Italian sparrow

The Italian sparrow ("Passer italiae"), also known as the cisalpine sparrow, is a passerine bird of the sparrow family Passeridae, found in Italy and other parts of the Mediterranean region. In appearance, it is intermediate between the house sparrow, and the Spanish sparrow, a species of the Mediterranean and Central Asia closely related to the house sparrow. The Italian sparrow occurs in northern Italy and neighbouring regions, with intermediates with the house sparrow in a very narrow contact zone in the Alps, a slow gradation in appearance from the Italian to Spanish sparrows across central and southern Italy, and more birds of intermediate appearance in Malta, Crete, and other parts of the Mediterranean.
There has been much debate on the origins and taxonomic status of the Italian sparrow, especially given its possible hybrid origin. Some have classified it as a subspecies of the house sparrow, a subspecies of the Spanish sparrow, or as a separate species, a treatment followed if only for convenience by authorities such as the "Handbook of the Birds of the World". A DNA analysis by Glenn-Peter Sætre and colleagues published in 2011 indicated an origin of the Italian sparrow through hybridisation between the Spanish and house sparrows, and Sætre and colleagues argued that given its origins and the limited extent of hybridisation, the treatment as a distinct species was supported.
Description.
The Italian sparrow is a small chunky bird, with grey and brown plumage. The sexes differ in their plumage pattern, and slightly in length. The male has a head patterned like that of the Spanish sparrow, with a chestnut crown, nape and sides of head, and white cheeks. The male's upperparts are bright chestnut, and its underparts are pale grey, lacking the black streaking of the Spanish sparrow. The male has a black patch on its throat and chest, known as a bib or badge. This patch, like much of the male's plumage is dull in fresh non-breeding plumage and is brightened by wear and preening. The female is nearly identical to the female house sparrow, but it differs from the female Spanish sparrow in its lack of black streaks on the underparts. Albinism is occasionally recorded.
The Italian sparrow is about the same size as the house sparrow at in length. The tail is , the tarsus , and wing lengths for males are . The Italian sparrow's weight varies seasonally from in the winter to in the summer.
The vocalisations of the Italian sparrow are similar to those of both the Spanish sparrow and the house sparrow. Its vocalisations carry better in natural environments than those of the house sparrow. The male gives a "chreep" call like that of the Spanish sparrow to proclaim nest ownership, and a faster version of this as part of courtship display. Male song patterns grade slowly into those of the Spanish sparrow across southern Italy, but in the area of overlap between the house and Italian sparrows, the two birds sound alike.
Taxonomy.
The taxonomic status of the Italian sparrow has been a matter of debate. It has been variously regarded as a stable hybrid between the house sparrow and Spanish sparrow, or as a subspecies of either the house or Spanish sparrow. Many authorities, including the "Handbook of the Birds of the World", recognise it as a separate species, if only for convenience. Others, including many conservation groups, consider the Italian sparrow a simple hybrid and ignore it. The chromosomes of Italian sparrows are distinct from those of the house sparrow, but mitochondrial DNA suggest a close relation to the house sparrow.
A DNA analysis by Jo Hermansen, Glenn-Peter Sætre, and a group of other scientists from Norway published in "Molecular Ecology" in 2011 indicates that the Italian sparrow originated as a hybrid between house and Spanish sparrows. It has mitochondrial DNA from both parent species. Additionally, it is now breeding beside the Spanish sparrow without cross-breeding in areas where the species both occur. Although it hybridises with the house sparrow in a sparsely populated contact zone in the Alps, the contact zone is characterized by relatively abrupt changes in species-specific male plumage, suggesting that partial reproductive isolation based on plumage may also have developed between these two taxa. As a genetically distinct group that is reproductively isolated from the parental species, it must be recognised as a separate species, according to Hermansen and colleagues.
Distribution and habitat.
The Italian sparrow is found in northern and central Italy, Corsica, and small parts of France, Switzerland, Austria, and Slovenia. Its distribution was described by Italian zoologist Enrico Hillyer Giglioli in 1881 as professing "'Conservative opinions'; for it keeps strictly within our current political frontiers". At the northernmost edge of its range in the southern Alps, there is a narrow hybrid zone about 20–30 km (12–20 mi) wide with the house sparrow. In southern Italy, there is a gradual clinal trend with the Spanish sparrow, with birds increasing in their similarity to the Spanish sparrow in appearance and ecology further south, from around Naples to western Sicily, where birds resemble pure Spanish sparrows. However, this trend may be superficial, and the "Handbook of the Birds of the World" recognises birds from Sicily and Crete as Italian sparrows.
Sardinia is occupied by Spanish sparrows, while sparrows on Malta, Crete, and the adjacent islands are intermediates similar to the Italian sparrow. On Malta, sparrows resemble the Spanish sparrow, with urban birds behaving much like the house sparrow, and rural birds like the Spanish sparrow. The situation is complicated by house and Spanish sparrows which winter and migrate on Malta. A more complex situation occurs in parts of northern Africa, where a highly variable mixed, interbreeding population of house sparrows and Spanish sparrows occurs. This "hybrid swarm" shows a full range of characters from nearly pure house sparrows to nearly pure Spanish sparrows and everything between.
The Italian sparrow is associated with human habitations, inhabiting towns, cities, and agricultural areas. In most cities in Italy, it shares the urban environment with the Eurasian tree sparrow, and in some parts of Naples, it is replaced entirely by this species.
The Italian sparrow's breeding population is believed to comprise 5 to 10 million pairs, 750,000 to 900,000 of which are estimated to live in urban areas. It has a population density of 58 to 160 pairs per square kilometer. Up to the mid-1990s, its population increased steadily, probably due to increased urbanisation. Between 2000 and 2005, the Italian sparrow's population in Italy declined by 27.1 percent, mirroring the declines of the house sparrow throughout Europe. From 1998 to 2008, urban populations declined by about 50 percent. A study of the Italian sparrow's status listed a large number of potential causes for the Italian sparrow's decline, including shortages of insect food, agricultural intensification, and reductions of green areas. The Italian sparrow is among the most common birds in Italian cities, but other species, including the European goldfinch, are more common.
Behaviour.
The Italian sparrow's behaviour is similar in many ways to that of the house sparrow. It is a social bird, which feeds mostly on seeds and insects.
It is mostly sedentary, but it wanders to some extent outside its breeding season. These wanderings are mostly local, but they may extend into southern France. Similarly, the house sparrow sometimes occurs as a winter visitor in northern Italy.
Besides intergrading with the Spanish and house sparrows, the Italian sparrow has been recorded hybridising with the Eurasian tree sparrow. The eggs of the Italian sparrow do not seem to differ from those of the house sparrow. Broods may contain two to eight eggs, with an average of about 5.2.
Relationships with humans.
In most of its range, the Italian sparrow is an abundant and familiar bird of houses. It has been one of the wild birds most commonly consumed as food in Italy. Portrayals of the Italian sparrow or one of its relatives have been found at Pompeii. Like the house sparrow, the Italian sparrow is considered a biological indicator of pollution.


Stenalia dzhulfae

Stenalia dzhulfae is a beetle in the genus "Stenalia" of the family Mordellidae. It is found only in Azerbaijan. It was described in 2001 by Odnosum.


Black-winged petrel

The black-winged petrel ("Pterodroma nigripennis") is a species of seabird in the family Procellariidae. It breeds on a number of oceanic islands in the tropical and subtropical East Pacific Ocean and spends the rest of the year at sea.
Description.
The black-winged petrel is a small species of petrel with long, narrow wings. Its length averages and its wingspan averages . It has a small head and short black beak, a slender body and square-cut tail. It has a pale grey cap and nape, white cheeks and a dark grey collar. The dorsal surface of the body is pale grey and the upperside of the wings is pale grey near the base but dark greyish-black along the outer edge. The underparts are white and the outer edges of the wings are black. The tail is barred in black and white.
Distribution.
The black-winged petrel is a pelagic species native to the East Pacific Ocean, living out at sea and only coming to land in order to breed. Its breeding range stretches from Lord Howe Island and eastern Australia to New Caledonia, the Chatham Islands and the Austral Islands (French Polynesia) in the east. Outside the breeding season it migrates further north and most commonly occurs in a broad belt of ocean between Peru and Hawaii.
Biology.
Living as it does in the open ocean, little is known of its feeding habits. It mostly catches prey by skimming across the surface of the sea or pattering across the water with its feet, snatching up any suitable prey item. Its diet includes cephalopods and prawns and it sometimes associates with other members of the order Procellariiformes as it fishes. It breeds on tropical and subtropical islands in the Pacific Ocean. It digs a tunnel up to a metre (yard) long in sandy soil on a grassy slope inland from the shore. The entrance is often concealed by bushes. It lays a single egg in a chamber at the end of the passage, lining the nest with leaves and other material. The incubation period is about 45 days, both parents feed the young bird and it fledges in about 85 days.
Status.
There is estimated to be a global population of black-winged petrels somewhere in the region of eight to ten million individuals. This large population is spread out over a wide area and the IUCN, in its Red Book of Endangered Species, lists the bird as being of least concern.


Incilius leucomyos

Incilius leucomyos is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It was described in 2000 and is endemic to the Atlantic versant of the north-central Honduras.
Description.
Adult males measure and females in snout–vent length. The body is robust and the head is slightly wider than it is long.
The snout is nearly rounded but has a protruding tip in dorsal view. The tympanum is distinct but comparatively small. The canthal, supra-orbital, post-orbital, supra-tympanic, and parietal crests are all well-developed. The parotoid glands are sub-triangular. The limbs are relatively long. The fingers are long and slender and without enlarged tips and webbing. The toes are also long and slender but have some webbing. Skin is dorsally rugose and ventrally granular to strongly granular. The dorsal coloration is mostly yellow ocher but with buff mid-dorsal area. There is a rust-brown inter-ocular bar, rust-colored crests, and pale rust-colored post-ocular blotches.
Habitat and conservation.
Its natural habitats are lowland moist forests as well as premontane and lower montane wet forests; its altitudinal range is from near sea level to above sea level. The tadpoles develop in streams. It is threatened by habitat loss caused by landslides (impacting streams) as well as from farming, logging, and human settlements. It occurs in some protected areas, including the La Muralla and Pico Bonito National Parks.


Kiang

The kiang ("Equus kiang") is the largest of the "Asinus" subgenus. It is native to the Tibetan Plateau, where it inhabits montane and alpine grasslands. Its current range is restricted to the plains of the Tibetan plateau; Ladakh, India; and northern Nepal along the Tibetan border. Other common names for this species include Tibetan wild ass, khyang and gorkhar. Travellers' accounts of the kiang are one inspiration for the unicorn.
Characteristics.
The kiang is the largest of the wild asses, with an average height at the withers of . They range from high at the withers, with a body long, and a tail of . Kiangs have only slight sexual dimorphism, with the males weighing from , while females weigh . They have a large head, with a blunt muzzle and a convex nose. The mane is upright and relatively short. The coat is a rich chestnut colour, darker brown in winter and a sleek reddish brown in late summer, when the animal moults its woolly fur. The summer coat is 1.5 cm long and the winter coat is double that length. The legs, underparts, end of the muzzle, and the inside of the ears are all white. A broad, dark chocolate-coloured dorsal stripe extends from the mane to the end of the tail, which ends in a tuft of blackish brown hairs.
Evolution.
The genus "Equus", which includes all extant equines, is believed to have evolved from "Dinohippus", via the intermediate form "Plesippus". One of the oldest species is "Equus simplicidens", described as zebra-like with a donkey-shaped head. The oldest fossil to date is ~3.5 million years old from Idaho, USA. The genus appears to have spread quickly into the Old World, with the similarly aged "Equus livenzovensis" documented from western Europe and Russia.
Molecular phylogenies indicate the most recent common ancestor of all modern equids (members of the genus "Equus") lived ~5.6 (3.9–7.8) mya. Direct paleogenomic sequencing of a 700,000-year-old middle Pleistocene horse metapodial bone from Canada implies a more recent 4.07 Myr before present date for the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) within the range of 4.0 to 4.5 Myr BP. The oldest divergencies are the Asian hemiones (subgenus "E. (Asinus)", including the kulan, onager, and kiang), followed by the African zebras (subgenera "E. (Dolichohippus)", and "E. (Hippotigris)"). All other modern forms including the domesticated horse (and many fossil Pliocene and Pleistocene forms) belong to the subgenus "E. (Equus)" which diverged ~4.8 (3.2–6.5) million years ago.
Taxonomy.
The kiang is closely related to the onager ("Equus hemionus"), and in some classifications it is considered a subspecies, "E. hemionus kiang". Molecular studies, however, indicate that it is a distinct species. An even closer relative, however, may be the extinct "Equus conversidens" of Pleistocene America, to which it bears a number of striking similarities; however, such a relationship would require kiangs to have crossed Beringia during the Ice Age, for which little evidence exists. Kiangs can crossbreed with onagers, horses, donkeys, and Burchell's zebras in captivity, although, like mules, the resulting offspring are sterile. Kiangs have never been domesticated.
Distribution and habitat.
Kiangs are found on the Tibetan Plateau, between the Himalayas in the south and the Kunlun Mountains in the north. This restricts them almost entirely to China, but numbers up to 2500 to 3000 are found across the borders in the Ladakh and Sikkim regions of India, and smaller numbers along the northern frontier of Nepal.
Three subspecies of kiangs are currently recognised:
The eastern kiang is the largest subspecies; the southern kiang is the smallest. The western kiang is slightly smaller than the eastern and also has a darker coat. However, no genetic information confirms the validity of the three subspecies, which may simply represent a cline, with gradual variation between the three forms.
Kiangs inhabit alpine meadows and steppe country between elevation. They prefer relatively flat plateaus, wide valleys, and low hills, dominated by grasses, sedges, and smaller amounts of other low-lying vegetation. This open terrain, in addition to supplying them with suitable forage absent in the more arid regions of central Asia, may make it easier for them to detect, and flee from, predators.
Behavior.
Like all equids, kiangs are herbivores, feeding on grasses and sedges, especially "Stipa", but also including other local plants such as bog sedges, true sedges, and meadow grasses. When little grass is available, such as during winter or in the more arid margins of their native habitat, they have been observed eating shrubs, herbs, and even "Oxytropis" roots, dug from the ground. Although they do sometimes drink from waterholes, such sources of water are rare on the Tibetan Plateau, and they likely obtain most of their water from the plants they eat, or possibly from snow in winter.
Their only real predator other than humans is the Himalayan wolf. Kiangs defend themselves by forming a circle, and with heads down, kick out violently. As a result, wolves usually attack single animals that have strayed from the group. Kiangs sometimes gather together in large herds, which may number several hundred individuals. However, these herds are not permanent groupings, but temporary aggregations, consisting either of young males only, or of mothers and their foals. Older males are typically solitary, defending a territory of about from rivals, and dominating any local groups of females. Territorial males sometimes become aggressive towards intruders, kicking and biting at them, but more commonly chase them away after a threat display that involves flattening the ears and braying.
Reproduction.
Kiangs mate between late July and late August, when older males tend reproductive females by trotting around them, and then chasing them prior to mating. The length of gestation has been variously reported as seven to 12 months, and results in the birth of a single foal. Females are able to breed again almost immediately after birth, although births every other year are more common. Foals weigh up to at birth, and are able to walk within a few hours. The age of sexual maturity is unknown, although probably around three or four years, as it is in the closely related onager. Kiang live for up to 20 years in the wild.
Travellers' accounts.
Natural historian Chris Lavers points to travellers' tales of the kiang as one source of inspiration for the unicorn, first described in Indika by the Ancient Greek physician Ctesias.
Ekai Kawaguchi, a Japanese monk who traveled in Tibet from July, 1900 to June 1902, reported:
Thubten Jigme Norbu, the elder brother of Tenzin Gyatso the 14th Dalai Lama, reporting on his trip from Kumbum Monastery in Amdo to Lhasa in 1950, said:


Xenochrophis maculatus

The spotted keelback (Xenochrophis maculatus) is a species of snake of the family Colubridae.
Geographic range.
The snake is found in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore.


Turquoise-browed motmot

The turquoise-browed motmot ("Eumomota superciliosa") also known as Torogoz, is a colourful, medium-sized bird of the motmot family, Momotidae. It inhabits Central America from south-east Mexico (mostly the Yucatán Peninsula), to Costa Rica, where it is common and not considered threatened. It lives in fairly open habitats such as forest edge, gallery forest and scrubland. It is more conspicuous than other motmots, often perching in the open on wires and fences. From these perches it scans for prey, such as insects and small reptiles. White eggs (3–6) are laid in a long tunnel nest in an earth bank or sometimes in a quarry or fresh-water well. Its name originates from the turquoise color of its brow. It is the national bird of both El Salvador and Nicaragua, where it is known as "Torogoz" and "Guardabarranco" respectively.
The bird is long and weighs . It has a mostly grey-blue body with a rufous back and belly. There is a bright blue strip above the eye and a blue-bordered black patch on the throat. The flight feathers and upperside of the tail are blue. The tips of the tail feathers are shaped like rackets and the bare feather shafts are longer than in other motmots. Although it is often said that motmots pluck the barbs off their tail to create the racketed shape, this is not true; the barbs are weakly attached and fall off due to abrasion with substrates and with routine preening.
Unlike most bird species, where only males express elaborate traits, the turquoise-browed motmot expresses the extraordinary racketed tail in both sexes. Research indicates that the tail has evolved to function differently for the sexes. Males apparently use their tail as a sexual signal, as males with longer tails have greater pairing success and reproductive success. In addition to this function, the tail is used by both sexes in a wag-display, whereby the tail is moved back-and-forth in a pendulous fashion. The wag-display is performed in a context unrelated to mating: both sexes perform the wag-display in the presence of a predator, and the display is thought to confer naturally selected benefits by communicating to the predator that it has been seen and that pursuit will not result in capture. This form of interspecific communication is referred to as a pursuit-deterrent signal.
The call is nasal, croaking and far-carrying.
The turquoise-browed motmot is a well-known bird in its range. It has acquired a number of local names including "guardabarranco" ("ravine-guard") in Nicaragua, Torogoz in El Salvador (based on its call) and "pájaro reloj" ("clock bird") in the Yucatán, based on its habit of wagging its tail like a pendulum. In Costa Rica it is known as "momoto cejiceleste" or the far-less flattering "pájaro bobo" ("foolish bird"), owing to its tendency to allow humans to come very near it without flying away.
External links.
[[Category:Momotidae|turquoise-browed motmot]]
[[Category:National symbols of El Salvador]]
[[Category:National symbols of Nicaragua]]
[[Category:Birds of Central America]]
[[Category:Birds of Mexico]]
[[Category:Birds of the Yucatán Peninsula]]
[[Category:Birds of El Salvador]]
[[Category:Birds of Guatemala]]
[[Category:Birds of Honduras]]
[[Category:Birds of Nicaragua]]
[[Category:Birds of Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1837|turquoise-browed motmot]]


Dixonius lao

Dixonius lao is a species of lizard in the family Gekkonidae. It is endemic to Laos.


Hypna

Hypna is a butterfly genus of the family Nymphalidae. It is monotypic, containing only Hypna clytemnestra, the jazzy leafwing, marbled leafwing or silver-studded leafwing.
Description.
"Hypna clytemnestra" is the largest member of the tribe Anaeini. This "leafwing butterfly" is quite uncommon. The uppersides of the forewings are black, with a few white spots on the margins and two large white transverse bands. The uppersides of the hindwings are mainly brown. The undersides mimic dead leaves, ranging from dark brown to whitish. Larvae feed on "Croton floribundus" (Euphorbiaceae), while adults feed on rotting fruits.
Distribution.
"Hypna clytemnestra" can be found from Mexico to the Amazon basin.
Habitat.
This butterfly can be found in the lowlands or the foothills, at an elevation of about above sea level.
Philately.
This butterfly is on a Cuban stamp with a face value of ¢13.


Morpho cisseis

Morpho cisseis, the Cisseis morpho, is a large Neotropical butterfly found in the southern and western Amazon in Bolivia, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, and Brazil. It includes several subspecies, but has itself sometimes been treated as a subspecies of the sunset morpho. Both are highly valued by collectors.
Description.
"Morpho cisseis" is a large butterfly with a wingspan of 147 mm and 180 mm. The upperside is blue-green gray, the outer edge is largely bordered by black and broad black band extending over two-thirds of the forewing's costal edge. The reverse is copper decorated with a line of white chevrons and black, yellow and white eyespots, three on the forewings and a very large and three more small eyespots on the hindwings.
Account in "Die Gross-Schmetterlinge der Erde"
Etymology.
Cissei was the daughter of Cisseus, king of Thrace.


Epigomphus camelus

Epigomphus camelus is a species of dragonfly in the family Gomphidae. It is endemic to Costa Rica. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and rivers. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Coral-billed scimitar babbler

The coral-billed scimitar babbler ("Pomatorhinus ferruginosus") is a species of bird in the family Timaliidae.
It is found in Bhutan, India, Nepal, China, Thailand. Its natural habitat is subtropical moist montane forest. It is normally 24 cm long and weighs 40-48g.


Pimelia angulata

Pimelia angulata is a species of darkling beetles in the subfamily Pimeliinae.
Description.
"Pimelia angulata" can reach a length of about . The body is black, slightly glossy. The elytra show a few lines of small spikes or short tubercles. These beetles are diurnal, emerging in early morning and late evening but hiding in small groups under the sand during the hot hours of the day.
Distribution and habitat.
This species is present in the lower Egypt, in the northern and south-eastern Sinai, Mauritania, Israel and in Sudan. It is adapted to arid climates and desert environments.


Tristan albatross

The Tristan albatross ("Diomedea dabbenena") is a large seabird from the albatross family. One of the great albatrosses of the genus "Diomedea", it was only widely recognised as a full species in 1998.
Taxonomy.
Albatrosses belong to the family Diomedeidae of the order Procellariiformes, along with shearwaters, petrels, storm petrels, and diving petrels. They share certain identifying features. First, they have nasal passages that attach to the upper bill called naricorns, although the nostrils on the albatross are on the sides of the bill. The bills of Procellariiformes are also unique in that they are split into between 7 and 9 horny plates. Albatrosses also produce a stomach oil made up of wax esters and triglycerides that is stored in the proventriculus. This is used against predators as well as an energy rich food source for chicks and for the adults during their long flights.
While not all scientists believe it is a full species with some retaining it as a subspecies of the wandering albatross, a 2004 study of the mitochondrial DNA of the wandering albatross species complex supported the split. Other studies have shown it to be the most genetically distinct member of the wandering albatross superspecies. This may be due to it diverging from their common ancestor before all its relatives, or because it underwent particularly strong genetic drift. Among the major experts, BirdLife International has split this species, Clements has not yet, and the SACC has a proposal on the table to split it.
Etymology.
"Diomedea" refers to Diomedes, whose companions turned to birds.
Description.
It is practically indistinguishable from the wandering albatross at sea; the Tristan albatross is smaller and has a slightly darker back. The Tristan albatross is and has a wingspan of up to . The Tristan albatross also never attains the full white plumage of the wandering albatross, and its bill is about shorter.
Behavior.
The Tristan albatross feeds on fish and cephalopods.
They breed biennially and will nest in wet heath from in elevation. They are monogamous, and do not start breeding until they are about 10 years old.
Range and habitat.
Due to the difficulty in distinguishing them from wandering albatrosses, their distribution at sea is still not fully known, but the use of satellite tracking has shown that they forage widely in the South Atlantic, with males foraging west of the breeding islands towards South America and females to the east towards Africa. There have been sightings near Brazil and also off the coast of Australia.
Tristan albatrosses are endemic to the islands of the Tristan da Cunha group and more specifically Gough Island. The majority of the world's population nest on Gough Island, around 1500 pairs. On some years a pair breeds on Inaccessible Island.
Conservation.
They were formerly threatened by introduced species, rats, cats and pigs, but these have now been removed from their breeding islands. However, this resulted in the population of mice, "Mus musculus", increasing to the point where they would eat and kill albatross chicks en masse. Even though the chicks are huge compared to the mice, they do not know how to defend themselves appropriately. Today the main threat to the species is believed to be long-line fishing and these mice. Recent counts suggest that the population on Gough has decreased by 28% over 46 years, whereas population modelling predicts annual decline rates of 2.9–5.3%. More recent modelling, conducted over three generations since 1980, suggests a decline equivalent to a >96% reduction in population size over three generations, since declines began. The rate of decline is therefore placed here in the band of 80–100% over three generations (86 years).
Formerly classified as an endangered species by the IUCN, it was suspected to be more threatened than generally assumed and undergoing a marked decline. Following the evaluation of its status, this was found to be correct, and the Tristan albatross was consequently uplisted to Critically Endangered status in 2008. They have an occurrence range of and a breeding range of .


Wheeleria lyrae

Wheeleria lyrae is a moth of the family Pterophoridae that is endemic to Greece.


Sunda stink badger

The Sunda stink badger ("Mydaus javanensis"), also called the Javan stink badger, teledu, Malay stink badger, Malay badger, Indonesian stink badger and Sunda skunk, is a mammal native to Indonesia and Malaysia. Despite the common name, stink badgers are not closely related to true badgers, and are, instead, Old World relatives of the skunks.
Description.
Sunda stink badgers have a similar body shape to badgers, but are significantly smaller, being in total length, and weighing from . Their fur is coarse, and black or very dark brown over most of the body, with a white stripe running from the top of the head to the tail. The tail is short, measuring about , and is covered in pure white fur. The width of the stripe varies considerably between individuals, but is usually narrow, and may be discontinuous. As the name indicates, stink badgers have an anal scent gland that secretes a foul-smelling substance, which the animal can spray up to . Females have six teats.
Distribution and habitat.
Named for the Sunda Islands, Sunda stink badgers are found in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the northern Natuna Islands. Sunda stink badgers can be found across a wide variety of habitats, including forest edges or areas of secondary forest. Historically, they were thought to be restricted to high elevations of over , and only rarely on lowland plains. This is now known not to be true, and more recent surveys have shown Sunda stink-badgers are often found in elevations well below 2000m. Sunda stink badgers have been reported as low as above sea level on Java, at relatively low elevations in Sarawak., and have even been recorded at elevations as low as 10m in the Lower Kinabatangan floodplains, Sabah, Borneo at seemingly high densities.
Three subspecies are recognized:
Behaviour and biology.
Sunda stink badgers are omnivorous and highly nocturnal. The animal portion of their diet consists of invertebrates, eggs, and carrion. At night, they root through soft soil using their snout and claws, searching for worms and ground-dwelling insects. During the day, they sleep in short burrows, less than in length, which they may either dig themselves or take over from other animals, such as porcupines. They have been reported to give birth to litters of two or three young.


Allis shad

The allis shad ("Alosa alosa") is a widespread Northeast Atlantic species of fish in the herring family, Clupeidae. It is an anadromous fish which migrates into fresh water to spawn. It is found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, the western Baltic Sea and the western Mediterranean Sea. In appearance it resembles an Atlantic herring but has a distinctive dark spot behind the gill cover and sometimes a row of up to six spots behind this. It sometimes hybridises with the twait shad ("A. fallax"). This fish becomes mature when three or more years old and migrates to estuaries, later swimming up rivers to spawn. Populations of this fish have declined due to overfishing, pollution and habitat destruction. Conservation of this species is covered by Appendix III of the Bern Convention and Appendix II and V of the European Community Habitats Directive.
Description.
The allis shad is a typical herring-type fish. It has no lateral line and a somewhat rounded belly. The gill cover is ridged and the scales large. The back is a bluish-green colour and the head brownish with a golden tinge on the operculum. The flanks are silvery, sometimes with a bronzy tinge, and a distinctive large dark spot occurs just behind the gill cover, and occasionally one to six smaller spots behind that. The adult length is typically .
Distribution.
The allis shad is found in the eastern Atlantic in waters bordering most of Europe and northwestern Africa, and it enters to the western Baltic and western Mediterranean Seas, but it is rare outside France.
Biology and lifecycle.
"Alosa alosa" has a similar lifecycle to that of the twait shad "A. fallax". They are known to live in sympatry, and the two species can hybridize. They are anadromous species like many other species in the genus "Alosa". However, some record of them being landlocked suggests an ability to adapt well to their environment.
They primarily live at sea on feeding grounds and migrate to their spawning grounds between April and June once they are sexually mature. Maturity usually ranges from 3–7 years of age. "A. alosa" can usually only reproduce once in their lifetimes. Juveniles appear in estuaries and brackish water around July to August. The salinity of brackish water may pose problems to the juveniles migrating from fresh water.
Population reduction.
Populations have been reduced primarily by overfishing, pollution, and habitat destruction. The estuarine phase, or the time that they are in the estuaries migrating from spawning grounds to sea, is estimated to have a duration in "A. alosa" of up to six months. The estimate, however, does not take into account individual variation and/or survival of juveniles in the estuarine phase.
Conservation.
Four special areas of conservation have been designated in Ireland where "Alosa" species have been known to spawn. "Alosa alosa" "has been placed in Appendix III of the Bern Convention (1979) that lists protected fauna species as well as in Appendix II and V of the European Community Habitats Directive (1992) that list, respectively, species whose conservation requires the designation of special areas of conservation and that are subject to management measures." However, "A. alosa" is currently under a moratorium (2008) in numerous French watersheds.


Mesoclemmys gibba

Mesoclemmys gibba, known as the toadhead turtle or gibba turtle, is a small side necked turtle found in a wide area of South America, in Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad, Guyana, Surinam, Paraguay, and parts of Brazil.


Telmatobius contrerasi

Telmatobius contrerasi is a species of frog in the family Telmatobiidae.
It is endemic to Argentina.
Its natural habitat is rivers.
It is threatened by habitat loss.


Trimeresurus wiroti

Trimeresurus wiroti, also known commonly as Wirot's pit viper, is a species of venomous pitviper in the family Viperidae. The species is native to Southeast Asia.
Etymology.
The specific name, "wiroti", is in honor of Thai herpetologist Wirot Nutaphand (1932–2005).
Geographic range.
"T. wiroti" is found in Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand.
Habitat.
The preferred natural habitat of "T. wiroti" is forest, at altitudes from sea level to .
Behavior.
"T. wiroti" is arboreal.
Reproduction.
"T. wiroti" is oviparous.


Porcellio ocellatus

Porcellio ocellatus is a species of woodlouse in the genus "Porcellio" belonging to the family Porcellionidae that is endemic to mainland Spain.


Pristimantis pirrensis

Pristimantis pirrensis is a species of frogs in the family Craugastoridae.
It is endemic to Panama.
Its natural habitat is tropical moist montane forests.


Capperia agadirensis

Capperia agadirensis is a moth of the family Pterophoridae which endemic to Morocco.


Fraternal myotis

The fraternal myotis ("Myotis frater") is a species of vesper bat. An adult fraternal myotis has a body length of about 5 cm, a tail of about 4.5 cm, and a wing span of about 3.8 cm.
Distribution.
The species is found sporadically through Central and East Asia, including China (Fujian, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Anhui, inner Mongolia, and Heilongjiang), Russia (southern Siberia), Korea, and Japan (Honshu and Hokkaido).
Data deficiency.
The IUCN Red List explains: " "This species is widespread but has a fragmented distribution. There is relatively little information available on population trends and threats. In Japan this species is listed as Vulnerable and in Russia it is listed as a rare species. The Chinese population could be a distinct species, but more research is required to clarify this. Listed as Data Deficient because of taxonomic uncertainty and lack of data." "


Odorrana grahami

Graham's frog ("Odorrana grahami") – also known as the diskless-fingered odorous frog – is a species of frog in the family Ranidae. It is found in China (Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, and possibly Hunan) and Vietnam (in Hoàng Liên National Park in the north). Presumably it is also found in Myanmar in areas adjacent to its Chinese distribution area.
Habitat.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, temperate grassland, subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland, rivers, and freshwater marshes. It is becoming rare due to habitat loss.
Description.
"Odorrana grahami" is a relatively large frog, with males reaching and females in length.
The skin secretions of "Odorrana grahami" have been subject to biochemical studies, yielding for example antimicrobial peptides.


Cnemaspis menikay

Cnemaspis menikay is a species of diurnal gecko endemic to island of Sri Lanka.


Amu Darya sturgeon

The Amu Darya sturgeon or false shovelnose sturgeon ("Pseudoscaphirhynchus kaufmanni") is a critically endangered species of fish in the family Acipenseridae. It is found in Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, and perhaps Afghanistan and Tajikistan. It inhabits quite shallow flowing waters that are turbid and muddy.
Appearance.
The Amu Darya sturgeon is a small sturgeon, but the largest species of "Pseudoscaphirhynchus", reaching up to in weight and in total length, excluding tail filament. It has a long, thin tail filament. For example, two individuals that both had a length of about excluding tail filament were and including tail filament. The species occurs in two morphs: a relatively large, light-coloured and late maturing morph, and a small, dark-coloured and early maturing morph. The small morph is roughly of similar size to "P. hermanni", a species that lacks a tail filament.
Behavior.
The Amu Darya sturgeon feeds on small fish and aquatic insect larvae, with large individuals being mostly piscivorous.
Studies in the 1960s and 1970s showed that Amu Darya sturgeon reach maturity when 5–8 years old (slightly later in females than males), but in the 1990s the youngest mature individuals only were 4 years old, possibly due to environmental changes in their habitat. The breeding season is from March to May when the water is . During a season, a female of the large morph lays about 3,100–36,500 eggs and a female of the small morph about 1,000–2,000 eggs, but it is possible that they only do this every 4–5-year. The species can reach an age of more than 14 years. Historically, it was known to hybridize with "P. hermanni", with the offspring having features that are intermediate between the two species.
Conservation status.
The Amu Darya sturgeon once occurred throughout the Amu Darya river basin, including its delta in the Aral Sea, but today it is restricted to the middle Amu Darya River (between Chardzhou and Kerki) and the Vakhsh River (an Amu Darya tributary). It has declined because of habitat loss, pollution and poaching, and is rated as critically endangered by the IUCN. Despite its threatened status, strong decline and range contraction, it can be locally fairly common and overall it is the least rare species of "Pseudoscaphirhynchus" ("P. fedtschenkoi" is possibly extinct and "P. hermanni" only survives in very small numbers).
In general the status of the Amu Darya sturgeon is poorly known and further surveys are necessary. A part of its range is in the Amudarya State Nature Reserve. Although the Amu Darya sturgeon is a fully protected species throughout its range, illegal fishing is widespread and fisheries management in the region is very poor. The species has been listed on CITES Appendix II since 1998. This restricts international trade in the species, but two were legally exported from Uzbekistan to Russia for zoological purposes in 2002–2012, and in 2013 Uzbekistan set the export quota to twenty individuals.
Many sturgeon species have been bred in captivity and this often forms the basis for restocking the wild populations. In the 1980s there were attempts of doing this with the Amu Darya sturgeon. Although some progress was made, captive breeding ultimately failed because the embryos died. Since 2010, the Moscow Zoo (together with various Russian institutes and officials of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) has attempted to start a breeding program for the Amu Darya sturgeon, but as of 2015 it has not succeeded.
Taxonomy.
The karyotype of the Amu Darya sturgeon consists of roughly 118–120 chromosomes; it is classified as a low-chromosome group acipenserid fish. Studies of its genetics and karyotype show clear differences compared to the shovelnose sturgeon ("Scaphirhynchus platorhynchus"), indicating that the usually recognized subfamily Scaphirhynchinae is polyphyletic. Further karyological research on the Amu Darya sturgeon may help in determining polyploid evolution in acipenserid fish.


Meristogenys whiteheadi

Meristogenys whiteheadi is a species of frog in the family Ranidae. It is endemic to Borneo and found in both Indonesia (Kalimantan) and Malaysia (western Sabah). "Meristogenys stigmachilus" and "Meristogenys stenocephalus", described as new species in 2011, were formerly included in this species. Owing to the difficulty of distinguishing these species under field conditions, the exact range of this species is uncertain. Its common name is Whitehead's Borneo frog or Whitehead's torrent frog.
Etymology.
This species is named after John Whitehead, explorer who collected the type series from Mount Kinabalu, Malaysia.
Description.
The dorsum is light brown to greenish dark brown. The lips are dark grey to black. The iris is bicoloured, with a reddish orange horizontal band in the middle surrounded by whitish brown bands above and below. The centre of the tympanum usually has a small light circle. The limbs have alternating light- and dark-brown dorsal cross-bars. The rear of thigh is light brown with scattered light dots. The throat and chest are whitish, with dark dots; abdomen is whitish. The legs are whitish ventrally, with patches of pigmentation. The pattern may vary between locations.
"Meristogenys whiteheadi" are relatively large frogs. Males from Sabah measured in snout–vent length (SVL) and females SVL. Males from Sarawak measured SVL and females SVL.
Habitat and conservation.
"Meristogenys whiteheadi" occur in hilly rainforests at elevations below . They breed in clear, rocky streams. The tadpoles cling to the rocks in strong currents and feed on lithophytic algae.
"Meristogenys whiteheadi" is threatened by habitat loss caused by logging. The resulting siltation of streams destroys the larval habitat. This species is present in the Kinabalu, Crocker Range, and Kayan Mentarang National Parks


Great shrike-tyrant

The great shrike-tyrant ("Agriornis lividus") is a species of bird in the family Tyrannidae.
It is found in Chile and adjacent areas of south-western Argentina.
Small Description.
It is the largest species of tyrant flycatcher at 27.5–31 cm (10.8-12.2 in) long. The body weight of this large passerine is reported to average 99.2 grams (3.5 oz.) Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, subtropical or tropical high-altitude shrubland, and pastureland.


Gegeneophis madhavai

Gegeneophis madhavai, the Mudur caecilian, is a species of caecilian found in India. It is only known from its type locality Mudur village, Kundapura Taluk in Udupi district in Karnataka.


Hamadryas amphinome

Hamadryas amphinome, the red cracker, is a species of cracker butterfly in the family Nymphalidae, native to regions of North and South America.
Distribution.
It is found from Mexico, through the Caribbean and Central America, to the Amazon basin including in Brazil, Guianas, Peru, and Bolivia, and south into Argentina.
Subspecies.
Subspecies of "Hamadryas amphinome", listed alphabetically, include:
Food source.
The larvae feed on "Dalechampia scandens".


Tarentola fascicularis

Tarentola fascicularis, also known as Wolfgang's wall gecko or moorish gecko, is a species of gecko. It is native to northern Africa (Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt).


Elegant myotis

The elegant myotis ("Myotis elegans") is a species of vesper bat. It is found in Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, and Nicaragua.


List of fish in Germany

The list of fish in Germany consists of indigenous, and also introduced species. In total it consists of 277 species, including three which are extinct.
The following tags are used to indicate the conservation status of species with IUCN criteria:
All the listed species are classified by their origin as freshwater, brackish water, marine, anadromous, catadromous, and euryhaline; also classified as native, introduced, invasive, and species found accidentally (difficult to characterize it as native or invasive).


Spined dwarf mantis

The spined dwarf mantis ("Ameles fasciipennis") is an extinct species of praying mantis that was endemic to Italy.
It has only been collected once, probably in 1871 in the Tolentino area, and has not been seen since, despite extensive entomological surveys of the region.
Conservation.
The IUCN Red List has declared this species extinct.


Cape gopher snake

The Cape gopher snake or Baja gopher snake ("Pituophis vertebralis") is a species of nonvenomous colubrid endemic to extreme southern Baja California Sur, Mexico. They have become increasingly popular companions for people interested in the exotic pet trade, due to their extreme color variations and relatively docile behavior. It was previously considered to be a subspecies of "Pituophis catenifer".
There has been controversy whether the Baja Gopher Snake is a lower classification of the Cape Gopher Snake. Some say the Baja Gopher Snake should be in a separate sub-species of Pituophis Vertebralis Bimaris, while Cape Gopher Snakes should remain Pituophis Vertebralis Vertebralis.
Many people mistake the two as the same sub species and have cased some cross-breeding between the two.
In captivity the bloodlines are nearly all related and breeding has become especially difficult in terms of keeping the bloodlines alive.
Description.
The Cape gopher snake is named after the location of its natural habitat, the Baja California Peninsula. Here, the snake can only be found at high elevations on the southern tip of the peninsula, where temperatures usually remain a mild 78 °F (25.5 °C). Hobbyists who own a Cape gopher snake commonly assume that the snake's natural habitat is significantly warmer, then proceed to create a dangerously hot environment. This lack of understanding is presumably due to the snake's rarity.
A single Cape gopher snake can exhibit wild color and pattern variations along the length of its body. Most begin with bright H-shaped marks in differing orange shades against an intense yellow background. As the patterns ae traced down toward the tip of the tail, they begin to change in shape and darken until they are completely black, while the yellow background loses its intensity. Other Cape gopher snakes' patterns begin as black stripes before evenly transforming into the familiar marks of the "P. vertebralis" species. When the snake is coiled up and alone, some people may mistake the differing colors and patterns for several snakes.
The typical total length of an adult Cape gopher snake ranges from 36 to 66 in (91.5–168 cm). Hatchlings are born at 12–18 in (30–48 cm) in total length. When threatened, the snake flattens its head while simultaneously vibrating its tail and hissing, closely imitating a rattlesnake.
Habitat.
Most information gathered about the location of Cape gopher snakes is anecdotal, but the area where they range is incredibly diverse. Dominating the landscape is a Sonoran-like desert fraught with cacti, but includes dry tropical forests, arid tropical scrubs, desert shores, and the Sierra de la Laguna, an area designated by UNESCO as a global biosphere reserve because the "semiarid to temperate subhumid climate area represents highly important and contrasted ecosystems." This area is known to go months, even years, without rainfall, yet can be saturated with the flood waters of a tropical storm or hurricane in a span of just one week.
Behavior.
Young Cape gopher snakes are aggressive and very easily agitated. Their temperament varies with each individual snake, but a young one uncommonly strikes frequently at anything that moves. This aggressive behavior does not last long. Once they pass this phase, they are notably more docile and rarely (if ever) strike at anything (food is an exception). Still, Cape gopher snakes have a reputation for being nervous when handled. They remain still, but inevitably become active again and squirm before suddenly calming and starting the cycle over.
Prey.
The Cape gopher snake's prey is thought to include many small rodents, birds and eggs, though no certainty exists, due to a lack of research of these snakes in the wild. In captivity, small rodents and eggs suffice.


Cnaemidophorus urbicella

Cnaemidophorus urbicella is a moth of the family Pterophoridae. It is found in Russia (Tatarstan).


Screaming hairy armadillo

The screaming hairy armadillo ("Chaetophractus vellerosus") is a species of armadillo also known as the small screaming armadillo, crying armadillo or the small hairy armadillo. It is a burrowing armadillo found in the central and southern parts of South America. The adjective "screaming" derives from its habit of squealing when handled.
Taxonomy.
The animal was first described by J. E. Gray in 1865 from a specimen in the British Museum collected from Santa Cruz de la Sierra in eastern Bolivia as "Dasypus vellerosus". Two subspecies are currently recognized ("C. v. vellerosus" (Gray, 1865) and "C. v. pannosus" (Gardner, 2007)) although the taxonomic validity of the split has been called into question.
Description.
This is one of the smallest and slenderest species of the genus "Chaetophractus", but it has longer ears than others in its genus. The male armadillo has a length ranging from with an average length of , while the length of the female ranges from with an average length of . The male weighs between , with an average of , while the range of weight for the female is , with average weight as .
The animal was initially described by Gray as follows:
"The forehead convex, with many polygonal shields; the dorsal shield covered with abundant elongated bristly hairs; the underside of the body covered with close hairs. Toes 5/5, the outer and inner hinder small."
These armadillos have more hair growth than other armadillo species. The armadillo has 18 bands of which six to eight are movable bands. The hair on the dorsum is light brown in colour.
Range and habitat.
The screaming hairy armadillo is a burrowing armadillo of arid areas from low to high altitudes. It is found in parts of the Gran Chaco and Pampas areas of Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. An isolated population is found in eastern Buenos Aires Province in Argentina.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests, temperate shrubland, subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, temperate grassland, subtropical or tropical dry lowland grassland, hot deserts, temperate desert, arable land, pastureland, and plantations. It is absent in rocky areas where the armadillo would not be able to burrow. The average annual rainfall in its main range is , while the rainfall averages annually in the area of the Buenos Aires population.
Behaviour.
The armadillo is nocturnal by summer and diurnal in winter. It can subsist for long periods without water. It often burrows at the base of bushes and shrubs. It has multiple burrows in its range, and each burrow may have more than one entrance. When an animal is occupying a burrow, the entrance is usually sealed. A burrow may be in diameter and may be several metres long.
The home range of an armadillo is recorded to consist of a minimum area of . The animal does not build a nest in its burrow.
Diet.
When not in its burrow, the animal spends most of its time foraging. The armadillo is omnivorous; its diet consists of insects, vertebrates and plant material (especially pods of "Prosopis"), varying considerably depending upon the season. The animals increase their weight by up to 10% in winter, forming a layer of subcutaneous fat thick. Vertebrates form a significant part of an armadillo's diet, ranging from 27.7% by volume in summer to 13.9% in winter, the most common prey species being lizards, birds, frogs, and the mice species "Eligmodontia typus" and "Phyllotis griseofulvus". This armadillo ingests a lot of sand while feeding, and it may occupy as much as 50% of the volume of its stomach at a time.
Reproduction.
The gestation period of the armadillo is 60–75 days. The armadillos become sexually mature at 9 months and produce two litters per year.
Human interaction.
This armadillo is heavily hunted for its meat in parts of the Chaco region in Bolivia. It is at times considered an agricultural pest and killed by hunting dogs. The disjunct population of coastal Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, is adversely affected by mining activities. The carapace is particularly sought for making "charangos", a South American musical instrument akin to a lute.


Rufous-tailed attila

The rufous-tailed attila ("Attila phoenicurus") is a species of bird in the family Tyrannidae, the tyrant flycatchers.
It is a breeding resident in southern Paraguay and Brazil; also extreme northeast Argentina. It migrates northwestwards into the central Amazon Basin of North Region, Brazil in the austral winter and is also found in northeast border regions Bolivia and southern Venezuela during its wintering.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests.


Brown-winged kingfisher

The brown-winged kingfisher ("Pelargopsis amauroptera") is a species of bird in the subfamily Halcyoninae.
It is found along the north and eastern coasts of the Bay of Bengal, occurring in the countries of Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand. In India, it has been mainly reported from the Sundarbans region but records from further south near Chilka exist.
Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical mangrove forests.


Pristimantis aniptopalmatus

Pristimantis aniptopalmatus is a species of frogs in the family Craugastoridae.
It is endemic to Peru.
Its natural habitat is tropical moist montane forests.


Greater Cuban nesophontes

The greater Cuban nesophontes ("Nesophontes major") is an extinct species of eulipotyphlan that was native to Cuba. It is thought that the introduction of rats lead to its demise.


Platyptilia ussuriensis

Platyptilia ussuriensis is a moth of the family Pterophoridae. It is found in Amur Oblast of Russia.


Micropterix aureopennella

Micropterix aureopennella is a species of moth belonging to the family Micropterigidae that was described by Heath in 1986, and is known from Algeria.
The wingspan is about .


Puxiong salamander

The Puxiong salamander, "Pseudohynobius puxiongensis", is a species of salamander in the family Hynobiidae, endemic to China. It is only known from the vicinity of its type locality, in Puxiong (普雄镇), in Yuexi County, Sichuan Province. The area belongs to the Hengduan Mountains that form the southeastern part of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The Puxiong salamander is a relatively small salamander with a slender body form.
History of discovery and taxonomic position.
The Puxiong salamander was first described in 2000 as "Protohynobius puxiongensis", based on a single specimen collected in 1965. Because of a characteristic interpreted as primitive (internasal bone), a new monotypic genus, "Protohynobius", in its own subfamily, Protohynobiinae, was established. However, field effort in 2007–2009 revealed new animals that allowed a more detailed analysis. These suggested the holotype from 1965 was slightly unusual, as later specimens did not have an internasal bone while being in other respects very similar to the holotype. Furthermore, the Puxiong salamander is morphologically similar to "Pseudohynobius" species, and genetic analyses place it as a sister group of "Pseudohynobius". Because the genetic distance to "Pseudohynobius" was small, it was concluded that Puxiong salamander should be placed in genus "Pseudohynobius". This position is adopted in the "Amphibian Species of the World".
Habitat.
The holotype was collected from an abandoned potato cellar, but later field work revealed a more typical habitat for a hynobiid, i.e., high-mountain terrestrial (altitude 2,900 m), with breeding in cold-water streams.


Grayish mouse opossum

The grayish mouse opossum ("Tlacuatzin canescens") is a species of opossum endemic to Mexico. It is the sole species in the genus Tlacuatzin.
Description.
The grayish mouse opossum is an unusually small opossum, measuring in total length, including an 11- to 16-cm (4.3- to 6.3-in) tail. Adults weigh from . The body is covered in short, soft fur, with a slightly woolly texture. As the common name suggests, the fur is pale to brownish grey in colour, fading to white or near-white on the under parts and legs. In addition, clearly visible rings of black hair occur around the eyes, and, on females, patches of orange fur in the groin region, sometimes extending to the thighs and up the midline almost to the throat.
The whiskers are relatively short, and the ears are rounded, hairless, and dark in colour. The tail is long and prehensile, and hairless for almost all of its length, apart from the base. Females have nine teats, but, unlike many other marsupials, do not have a pouch.
Distribution and habitat.
It is endemic to Mexico from southern Sonora to Oaxaca, with populations also on the Islas Marías and in the central Yucatán Peninsula. It occupies seasonally arid habitats, especially mixed deciduous forests, but also scrub, grassland, and agricultural land. It has been reported up to elevations of , although it is more commonly found below . Two subspecies are currently recognised:
Biology and behaviour.
The grayish mouse opossum is solitary and semiarboreal, being more terrestrial in its habits than other mouse opossums. They have been reported to travel no more than between feeding sites, suggesting a small home range. Population densities have been reported to range from . The species has an omnivorous diet, but feeds mainly on insects such as bugs, cockroaches, moths, and beetles. It occasionally feeds on small lizards and bird eggs, and also feeds on fruit such as figs, coconuts, and oranges. Predators include barn owls and pumas.
A nocturnal animal, the grayish mouse opossum spends the day in nests, generally in forks or hollows of trees, bushes or cacti, or in rock crevices. The nests are globular, constructed of leaves and stems, and lined with grass or plant fibres, such as the "cotton" obtained from kapok trees. It may also use the abandoned hanging nests of orioles or wrens.
Breeding occurs in late summer and early autumn. The animals mate while hanging upside down from their tails, with the male tightly holding onto the female's neck with its jaws. The litter size ranges from 8 to 14. The young attach themselves to teats shortly after birth, and are sheltered by a pouch-like layer of hair, in the absence of a true pouch. The young leave the nest once they reach about in weight.
Parasites.
Not many parasites have been recorded from the grayish mouse opossum. The pinworm "Tlacuatzoxyuris simpsoni" (Nematoda, Oxyuridae), a parasite of the cecum, has been described in 2019.


Striated yuhina

The striated yuhina ("Staphida castaniceps") is a bird species in the white-eye family Zosteropidae.
It is found from the Himalayas to north-western Thailand. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests.


Aglossa pulveralis

Aglossa pulveralis is a species of snout moth in the genus "Aglossa". It was described by George Hampson in 1900 and is known from Algeria.


Striped treeshrew

The striped treeshrew ("Tupaia dorsalis") is a treeshrew species within the Tupaiidae.
It is endemic to Borneo and known only from a few individuals in Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei and Kalimantan.


Alburnoides nicolausi

Alburnoides nicolausi, is a fish species of the family Cyprinidae, known from Iran. I can be differentiated from its cogenerates by differences in fin ray and vertebral counts, together with other morphological characters.


Agonopterix mendesi

Agonopterix mendesi is a moth of the family Depressariidae which is endemic to Portugal.
The wingspan is 18–20 mm. The forewings are ochreous with a dark fuscous spot near the dorsal side of the base and with a scattering of greyish fuscous and ochreous brown scales, forming small spots at the vein ends. The hindwings are whitish, weakly tinged with ochreous.
The larvae feed on "Centaurea sphaerocephala".


Dwarf dog-faced bat

The dwarf dog-faced bat ("Molossops temminckii") is a species of free-tailed bat from South America. It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Paraguay and Uruguay, typically at lower elevations. It is one of two species in the genus "Molossops", the other being the rufous dog-faced bat ("M. neglectus"). Three subspecies are often recognized, though mammalogist Judith Eger considers it monotypic with no subspecies. It is a small free-tailed bat, with a forearm length of and a weight of ; males are larger than females. It is brown, with paler belly fur and darker back fur. Its wings are unusual for a free-tailed bat, with exceptionally broad wingtips. Additionally, it has low wing loading, meaning that it has a large wing surface area relative to its body weight. Therefore, it flies more similarly to a vesper bat than to other species in its own family. As it forages at night for its insect prey, including moths, beetles, and others, it uses two kinds of frequency-modulated echolocation calls: one type is to navigate in open areas and to search for prey, while the other type is used for navigating in cluttered areas or while approaching a prey item.
Little is known about its reproduction, with pregnant females documented July through December in various parts of its range. Females might be capable of becoming pregnant multiple times per year, unlike some bats which have an annual breeding season. It roosts in small groups, typically three or fewer, which can be found under tree bark, in rocky outcrops or buildings, or even within holes in fence posts. Its predators may include owls, though the extent of owl depredation is unknown. It has a variety of internal and external parasites, including nematodes, cestodes, trematodes, mites, ticks, and bat flies.
Taxonomy.
The dwarf dog-faced bat was first named by Danish zoologist Peter Wilhelm Lund in 1842, who placed it in the now-defunct genus "Dysopes", with a scientific name of "Dysopes temminckii". However, Lund's name was deemed a "nomen nudum" ("naked name", or unaccepted due to inadequate taxon description), and thus Lund is not recognized as the taxonomic authority. Instead, the authority is given as German zoologist Hermann Burmeister, who was judged to have adequately described the taxon in 1854. The holotype had been collected in Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil. American zoologist Gerrit Smith Miller was the first to use its present name combination, placing it in the genus "Molossops" in 1907. The eponym for the species name ""temminckii" " is Dutch zoologist Coenraad Jacob Temminck.
A variable number of subspecies are recognized. Four subspecies of "Molossops temminckii" have been named: "M. t. temminckii", "M. t. griseiventer", "M. t. sylvia", and "M. t. mattogrossensis". The former three are still recognized as subspecies by some, though "M. t. mattogrossensis" is now most frequently recognized not only as a distinct species, but also in a separate genus, "Neoplatymops mattogrossensis". Mammalogist Judith Eger, however, did not recognize any subspecies in "Mammals of South America" (2008). The dwarf dog-faced bat and the rufous dog-faced bat ("M. neglectus") are the only two species in the genus "Molossops". Genetic analysis suggests that the "Molossops" species are closely related to those in the genus "Cynomops"; they are in a clade along with the genera "Eumops", "Molossus", "Promops", "Nyctinomops", and "Neoplatymops".
Description.
The dwarf dog-faced bat is considered small for the free-tailed bat family, Molossidae. Individuals have a total length of , forearm length of , and tail length of . It weighs . It is sexually dimorphic, with females smaller than the males; this is particularly noticeable in skull measurements. Its fur coloration is variable; back fur ranges from dark to light brown, with individuals found in forested areas darker than those in more arid ones. The belly fur is lighter in color and typically grayish. Its ears are small and triangular, with triangular tragi (cartilage projections in front of the ear canal). Its skull has a flattened top, with a weak sagittal crest. Its snout is long and flat, with a blunt tip and smooth lips. The nostrils are surrounded by wart-like bumps. Males have a gular gland used for scent marking members of a colony. It has a dental formula of for a total of 26 teeth.
It has short thumbs with a well-developed pad at the base of each. It has distinct calcars (cartilage spurs) on the edge of its uropatagium (tail membrane); the calcars are more than half the length of the hind foot to the tail. Its wings attach to its hind limbs at the middle of the tibia. Its wings are large and broad, and it has low wing loading, meaning that it has a large wing area relative to its body weight. Its wingtips are exceptionally broad for a free-tailed bat. The dwarf dog-faced bat can differentiated from the rufous dog-faced bat by its smaller size; the latter typically has a forearm length greater than .
Biology and ecology.
Reproduction.
Overall, little is known about its reproduction. Pregnant females have been found in July in Venezuela, September and December in Brazil, September in Bolivia, and October and November in Argentina. Some authors have hypothesized that females may be polyestrous, or capable of becoming pregnant multiple times a year. Two pregnant females found in Argentina each had a litter size of one offspring.
Behavior.
The dwarf dog-faced bat is moderately social, typically roosting in small groups of no more than three individuals. Groups of up to fifteen have been found roosting under the bark of "Pithecellobium" trees. It has flexible roosting needs, and can use rocky outcrops, buildings, tree hollows, or hollow fence posts for roosting. It is nocturnal, with individuals leaving their roosts around dusk to forage.
Diet and foraging.
The dwarf dog-faced bat is an insectivore, catching insects mid-flight. It is relatively slow for a free-tailed bat, which are generally adapted for high speeds, and has flight characteristics more similar to a vesper bat. Its predicted flight speed is . It uses echolocation to navigate and locate prey, utilizing two kinds of calls. The first kind of calls are upward-sloping, frequency modulated calls, starting at around 40 khz frequency and ending at 50 kHz. The calls' duration is relatively long, at an average of 7.8 miliseconds, and they are more spaced out, with 97 miliseconds between calls. These calls are used when searching for prey or navigating in uncluttered space. The second kind of calls are downward-sloping, frequency modulated calls, starting at around 65 – 70 kHz and ending at 30 – 35 KHz. These calls have a shorter duration (4.7 miliseconds) and occur closer together (interpulse interval of 50.8 miliseconds). They are used while navigating in more cluttered environments, or when approaching a prey item. Its echolocation characteristics are considered unusual for a free-tailed bat, as it uses short, frequency modulated calls at high frequencies spaced close together. These echolocation characteristics are adapted for differentiating small prey items from background clutter such as vegetation. Its diet includes beetles, moths, flies, true bugs, Hymenoptera species, and grasshoppers and katydids.
Predators and parasites.
Little is known about its natural predators, but its remains were once documented within the pellet of a barn owl in Argentina. Its endoparasites (internal parasites) include cestodes in the genus "Vampirolepis"; nematodes of the genera "Allintoshius", "Capillaria"; and "Molostrongylus", and trematodes of the genera "Anenterotrema", "Ochoterenatrema", and "Urotrema". Its ectoparasites (external parasites) include the ticks "Ornithodoros hasei" and "Amblyomma"; the mites "Chiroptonyssus venezolanus", "Spinturnix americanus", "Macronyssus", "Trombicula", "Steatonyssus", and "Chiroptonyssus"; the bat flies "Basilia carteri" (Nycteribiidae) and "Trichobius jubatus" (Streblidae); and true bugs of the genus "Hesperoctenes".
Distribution and habitat.
The dwarf dog-faced bat is found only in South America, with a wide range encompassing Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela. The proposed subspecies "M. t. sylvia" is known from Corrientes Province, Argentina and Uruguay. "Molossops temminckii griseiventer" is known from Colombia in the Magdalena River Valley, as well as the Tolima, Meta, and Cundinamarca Departments. The nominate subspecies, "M. t. temminckii", has been reported from Paraguay, northern Argentina, and several Brazilian states. The species is generally found in lower altitude areas. The greatest elevation record for this species is above sea level, which was in Colombia. It has been found in a variety of biomes and ecoregions, including the Amazonian lowlands, Cerrado (tropical savanna), Caatinga (dry shrubland), Pantanal (wetlands), Atlantic Forest, Alto Paraná Atlantic forests, and Argentine Espinal.


San Lorenzo mouse

The San Lorenzo mouse ("Peromyscus interparietalis") is a species of rodent in the family Cricetidae. It is endemic to Mexico, where it is found only from the islands of San Lorenzo Norte, San Lorenzo Sur, and Salsipuedes off the east coast of Baja California. The species is threatened by predation by feral and domestic cats, particularly on San Lorenzo Sur.


Common vampire bat

The common vampire bat ("Desmodus rotundus") is a small, leaf-nosed bat native to Latin America. It is one of three extant species of vampire bat, the other two being the hairy-legged and the white-winged vampire bats. The common vampire bat practices hematophagy, mainly feeding on the blood of livestock. The bat usually approaches its prey at night while they are sleeping. It then uses its razor-sharp teeth to cut open the skin of its hosts and lap up their blood with its long tongue.
The species is highly polygynous, and dominant adult males defend groups of females. It is one of the most social of bat species with a number of cooperative behaviors such as social grooming and food sharing. Because it feeds on livestock and is a carrier of rabies, the common vampire bat is considered a pest. Its conservation status is categorized as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) because of "its wide distribution, presumed large population tolerance of a degree of habitat modification, and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category."
Taxonomy.
The common vampire bat was first described as "Phyllostoma rotundum" by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in 1810. Another description was published in 1826 as a new species "Desmodus rufus" by Maximilian Wied, in the second volume of his work detailing his explorations in Brazil, erecting a new genus "Desmodus".
The species received several scientific names before being given its current one—"Desmodus rotundus"—by Oldfield Thomas in 1901. It is classified under the subfamily Desmodontinae along with two other species: the hairy-legged vampire bat ("Diphylla ecaudata"), and the white-winged vampire bat ("Diaemus youngi"). These three species compose the "true" vampire bats, as opposed to the "false" vampires of the family Megadermatidae and the spectral bat. All three species of Desmodontinae specialize in feeding on the blood of warm-blooded animals. However, the common vampire bat feeds on mammalian blood more than the other two species, which primarily feed on that of birds. The three species resemble each other, but the common vampire bat can be distinguished by its longer thumb. It is the only extant member of its genus, although other fossil species have been described. It has a haploid number of 14, for a karyotype of 28 chromosomes.
A description published under the name "Desmodus puntajudensi" (Cuban vampire bat) by Woloszyn and Mayo in 1974 was later recognized as synonymous with this species.
Physical description.
The common vampire bat is short-haired, with silver-gray fur on its undersides, demarcated from the darker fur on its back. It has a deeply grooved lower lip, and a flat, leaf-shaped nose. A well-developed, clawed thumb on each wing is used to climb onto prey and to assist the animal in take-off. The bat averages about 9 cm (3.5 in) long with a wingspan of 18 cm (7 in). It commonly weighs about 25–40  grams (2 oz), but its weight can drastically increase after a single feeding. The braincase is relatively large, but the snout is reduced to accommodate large incisors and canines. It has the fewest teeth among bats. The upper incisors lack enamel, which keeps them razor-sharp. Its dental formula is , for a total of 18 teeth.
While most other bats have almost completely lost the ability to maneuver on land, vampire bats are an exception. They can run using a unique, bounding gait in which the forelimbs are used instead of the hindlimbs to propel forward, as the wings are much more powerful than the legs. This ability likely evolved independently within the bat lineage. Three pads under the thumb function like a sole. It is also capable of leaping in various directions, heights, and distances. When making a jump, the bat pushes up with its pectoral limbs. The hindlimbs keep the body over the pectoral limbs which are stabilized by the thumbs.
Common vampire bats have good eyesight. They are able to distinguish different optical patterns and may use vision for long-range orientation. These bats also have well-developed senses of smell and hearing: the cochlea is highly sensitive to low-frequency acoustics, and the nasal passages are relatively large. They emit echolocation signals orally, and thus fly with their mouths open for navigation. They can identify a metal strip wide at a distance of , which is moderate compared to other bats.
Range and habitat.
The common vampire bat is found in parts of Mexico, Central America, and South America, as well as the Caribbean islands of Margarita and Trinidad. They can be found as far north as south of the Mexico–United States border. Fossils of this species have been found in Florida and states bordering Mexico. The common vampire is the most common bat species in southeastern Brazil. The southern extent of its range is Uruguay, northern Argentina, and central Chile. In the West Indies, the bat is only found on Trinidad. It prefers warm and humid climates, and uses tropical and subtropical woodlands and open grasslands for foraging. Bats roost in trees, caves, abandoned buildings, old wells, and mines. Vampire bats will roost with about 45 other bat species, and tend to be the most dominant at roosting sites. They occupy the darkest and highest places in the roosts; when they leave, other bat species move in to take over these vacated spots.
Behavior.
Feeding.
The common vampire bat feeds primarily on mammalian blood, particularly that of livestock such as cattle and horses. Vampire bats feed on wild prey like the tapir, but seem to prefer domesticated animals, and favor horses over cattle when given the choice. Female animals, particularly those in estrus, are more often targeted than males. This could be because of the hormones.
Vampire bats hunt at night, using echolocation and olfaction to track down prey. They feed in a distance of from their roosts. When a bat selects a target, it lands on it, or jumps up onto it from the ground, usually targeting the rump, flank, or neck of its prey; heat sensors in the nose help it to detect blood vessels near the surface of the skin. It pierces the animal's skin with its teeth, biting away a small flap, and laps up the blood with its tongue, which has lateral grooves adapted to this purpose. The blood is kept from clotting by an anticoagulant in the saliva.
They are protective of their host and will fend off other bats while feeding. It is uncommon for two or more bats to feed on the same host, with the exception of mothers and their offspring.
Mating and reproduction.
Male vampire bats guard roosting sites that attract females, but females often switch roosts.
During estrus, a female releases one egg. Mating usually lasts three to four minutes; the male bat mounts the female from the posterior end, grasps her back with his teeth, holds down her folded wings, and inseminates her. Vampire bats are reproductively active year-round, although the number of conceptions and births peak in the rainy season. Females give birth to one offspring per pregnancy, following a gestation period of about seven months. The young are raised primarily by the females. Mothers leave their young to hunt, and call their young to feed upon returning. The young accompany their mothers to hunt at six months, but are not fully weaned until nine months. Female offspring usually remain in their natal groups into adulthood, unless their mothers die or move. The occasional movements of unrelated females between groups leads to the formation of multiple matrilines within groups. Male offspring tend to live in their natal groups until they are one to two years old, sometimes being forced out by the resident adult males.
Cooperation.
Regurgitated food sharing in common vampire bats has been studied in both the lab and field, and is predicted by kinship, association, and reciprocal help In a field study conducted in Costa Rica from 1978 to 1983, vampire bats frequently switched between several roost trees and co-roosted with kin and non-kin. Mean genetic kinship within roosting groups was low (r = 0.03 − 0.11), but 95% of food sharing observed in the wild occurred between close kin (first cousins or higher). Most observed food sharing (70%) was mothers feeding their pups. The non-maternal sharing events were kin-biased suggesting that vampire bats prefer to help relatives. However, non-maternal food sharing is even better explained by frequency of interaction, even after controlling for kinship. Food sharing was only observed when the co-roosting association was greater than 60%. Food sharing appears to require social bonds that require development over long periods of time. Among familiar bats, the amount of food given from bat A to bat B is best predicted by the amount of food given from bat B to A. Reciprocal sharing is most obvious over longer time spans as found in primate cooperation.
Vampire bats also participate in mutual grooming; two bats groom each other simultaneously to clean one another, and to strengthen social bonds. Bats that groom one another also share food. It was suggested that while grooming, a bat might assess the size of its partner's abdomen to determine if it really needs to eat.
Relationship with humans.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, most bats do not have rabies. For example, even among bats submitted for rabies testing because they could be captured, were obviously weak or sick, or had been captured by a cat, only about 6% had rabies. However, of the few cases of rabies reported in the United States every year, most are caused by bat bites.
The highest occurrence of rabies in vampire bats occurs in the large populations found in South America. The danger is not so much to the human population, but rather to livestock. Joseph Lennox Pawan, a government bacteriologist in Trinidad, found the first infected vampire bat in March 1932. He soon proved various species of bat, including the common vampire bat, are capable of transmitting rabies for an extended period of time without artificial infection or external symptoms. Fruit bats of the genus "Artibeus" were later shown to demonstrate the same abilities. During this asymptomatic stage, the bats continue to behave normally and breed. At first, Pawan's finding that bats transmitted rabies to people and animals were thought fantastic and were ridiculed.
Although most bats do not have rabies, those that do may be clumsy, disoriented, and unable to fly, which makes them more likely to come into contact with humans. There is evidence that it is possible for the rabies virus to infect a host purely through airborne transmission, without direct physical contact of the victim with the bat. Although one should not have an unreasonable fear of bats, one should avoid handling them or having them in one's living space, as with any wild animal. Medical attention should be given to any person who awakens to discover a vampire bat in their sleeping quarters. It is possible that young children may not fully awaken due to the presence of a bat (or its bite).
The unique properties of the vampire bats' saliva have found some positive use in medicine. A genetically engineered drug called desmoteplase, which uses the anticoagulant properties of the saliva of "Desmodus rotundus", has been shown to increase blood flow in stroke patients.


Anadia altaserrania

Anadia altaserrania is a species of lizard in the family Gymnophthalmidae. It is endemic to Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia.


Southern mountain cavy

The southern mountain cavy ("Microcavia australis") is a species of South American rodent in the family Caviidae.
Description.
Southern mountain cavies are tailless rodents with short, speckled, greyish-yellow fur, fading to pale grey on the underparts. Adults measure around in total length and weigh between . They have large eyes surrounded by a prominent white ring, and small rounded ears. Females have four teats.
Distribution and habitat.
Southern mountain cavies are largely restricted to Argentina, but may also be found in some neighbouring regions of Chile and Bolivia. They are found across almost the whole of western and southern Argentina, where they inhabit arid and semiarid lowlands, often close to rivers or in areas dominated by thorn bushes. Three subspecies are currently recognised:
Biology and behaviour.
Southern mountain cavies eat leaves, fruits and other plant material, with mesquite and "Capparis" being reported as particularly common foods. They can even climb trees to get at the leaves, sometimes reaching as high as above the ground. In time of hardship, however, they will eat almost any plants, for example gnawing on the bark of creosote bushes.
They live in colonial burrows with anything from 4 to 38 individuals. Such burrows can be extensive, with one being reported to have 26 entrances, and a total length of . They are diurnal, emerging from the burrows at sunrise, and remaining active throughout the day, except in particularly hot weather. Males are often aggressive towards one another, creating a strict dominance hierarchy within the burrow. Nonetheless, in severe weather or when there are few shelter sites, individuals, especially females, may huddle together, and the females have also been seen to nurse young cooperatively.
Natural predators include owls, hawks, grisons, foxes, and skunks, and southern mountain cavies alert one another of danger with low-pitched alarm calls. Other calls include a high-pitched cry of fear and soft, almost inaudible, squeaks used during chases and courtship.
Breeding occurs between August and April, with litters of one to five young being born about 54 days later. The young weigh about at birth, and are able to run almost immediately. They are weaned at around three weeks, and females may be sexually mature at just 40 to 50 days old.


Ultramarine kingfisher

The ultramarine kingfisher ("Todiramphus leucopygius") is a species of bird in the family Alcedinidae.
Habitat.
It is found on Bougainville Island and the Solomon Islands.
Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.


Eremias kokshaaliensis

Eremias kokshaaliensis is a species of lizard found in China and Kyrgyzstan.


Deltavjatia

Deltavjatia was a pareiasauromorph procolophonoid from the Tatarian stage of the Permian time period. It had a large body of about in length. "Deltavjatia" was an herbivore and lived in what is now Russia. The first specimen of "Deltavjatia" was a specimen of a skull and lower mandible (PIN 2212/1), found in the Urpalov Formation in Kotelnich, Vyatka River.
"Deltavjatia" was placed as a subtaxon of Pareiasauridae by M.S.Y. Lee in 1997.


Pseudamnicola exilis

Pseudamnicola exilis is a species of very small freshwater snail with an operculum, an aquatic gastropod mollusc in the family Hydrobiidae.
Geographic distribution.
"P. exilis" is endemic to Greece.


Pachytriton inexpectatus

Pachytriton inexpectatus is a species of salamander in the family Salamandridae. It is endemic to southern China and found in the Guizhou, Hunan, Guangdong, and Guangxi provinces. Its type locality is Mount Dayao of Jinxiu Yao Autonomous County, Guangxi. Prior to naming of this species in 2011, it was confused with "Pachytriton labiatus" (now "Paramesotriton labiatus"). It is one of the several species that can appear in the pet trade as paddletail newt. The specific name "inexpectatus" is Latin meaning "unexpected" and refers to finding a species that is common in pet trade but lacked formal scientific description. Common name Yaoshan stout newt has been coined specifically for this species.
Description.
Adult males measure in snout–vent length and in total length. Adult females measure in snout–vent length and in total length. The body is stout. The fingers and the toes have slight webbing. The tail tip is broad. Skin is smooth. The dorsum is uniformly dark brown. The venter is lighter and has reddish orange markings, some of them joining to form two longitudinal lines. There are small reddish orange markings scattered on throat and underside of limbs; some specimens have an orange spot on the dorsal base of each limb. The underside of tail and cloaca are reddish orange.
Habitat and conservation.
Adult "Pachytriton inexpectatus" live in mountain rivers, including steep and shallow side streams. They are nocturnal and prey upon aquatic insects, crustaceans, and annelids, as well as insects of terrestrial origin. Breeding seems to occur in early summer. Small juveniles are probably terrestrial.
As of mid-2018, this species has not been assessed for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.


Paracanthurus

Paracanthurus hepatus is a species of Indo-Pacific surgeonfish. A popular fish in marine aquaria, it is the only member of the genus Paracanthurus. A number of common names are attributed to the species, including regal tang, palette surgeonfish, blue tang (leading to confusion with the Atlantic species "Acanthurus coeruleus"), royal blue tang, hippo tang, blue hippo tang, flagtail surgeonfish, Pacific regal blue tang, and blue surgeonfish.
Description.
"Paracanthurus hepatus" has a royal blue body, yellow tail, and black "palette" design. The lower body is yellow in the west-central Indian Ocean. It grows to . Adults typically weigh around and males are generally larger than females. This fish is rather flat, like a pancake, with a circular body shape, a pointed snout-like nose, and small scales. The blue tang has nine dorsal spines, 26–28 dorsal soft rays, three anal spines, and 24–26 anal soft yellow rays.
Ecology.
Location.
The regal blue tang can be found throughout the Indo-Pacific. It is seen in the reefs of the Philippines, Indonesia, Japan, the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, New Caledonia, Samoa, East Africa, and Sri Lanka. The regal blue tang is one of the most common and most popular marine aquarium fish all over the world. They live in pairs, or in small groups of 8 to 14 individuals. They can also be found near cauliflower corals on the seaweed side of coral reefs.
The regal blue tang is ranked LC (least concern) by the World Conservation Union (IUCN), but is of low vulnerability.
Diet.
As a juvenile, its diet consists primarily of plankton. Adults are omnivorous and feed on plankton, but will also graze on algae. Spawning occurs during late afternoon and evening hours. This event is indicated by a change in color from a uniform dark blue to a pale blue. The fish is important for coral health as it eats algae that may otherwise choke it by overgrowth.
Life cycle.
Males aggressively court female members of the school, leading to a quick upward spawning rush toward the surface of the water during which eggs and sperm are released. The eggs are small, approximately in diameter. The eggs are pelagic, each containing a single droplet of oil for flotation. The fertilized eggs hatch in twenty-four hours, revealing small, translucent larvae with silvery abdomens and rudimentary caudal spines. These fish reach sexual maturity at 9–12 months of age.
Importance to humans.
The regal blue tang is of minor commercial fisheries importance; however, it is a bait fish. The flesh has a strong odor and is not highly prized. This fish may cause ciguatera poisoning if consumed by humans. However, regal blue tangs are collected commercially for the aquarium trade. Handling the tang risks the chances of being badly cut by the caudal spine. These spines, on both sides of the caudal peduncle, are extended from the body when the fish is stressed. The quick, thrashing sideways motion of the tail can produce deep wounds that result in swelling and discoloration, posing a risk of infection. It is believed that some species of "Acanthurus" have venom glands while others do not. The spines are used only as a method of protection against aggressors. Two sharp spines stick out at the caudal peduncle—the area where the tail joins the rest of the body.
Conservation.
The species is classified as Least concern by the IUCN, however it is threatened by overexploitation (mostly for the aquarium trade) and destructive fishing practices. Since it is dependent on fragile coral reef habitats, habitat destruction also constitutes a pressure in parts of its range.
In popular culture.
In the 2003 Disney/Pixar film, "Finding Nemo", one of the main characters, Dory (voiced by Ellen DeGeneres) is a regal blue tang suffering from short term memory loss. She and her parents, Jenny and Charlie (voiced by Diane Keaton and Eugene Levy), appear in the 2016 Disney/Pixar film sequel, "Finding Dory".


List of endemic mammals of Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka is home to 21 endemic mammals. Number of terrestrial mammals that have been recorded from the country is 91. Additionally there are 28 marine mammals in the oceans surrounding the island. Being an island Sri Lanka lacks land area to supports large animals. However fossil evidence of large archaic species of rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses, and lions have been discovered. The flora and fauna of Sri Lanka is mostly
understudied. Therefore, the number of endemics could be underestimated. All three endemic genera "Solisorex", "Feroculus" and "Srilankamys", of Sri Lanka are monotypic.
The endemic status of two Sri Lankan shrews has undergone changes as they have been reported in India recently. The Kelaart's long-clawed shrew ("Feroculus feroculus") and the Sri Lanka highland shrew ("Suncus montanus") were recorded from southern India. At the same time taxonomic revisions have indicated that the flame-striped jungle squirrel ("Funambulus layardi"), the red slender loris ("Loris tardigradus") and two species of mouse deer, "Moschiola meminna" and "M. kathygre" are endemic to Sri Lanka. That leaves the number of endemic mammals in Sri Lanka at 16. Meanwhile, a group of researchers have described a new shrew species "Crocidura hikmiya" from the Sinharaja Forest Reserve in 2007. The discovery leads to increase the ultimate number of endemics to 21 at present.
For Sri Lanka, small mammals are of special importance as they constitute a notable portion of the mammalian fauna of the country. Of the 91 species of mammals. recorded in the country, 31 are rodents and shrews. Furthermore, they are also of significant importance in biological point of view, as they make up largely to the country's endemic faunal component. The endemic small mammals include six rodents and four shrews. Many of these endemic species are found in fragmented rainforests in southwestern Sri Lanka which are highly vulnerable to habitat destruction. As a result, many of these species have been categorised as threatened or endangered at national level.
Endemic mammals.
Most endemic mammals are small nocturnal mammals that are seen rarely.


Pristimantis rhabdolaemus

Pristimantis rhabdolaemus is a species of frog in the family Craugastoridae. It is endemic to the eastern slopes of the Andes in Peru. In 1987–2009 "Eleutherodactylus pharangobates" (now "Pristimatis pharangobates") was included in this species.
Its natural habitat are montane forests on the Amazonian slopes. This very common frog may be found perched on low vegetation.


Kam dwarf hamster

The Kam dwarf hamster ("Cricetulus kamensis") is a species of rodent in the family Cricetidae. It is found only in the mountains of western China where it inhabits grassland, shrubby marshes and steppes. Although it has a limited range, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of "least concern".
Description.
The Kam dwarf hamster has a head-and-body length of between and a tail length of . The dorsal fur is dark greyish-brown, sometimes spotted or streaked with black, the underparts are greyish white and there is a wave-like transition where the two colours meet. The tail is thick and well-covered with guard hairs, having a dark stripe at the top and otherwise being white, with a wholly white tip.
Distribution and habitat.
The Kam dwarf hamster is endemic to western China where it is found in the Tibet Autonomous Region and the provinces of Qinghai, Gansu and Xinjiang. It is a mountain species and is found at altitudes of between . Its typical habitat is upland grasslands, shrubby marshes and open steppe.
Behaviour.
The Kam dwarf hamster is active by both day and night. It digs a simple burrow that may extend beneath the surface and which includes nesting areas and chambers to store food for use in winter. It forages for grain and seeds and also eats insects. Breeding takes place between May and August, peaking between June and July. Litter size is usually seven or eight, but ranges from five to ten.
Status.
The Kam dwarf hamster has a limited range but is thought to have a large total population. The population trend is unknown, but no particular threats have been identified and it may be present in some protected areas. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has therefore assessed the hamster's conservation status as being of "least concern".