.
Order: Carnivora (carnivorans).
There are over 260 species of carnivorans, the majority of which feed primarily on meat. They have a characteristic skull shape and dentition.
Order: Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates).
The even-toed ungulates are ungulates whose weight is borne about equally by the third and fourth toes, rather than mostly or entirely by the third as in perissodactyls. There are about 220 artiodactyl species, including many that are of great economic importance to humans.


Acrobasis minorella

Acrobasis minorella is a species of snout moth in the genus "Acrobasis". It was described by Aristide Caradja in 1910. It is found in Algeria.


Hutegotherium

Hutegotherium is an extinct genus of tegotheriid docodont known from partial remains found in Middle Jurassic (Bathonian age) Itat Formation of Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia. It was first named by Averianov, A. A.; Lopatin, A. V.; Krasnolutskii, S. A.; and Ivantsov, S. V. in 2010 and the type species is "Hutegotherium yaomingi".
Phylogeny.
Cladogram after Averianov "et al." (2010).


Aulorhamphus

Aulorhamphus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived from the early to middle Eocene.


Blue ling

The blue ling ("Molva dypterygia") is a member of the cod family from the North Atlantic. It is usually 70 to 110 cm long, but the maximum length is 155 cm. Blue ling feed on fish (flatfishes, gobies, rocklings) and crustaceans and benthic invertebrates. The fish reaches sexual maturity at the age of six to 12 years.


Cortes salamander

Cortes salamander ("Cryptotriton nasalis") is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae. It is found in the Sierra de Omoa in northwestern Honduras and Sierra de Caral in eastern Guatemala, close to the border with Honduras. The vernacular name Cortes salamander refers to the Cortés Department where the type locality is located, whereas the alternative name Cortez' hidden salamander with the spelling "Cortez" and the apostrophe are errors.
Taxonomy and systematics.
"Cryptotriton nasalis" was described by Emmett Reid Dunn in 1924 as "Oedipus nasalis". "Nototriton wakei", known only from the holotype and named for David B. Wake, is considered a junior synonym.
Description.
"Cryptotriton nasalis" are tiny salamanders. Males measure and adult females in snout–vent length (SVL). The tail is longer than the body in males (range 1.14–1.35 times the SVL) and many females (range 0.80–1.27 times the SVL). The head is moderately long and broad. The nostril openings are
large and the eyes are protuberant. The limbs are slender and comparatively long. The fingers and the toes are partially webbed.
The upper surfaces are dark brown with paler brown mottling behind the eyelids and along the middorsal line to the tail base. The upper surfaces of the limbs are paler than the body, whereas the tail is darker than the body.
Habitat and conservation.
"Cryptotriton nasalis" occurs in pre-montane and lower montane wet and cloud forests at elevations of above sea level. It tolerates some habitat modification. It is an arboreal salamander that lives in bromeliads. It is reasonably common in the Cusuco National Park in Honduras, whereas only one specimen is known from Guatemala, despite research activity in the area. The Guatemalan location is near the Sierra Caral Amphibian Reserve. It also occurs in the Cerro Azul de Copán National Park. The species is threatened by the loss of its forest habitat caused by expanding subsistence agriculture and illegal logging. These threats also impact the Cusuco and Sierra Caral protected areas.


Shade bush warbler

The shade bush warbler or shade warbler ("Horornis parens") is a species of bird in the family Cettiidae.
It is found only in Solomon Islands, where it is endemic to the island of Makira (formerly San Cristobal Island).
Its natural habitats are tropical moist lowland forests and tropical moist montane forest above 600m. It feeds on insects in the undergrowth and on the ground.


Stoplight parrotfish

The stoplight parrotfish ("Sparisoma viride") is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a parrotfish from the family Scaridae, inhabiting coral reefs in Florida, Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Bermuda and as far south as Brazil. It mainly feeds on algae by scraping and excavating it with its teeth. Like most of its relatives, it is able to change sex.
The common name, stoplight, comes from the marked yellow spot near the pectoral fin, which is clearly visible only in specimens in the terminal phase.
Sex Change & Coloring.
The stoplight parrotfish is a protogynous hermaphrodite that shows full sexual dichromatism, meaning that it changes its sex from female to male during its lifespan, and its color changes with its sex change. The sex change is most likely due to the control of hormones, in particular, 11-ketetestosterone (11-KT). The timing of the sex change can vary depending on population density, growth, and mortality rates. Early sex changes may occur if sexually active individuals have a higher mortality rate or have reduced growth rates.
The stoplight parrotfish has 3 life phases: juvenile, initial, and terminal. The colors of the stoplight parrotfish in the initial phase, when it could be either a male or a female, are dramatically different from those in the terminal phase, when it is definitely a male. During the juvenile and initial phase, the parrotfishes are colored brown with a red belly. During the terminal phase, the parrotfishes are a vivid green color with yellow spots on the tail base of their caudal fin. However, some males do not change color at the same time they change sex, therefore becoming female-mimic males (also termed initial phase males). During the initial phase, about 4% of the smaller parrotfish individuals are males.
Habitat.
The stoplight parrotfish inhabit shallow coral reefs not disturbed by humans in Florida, the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Bermuda and Brazil. They are only active during the day and spend most of their time foraging, swimming, or hovering. At night, they remain hidden under coral boulders. Large individuals typically spend more time swimming and spend a significant amount of time sheltering among crevices, while smaller individuals spend more time hovering. The stoplight parrotfish have a high density in areas of higher algal production. As adults, the stoplight parrotfish are site-attached with limited home ranges.
In the Florida Keys, the stoplight parrotfish were found most frequently in areas with high cover of the macroalgae "Dictyota". They have also been found to select for the branching coral "Porites porites", however "Dictyota" are an effective recruitment substrate when branching corals are not available.
Due to its abundance in the Caribbean, the stoplight parrotfish are very ecologically important there.
Onshore and Offshore Reefs.
Onshore coral reefs have a greater proportion of older juvenile fish, suggesting that the mortality and/or emigration of adults is more common onshore. Stoplight parrotfishes on offshore coral reefs have a greater average standard length, greater mean asymptotic size, and live twice as long as other fish from onshore coral reefs. Fish onshore were no older than 4 years, while the fish offshore reached 7–8 years. The age difference between offshore and onshore reefs could be due to the stoplight parrotfish migrating from onshore to offshore reefs with age, however, there is no evidence of ontogenetic migration.
Feeding & Foraging.
The stoplight parrotfish employs a scraping and excavating grazing mode and feeds almost exclusively on algae that are associated with dead coral substrates. They have higher grazing rates and assimilation efficiencies in areas with high-quality food.
Their preferred food types are large, sparse turfs growing on carbonate substrates that are inhibited by endolithic algae. Algae have high levels of proteins, a high energetic value, along with a high yield, making it preferable to the stoplight parrotfish. They tend to avoid living corals as food items, however, adult fish will occasionally take bites on some living corals (mainly "Montastrea annularis"). Crutose corallines are not preferred, whether or not they do or do not have algal turf.
Their foraging strategy is called “search and nip” and they spend short bouts of energy on swimming, feeding, and hovering.
Growth Rate.
The stoplight parrotfish grow continuously throughout life and their growth rate increases with higher food availability. The largest class of stoplight parrotfish is when they are in their terminal phase.
Its typical length is between , but it can reach up to . It is normally found during the day at depths between , but can be found from
Reproduction.
Stoplight parrotfishes engage in reproductive activity throughout the year. They are harem-forming fishes and territorial terminal phase males defend areas that are shared with 1-14 initial phase parrotfishes, with whom they mate. There is more territorial defense in areas with high-quality food. Single terminal phase males also defend the deeper reef from conspecifics.
Stoplight parrotfish males will often control territories containing many sexually mature females to breed with. Males that have territories and those that don't will have vastly different levels of testosterone.


Nanorana arnoldi

Nanorana arnoldi (common name: Arnold's paa frog) is a large species of frog in the family Dicroglossidae.
It is found in southwestern China (Tibet, Yunnan), northern Myanmar, eastern Nepal, and adjacent northeastern India.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forest, rivers, and freshwater springs.
It is primarily threatened by collection for consumption, but also by habitat loss.


Campodea aurunca

Campodea aurunca is a species of diplura found in the mountains of Italy.
Description.
A "Campodea (Monocampa)" with "lp" (i.e., lateral posterior macrochaetae) on the urotergite VI; with "la" (i.e., lateral anterior macrochetae) and "lp" on the urotergite VII; with bearded subapical dorsal setae on the tarsi.
Habitat.
Italia: Lazio: Latina: Campodimele, at an altitude of on the Aurunci Mountains.


Kashmir nutcracker


Acalyptris lesbia

Acalyptris lesbia is a moth of the family Nepticulidae. It is only known from Skala Kallonis on Lesbos in Greece.
The wingspan is 4-4.8 mm.
The larvae feed on "Limonium gmelinii". They mine the leaves of their host plant. The mine consists of a full-depth gallery, starting much contorted, often spirally, later becoming a full-depth mine with a narrow broken, brown frass line, following a straighter course
through the leaf. The larval exit hole is located on the upperside of the leaf. The cocoon is white and usually spun on the underside of the leaf.


Leopard seal

The leopard seal ("Hydrurga leptonyx"), also referred to as the sea leopard, is the second largest species of seal in the Antarctic (after the southern elephant seal). Its only natural predator is the killer whale. It feeds on a wide range of prey including cephalopods, other pinnipeds, krill, birds and fish. It is the only species in the genus Hydrurga. Its closest relatives are the Ross seal, the crabeater seal and the Weddell seal, which together are known as the tribe of Lobodontini seals. The name "hydrurga" means "water worker" and "leptonyx" is the Greek for "thin-clawed".
Taxonomy.
French zoologist Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville described the leopard seal in 1820.
Description.
The leopard seal has a distinctively long and muscular body shape when compared to other seals, but it is perhaps best known for its reptilian-like head and massive jaws which are enormous for its body size and which allow it to be one of the top predators in its environment. The front teeth are sharp like those of other carnivores, but their molars lock together in a way that allows them to sieve krill from the water in the manner of the crabeater seal. The coat is counter-shaded with a silver to dark gray blend and a distinctive spotted "leopard" coloration pattern dorsally and a paler, white to light gray color ventrally. Females are slightly larger than males. The overall length of adults is and weight is from making them the same length as the northern walrus but usually less than half the weight. The whiskers are short and clear.
As "true" seals, they do not have external ears or "pinnae", but possess an internal ear canal that leads to an external opening. Their hearing in air is similar to that of a human, but scientists have noted that leopard seals use their ears in conjunction with their whiskers to track prey under water.
Distribution.
Leopard seals are pagophilic ("ice-loving") seals, which primarily inhabit the Antarctic pack ice between 50˚S and 80˚S. Sightings of vagrant leopard seals have been recorded on the coasts of Australia, New Zealand (where individuals have been seen even on the foreshores of major cities such as Auckland and Dunedin), South America, and South Africa. In August 2018, an individual was sighted at Geraldton, on the west coast of Australia. Higher densities of leopard seals are seen in the Western Antarctic than in other regions.
Most leopard seals remain within the pack ice throughout the year and remain solitary during most of their lives with the exception of a mother and her newborn pup. These matrilineal groups can move further north in the austral winter to sub-antarctic islands and the coastlines of the southern continents to provide care for their pups. While solitary animals may appear in areas of lower latitudes, females rarely breed there. Some researchers believe this is due to safety concerns for the pups. Lone male leopard seals hunt other marine mammals and penguins in the pack ice of antarctic waters. The estimated population of this species ranges from 220,000 to 440,000 individuals, which puts leopard seals at "least concern". Although there is an abundance of leopard seals in the Antarctic, they are difficult to survey by traditional visual techniques because they spend long periods of time vocalizing under the water during the austral spring and summer, when visual surveys are carried out. The trait of vocalizing underwater for long periods means they can be the subject of acoustic surveys, allowing researchers to gather most of what is known about them.
Behavior.
Acoustic behavior.
Leopard seals are very vocal underwater during the austral summer.
The male seals produce loud calls (153 to 177 dB re 1 μPa at 1 m) for many hours each day. While singing the seal hangs upside down and rocks from side to side under the water. Their back is bent, the neck and cranial thoracic region (the chest) is inflated and as they call their chest pulses. The male calls can be split into two categories: vocalizing and silencing, in which vocalizing is when they are making noises underwater, and silencing noted as the breathing period at the air surface. Adult male leopard seals have only a few stylized calls, some are like bird or cricket-like trills yet others are low haunting moans. However, scientists have identified five distinctive sounds that male leopard seals make, which include: the high double trill, medium single trill, low descending trill, low double trill, and a hoot with a single low trill. These cadence of calls are believed to be a part of a long range acoustic display for territorial purposes, or the attraction of a potential mate. The leopard seals have age-related differences in their calling patterns, just like birds. Where the younger male seals have many different types of variable calls – the adult male seals have only a few, highly stylized calls. Each male leopard seal produces these individual calls, and can arrange their few call types into individually distinctive sequences (or songs). The acoustic behavior of the leopard seal is believed to be linked to their breeding behaviour. In male seals, vocalizing coincides with the timing of their breeding season, which falls between November and the first week of January; captive female seals vocalize when they have elevated reproductive hormones. Conversely, a female leopard seal can attribute calls to their environment as well; however, usually it is to gain the attention of a pup, after getting back from a forage for food.
Breeding habits.
Since leopard seals live in an area difficult for humans to survive in, not much is known on their reproduction and breeding habits. However, it is known that their breeding system is polygynous, meaning that males mate with multiple females during the mating period. A sexually active female (ages 3–7) can give birth to a single pup during the summer on the floating ice floes of the Antarctic pack ice, with a sexually active male (ages 6–7). Mating occurs from December to January, shortly after the pups are weaned when the female seal is in estrus. In preparation for the pups, the females dig a circular hole in the ice as a home for the pup. A newborn pup weighs around 66 pounds and are usually with their mother for a month, before they are weaned off. The male leopard seal does not participate in taking care of the pup, and goes back to its solitary lifestyle after the breeding season. Most leopard seal breeding is on pack ice.
Five research voyages were made to Antarctica in 1985, 1987 and 1997–1999 to look at leopard seals. They sighted seal pups from the beginning of November to the end of December, and noticed that there was about one pup for every three adults, and they also noticed that most of the adults were staying away from other adults during this season, and when they were seen in groups they showed no sign of interaction. Leopard seal pups mortality rate within the first year is close to 25%.
Vocalization is thought to be important in breeding, since males are much more vocal around this time. Mating takes place in the water, and then the male leaves the female to care for the pup, which the female gives birth to after an average gestation period of 274 days.
Research shows that on average, the aerobic dive limit for juvenile seals is around 7 minutes, which means that during the winter months juvenile leopard seals do not eat krill, which is a major part of older seals' diets, since krill is found deeper during this time. This might occasionally lead to co-operative hunting. Co-operative hunting of leopard seals on Antarctic fur seal pups has been witnessed, which could be a mother helping her older pup, or could also be female-male couple interactions, to increase their hunting productivity.
Foraging behavior.
The only natural predators of leopard seals are the killer whale and possibly the elephant seal. Its canine teeth are . It feeds on a wide variety of creatures. Young leopard seals will usually eat mostly krill, squid and fish. Adult seals probably switch from krill to more substantial prey, including king, Adélie, rockhopper, gentoo, emperor and chinstrap penguins, and less frequently, Weddell, crabeater, Ross, and young southern elephant seals. Leopard seals are also known to take fur seal pups.
Around the sub-Antarctic island of South Georgia, the Antarctic fur seal ("Arctocephalus gazella") is the main prey. Other prey include penguins and fish. Antarctic krill ("Euphausia superba"), southern elephant seal ("Mirounga leonina") pups and seabirds other than penguins have also been taken as prey.
When hunting penguins, the leopard seal patrols the waters near the edges of the ice, almost completely submerged, waiting for the birds to enter the ocean. It kills the swimming bird by grabbing the feet, then shaking the penguin vigorously and beating its body against the surface of the water repeatedly until the penguin is dead. Previous reports stating the leopard seal skins its prey before feeding have been found to be incorrect. Lacking the teeth necessary to slice its prey into manageable pieces, it flails its prey from side to side tearing and ripping it into smaller pieces. Krill meanwhile, is eaten by suction, and strained through the seal's teeth, allowing leopard seals to switch to different feeding styles. Such generalization and adaptations may be responsible for the seal's success in the challenging Antarctic ecosystem.
Physiology and research.
Leopard seals' heads and front flippers are extremely large in comparison to other phocids. Their large front flippers are used to steer themselves through the water column making them extremely agile while hunting. They use their front flippers similarly to sea lions (otariids) and leopard seal females are larger than males. They are covered in a thick layer of blubber that helps to keep them warm while in the cold temperatures of the Antarctic. This layer of blubber also helps to streamline their body making them more hydrodynamic. This is essential when hunting small prey items such as penguins because speed is necessary. Scientists take blubber thickness, girth, weight, and length measurements of leopard seals to learn about their average weight, health, and population as a whole. These measurements are then used to calculate their energetics which is the amount of energy and food it takes for them to survive as a species. They also have incredible diving capabilities. This information can be obtained by scientists by attaching transmitters to the seals after they are tranquilized on the ice. These devices are called satellite-linked time depth recorders (SLDRs) and time-depth recorders (TDRs). Scientists attach this device usually to the head of the animal and it records depth, bottom time, total dive time, date and time, surface time, haul out time, pitch and roll, and total number of dives. This information is sent to a satellite where scientists from anywhere in the world can collect the data. This is how we are currently learning so much about leopard seals diet and foraging habits. With this information we are able to calculate and better understand their diving physiology. They are primarily shallow divers but they do dive deeper than 80 meters in search for food. They are able to complete these dives by collapsing their lungs and re-inflating them at the surface. This is possible by increasing surfactant which coats the alveoli in the lungs for re-inflation. They also have a reinforced trachea to prevent collapse at great depth pressures.
Relationships with humans.
Leopard seals are apex predators presenting a potential risk to humans. However, attacks on humans are rare. Most human perceptions of leopard seals are shaped by historic encounters between humans and leopard seals that occurred during the early days of Antarctic exploration.
Negative interactions with humans.
Examples of aggressive behaviour, stalking and attacks have been documented. Notable incidents include:
Fatal Leopard Seal human interactions.
In a report read at the inquiry into Brown's death, Professor Ian Boyd from St. Andrews University stated that the seal may have mistaken her for a fur seal or may have been frightened by her presence and attacked in defense. Professor Boyd said that leopard seal attacks on humans were extremely rare but warned that they may potentially become more common due to increased human presence in Antarctica. The coroner recorded a verdict of an accidental death caused by drowning due to a leopard seal attack.
Interactions with human property.
Leopard seals have shown a predilection for attacking the black, torpedo-shaped pontoons of rigid inflatable boats, leading researchers to equip their craft with special protective guards to prevent them from being punctured.
Positive interactions with humans.
Paul Nicklen, a "National Geographic" magazine photographer, captured pictures of a leopard seal bringing live, injured, and then dead penguins to him, possibly in an attempt to teach the photographer how to hunt.
Conservation.
From a conservation standpoint, the only known predators of the leopard seals are killer whales and sharks. Because of their limited subpolar distribution in the Antarctic, they may be at risk as polar ice caps diminish with global warming. In the wild, leopard seals can live up to 26 years old. Leopard seal hunting is regulated by the Antarctic Treaty and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS).


Blood pheasant

The blood pheasant ("Ithaginis cruentus"), also known as blood partridge, is the only species in genus "Ithaginis" of the pheasant family. It is a relatively small, short-tailed pheasant that is widespread and is fairly common in eastern Himalayas, ranging across India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and northern Myanmar. Since the trend of the population appears to be slowly decreasing, the species has been evaluated as of least concern by IUCN in 2009.
The blood pheasant was the national bird of the former Kingdom of Sikkim, and remains Sikkim's state bird.
Description.
The blood pheasant has the size of a small fowl, about in length with a short, convex, very strong black bill, feathered between bill and eye, and a small crest of variously coloured feathers. The colour of the plumage above is dark ash, with white shafts, the coverts of the wings various tinged with green, with broad strokes of white through the length of each feather, the feathers of the chin deep crimson; on the breast, belly, and sides, feathers are lance-shaped, of various length, the tips green with crimson margins, collectively resembling dashes of blood scattered on the breast and belly. The tail consists of 12 subequal feathers, shafts white, rounded, the ends whitish, the coverts a rich crimson red.
Both males and females have red feet and a distinct ring of bare skin around the eye that typically is crimson colored, but is orange in a few subspecies. Females are more uniformly colored, being overall dull brown and often with some gray to the nape. Although some of the subspecies that have been described are highly distinctive, others are not, and some variation appears to be clinal. Consequently, the number of valid subspecies is disputed, with various authorities recognizing between 11 and 15. They mainly vary in the plumage of the males, especially the amount of red or black to the throat, forehead, neck, chest and tail, and the presence or absence of rufous in the wings.
Taxonomy.
Twelve subspecies are recognized:
Distribution and habitat.
Blood pheasants live in the mountains of Nepal, Sikkim, northern My-anmar, Tibet, and central and south-central China, where they prefer coniferous or mixed forests and scrub areas near the snowline. They move their range depending on the seasons, and are found at higher elevations during the summer. With snow increasing in fall and win-ter, they move to lower elevations.
Ecology.
Unlike the common pheasant, the blood pheasant is monogamous. Breeding season begins at the end of April when males begin their courtship by displaying in front of females by flying at each other breast-to-breast, biting wattles, or performing high leaps with kicks toward the other’s bill. Mate choice by females depends on factors like tail length, length of the ear tufts, and the presence of black points in the wattle, but neither wattle size or color nor the brightness of the plumage affect the females' choice.
The blood pheasant reaches sexual maturity in one year. In early May, mature females begin nesting under paddy straw heaps surrounded by trees, in brush, small caves, or in tree holes near the ground. They excavate shallow pot-like nests and line them with moss, pine needles, and feathers. The female lays 4-14 yellowish-white eggs with brown speckles, at intervals of two or three days. During the 27-33 days of egg incubation, the male is responsible for defending the territory against other male pheasants.
The blood pheasant's distribution in inhospitable high‐elevation environments has required adaptation to hypoxia and high levels of ultraviolet radiation.
Blood pheasants move with the snow line when foraging, feeding on moss, ferns, pine shoots, and lichens.
Conservation.
The species is currently classified as Least Concern by the IUCN. However, more than half the population is considered under threats due to habitat loss and fragmentation, illegal harvest, and human disturbance. Much of the distribution range of pheasants in Southwest China overlaps with the habitat of the giant panda, and livestock grazing has become the most prevalent human disturbance across associated protection areas. The blood pheasant's ground-nesting habits and relatively long incubation period make it especially vulnerable to trampling and habitat degradation by grazers.


Delminichthys adspersus

Delminichthys adspersus (or spotted minnow; ) is a species of cyprinid fish.
It is found in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia. Its natural habitats are rivers, intermittent rivers, freshwater lakes, and inland karsts.
It is threatened by habitat loss.


Neurosigma

Neurosigma is a monotypic butterfly genus in the family Nymphalidae. Its only species, Neurosigma siva, the panther or leopard, is found in Asia.


Greater tube-nosed bat

The greater tube-nosed bat ("Murina leucogaster") is a species of bat. An adult greater tube-nosed bat has a body length of 4.2-5.7 cm, a tail length of 3.6-4.1 cm, and a wing length of 3.7-4.4 cm. The species is found in India, Mongolia, China, and Korea.
The greater tube-nosed bat has twelve simple syllables and five composites with harmonics in the ultrasonic range. When emitting aggression calls, they bare their teeth, pull up their wings, and attack other individuals by biting. Males have stereotypical mating behaviors of shaking their bodies and licking their genitalia.


Gracixalus nonggangensis

Gracixalus nonggangensis is a species of shrub frog found in southern Guangxi, China, and Cao Bang Province in northern Vietnam.
Taxonomy and systematics.
A population previously thought to be a separate species, as "Gracixalus waza", was described from the Ha Lang District in northern Vietnam. This population was named for the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA), to acknowledge their support of amphibian research and conservation in Vietnam and the common name Waza treefrog was suggested for it. It is now considered as a junior synonym of "Gracixalus nonggangensis".
Description.
"Gracixalus nonggangensis" is a medium-sized species compared to others in its genus. Adult males measure in snout–vent length and females . The snout is rounded, slightly protruding. The head is as wide or wider than it is long. The tympanum is distinct and rounded, and the canthus rostralis is rounded. The supratympanic fold is distinct. The forelimbs are relatively short. The fingers have no webbing but have well-developed discs at their tips. The toes are webbed. The toe discs are smaller than the finger discs. The skin is smooth except for some granularity behind the tympanum, flanks, belly, and the limbs. Dorsal coloration varies from light greenish brown to moss-green. There is a dark brown, blotched pattern between eyes that continues backwards as two bands (forming a Y-like mark), and a dark stripe in the middle of posterior part of dorsum. The limbs have some dark brown bands. The throat and chest are white with dark brown marbling, whereas the belly is immaculate white.
Habitat and conservation.
In Vietnam, "Gracixalus nonggangensis" seems to be associated with karst landscape. Specimens were found near cave entrances and in valleys surrounded by limestone mountains, with the main habitat in the area being secondary karst forest consisting of hardwoods mixed with shrubs and vines. The elevational range is above sea level. The records are some distance away from water (minimum distance about ). The call was not heard during the periods surveys. Animals are active by night. Most individuals were found low on trees some above the ground, but two individuals were found on a limestone cliff inside a cave. Several other karst species have been found in the same area, including the gecko "Goniurosaurus luii" and the snake "Elaphe moellendorffi".
As of May 2020, this species has not yet been assessed for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.


Nephropsis rosea

Nephropsis rosea, sometimes called the rosy lobsterette or two-toned lobsterette, is a species of lobster.
Distribution and habitat.
It is found in the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, and as far north in the western Atlantic Ocean as Bermuda, and as far south as Guiana. It mostly lives at depths of , but has been observed between .
Size.
"N. rosea" reaches a carapace length of , or a total length of .


Chlorurus spilurus

Chlorurus spilurus, known commonly as the Pacific daisy parrotfish or Pacific bullethead parrotfish, is a species of marine fish in the family Scaridae.
Description.
The Pacific daisy parrotfish is widespread throughout the tropical waters of the Pacific region, including the Hawaiian Islands. The female has a dark coloration with four pairs of white spots on the back part of its body just before the caudal peduncle. The latter and the caudal fin are whitish with black patch. There is great variation in the coloration within the males of this species. Their body is greenish with big scales outlined with purple-blue lines, three purple-blue stripes around the mouth, an orange patch on the chick with also a white one just upper the latter.
Taxonomy.
"Chlorurus spilurus" was once synonymized with "Chlorurus sordidus", but recent study indicates that "C. spilurus" is distinct from Forsskal's species. This species has hybridised with "Chlorurus perspicillatus".


Charuplaya tree frog

The Charuplaya tree frog ("Boana callipleura") is a species of frog in the family Hylidae endemic to Bolivia. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, rivers, and canals and ditches.


Eurycantha calcarata

Eurycantha calcarata (common names thorny devil stick insect and giant spiny stick insect ) is a species of phasmid endemic to Australasia.
Range and Habitat.
"Eurycantha calcarata" is native to New Guinea, New Caledonia, and the Solomon Islands. Typical habitat includes warm humid rainforest where it is found in foliage and ground litter.
Description.
The thorny devil color ranges from light brown to black and resembles bark or rotten wood. Both sexes are wingless and armored with spines on body and legs. Exhibiting the sexual dimorphism of many similar insects (particularly other phasmids as well as mantises), males are small and thinner, less than 9-10 cm long while females are typically 14 cm in length. The male has enlarged hind leg femurs with a curved spine or thorn on the underneath side, large enough to be used as a fish hook in New Guinea. Females (only) have a larger abdomen tipped with an ovipositor.
Behavior.
Thorny devils are nocturnal feeders and group together during the day to hide under bark and in trees hollows, providing protection from predators. Like other types of stick insects they use crypsis and catalepsy to evade predators.
Reproduction.
"Eurycantha calcarata" typically reproduce through sexual reproduction and produce eggs that hatch 4.5-6.5 months later. When no males are present in the population, this stick insect exhibits parthenogenesis instead. Eggs are typically 8.2 mm in length and 4 mm wide, with a somewhat cylindrical shape. Egg color can vary from shades of brown to grey and surface texture is rough and shiny.
Males actively fight for mating rights with females. The females have a tail like structure known as the ovipositor, which is used to lay eggs under soft soil. The eggs tend to resemble plant seeds covered by a hard shell. After about 4 months’ incomplete metamorphosis takes place when the nymphs hatch out. Once hatched they are brown in colour and are about 30 – 40 mm long. The defenseless nymphs crawl up food plants to collect at the top.
Diet.
"Eurycantha calcarata" are herbivores, consuming forest leaves including eucalyptus, ficus, bramble, raspberry, rose, cherry laurel and guava.


Mittens (cat)

Mittens is a domestic cat in Wellington, New Zealand, who wanders Te Aro and the city's central business district. A feline flâneur, he roams up to from his home. Selfie pictures with the cat have become a desired item for locals. Mittens is occasionally taken to the SPCA or the police.
Originally from the suburbs of Auckland, he has become a social media celebrity since he, his late brother Latte, and their owner Silvio Bruinsma moved to the capital city in 2017. He featured on the 2018 edition of the Wellington Advent Calendar, an online calendar counting down the days before Christmas. Sam Thacker, an SPCA staff member, posted a polite direction about how to treat Mittens if anyone comes across him; asking members of the public not to report or take him in as they are familiar with his behaviour.
On 22 May 2020, Mittens was given the Key to the City of Wellington. Previous recipients include Sir Peter Jackson and Sir Richard Taylor. Later in 2020, he was the subject of an exhibition at the Wellington Museum and a candidate for New Zealander of the year in August.
Catnapped.
On 5 February 2021, Mittens was seen being taken in to a car, presumably, to be taken to the abductor's home, for pictures. It was called a "Massive error in judgement" by Mittens' owner. With the help of the social media community, Mittens was quickly located and returned home.


Danube bleak

The Danube bleak or Caspian shemaya ("Alburnus chalcoides") is a species of freshwater fish in the family Cyprinidae. It is found in Iran, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovenia, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.
Description.
The Danube bleak is an elongate slim fish which can reach but a more normal size is 15 to 30 centimetres (6 to 12 in). There are 57 to 70 scales along the lateral line. The abdomen is compressed into a keel and the posterior end of this has no scales. The dorsal fin has eight to nine branched rays while the anal fin has fifteen to nineteen. This fish is morphologically quite variable which may be due to local adaptations to various habitats but is more likely to be due to several species being involved.
Distribution.
The Danube bleak occurs in slow flowing stretches of rivers flowing into the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea and in the Aral Sea basin, in Alpine rivers among others. It is a migratory fish, spawning in the headwaters of the rivers and then moving down to the lower parts, estuaries and brackish areas of sea. These migratory patterns have been disrupted by the building of dams across many of the rivers. Landlocked populations survive in small rivers and reservoirs, breeding in the small streams above the dams. The main Caspian Sea population has found ways of spawning below the dams. Overfishing and pollution in the Caspian Sea could impact on the Danube bleak but in 2008 the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species listed it as being of "Least concern".
Biology.
The Danube bleak feeds on small crustaceans, worms, molluscs, insect larvae, insects and small fish.
Male Danube bleaks assemble in May to July at spawning sites in fast flowing streams with gravel bottoms. The females arrive later and deposit about twenty thousand eggs which stick to stones and gravel. These hatch after two or three days and the larvae stay among the gravel for another ten days before moving to backwaters and shallows where they feed on zooplankton, insect larvae and algae. The juvenile fish migrate down stream in the autumn or the spring of the following year. They may become mature in four to five years.


Mammals of the Indiana Dunes

Thirty-seven species of mammals have been identified at Indiana Dunes National Park. Four other species are thought to inhabit the park, but have not been documented: the northern long-eared myotis ("Myotis septentrionalis"), the Indiana bat ("Myotis sodalis"), the hoary bat ("Lasiurus cinereus"), and the southern bog lemming ("Synaptomys cooperi")
Common mammals seen by visitors and residents include the eastern cottontail, the eastern fox squirrel, the white-footed mouse, the white-tailed deer, and the meadow vole. Extirpated mammals include the common porcupine ("Erethizon dorsatum"), the wolf ("Canis lupus"), the red wolf ("Canis rufus"), the black bear ("Ursus americanus"), the fisher ("Martes pennant"), the North American river otter ("Lontra canadensis"), the cougar ("Puma concolor"), the Canada lynx ("Lynx canadensis"), the bobcat ("Lynx rufus"), the elk ("Cervus canadensis"), and the American bison ("Bison bison"). There are two threatened or endangered species in the dunes. The American badger ("Taxidea taxus"), on the Indiana threatened list is known to inhabit the area. The Indiana bat ("Myotis indiana"), on the federal endangered list is presumed to inhabit areas of the dunes.
Habitats.
While this article breaks out mammal communities by habitats, one of the problems you'll encounter in the Dunes community is that the habitats are in flux. Razed Residential areas are slowly returning to the habitat of the surrounding area, whether that is a wetland hummock, or a savanna. At Mount Baldy forested areas are becoming open sand. While the process may take years, an area that once hosted a community of plants and animals may change in your lifetime.
Barren ground.
Barren ground consists of open sand on the beaches and blowouts. Barren grounds are about 4% of the dunes areas and occur mostly along the beaches. Because of the scarcity of plants there are no permanent mammals living in the area. The normal process is for animals hunt on the beach at night. Some animals will live in the scattered clumps of plants that may remain or return to the blowouts. Evidence of animals in the barren areas is usually done through their tracks. Animals appear to go to the beach to feed and/or drink. In the blowouts, evidence of mammals is found near the clumps of grass (marrain grass and sea rocket).
Species found
Beaches: Virginia opossum, raccoon, and prairie deer mice and white-tailed deer.
Blowouts: masked shrew, prairie vole, and meadow voles.
Prairie.
About 4.4% of the area of the dunes is prairie. Three-fourths of that is dry prairie, the remainder is wet prairie.
Dry prairie.
Dry prairie primarily is along the front of dunes. It is easily identified by open sand with stands of marram grass and sand reed. The increased plant life over the barren sand provides shelter for small mammals. Little bluestem grass may be mixed in or it may form dense clumps among the dunes. The plots with little bluestem grass often had a greater variety of plant species, especially when away from the lakeshore.
Species found
Prairie deer mice, white-footed mice, meadow voles, thirteen-lined ground squirrels, northern short-tailed shrews, and eastern cottontails. The prairie mice are the only small mammal that increase in numbers with less plant cover. Voles thrive only with good plant cover. When short-tailed shrews use dry prairies only where they abut wetter areas.
Prairie deer mice, white-footed mice, prairie voles, ground squirrels, eastern cottontails, and northern short-tailed shrew.
Prairie deer mice, white-footed mice, northern short-tailed shrews, thirteen-lined ground squirrels, and eastern cottontail.
Signs foundeastern cottontail, the red fox, white-tailed deer, domestic dog and the long-tailed weasel. Sign have been seen that may be the southern bog lemming, but no animal itself has been found to confirm its presence. The bog lemming stays pretty much in bogs or wet areas. It does have a broad range of habitats around wetland areas. The thirteen-lined ground squirrel stays mostly in mowed areas, i.e., lawns, pastures, and roadsides. There discovery may indicate that they lived in the dry prairie before settlement created artificially maintained (mowed) spaces.
Wet prairie.
Shrub layer with of willow, aspen, and oak. Some of the major grasses were reed canary grass and blue joint grass. Cattails and rushes were also dominant in some areas. Cover ranged from animals being able to hide in clumps animals able to move about without being seen.
Species found
The masked shrew was most prominent. Meadow vole had been seen along the edge of wet areas at Hoosier Prairie. The white-footed mouse and the northern short-tailed shrew also in abundance. Other mammals were prairie deer mice, common raccoons, meadow vole, and meadow jumping mouse. Sign of the eastern mole, the woodchuck, the common raccoon and the white-tailed deer were seen.
Terrestrial shrubland.
No major terrestrial shrubland exists at the lakeshore. Instead, there is a shrubby area between the grass-covered dunes and the forested dunes. They consist of saplings of oaks, conifers, basswood; other trees soon to populate; and sometimes other species such as grape, cherry, and bearberry.
Lowland terrestrial shrubland.
This habitat may be willow thickets, red maple thicket or an aspen thicket. Some are former sand mines which are returning as dry prairie, including clumps of little bluestem grass or red osier dogwood.
Species found
No species of mammals were dominant or even abundant in this habitat. Mammals found include white-footed mice, northern short-tailed shrews, thirteen-lined ground squirrels, Virginia opossums, common raccoons, woodchuck, red squirrel, and meadow vole. Sign may be seen of eastern cottontail, white-tailed deer, and the eastern mole. The use of this area is transitory as the area habitat is transitory.
Upland terrestrial shrubland.
Upland terrestrial shrubland are disturbed areas between grassy old field or savanna and wooded habitats.
Species found
The meadow voles and shrews reflect the former fields rather than the current shrubs. In the woody vegetation there is a range of animals from small to large including meadow voles, short-tailed shrews, white-footed mice, raccoons, masked shrew. prairie deer mouse, prairie vole, and meadow jumping mouse. Signs of white-tailed deer, eastern cottontail, eastern chipmunk, eastern fox squirrel, domestic dog, and red fox were found.
Savanna.
The lakeshore includes three types of savanna. Oak savanna constitutes about 3% of the area, coniferous savanna about 0,196, and mixed deciduous savanna about 1.0%.
Oak savanna.
Oak savannas are grassy areas with a scattering of black oaks. These areas grade black oak forest. It is often difficult to decide between black oak forest and black oak savanna. The oak forest has a canopy of pure black oak. The understory is varied. Common shrubs in the understory include: oak saplings, blackberry, blueberry, rose, and Japanese honeysuckle. Common herbs in the understory include major grasses or sedges. Bracken fern and goldenrod are occasionally significant.
Species found
The white-footed mouse was the most abundant mammal found. The prairie deer mice occur in the sparsely vegetated and dry areas. The white-footed mouse is primarily in the woods but lives in a variety of habitats. Savanna is primarily a thinly wooded habitat that tends to favor the white-footed mouse over the prairie deer mouse. The prairie deer mouse prefer areas where the canopy is thinner and when the undergrowth is thin. Additionally, this habitat included: masked shrews, thirteen-lined ground squirrels, eastern chipmunks, southern flying squirrel, and the common raccoon. Seen in the oak savanna were the white-tailed deer; eastern mole, woodchuck, and eastern fox squirrel; eastern cottontail, eastern chipmunk, and red fox; and eastern gray squirrel.
Coniferous savanna.
Little coniferous savanna occurs in a narrow band between the grassy dunes and the black oak dunes. There is a layer of jack pine and a few black oaks. The shrub layer is very dense, forming fair to excellent cover. Bearberry and little bluestem grass are the dominant plants.
Species found
The white-footed mouse was the abundant. Virginia opossum, thirteen-lined ground squirrel, muskrat, and white-tailed deer, eastern cottontail, prairie deer mouse, meadow vole, red fox, and raccoon identified.
The white-footed mouse was favored in wooded area. The prairie deer mouse was found in open areas. Meadow voles and muskrats were found in moist areas with heavy cover and along interdunal ponds. The thirteen-lined ground squirrel and the prairie deer mouse were found in dry, open areas.
Mixed deciduous savanna.
The mixed deciduous savannas have scattered eastern cottonwoods with little bluestem grass. Other grasses were old witch grass and brome grass. Shrubs included grape, sumac, and bearberry and others. This savanna had a lot of cover for small animals.
Species found
The white-footed mouse was plentiful with northern short-tailed shrews, prairie deer mouse, meadow voles, and raccoons.
Upland forest.
Upland forest is the most extensive habitat along the lake. It is divided between upland oak forest mixed deciduous forest, and coniferous forest.
Upland oak forest.
Oak forest graded into oak savanna, and together the two habitats made up a major proportion of the area of the lakeshore. Black oak predominates on the higher drier areas and red oak in the lower interdunal areas of the many rows of oak dunes at the lakeshore. Eight plots were included in upland oak forest. Vegetation was studied in six of the eight plots. One was predominantly red oak. Black oak was dominant in the remainder. Black oak forest consisted primarily of rather low scrubby black oaks, with relatively little undergrowth. The shrub layer was often dense and diverse in this habitat, often containing black oak sprouts and blueberry. The herbaceous layer was often diverse, it most often provided poor to fair cover. The dominant herbaceous plants were most often Pennsylvania sedge and bracken fern.
Species found
The white-footed mouse, northern short-tailed shrews, two eastern gray squirrels, eastern chipmunk, and southern flying squirrel. Sign may be seen of white-tailed deer; eastern chipmunk and eastern fox squirrel, eastern mole, eastern gray squirrel, gray fox, long-tailed weasel, and eastern skunk.
Upland coniferous forest.
Conifers are short lived in the dunes. They exist briefly in the shrub stage before the oak forest moves in.
Species found
The white-footed mouse, northern short-tailed shrews, eastern gray squirrels, eastern chipmunk, and a southern flying squirrel. Signs were seen for white-tailed deer were recorded in three plots; eastern chipmunk and eastern fox squirrel and eastern mole, eastern gray squirrel, gray fox, long-tailed weasel, and eastern raccoons, and eastern cottontail.
Upland mixed deciduous forest.
The upland mixed deciduous forest is dominated buy oaks (black, red, white, and pin) and maples, (red and silver). Some areas are beech-maple forest. Cherry, ash, and elm dominate in a few areas. The shrubs most prevalent are witch hazel, Japanese honeysuckle, blueberry, spicebush, and saplings of several tree species. The ground cover can be sparse or dense.
Species found
The most abundant species is the white-footed mouse. Other mammals found include, the common raccoon, northern short-tailed shrews, Virginia opossum, meadow vole, woodchuck, red squirrel, eastern mole, eastern fox squirrel, and the white-tailed deer
Lowland forest.
Ephemeral lowland forest.
Ephemeral lowlands have a dense leaf cover of many different species. Silver or red maple are common with oak and ash, aspen and sassafras present. The shrubs may be closely packed or providing an open sparse cover. Spicebush is common. Numerous seedlings of the trees are present.
Species found
white-footed mice, northern short-tailed shrews, eastern chipmunks, common raccoons, long-tailed weasels, red squirrels, masked shrew, eastern cottontail, meadow vole, woodchuck, white-tailed deer; eastern mole and eastern cottontail.
Perennial lowland forest.
These forest retains water for 6 or more months each year. Vegetation varies greatly in this habitat. Maple are a dominant tree followed by pin oak, black oak, aspen, elm, birch and wild black cherry. These trees are common in the shrub layer, along with others, including blueberries and winterberry. The herb layer varies with graminoids and ferns. The herb and shrub layers were often clumped in hummocks.
Species found
The white-footed mouse is very common with raccoons; northern short-tailed shrews; eastern chipmunks; Virginia opossum, masked shrew, meadow vole, woodchuck, and eastern fox squirrel. White-tailed deer and chipmunks are also found. There is evidence of red squirrels, eastern moles, domestic dog, eastern cottontail, meadow vole, woodchuck, and meadow vole.
The star-nosed mole may be present from evidence of burrows. The westernmost site recorded for the star-nosed mole is at Trail Creek at the southern edge of Michigan City just east of the park. Shrews may be more prevalent than the 1988 study found due to the dry conditions that year.
Wetlands.
A variety of wetlands exists through the dune lands. Most wetlands are marsh, then aquatic shrub land, swamp, and bog.
Marsh.
Marsh habitat includes the Great Marsh. Many muskrats occur in here marshes, Much of the marsh is cattail, with bulrushes, sedges, and sometimes buttonbush. Cowles Bog is a marsh rather than a bog because cattail is the dominant plant. However, it has a floating mat of vegetation typical of a bogs, and it does have some typical bog species grass of Parnassus and pitcher plant. This is very little canopy with some scattered willows or elms. The shrub layer consisted of thick buttonbush, willow, or Ribes. The herb layer was often cattail, sedges, or blue joint grass, with occasional false nettle.
Species found
Three species were of near equal importance-the masked shrew, the white-footed mouse, and the meadow vole. The next most common are the northern short-tailed shrew, the raccoon, and the white-tailed deer. Other species include the eastern cottontail, the eastern chipmunk, the meadow vole, woodchuck, the prairie vole, the common muskrat, and the long-tailed weasel. The muskrat is a major species in the marshes, lakes, and ditches near open water.
Aquatic shrublands.
There is little canopy in the aquatic shrub lands and what little there is consist of oak. The shrub layer is aspen, willow, or oak. The herb layer is blue joint grass or cattails.
Species foundThe northern short tailed shrew, the white-footed mouse, and the meadow vole were the mammals most widespread in this habitat. The meadow jumping mouse was the largest single species. The eastern cottontail, the prairie vole, the common raccoon, and the white-tailed deer are present.
Swamp.
A very small portion of the lakeshore is swamp, about 1%. The woody canopy is a mix of eastern cottonwood or black willow. Willow dominant the lower layer with blackberry or grape vine. These area have thick ground cover was of blue joint grass, sedges, and cattails.
Species found
Much of the swamp habitat is water. Of the smaller animals, meadow voles were found and so were white-footed mice. Also found were common raccoons and fox squirrels. During this survey, signs of the eastern cottontail were found. In another survey by J. 0. Whitaker and R. E. Mumford in the fall of 1978 the swamp areas were found to be populated by masked shrews, white-footed mice, and northern short-tailed shrews. Based on the two surveys done in the swamps, the researchers suspect that the shrew population has been dropping between 1978 and 1994.
Bogs.
Pinhook Bog and Cowles Bog are both acidic and calcareous with poor drainage. There is a mats of Sphagnum over parts of the bogs. Typical plants include pitcher plants, sundew, cotton grass, and poison sumac. Shrubby areas, called heaths include leatherleaf, blueberries, bog rosemary, and cranberries. The perimeter is dominated by tamarack.
Pinhook Bog is a typical bog and used in the last study of mammals. Two areas were study; one was atypical for a bog and the other more typical. In the atypical plot, the dominant plant in the canopy was willow. The shrub layer included buttonbush, winterberry, poison ivy, wild rose. The dominant grasses were blue joint grass and smartweed --- water heartsease ("Polygonurn coccineum"). The typical plot had a canopy of tamarack and some pines and willows. In the shrub layer were bog rosemary, leatherleaf, blueberry, and huckleberry. The lowest layer, the herb layer was dominated by contained sphagnum, sedges, and pitcher plant.
Species found
The white-footed mouse was the only mammal taken in more than one study area. Other species include northern short-tailed shrews, one eastern cottontail, eastern chipmunk, and common raccoon. In 1978, 70 small mammals were identified, including masked shrews, northern short-tailed shrews, white-footed mice, meadow jumping mice, meadow voles, and house mice. In 1994, there were no masked shrews in Pinhook. The house mouse while abundant around cultivated fields it is not usually caught in native habitats.
Pannes.
Between the dune ridges, directly behind the beach front dunes are shallow depressions called pannes. Because they are low spots, they can contain water most of the year and will be surrounded by grass and shrubs. Pannes are open and without a canopy layer. Around the edges is a dense shrub layer, often containing red osier dogwood, willow, and Kalm's St. John's wort. The herb layer, closest to the ground tends to be excellent cover through summer and fall. Included in this layer are twig rush, and lake shore rush, strawberry, mountain mint and others.
Species found
Meadow vole was the only regularly occurring species white-footed mice and prairie deer mice were also identified. While both of these species were found in pannes, they were never found in the same panne. Larger species included the Virginia opossum and the northern short-tailed shrew.
Developed areas.
Razed residential.
Razed Residential areas have sparse canopy of eastern cottonwood with some maple, elm, ash, and others. The shrub layer is thin but consist of eastern cottonwood, ash, and willow seedlings, wild and multiflora rose, Japanese honeysuckle, blackberry, grape, and red osier dogwood. The herb layer is fair to excellent cover of grasses, goldenrods, and asters. There is no well-developed mammal community.
Species foundThe white-footed mouse was the most common mammal present. Other mammals include the raccoon, northern short-tailed shrew, eastern mole, meadow vole, woodchuck, eastern fox squirrel, striped skunk, and white-tailed deer.
Rights-of-way.
Rights-of-way include areas along roads, railroads, or bike trails. Various types of habitats may be disturbed by a right-of-way. Disturbed wet woodland tend to have a quaking aspen canopy and blackberry as the shrub layer. Blue joint grass and touch-me-not. ("Impatiens") are the dominant herbaceous plants. There is seldom a canopy layer on Rights-of-ways. The shrub layer ranges from sparse to thick but is sparse in most right-of-ways. Blackberries are a dominant shrub with rose, grapes, Japanese honeysuckle, Spiraea, and shining sumac dominant in some areas. Many herbaceous plants are present. Some dominant species are blue joint grass, other grasses, and rushes. Other plants like marsh fern can be present.
Species found
The mammals of this habitat are the eastern cottontail and the white-tailed deer. Other mammals include the meadow vole, woodchuck and the prairie deer mouse. They are common in areas with the least amount of ground cover. Other species that may be found are the eastern mole, white-footed mouse, eastern fox squirrel, prairie vole, meadow vole, and meadow jumping mouse.
Excavated.
Excavated areas were where open sand existed because of human activities. Examples include former fly ash seepage and the site of an acid spill. All sites lack a canopy and have poor cover with scattered grasses, including little bluestem grass, sand reed, and nodding wild rye. Other area may have Joe-Pye weed, bulrush, and spikerush.
Species found
Few animals use this habitat, such as meadow voles and common raccoons. This is not a good habitat for mammals. Animals that may pass through include the Virginia opossum, the eastern mole, woodchuck, prairie deer mouse, red fox, and white-tailed deer.


Kharmerungulatum

Kharmerungulatum is an extinct genus of herbivorous mammal from the Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) Intertrappean Beds of Madhya Pradesh, India. Its specific epithet honors Leigh Van Valen. It was described as one of the earliest known condylarths.


South American leaf-toed gecko

The South American leaf-toed gecko ("Phyllodactylus gerrhopygus") is a species of gecko. It is found in Peru and Chile.


Allobates ranoides

Allobates ranoides is a species of frog in the family Aromobatidae.
It is endemic to Colombia.
Its natural habitats are tropical moist lowland forest and rivers.
It is threatened by habitat loss.


Limacia cockerelli

Limacia cockerelli is a species of sea slug, a dorid nudibranch, a shell-less marine gastropod mollusc in the family Polyceridae.
Distribution.
This species is found from the West coast of North America, ranging from Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada to San Diego. It was also reported in the Gulf of California at Bahía de los Ángeles but those records are now known to be the similar species "Limacia mcdonaldi".
Description.
This species reaches lengths of . It has long dorsal papillae with orange-red tips and white branchial plumes with red tips. There is a broad band of white tubercles down the middle of the dorsum which may sometimes have a small spot of orange at the apex. The second form, found in areas south of Point Conception has tubercles that are in a mid-dorsal line, slightly longer and tipped with orange. Another form in California has large red blotches on the dorsum. The eggs of "Limacia cockerelli" are pink and develop after 17 days (at ) into hatching planktotrophic veligers. It was thought likely that the southern form represented a species complex. This was confirmed in 2017 with the description of "Limacia mcdonaldi".
Diet.
This animal preys exclusively on the orange-brown coloured bryozoan, "Hincksina velata".


Odorrana lungshengensis

Odorrana lungshengensis (common names: Lung-shen-hsien frog, Lungshen odorous frog) is a species of frogs in the family Ranidae that is endemic to China. It is found in northeastern Guangxi, southwestern Hunan, and eastern Guizhou. Its natural habitats are hill streams in broad-leaf forests. It is becoming rare due to habitat loss.
Male "Odorrana lungshengensis" grow to a snout–vent length of about and females to .


Osteochilichthys

Osteochilichthys is a small genus of cyprinid fishes. It is endemic to southern India.
Species.
There are two species:


Madidi titi

The Madidi titi, also known as the GoldenPalace.com monkey or the golden palace monkey, is a titi, a kind of New World monkey, discovered in western Bolivia's Madidi National Park in 2004. Its scientific name is Plecturocebus aureipalatii, the specific epithet meaning "of the Golden Palace", in reference to GoldenPalace.com, an online casino which paid US$650,000 to have the species named after them, with benefits going toward the nonprofit organization that maintains the park where the titi was discovered.
Distribution.
The species was discovered in low-lying lands of northwestern Bolivia, in the forest at the foot of the Andes. Studies indicate that it inhabits the western bank of the river Beni. The extension to the east and north of its range is not known. Preliminary studies indicate that the species is not endemic to Bolivia, with habitats that may extend to the south of Peru (at least to the Tambopata River).
Description.
The Madidi titi has orange-brown fur, a characteristic golden crown, a white tip to its tail, and dark red hands and feet. Like other titis, it is monogamous, mating for life. A pair maintains a territory against rival pairs primarily through territorial calling. The male usually carries the infants until they can survive on their own.
Discovery.
British biologist Robert Wallace of the Wildlife Conservation Society and the Bolivian biologist Humberto Gómez first spotted the monkey in 2000 when they were studying the animals of Madidi National Park. It became the first primate species to have been discovered in Bolivia in the last 60 years when it was given status as a new species in 2006 after years of studies. The field expedition team, consisting of Annika M. Felton, Adam Felton, and Ernesto Cáceres, were the first researchers to film and record this species, previously unknown to science. Rather than choosing a name themselves, Wallace, his team, and WCS auctioned off the naming rights to raise funds for FUNDESNAP ("Fundación para el Desarrollo del Sistema Nacional de Áreas Protegidas"), the nonprofit organization that maintains Madidi National Park. The online casino GoldenPalace.com, one of over a dozen bidders, paid US$650,000 to have the species named after them.


Holcocera famae

Holcocera famae is a moth in the family Blastobasidae which is endemic to Costa Rica.


Hole-in-the-head frog

The Hole-in-the-head frog ("Huia cavitympanum") is a species of frog in the family Ranidae.
It is found on the island of Borneo. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, and torrential rivers. It is threatened by habitat loss.
Vocalization.
"H. cavitympanum" is the only known species of frog to vocalize at only an ultrasonic level. The frogs have eardrums recessed in the side of the skull, with an ear canal similar to mammals' anatomy. It appears to have evolved this higher pitch (more than 20 kHz) frequency of communication to circumvent the background noise of its waterfall habitat.


Maiestas xenthocephalus

Maiestas xenthocephalus (formerly "Recilia xenthocephalus") is a species of leafhopper from the Cicadellidae family that is endemic to India. It was formerly placed within "Recilia", but a 2009 revision moved it to "Maiestas".


Pleasing poison frog

The pleasing poison frog ("Ameerega bassleri") is a species of frog in the family Dendrobatidae endemic to Peru.
Distribution and habitat.
The species is found in lowland and montane tropical moist forests, in both pristine and slightly degraded habitat, in the Amazon drainage of Peru at elevations of 270–1,200 m.
Conservation.
Although it can be extremely common in places, the pleasing poison frog is currently classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN due to ongoing habitat loss, mostly caused by farming and ranching.


Odorrana tiannanensis

Odorrana tiannanensis is a species of frog in the family Ranidae that is found in southern China, northern Laos, and northern Vietnam. It is an uncommon species that appears to be in decline, at least in China. It lives near or in montane streams and rivers at altitudes of . It is threatened by habitat loss and collection for consumption as food.


Neoraja caerulea

Neoraja caerulea, also known as the blue ray or blue pygmy skate, is a species of fish in the family Rajidae. This small ray reaches a total length of approximately fish and is endemic to the north-eastern Atlantic Ocean off Ireland and Iceland, and south to the Bay of Biscay. It occurs at depths of .


Crowsoniella

The Crowsoniellidae are a monotypic family of beetles, in the suborder Archostemata. So far, only a single species, Crowsoniella relicta, has been attributed to this family. Known only from three male specimens collected in 1973 in Italy by Roberto Pace. In a degraded pasture, the beetles were found among the roots of a large hawthorn tree, in deep calcareous soil. No other specimens have been found since.
At only in length, this species is comparatively small for this suborder. They also feature several unusual morphological features such as missing alae, modified and reduced mouth parts, and smooth elytra (lacking window punctures characteristic of this suborder). Nothing is known about this species biology.


Naziritor zhobensis

Naziritor zhobensis, the Zhobi mahseer, is a species of cyprinid fish endemic to Pakistan. It was described by DR. Muhammad Ramzan Mirza in 1967. According to Fishbase it is the only species in its genus.


Big Mexican small-eared shrew

The big Mexican small-eared shrew ("Cryptotis magna") is a species of mammal in the family Soricidae. It is endemic to Mexico.


Arhopala ammon

Arhopala ammon, the Malayan oakblue, is a species of lycaenid or blue butterfly found in Southeast Asia (Assam to Burma, Langkawi, Peninsular Malaya, Singapore, Borneo).


Calosima audentiae

Calosima audentiae is a moth in the family Blastobasidae which is endemic to Costa Rica.