The All New Popeye Hour

The All New Popeye Hour is an American animated television series produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions and King Features Syndicate. Starring the comic strip character Popeye, the series aired from 1978 to 1983 Saturday mornings on CBS.
Production.
The show was produced by the legendary studios of Hanna-Barbera, which tried to retain the style of the original "Thimble Theatre" comic strip while complying with the prevailing content restrictions on violence. Featured characters, aside from the popular main stars of Popeye, Bluto, Olive Oyl and Wimpy, were Swee'Pea, Poopdeck Pappy, Eugene the Jeep and Popeye's quadruplet nephews. Popeye's outfit reverted to his sailor's uniform, except for his cap, which was retained as the white Navy hat. Bluto's name was restored, as it had erroneously been changed to "Brutus" for the early 1960s "Popeye" cartoons. Olive Oyl also reverted to her 1930s look.
At the start, "The All-New Popeye Hour" had a number of regular components: "The Adventures of Popeye", "Popeye's Treasure Hunt" and "Dinky Dog" (a non-Popeye segment about the misadventures of an enormous sheepdog that was later spun off into its own show). In 1979, the show added "Popeye's Sports Parade" and "Popeye's Safety Tips".
Because of restrictions on violence on television cartoons for children at the time, Popeye did not throw punches in retaliation to Bluto; he often lifted him, with his own hands or with machinery, and hurled him away. The series marked the last time Jack Mercer would voice Popeye; he died on December 4, 1984, fifteen months after the show's cancellation.
Each episode also contains a PSA about things that include but are not limited to washing hands before dinner, brushing teeth, nutrition, crossing the street the right way, protection against sunburn, and spray paint safety. Some of the PSAs feature an anthropomorphic wolf named Mr. No-No who would engage in dangerous or destructive activities like like consuming toxic substances, drinking alcohol, and smoking. He would tend to get Pipeye, Peepeye, Poopeye, and Pupeye to do the same until he is either stopped in some way or turned away by Popeye.
"The All New Popeye Hour" ran on CBS until September 1981, when it was cut to a half-hour and retitled "The Popeye and Olive Comedy Show". The truncated show added two new components. The first, "Prehistoric Popeye", transported the sailor to the prehistoric Stone Age of "The Flintstones". The second new feature was "Private Olive Oyl", where Olive and Alice the Goon join the Army, then proceed to drive their drill sergeant, Sgt. Bertha Blast (voiced by Jo Anne Worley) nuts, yet impress the base commander, Col. Crumb (voiced by Hal Smith). This cartoon is based on the idea of "Private Benjamin"; Hanna-Barbera was also concurrently producing a virtually identical concept with sitcom characters Laverne and Shirley called "Laverne and Shirley in the Army" for rival network ABC at the time.
The show was removed from the CBS lineup in September 1983, and the cartoons were immediately sold to local stations in nationwide syndication. They have also been released on VHS and DVD. During the time these cartoons were in production, CBS aired "The Popeye Valentine Special: Sweethearts at Sea" on February 14, 1979 at 8:30 PM (Eastern). In the UK, the BBC aired a half-hour version of "The All New Popeye Show", from the early-1980s to 2004. Unlike cartoon series produced by Hanna-Barbera in the 1970s, "The All New Popeye Hour" did not contain a laugh track.
The syndicated version can currently be seen on Amazon Prime Video (as "Popeye: The Continuing Adventures"). And on YouTube (as "All-New Popeye")
Voice cast.
In addition to providing many of the cartoon scripts, Jack Mercer reprised his voice as Popeye, while Marilyn Schreffler and Allan Melvin became the new voices of Olive Oyl and Bluto, respectively (Mae Questel auditioned for Hanna-Barbera to recreate Olive Oyl, but was rejected in favor of Schreffler).
Home media.
The first DVD that features "The All-New Popeye Hour" was released on May 16, 2000 by Rhino Home Video with eighteen cartoon segments. A few years later, Warner Home Video (via Turner Entertainment Co. and Warner Bros. Family Entertainment) released "Popeye & Friends - Volume One", a single DVD featuring eight unedited, full-color Popeye cartoons from Hanna-Barbera's 1978 TV series, "The All-New Popeye Hour", on November 4, 2008 (Hanna-Barbera is a division of WB). The cartoons included are: 'Abject Flying Object', 'Ship Ahoy', 'I Wouldn't Take That Mare to the Fair on a Dare', 'Popeye Goes Sightseeing', 'Chips Off the Old Ice Block', 'Popeye the Plumber', 'Swee'pea Plagues a Parade', 'Polly Wants Some Spinach'. A second single-disc volume of H-B produced Popeye TV cartoons was also scheduled for release titled "Popeye & Friends - Volume Two", featuring cartoons from the subsequent Hanna-Barbera "Popeye" revival, "Popeye and Son", but Warner decided to cancel the release of this DVD. However, it was released on Region 4 DVD in Australia. As of now, the series has yet to have a complete series DVD box set.


Michaspis

Michaspis is an extinct genus from a well-known class of fossil marine arthropods, the trilobites. It lived during the Cambrian Period, which lasted from approximately 542 to 488 million years ago.


Plakina nathaliae

Plakina nathaliae is a species of sea sponge in the order Homosclerophorida, first found in vertical walls of reef caves at depths of about in the Caribbean Sea. It has a leaf-like flat body, which is loosely attached to the substrate and a perforated, unlobate surface; it contains two bacterial s and is characterized by two mesohylar cell types with inclusions.
In March 2017, the species was reassigned to "Plakina" .


Hyperventilation

Hyperventilation occurs when the rate or tidal volume of breathing eliminates more carbon dioxide than the body can produce. This leads to hypocapnia, a reduced concentration of carbon dioxide dissolved in the blood. The body normally attempts to compensate for this homeostatically, but if this fails or is overridden, the blood pH will rise, leading to respiratory alkalosis. The symptoms of respiratory alkalosis include: dizziness, tingling in the lips, hands or feet, headache, weakness, fainting, and seizures. In extreme cases it may cause carpopedal spasms, a flapping and contraction of the hands and feet.
Factors that may induce or sustain hyperventilation include: physiological stress, anxiety or panic disorder, high altitude, head injury, stroke, respiratory disorders such as asthma, pneumonia, or hyperventilation syndrome, cardiovascular problems such as pulmonary embolisms, anemia, an incorrectly calibrated medical respirator, and adverse reactions to certain drugs.
Hyperventilation can also be induced intentionally to achieve an altered state of consciousness such as in the choking game, during breathwork, or in an attempt to extend a breath-hold dive.


Reticulorumen

The reticulorumen represents the first chamber in the alimentary canal of ruminant animals. It is composed of the rumen and reticulum. The reticulum differs from the rumen with regard to the texture of its lining. The rumen wall is covered in small, finger-like projections called papillae, whereas the reticulum is lined with ridges that form a hexagonal honeycomb pattern. The ridges are approximately 0.1–0.2 mm wide and are raised 0.5 cm above the reticulum wall. The hexagons in the reticulum are approximately 2–5 cm wide in cattle. Despite the differences in the texture of the lining of the two parts of the reticulorumen, it represents one functional space.
Microbial fermentation degrades otherwise indigestible polymers in the reticulorumen to volatile fatty acids (VFAs), methane, and carbon dioxide. This fermentation is anaerobic, and allows the microbes in the reticulorumen to derive the energy and amino nitrogen for growth and reproduction. Ruminants absorb the VFAs across the reticulorumen wall as an energy source, while the microbes eventually flow out of the rumen into the remainder of the alimentary canal, where their constituent proteins are eventually digested and absorbed. The reticulum, at approximately 5–20 litres, is considerably smaller in capacity than the rumen, which is approximately 100–200 litres in cattle. The oesophageal groove, which links the oesophagus and the omasum, is located in the reticulum.


Uncinateridae

Uncinateridae is a family of glass sponges in the order Sceptrulophora.


Universal veil

In mycology, a universal veil is a temporary membranous tissue that fully envelops immature fruiting bodies of certain gilled mushrooms. The developing Caesar's mushroom ("Amanita caesarea"), for example, which may resemble a small white sphere at this point, is protected by this structure. The veil will eventually rupture and disintegrate by the force of the expanding and maturing mushroom, but will usually leave evidence of its former shape with remnants. These remnants include the volva, or cup-like structure at the base of the stipe, and patches or "warts" on top of the cap. This macrofeature is useful in wild mushroom identification because it is an easily observed, taxonomically significant feature. It is a character present among species of basidiomycete fungi belonging to the genera "Amanita" and "Volvariella". This has particular importance due to the disproportionately high number of potentially lethal species contained within the former genus.
A membrane enveloping immature fruiting bodies of gasteroid fungi resembles a universal veil, but is called a "peridium".


Anna J. Phillips

Anna J. Phillips is an American Research Zoologist and curator of Clitellata and Cestoda at the National Museum of Natural History's Department of Invertebrate Zoology. As a parasitologist her research focuses on leeches and tapeworms, by studying their diversity, relationships, and host associations. She has traveled all over the world with her fieldwork to study the diversity of these invertebrates on a long range.
Biography.
Phillips grew up in North Carolina spending much of her time outdoors. She and her family would go camping, hiking, and other outdoor activities. Each year they would visit the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Out of all this she became interested in wildlife, even the smaller organisms that were not noticed by many. These experiences led to her research in invertebrate biology, focusing on parasitology.
She graduated with a BS in Biology with a concentration in ecology and evolutionary biology from Appalachian State University in 2006 with university honors. She received her PhD in Biology from the City University of New York in 2011. She then worked as a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Connecticut in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology. In 2013, she became a research zoologist and curator at the National Museum of Natural History in the Department of Invertebrate Zoology.
Phillips helped oversee the transfer of the United States National Parasite Collection to the Natural History Museum. About 20 million specimens were moved. They are now sorting through the specimens to organize and maintain the collections. Some of the collection are older and must be maintained in a different way now to keep them in good condition.
Phillips has traveled to six of the seven continents for her fieldwork. She collects specimens to describe new species and find out evolutionary connections of the worms, while also using morphological and molecular data. She also looks into host-parasite relationships to figure out how they changed their evolution. She has been focusing her host-parasite interactions research on non-marine bird tapeworms.


Mesenchyme

Mesenchyme () is a type of connective tissue found mostly during the embryonic development of bilateral triploblast animals.
Vertebrates.
Structure.
Mesenchyme is characterized morphologically by a prominent ground substance matrix containing a loose aggregate of reticular fibers and unspecialized mesenchymal stem cells. Mesenchymal cells can migrate easily, in contrast to epithelial cells, which lack mobility, are organized into closely adherent sheets, and are polarized in an apical-basal orientation.
Development.
The mesenchyme originates from the mesoderm. From the mesoderm, the mesenchyme appears as an embryologically primitive "soup". This "soup" exists as a combination of the mesenchymal cells plus serous fluid plus the many different tissue proteins. Serous fluid is typically stocked with the many serous elements, such as sodium and chloride. The mesenchyme develops into the tissues of the lymphatic and circulatory systems, as well as the musculoskeletal system. This latter system is characterized as connective tissues throughout the body, such as bone, muscle and cartilage. A malignant cancer of mesenchymal cells is a type of sarcoma.
Epithelial to mesenchymal transition.
The first emergence of mesenchyme occurs during gastrulation from the epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) process. This transition occurs through the loss of epithelial cadherin, tight junctions, and adherens junctions on the cell membranes of epithelial cells. The surface molecules undergo endocytosis and the microtubule cytoskeleton loses shape, enabling mesenchyme to migrate along the extracellular matrix (ECM). Epithelial–mesenchymal transition occurs in embryonic cells that require migration through or over tissue, and can be followed with a mesenchymal–epithelial transition to produce secondary epithelial tissues.
Embryological mesenchymal cells expresses fibroblast-specific protein (Fsp1), which is indicative of their shared properties with the migratory adult fibroblasts, and c-Fos, an oncogene associated with the down-regulation of epithelial cadherin.<ref name="Epithelial mesenchymal transition by c-Fos estrogen receptor activation involves nuclear translocation of beta-catenin and upregulation of beta-catenin/lymphoid enhancer binding factor-1 transcriptional activity."></ref> Both formation of the primitive streak and mesenchymal tissue is dependent on the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Specific markers of mesenchymal tissue include the additional expression of ECM factors such as fibronectin and vitronectin.
Implantation.
The first cells of the embryo to undergo EMT and form mesenchyme are the extra-embryonic cells of the trophectoderm. These migrate from the body of the blastocyst into the endometrial layer of the uterus in order to contribute to the formation of the anchored placenta.
Primary mesenchyme.
Primary mesenchyme is the first embryonic mesenchymal tissue to emerge, and it is produced from EMT in epiblast cells. In the epiblast, it is induced by the primitive streak through Wnt signaling, and produces endoderm and mesoderm from a transitory tissue called mesendoderm during the process of gastrulation.
The formation of primary mesenchyme depends on the expression of WNT3. Other deficiencies in signaling pathways, such as in Nodal (a TGF-beta protein), will lead to defective mesoderm formation.
The tissue layers formed from the primitive streak invaginate together into the embryo and the induced mesenchymal stem cells will ingress and form the mesoderm. Mesodermal tissue will continue to differentiate and/or migrate throughout the embryo to ultimately form most connective tissue layers of the body.
Neural mesenchyme.
Embryological mesenchyme is particularly transitory and soon differentiates after migration. Neural mesenchyme forms soon after primary mesenchyme formation.
The interaction with ectoderm and somite-forming morphogenic factors cause some primary mesenchyme to form neural mesenchyme, or paraxial mesoderm, and contribute to somite formation. Neural mesenchyme soon undergoes a mesenchymal–epithelial transition under the influence of WNT6 produced by ectoderm to form somites. These structures will undergo a secondary EMT as the somite tissue migrates later in development to form structural connective tissue such as cartilage and skeletal muscle.
Neural crest cells (NCCs) form from neuroectoderm, instead of the primary mesenchyme, from morphogenic signals of the neural crest. The EMT occurs as a result of Wnt signaling, the influence of Sox genes and the loss of E-cadherin from the cell surface. NCCs additionally require the repression of N-cadherin, and neural cell adhesion molecule. NCCs ingress into the embryo from the epithelial neuroectodermal layer and migrate throughout the body in order form multiple peripheral nervous system (PNS) cells and melanocytes. Migration of NCCs is primarily induced by BMP signaling and its inhibitor, Noggin.
Invertebrates.
In some invertebrates, e.g., Porifera, Cnidaria, Ctenophora and some triploblasts (the acoelomates), mesenchyme refers to a more-or-less solid but loosely organized tissue consisting of a gel matrix (the mesoglea) with various cellular and fibrous inclusions, located between the epidermis and the gastrodermis. In some cases, the mesoglea is noncellular.
When cellular material is sparse or densely packed, as in cnidarians, the mesenchyme may sometimes be called collenchyma, or parenchyma in flatworms. When no cellular material is present as in Hydrozoa), the layer is properly called mesoglea.
In some colonial cnidarians, the mesenchyme is perforated by gastrovascular channels continuous among colony members. This entire matrix of common basal material is called coenenchyme.


Bugula neritina

Bugula neritina (commonly known as brown bryozoan or common bugula) is a cryptic species complex of sessile marine animal in the genus "Bugula".
It is invasive with a cosmopolitan distribution.
"Bugula neritina" is of interest from a drug discovery perspective because its bacterial symbiont, "Candidatus" Endobugula sertula, produces the bryostatins, a group of around twenty bioactive natural products. The bryostatins are under investigation for their therapeutic potential directed at cancer immunotherapy, treatment of Alzheimer's disease, and HIV/AIDS eradication, due to their low toxicity and antineoplastic activity.
The draft whole genome of "Bugula neritina" has recently been sequenced. This adds to the growing number of genomes on the total list of sequenced animal genomes.
"Bugula neritina" is also of interest in materials science, where it is used as a model organism in biofouling studies.


Palaeoscolex

Palaeoscolex is the type genus of the Palaeoscolecid worms, and served as a wastebasket taxon. until its taxonomy was revised and many of its taxa assigned to "Wronascolex".
The type and only unequivocal species is "P. piscatorum", known from mid-trunk segments.


Haplopharyngida

Haplopharyngida is a taxon of small, free living marine flatworms found in the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean, with only three described species.
Anatomy.
Subterminal mouth leads to the simple pharynx, which subsequently continues as an intestine with terminal anal pore. A short retractable proboscis is present anteriorly to the pharynx. Variable number of glands producing rhabdites open at the surface of proboscis. Nervous system built similarly as in Macrostomida. Haplopharyngida are hermaphroditic, with separate male and female gonopores. Male copulatory organ is equipped with hard, sclerotised stylet and set of needles.
Reproduction and development.
Copulation lead to the internal fertilization. Egg is entolecithal and show spiral cleavage pattern.
Systematic position.
Haplopharyngida are considered as a sister group of Macrostomida, together they are grouped in the class Macrostomorpha in the clade Rhabditophora.


Orchesella oredonensis

Orchesella oredonensis is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae.


Stylopharyngeus muscle

The stylopharyngeus is a muscle in the head that stretches between the temporal styloid process and the pharynx.
Structure.
The stylopharyngeus is a long, slender muscle, cylindrical above, flattened below. It arises from the medial side of the base of the temporal styloid process, passes downward along the side of the pharynx between the superior pharyngeal constrictor and the middle pharyngeal constrictor, and spreads out beneath the mucous membrane.
Some of its fibers are lost in the constrictor muscles while others, joining the palatopharyngeus muscle, are inserted into the posterior border of the thyroid cartilage.
The glossopharyngeal nerve runs on the lateral side of this muscle, and crosses over it to reach the tongue.
Nerve supply.
The stylopharyngeus is the only muscle in the pharynx innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) via branchial motor neurons with their cell bodies in the rostral part of the nucleus ambiguus.
Development.
Embryological origin is the third pharyngeal arch.
Function.
The stylopharyngeus:


Gray-backed sportive lemur

The gray-backed sportive lemur ("Lepilemur dorsalis"), also known as Gray's sportive lemur or back-striped sportive lemur, is a species of lemur in the family Lepilemuridae. It is endemic to Madagascar. It is threatened by habitat loss.


Sceptrulophora

Sceptrulophora (from Ancient Greek, σκῆπτρον, "skêptron" - "sceptre" and -φόρος, "-phóros" - "bearing") is an order of hexactinellid sponges, commonly known as Glass sponges, characterized by sceptrule spicules, that is, "microscleric monactinal triaxonic spicules that include clavules with terminel umbels or smooth heads." Species of the order Sceptrulophora have existed since the Jurassic period, and still flourish today. While there is ongoing debate about the organization of various taxa in Sceptrulophora, the monophyly of the taxon Sceptrulophora is supported by the presence of sceptrules in most of the extant species, and has recently been further supported by DNA sequencing.


Heteronemertea

Heteronemertea is a monophyletic order of about 500 species of nemertean worm. It contains genera such as "Lineus" and "Cerebratulus", and includes the largest and most muscular nemerteans.
Almost all heteronemerteans have three primary body-wall muscle strata: an outer longitudinal, a middle circular, and an inner longitudinal. The lateral nerve cords are outside the circular muscle, as in palaeonemerteans, but separated from the epidermis by the usually well-developed outer longitudinal muscle.
Taxonomy.
Families within the order Heteronemertea include:


Basidiocarp

In fungi, a basidiocarp, basidiome or basidioma (plural: basidiomata) is the sporocarp of a basidiomycete, the multicellular structure on which the spore-producing hymenium is borne. Basidiocarps are characteristic of the hymenomycetes; rusts and smuts do not produce such structures. As with other sporocarps, epigeous (above-ground) basidiocarps that are visible to the naked eye (especially those with a more or less agaricoid morphology) are commonly referred to as mushrooms, while hypogeous (underground) basidiocarps are usually called false truffles.
Structure.
All basidiocarps serve as the structure on which the hymenium is produced. Basidia are found on the surface of the hymenium, and the basidia ultimately produce spores. In its simplest form, a basidiocarp consists of an undifferentiated fruiting structure with a hymenium on the surface; such a structure is characteristic of many simple jelly and club fungi. In more complex basidiocarps, there is differentiation into a stipe, a pileus, and/or various types of hymenophores.
Types.
Basidiocarps are classified into various types of growth forms based on the degree of differentiation into a stipe, pileus, and hymenophore, as well as the type of hymenophore, if present.
Growth forms include:
Basic divisions of Agaricomycotina were formerly based entirely upon the growth form of the mushroom. Molecular phylogenetic investigation (as well as supporting evidence from micromorphology and chemotaxonomy) has since demonstrated that similar types of basidiomycete growth form are often examples of convergent evolution and do not always reflect a close relationship between different groups of fungi. For example, agarics have arisen independently in the Agaricales, the Boletales, the Russulales, and other groups, while secotioid fungi and false truffles have arisen independently many times just within the Agaricales.


Pauline Neura Reilly

Pauline Neura Reilly OAM FRAOU (5 December 1918 – 22 April 2011) was an Australian ornithologist and author of children's books.
Biography.
Reilly was born (as Pauline Duncan) in Adelaide. Her family moved to Melbourne where she attended Korowa Anglican Girls' School and Melbourne Girls Grammar School until 1934. Before the Second World War she worked as a secretary, then served from 1942 to 1944 as a gunner in the Women's Auxiliary Australian Air Force, as well as working for Australian Army Intelligence. She married Arthur Reilly in 1943.
Reilly joined the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union (RAOU) in 1956, which she served as Publicity Officer 1966–1967, on the Field Investigations Committee 1969–1972, as President 1972–1975, and as the Chair of the Atlas Committee 1976–1982. From 1969 to 1970 she was President of the Bird Banders' Association of Australia. From 1964 to 1981 she was the Honorary Regional Victorian Organiser of the Australian Bird and Bat Banding Scheme. One of her main achievements with the RAOU was the instigation, leadership and successful conclusion of the RAOU's first Atlas of Australian Birds project, fieldwork for which ran from 1 January 1977 to 31 December 1981.
Reilly was actively involved in ornithological fieldwork for many years, especially in studies of little penguins. In 1968 she founded the Penguin Study Group of the Victorian Ornithological Research Group. In 1973 she led an expedition to the Great Australian Bight to carry out penguin research. In 1978–79 she became the first woman to spend the summer research season on subantarctic Macquarie Island to band penguins. She was invited to open the Second International Penguin Conference in August 1992.
In later years Reilly moved to Aireys Inlet on the Victorian coast where she concentrated on writing a series of scientifically accurate children's books about Australian birds and other animals, mainly illustrated first by Will Rolland and later by Kaylene Traynor.
Reilly died on the 22 April 2011, aged 92.


Nauplius (larva)


Carotid canal

The carotid canal is the passageway in the temporal bone through which the internal carotid artery enters the middle cranial fossa from the neck. The canal starts on the inferior surface of the temporal bone at the external opening of the carotid canal (also referred to as the carotid foramen). The canal ascends at first superiorly, and then, making a bend, runs anteromedially. The canal's internal opening is near the foramen lacerum, above which the internal carotid artery passes on its way anteriorly to the cavernous sinus.
Contents.
The carotid canal allows the internal carotid artery to pass into the cranium, as well as the carotid plexus traveling on the artery.
The carotid plexus contains sympathetics to the head from the superior cervical ganglion They have several motor functions: raise the eyelid (superior tarsal muscle), dilate pupil (pupillary dilator muscle), innervate sweat glands of face and scalp and constricts blood vessels in the head.


Amnesiac gene

The amnesiac (amn) gene in "Drosophila" is a mutant suppressor of the "dunce gene". The gene produces a neuropeptide.
Biological role.
By suppressing "dunce" through mutagenesis, the "amnesiac" gene plays a role in reproduction of "Drosophila" because "dunce" is the sterility gene. This molecule has similar peptides to pituitary adenylyl cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP) and growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH). The biological role of "amnesiac" gene is activating the adenyl cyclase second messenger pathway (cAMP) involved in its memory retrieval through these two peptides. The sensory and motor capabilities of "amnesiac" are normal, but it is memory retrieval that is affected, not storage. The "amnesiac" gene is directly involved in development of memory retrieval in the brain along with alcohol sensitivity patterning.
Clinical relevance.
Defects associated with "amnesiac" gene include: increased sensitivity to alcohol, normal initial memory, and failure for adult memory formation. Defects associated with "amnesiac" are due to the behavior of "amn" as a sex-linked recessive on the X chromosome. An abnormality on one allele of the genetic mutant, "amnesiac", that increases sensitivity to alcohol is called "cheapdate". Scientists have not generated a knockout model yet for the "amnesiac" gene due to the mutant effects created on multiple genes along with the need for further research studies about the "amnesiac" gene.


Mytilicolidae

Mytilicolidae is a family of cyclopoid copepods in the order Cyclopoida. There are about 5 genera and 14 described species in Mytilicolidae.
Genera.
These five genera belong to the family Mytilicolidae:


Fenestrata

Fenestrata is an extinct order of bryozoan, dating from the Upper Arenig.


Watsonisuchus

Watsonisuchus is an extinct genus of temnospondyl amphibian from the Early Triassic of Australia, Madagascar, and South Africa. It was up to 122 cm long and had a robust skull of 24 cm in length.


Staurocalyptus

Staurocalyptus is a genus of sponge. It was circumscribed in 1897 by .
Taxonomy.
Ijima cirumscribed "Staurocalyptus" as a genus in the family Rossellidae. His initial taxonomy included three newly described species and two transferred from "Rhabdocalyptus". Ijimi did not designate a type species; in 1967 V. M. Koltun designated "Rhabdocalyptus dowlingi" as the type species. A 2002 revision of Rossellidae by K. R. Tabachnick demoted "Staurocalyptus" to be a subgenus of "Acanthascus" and designated a new type species: "Staurocalyptus glaber" . However, , WoRMS still classifies "Staurocalyptus" as a genus and follows Koltun's type species designation, not that of Tabachnick.
Distribution.
Its species are found in the Pacific Ocean, at a depth of .
Species.
, WoRMS recognizes the following seventeen species:


Sternocleidomastoid muscle

The sternocleidomastoid muscle is one of the largest and most superficial cervical muscles. The primary actions of the muscle are rotation of the head to the opposite side and flexion of the neck. The sternocleidomastoid is innervated by the accessory nerve.
It is given the name "sternocleidomastoid" because it originates at the manubrium of the sternum ("sterno-") and the clavicle ("cleido-") and has an insertion at the mastoid process of the temporal bone of the skull.
Structure.
The sternocleidomastoid muscle originates from two locations: the manubrium of the sternum and the clavicle. It travels obliquely across the side of the neck and inserts at the mastoid process of the temporal bone of the skull by a thin aponeurosis. The sternocleidomastoid is thick and narrow at its centre, and broader and thinner at either end.
The sternal head is a round fasciculus, tendinous in front, fleshy behind, arising from the upper part of the front of the manubrium sterni. It travels superiorly, laterally, and posteriorly.
The clavicular head is composed of fleshy and aponeurotic fibers, arises from the upper, frontal surface of the medial third of the clavicle; it is directed almost vertically upward.
The two heads are separated from one another at their origins by a triangular interval ("lesser supraclavicular fossa") but gradually blend, below the middle of the neck, into a thick, rounded muscle which is inserted, by a strong tendon, into the lateral surface of the mastoid process, from its apex to its superior border, and by a thin aponeurosis into the lateral half of the superior nuchal line of the occipital bone.
Nerve supply.
The sternocleidomastoid is innervated by accessory nerve of the same side. It supplies only motor fibres. The cervical plexus supplies sensation, including proprioception, from the ventral primary rami of C2 and C3.
Variation.
The clavicular origin of the sternocleidomastoid varies greatly: in some cases the clavicular head may be as narrow as the sternal; in others it may be as much as in breadth.
When the clavicular origin is broad, it is occasionally subdivided into several slips, separated by narrow intervals. More rarely, the adjoining margins of the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius are in contact. This would leave no posterior triangle.
The supraclavicularis muscle arises from the manubrium behind the sternocleidomastoid and passes behind the sternocleidomastoid to the upper surface of the clavicle.
Function.
The function of this muscle is to rotate the head to the opposite side or obliquely rotate the head. It also flexes the neck. When both sides of the muscle act together, it flexes the neck and extends the head. When one side acts alone, it causes the head to rotate to the opposite side and flexes laterally to the same side (ipsilaterally).
It also acts as an accessory muscle of respiration, along with the scalene muscles of the neck.
Contraction.
The signaling process to contract or relax the sternocleidomastoid begins in Cranial Nerve XI, the accessory nerve. The accessory nerve nucleus is in the anterior horn of the spinal cord around C1-C3, where lower motor neuron fibers mark its origin. The fibers from the accessory nerve nucleus travel upward to enter the cranium via the foramen magnum. The internal carotid artery to reach both the sternocleidomastoid muscles and the trapezius. After a signal reaches the accessory nerve nucleus in the anterior horn of the spinal cord, the signal is conveyed to motor endplates on the muscle fibers located at the clavicle. Acetylcholine (ACH) is released from vesicles and is sent over the synaptic cleft to receptors on the postsynaptic bulb. The ACH causes the resting potential to increase above -55mV, thus initiating an action potential which travels along the muscle fiber. Along the muscle fibers are t-tubule openings which facilitate the spread of the action potential into the muscle fibers. The t-tubule meets with the sarcoplasmic reticulum at locations throughout the muscle fiber, at these locations the sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium ions that results in the movement of troponin and tropomyosin on thin filaments. The movement of troponin and tropomyosin is key in facilitating the myosin head to move along the thin filament, resulting in a contraction of the sternocleidomastoid muscle.
Anatomical landmark.
The sternocleidomastoid is within the investing fascia of the neck, along with the trapezius muscle, with which it shares its nerve supply (the accessory nerve). It is thick and thus serves as a primary landmark of the neck, as it divides the neck into anterior and posterior cervical triangles (in front and behind the muscle, respectively) which helps define the location of structures, such as the lymph nodes for the head and neck.
Many important structures relate to the sternocleidomastoid, including the common carotid artery, accessory nerve, and brachial plexus.
Clinical significance.
Examination of the sternocleidomastoid muscle forms part of the examination of the cranial nerves. It can be felt on each side of the neck when a person moves their head to the opposite side.
The triangle formed by the clavicle and the sternal and clavicular heads of the sternocleidomastoid muscle is used as a landmark in identifying the correct location for central venous catheterization.
Contraction of the muscle gives rise to a condition called torticollis or "wry neck", and this can have a number of causes. Torticollis gives the appearance of a tilted head on the side involved. Treatment involves physiotherapy exercises to stretch the involved muscle and strengthen the muscle on the opposite side of the neck. Congenital torticollis can have an unknown cause or result from birth trauma that gives rise to a mass or tumor that can be palpated within the muscle.
History.
Etymology.
It is given the name "sternocleidomastoid" because it originates at the manubrium of the sternum ("sterno-") and the clavicle ("cleido-"), and has an insertion at the mastoid process of the temporal bone of the skull.


Echinophyllia

Echinophyllia is a genus of large polyp stony corals. Members of this genus are colonial corals and are generally foliaceous, usually with very thin leaves. They are native to the Indo-Pacific and are sometimes found in reef aquariums.
Genera.
The World Register of Marine Species lists the following species:


Berthold Hatschek

Berthold Hatschek (3 April 1854 – 18 January 1941) was an Austrian zoologist remembered for embryological and morphological studies of invertebrates.
He studied zoology in Vienna under Carl Claus (1835-1899), and in Leipzig with Rudolf Leuckart (1822-1898). He gained his doctorate at the University of Leipzig with a dissertation titled "Beiträge zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Lepidopteren". Hatschek was deeply influenced by the works of Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919).
In 1885 he was appointed professor of zoology at Charles University in Prague, and from 1896 was a professor and director of the second zoological institute at the University of Vienna. Hatschek suffered from severe depression, which greatly affected his work in the latter stages of his life.
Hatschek is remembered for the so-called "trochophore theory", in which he explains the trochophore to be the larval form of a hypothetical organism- the "trochozoon" (which in adult form corresponded to a trochophore-like rotifer, and was the suggested common ancestor of almost all bilateral, metazoan lifeforms).
In 1888 he split Frey and Leuckart's Coelenterata into three phyla: Spongiaria, Cnidaria and Ctenophora. From his research of amphioxus, the anatomical terms- "Hatschek's pit" and "Hatschek's nephridium" are derived.


Pharyngolepis

Pharyngolepis is an extinct genus of primitive jawless fish that lived in the Silurian period of what is now Norway.
"Pharyngolepis" had well-developed anal and caudal fins, but no paired or dorsal fins that would have helped stabilise it in the water, and so was probably a poor swimmer, remaining close to the sea bottom. The pectoral fins were instead replaced by bony spines, possibly for protection against predators, and there was a row of spines along the back. It probably scooped up food from the ocean floor.


Kataria gloriosa

Kataria gloriosa is a flatworm in the family Stylochidae. It is the only species in the genus Kataria.


Helminth protein

A helminth protein, or helminthic antigen, is a protein derived from a parasitic worm that causes an immune reaction. When secreted, these proteins may modify the host's immune response in order to promote longevity of the parasite. Helminth proteins can result in a deregulated response to infection, and are implicated in reduced reactivity to other antigens. Other helminth proteins promote parasite survival in other ways, particularly since parasites must depend on hosts for the supply of essential nutrients. Despite their pathogenic properties, helminth proteins have potential to be co-opted to treat a number of other human diseases.
Immunoregulation.
Helminth proteins modulate the immune response of their hosts, but do not suppress it entirely. A number of proteins are able to induce production of IL-10, an anti-inflammatory cytokine. IL-10 is partially responsible for reducing expression of co-stimulatory molecules such as CD86 on macrophages. CD86 is one of the proteins which interact with CD28 to activate T helper cells; without it, T helper cell response is mitigated. Schistosome proteins also contain abundant proteases which and cleave IgE antibodies. Alpha-1, a protein released by schistosome eggs, can also be a chemokine binding protein, preventing the recruitment of other immune cells like neutrophils. "T. canis" C-type lectins are additionally able to bind to mammalian carbohydrates, suggesting that they may promote evasion of the host’s immune system by preventing the migration of host immune cells.
A number of helminth species also secrete high levels of antioxidants to avoid phagocytosis; those antioxidants are needed because phagocytes like macrophages frequently produce reactive oxygen species like oxygen radicals, superoxide, and hydrogen peroxide to attack parasites. Additionally, many nematodes residing in the gut may secrete acetylcholinesterase, which is responsible for the degradation of acetylcholine to terminate neuronal signals. Acetylcholinesterase may prevent parasite clearance from the gut by preventing acetylcholine-mediated signaling from stimulating the production of intestinal chloride and mucus.
Lipid Acquisition.
Parasites like helminths do not synthesize their own fatty acids or sterols, and are consequently dependent on their hosts for essential nutrients. A number of different classes of lipid-binding proteins have been investigated and characterized. Of these, NPA (nematode polyprotein antigen/allergen) FAR, and Sj-FABPc demonstrate different binding affinities for fatty acids and/or retinoids. Ov-FAR-1, which is produced by the riverblindness parasite "Onchocerca volvulus" binds retinol with great affinity, and this activity may result in the pathology it causes. Ov-FAR-1, however, binds fatty acids with less affinity. On the other hand, Sj-FABPc, found in "Schistosoma japonicum", binds fatty acids with high affinity, but does not bind to retinol. All three of these proteins are able to deliver lipids to acceptor membranes, but this transfer process in Ov-FAR-1 and ABA-1A1 (a type of NPA) requires an aqueous diffusion step. Sj-FABPc uses a collision mechanism, and transfer is not affected by changing salt concentrations, suggesting that it may be important to intracellular targeted transport and metabolism of fatty acids. Ov-FAR-1 and ABA-1A1 may instead behave similarly to extracellular lipid-binding proteins.
Genomic Prediction.
The Helminth Secretome Database (HSD) is a repository for helminth proteins predicted using expressed sequence tags (ESTs). Previously identified ESTs, which correspond to known helminth proteins, are used to predict the location and function of newly discovered helminth proteins based on genomic sequencing. Additionally, the database can also be used to develop protein targets for new drugs to treat helminth infections.
Potential Therapeutics.
Given the modulatory properties of helminth proteins, it has been suggested that they may be co-opted to successfully treat other human diseases, particularly those associated with auto-immunity disorders. In particular, immunization with P28GST, a schistosome glutathione "S"-transferase enzyme in rats has been shown to reduce colitis lesions and expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines by eosinophil responses to inflammation. P28GST is thus a promising potential therapeutic for treating inflammatory bowel diseases like Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis.
Additionally, injection of proteins secreted by "Fasciola hepatica" in nonobese diabetic mice prevented the onset of type I diabetes, with 84% of the mice showing normal glucose levels 26 weeks after injection. This phenomenon is attributed to the suppression of interferon-gamma secretion from autoreactive T cells following the activation of regulatory M2 macrophages. This result supports the possibility of eventually using helminth products to treat type I diabetes in humans as well.


Cladochonus

Cladochonus is an extinct genus of tabulate coral.


Heteractinida

The Heteractinids are a grade of sponges that are paraphyletic with respect to Hexactinellida. Their distinctive trait is their six-pronged (snowflake-like) spicules, whose symmetry historically suggested a relationship with the triradial Calcarean sponges. Nevertheless, they actually represent a polyphyletic grade, from which the hexactinellids arose.
Families.
The following families are placed in Heteractinida:


Supraciliary scale

In reptiles, the supraciliary scales are the scales located immediately above the eyes, and under the supraocular scales. Can be seen as the eyebrow of some reptiles.


Arnold Adolph Berthold

Arnold Adolph Berthold (also Arnold Adolf Berthold) (26 February 1803, in Soest – 3 January 1861, in Göttingen) was a German scientist, most notably a physiologist and zoologist . He is best known in modern science for his pioneering experiments in the field of endocrinology. He published works on herpetology, ornithology, entomology and chemistry.
Early life and education.
Berthold was the second-youngest of six children. His father was a carpenter and his family was not wealthy. He went to the local "gymnasium" (equivalent to a grammar school) where he studied the classics but was most interested in natural history. He followed his older brother's example to study medicine at University of Göttingen in August 1819. His thesis was under the direction of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752–1840) and he qualified on 10 September 1823.
Career.
He remained at Göttingen for a year before doing a tour of other universities and clinics, which included meeting Johann Lukas Schönlein. In 1825, Berthold decided to practise medicine in Berlin and began experimenting on the effects of coal gas and mercury on the body. Unsettled, he continued to tour Germany and Franc, attending the lectures of other contemporary luminaries Georges Cuvier, Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and André Marie Constant Duméril. He forwent the idea of private medical practice and wrote a paper on the thyroid gland of the parrot. He returned to his alma mater as a "privatdozent" in medicine and began to teach physiology; he spent the rest of his career there. He was appointed as an extraordinary professor in 1835 and a full professor in 1836. In 1840, he was made zoological director of the museum.
He published on the topics of the duration of pregnancy, hair growth, myopia and hermaphroditism. In 1829, he published "Lehrbuch der Physiologie des Menschen und der Thiere" ("Textbook on the physiology of humans and animals") which was reprinted a number of times. He collaborated with Robert Bunsen in 1834 to develop the usage of hydrated iron oxide as an antidote for arsenic poisoning. Berthold and assumed, essentially, the leadership of the teaching of anatomy and physiology over the ageing Blumenbach. In 1840, Blumenbach died and his role was taken over by Rudolf Wagner (Berthold wrote a 20-page section on the topic of sexual physiology in a dictionary on physiology that Wagner edited). Berthold taught and encouraged the young Carl Bergmann (anatomist), who became known for experiments on thermoregulation and who coined the terms poikilotherm and homeotherm.
Experiments in endocrinology.
Some of Berthold's previous publications were specifically linked to glands. Scientists up until the 19th century had little idea how glands affected the body. "Castrati" - men who were castrated before puberty - were kept in harems to ensure females remained chaste; from the middle ages boys were castrated to keep youthful-sounding singing voices due to the lack of an Adam's apple, but in adulthood they also kept a straight hairline, grew large chests and unusually long limbs. Whole-body effects were similarly clear in animals: castrated cock chickens ("capons") did not develop the typical male secondary sexual characteristics, namely aggression, crowing, muscle development, sexual proclivity and most visibly the cockscomb and wattle; they were docile and developed tender flesh, which was considered a delicacy.
On 8 February 1849, Berthold spoke at the Royal Scientific Society in Göttingen. He described how he'd taken six cock chickens and removed the testes from four of them. The two uncastrated birds continued to develop normally. The other birds remained without male characteristics. Crucially, however, Berthold reprised an experiment that he knew John Hunter had tried with unclear results before 1771 with hens. He transplanted testes back into the abdomens of two of the castrated birds but in a different location; the remasculated birds progressed to develop secondary sexual characteristics, indicating that the testes functioned effectively normally.
Upon autopsy, he found that the transplanted testes had grown a new vasculature but no other bodily connection: this finally demonstrated that whatever was controlling the secondary characteristics was transported from the testes via the bloodstream. The prevailing theory, that sexual characteristics were mediated via the nervous system, was thus disproved.
Despite this ground-breaking result, Berthold abandoned completely any further developmental work in this field and his contemporaries also showed little interest. The non-reductionist philosophy prevalent amongst physiologists at Göttingen might have coloured their thinking; Rudolph Wagner repeated the experiment without success, and perhaps this also had an effect. No major progress was made until five decades later with some dramatic successes in the treatment of thyroid-based illnesses by Victor Horsley and, soon after, his student George Murray.
Legacy.
Berthold is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of snake, "Simoselaps bertholdi".


Interdigital webbing

Interdigital webbing is the presence of membranes of skin between the digits. Normally in mammals, webbing is present in the embryo but resorbed later in development, but in various mammal species it occasionally persists in adulthood. In humans, it can be found in those suffering from LEOPARD syndrome and from Aarskog–Scott syndrome.
Webbing between the digits of the hindfoot is also present in several mammals that spend part of their time in the water. Webbing accommodates movement in the water.
Interdigital webbing is not to be confused with syndactyly, which is a fusing of digits and occurs rarely in humans. Syndactyly specifically affecting feet occurs in birds (such as ducks), amphibians (such as frogs), and mammals (such as the kangaroo).
Mammals with interdigital webbing.
Rodents.
In oryzomyines, a mainly South American rodent group, the marsh rice rat, "Pseudoryzomys simplex", and "Sigmodontomys alfari" all have small webs, which do not extend to the end of the proximal phalanges, whereas "Amphinectomys savamis", "Lundomys molitor" and the members of the genera "Holochilus" and "Nectomys" have more expansive webbing, which extends beyond the proximal phalanges. Webbing apparently developed several times in oryzomyines and may also have been lost in some groups. Most ichthyomyines, an exclusively semiaquatic South and Central American rodent group, have small webbing, but members of the genus "Rheomys" have more expansive webs. Webbing is also present in the Australasian semiaquatic hydromyines (subfamily Murinae) of the genera "Baiyankamys", "Hydromys", and "Crossomys"; in the latter, it is most well-developed. The African semiaquatic rodents "Colomys goslingi" and "Nilopegamys plumbeus", also members of the Murinae, lack interdigital webbing. Webbing is present in the hind feet of the coypu ("Myocastor coypus") of South America, which is currently classified in its own family.
Soricomorphs.
Among shrews, the members of the genera "Chimarrogale" of southeastern Asia and "Neomys" of western Eurasia have interdigital webbing, as does the American water shrew ("Sorex palustris") of North America, but it is more well-developed in "Nectogale elegans" of montane Asia. Webbing is also present in the Pyrenean desman ("Galemys pyrenaicus").
Tenrecs.
The tenrec family, which occurs in Africa and mainly on Madagascar, includes several semiaquatic forms, and the small otter-shrews ("Micropotamogale") and the aptly named web-footed tenrec ("Limnogale mergulus") have developed interdigital webbing.
Opossums.
The water opossum ("Chironectes minimus") of South America is the only opossum with interdigital webbing.
Carnivorans.
Several carnivorans have interdigital webbing, including the greater grison ("Galictis vittata"), the Colombian weasel ("Mustela felipei"), the Amazon weasel ("Mustela africana"), and the mink ("Neovison vison").
All otters have interdigital webbing, in the fore or hind limbs or both, to aid in aquatic propulsion. In sea otters, the webbing is covered with hair, at a density of 3300 hairs per square centimeter.
Whales.
Pits present on the sides of fossil proximal phalanges of pakicetids, ancestral whales, suggest that these animals had interdigital webbing, a development hypothesized to lead to the fluke, spurred by FGF8, a fibroblast growth factor.


Levator labii superioris

The levator labii superioris (or quadratus labii superioris) is a muscle of the human body used in facial expression. It is a broad sheet, the origin of which extends from the side of the nose to the zygomatic bone.
Structure.
Its medial fibers form the "angular head" (also known as the levator labii superioris alaeque nasi muscle,<ref name="Artist/Anatomist1991"></ref>) which arises by a pointed extremity from the upper part of the frontal process of the maxilla and passing obliquely downward and lateralward divides into two slips.
One of these is inserted into the greater alar cartilage and skin of the nose; the other is prolonged into the lateral part of the upper lip, blending with the infraorbital head and with the orbicularis oris.
The intermediate portion or "infraorbital head" arises from the lower margin of the orbit immediately above the infraorbital foramen, some of its fibers being attached to the maxilla, others to the zygomatic bone.
Its fibers converge, to be inserted into the muscular substance of the upper lip between the angular head and the levator anguli oris.
The lateral fibers, forming the "zygomatic head" (also known as the zygomaticus minor muscle) arise from the malar surface of the zygomatic bone immediately behind the zygomaticomaxillary suture and pass downward and medialward to the upper lip.
Function.
Its main function is to elevate the upper lip.


Perivitelline fluid

The perivitelline fluid is an extracellular fluid found in the eggs of most gastropods and constitutes the main source of nutrition and defense for their embryos. It replaces the egg yolk of other animals, which in snail eggs is reduced to non-nutritive proteinaceous granules with putative enzymatic function.
During embryonic development the perivitelline fluid is ingested macropinocytotically by the embryos and the resulting phagosomes fuse with β-granules containing hydrolytic enzymes, which digest the perivitelline fluid components.
Origin.
The perivitelline fluid is synthesized by the albumen gland of female snails (also known as albumen gland-capsule gland complex or uterine gland), an accessory gland from the reproductive tract. Fertilized oocytes enter the albumen gland and, on their way out, are coated with the perivitelline fluid. The amount of perivitelline fluid per egg vary considerably among species. However, the amount of perivitelline fluid per egg is constant within a given species. In this regard, it has been shown in "Pomacea" apple snails that during the reproductive season, when the nutrient precursors decrease in the albumen gland due to successive ovipositions, females tend to reduce the number of eggs per clutch but not the amount allocated to each egg.
Composition.
The perivitelline fluid contains predominantly galactogen, proteins, and calcium.
Carbohydrate is invariably the most abundant component of the perivitelline fluid. Specifically, the eggs of most gastropod accumulate the polysaccharide galactogen, which would provide the main energy source for the developing embryo. A small amount of soluble glucose was also detected in some species.
Proteins, called perivitellins, are the second most abundant component of the perivitelline fluid. Perivitellins are also a source of nutrients for snail embryos and play a role in protection against pathogens and predators, and include non-digestible perivitellins, toxins and protease inhibitors. These proteins were thoroughly studied in apple snails from the genus "Pomacea", where they were originally grouped in two most abundant protein fractions perivitellin-1 or PV1, perivitellin-2 or PV2 (comprising approximately 70% of total protein), and a heterogeneous fraction dubbed perivitellin-3 or PV3 fraction. Recent proteomic analyses, however, showed that the perivitelline fluid from "Pomacea" snails has between 34-38 different proteins with a wide variety of functions.
Lipids are a minor component, mostly represented by membrane lipids, indicating that snails do not use lipids as a major energy reserve during reproduction. Apart from structural lipids, some eggs also contain carotenoid pigments, notably astaxanthin. These lipidic pigments have been associated with antioxidant and photoprotective functions, and also provide "Pomacea" eggs with the typical bright color that would function as a warning signal (i.e. aposematism) to deter predators.
Among the inorganic components, calcium ion is the most abundant in the perivitelline fluid. As these snails have direct development, calcium needs to be stored to allow the snail to develop the shell during organogenesis. Besides, calcium is the main component of the eggshell of those snails with aerial oviposition.


Telluraves

Telluraves (also called land birds or core landbirds) is a recently defined clade of birds defined by their arboreality. Based on most recent genetic studies, the clade unites a variety of bird groups, including the australavians (passerines, parrots, seriemas, and falcons) as well as the afroavians (including the Accipitrimorphae – eagles, hawks, buzzards, vultures etc. – owls and woodpeckers, among others). They appear to be the sister group of a newly defined clade centered on Aequornithes.
Given that the most basal extant members of both Afroaves (Accipitrimorphae, Strigiformes) and Australaves (Cariamiformes, Falconiformes) are carnivorous, it has been suggested that the last common ancestor of all Telluraves was probably a predator. Other researchers are skeptical of this assessment, citing the herbivorous cariamiform "Strigogyps" as evidence to the contrary.
Cladogram of Telluraves relationships based on Prum, R.O. "et al." (2015) with some clade names after Yuri, T. "et al." (2013) and Kimball "et al." 2013.


Neopilina starobogatovi

Neopilina starobogatovi is a species of monoplacophoran, a superficially limpet-like marine mollusc.


Enthemonae

Description.
The Enthemonae is a suborder of sea anemones in the order Actiniaria. It comprises those sea anemones with typical arrangement of mesenteries for actiniarians.
The enthemonae is any member of the invertebrate suborder characterised by soft bodied, marine animals that look like flowers which primarily attach to hard or rigid surfaces. An enthemonae is a suborder of sea anemone of the order Actiniaria, which includes the overall majority of the actiniarians, which belong to the former groups of Protantheae, Ptychodacteae, and Nynantheae . It is part of a highly diverse order that successfully occupies marine habitats across all depths of the ocean, ranging from the tidal zone to more than 33,000 feet. There are 3 superfamilies and up to 48 family’s within, thus making it one of the largest suborders of the sea anemones long side the Anenthemonae.
Classification.
Within the suborder of Ethemonae there are 46 families showing the large amount of diversity within the species. This diversity stems from the depth, heat and environment of the water they are growing in.
The differential feature between the 2 suborders of sea anemone; Enthemonae and Anenthemonae is that they are primarily characterised by having basilar muscles, mesoglea marginal sphincter and they lack acontia and arotinoids (Gusmao. L, Berniker. L & Harris. O, 2019). They however, rarely lack these types of basilar muscles and sphincters causing the outer column to be smooth in texture.
Superfamilies.
Within the Enthemonae suborder, there are 3 different superfamilies; Actinostoloidea, Actinoidea and Metridioidea, all having family other families within.
Actinostoloidea and  Metridioidea is known for the rare phenomenon of brooding which is only seen in 57 species out of approximately 1100 within Actiniaria. These superfamilies which are predominately found in the Southern Ocean and therefore brood externally as well as having a combination of morphological features including 12 mesenteries and an oral disc similar to glandular sacs (Gusmão, ,L.C., Berniker, Harris, O, & Rodríguez, E. 2019).Whereas, the Actinoidea is a shallow water enthemonae.
Superfamilies and families in the suborder Enthemonae include:
Reproduction.
All suborders of sea anemones can reproduce both sexually and asexually. The sexual reproduction is a simple and straightforward process involving the fertilisation of an egg which evolves into a planula further to a polyp then an adult (Stewart, Z.K &Pavasovic, A. 2017). In comparison, there are multiple ways they can reproduce asexually including budding, fragmentation or by  longitudinal or transverse binary fission (Galliot, B.; Schmid, V. 2002).
Musculature.
Musculature is the arrangement of muscles in a body or organism.
The simple body plan of actiniarians shows the high level of morphological convergence (a form of evolution which results in unrelated organisms independently producing similarities of form, usually because they become adapted to living in similar types of environment) which implies that both the endodermal  and mesogleal marginal muscles represent this derivation, which was further transformed into the endodermal muscle lineage (Rodriguez. E, 2014).
Within Enthemonae, their marginal musculature has shown to be phylogenetically consistent revealing that on occasion these features have been lost several times over centuries. The enthemonae’s feature of marginal musculature was lost in the Family Edwardsioidea and Family Actinoidea which stemed from a reduction in total body size or a shift in habitat. (Rodriguez. E, 2014)
Venom.
Enthemonae produce venom dependent on the superfamily with vast molecular diversity which are classified according to pharmacological activity and amino acid sequence. However, the exact receptors they target are either unknown or incomplete (Madio. B, 2019).
Venom System.
All cnidarians lack a centralised venom system and in replace produce numerous venom tissues throughout the body, using 2 different cell types; nematocytes and ectodermal gland cells (Reft, A.J.; Daly, M. 2012). Nematocysts are the main venom delivery tissue which are capsules containing extremely powerful discharge (Nuchter, T.; Benoit, M.; Engel, U.; Ozbek, S.; Holstein, T.W, 2006). The most functional and common venom tissue within enthemonae include tentacles which are used to capture prey, immobilise threats and used in digestion (Daly, M. 2017).  The other cell type is ectodermal gland cells which is responsible for producing a distinct collections of toxins. These toxins can be released in greater quantities due to the larger capacity of the gland in comparison to the nematocytes.
Venom Tissue.
The venom that is found within these tissues are a complex combination of proteins, polypeptides and other non-protein based compounds. These components are grouped into 4 functional categories according to Anderluh, G.; Macek, P in the ‘Cytolytic peptide and protein toxins from sea anemones’.
They are:
1.    Phospholipase A2
·      Degrades the membrane of the neurological and muscle cells which causes never damage and muscle inflammation
2.    Cytolysins
·      Causes cell lysis on the cell membrane
3.    Neurotoxins
·      Interact with the receptors causing an altered neural transmission
4.    Non-protein compounds
·      Induce pain when there is an interaction with the venom


Interorbital scales

In snakes, the interorbital scales, or intersupraoculars, are the scales on the top of the head between the plates surmounting the eyes (the supraoculars).


Carden Wallace

Carden Crea Wallace (fl. 1970–) is an Australian scientist who was the curator/director of the Museum of Tropical Queensland from 1987 to 2003. She is an expert on corals having written a "revision of the Genus "Acropora"". Wallace was part of a team that discovered mass spawning of coral in 1984.
Life.
Carden C. Wallace graduated with a first class degree in Science from the University of Queensland in 1970. She gave birth to two sons in the 1970s. From 1970 to 1976 she was the curator of lower vertebrates at the Queensland Museum. She obtained her Ph.D. in 1979 at the University of Queensland. Wallace spent a brief period researching at the Australian Institute of Marine Science before researching Marine Biology from 1980 as a fellow at the James Cook University of North Queensland.
In 1984 Wallace and six others first reported that corals took part in mass spawning which they observed on the Great Barrier Reef in October/November. Since they first observed reproductive synchrony in coral in Australia it has been observed in other countries, but at different times of the year. As a result, the team from James Cook University were awarded the Eureka Prize for Environmental Research in 1992. This example of creatures synchronising their reproduction was novel and it was reported widely.
Museum of Tropical Queensland.
In 1987, the North Queensland Branch of the Queensland Museum was under the direction of 'Curator-in-Charge' Carden Wallace. Whilst still at the museum she was credited with first describing a number of corals including "Acropora hoeksemai" and "Acropora batunai" in 1997.
Wallace was named Director of the Museum of Tropical Queensland in 1997. Its new building was opened in June 2000 by the Queensland Premier Peter Beattie. In 1999 Wallace published an important work on corals titled "Staghorn Corals of the World: A Revision of the Genus "Acropora"". This was the first study in over a century of the genus "Acropora" and it included a full description of each sub-species.
Sally Lewis took over as director of the Queensland Tropical Museum in 2003. In 2008 Wallace and others reported on the recovery of bio-diversity following the atomic explosion at Bikini Atoll. The team reported that there had been some recovery but 28 types of coral were extinct. In 2014 she described several new species including "Acropora macrocalyx". Wallace is a member of the board of OceanNEnvironment. When the Ocean Geographic Society ran a photographic competition in 2014. the award for seascapes was called the Carden Wallace award.


Hatchling

In oviparous biology, a hatchling is a newly hatched fish, amphibian, reptile, or bird. A group of mammals called monotremes lay eggs, and their young are hatchlings as well.
Fish.
Fish hatchlings generally do not receive parental care, similar to reptiles. Like reptiles, fish hatchlings can be affected by xenobiotic compounds. For example, exposure to xenoestrogens can feminize fish. As well, hatchlings raised in water with high levels of carbon dioxide demonstrate unusual behaviour, such as being attracted to the scent of predators. This change could be reversed by immersion into gabazine water, leading to the hypothesis that acidic waters affect hatchling brain chemistry.
Amphibians.
The behavior of an amphibian hatchling, commonly referred to as a tadpole, is controlled by a few thousand neurons. 99% of a "Xenopus" hatchling's first day after hatching is spent hanging from a thread of mucus secreted from near its mouth will eventually form; if it becomes detached from this thread, it will swim back and become reattached, usually within ten seconds. While newt hatchlings are only able to swim for a few seconds, "Xenopus" tadpoles may be able to swim for minutes as long as they do not bump into anything. The tadpole live from remaining yolk-mass in the gut for a period, before it swims off to find food.
Reptiles.
The reptile hatchling is quite the opposite of an altricial bird hatchling. Most hatchling reptiles are born with the same instincts as their parents and leave to live on their own immediately after leaving the egg. When first hatched, hatchlings can be several times smaller than their adult forms: Pine Snakes weigh 30 grams when they first hatch, but can grow up to 1,400 grams as adults. This appears to have been the case even in dinosaurs. In sea turtles, hatchling sex is determined by incubation temperature. In species in which eggs are laid then buried in sand, indentations in the sand can be a clue to imminent hatching. In sea turtles, this usually occurs about 60 days after the laying of eggs, and often at night. However, exposure to xenobiotic compounds, especially endocrine-disrupting compounds, can affect hatchling sex ratios as well. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and other pollutants like octylphenol are also known to increase rate of hatchling mortality and deformity. Upon hatching, animals such as turtles have innate navigational skills, including compass and beacon methods of navigation, to reach safety. For example, turtle hatchlings instinctively swim against waves to ensure they leave the beach and its predators. They also head towards the brightest part of the horizon in order to reach the water: however, human activity has created sources of light which mislead the turtle hatchlings, causing them to not travel directly to the water, making them vulnerable to dehydration and predation. Hatchlings of the species "Iguana iguana" also gain gut flora essential to digestion from adults as part of their development. In the wild, hatchling survival rates are extremely low due to factors such as predation, for example, by crabs, as well as due to human-made obstacles. Human intervention has also benefitted hatchling reptiles at times. For example, late-hatched loggerhead turtles are taken in by such groups as the University of Georgia to be raised. In species such as crocodiles, hydration levels also play an important role in embryo survival.
As pets.
Reptile hatchlings, especially those of turtles, are often sold as pets. This has been reported to occur even in places where such practices are illegal.
Birds.
Bird hatchlings may be altricial or precocial. Altricial means that the young hatch naked and with their eyes closed, and rely totally on their parents for feeding and warmth. Precocial hatching are feathered when hatched, and can leave the nest immediately. In birds, such as the bobwhite quail, hatchlings' auditory systems are more developed than their visual system, as visual stimulation is not present in the egg, while auditory stimulation can reach the embryo even before birth. It has also been shown that auditory development in hatchlings is disrupted by environments high in visual and social stimulation. Many hatchlings are born with some forms of innate behaviours which allow them to improve their ability to survive: for example, hatchling gulls instinctively peck at long objects with marked colour contrast, which leads them to peck at their parents' bills, eliciting a feeding response. Endocrine disruption of hatchling birds increases the rate of deformities and lowers the chances of survival. In bearded vultures, two eggs are laid, but one hatchling will often kill the other. Bird hatchlings raised by humans have sometimes been noted to act towards their human caregivers as their parents.


Mindanao treeshrew

The Mindanao treeshrew ("Tupaia everetti"), also called the Philippine tree shrew, is a species of treeshrew endemic to the Mindanao region in the Philippines. It was formerly considered the only member of the genus "Urogale", but that genus was merged into "Tupaia" when the species was found to nest within the latter genus in a molecular phylogeny. The scientific name commemorates British colonial administrator and zoological collector Alfred Hart Everett.
Range and habitat.
It is found, as its name suggests, in Mindanao, in the Philippines. It lives in rain forest and montane forest.
Description.
It is the heaviest treeshrew, weighing about 355 g, and is terrestrial. The body is 17–20 cm, and the tail is 11–17 cm. It has a particularly elongated snout and a rounded, even-haired tail. The fur is brownish, but with orange or yellow underparts.
It is diurnal in its habits, and it climbs well and runs fast on the ground.
Diet.
Its diet is varied. It includes insects, lizards, young birds, bird's eggs, and fruit.
Reproduction.
In the wild, it is thought to nest on the ground or on cliffs. Their breeding habits have been observed in captivity, where females have produced one or two young after a gestation period of 54–56 days.


Alfred Biesiadecki

Alfred Biesiadecki (13 March 1839 – 31 March 1889) was a Polish pathologist born in Dukla.
He studied medicine at the University of Vienna, earning his medical doctorate in 1862. In 1865 he became an assistant at the institute of pathological anatomy in Vienna under Karl Rokitansky. From 1868 to 1876 he was a professor of pathological anatomy at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków, afterwards moving to Lviv where he served as "Protomedikus", working as an organizer of health services.
Biesiadecki was a pioneer of Polish histopathology, remembered for contributions made in research of skin diseases. His name is associated with "Biesiadecki's fossa", a peritoneal recess that is also known as the iliacosubfascial fossa. He published medical treatises in Polish and German.


Interossei

Interossei refer to muscles between certain bones. There are many interossei in a human body. Specific interossei include:


Keratinocyte

Keratinocytes are the primary type of cell found in the epidermis, the outermost layer of the skin. In humans, they constitute 90% of epidermal skin cells.
 Basal cells in the basal layer ("stratum basale") of the skin are sometimes referred to as basal keratinocytes.
Function.
The primary function of keratinocytes is the formation of a barrier against environmental damage by heat, UV radiation, water loss, pathogenic bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses.
Pathogens invading the upper layers of the epidermis can cause keratinocytes to produce proinflammatory mediators, particularly chemokines such as CXCL10 and CCL2 (MCP-1) which attract monocytes, natural killer cells, T-lymphocytes, and dendritic cells to the site of pathogen invasion.
Structure.
A number of structural proteins (filaggrin, keratin), enzymes (proteases), lipids, and antimicrobial peptides (defensins) contribute to maintain the important barrier function of the skin. Keratinization is part of the physical barrier formation (cornification), in which the keratinocytes produce more and more keratin and undergo terminal differentiation. The fully cornified keratinocytes that form the outermost layer are constantly shed off and replaced by new cells.
Cell differentiation.
Epidermal stem cells reside in the lower part of the epidermis (stratum basale) and are attached to the basement membrane through hemidesmosomes. Epidermal stem cells divide in a random manner yielding either more stem cells or transit amplifying cells. Some of the transit amplifying cells continue to proliferate then commit to differentiate and migrate towards the surface of the epidermis. Those stem cells and their differentiated progeny are organized into columns named epidermal proliferation units.
During this differentiation process, keratinocytes permanently withdraw from the cell cycle, initiate expression of epidermal differentiation markers, and move suprabasally as they become part of the stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, and eventually corneocytes in the stratum corneum.
Corneocytes are keratinocytes that have completed their differentiation program and have lost their nucleus and cytoplasmic organelles. Corneocytes will eventually be shed off through desquamation as new ones come in.
At each stage of differentiation, keratinocytes express specific keratins, such as keratin 1, keratin 5, keratin 10, and keratin 14, but also other markers such as involucrin, loricrin, transglutaminase, filaggrin, and caspase 14.
In humans, it is estimated that keratinocytes turn over from stem cells to desquamation every 40–56 days, whereas in mice the estimated turnover time is 8–10 days.
Factors promoting keratinocyte differentiation are:
Since keratinocyte differentiation inhibits keratinocyte proliferation, factors that promote keratinocyte proliferation should be considered as preventing differentiation. These factors include:
Interaction with other cells.
Within the epidermis keratinocytes are associated with other cell types such as melanocytes and Langerhans cells. Keratinocytes form tight junctions with the nerves of the skin and hold the Langerhans cells and intra-dermal lymphocytes in position within the epidermis. Keratinocytes also modulate the immune system: apart from the above-mentioned antimicrobial peptides and chemokines they are also potent producers of anti-inflammatory mediators such as IL-10 and TGF-β. When activated, they can stimulate cutaneous inflammation and Langerhans cell activation via TNFα and IL-1β secretion.
Keratinocytes contribute to protecting the body from ultraviolet radiation (UVR) by taking up melanosomes, vesicles containing the endogenous photoprotectant melanin, from epidermal melanocytes. Each melanocyte in the epidermis has several dendrites that stretch out to connect it with many keratinocytes. The melanin is then stored within keratinocytes and melanocytes in the perinuclear area as supranuclear “caps”, where it protects the DNA from UVR-induced damage.
Role in wound healing.
Wounds to the skin will be repaired in part by the migration of keratinocytes to fill in the gap created by the wound. The first set of keratinocytes to participate in that repair come from the bulge region of the hair follicle and will only survive transiently. Within the healed epidermis they will be replaced by keratinocytes originating from the epidermis.
At the opposite, epidermal keratinocytes, can contribute to "de novo" hair follicle formation during the healing of large wounds.
Functional keratinocytes are needed for tympanic perforation healing.
Sunburn cells.
A sunburn cell is a keratinocyte with a pyknotic nucleus and eosinophilic cytoplasm that appears after exposure to UVC or UVB radiation or UVA in the presence of psoralens. It shows premature and abnormal keratinization, and has been described as an example of apoptosis.
Aging.
With age, tissue homeostasis declines partly because stem/progenitor cells fail to self-renew or differentiate. DNA damage caused by exposure of stem/progenitor cells to reactive oxygen species (ROS) may play a key role in epidermal stem cell aging. Mitochondrial superoxide dismutase (SOD2) ordinarily protects against ROS. Loss of SOD2 in mouse epidermal cells was observed to cause cellular senescence that irreversibly arrested proliferation in a fraction of keratinocytes. In older mice, SOD2 deficiency delayed wound closure and reduced epidermal thickness.
Civatte body.
A Civatte body (named after the French dermatologist Achille Civatte, 1877–1956) is a damaged basal keratinocyte that has undergone apoptosis, and consist largely of keratin intermediate filaments, and are almost invariably covered with immunoglobulins, mainly IgM. Civatte bodies are characteristically found in skin lesions of various dermatoses, particularly lichen planus and discoid lupus erythematosus. They may also be found in graft-versus-host disease, adverse drug reactions, inflammatory keratosis (such as lichenoid actinic keratosis and lichen planus-like keratosis), erythema multiforme, bullous pemphigoid, eczema, lichen planopilaris, febrile neutrophilic dermatosis, toxic epidermal necrolysis, herpes simplex and varicella zoster lesions, dermatitis herpetiformis, porphyria cutanea tarda, sarcoidosis, subcorneal pustular dermatosis, transient acantholytic dermatosis and epidermolytic hyperkeratosis.
External links.


Camenellan

The camenellans, consisting of the genera "Camenalla", "Dailyatia", "Kennardia", "Kelanella" and "Lapworthella", are a (probably monophyletic) group of Tommotiid invertebrates from the Cambrian period, reconstructed as sister to all others (plus brachiopods and phoronids). They are known from isolated sclerites, but are believed to have a scleritomous, "Halkieria"-like construction.
"Dailyatia" and "Camenella" have distinct dorsal (symmetrical) and lateral (asymmetric) sclerite morphologies.
The same has been asserted for "Lapworthella" even though that has not always been the common perception.
It has been argued that "Camenella", "Kelanella" and "Lapworthella", assuming a slug-like anatomy, had an anterior 'head valve' followed by pairs of asymmetric valves running in pairs along their dorsal surface.
The 'head valve' in "Lapworthella" - that is the bilaterally symmetric Morph A valve - is thought to have fused from two ontogenetically separate sclerites. Dailyatia has a similar double-mounded structure at the tip of its A type sclerites.
Growth rings in all are marked out by prominent external ridges.
Taxonomy.
Two families:
Kennardiidae : three sclerite morphs, one of which (conventionally termed the A morph) is bilaterally symmetrical, the other two occurring in sinistral and dextral variants. Includes "Kennardia" and "Dailyatia", and questionably "Shetlandia"
Lapworthellidae: sclerites occur in something of a morphological continuum, but essentially form a single type with a sinistral and dextral version, possibly with the anterior-most pair of sclerites fusing into a single bilaterally-symmetrical, dual-tipped sclerite.
"Dailyatia" species:


Catenulidae

Catenulidae is a family of freshwater catenulid flatworms.
Catenulids are characterized by an ovoid brain located in the preoral region. The brain lacks a distinct division into anterior and posterior lobes, although a constriction may occur.


Amakusaplana

Amakusaplana is a genus of free-living marine polyclad flatworms in the family Prosthiostomidae.


Tanarctidae

The Tanarctidae are a family of tardigrades. The family was named and described by Reinhardt Møbjerg Kristensen and Jeanne Renaud-Mornant in 1980.
Genera.
There are three genera:


Macroperipatus torquatus

Macroperipatus torquatus is a species of velvet worm in the Peripatidae family. This species is located in Trinidad.


Golfingiida

Golfingiida is an order of peanut worms. The tentacles form a circle around the mouth whereas those of the sister taxon, Phascolosomatidea, are only found above the mouth. Most species burrow in the substrate but some live in the empty shells of gastropods. It is the only order in the monotypic class Sipunculidea and contains the following families:


Maiazoon orsaki

Maiazoon orsaki is a marine flatworm species that belongs to the Pseudocerotidae family.
Common name.
Orsak flatworm.
Distribution.
Tropical Indo-Pacific, from the Archipelagos of Maldives to Micronesia.
Habitat.
Exposed edge of the reef crest and in boulders covered with coralline algae.
Size.
Up to .
Description.
""Maiazoon orsaki" possesses a stretched "egg-shaped" body with a ruffled margin, the posterior part of the body is isentagled.
The background color can generally go from translucent cream to light brown with a fine median white line. The white line starts back from the eye spots and ends just before the border of the posterior edge.
The circumference of the body is ornated with an orange-brown strip and highlighted on the outside by a fine black line. The ventral face presents a similar color to the dorsal face with the white median line less."
Behaviour.
Benthic, nocturnals.


Ellisellidae

Ellisellidae is a family of soft corals.
Genera.
The following genera are recognized within the family Ellisellidae:


Orchesella leucocephala

Orchesella leucocephala is a species of slender springtail in the family Entomobryidae.


Cyril Diver

Captain Cyril Diver, C.B., C.B.E., (1892 – 17 February 1969), was the first Director-General of the Nature Conservancy.
The son of Lt Col C Diver and the author, Maud Diver. Educated at Dover College and Trinity College, Oxford, after serving in France during World War I, he became a clerk in the House of Commons. In the 1930s he performed a systematic survey of the varied ecosystems of Studland, Dorset. A keen naturalist he was especially interested in molluscan ecology and genetics.
Between 2012 and 2015, the National Trust ran a citizen science project named after Cyril – the Cyril Diver Project that was designed to carry out a comprehensive ecological survey of the Studland peninsula in a similar manner to Diver's original study.


Zoologicheskii Zhurnal

Zoologicheskii Zhurnal (, Zoological Journal) is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published in Russian covering research in zoology. The journal was established in 1916 by Aleksei Severtsov.


Shamim Jairajpuri

Mohammad Shamim Jairajpuri, D.Sc., commonly known as Shamim Jairajpuri, (born 1942) is an Indian zoologist and academic who is known for his contributions to the field of nematology. He has had an active career in higher education in India, including helping to establish Maulana Azad National Urdu University, and has received a number of honors and awards, including two awards from the Indian National Science Academy. He has also received the Janaki Ammal National Award for Taxonomy bestowed by the Indian Ministry of Environment & Forests, the first individual to have been so awarded.
Biography.
Born in Jairajpur, Azamgarh District, Uttar Pradesh, India in 1942, Jairajpuri attended Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), receiving a Ph.D. in 1964 and in 1970 a Doctor of Science (D.Sc.) degree in Zoology for his work in Taxonomy.
Positions.
Jairajpuri has had an active career, primarily in association with AMU, at which university he became a professor in 1983. He served as Chairman of its Zoology Department for two terms, from 1988–1989 and from 1997–1998, and as Dean of the Faculty of Life Science for two terms, from 1993–1995 and from 1997–1998. In 1991, he was coordinator of the Agricultural Center.
He has also served as the President of the Nematological Society of India from 1979 to 1981. He was vice president of the Indian National Science Academy and the Zoological Society from 1989 to 1991, standing during those years also as Director of the Zoological Survey of India. He was the Founding Director of the Institute of Agriculture, serving from 1993 to July 1996. In 1998, he became the first Vice Chancellor of the newly formed Maulana Azad National Urdu University and was credited in "The Milli Gazette" as "a leading personality" in the establishment of that university. He remained in that position until 2003. He was also during that time an honorary professor in the School of Life Sciences at the University of Hyderabad. In 2000, he became President of the Indian Society for Parasitology, serving until 2005. In 2001, he became the Chairman of the Programme Advisory Committee of the Zoological Survey of India and the Botanical Survey of India, a position he held until 2004.
Publication.
Jairajpuri is published in books, monographs and journals. From 1977 to 1979, he was chief Editor of the "Indian Journal of Nematology". Journal publications include the Netherlands journal "Nematologica", in which he has placed 80 papers, and the French "Revue de Nématologie", in which he has placed 40.


Euphyllia cristata

Euphyllia cristata is commonly called grape coral. "E. cristata" is a kind of stony or hard coral in the family Euphylliidae; it also belongs to the genus Euphyllia in the order of Scleractinia. "E. cristata" has a wide range of distribution throughout the tropical waters of the Indo-West Pacific area with a large presence in Indonesia. However, despite this large range of distribution, "E. cristata" has a slightly lower abundance compared to other species, making them a little more uncommon to find. They are typically found in shallow waters from 1–35 meters deep.
Taxonomy.
"Euphyllia cristata w"as first documented by Chevalier in 1971. "E. cristata" is a Cnidaria of the class Anthozoa and of the order of Scleractinia. Scleractinia are hard corals"." "E. cristata" live in small sized phaceloid colonies, which is a particular type of spatial formation and organisation, where corallites are elongate, distinctive tube-like, and between 20 and diameter.
Distribution and Abundance.
"E. cristata" has a wide range of distribution in the Indo-Western Pacific. Their range of distribution also includes the Coral Triangle and the Great Barrier Reef. Even though "E. cristata’s" distribution is diverse, it is absent from the Red Sea. "E. cristata" is found on hard substrates. In addition, they are found in a depth of 1–35 meters below the surface.
Threats.
The International Union for Conservation Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) classified the Red List status of the "E. cristata" as vulnerable in 2008. In addition, many of the other Euphilids have been classified as threatened by the IUCN. There are many threats to the populations of "E. cristata". As a result of "E. cristata" being a colorful stony coral with big polyps, it has been sought after for jewelry. "E. cristata" is also faced with having to adapt to changes in mean tide levels, changes in wave action, increases in water temperature, ocean acidification, fisheries, exposure to pollution, and erosion. These things increase the frequencies of bleaching and increase the susceptibility of the coral to disease.


Avian range expansion

Avian range expansion describes how birds expand their habitat. Because of the activities of birdwatchers, these range expansions are well documented.
Throughout the last century a number of birds have expanded their range. Birds that were once thought to be only located on the West Coast of have moved eastward all the way to the East Coast, an example would be the Brewer's blackbird. Since the 1950s the Brewer's blackbird, a relative of the red-winged blackbird, has been moving eastward first from the West Coast of Oregon and California to the Great Lakes Region and then towards the East Coast, with the range expanding from Coast to Coast according to the Audubon's 2005 Christmas Bird Count. The Inca dove first arrived as a native of Mexico and has slowly expanded Northward into Kansas and Arkansas. Great tailed grackles have also moved in similar fashion northward.
Another region with documented range expansions is South Africa, where a number of birds have expanded westwards into the Western Cape province from other provinces due to habitat modification by humans and introductions. Examples of these include the Helmeted Guineafowl (introduced) and the Hadeda Ibis (natural expansion).
Range expansion may be explained by several different reasons.
Reasons for range expansion.
The largest reason for a bird to expand its range is to draw greater resources. Once resources for food, nesting, and potential mates become scarce in a particular area, birds and other animals move out of those areas to find new resources. Range expansion is a crucial component of evolution; however expansions are presently occurring at an alarming rate. One of the reasons for increased expansion is due to human alteration. Human causes such as changing of habitat and global climate change are leading factors in avian range expansion. Species that were previously adapted to the old niche are often replaced by species that are more adapted for newly created niche. For example, when forests are replaced by more urban areas, species such as the Inca dove are replaced by the mourning dove, allowing the mourning dove to expand its range. Bird populations are not static and naturally change over time. However, due to human effects such as global climate change and loss of habitat, a number of species are expanding in a particular range as the native species they displace are declining.
In addition to environmental aspects that cause range expansion and subsequent decline of certain species, humans have introduced species that are largely responsible for decline of native species. Exotic species, such as the European starling which were introduced by Eugene Schieffelin in 1890 in New York City and then expanded to California by 1955, often do very well in new habitats. The lack of predators and new niche offer perfect conditions for the introduced species to flourish. These "exotic" species often displace other native species. For example, the European starling pursues aggressive breeding strategies that help it colonize new breeding areas. The European starling is an early breeder and out competes other native cavity nesters for nesting sites. Other cavity nesters include the kestrels, flycatchers, swallows, wrens, and bluebirds. The urbanization of much America also aids in the spread of the European starling (Podluka et al. 2004, Askins 2000, Elrich et al. 1998).
Examples of when range expansion imperils other species.
The barred owl and the northern spotted owl.
In the 1970s the logging of old-growth forests accelerated, and the numbers of the northern spotted owl began to decline. Beginning in 1912 the barred owl began expanding its range westward and northward. Once considered an East Coast resident, the barred owl moved into the Rocky Mountains and southern Canada, into the spotted owl's territory. The barred owl is extremely adaptable, whereas the northern spotted owl is much more stagnate. The barred owl can live in virtually any forest and eat almost anything. The northern owl is adapted to best survive in old growth forest and relies mainly on the flying squirrel as a food resource. Much like human counterparts, as the barred owl expanded westward these larger more adaptable birds forced native owls, such as the northern owl, off their territory. The barred owl is about 20% larger and will feast on flying squirrels out of convenience. Biologists have noted a severe decline in the breeding population of northern owls, whereas the barred owl populations thrive (Levy, 2004).
The brown-headed cowbird and other songbirds.
The brown-headed cowbird is a brood parasite, which places its own eggs in nest of other birds, placing the burden of parenting on other birds. The brown-headed cowbird is thought to have a center of origin in the Great Plains of North America, but has expanded in both directions to spread across most of North America. The behavior of the brown-headed cowbird causes range expansion at the expense of other birds such as warblers, sparrows, and vireos. The efforts required for raising the cowbird chick often exhaust the parent and lead to either the death of the parent or the death of the other chicks within the nest, thus decreasing the chances of reproduction for that songbird. In a study conducted by the University of British Columbia, cowbird parasitism was shown to be a direct cause of population declines in black-capped vireos, Bell's vireo, and the southwestern willow flycatcher (Levy, 2004).
Conclusion.
Avian species have expanded their range since long before humans. In fact the geographical range of avian species is often a very dynamic phenomenon, with the ranges of various species expanding and some contracting. Range expansions are important because they often signal changing habitats, whether the reason can be explained by natural causes or more often human aided causes. Avian range expansion can produce considerable effects in both the population numbers of the invaded species as well as numbers of hybrid species created. The interaction of invading species and native species is often very dynamic.


Posterior superior alveolar artery

The posterior superior alveolar artery (posterior dental artery) is given off from the maxillary, frequently in conjunction with the infraorbital artery just as the trunk of the vessel is passing into the pterygopalatine fossa.
Branches.
Descending upon the tuberosity of the maxilla, it divides into numerous branches, it descends on the posterior surface of the maxilla and gives branches that supply the molar and premolar teeth and the lining of the maxillary sinus, while others are continued forward on the alveolar process to supply the gingiva.


Basal body

A basal body (synonymous with basal granule, kinetosome, and in older cytological literature with blepharoplast) is a protein structure found at the base of a eukaryotic undulipodium (cilium or flagellum). The basal body was named by Theodor Wilhelm Engelmann in 1880 It is formed from a centriole and several additional protein structures, and is, essentially, a modified centriole. The basal body serves as a nucleation site for the growth of the axoneme microtubules. Centrioles, from which basal bodies are derived, act as anchoring sites for proteins that in turn anchor microtubules, and are known as the microtubule organizing center (MTOC). These microtubules provide structure and facilitate movement of vesicles and organelles within many eukaryotic cells.
Assembly, structure.
Cilia and basal bodies form during quiescence or the G1 phase of the cell cycle. Before the cell enters G1 phase, i.e. before the formation of the cilium, the mother centriole serves as a component of the centrosome.
In cells that are destined to have only one primary cilium, the mother centriole differentiates into the basal body upon entry into G1 or quiescence. Thus, the basal body in such a cell is derived from the centriole.
The basal body differs from the mother centriole in at least 2 aspects. First, basal bodies have basal feet, which are anchored to cytoplasmic microtubules and are necessary for polarized alignment of the cilium. Second, basal bodies have pinwheel-shaped transition fibers that originate from the appendages of mother centriole.
In multiciliated cells, however, in many cases basal bodies are not made from centrioles but are generated "de novo" from a special protein structure called the deuterosome.
Function.
During cell cycle quiescence, basal bodies organize primary cilia and reside at the cell cortex in proximity to plasma membrane. On cell cycle entry, cilia resorb and the basal body migrates to the nucleus where it functions to organize centrosomes. Centrioles, basal bodies, and cilia are important for mitosis, polarity, cell division, protein trafficking, signaling, motility and sensation.
Mutations in proteins that localize to basal bodies are associated with several human ciliary diseases, including Bardet–Biedl syndrome, orofaciodigital syndrome, Joubert syndrome, cone-rod dystrophy, Meckel syndrome, and nephronophthisis.
Regulation of basal body production and spatial orientation is a function of the nucleotide-binding domain of γ-tubulin.
Plants lack centrioles and only lower plants (such as mosses and ferns) with motile sperm have flagella and basal bodies.


Coelostegus

Coelostegus is an extinct genus of Late Carboniferous (late Westphalian stage) basal reptile known from Pilsen of Czech Republic. It is known from the holotype ČGH 3027, a partial skeleton of an immature individual. It was collected in the Nýřany site from the Nýřany Member of the Kladno Formation. It was first named by was first named by Robert L. Carroll and Donald Baird in 1972 and the type species is "Coelostegus prothales". The most recent phylogenic study of primitive reptile relationships found "Coelostegus" to be the basalmost known eureptile.