Scanisaurus

Scanisaurus is a dubious genus of plesiosaur that lived in what is now Sweden and Russia during the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous period. The name "Scanisaurus" means "Skåne lizard", Skåne being the southernmost province of Sweden, where a majority of the fossils referred to the genus have been recovered. The genus contains one species, S. nazarowi, described in 1911 by Nikolay Bogolyubov as a species of "Cimoliasaurus" based on a single vertebral centrum discovered near Orenburg, Russia.
"S. nazarowi" was separated into its own genus by Per-Ove Persson in 1959 after several differences were observed between the Russian centra and new fossils from Skåne and the type species of "Cimoliasaurus". Due to the limited type material and the lack of diagnostic features in the Swedish fossils confidently separating "Scanisaurus" from other Late Cretaceous elasmosaurids, the genus is of questionable validity, though it continues to be used in practice.
"Scanisaurus" fossils have mainly been found in the Kristianstad Basin in northwestern Skåne, where they represent the most common plesiosaur fossils. "Scanisaurus" shared its environment with a diverse marine fauna, including many other marine reptiles. It would have been a middle trophic-level predator, about 4–5 meters (13–16 ft) in length, and would have been able to feed both in open water and on the sea floor, likely feeding mainly on small prey such as small fish or belemnites.
History of research.
In 1911, Russian mathematician, physicist and paleontologist Nikolay Bogolyubov described a Late Cretaceous posterior cervical (neck) vertebral centrum discovered near Orenburg, Russia. Bogolyubov referred the centrum to the plesiosaur genus "Cimoliasaurus" and believed it to represent a new species, which he named "C. nazarowi". Bogolyubov compared the centrum with those of other plesiosaurs and found it to be most similar to a vertebra referred to "Cimoliasaurus" sp. from the Cenomanian Quiriquina Formation of Quiriquina Island, Chile and to vertebrae referred to "Cimoliasaurus magnus", the type species of "Cimoliasaurus". The main distinguishing feature used by Bogolyubov to justify the creation of a new species was that his centrum was wider than other centra referred to "Cimoliasaurus".In 1959, Swedish paleontologist Per-Ove Persson examined the fragmentary plesiosaur fossil record of Late Cretaceous Skåne in southern Sweden, primarily recovered from fossil sites within the Kristianstad Basin (many from the island of Ivö) and from south-western Skåne. He found that cervical vertebral centra from Skåne accorded so well with the vertebra described by Bogolyubov that they "must belong to one and the same genus". Furthermore, Persson noted several differences between Bogolyubov's centrum and the Swedish material and the fossils of "C. magnus", and considered "C. nazarowi" distinct enough to warrant being placed in a separate genus. Persson named this new genus "Scanisaurus", meaning "Skåne lizard". Persson noted that "S. nazarowi" remained an "undefinable" species since it remains based on only a single vertebral centrum, but felt confident that the Swedish material was referrable to the species since it did not differ in any essential points from Bogolyubov's fossil. Persson noted that the Swedish fossils were the same species "with a fairly great degree of probabilty" and provisionally designated them as "S." cf. "nazarowi".
There were three principal characteristics Persson perceived to differentiate "Scanisaurus" from "Cimoliasaurus". First, in "Cimoliasaurus", the ribs were fused to the vertebrae with at least the pre-pectoral centra, whilst in "Scanisaurus" the cervical ribs were fused to the centra by only the sutures. Second, the length of the posterior cervical centra decreased towards the head in "Cimoliasaurus", while the opposite was true in "Scanisaurus". Third, the cervical centra of "Scanisaurus" were broader proportional to their length than the corresponding centra of "Cimoliasaurus".
Because centra referred to "S." cf. "nazarowi" were far more common in the Swedish fossil sites compared to centra from other plesiosaurs, Persson concluded that "S." cf. "nazarowi" was "obviously the most common plesiosaurian" in Late Cretaceous Skåne. With this in mind, he also referred the most common type of plesiosaur teeth found, some of which had been found in association with "S." cf. "nazarowi" vertebrae, to the species as well, alongside associated ossifications of humeri and femora.
In 1995, in an examination of material referred to the invalid species "Plesiosaurus houzeaui" (found in Belgium), French paleontologist Nathalie Bardet and Belgian paleontologist Pascal Godefroit discussed other questionable plesiosaur species from Europe. Bardet and Godefroit noted that though Persson had referred the Swedish material to several different elasmosaurid genera, including "Scanisaurus" and "Elasmosaurus", the fossils only possessed the necessary characteristics to be referred to the Elasmosauridae, not a particular genus or species. Though the material referred to "S." cf. "nazarowi", consisting of vertebrae, teeth and limb bones, was more complete than the material referred to "Elasmosaurus", it was deemed to lack any diagnostic features with which it could be differentiated from other Late Cretaceous elasmosaurids. Though "Scanisaurus" for this reason is typically no longer considered a valid taxon (constituting a "nomen dubium"), the name continues to be used in practice.
In 1996, Persson provisionally referred a crushed reptile skull recovered from Ignaberga quarry in the Kristianstad Basin to "Scanisaurus" sp., since two tooth fragments associated with the fossil showed the same striation pattern as in the teeth referred to "S." cf. "nazrowi". Though the skull is too crushed to give much useful anatomical information, it is the only cranial fossil referred to "Scanisaurus" (with the exception of teeth) and demonstrates that its head was comparatively larger than the heads of other dolichodiran plesiosaurs.
Description.
"Scanisaurus" was a "dolichodiran" (i.e. long-necked) plesiosaur, albeit one with a neck relatively shorter than those of some of its relatives (such as "Elasmosaurus"). It has sometimes been described as a "mesodiran" plesiosaur, with a larger head and shorter neck relative to other dolichodiran genera. It was likely similar to other relatively short-necked elasmosaurids, such as "Cimoliasaurus" and the genera in the subfamily Aristonectinae.
Based on the size of its fossils and comparisons with the proportions of other plesiosaurs, "Scanisaurus" probably reached 4–5 meters (13–16 ft) in length.
Classification.
Persson wrote that most of the known characteristics "Scanisaurus" agreed well with the characteristics of the Elasmosauridae. However, Persson did not consider the genus to represent a typical elasmosaurid and noted that it differed in one essential feature; the cervical centra of "Scanisaurus" were shorter and broader than those of other elasmosaurids. With this in mind, Persson suggested that "Scanisaurus" could be a representative of a new family of Late Cretaceous plesiosaurs, possibly a group intermediate between pliosaurs such as the polycotylids and elasmosaurids. Because "Scanisaurus" was far more similar to elasmosaurids than it was to polycotylids, Persson provisionally referred the genus to the Elasmosauridae.
In 1960, Persson referred both "Cimoliasaurus" and "Scanisaurus" to a new family of mesodiran plesiosaurs, which he dubbed the Cimoliasauridae. In 1963, Persson also referred "Aristonectes" to the Cimoliasauridae on account of perceived close resemblances with fossil material of "Cimoliasaurus" and "Scanisaurus" in the length-width ratio of the cervical centra. Cimoliasauridae was placed as the sister group to Polycotylidae, but a 2009 revision of the type fossils of "Cimoliasaurus" by American paleontologist F. Robin O'Keefe and Canadian paleontologist Hallie P. Street showed that "Cimoliasaurus" belonged to the Elasmosauridae, making the Cimoliasauridae synonymous with the Elasmosauridae. A 2011 re-examination of the cervical vertebrae referred to "Scanisaurus" by Swiss paleontologist Christian Foth and German paleontologists Johannes Kalbe and René Kautz suggested that "Scanisaurus" being placed in the Elasmosauridae was plausible. The well-defined ossified articular margins and binocular-shaped articular faces of the centra, combined with their relatively short length, are features shared between "Scanisaurus" and other elasmosaurids. Modern research thus tends to place "Scanisaurus" in the Elasmosauridae, though its precise position within the family is uncertain.
Paleoecology.
Most of the fossils referred to "Scanisaurus" cf. "nazarowi" have been recovered from fossil sites within the Kristianstad Basin, where, according to Persson, "S". cf. "nazarowi" fossils represent the most common plesiosaur fossils found. During the Campanian, the Kristianstad Basin was a subtropical to temperate shallow inland sea home to a diverse marine fauna characteristic of shallow marine life of an inner shelf community and included abundant algae, brachiopods, bryozoans, molluscs (including bivalves, gastropods, belemnites and the ammonites), sea urchins, serpulids, decapods and sponges. Additionally, fish (including a vast array of sharks) were also common and fossils of many species of reptiles, most of them marine, have also been found, including mosasaurs, sea turtles, crocodylmorphs and a few dinosaurs. There were also three to five other plesiosaur species (two species of "Elasmosaurus", one or two polycotylids and potentially another species of "Scanisaurus", represented by the 1996 skull and isolated teeth). Mosasaur bite marks have been found on plesiosaur bones recovered from the basin.
A 2017 study by Swedish paleontologists Benjamin P. Kear, Dennis Larsson and Johan Lindgren and Slovak paleontologist Martin Kundrát interpreted "Scanisaurus" as a middle trophic-level predator that would have been able to feed both in open water and on the sea floor. Kear and colleagues drew this conclusion from the fact that elasmosaurid teeth were both structurally fragile and took more time to replace than the teeth of other reptiles, meaning that elasmosaurids such as "Scanisaurus" would probably have kept to easily subdued prey to minimize the potential for damage, making them ecologically optimized towards middle trophic level aquatic predation. The sharp and elongated teeth of "Scanisaurus" indicates that they were used to smash or pierce smaller prey such as small fish or belemnites. Stomach content from other plesiosaurs has revealed a wide variety of prey, including bottom-dwelling invertebrates (i.e. gastropods and bivalves), fish, pterosaurs and ammonites.
In popular culture.
A fountain by the name "Scanisaurus" was constructed in Bromölla, a town close to Ivö, by artist Gunnar Nyland in 1971. The fountain depicts two plesiosaurs, one male and one female, sunbathing on a rock on the ancient Ivö island. The sculptures are made of around 3000 parts of shaped ceramics on bodies made of reinforced concrete. Locally in Sweden, plesiosaurs and "Scanisaurus" in particular are often referred to as "svanödlor" ("swan lizards") or "svanhalsödlor" ("swan-neck lizards").


Litargosuchus

Litargosuchus is a sphenosuchian crocodylomorph, a basal member of the crocodylomorph clade from the Early Jurassic of South Africa. Its genus name "Litargosuchus" is derived from Greek meaning "fast running crocodile" and its species name "leptorhynchus" refers to its gracile snout. "Litargosuchus", along with all of South Africa's crocodylomorph taxa, are confined to the upper Elliot Formation (UEF) in South Africa.
History of Discovery.
In 1988 James Kitching found the holotype fossil of "Litargosuchus" in a field expedition in Eagles Crag, a farm near Barkly East in the Eastern Cape. The material recovered consisted of a near-complete skull with its mandible and several bones belonging to the postcranial skeleton. At the time, Kitching was the director of the Evolutionary Studies Institute (previously the Bernard Price Institute) of the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg. Kitching brought the holotype fossil back to the institute where he described it with fellow researcher, Christopher Gow. Together Kitching and Gow unfortunately misidentified this new species of sphenosuchian crocodylomorph and assigned the fossils to an existing crocodylomorph species, "Pedeticosaurus leviseuri". Over a decade later in 2002, two researchers visiting from abroad, Jim Clark and Hans-Dieter Sues, re-described the fossils. After their analysis, Clark and Sues discovered that the fossils belonged to a new species of sphenosuchian crocodylomorph and coined the current name for the species. The "Litargosuchus" fossil is monotypic and is the only known fossil of this species that has been found to date.
Unfortunately, the skull material of the "Litargosuchus" holotype was lost and no new fossils have yet been yielded from the Elliot Formation. However, new "Litargosuchus" fossils may be found in the future. A dedicated research lab based at the Evolutionary Studies Institute has led several field expeditions to localities where Elliot Formation rocks are exposed with the hope of finding more fossil material. Jonah Choiniere, an old PhD student of Clark, leads this research lab. The remains of the holotype currently remain stored at the Evolutionary Studies Institute.
Description.
"Litargosuchus" was a small, gracile non-crocodyloform spheosuchid crocodylomorph restricted to the Sinemurian of the lower Jurassic. Unlike modern crocodiles, "Litargosuchus" was a cursorial, terrestrial predator. It had unusually elongated limbs with its hind limbs slightly longer than its front. All sphenosuchian crocodylomorphs were lightly built, but "Litargosuchus" was especially so. It is thought that "Litargosuchus" pursued its prey much like a wolf; however, "Litargosuchus" were likely solitary. A cursorial body type is a key character trait of sphenosuchid crocodylomorphs.
Specimens.
The holotype specimen, BP/1/523 is the only documented "Litargosuchus" specimen recovered to date.
Classification.
"Litargosuchus" is currently positioned within Sphenosuchidae, a basal clade of non-crocodyloform crocodylomorphs. However, phylogenetic relationships within the Sphenosuchia are poorly understood so its status within this clade is uncertain. In addition, only one specimen of "Litargosuchus" is known to science, which means that there is no other comparative fossil data with members of its own species. However, it is accepted as a member of the greater crown archosaur clade.


Chinguetti oil field

The Chinguetti oilfield is an oil field located off the Mauritanian coast in 800 m water depth. It was discovered by the Australian firm Woodside Petroleum in 2001. It is named after the city of Chinguetti.
Relatively modest in size, originally estimated at , this deposit is nonetheless significant as the first commercial discovery of oil in the country, opening a new region for offshore petroleum exploration. Production of began in 2006 via an FPSO. Production declined rapidly after the start of production due to geological complexity. In November 2006 Woodside issued a statement cutting the field's 2P reserves to . Woodside expect production of to in the next few years. reference
A smaller oil field, Tevet, was discovered in the same area in 2005, and will probably developed as a satellite - meaning that it will be exploited by wells tied back to Chinguetti's platform.
Two larger discoveries, Banda and Tiof, were also made off the coast of Mauritania, by the Woodside consortium in 2003.
In 2004, Woodside had agreed to invest US$ 600 million in developing the Chinguetti project. However, in February 2006, the Mauritanian government led by Ely Ould Mohamed Vall denounced amendments to an oil contract made by former authoritarian leader Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya with Woodside Petroleum. The controversial amendments, which Mauritanian authorities declared that they had been signed "outside the legal framework of normal practice, to the great detriment of our country", could cost Mauritania up to $200 million a year, according to "BBC News".
It was later sold to PETRONAS group.


Caldera del Atuel

Caldera del Atuel is a caldera in Argentina. It is the source of the Rio Atuel and has dimensions of . Cerro Sosneado is a volcano (best volume estimate ) located outside of the Atuel caldera, Volcan Overo (best volume estimate ) and Las Lágrimas complex are located within the caldera. Holocene activity may have formed the cinder cones on the northeastern side of the caldera. After the 2010 Maule earthquake, the caldera was one of the volcanic centres that underwent subsidence, along with secondary earthquake activity.


Oligosaurus

Oligosaurus is a genus of iguanodont dinosaurs from the Late Cretaceous Grünbach Formation of Austria.
Discovery and species.
In 1859 coal mine administrator Pawlowitsch notified the University of Vienna that some fossils had been found in the "Gute Hoffnung" mine at Muthmannsdorf in Austria. A team headed by geologists Eduard Suess and Ferdinand Stoliczka subsequently uncovered numerous bones of several species, among them those of an ornithopod dinosaur. Stored at the university museum, the finds remained undescribed until they were studied by Emanuel Bunzel from 1870 onwards. Bunzel in 1871 referred the scapula PIUW 3518 along with a humerus and metapodial (identified by him as a femoral fragment) to "Lacerta" sp. Seeley (1881) erected "Oligosaurus" for the scapula and considered the metapodial and humerus to be conspecific, while referring the paralectotype caudal vertebrae of "Mochlodon suessi" to the taxon. The generic name is derived from Greek "oligos", "few", and "sauros", "lizard". Norman and Weishampel (1990) and Norman (2004) listed "Oligosaurus", along with "Ornithomerus" and "Mochlodon", as a synonym of "Rhabdodon". However, Sachs and Hornung (2006) assigned one of the specimens of "Oligosaurus" (the holotype scapula) to "Zalmoxes" sp. along with the "Mochlodon suessi" and "Ornithomerus" holotypes.
The type specimen PIUW 3518 was found in the Grünbach Formation of the Gosau Group dating from the early Campanian, about 80 million years old.


Eudimorphodon

Eudimorphodon was a pterosaur that was discovered in 1973 by Mario Pandolfi in the town of Cene, Italy and described the same year by Rocco Zambelli. The nearly complete skeleton was retrieved from shale deposited during the Late Triassic (mid to late Norian stage), making "Eudimorphodon" one of the oldest pterosaurs known. It had a wingspan of about and at the end of its long bony tail may have been a diamond-shaped flap like in the later "Rhamphorhynchus". If so, the flap may have helped it steer while maneuvering in the air. "Eudimorphodon" is known from several skeletons, including juvenile specimens.
Discovery and species.
"Eudimorphodon" currently includes one species, the type species "Eudimorphodon ranzii", which was first described by Zambelli in 1973. It is based on holotype MCSNB 2888. The specific name honors Professor Silvio Ranzi. A second species, "Eudimorphodon rosenfeldi", was named by Dalla Vecchia in 1995 for two specimens found in Italy. However, further study by Dalla Vecchia found that these actually represented a distinct genus, which he named "Carniadactylus" in 2009. A third species is "Eudimorphodon cromptonellus", described by Jenkins and colleagues in 2001. It is based on a juvenile specimen with a wingspan of just 24 centimeters, MGUH VP 3393, found in the early nineties in Jameson Land, Greenland. Its specific name honors Professor Alfred Walter Crompton; the name is a diminutive because the exemplar is so small. In 2015 it was named as a separate genus "Arcticodactylus" by Alexander Kellner. Specimen BSP 1994 I 51, in 2003 referred to a cf "E. ranzii", was in 2015 by Kellner made the genus "Austriadraco".
In 1986 fossil jaw fragments containing multicusped teeth were found in Dockum Group rocks in western Texas. One fragment, apparently from a lower jaw, contained two teeth, each with five cusps. Another fragment, from an upper jaw, also contained several multi-cusped teeth. These finds are very similar to "Eudimorphodon" and may be attributable to this genus, although without better fossil remains it is impossible to be sure.
Many fossils have been found that once were referred to "Eudimorphodon", making "Eudimorphodon" represent one of the most abundant pterosaurs from Italy. Today, these have largely been made separate genera.
Description.
"Eudimorphodon" was a small pterosaur, being in length, and weighing no more than . Its fourth finger had a very large size, and attached to the membrane making up the wing.
"Eudimorphodon" showed a strong differentiation of the teeth, hence its name, which is derived from ancient Greek for "true dimorphic tooth". It also possessed a large number of these teeth, a total of 110 of them densely packed into a jaw only long. The front of the jaw was filled with fangs, per side four in the upper jaw, two in the lower jaw, that rather abruptly gave way to a line of smaller multipointed teeth, 25 in the upper jaw, 26 in the lower jaw, most of which had five cusps
The morphology of the teeth are suggestive of a piscivorous diet, which has been confirmed by preserved stomach contents containing the remains of fish of the genus "Parapholidophorus". "Eudimorphodon" had slightly differing dentition with fewer teeth and may have had a more insectivorous diet. The top and bottom teeth of "Eudimorphodon" came into direct contact with each other when the jaws were closed, especially at the back of the jaw. This degree of "dental occlusion" is the strongest known among pterosaurs. The teeth were multi-cusped, and tooth wear shows that "Eudimorphodon" was able to crush or chew its food to some degree. Wear along the sides of these teeth suggests that "Eudimorphodon" also fed on hard-shelled invertebrates. The teeth distinguish "Eudimorphodon", because almost all other pterosaurs either had simple teeth, or lacked them altogether. Benson "et al." (2012) noticed that the teeth would have been perfect for grabbing and crushing fish.
Phylogeny and classification.
Despite its great age, "Eudimorphodon" has few primitive characteristics making the taxon of little use in attempting to ascertain where pterosaurs fit in the reptile family tree. Basal traits though, are the retention of pterygoid teeth and the flexibility of the tail, which lacks the very long stiffening vertebral extensions other long-tailed pterosaurs possess. The paucity of early pterosaur remains has ensured that their evolutionary origin continues to be a mystery, with different experts suggesting affinities to dinosaurs, archosauriformes, or prolacertiformes.
Within the standard hypothesis that the Dinosauromorpha are the pterosaurs' close relatives within an overarching Ornithodira, "Eudimorphodon" is also unhelpful in establishing relationships within Pterosauria between early and later forms because then its multicusped teeth should be considered highly derived, compared to the simpler single-cusped teeth of Jurassic pterosaurs, and a strong indicator that "Eudimorphodon" is not closely related to the ancestor of later pterosaurs. Instead it is believed to be a member of a specialized off branch from the main "line" of pterosaur evolution, the Campylognathoididae. The following phylogenetic analysis follows the topology of Upchurch "et al." (2015).
In 2020 however, a study upheld by Matthew G. Baron about early pterosaur interrelationships found "Eudimorphodon" to group with the clade Novialoidea, both within the clade called Lonchognatha.


Ohmdenia

Ohmdenia is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived from the Toarcian stage of the Early Jurassic epoch.
"Ohmdenia" was first described in 1953 by B. Hauff, based on a fossil found in the well-known Posidonia Shale in Holzmaden, Germany. For a long time this animal has been considered a close relative of "Birgeria", a great predator typical of the Triassic period with an uncertain systematic position . Further studies have shown similarities with the pachicormiforms, a group of neopolitics considered close to the origin of teleosts and also including giant forms and planctives (e.g. "Leedsichthys"). Some studies have erroneously indicated "Ohmdenia" as a synonym of "Saurostomus", other studies have instead placed "Ohmdenia" as an important evolutionary passage between the basal pachicormiforms and the more derived planktivore pachicormiformes.
Description.
This animal is known exclusively for an incomplete fossil, but sufficient to reconstruct (at least partially) its appearance. "Ohmdenia" must have been a large fish, at least two and a half meters long. "Ohmdenia" was therefore one of the largest bony fishes of the lower Jurassic, surpassed only by the great chondrostei such as "Strongylosteus" and "Gyrosteus" . The body had to be relatively slender, with a symmetrical and slender tail. The skull was long and short, and had a jaw equipped with numerous teethsmall, rather robust, rear-facing and placed in an area that extended along the dorsal margin of the jaw. The combination of a long and slender body and a low and elongated skull is unique among the fish related to "Ohmdenia" (the pachicormiforms).
Paleobiology.
The long mouths of "Ohmdenia", together with the peculiar teeth, imply a particular diet for this animal. Usually, the pachicormiforms possess thin, needle-like teeth, or large fanged fangs, or are still totally devoid of teeth. "Ohmdenia", on the other hand, possessed numerous small backward-facing teeth; this type of dentition is commonly associated with predators that feed on Cephalopods from the soft body. Even the jaws would seem to be less robust than those of the other pachicormiforms. The presence of two fossils of belemnites in the area of the belly of "Ohmdenia" corroborates the theory that this animal is seen as a predator of molluscs; cephalopods with a soft body.


Ancahuachana (Quispicanchi)

Ancahuachana (possibly from Quechua "anka" black-chested buzzard-eagle or eagle, "wacha" birth, to give birth "-na" a suffix, "where the eagle is born") or Mama Rosa is a mountain in the Vilcanota mountain range in the Andes of Peru, about high. It is situated in the Cusco Region, Quispicanchi Province, in the districts of Camanti and Marcapata. Ancahuachana lies northeast of Singrenacocha and east of Colquepunco.


Veterupristisaurus

Veterupristisaurus is an extinct genus of carcharodontosaurid theropod dinosaur known from the Jurassic of Tendaguru, southeastern Tanzania.
Discovery and naming.
"Veterupristisaurus" is known from the holotype specimen MB R 1938, an isolated middle caudal vertebra. Two partially fused posterior middle caudal vertebrae, MB R 2166, from the same locality as the holotype, are referred to this genus and most probably came from the same individual. The anterior caudal vertebra, MB R 1940, may also represent this genus. The holotype was collected in the St (EH) locality of the Tendaguru in German East Africa, from the Middle Dinosaur Member of the Tendaguru Formation, dating to the late Kimmeridgian to earliest Tithonian faunal stage of the Late Jurassic, about 154-150 million years ago. The holotype was originally referred to "Ceratosaurus? roechlingi" by Werner Janensch in 1925.
"Veterupristisaurus" was named by Oliver W. M. Rauhut in 2011 and the type species is "Veterupristisaurus milneri". The generic name translates as "old shark lizard". It refers to the fact that "Veterupristisaurus" is currently the oldest known representative of the "shark-toothed lizards", the carcharodontosaurids. The specific name honours the paleontologist Angela C. Milner.
Description.
"Veterupristisaurus" was a large bipedal animal. The length of the holotype vertebra is about , thus "Veterupristisaurus" has been estimated to have been about - in length, rivalling the coexisting "Torvosaurus" "ingens", based on the more complete and closely related "Acrocanthosaurus". There are teeth from Tendaguru Formation that probably come from it. In 2016 based on these teeth from the (MBHUK R6758) specimen of Tanzania that probably refers to the same species Molina-Pérez and Larramendi gave a length of 12.6 meters (41.3 feet) and a weight of 6.4 tonnes (7 short tons). Whether the individual represented by the holotype represents an adult individual cannot be determined based on the available material. It is diagnosed by a spinoprezygapophyseal lamina in the middle caudal vertebrae extending anteriorly to the midwidth of the base of the prezygapophysis and being flanked laterally by a short, parallel lamina extending from the lateral margin of the prezygapophysis posteriorly. Thus, Rauhut considered a sister-group relationship between "Veterupristisaurus" and "Acrocanthosaurus" within the Carcharodontosauridae.


Gundolf Ernst

Gundolf Ernst (August 29, 1930 – April 25, 2002) was a German geologist and mineralogist.
Gundolf Ernst was the son of Wilhelm Ernst, geologist at Hamburg University, and his wife Elisabeth, née Thüme. He grew up in Ahrensburg and came in contact with the archaeologist Alfred Rust while still a boy. After his graduation he studied geology at Hamburg University and finished his doctoral thesis in the field of mineralogy in 1961. He became a specialist in the study of the Cretaceous, especially fossilized sea urchins of this period. From 1964 to 1976 he worked as a paleontologist at the Braunschweig University of Technology. In 1976 he became a professor at the Free University of Berlin, where he continued until retirement. His research led him to many countries, among others England, Spain, Poland, Tanzania and the Adriatic Sea coast.


Stenopelix

Stenopelix (meaning "narrow pelvis") is a genus of small marginocephalian dinosaur, possibly a basal ceratopsian, from the Early Cretaceous of Germany. It lived in the late Berriasian Stage of the Cretaceous period, approximately 140 myr ago. The genus is based on a partial skeleton lacking the skull, and its classification is based on characteristics of the hips.
Discovery and species.
In 1855, in a sandstone quarry near Bückeburg on the Harrl, a fossil was found of a small dinosaur. Most of its bones were in a poor condition and removed on preparation, leaving two sets of hollow impressions on the plate and counterplate. The two plates do not overlap completely. The hollows, serving as a natural mold, have since been used to produce several casts in gypsum and latex to facilitate the study of the specimen. It was originally part of the collection of Max Ballerstedt preserved in the Bückeburg Gymnasium Adolfinum but was in 1976 moved to the Georg-August-Universität Göttingen where it now resides in the collection of the Geowissenschaftliches Zentrum der Universität Göttingen.
In 1857, based on this fossil, Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer named the type species "Stenopelix valdensis". The generic name is derived from Greek "stenos", "narrow", and "pelyx", "pelvis". The specific name refers to the Wealden Formation. The holotype, GZG 741/2 (earlier GPI 741-1, 2), found in the Obernkirchen Sandstein Formation, consists of the impressions of an almost complete skeleton, lacking the skull and the neck.
Classification.
The classification of "Stenopelix" is controversial and has ever been problematic because of the lacking skull. Prior to the 1960s, it was often assigned to some ornithopod group. In 1974 Teresa Maryańska suggested it to be a pachycephalosaur, one of the oldest known, due to the apparent exclusion of the pubis from the acetabulum, and the presence of strong caudal ribs. Peter Galton in 1982 showed that the "pubis" was actually part of the acetabulum, and the so-called "caudal ribs" were sacral ribs. The curvature of the ischium and absence of an obturator foramen were not characteristics seen in other pachycephalosaurs. Galton concluded "Stenopelix" to be ceratopian.
However, exact cladistic analyses by Paul Sereno have resulted in a position in the Pachycephalosauria. But paleontologists Richard J. Butler and Robert M. Sullivan nonetheless view the species as being Marginocephalia "incertae sedis", rejecting the presumed synapomorphies with the Pachycephalosauria as incorrect identifications or lacking cogency because of a possible presence in ceratopsian groups. In 2011, a cladistic analysis performed by Butler "et al." showed that "Stenopelix" is a basal member of the Ceratopsia, and its sister taxon is "Yinlong".
Paleobiology.
"Stenopelix" was a small herbivorous animal. The preserved rump and tail have a combined length of just 97 centimetres; the femur is fourteen centimetres long. The species can be distinguished by several details of the pelvis. The shaft part of the ilium uniformly tapers ending in a rounded point. The shaft of the ischium is thickest in the middle and there shows a distinctive kink.


Groningen gas field

The Groningen gas field is a giant natural gas field located near Slochteren in Groningen province in the northeastern part of the Netherlands. Discovered in 1959, it is the largest natural gas field in Europe and the tenth-largest in the world.
History.
After two previous unsuccessful wells were commissioned to search for oil and gas, on 22 July 1959, the Slochteren 1 well, drilling to a depth of , discovered the huge 2.8 trillion cubic metres (100 trillion cubic feet) gas field in the porous Rotliegend sandstone formation, which is to thick and long from north to south by long from east to west. The field started production in 1963 and produced around 100 billion cubic metres (3.57 trillion cubic feet) per year in the first decade of production but gradually the annual production fell to around 35 billion cubic metres (1.25 trillion cubic feet) per year. the Groningen gas field has produced around 1,700 billion cubic metres (60.7 trillion cubic feet) which represents 60% of the total reserves of the field but the remaining 1,100 billion cubic metres (39.3 trillion cubic feet) are expected to last for another 50 years.
The Groningen gas field is operated by the Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij BV (NAM), a joint venture between Royal Dutch Shell and ExxonMobil with each company owning a 50% share. The field accounts for 50% of the natural gas production in the Netherlands, the other 50% being supplied by around 300 smaller gas fields, most of them located offshore in the North Sea.
Present.
After protests in Groningen because of the increase in induced earthquakes, whose event count shows an exponential growth in time, the Dutch government decided on 17 January 2014 to cut output from the gas field and pay those affected by the earthquake a compensation worth 1.2 billion Euro, spread over a period of 5 years. The ministry said production would be cut in 2014 and 2015 to 42.5 bcm (billion cubic metres) and in 2016 to 40 bcm.
The State Supervision of Mines has brought forward that the production level should be cut back to 30 bcm to avoid the more severe quakes. Although it is technically possible to reduce Groningen's output to this level and still meet domestic demand, the ministry keeps production high (currently 39.4 bcm per year). Groningen officials are not satisfied with the measures. As of January 2015, no houses have been reinforced, nothing has been done about many seriously damaged buildings, and the risk of severe quakes, possibly resulting in collapsed buildings, injuries and death, is still too high. In June 2016, the Netherlands' National Mines Inspectorate advised the Dutch Government to reduce production even further to 24 bcm per year. On 23 September 2016 Dutch Prime Minister Mark Rutte confirmed that gas extraction from the northern Groningen gas field will be held at 24 bcm per year for the coming five years.
On March 29, 2018 the government announced it would shut down the gas extraction entirely by 2030 for safety reasons.
In September 2019, the Dutch government announced a further acceleration of the decommissioning of the field, stopping all regular production in 2022
Geology.
Regional setting.
The Groningen field lies within the Southern Permian Basin, which extends from the eastern coast of England to Poland. Within this area large volumes of gas have been discovered, mainly reservoired in the Rotliegend sandstone, with producing fields in England, the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark and Poland.
Reservoir.
The main reservoir in the Groningen field is the Cisuralian (Lower Permian), Rotliegend Slochteren sandstone. The Rotliegend reservoir at Groningen is mainly an aeolian sand with local development of fluvial wadi sands.
Porosities lie generally in the range 15–20% with permeabilities in the range 0.1–3000 mD.
Sources.
The main source rock for the gas at Groningen are coals and carbonaceous shales within the Westphalian coal measures sequence that lies unconformably beneath the Rotliegend. These sources are dominated by type III kerogen.
Trap.
The Groningen structure is a NNW-SSE trending intrabasinal high formed by normal faulting during the Mesozoic, particularly during the Late Jurassic to early Cretaceous. It has an overall horst geometry, lying between the Ems Graben to the east and the Lauwerszee Trough to the west.
Seal.
The Rotliegend is covered by the Late Permian Zechstein evaporite sequence, consisting of carbonate, anhydrite and halite, which provides an effective seal to the gas accumulations within the underlying sandstone.


Apacheta (Arequipa)

Apacheta (possibly from Aymara for the place of transit of an important pass in the principal routes of the Andes; name for a stone cairn in the Andes, a little pile of rocks built along the trail in the high mountains) is a mountain in the western part of the Chila mountain range in the Andes of Peru. It lies in the Arequipa Region, Castilla Province, Chachas District. It is situated southwest of Chila, northeast of Chila Pillune and southeast of Yuaytacondorsenja.
Apacheta lies at the bank of the Cacamayo (possibly from Quechua for "rock river"). Its waters flow to the Molloco River in the east, a right affluent of the Colca River.


Orthurus

Orthurus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the Carnian stage of the Late Triassic epoch.


Denckmannites

Denckmannites is a trilobite in the order Phacopida, that existed during the upper Silurian in what is now the Czech Republic. It was described by Wedekind in 1914, and the type species is "Denckmannites volborthi", which was originally described under the genus "Phacops" by Barrande in 1852. It also contains the species "Denckmannites morator", and "Denckmannites primaevus". The type locality was the Kopanina Formation.


Louis Dollo

Louis Antoine Marie Joseph Dollo (Lille, 7 December 1857 – Brussels, 19 April 1931) was a Belgian palaeontologist, known for his work on dinosaurs. He also posited that evolution is not reversible, known as Dollo's law. Together with the Austrian Othenio Abel, Dollo established the principles of paleobiology.
Early life.
Louis Dollo was born in Lille, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, a scion of an old Breton family. He studied at the École centrale de Lille, with geologist Jules Gosselet and zoologist Alfred Giard, both of whom influenced the young Dollo. In 1877, he graduated with a degree in engineering. After his graduation, he worked in the mining industry for five years, but simultaneously developed a passion for paleontology. In 1879, he moved to Brussels.
"Iguanodon" spp..
For three years, starting in 1878, he supervised the excavation of the famous, multiple "Iguanodon" find at Bernissart, Belgium. He devoted himself to their study as a scientific passion, initially concurrently with his engineering career. In 1882 he became an assistant naturalist at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences. Dollo was given membership in the Société des sciences de Lille and the Geological Society of London.
From 1882 to 1885, while he was head of the vertebrate fossil section of the Royal Institute, Dollo worked on reconstructing the skeletons of the iguanodons, as it was necessary to display them on their hind legs. The first one was assembled in the interior of an unused church that Dollo was using as a workshop. Twelve of those skeletons have been the principal attraction of the Museum of Natural Sciences at the Royal Institute. Dollo collaborated with his former professor Alfred Giard and the Université Lille Nord de France.
Dollo's law.
Around 1890, he formulated a hypothesis on the irreversible nature of evolution, known later as "Dollo's law". According to his hypothesis, a structure or organ lost during the course of evolution would not reappear in that organism. This hypothesis was largely accepted until Michael F. Whiting's 2003 discovery that certain insects that had lost their wings regained them millions of years later. However, it was redeemed on the molecular level in 2009 as a result of a study on glucocorticoid receptors.
Paleobiology.
Dollo continued his work with fossils, in addition to studies of dinosaurs and their ecology. He was among the first to see fossil animals as part of an ecosystem. Because of that, he was instrumental in the development of paleobiology, and he kept up an extensive correspondence with Othenio Abel, another famous early paleobiologist.
He taught paleontology at the Free University of Brussels, beginning in 1909, and in 1912 received the Murchison Medal. Recently, the stochastic Dollo model is being used to analyze matrix of cognates statistically. In linguistics, this model permits a newly coined cognate to arise only once on a tree language.


Plackwald

The Plackwald is a ridge of hills, up to , and part of the Rhenish Massif in the counties of Soest and Hochsauerlandkreis, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Within the North Sauerland Highlands (Unit number 334) it forms the natural region sub-unit of "Plackweghöhe (Plackwald)" (334.5).
Geography.
Location.
The Plackwald lies in the Arnsberg Forest Nature Park between Meschede in the south and Warstein in the north. It runs from the northeast of the town of Arnsberg in the west to the village of Esshoff in the borough of Brilon in the east. As part of the watershed between the River Ruhr in the south and its tributary, the Möhne, in the north it consists of a chain of hills with the Plackweghöhe (581.5 m) as its highest point, whose name is a synonym for the hill ridge either side of the Plackweg, a long-distance path. Its main transport axis is the B 55 federal highway that divides the region roughly in the centre at the pass of Stimmstamm (541.1 m). Amongst the more notable sites of the Plackwald are the Meschede Transmission Tower and the Lörmecke observation tower as well as the rivers of the Heve, Langer Bach, Lörmecke and Wideybach.
Natural regions.
In Germany’s natural region classification system, the Plackwald forms the sub-unit of "Plackweghöhe (Plackwald)" (334.5). with the major unit group of the Süder Uplands (No. 33) and major unit of the North Sauerland Uplands (334). To the north are the sub-units of the Upper Arnsberg Forest (334.3) and Warstein Hills (334.4), to the east the Upper Möhne and Alme Forest (334.6), to the southwest and west the Oeventrop Ruhr Valley (334.1) and to the south the major unit of the Sauerland Basins (335).
Description.
The Plackwald is a high, flat-topped ridge, roughly 500 to 550 m, that runs eastwards from the Großer Berg near the Arnsberg village of Oeventrop over the Warsteiner Kopf and Nuttlarhöhe to the Brilon Plateau. Geologically the hill ridge comprises folded rocks of the Upper Carboniferous. In the Nuttlar Bowl, quartzitic argillaceous and greywacke slates of the Arnsberg Beds of the Namurian stage form the subsoil. Frequently, the horizons of argillaceous slate have been obliterated.
To the north the Plackwald descends comparatively gently to 450 m the Breitenbruch Forest (334.32) and Warstein Hills. To the south it drops steeply and suddenly into the Ruhr valley, around 250 metres below. The upper edge of the scarp of the truncated upland follows the Plackweghöhe, which runs along the southern edge of the Upper Arnsberg Forest, to the Inner Sauerland Basins (335). As a result the climate in the Plackwald is harsher and, with around 1,000 mm of precipitation annually, wetter that in other areas of the North Sauerland Uplands. The average temperature in May/July is roughly 12 to 13 °C. The podsolic soils are poor in bases, sandy-loamy and of medium depth. In the spring hollows there is a tendency for stagnant water and bogs to form.
Hills.
The hills, eminences, spurs and other prominent high spots of the Plackwald include the following, sorted by height in metres (m) above sea level (NHN) (unless otherwise stated ):


Azabbaremys

Azabbaremys is an extinct genus of bothremydid pleurodiran turtle that was discovered in the Teberemt Formation of Mali. The genus consists solely of type species "A. moragjonesi".
Discovery.
"Azabbaremys" was discovered in the Teberemt Formation of Mali, which dates back to the Paleocene.
Description.
The holotype of "Azabbaremys" is a nearly complete skull, completely lacking the lower jaw.


Acastava

Acastava is an extinct genus of trilobite in the order Phacopida, from the upper Pragian ("A. atavus") to Emsian period (both other species listed) of the Devonian.


Jim Crow goldfield

The Jim Crow goldfield was part of the Central Victorian goldfield in Victoria, Australia.
Located in the valley of Jim Crow Creek, gold was mined there in the mid-nineteenth century. The goldfield was close to the localities of Daylesford and Hepburn Springs.
Relics of gold mining activity can be seen there.


Kenolamna

Kenolamna is an extinct genus of mackerel shark from the Cretaceous period known only from isolated teeth. It is named in honor of Kenneth McNamara, former curator of Paleontology at the Western Australian Museum. It is tentatively placed in the family Otodontidae, and is closest in design to "Cretalamna" and "Paleocarcharodon" though it is unclear how closely related it is to either. Currently, it is a monotypic genus containing only the species "K. gunsoni".


Saurolophus

Saurolophus (; meaning "lizard crest") is a genus of large hadrosaurid dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous period of Asia and North America, that lived in what is now the Horseshoe Canyon and Nemegt formations about 70 million to 68 million years ago. It is one of the few genera of dinosaurs known from multiple continents. The type species, "S. osborni", was described by Barnum Brown in 1912 from Canadian fossils. A second valid species, "S. angustirostris", is represented by numerous specimens from Mongolia, and was described by Anatoly Konstantinovich Rozhdestvensky.
"Saurolophus" is distinguished by a spike-like crest which projects up and back from the skull. It was a herbivorous dinosaur which could move about either bipedally or quadrupedally.
Discovery and history.
Barnum Brown recovered the first described remains of "Saurolophus" in 1911, including a nearly complete skeleton (AMNH 5220). Now on display in the American Museum of Natural History, this skeleton was the first nearly complete dinosaur skeleton from Canada. It was found in rocks of early Maastrichtian age, in the Upper Cretaceous Horseshoe Canyon Formation (then known as the Edmonton Formation) near Tolman Ferry on the Red Deer River in Alberta. Brown wasted little time in describing his material, giving it its own subfamily. "Saurolophus" was an important early reference for other hadrosaurs, as seen in the names of "Prosaurolophus" ("before "Saurolophus"") and "Parasaurolophus" ("near "Saurolophus""). However, little additional material has been recovered and described.
Instead, more abundant remains from Asia have provided more data. Initial remains were not promising; a partial fragmentary ischium from Heilongjiang, China, that Riabinin named "S. kryschtofovici". Much better remains were soon recovered, though, but from Mongolia's early Maastrichtian-age Nemegt Formation. The 1946–1949 Russian-Mongolian paleontological expeditions recovered the large skeleton that became "S. angustirostris" as described by Anatoly Rozhdestvensky. Other skeletons from a variety of growth stages have also been discovered, and "S. angustirostris" is now the most abundant Asian hadrosaurid.
Species.
Two species are regarded as valid today: the type species "S. osborni", and "S. angustirostris". "S. osborni" Brown, 1912 is known from a skull and skeleton, two other complete skulls, and skull fragments. "S. angustirostris" (Rozhdestvensky, 1952) is known from at least 15 specimens. It differs from "S. osborni" by some details of the skull, as well as in the pattern of scales found in skin impressions. The Mongolian species had a longer skull (by 20%) and the front of the snout (the premaxillary bones) were more upwardly directed. "S. angustirostris" also had a distinctive row of rectangular scales along the midline of the back and tail, known as 'midline feature-scales'; these are not currently preserved in "S. osborni". In "S. angustirostris", the scales on the tail flank were arranged in vertical patterns, which may have corresponded to striped coloration in life. This area was covered in radial scale patterns in "S. osborni", possibly indicating a more mottled or spotted coloration. "S. kryschtofovici" Riabinin, 1930 is not considered valid; either it is regarded as a dubious name, or as a synonym of "S. angustirostris" (although the name antedates "S. angustirostris").
Until a 2011 reevaluation of the species by Phil R. Bell, "S. angustirostris" was not well-described. No autapomorphies, unique derived traits, had been established distinguishing it from "S. osborni". Bell found in a publication earlier in the year that the two previous studies of "S. angustirostris", by Rozhdestvensky in 1952, and Maryanska and Osmolska in 1981, do not provide a comprehensive enough description to compare the species with "S. osborni".
In 1939–40, two partial skeletons were found in the late Maastrichtian age Moreno Formation of California. These specimens were referred to cf. "Saurolophus" sp. In 2010, one of the skulls was instead assigned to "Edmontosaurus". A 2013 study placed the two specimens in a new species, "S. morrisi". In 2014, the species was reassigned to a new genus, "Augustynolophus".
Description.
"Saurolophus" is known from material including nearly complete skeletons, giving researchers a clear picture of its bony anatomy. "S. osborni", the rarer Albertan species, was around long, with its skull long. It has been estimated to have weighed around . "S. angustirostris", the Mongolian species, was larger; it got as large as in length, and larger remains are reported. It has been estimated to have potentially weighed up to . The largest known skull of "S.angustirostris" measures in length. Aside from size, the two species are virtually identical, with differentiation hindered by lack of study.
The most distinctive feature of "Saurolophus" is its cranial crest, which is present in young individuals, but is smaller. It is long and spike-like and projects upward and backward at about a 45° angle, starting from over the eyes. This crest is often described as solid, but appears to be solid only at the point, with internal chambers that may have had a respiratory and/or heat-regulation function. The unique crest of "Saurolophus" is made up almost completely by the nasal bones, and in "S. angustirostris" it is solid. In adult specimens the crests are a rounded triangular shape in cross section. The crest protrudes past the edge of the skull backwards. Thin processes from the frontals and prefrontals extend along the underside of the crest, probably to strengthen it. At the end of the crest is a swelling of the nasal, which is often termed differently.
The holotype of "S. angustirostris" is a skull and postcrania, so the cranium of the species is well-described. Bell "et al." re-evaluated the entire species in a 2011 publication with "Acta Palaeontologica Polonica". Their description found the skull to be generalized among hadrosaurines, and are much larger than any skulls of "S. osborni". The most unusual feature for a hadrosaurine is the long, protruding, solid crest that extends upwards diagonally from the back of the skull roof. Unlike lambeosaurines, the crests are made up completely of the nasal bone. The premaxilla bones make up almost 50% of the entire skull length, and both sides are filled with small holes. Only in adult individuals has the front of the premaxillary contact been fused. Longer than the premaxilla, the nasal bones are the longest in the skull. They make up the entire length of the crest, and are never preserved as fused.
Classification.
Barnum Brown, who described the first specimens, put it in its own subfamily in "Trachodontidae" (=Hadrosauridae), the Saurolophinae. At the time, this also included "Corythosaurus" and "Hypacrosaurus", the only well-known examples of what would become the Lambeosaurinae. Brown thought that "Saurolophus" had an expanded tip to the ischium bone in the hip, as dinosaurs now recognized as lambeosaurines had, but this appears to have been based on a mistakenly associated lambeosaurine ischium. Additionally, he misinterpreted the crests of "Saurolophus" and lambeosaurines as being made of the same bones.
Most publications before 2010 classified "Saurolophus" as a member of Hadrosaurinae, often known colloquially as the "flat-headed hadrosaurs". In 2010, the subfamily Saurolophinae was brought back into use because "Hadrosaurus" appears to have branched off prior to the "hadrosaurine"–lambeosaurine split. As a result, Hadrosaurinae by definition cannot include the traditional "hadrosaurines". Saurolophinae is the oldest available name for the former "hadrosaurine" clade. "Saurolophus", as the name suggests, is a saurolophine, as it has a saurolophine pelvis and a (largely) solid crest.
The following cladogram of hadrosaurid relationships was published in 2013 by Alberto Prieto-Márquez "et al." in "Acta Palaeontologica Polonica":
Paleobiology.
As a hadrosaurid, "Saurolophus" would have been a bipedal/quadrupedal herbivore, eating a variety of plants. Its skull permitted a grinding motion analogous to chewing, and its teeth were continually replacing and packed into dental batteries that contained hundreds of teeth, only a relative handful of which were in use at any time. Plant material would have been cropped by its broad beak, and held in the jaws by a cheek-like organ. Its feeding range would have extended from the ground to about above.
Comparisons between the scleral rings of "Saurolophus" and modern birds and reptiles suggest that it may have been cathemeral, active throughout the day at short intervals.
Crest function.
The distinctive spike-like crest of "Saurolophus" has been interpreted in multiple ways, and could have had multiple functions. Brown compared it to the crest of a chameleon, and suggested it could provide an area for muscle attachment and a connection point for a nonbody back frill like that seen in the basilisk lizard. Peter Dodson interpreted similar features in other duckbills as having use in sexual identification. Maryańska and Osmólska, noting the hollow base, suggested that the crest increased the surface area of the respiratory cavity, and helped in thermoregulation. James Hopson supported a function as a visual signal, and further mentioned the possibility that the inflatable skin flaps over the nostrils could have acted as resonators and additional visual signals. This idea has been picked up by authors of popular dinosaur works, such as David B. Norman, who discussed hadrosaurid display at length and included a life restoration of such an adaptation in action.
Ontogeny.
Though the growth rates of "Saurolophus" are poorly understood, a group of perinatal "Saurolophus" was recently discovered in an area of the Gobi Desert known as "The Dragon's Tomb". The animals uncovered had skull lengths less than five percent of the length of the skulls of the adults, indicating they were in the earliest developmental stage at the time of their deaths The discovery of "Saurolophus" neonates also indicates the distinct crest found in adults was poorly developed in infancy. It remains unknown if the animals were still within their eggs or if they had hatched before they died. The specimens were described in the journal PLOS One on October 14, 2015 by Leonard Dewaele et al.
Paleoenvironment.
Horseshoe Canyon Formation.
"S. osborni" is known only from the upper part (unit 4) of the Horseshoe Canyon Formation. The formation is interpreted as having a significant marine influence, due to an encroaching Western Interior Seaway, the shallow sea that covered the midsection of North America through much of the Cretaceous. "S. osborni" may have preferred to stay inland. It lived alongside other dinosaur species including the ornithopods "Hypacrosaurus altispinus" and "Parksosaurus warreni", ankylosaurid "Anodontosaurus lambei", pachycephalosaurid "Sphaerotholus edmontonense", ornithomimids "Ornithomimus brevitertius" and an unnamed species of "Struthiomimus", small theropods including "Atrociraptor marshalli" and "Albertonykus borealis", and the tyrannosauroid "Albertosaurus sarcophagus". The dinosaurs from this formation form part of the Edmontonian land vertebrate age. A 2001 study suggested that "Saurolophus osborni" was part of a distinct inland fauna characterized by an association between "Anchiceratops ornatus" and it, while the contemporary coastal fauna was characterized by the association of "Pachyrhinosaurus canadensis" and "Edmontosaurus regalis". However, the association between "S. osborni" and "Anchiceratops" was later noted to be in error, "Anchiceratops" only occurs lower in the Horseshoe Canyon Formation, before the major transgression of the Western Interior Seaway represented by the Drumheller Marine Tongue.
Nemegt Formation.
"S. angustirostris" was one of the largest herbivores of the Nemegt Formation, which lacked large ceratopsians, but had sauropods and a more diverse theropod fauna. Unlike other Mongolian formations like the well-known Djadochta Formation that includes "Velociraptor" and "Protoceratops", the Nemegt is interpreted as being well-watered region, like the Dinosaur Park Formation in Alberta. When examined, the rock facies of the Nemegt formation suggest the presence of stream and river channels, mudflats, and shallow lakes. Sediments also indicate that a rich habitat existed, offering diverse food in abundant amounts that could sustain Cretaceous dinosaurs. It coexisted with the rare hadrosaurid "Barsboldia", flat-headed pachycephalosaurian "Homalocephale" and domed "Prenocephale", the large ankylosaurid "Saichania", rare titanosaurs sauropods "Nemegtosaurus" and "Opisthocoelicaudia", the alvarezsaurid "Mononykus", three types of troodontids including "Zanabazar", several oviraptorosaurians including "Rinchenia" and "Nemegtomaia", the ornithomimosaurs "Anserimimus" and "Gallimimus", and the giant theropods "Deinocheirus" and "Therizinosaurus", including the tyrannosaurid "Tarbosaurus".
"S. angustirostris" was common, and would have been an important large herbivore in the Nemegt Formation. By comparison, "S. osborni" was rare in the Horseshoe Canyon Formation, and faced competition from other duckbills (genus "Hypacrosaurus").


List of earthquakes in the Netherlands

Earthquakes in the Netherlands occur mostly in the southeast and northeast of the country, with mostly tectonic earthquakes in the southeast and induced earthquakes in the northeast. The Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute started with seismic registrations in 1904. The heaviest earthquake was the 1992 Roermond earthquake with a magnitude of 5.8.
Seismic registration.
The first time that seismic activity in the Netherlands was registered by the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI) in De Bilt was on 26 June 1904.
Tectonic earthquakes.
The natural earthquakes that occur in the southeast of the Netherlands are caused by active rifts of the European Cenozoic Rift System. The 1992 Roermond earthquake in the southeastern province of Limburg was the heaviest registered earthquake in the Netherlands. It had a magnitude of 5.8 and occurred in Roermond on 13 April 1992.
Induced earthquakes.
Since 1986, there have been around 1,000 induced earthquakes in the northeast of the Netherlands caused by the exploitation of the Groningen gas field near Slochteren. The heaviest registered earthquake in the northeastern province of Groningen had a magnitude of 3.6 and occurred in Huizinge on 16 August 2013.
This event count shows a remarkable exponential growth in time, which would possibly lead to one event per day in 2025. While moderate in magnitude, the sheer number of events acts as a physical stressor to living conditions and gives an adverse outlook long term on structural integrity of homes and buildings. On March 29, 2018 the government therefore announced it would shut down the gas extraction on this field entirely by 2030 at the latest. It is projected the normal exploration will end by 2022, while still serving as a reserve for exceptionally cold winters. After peaking in 2013 the number of induced earthquakes with a magnitude > 1,5 has been decreasing.
 , van Putten, M.H.P.M., van Putten, A.F.P., & van Putten, M.J.A.M., 2016, Earthquakes and Structures, 11, 861</ref>
Heaviest earthquakes.
Since 1904, there were seven earthquakes in the Netherlands with a magnitude of 4.0 or higher. All were noninduced earthquakes in the southeastern provinces of Limburg and North Brabant.


Paraetmopterus

Paraetmopterus is an extinct genus of sharks in the family Etmopteridae. It was described by Adnet in 2006, and the type species is "P. nolfi", which existed during the middle Eocene of France. A new species, "P. horvathi", which existed in what is now Slovakia during the Miocene epoch, was described by Charlie J. Underwood and Jan Schlögl in 2013; however, this species was subsequently transferred to the separate genus "Palaeocentroscymnus".


Tichkaella

Tichkaella is a genus of helcionellid from the Middle Cambrian. It has a strongly spiralled, smooth shell with concentric ridges that have low relief. Other than its looser coiling, it is very similar to "Protowenella".


Odernheim Formation

The Odernheim Formation is a geologic formation in Germany. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous and Permian periods.


Luscar Group

The Luscar Group is a geologic unit of Early Cretaceous age in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin that is present in the foothills of southwestern Alberta. It is subdivided into a series of formations, some of which contain economically significant coal deposits that have been mined near Cadomin and Luscar. Coal mining in those areas began in the early 1900s and continues near Luscar as of 2016.
Lithology.
The Luscar Group includes the conglomerate and quartzose sandstones of the Cadomin Formation at the base, and the overlying formations consist of variable amounts of sandstone, siltstone and mudstone. There are major coal seams in the Gates Formation, and minor coal, argillaceous limestone and calcareous shale in the Gladstone Formation. The Moosebar Formation consists primarily of mudstone and shale.
Stratigraphy.
The strata encompassed by the Luscar Group were originally included in the Blairmore Group. However, the Blairmore Group strata in the mountains and foothills of southwestern Alberta are of primarily nonmarine origin and are not coal-bearing, while those in the central and northern foothills include thick coal seams and a marine shale unit. Those strata were therefore reassigned to the Luscar Group.
The type section for the Luscar Group consists of outcrops along the railroad tracks near the town of Cadomin.
Luscar Group is subdivided into the following formations from top to base:
Distribution and thickness.
The name Luscar Group is applicable in the northern and north-central foothills of southwestern Alberta, from the Clearwater River north to the Kakwa River near the Alberta-British Columbia boundary. Its thickness is difficult to determine accurately due to folding and faulting that characterize the Alberta foothills, but is estimated to be about in the type area.
Relationship to other units.
The Luscar Group is correlative with the Blairmore Group of the southwestern Alberta foothills; with the Bullhead Group and the lower part of the Fort St. John Group of northeastern British Columbia; and with the Mannville Group of the Alberta plains. It disconformably overlies either the Nikanassin Formation or the Minnes Group, and is disconformably overlain by either the Shaftesbury Formation or Blackstone Formation, depending on the location.
Environment of deposition and paleontology.
The Luscar Group is an eastward-thinning wedge of clastic sediments derived from the erosion of newly uplifted mountains to the west. The sediments were transported eastward by river systems and deposited in a variety of braided stream, river channel, floodplain, swamp, coastal plain, marginal marine and shallow marine environments along the western edge of the Western Interior Seaway. Its formations include a variety of plant fossils, trace fossils, bivalves, and foraminifera.


Acamarachi

Acamarachi (also known as "Pili") is a high volcano in northern Chile. In this part of Chile, it is the highest volcano. Its name means "black moon". It is a volcano in the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, a zone of strong volcanic activity during the last million years. Old volcanoes in the area are well-preserved, due to the dry climate.
Acamarachi itself is a cone-shaped volcano with steep upper flanks and a lava dome on its northern side. While there is no indication of historical activity and the flank lava flows are old, some lava flows around the summit crater and a lava coulee north of Acamarachi on the saddle between Acamarachi and Colachi volcano may be postglacial in age. Acamarachi is formed by andesitic and dacitic rocks.
Acamarachi features an Inca mountain sanctuary on which several figurines have been found. One female figurine is made out of silver, a male one is made out of thorny oyster. Both of these figurines were found with miniature clothing.
Geological context.
The volcano is located in the Central Volcanic Zone, an area of volcanism in the Andes. Volcanism in this area is dependent on the subduction in the Peru-Chile Trench. 27 million years ago, in this area of the Andes large rhyolitic eruptions commenced and formed major ignimbrites, dramatically increasing 10 million years ago. At the same time starting in the Miocene, andesitic to dacitic eruptive activity has formed large stratovolcanoes. This activity in the late Pleistocene and Holocene has created the current volcanic arc.
The climate of the area is hyperarid. Thus, ignimbrites and individual volcanoes keep most of their original appearance. Most of these volcanoes are remote structures that are unlikely to affect significant population, although wind-driven transport of tephra can potentially cause economic and other damage at considerable distance.
Geology.
Acamarachi is a steep-sided conical volcano, like several other volcanoes in the region. Such a shape is due to the relatively high viscosity of the lavas forming them. In the case of Acamarachi, the upper slopes reach a slope angle of 45°. On the volcano's northern flank there is a large lava dome while the rest of the edifice is symmetrical.
Acamarachi is constructed by andesite and dacite. Rocks are porphyritic and contain hornblende as well as biotite or pyroxene. Augite, hypersthene and plagioclase are also present, with smaller contents of olivine and quartz.
A study of lava flows at the summit concluded that Acamarachi's last eruption may have occurred during the Holocene. There are no young lava flows on the flanks and the summit crater is degraded. Possibly after the ice ages, north of Acamarachi a silicic coulee was erupted on the saddle between Acamarachi and Colachi. This coulee has well preserved flow structures and covers . No evidence exists for activity in historical times.
The volcano is part of a northwest-bound alignment along with Rili, Colachi and Yalquis-Putas, which may be linked to faults underground. However, Colachi and Acamarachi seem to have separate magmatic systems. They are both relatively low over the surrounding terrain which is about high and is formed by raised ignimbrites.
Acamarachi does not have glaciers or any perennial ice structures. Such lack of glaciation is also observed on other mountains in the neighbourhood such as Aucanquilcha and is probably due to the arid climate. In the past however the mountain was probably extensively glaciated, with glacier lobes forming at its foot and cirques developing around the summit. Terminal moraines lie in the Quebrada Ojos de Hécar and Quebrada Acamarachi, with several individual moraines between elevation.
Archeology.
Acamarachi is known as an Inca mountain sanctuary, among at a minimum 15 other mountain sanctuaries known to have been used by the Inca. Other known sanctuaries are Cerro Colorado, Cerro Lailay, Cerro del Leon, Cerro Mullay, Cerro Toco, Cerro Quimal, Curiquinca, Juriques, Laguna Verde, Licancabur, Linzor, Paniri, Sairecabur, Tatio and Toconce. On its summit, four different ceremonial platforms are arranged in a cloverleaf conformation.
Inca figurines representing individuals of various sexes have been found on Acamarachi. The figurines found at Acamarachi may represent mid-level imperial officials, considering the simple tunics they wore. One figurine made out of "Spondylus" shell wore miniature clothing made out of camelid wool, the clothing having an imperial design with multicoloured decorations. The tunic itself is yellow. The textiles found on Acamarachi belong to a style known as "Catarpe", which is associated with Inca presence. Such clothing seems to be miniaturized versions of Inca clothing. This figurine has no plaque, unlike some other Inca figurines. A feather and a shawl are other accessories that have been found on the figurine. The function of such figurines is unknown, several theories have been proposed, such as representing deities. Another figurine representing a woman was also found there in 1971, in red miniature clothing with decorations too, as well as a red feather. This figure is made out of silver. Such dressed figurines have been found on other Andean summits, such as Aconcagua, Cerro El Plomo, Cerro Mercedario, Cerro Las Tortolas, Cerro Gallan, Copiapo and Pichu Pichu. Acamarachi's figurines are now exposed in the R. P. Gustavo Le Paige Archaeological Museum of San Pedro de Atacama.
The region in which Acamarachi is located was a southern part of the Inca Empire. A major Inca road passed by the town of Toconao, not far from Acamarachi.


Sakamenichthys

Sakamenichthys is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the Early Triassic epoch.


Smoelan Formation

The Smoelan Formation is a geologic formation in Norway. It preserves fossils dating back to the Ordovician period.


Archaeodontosaurus

Archaeodontosaurus ("ancient-toothed lizard") is a genus of sauropod dinosaur from the Middle Jurassic. Its fossils were found in the Isalo III Formation of Madagascar. The type species, "Archaeodontosaurus descouensi", was described in September 2005. The specific name honours the collector, Didier Descouens. It is a probable sauropod, with prosauropod-like teeth.


Vallesaurus

Vallesaurus is an extinct genus of Late Triassic elyurosaur drepanosauromorph. First found in Northern Italy in 1975, it is one of the most primitive drepanosaurs. "V. cenenis" is the type species, which was first mentioned in 1991 but only formally described in 2006. A second species, "V. zorzinensis", was named in 2010.
Discovery.
The first specimen of "Vallesaurus cenensis", MCSNB 4751, was found in 1975 by the staff of the Museo Civico di Scienze Naturali of Bergamo, Italy. The genus was named in respect of professor Valle, the former director of the museum. The species, on the other hand, was named after a local municipality called Cene, which was neighboring the site where the fossil was excavated. The specimen was given to palaeontologist Rupert Wild to study at the Staatliches Museum of Stuttgart, Germany. Wild briefly mentioned "Vallesaurus cenensis" in 1991, but without describing it formally or identifying the holotype specimen. Pinna (1993) listed the name when surveying Triassic reptiles in Italy, and identified MCSNB 4751 as its holotype. Renesto and Binelli formally described "Vallesaurus cenensis" in 2006, and attributed the name to Wild. However, Renesto "et al." (2010) later attributed the name to Renesto & Binelli (2006), arguing that "Vallesaurus cenensis" was a "nomen nudum" prior to that study. A second species, "V. zorzinensis", was found in the same location and identified from the specimen MCSNB 4783. Its specific name referred to the Zorzino Limestone Formation, where the holotype was found.
Description.
"Vallesaurus" is a small drepanosaurid about long. The manus (hand) is pentadactyl, with the 4th digit being the longest and equal in length to the humerus. The tarsus (ankle) has a centrale which articulates with the tibia. In addition, the foot of "Vallesaurus" also has modified distal tarsals and metatarsals, and a clawless hallux.
"Vallesaurus" differs in some characteristics from another drepanosaur, "Megalancosaurus". "Vallesaurus" has a proportionally shorter and higher snout, a thicker and larger maxilla and set of maxillary teeth, and a shorter cervical vertebra. It also lacks the fusion between the neural spines of the second and third dorsal vertebrae. "Vallesaurus" differs from "Drepanosaurus", another drepanosaur, in that it lacks the enormous claw found on the second digit of the manus. It can be distinguished from "Drepanosaurus", "Megalancosaurus" and possibly "Dolabrosaurus" in the lack of a terminal spine at the end of the tail. In addition, "Vallesaurus" also differs from "Hypuronector", a related drepanosaur, in having anteroposteriorly extended neural spines of the anterior dorsal vertebrae and forelimbs much shorter than the hindlimbs.


Nevado El Cisne

The Nevado El Cisne () is a volcano in the Central Ranges of the Andes in Colombia. Its summit is at an altitude of . The mountain is one of the five lava domes of the Nevado del Ruiz volcano complex. Despite the "nevado" part of the name, indicating a permanently snow-capped mountain, the summit of El Cisne is now below the permanent snow line as a result of global warming, and it is no longer considered a true "nevado". The volcano is located over the Palestina Fault, that crosscuts the underlying El Bosque Batholith of Eocene age, dated at 49.1 ± 1.7 Ma.


Geology of the Tasman District

The Tasman Region, and the small adjoining Nelson Region, form one of the more geologically interesting regions of New Zealand. It contains the oldest rocks of anywhere on New Zealand's main islands. It contains all the main terranes that make up New Zealand's basement. These basement rocks include Ultramafic rocks, such as Serpentine and Dunite, and valuable minerals, such as Gold. The Nelson Region is bordered to the south by the Alpine Fault (usually named the Wairau Fault in the Wairau Valley), the main fault forming the boundary between the Pacific Plate and the Indo-Australian Plate, that generated the Southern Alps.
Basement rocks.
The terranes that make up New Zealand's basement are divided up into a Western Province, composed of the Buller and Takaka terranes, and an Eastern Province, composed of the Brook Street, Murihiku, Dun Mountain-Maitai, Caples, Torlesse Composite (Rakaia and Pahau), and Waipapa Composite Terranes. The Median Batholith forms the boundary between the two provinces. All these terranes occur within or near the Nelson Region.
The Buller Terrane forms the basement rocks to the west of the Anatoki Fault (roughly from Whanganui Inlet to Springs Junction), and throughout the West Coast, west of the Alpine Fault, to Milford Sound. The Greenland Group rocks form the base, and are composed of sandstones and mudstones deposited in a submarine fan environment (Late Cambrian-early Ordovician, 505-470 Ma). They are overlain by the Golden Bay Group rocks, composed of quartz sandstone and shale (Ordovician, 490-443 Ma).
The Takaka Terrane forms the basement rocks east of the Anatoki Fault and west of Takaka, the Authur and Matiri Range, south to Springs Junction. The Takaka Terrane is structurally complex, and heavily faulted. The earliest (Middle Cambrian, 518-515 Ma, mostly western) rocks were deposited in an oceanic volcanic arc environment, and represent the oldest rocks in the main islands of New Zealand. Rocks in the Cobb Valley include gabbro and ultramafic rocks that are now largely serpentised. Later (Late Cambrian-Early Devonian, 500-397 Ma, mostly eastern) rocks were deposited in a passive margin environment, and include the Mount Arthur limestone and marble.
The Buller and Takaka Terranes are believed to have been amalgamated around Early or Middle Devonian times, about 390 Ma ago. After amalgamation, in Late Devonian times (370-354 Ma), the Karamea Suite granites were intruded into the Buller Terrane. The Karamea Suite granite often has a distinctive pink colour, due to the K-feldspar megacrysts.
The Median Batholith forms the rocks between the Western and Eastern Provinces. It is assumed to represent a long lived (Late Devonian-Early Cretaceous, 375-110 Ma) Cordilleran batholith, corresponding to a subduction zone along the margin of eastern Australia, before the formation of the Tasman Sea (83-55 Ma). The Median Batholith includes the Riwaka Complex (~375 Ma) and Separation Point Suite (~110 Ma). The Riwaka Complex intruded rocks on the west of Abel Tasman National Park, south to the Baton River Area. The Separation Point Suite corresponds to the granite rocks from Abel Tasman National Park, south to Springs Junction. The basement rocks between Motueka and Nelson, south to Nelson Lakes, are also part of the Median Batholith, but are mainly hidden by the Moutere Depression. However the Median Batholith outcrops around Peppin Island-Nelson City and Nelson Lakes.
The Eastern Province Brook Street, Murihiku, and Dun Mountain-Maitai Central Arc Terranes form narrow successively more easterly strips to the east of the Waimea-Flaxmore Fault System, running from Durville Island in the north, to the Alpine Fault near Nelson Lakes in the south.
The Brook Street Terrane corresponds to a Permian (300-250 Ma) oceanic island arc, and contains well-preserved cross sections through volcanic cones.
The Murihiku Terrane is composed of Triassic to Jurassic (250-145 Ma), relatively undeformed marine sandstone, derived from a volcanic arc.
The Dun Mountain-Maitai Terrane includes the Early Permian (290-256 Ma) Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt, composed of mafic sea floor basalts and ultramafic mantle rocks. The high nickel and magnesium content inhibits the growth of vegetation on Dun Mountain and Red Hills. These are overlain by Early Permian to Triassic (290-206 Ma) Maitai Group breccia, sandstone, siltstone and limestone.
The Caples Terrane forms much of the Marlborough Sounds, from east of D'Urville Island, to west of Charlotte Sound, and southwest to Nelson Lakes and the Alpine Fault (Wairau Valley). The Caples Terrane was formed in Late Permian to Middle Triassic times (256-227 Ma). The rocks are mostly sandstone and argillite, deposited in a submarine fan, adjacent to an island arc, which have been metamorphosed to schist close to the boundary with the Rakaia Terrane in the southeast.
The Torlesse (Composite) Terane is composed of the Rakaia and Pahau Terranes. The rocks are mostly marine sandstone and mudstone, with the Pahau Terrane being younger (Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous, 159-99 Ma) than the Rakaia Terrane (Permian to Late Triassic, 290-206 Ma). The Aspiring Lithologic Association schist, south of the Caples Terrane and north of the Alpine Fault, is regarded as belonging to the Rakaia Terrane. The rocks to the south of the Alpine Fault belong to the Torlesse Composite Terrane (Rakaia to the west of Nelson Lakes, Pahau to the east).
The Waipapa (Composite) Terrane is composed of the Hunua and Morrinsville Terranes. The rocks around Picton-Arapawa Island are thought to belong to the Morrinsville Terrane, and are Late Triassic (227-206 Ma) sandstone that has been metamorphosed into schist.
The rocks of western Nelson used to be adjacent to those in Fiordland and Central Otago, before the Alpine Fault was activated in the Early Miocene (23 Ma). The terranes in Nelson match those on the other side of the Alpine Fault, in Fiordland and Central Otago.
Coal and Limestone.
Most of the Nelson area was above sea level from Late Cretaceous to Middle Eocene time. Coal measures developed in swampland around the Whanganui Inlet in the Late Cretaceous. The coal measures were later covered by sandstone, then conglomerate, corresponding to a braided floodplain. Much of the cover rocks have since been eroded.
Coal measures also developed in swampland over much of western Nelson in Late Eocene times (40-34 Ma). The coal measures are preserved in the Buller Coalfield, the Heaphy River, Takaka, and Richmond. The land then sank, the sea transgressed, and calcareous sandstone, mudstone, and limestone were deposited in Oligocene times (34-24 Ma).
Uplift.
The Alpine Fault developed in Early Miocene times (23 Ma), uplift occurred, and deposition changed from limestone to mudstone. Rapid uplift of the Southern Alps occurred in the Late Pliocene (3 Ma). Large quantities of Torlesse derived gravel were generated from the Southern Alps, and are preserved in the Moutere Depression.
Current Movement.
The Alpine Fault is moving at 3-5mm/year, and the Awatere Fault at 6-8mm/year. The Waimea-Flaxmore Fault System is also active. The Marlborough Sounds are sinking 1-7mm/year. Nelson itself is relatively stable, and the western coast is rising 0-1mm/year.
Geological Resources.
Alluvial gold has been obtained in the Anatoki, Takaka, Aorere and Paparoa valleys of Golden Bay. Gold has been mined in the Aorangi Mine (Golden Blocks) area, and Johnston's United Mine area. It has also been mined within the Caples Terrane schist.
Chromium and copper have been mined in the Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt.
Asbestos, talc and magnesite have been mined in the Cobb area.
Coal has been mined in Collingwood, Takaka, Nelson-Richmond, Baton, Heaphy, Karamea and Buller areas.
Mount Arthur marble is used for buildings. Tertiary limestone is quarried to make cement.
The sea to the northwest of the Nelson region are believed to have the potential for oil and gas.
Geological Hazards.
The main geological hazard is from earthquakes along the Alpine Fault or related faults. Earthquakes in surrounding areas, such as Murchison, Kaikoura, and Wellington also have the potential for damage.
Geological sites of interest.
The Cobb Valley, with mafic and ultramafic rocks, serpentine, talc, and asbestos are of great interest.
Abel Tasman National Park is of interest for limestone and marble, Separation Point granite, and the Riwaka Complex diorite and gabbro. From the top of the park, it is possible to see Harwood Hole, a large vertical shaft that goes down to the limestone cave system of Takaka Hill.
The Arthur Range is a good place to see Mount Arthur marble.
The Bryant Range is a good place to see the Central Arc Terranes. Red Hill and Dun Mountain are good places to see the effects of ultramafic rocks on vegetation.
A trip on the inter-island ferry provides a good way to see the Marlborough Sounds.
The Alpine Fault can be seen in the Wairau Valley, between Blenheim and Nelson Lakes.
The effects of glaciation can be seen around Nelson Lakes.
Maps.
Geological maps of New Zealand can be obtained from the New Zealand Institute of Geological and Nuclear Science (GNS Science), a New Zealand Government Research Institute.
GNS provides a free Map of New Zealand's Geological Foundations.
The main maps are the 1 : 250 000 QMap series, which will be completed as a series of 21 maps and booklets in 2010. Low resolution versions of these maps (without the associated booklet) can be downloaded from the GNS site for free.
The map for the Nelson Area was published in 1998.
The map for the Wellington Area was published in 2000.
The map for the Greymouth Area was published in 2002.
The map for the Kaikoura Area was published in 2006.


Cross Eifel Railway

The Cross Eifel Railway (German: "Eifelquerbahn") is a non-electrified railway line between Andernach and Gerolstein in the Eifel in the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate. From Andernach to Mayen Ost (East), it is classified as main line and it has two tracks as far as Mendig.
Services on the Cross Eifel Railway currently operate about every 30 minutes between Andernach and Mayen Ost and continue to Kaisersesch hourly as part of the Lahn-Eifel-Bahn service.
The rail service between Andernach and Kaisersesch operated for a long time under the name of "Pellenz-Eifel-Bahn" (the Pellenz is a hilly area between Andernach and Mayen) and the section between Kaisersesch and Gerolstein was for a time operated as the "Vulkan Eifel-Bahn". This service was discontinued in 2013.
History.
The Cross Eifel Railway was opened in several stages, with the first section opening from Andernach to Niedermendig on 1 April 1878. The second section opened from Niedermendig to Mayen Ost on 29 May 1880 and the third section opened from Mayen Ost to Gerolstein on 15 May 1895. The building of a connection to Karden between Mayen West and Monreal was considered. From about 1880 the Cross Eifel Railway was administered by the "Eisenbahndirektion" (railway division of) Cologne of the Prussian state railways.
At the end of the Second World War, the line from Andernach to Mayen Ost was reopened by 8 April 1945. The part from Mayen Ost to Gerolstein did not follow until 29 August 1946.
On 13 January 1991, passenger traffic from Gerolstein to Mayen West was discontinued. Freight transport was initially continued between Ulmen und Kaisersesch; it was abandoned on 1 January 1998 between Gerolstein and Ulmen and on 28 May 2000 between Mayen and Kaisersesch.
On 6 August 2000, a few months after "trans regio" had taken over the operation between Andernach and Mayen, the line was reopened for passenger traffic from Mayen West to Kaisersesch.
The section from Gerolstein to Kaisersesch was used for tourist traffic in the season from May to October from 2 June 2001. Services ran at two-hour intervals on Sundays and holidays only; later the excursions also ran on Saturdays. Because of the poor state of the line, services were terminated in Ulmen. A daily tourist service ran in the summer from Gerolstein to Daun from 18 July 2005. After restoring and securing the section between Ulmen and Kaisersesch, the Cross Eifel Railway was once again open to traffic from 26 April 2008.
In an accident on 6 June 2009 at an open level crossing near Hohenfels, a railbus collided with a truck-trailer combination. The crowded train derailed and fell down a slope. In all, there were 26 injured, five people were severely injured and the train driver and guard were seriously injured.
Reactivation plans and closure of the infrastructure.
In the course of the pre-planning for the Rhineland-Palatinate regular interval timetable to be introduced in 2015, several options were investigated to reactivate the Kaisersesch–Gerolstein section, which is not currently served by regular rail passenger transport. This study showed that the reactivation of part of the route would not to be useful in macroeconomic terms. Only the start-up of the entire route had a benefit-cost ratio above one and could thus be supported by the state. In this case, the journey time between Andernach and Gerolstein would be around two hours and patronage of up to 1900 passengers per day was estimated. The costs were then estimated to be about €20 million. On 9 June 2009, the "SPNV Nord/Rheinland-Pfalz" (north Rhineland-Palatinate municipal association for rail transport) approved the complete reactivation of the Cross Eifel Railway for local public transport by December 2014. However, the cost estimate had to be corrected to €40 million in 2011 after a revision of the cost-benefit analysis, which meant that the reactivation of the overall route was no longer economically viable.
On the basis of the new figures, the municipality of Daun expressed its opposition to the reactivation of the Gerolstein–Daun–Kaisersesch section of the Cross Eifel Railway in December 2012. The previous operator announced shortly afterwards that it had not requested an extension of its operating license after 2013.
Since 1 January 2013, the infrastructure of the Cross Eifel Railway has been partly closed to traffic, because train operations are not possible without a new bridge at Pelm. This also eliminates the steam trains operated by "Lokschuppen Gerolstein"; the associated "Anheizparty" ("heating party") was replaced by the "Lokschuppen-Sommer" ("locomotive shed summer").
In the autumn of 2016, a separate cost-benefit analysis for the disused Kaisersesch–Gerolstein section was to be carried out on a basis that will allow local authorities and districts to decide on the future of the line. In this case, the estimated rehabilitation costs of €24 million (of which €6 million alone was for the necessary construction of the Pelm bridge) are likely to play a decisive role.
Course of the line.
The Cross Eifel Railway follows the Eifel Railway from Gerolstein to Pelm closely, then branches off to the north-east and runs via Daun, Ulmen. Kaisersesch to Mayen. From there, it runs through several curves to Andernach, where it runs to the north to connect with the Left Rhine line.
The whole line is owned by DB Netz. The Ulmen–Kaisersesch section was finally returned to traffic after a comprehensive refurbishment in April 2008 for a railway station festival in Ulmen, but it is currently out of operation.
Operations.
Andernach – Mayen – Kaisersesch.
Trans regio operated passenger services on the line, including the reactivated section between Mayen and Kaisersesch, with Regio-Shuttles from 28 May 2000 to about 13 December 2008.
Since 14 December 2008, it has been operated by DB Regio with class 628.3 (double-deck) sets at hourly intervals. The trains cross in Mayen Ost, although the symmetry minute of the line is about four minutes earlier than usual.
Since the timetable change in December 2014, the service operated by DB Regio continues to operate as the Lahn-Eifel-Bahn hourly from Kaisersesch via Mayen to Andernach (RB 38) as well as from Mayen via Andernach to Koblenz and continues to Limburg an der Lahn (as RB 23). This gives an approximately 30-minute cycle in both directions on the section between Mayen and Andernach, as well as significantly improving the accessibility of the Koblenz inner city from the stations of the Cross Eifel Railway. At the same time the class 628 cars, which had been used since 2008, were replaced by class 643 (Bombardier Talent), class 648 (Alstom Coradia LINT 41) and class 640 (LINT 27) railcars.
Kaisersesch – Daun – Gerolstein.
The Vulkan-Eifel-Bahn (VEB) operated the section of line from Kaisersesch to Pelm from 2000 and operated a two-hour cycle on weekends and public holidays from May to October using railbuses. In the summer months services were also operated between Gerolstein and Ulmen during the week. In addition, during the summer holidays on Wednesdays, a steam train, consisting of a class 52 steam locomotive and historical passenger cars, ran between Gerolstein and Ulmen.
At the end of 2012, the political committees rejected the investment in the rail infrastructure, so the VEB announced that from 2013 no excursions would run on this section of the line.
At the end of March 2013, it became known that the state of Rhineland-Palatinate would provide €13 million for the repair of the infrastructure to enable the tourist excursions to run again.
Planning.
Two further stations are to be built up to the middle of the 2020s: "Andernach Süd" (in the Straße Leibnizhof area) and "Mayen-Brückentor" (at the level crossing on Straße Auf der Eich). The SPNV Nord assumes daily patronage of 700 (Andernach Süd) and 500 (Mayen-Brückentor).


Eramosa

The Eramosa is a Silurian stratigraphic unit exposed along the Niagara Escarpment in Ontario and western New York State. In the late nineteenth century it was an important source of building stone in Hamilton, Ancaster and Waterdown, and in the late twentieth century quarries in a similar unit, also called the Eramosa, near Wiarton in the Bruce Peninsula, became an important source of dimension stone at a time when most of the other resources of similar stone were depleted. Work in these quarries led to the discovery of exceptionally well preserved fossils (the Eramosa lagerstätte). On the east Mountain at Hamilton, a well-developed cave system was discovered in the Eramosa and has now been designated as the Eramosa Karst Conservation Area.
Stratigraphy.
The term was first used for a stratigraphic unit by Williams (1915) who named the Eramosa Member (of the Lockport Formation) for the bituminous dolomites exposed below the Guelph Formation along the Eramosa River, northeast of Guelph, Ontario. No detailed description of the type section has ever been published, and the status of the unit has been subject to many different interpretations. Until recently, the Eramosa in Ontario was regarded as the highest Member of the Lockport Formation, with gradational contacts with the Goat Island Member (below) and the Guelph Formation (above). In 1995, the US Geological Survey proposed a revised stratigraphy based on studies in the Niagara region. It extended the Lockport to Group status and included, from base to top, the Gasport, Goat Island, Eramosa, and Guelph as Formations within the Lockport Group. In a "reference section" in the Niagara River Gorge, the Eramosa was divided into six "units" recognized throughout the Niagara region, but a shaley lower unit previously named for the Hamilton area (the Vinemount Member) was transferred to the Goat Island Formation. Brunton (2009) has proposed a revision for Ontario which restores the Vinemount Member to the Eramosa and recognizes two other members.
Age.
The exact age and correlation of the Eramosa are still uncertain. Conodonts at first indicated that the Eramosa age was Ludlovian (c.420 Ma), but recent studies of both conodonts and the Eramosa lagerstätte suggest an earlier, late Wenlockian (c.425 Ma) age.
Paleoenvironment.
The rocks forming the Eramosa are mostly dolomites, but the composition varies from almost pure, grey-weathering, fine grained dolomite (at Ancaster) to shaley, bituminous, brown-weathering, bioturbated dolomites. Fossils are common at some localities, scarce at others, and chert is generally a minor component. The most characteristic feature is bituminous shaley interbeds. Probably the Eramosa was deposited in several related environments, most likely including shallow, restricted (and poorly oxygenated) marine waters. Among the fossils, perhaps the most spectacular are the eurypterids, an extinct form of scorpions. Some species lived in fresh or brackish water, but Silurian examples were marine.
The exceptionally preserved biota are present in a stratum of rock about 8 m thick, which extends for around 16 km in the South Bruce Peninsula, Ontario.
References.
Bancroft, A.M., M.A. Kleffner and F.R. Brunton, (2008). Silurian conodont biostratigraphy and δ13 C stratigraphy of the Eramosa Formation, southwestern Ontario, Canada. "Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs", v.40(5) p. 22.
Brett, C.E. et al., (1995). Revised Stratigraphy and Correlations of the Niagaran Provincial Series (Medina, Clinton and Lockport Groups) in the Type Area of Western New York. "U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin" 2086, 66 p.
Brunton, F.R. (2009). Update of revisions to Early Silurian stratigraphy of the Niagara Escarpment: Integration of sequence stratigraphy, sedimentology and hydrogeology to delineate hydrogeologic units. "Ontario Geological Survey Open File Report" 6240, p. 25-1 to 25-20.
Collette, J.H. and D.M. Rudkin, (2010). Phyllocarid crustaceans from the Silurian Eramosa Lagerstätte (Ontario, Canada): Taxonomy and functional morphology. "Journal of Paleontology", v.58(1) p. 116-127.
Johnson, M. D., et al. (1991). Phanerozoic Geology of Ontario; in "Geology of Ontario", Ontario Geological Society Special Volume 4, pt. 1, p. 907-1008.
Von Bitter, P.H et al., (2007). Eramosa Lagerstätte – Exceptionally preserved soft-bodied biotas with shallow-marine shelly and bioturbating organisms (Silurian, Ontario, Canada). "Geology", v.35(10) p. 879-883.
Williams, M.Y. (1915). A eurypterid horizon in the Niagara Formation of Ontario. "Geological Survey of Canada Museum Bulletin" 20, 21 p.


Progeronia

Progeronia is a genus of ammonites belonging to the family Perisphinctidae.
These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived in the Jurassic period, from 155.7 to 150.8 Ma.
Species.
Species within this genus include:
Description.
Shells of "Progeronia" species can reach a diameter of . These large shell are large and involute, with a bifurcated or trifurcated ribs.
Distribution.
Fossils of species within this genus have been found in the Jurassic sediments of Algeria and Hungary.


Cordylodus

Cordylodus is an extinct genus of conodonts in the family of Cordylodontidae.
Use in stratigraphy.
It is suggested that "Cordylodus andresi" can be a marker of the Cambrian Stage 10.
Distribution.
Fossils of "Cordylodus" have been found in Argentina, Australia, Canada (Quebec), China, Colombia (Tarqui, Huila), Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Mexico, Norway, the Russian Federation, Sweden, and the United States, in the states of Alaska, Minnesota, Nevada, New York, Oklahoma (Bromide Formation), Vermont and Wyoming.
"C. horridus" has been recovered from the Blakely Sandstone and "C. angulatus" from the Collier Shale, Ordovician geologic formations in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Oklahoma.


Pottageville Swamp


Sico Pass

Sico Pass () is a mountain pass on the border between Argentina and Chile. The pass is located on the main divide of the Andes. Administratively, it separates the province of Salta in Argentina and the region of Antofagasta in Chile.
The pass is served by Chile Route 23, here a paved road, and Argentina Route 51, connecting San Pedro de Atacama on the Chilean side with Catua and San Antonio de los Cobres on the Argentinian side. The Chile Route 23 reaches an altitude of 24 km west of the border.