Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation

Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation (also known as Grassy Narrows First Nation or the Asabiinyashkosiwagong Nitam-Anishinaabeg in the Ojibwe language) is an Ojibwe First Nations band government who inhabit northern Kenora in Ontario, Canada. Their landbase is the English River 21 Indian Reserve. It has a registered population of 1,595 as of October 2019, of which the on-reserve population was 971 The community had a population of approximately 1,200. They are a signatory to Treaty 3.
Overview.
The community was under a long-term drinking water advisory from about 2013 through October 2020, when it was lifted.
In the spring of 2020 the federal government reached an agreement with Grassy Narrows to "build a $20 million clinic for those suffering from mercury poisoning". Generations of Grassy Lakes continue to suffer from the physical, social, and economic costs of the discharge of approximately ten tons of mercury into the Wabigoon River between 1962 and 1970 by the Dryden pulp and paper mill, upstream of Grassy Narrows, poisoning the water and the fish—the staple food of the Grassy Narrows First Nations.
Governance.
Chief Randy Fobister was elected in 2020, succeeding Rudy Turtle. There are four councillors, Cody Keewatin, Allen Anderson, Roy Assin, and Arnold Pahpasay Jr.
The First Nation is a member of the Bimose Tribal Council, a regional non-political Chief's Council, who is a member of the Grand Council of Treaty 3, a political organization.
The reserve is also part of the provincial riding of Kenora-Rainy River and federal riding of Kenora.
Indigenous law.
In April 2021, the nation enacted the "Alcohol Inagonigaawin", a traditional Anishinaabe law on alcohol possession departing from the Canadian Indian Act regulations. The law limits alcohol possession to 750 millilitres of wine, one 12-pack of beer, or 26 ounces of liquor spirits, with those in violation of the law to go before a traditional, community justice panel.
History.
Original history.
The Asubpeeschoseewagong people themselves say that they have always lived along the Wabigoon River, a river that flows from Raleigh Lake past Dryden, Ontario on Wabigoon Lake to join the English River. It is located northeast of Lake of the Woods.
Historians believe that the ancestors of the Northern Ojibway first encountered Europeans near what is now Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario and thus were given the name Saulteaux. Their territory was on the northern shore of the Great Lakes from the Michipicoten Bay of Lake Superior to the Georgian Bay of Lake Huron. Participation in the North American fur trade was initially through trading of furs trapped by other tribes, but soon the Saulteaux acquired trapping skills and emigrated to their present location as they sought productive trapping grounds.
1800s.
In 1871, Grassy Narrows First Nation, together with other Ojibway tribes, made a treaty with the Canadian government, The Crown, in the person of Queen Victoria, giving up aboriginal title to a large tract of land in northwestern Ontario and eastern Manitoba, Treaty 3 between Her Majesty the Queen and the Saulteaux Tribe of the Ojibbeway Indians at the Northwest Angle on the Lake of the Woods with Adhesions. In exchange a spacious tract of land, as much as a square mile of land for each family, in a favourable location on the Wabigoon-English River system was reserved for the use of the tribe. Tribal members were allowed to hunt, fish, and trap on unused portions of their former domain; the government undertook to establish schools; and to give ammunition for hunting, twine to make nets, agricultural implements and supplies, and a small amount of money to the tribe. Alcoholic beverages were strictly forbidden.
On original Treaty 3 lands, the cycle of seasonal activities and traditional cultural practices of the Ojibway were followed. The people continued to live off the land in the traditional life style. Each clan lived in log cabins in small clearings; often it was to the nearest neighbour. Each parcel was selected for access to fishing and hunting grounds and for suitability for gardening. The winters were spent trapping for the Hudson's Bay Company, the summer gardening and harvesting wild blueberries which together with skins were sold for supplies. Potatoes were grown on a community plot. In the fall, wild rice was harvested from the margins of the rivers and finished for storage. Muskrat were plentiful and trapped for pelts and food. There were deer and moose on the reserve which were hunted for meat and supplemented by fish. Work was available as hunting and fishing guides and cleaning tourist lodges. White people seldom entered the reserve except for the treaty agent who visited once a year. The only access to the reserve was by canoe or plane.
The Ojibway had yielded ownership of their territory to Canada, through the signing in 1873 of Treaty 3. Treaty 3 gave the Ojibway the "right to harvest the non-reserve lands that they had yielded in exchange until such lands were "taken up" for settlement, industry, or other government purposes."
1900-1950.
From 1876 to 1969 schooling was at McIntosh Indian Residential School, a residential school in McIntosh, Ontario. The school property consisted of located at the southeast end of Canyon Lake on a small bay. There was a CNR station not far from the school. A trail was created to link the school. The main access to the school was by a barge, that brought supplies, equipment, livestock and students.
In 1912, the land, which is now known as the Keewatin, was annexed to the province of Ontario.
Until the late 1940s, the Grassy Narrows' community had "maintained economic autonomy." In 1947 to 1948, the Government of Ontario, implemented "resource management and licensing" through the Ontario Department of Lands and Fisheries—in 1972, the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources.
1950-2000.
In 1963, the federal government relocated the Grassy Narrows band to a new reserve adjacent to the English-Wabigoon River.
Between 1962 and 1970, Dryden Chemicals Ltd—a subsidiary of the British multinational—Reed International, discharged approximately nine or ten tons of mercury into the Wabigoon River, upstream of Grassy Narrows, poisoning the fish which were the staple food of the Grassy Narrows First Nations. It is "one of Canada's worst environmental disasters".
In 1975, Dr. Masazumi Harada tested mercury levels in Grassy Meadows community members and found that they were "more than three times the Health Canada limit in Grassy Narrows and seven times the limit in nearby Whitedog". Harada returned to do more testing 2004, and found that "all of the people who had tested over the limit were dead." In response to these tests, Leo Bernier, who was the Ontario Minister of Natural Resources in 1975, said on CBC’s "As It Happens" that there were "no real damages" to the First Nations of the Grassy Narrows and White Dog areas and that the federal authorities had verified that.
In 1984, the environment minister at that time, said that the river was cleaning itself, and there was no need for government intervention.
In 1985, the Reed Paper Company that bought-out the Dryden Pulp and Paper Company and its sister-company Dryden Chemical Company, Great Lakes Forest Products, the governments of Canada and Ontario provided approximately $17 million compensation to the Grassy Narrows and Wabaseemoong First Nations as part of a legal settlement " for the health effects of mercury in their communities. In 1985, the province of Ontario granted the "Dryden mill and any future owners a broad indemnity, assuming all environmental liabilities related to the mill and its mercury dumping."
In her 1985 book, "", Anastasia Shkilnyk described the deterioration of the morale of the community, the unraveling of their social fabric, and finally the devastation wrought by mercury contamination of the river watershed and the poisoning of the fish upon which the community depended. Using statistical data on "violent death, illness, and family breakdown", Shkilnyk traced the history and described the "devastating impacts of mercury contamination on the health and livelihood of the Grassy Narrows.
In 1997, the Government of Ontario issued a forestry licence for clear-cutting to Abitibi-Consolidated Inc.
2000s.
In 2005, Grassy Narrows filed a legal challenge against the province of Ontario in regards to the license granted to Abitibi-Consolidated in an "effort to stop the logging", which initially succeeded. The Ontario Court of Appeal overturned this ruling saying that "s. 109 of the Constitution Act, 1867 provides Ontario with ownership of crown lands in Ontario." The court found that Ontario also has provincial jurisdiction in natural resources and was therefore "entitled to sell the land". The province of Ontario began discussions with Grassy Narrows on September 8, 2007 on "forestry-related issues." with former Supreme Court of Canada and Federal Court of Canada Chief Justice Frank Iacobucci lead the discussions. The focus was on "sustainable forest management partnership models and other forestry-related matters, including harvesting methods, interim protection for traditional activities and economic development."
In the early 2010s, the government of Ontario had ordered the Weyerhaeuser Company and Resolute Forest Products—previously known as Abitibi-Consolidated—to clean a "mercury waste-disposal site" near Grassy Narrows First Nation "where toxic material from a pulp-and-paper mill’s operations entered the English-Wabigoon river system in the 1960s."
In an unanimous July 2014 decision by the Supreme Court of Canada, in "Grassy Narrows First Nation v. Ontario (Natural Resources)", the justices "determined that Ontario had the jurisdiction to take up Treaty 3 land and therefore had the right to "limit First Nation harvesting rights."
A 2016 confidential report by an environmental consulting firm, commissioned by Domtar—who have owned and operated the Dryden pulp and paper mill since 2007—revealed that Ontario provincial authorities "knew decades ago that the site of the mill was contaminated with mercury," according to a 2017 article in the "Star". The report included archival reports from the mill which showed that ground water samples collected by the company over many years had "extremely high mercury levels". In February 2016, Ontario's Ministry of the Environment said that there was no need for remediation other than natural sedimentation. That summer, Kas Glowacki, who has since collaborated on research regarding the mercury poisoning, reported that when he worked for the mill in the early 1970s, he had been "part of a group who 'haphazardly' dumped drums filled with salt and mercury into a pit behind the mill".
In a 4-3 decision on December 6, 2019, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that Weyerhaeuser Company and Resolute Forest Products—previously known as Abitibi-Consolidated are responsible for cleaning the mercury-contaminated site near Grassy Narrows First Nation. According to Global News, the Court decision "brought some clarity to a long-running dispute over one element of the legacy of environmental poisoning that has caused significant health problems for many residents."
Environment.
Timber extraction.
On September 8, 2007, Ontario announced that it "had agreed to begin discussions with Grassy Narrows First Nation on forestry-related issues." The provincial government appointed former Supreme Court of Canada and Federal Court of Canada Chief Justice Frank Iacobucci to lead these discussions. Iacobucci's discussions with Grassy Narrows would focus on, "sustainable forest management partnership models and other forestry-related matters, including harvesting methods, interim protection for traditional activities and economic development."
The reserve's other environmental concern is the mass extraction of trees for paper. Abitibi-Consolidated has been harvesting trees in the area. Local protestors have complained to the company and the Ministry of Natural Resources to demand a selective process. The community fears mass logging will lead to damage to local habitat.
On August 17, 2011, First Nation supporters won a victory in court, when "Ontario's Superior Court ruled that the province cannot authorize timber and logging if the operations infringe on federal treaty promises protecting aboriginal rights to traditional hunting and trapping." There were no immediate injunctions issued to stop logging activity, however.
In December 2014, a request for an individual environmental assessment into the impact of clear-cut logging was denied by the province. Later released documents, after freedom of information requests, revealed concerns by local biologists that were never followed up on.
Local services and transportation.
The reserve is connected to areas beyond by local roads connecting with Highway 671. This highway provides connection to Kenora, to the south.
The closest airport is Kenora Airport and provides connections to other large communities including Thunder Bay and Winnipeg.
The reserve has one school, Sakatcheway Anishinabe School, the serves students from junior kindergarten to grade 12. From 1876 to 1969 McIntosh Indian Residential School was the closest school in McIntosh, Ontario.
A medical centre provides basic health care to residents and open Monday to Friday. There is no hospital on the reserve; thus, more advanced care requires transfers to Kenora.
Treaty Three Police Service provides policing for the reserve.
Mercury contamination in Grassy Narrows, Ontario, Canada.
The First Nations people experienced mercury poisoning from Dryden Chemical Company, a chloralkali process plant, located in Dryden that supplied both sodium hydroxide and chlorine used in large amounts for bleaching paper during production for the Dryden Pulp and Paper Company. The Dryden Chemical company discharged their effluent into the Wabigoon-English River system. It is believed that approximately 10 tons (20,000 pounds) of mercury was dumped into the Wabigoon River system between 1962 and 1970. Both the paper and chemical companies ceased operations in 1976, after 14 years of operations. However, time has not lowered the levels of mercury in the Wabigoon River system as the paper and pulp industry in Dryden and the Canadian government had originally told the residents. Workers from the industry have admitted that there are a multitude of hidden mercury containers near the Wabigoon River that have caused health problems among the Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation community to be a continuous issue. The waste from the industry upstream has not merely affected the Wabigoon River system, the mercury contamination has also infected water sources that the Wabigoon River system feeds into such as Clay Lake and Ed Wilson Landing. Additionally, the chemical waste from the industry in Dryden has impacted the health of the Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation peoples, as well as the Wabaseemoong First Nation community (Wabaseemoong Independent Nations) further downstream.
The mercury poisoning among the two First Nations communities was possible due to the lax laws regarding environmental pollution. The former spokesman for Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada, Chris Bentley claimed that the policies pertaining to the environment have since been amended to prevent occurrences like the disposal of mercury by the pulp and paper industry in Dryden.
Conversely, the mercury contamination by the pulp and paper industry may be defined as environmental racism.
The Ontario provincial government has initially told the First Nation community to stop eating fish — their main source of protein — and closed down their commercial fishery. In 90%+ unemployment rate in 1970, closing of the commercial fishery meant economic disaster for the Indian reserve. In other words, the closure of the fishery affected the once-booming tourism industry, where locals acted as guides for out of town fisherman. Ivy Keewatin claimed that on the guided tours that she once conducted, she would take the attendees to a particular area in order to eat deep-fried pickerel (walleye). That being said, it is due to the fact that the soil in the river and the sediment contains high levels of mercury that the fish in the Wabigoon River system may no longer be safely be ingested. Therefore, it is because the Indigenous guides did not feel comfortable suggesting that tourists eat the fish contaminated with mercury and because the tourists did not wish to ingest fish with high levels of mercury that the fishing tourist industry no longer exists in the Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation community.
Grassy Narrows First Nation received a settlement in 1985 from the Government of Canada and the Reed Paper Company that bought-out the Dryden Pulp and Paper Company and its sister-company Dryden Chemical Company. Moreover, in June 2017, the Ontario government pledged $85 million to clean up the industrial mercury contamination. However, the mercury was never removed from the water and continues to affect the health of Grassy Narrows residents. Government agencies responsible for the cleanup and study of the mercury pollution in the Wabigoon River system fear that dredging the sediments in the Wabigoon River may increase the levels of mercury downstream. Thus, it is because the government entities do not wish to pollute the Wabigoon River system furthermore that the lack of cleanup is strategic rather than malicious.
The amount of mercury present in fish as of 2012 was low according to Health Canada, that being said, a health advisory still remains in effect. Consumption of fish continues in the area, particularly pickerel (walleye), the local favourite, but it is high on the food chain and therefore contains high levels of mercury. Walleye remains dangerous for those with long-term exposure to the consumption of the fish as walleye contains approximately 13-15 times the recommended levels of mercury. In particular, it is because the walleye are roughly 40-90 times the advisable mercury intake limit for pregnant women, children and women who hope to bear offspring that the walleye is predominately hazardous. Some of the health issues associated with the consumption of the mercury infested fish in the Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation community includes numbness, hearing loss, headaches, dizziness and limb cramps. Additionally, studies have found that the Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation have experienced hypertension, stroke, as well as lung, stomach, psychiatric, orthopedic and heart diseases due to eating fish with high levels of mercury. Though there have been obvious health issues associated with the consumption of fish from the Wabigoon River system, Ed Wilson Landing, and Clay Lake, the Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation community continue to eat the fish from these bodies of water as the community cannot afford to obtain boats in order to fish farther away from the infected waterways or afford pricey groceries.
Ultimately, while the socioeconomic status of the Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation people partially explains why the First Nation group still consumes the mercury-infested fish, the Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation culture also contributes to the ingestion of fish by the Indigenous group. According to First Nations people, fish is one of the healthiest substances that can be consumed. Additionally, Indigenous people believe that people may learn from fish and learn cultural practices by fishing. Given these points, the Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation community have not stopped consuming fish as fish are considered as sacred more-than-human beings who have the ability to teach valuable lessons to the future generations.


Jules DeMun

Julius "Jules" DeMun (1782–1843) was a 19th-century French-American fur trader.
Early life.
DeMun was born in Port-au-Prince, Saint-Domingue to an aristocratic family. He was educated in Paris, before moving to St. Louis in 1800.
Trading career.
In September 1815, DeMun went with Auguste Pierre Chouteau and his brother Pierre Chouteau Jr. to the Rocky Mountains on an expedition, to trade horses with the Arapahos and Comanche tribes. After a while, however, the trade began to dwindle and they ceased operations. While trading in Mexico, DeMun was imprisoned alongside A. P. Chouteau for 48 days in Santa Fe, leading the group to file a claim against the Mexican government for confiscated goods worth $30,000. Payment for the claim was not obtained until 1851, through an act of Congress.
In 1817, DeMun opened a trading business with Auguste Pierre Chouteau in St. Louis, known as A. P. Chouteau, DeMun & Co., or Chouteau, DeMun & Sarpy. On 14 September 1818, DeMun dropped out of the business.
Post-trading career and death.
In 1820, DeMun moved with his family to Cuba, where he had purchased a large coffee plantation. They returned to St. Louis in 1831 and DeMun was made recorder of deeds for the county. DeMun died in 1843, leaving his property to his wife.
Family.
In 1812, DeMun married Isabella Gratiot, the daughter of Charles Gratiot Sr. and the granddaughter of Pierre Laclède, and had three daughters.


Hay River, Northwest Territories

Hay River (South Slavey: "Xátł’odehchee" ), known as "the Hub of the North," is a town in the Northwest Territories, Canada, located on the south shore of Great Slave Lake, at the mouth of the Hay River. The town is separated into two sections, a new town and an old town with the Hay River/Merlyn Carter Airport between them. The town is in the South Slave Region, and along with Fort Smith is one of the two regional centres.
History.
The area has been in use by First Nations, known as the Long Spear people, as far back as 7000 BC.
According to the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories the first buildings were those of the Hudson's Bay Company in 1868 followed by a Roman Catholic Mission in 1869 and an Anglican Mission in 1894.
However, according to the history of the area provided by the town, the first permanent settlement in the area of Hay River was established in what is now the Katl'odeeche First Nation or Hay River Reserve. This was sometime between 1892-93. This first settlement was established by Chief Chiatlo and a group of people by the building of log cabins and bringing dairy cows. This was followed in 1893 by the Anglican Mission, at the request of Chief Chiatlo in 1893 with the Roman Catholic Mission and the Hudson's Bay Company arriving later.
A school, health centre and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police followed, and as part of the Canol Road project the United States Army Corps of Engineers built a runway on Vale Island in the Hay River delta. In 1948 the Government of Canada built a gravel road, now the Mackenzie Highway, from Grimshaw, Alberta to Hay River, making it the first community in the NWT to be linked with southern Canada. The settlement's role as terminus of all-season trucking, and the establishment of a commercial fishing industry, started an economic boom. In 1949, the community organized its first community government, forming an Administrative District under the direction of the Government of Canada, run by a trustee board with two elected members, two appointed members, and a chairman.
In 1959, the Northern Transportation Company Limited located their main base in Hay River and over the years developed the facilities. Today the base is the major staging point for the annual sealift along the Mackenzie River, via Inuvik and Tuktoyaktuk and the communities of the Arctic Ocean, as far east as Taloyoak, Nunavut and west to Utqiagvik, Alaska.
In 1964, Vale Island, the historical location of the town, was severely flooded. As a response, the town was moved to the new location upstream.
By 1964, as part of the Pine Point Mine development, the Mackenzie Northern Railway was constructed. The railway, through Canadian National Railway in Edmonton, makes Hay River the northernmost point in Canada, and all of North America, which is connected to the continental railway system. The Alaska Railroad is located farther north but is orphaned from the network.
In 1978, Hay River, along with the now-abandoned Pine Point, hosted the fifth Arctic Winter Games.
Services.
The community has a full hospital, the H.H. Williams Memorial Hospital, a woman's shelter/transition house, a dental clinic and an ambulance service. The RCMP detachment has eight members and the South Mackenzie Correctional Centre is located here. There are two grocery stores in Hay River, including the Northern Store, branches of both the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce and the Royal Bank of Canada and a Home Hardware. There is also a museum detailing the history of Hay River and the Hudson's Bay Company in Old Town.
Airlines servicing Hay River include the locally based Buffalo Airways, who provide scheduled flights to Yellowknife as well as charter services and a courier service throughout the north. First Air provides scheduled services to Yellowknife with connections elsewhere. Northwestern Air also offers scheduled service to Edmonton and Fort Smith. Other companies offering charter services in Hay River include Landa Air, Carter Air Services (fixed-wing aircraft), Denendeh Helicopters and Remote Helicopters.
Religious services include a Catholic church, an Anglican/Grace United church, a Baptist church, a Pentecostal church, and a Community Fellowship within New Town. There is also a Jehovah's Witness Kingdom Hall along the highway coming into town. On the Katl'odeeche First Nations Reserve there are a small Catholic church, and a larger Pentecostal church. There is also an Anglican church that was destroyed in the 2008 Hay River ice breakup. The religious diversity in Hay River exceeds the outward appearance given by these services.
Education.
The town hosts four schools, three of which are administered by South Slave Divisional Education Council (SSDEC). The SSDEC is responsible for Harry Camsell K-3 School, Princess Alexandra Middle School, and Diamond Jenness Secondary School, while École Boréale Francophone school is administered separately by the Commission scolaire francophone des Territoires du Nord-Ouest. Harry Camsell is a primary school and serves students from kindergarten to Grade 3. Princess Alexandra, named for and opened by Princess Alexandra in 1967, is a middle school and serves the Grade 4 to the Grade 7. École Boréale is a francophone school that was opened in 2005 and works with students from PK4 to grade 12. Diamond Jenness, named for scientist and anthropologist Diamond Jenness and opened in 1973, is the high school and serves Grade 8 to Grade 12. The town also supports a Community Learning Centre and a Career Centre.
Media.
Radio.
CKHR-FM 107.3 is a community radio station in Hay River, and the only station in Hay River to maintain local studios; it is owned and operated by the Hay River Community Service Society. Other radio stations in Hay River are repeaters of stations based in Yellowknife.
Television.
The Hay River Community Service Society also controls television broadcasting and it is paid for through property taxes, at a rate of $36 per household per year. Channels 2-5, 7, and 8-13 rebroadcast Canadian and US channels in analog format from towers atop the Mackenzie Place highrise. Transmitter powers range from 9W to 2.545 kW. Channels include CIHC-TV channel 5, a community channel; CH4435 channel 8, rebroadcasting Radio-Canada through CBFT Montreal; and CH4160 channel 12, repeating the Aboriginal Peoples Television Network; among other channels. The local CBC-owned CBC North television repeater, CBEBT-1 channel 7, closed on 31 July 2012; however, the Hay River Community Service Society announced that it acquired the transmitter, which they intended to use for CBC Television service.
Print.
"The Hub" is a weekly newspaper published by Northern News Services. The editor is Sarah Ladik. Besides Hay River, the paper is available in Yellowknife, Enterprise, Fort Smith, Inuvik, Fort Providence, Fort Resolution and Grande Prairie.
Communications.
Internet services are provided by SSI Micro and NorthwesTel, land based telephone by Northwestel and cell phones by NMI Mobility.
Climate.
Hay River has a subarctic climate (Köppen "Dfc") with summer lasting for about three months. Although winter temperatures are usually below freezing, every month of the year has seen temperatures above . Rainfall, which can occur throughout the year, averages and snowfall . From December to January on average there are 71.8 days when the wind chill is below −30, which indicates that frostbite may occur within 10 – 30 minutes.
The highest temperature ever recorded in Hay River was on 9 August 1981. The coldest temperature ever recorded was on 23 January 1906.
Demographics.
In the 2016 Census Hay River had a population of 3,528, a decrease of 2.2% from the 2011 Census. The Indigenous population in Hay River is 1,630, up from 1,600 at the 2006 Census, and is made up of First Nations, Métis people and Inuit. The main languages in the town are South Slavey, Chipewyan, Michif and English. In 2017 the Government of the Northwest Territories reported that the population was 3,734 with an average yearly growth rate of -0.2% from 2006.


Director of New Netherland

This is a list of Directors, appointed by the Dutch West India Company, of the 17th century Dutch province of New Netherland ("Nieuw-Nederland" in Dutch) in North America. Only the last, Peter Stuyvesant, held the title of Director General. As the colony grew, citizens advisory boards – known as the Twelve Men, Eight Men, and Nine Men – exerted more influence on the director and thus affairs of province.
There were New Netherland settlements in what later became the US states of New York, New Jersey, and Delaware, with short-lived outposts in areas of today's Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania. The capital, New Amsterdam, became the city of New York when the New Netherlanders provisionally ceded control of the colony to the English, who renamed the city and the rest of the province in June 1665.
During the restitution to Dutch rule from August 1673 to November 1674, when New Netherland was under the jurisdiction of the City of Amsterdam, the first Dutch governor, Anthony Colve, was appointed.
List of directors.
Restoration of the colony, 1673–1674.
In 1673, during the Third Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch were able to recapture New Amsterdam (renamed "New York" by the British) under Admiral Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest and Captain Anthony Colve. Evertsen renamed the city "New Orange." Evertsen returned to the Netherlands in July 1674, and was accused of disobeying his orders. Evertsen had been instructed not to retake New Amsterdam but instead to conquer the British colonies of Saint Helena and Cayenne (now French Guiana). In 1674, the Dutch were compelled to relinquish New Amsterdam to the British under the terms of the Second Treaty of Westminster.


Tobacco Root Mountains

The Tobacco Root Mountains lie in the northern Rocky Mountains, between the Jefferson and Madison Rivers in southwest Montana. The highest peak is Hollowtop at . The range contains 43 peaks rising to elevations greater than 10,000 feet (3048 m).
Much of the central part of the range is within the Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest, although many, mostly small patented mining claims exist within the forest boundary. The range saw significant gold mining, especially during the 1880s to 1930s.
The high peaks have been extensively glaciated, and most of the larger stream valleys held valley glaciers during the ice age.
Discovery and nomenclature.
When Lewis and Clark came through southwest Montana in 1805, they named many rivers — but if they referred to the mountain ranges by name, the names are not recorded. The 1865 DeLacey Map of Montana Territory does not name the Tobacco Roots. The first written reference to the mountains between the Madison and Jefferson Rivers is F.V. Hayden's 6th Annual Report of the Geological Surveys of the Territories for 1873, in which the name South Bowlder Range is mentioned, a reference to the largest river in the north part of the mountains. Although this usage (usually spelled "South Boulder Range") is followed in many Geographies and Atlases of the 1890s and early 1900s, the USGS Three Forks Folio labels the mountains "Jefferson Range."
The earliest known use in print of the name Tobacco Root Mountains is Winchell's (1914) report on mining districts of the Dillon Quad. The name was also used by Billingsley in a 1918 paper on the Boulder Batholith, published by the American Institute of Mining Engineers. "Tobacco Root" appears in most subsequent publications, including Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology reports (at least since 1933), National Forest Maps (since 1938), and the Official Montana Highway Maps.
However, a map in Fenneman's "Physiography of Western United States" (1931) shows a long Jefferson Range to include what is now called the Tobacco Roots plus the Gravelly Range. Oil Company highway maps from the late 1960s and early 1970s show "Tobacco Root Mountains" in the north, and "Jefferson Range" in the south (northwest of Ennis and north of Virginia City). Preliminary topographic maps of the area (Bureau of Reclamation, Missouri Basin Project) from 1947-48 show Jefferson Range, but on the 1950 15-minute sheet (Harrison Quad) the identical topography is labeled "Tobacco Root Mountains" in the same place as "Jefferson Range" on the maps that were just two years older.
The 1947 Bozeman 1:250,000 shaded relief map has Jefferson Range, but the 1958 (Bozeman 1:250,000) and 1962 (Dillon) regular editions use Tobacco Root Mountains.
Origin of name.
The basis for the name Tobacco Root is unclear. John Willard says "Indians and early trappers found a root in these mountains that, when dried and mixed with larb, made a suitable substitute for real tobacco. The root was a species of mullein."
The term "tobacco root" is also an old name for species of arnica; native and European-introduced arnica are wildflowers in Western Montana, including the Tobacco Root Mountains.
Tansley, Shaffer and Hart (1933) attribute the practice of drying a species of mullein and mixing it with kinnikinic (bearberry) to replace tobacco to John Edwards, a prospector from Flint Creek, in the 1860s. He also gave the name to the hills in which the root was found. Kinnikinic, as the name of a mixture and not the bearberry plant, was a leaf-bark mixture, including sumac and dogwood leaves, smoked by Indians and pioneers in the Ohio Valley in the 18th Century. It was probably more or less the same as the "larb" mentioned above.
Other sources have reported the root to be a variety of the bitterroot, Montana's protected state flower. Shoshone Indians reportedly cooked the root and ate it, and it supposedly smelled like tobacco.
Geology.
The center of the range is occupied by the Tobacco Root Batholith, thought to be a satellite pluton of the Boulder Batholith. This Late Cretaceous granitic body intrudes Archean gneisses and schists. Significant gold deposits appear to be related to the intrusion of the Tobacco Root Batholith and northwest-trending faults in the Pony area and elsewhere. The northern flank of the Tobacco Roots consists of thrusted and folded sedimentary and volcaniclastic rocks ranging from Proterozoic Belt Supergroup strata to Cretaceous Elkhorn Mountains Volcanics. Thick sections of Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata, including the Flathead Sandstone and Madison Limestone, are present.
Land characteristics and habitats.
The land is used mostly in livestock grazing and logging. Land stewardship in the North Tobacco Root Mountains and Foothills area is U.S. Federal Agencies at (14.4%), which include BLM at (7.8%), USFS at (6.6%), State agencies at (9.2%), private at (76.4%).
There are 244 terrestrial vertebrate species that are found within the
North Tobacco Root Mountains and Foothills including whitetail and mule deer, elk, and black bears. The area is also habitat to a handful of "Tier I" species. Montana Fish Wildlife and Park's classification of native species with greatest need of conservation including the western toad, flammulated owl, bald eagle, Townsend's big-eared bat, grizzly bear, and Canada lynx, which are all threatened by habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation, especially as a result of population growth/development.


Johan Risingh

Johan Classon Risingh (1617 in Risinge – 1672) was the last governor of the Swedish colony of New Sweden.
Biography.
Risingh was born in 1617 in Risinge, Östergötland, Sweden. After gymnasium at Linköping, he attended the University of Uppsala and University of Leyden. From 1651 to 1653, he held the office of secretary of the Commercial College of Sweden. He wrote the first treatise on trade and economics ever compiled in Sweden in the autumn of 1653. Receiving knighthood, he set out from Sweden early in 1654, to take up his duties in New Sweden.
His first act was to cause the seizure of the Dutch Fort Casimir, which the Director-General of New Netherland, Peter Stuyvesant, had erected just below Fort Christina (near New Castle, Delaware) in 1651. Stuyvesant subsequently responded by leading an expedition to New Sweden and brought the colony under control of his government. After the surrender, Risingh and the other officials, soldiers, and such colonists as were unwilling to become Dutch subjects, were taken back to Europe. Risingh died in poverty at Stockholm in 1672.
Risingh's reports for the period 1654 to 1655, constituting a valuable history of New Sweden under his administration. A contemporary manuscript copy of this report in Swedish is in the National Library of Sweden. This report was printed in 1878, in the appendix of Carl K. S. Sprinchorn's "Kolonien Nya Sveriges Historia " (in English: History of the Colony of New Sweden). A translation of Sprinchorn's text was made by Amandus Johnson.
Risingh is an amusing character in Washington Irving's "Knickerbocker's History of New York." Irving gives a tongue-in-cheek report of the battle for Fort Casimir.


Comet Mountain

Comet Mountain, 3113 m (10213 feet), is a mountain peak in the Pioneer Mountains of the state of Montana, United States, located in Beaverhead County 42 km northwest of Dillon.


Ear Falls

Ear Falls is a township located in Northwestern Ontario, Canada, on the banks of the English River, Lac Seul, Pakwash Lake and Wenesaga Lake. It is located along Highway 105, north of Highway 17 and Vermilion Bay, about halfway between Highway 17 and Red Lake, or about northwest of Thunder Bay.
Ear Falls is entirely surrounded by Unorganized Kenora District. The closest community to Ear Falls is Wabauskang First Nation, followed by the unincorporated community of Perrault Falls.
Etymology.
There are different versions of how the settlement was named after the eponymous falls. The following are three versions of the story found in the museum archives:
The early French fur traders' name for the falls was "Portage D'Oreille", or literally speaking, "carrying place of the ear". Upper Ear Falls, about 1.5 miles upstream, was drowned out when the lake level was raised some when the power dam came into operation, and nothing of it remains today except dangerous ripple rapids with a very strong current.
History.
Fur trade (1680–1880).
The beginning of the 17th century marked the arrival of French explorers to Northwestern Ontario and the beginning of the fur trade. The fur trade would remain the predominant business in the North for the next 200 years. The Hudson's Bay Company and the North West Company were rivals for most of the fur trade era. In 1821 both companies united, and posts were set up in the Ear Falls area on Lac Seul and Red Lake. Remains of these posts could be seen along the lakes in the area until the 1920s when the construction of the Lac Seul Dam caused a rise in the water levels and the remnants of the fur trade were covered with water.
The arrival of the railway in the 1880s began the decline of the fur trade. The Hudson's Bay Company shifted the focus of their posts to meet the needs of the new residents in the area: supplies for miners, lumbermen and settlers were sold at posts and stores in the Ear Falls area.
The railway era (1880–1916).
Following the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway between 1870 and 1885, geologist and surveyors mapped Northwestern Ontario. By 1923, the Canadian National Railway was extended through the boundary of West Patricia with two lines: The Grand Trunk Railway and the Canadian Northern Railway. The railway opened the area to the development of timber, fish and mineral resources.
Development of Ear Falls did not occur immediately with the arrival of the railways as the lines were not close to the town, but occurred when the fur trade was altered as a result of the railway. Supplies were brought in and furs were taken out at the closest point to the rail. Warehouses were erected for shipping and receiving at Hudson (near Sioux Lookout). A steamer was placed on Lac Seul to enhance freight operations.
Red Lake and Central Patricia gold developments (1925–present).
The discovery of gold at Red Lake in 1925 initiated a rise in development throughout areas north of the railways. In the following years, thousands of claims were staked from Favorable Lake in the west to Pickle Lake in the east.
Transportation routes, settlements and power supplies were developed to support the mining industry. It was the success of the gold mines which led to the shaping of the region's transportation, land use and settlements patterns. It was also the Red Lake Gold developments that provided incentive for settlers to locate to Ear Falls. The falls were located on the primary freight route from Hudson to Red Lake.
A generating station was constructed by Ontario Hydro in order to supply power to the mines at Red Lake, which led to the creation of the Hydro colony at Ear Falls. By the 1930s, Ear Falls had replaced Goldpines as the main settlement in the area. When bush planes became more affordable to transport goods, Ear Falls became the jump off point to Red Lake.
Hydro power development.
During the 1920s, the Federal Government considered proposals to regulate the water in the Winnipeg River. By constructing the dam at the head of Lac Seul, the lake would become a large reservoir, retaining the spring run-off for use by power developments downstream on both the English and Winnipeg River systems. Lower Ear Falls was the selected location for the Lac Seul dam.
The construction of the dam at Ear Falls began in the spring of 1928, but not before camp buildings were constructed along the east side of the river. A coffer dam, two earth dikes, excavation and preparations of the foundations of the dam were also completed before construction began. The pouring of concrete commenced in November and work on the dam continued throughout the winter months.
The conservation dam was an economical means to create a storage basis for power developments in both Ontario and Manitoba. The construction of the dam had a dramatic impact on the lake due to a rise in water levels. Upper Ear Falls was drowned out by the dam, and well known landforms around the lake disappeared under the water level.
Ontario Hydro played an instrumental role in the development of Ear Falls. The company realized that many of its generating stations in Northern Ontario were situated in isolated areas. In order to retain operators for these plants, the company recognized that they would need to supply quality housing, schools, recreation halls, stores, hospitals and other buildings. The company also supplied provisions for water supply, electrical services, sewage disposal and fire protection. In 1937, a colony was constructed at Ear Falls.
Ontario Power Generation constructed the Obishikokaang Waasiganikewigamig/Lac Seul Generating Station (GS) beginning its commercial operation on February 18, 2009. OPG and the Lac Seul First Nation have formed a historic partnership that will see the First Nation own 25 per cent of the station. The station has dual names. The Ojibway name, Obishikokaang Waasiganikewigamig, means "White Pine Narrows electricity generating building". White Pine Narrows is the original Ojibway name for the area where the station is located. The English name of the plant is Lac Seul GS. The Lac Seul GS is located adjacent to Ontario Power Generation’s (OPG) existing Ear Falls GS on the English River in Ear Falls. The facilities are located at the outlet of the Lac Seul reservoir on the English River. This station consists of one 12.5 MW double regulated pit turbine and will operate under a rated net head of 9.78 metres and flow of 139.45 cubic metre per second. It will use the excess water flow that has historically been passed by the existing Ear Falls GS. This water will now be used to generate clean, renewable energy. The combined nameplate capacity of the two facilities is 29.3 MW. The existing 4-unit Ear Falls GS was placed in service between 1930 and 1948. Each unit has two intakes. The Ear Falls GS powerhouse is connected to the 185-metre long Lac Seul Conservation Dam which is owned by the Province of Ontario and operated by OPG. The dam is used to regulate water levels and flows for the purposes of power production in Ontario and Manitoba. It is estimated these facilities will generate approximately 185,000 megawatt-hours of renewable energy per year.
Mining and forestry revival (1945–present).
During the Second World War, there was a 50% decline in the gold mining industry in the Patricia District. With the end of the war and the opening of Highway 105 in 1947, the mining industry in the region was renewed. Ear Falls was now linked by road to the Trans-Canada Highway and to Red Lake.
At this time, the Chukuni Lumber Company was operating at Snake Falls. The operation consisted of a saw mill, a small box mill, and about a dozen houses lining the trail that ran through the lumber yards to the saw mill. The children of the workers were bussed to school in Ear Falls. By 1954, plans were made to move the mill operations to Ear Falls. The workers constructed houses north of the highway, along the hydro line. The Chukuni Lumber Company was eventually purchased by Colenso of Red Lake Road in 1968 and the Ear Falls sawmill operations were closed. Colenso was, in turn, sold to the Dryden Paper Company in 1972.
In the early 1950s, ore deposits were discovered on Bruce Lake north of Ear Falls. In 1966 Stelco, an iron pelletizing plant, was developed in the area. The Canadian Northern Railway constructed a line to the mine which crossed highway 105 to the south of Ear Falls and the outlet of Lac Seul to the east of the dam. A new town site containing 100 residential units was developed in Ear Falls North of the dam. Today the mine is closed and the rail line has been abandoned.
On May 14, 1998, the Ear Falls Sawmill opened to produce dimensional lumber (Premium, Stud, #3 & Btr, Economy; 2x3, 2x4, 2x6; 6' to 9' length). The sawmill is CSA certified with a capacity of . The sawmill was built by Avenor Inc. and later sold to Weyerhaeuser, then to Domtar, and is now owned by Eacom Timber Corporation. The sawmill was operational from 1998 to 2009. There were intermittent closures in 2008, and was closed indefinitely in 2009 due to unfavourable market conditions. Eacom has announced a plan to reopen the sawmill with an anticipated start date in mid- to late- 2014.
In 2013, EACOM and the local union, Unifor, signed an 8-year agreement from 2014 to 2022. The sawmill commenced operation in August 2014. Unifor estimates as many as 125 of its members will have work at the sawmill site and up to 175 more will be employed in log harvesting and hauling operation.
Tourism (1945–present).
The construction of Highway 105 helped to introduce tourism to the area, with hunting and fishing camps constructed on lakeshore sites along the highway. It also provided access points to Lac Seul, Cedar River and Chukuni River. Ear Falls is a natural funnel for supplies and services, due to its location between Vermillion Bay and Red Lake and its waterway access points.
A tourist camp was built around the former Hudson's Bay store at Goldpines. Camps were also operated at Little Canada and Snake Falls. Once the Ontario Hydro construction at Manitou Falls was completed and the lumber company had closed, the tourist industry became the economic mainstay of the Ear Falls community. Hunting and fishing have been a popular draw to the area for years, and more recently, eco-tourism has added an additional element to the tourism experience of Ear Falls.
In 2019, the Township of Ear Falls, in coordination with Accommodation Facilities in the Tourism Sector, reviewed the option of implementing a Municipal Accommodation Tax in the municipality. Council has determined that the Municipal Accommodation Tax, as revenue tool, does not appear to be in the best interest of the community at large due to the relatively low level of revenue that would be generated and the increased costs to administer another form of taxation. Council determined that a Municipal Accommodation Tax will not be implemented for Ear Falls.
Demographics.
Historic populations:
Services.
Ear Falls offers essential services and shopping for residents and tourists. The municipal water and sewage treatment plants are able to support a population of five times the current population.
Other facilities include a Community Health Centre (built in 2010) and a Municipal Government Building (constructed in 2011) which contains the Municipal Office, Fire Hall, Day Care, Public Library, Best Start Hub (Parent Resource Centre) and a Museum as well as public meeting rooms.
Education.
Ear Falls has an elementary school and day care service. Older children go to secondary school in Red Lake at the Red Lake District High School. Adult Education services and Distance Education services are also available in the community.
Activities.
Ear Falls tourism is centered on outdoor recreation. It has numerous fishing and hunting camps located throughout the area, catering to both novice and seasoned fishermen alike. Each year during the hunting season, the town draws hundreds of hunters from all over the world.
In the summer months, mountain biking, ATVs, hiking and geocaching are some of the ways to see the wildlife and experience the outdoors. In the winter months, activities include snowmobiling, snow-shoeing, ice fishing and cross-country skiing are common. The community utilizes a few different Facebook Groups to advertise local events (search Township of Ear Falls (@earfalls), Ear Falls Central and Ear Falls Best Start Hub (@earfallsbeststarthub)
Every year, the community hosts the annual Trout Forest Music Festival.


La Garita Mountains

The La Garita Mountains are a high mountain range in the San Juan Mountains, a sub-range of the Rocky Mountains. The mountains are located in Saguache and Mineral counties in southwestern Colorado and are almost entirely managed as public land within the Gunnison National Forest and the Rio Grande National Forest.
The La Garita Mountains lie within the La Garita Wilderness, one of Colorado's lesser known, but more picturesque, wilderness areas. "La Garita means "the lookout" in Spanish, and this wilderness amply deserves the name. From the summit of this wilderness's single fourteener (14,014 foot San Luis Peak), climbers can gaze across the upper Rio Grande Valley and down the long stretch of the San Luis Valley. About 35 miles of the Continental Divide lie well above a sprawling forestland that provides ideal habitats for huge numbers of elk and mule deer.
Geology.
During the Oligocene epoch, a series of caldera building eruptions of titanic proportions, some as large as VEI-8, devastated what is now Colorado and raised up the mountain chain, part of the San Juan Mountains. The La Garita supervolcano's mega-colossal eruption created 5000 km3 of tephra, the largest eruption known. The volcanic area has been extinct for tens for millions of years and is of no danger to anyone.
Mountains.
According to the U.S. Geological Survey, the following peaks are part of the La Garita Mountains:


Dease Lake

Dease Lake is a small community located in the Cassiar Country of the Northern Interior of British Columbia, Canada. It is located a few hours south of the Yukon border on Stewart–Cassiar Highway (Highway 37) at the south end of the lake of the same name. Dease Lake is the last major centre before the Alaska Highway while driving north bound, and also the junction to Telegraph Creek and the Grand Canyon of the Stikine. Dease Lake Indian Reserve No. 9 is located nearby and is under the governance of the Tahltan First Nation band government.
The town sits astride a pass separating the basins of the Dease River (N) from that of the Tanzilla (S), a tributary of the Stikine. The pass is part of Continental Divide and is a division point between drainage to the Pacific Ocean, via the Stikine, and the Arctic Ocean, via the Liard and Mackenzie Rivers.
The town has a school, various stores, a fuel and service station, hotel, and a Northern Lights College campus. It used to have a restaurant and a pub, but both have closed. The town sees a large influx of visitors during the summer months from tourists on their way to the Alaska Highway, Yukon, and Alaska. A majority of these tourists are from Canada or the United States. Dease Lake is also a destination for hunting and other wilderness activities, and the local economy benefits from local gold, copper, and jade mining and exploration activities.
History.
In 1837 a Hudson's Bay Company post, known as Lake House, was created by Robert Campbell on the shore of Dease Lake about north of the Stikine River and south of where the present day Alaska Highway passes. The Lake had been named in 1834 for Chief Factor Peter Warren Dease, and would become a major junction for miners travelling to the gold rush in Cassiar (later an asbestos mine). Although the fort was abandoned soon after, the town based around the fort lived on, and was renamed Dease Lake in 1934 by then-Chief Trader John McLeod.
During the 1960s and 1970s, BC Rail started to build an extension of their line towards Dease Lake, but construction was halted. Grading was completed all the way, and can still be seen from the air at .
Geography.
North of Dease Lake is Good Hope Lake () and the Alaska Highway (). South of Dease Lake is Iskut (), Stewart (), and Kitwanga ().
Climate.
Dease Lake has a subarctic climate (Köppen "Dfc"), typical of northern British Columbia. Summers are mild, coupled with chilly nights while winters are severely cold and snowy, with annual snowfall averaging . Autumn typically begins by early September and lasts into October when winter begins. Winter can last into late March or sometimes early April. Spring usually lasts until late May or early June, after when summer begins. Due to Dease Lake's high elevation, snowfall is possible during any month of the year.


Kenora

Kenora (), originally named Rat Portage (), is a small city situated on the Lake of the Woods in Northwestern Ontario, Canada, close to the Manitoba boundary, and about east of Winnipeg. It is the seat of Kenora District.
The town of Rat Portage was renamed in 1905 by using the first two letters of itself and the neighbouring towns of Keewatin and Norman to form the present-day City of Kenora. In 2001, the towns of Kenora and Keewatin as well as the unincorporated communities of Norman and Jaffray Melick amalgamated under the "Municipal Act, 2001".
Kenora is the administrative headquarters of the Anishinabe of Wauzhushk Onigum, Obashkaandagaang Bay, and Washagamis Bay First Nations band governments.
Toponymy.
The name "Kenora" was coined by combining the first two letters of "Ke"ewatin, "No"rman and "Ra"t Portage.
History.
Kenora's future site was in the territory of the Ojibway when the first European, Jacques de Noyon, sighted Lake of the Woods in 1688.
Pierre de La Vérendrye established a secure French trading post, Fort Saint Charles, to the south of present-day Kenora near the current Canada/U.S. border in 1732, and France maintained the post until 1763 when it lost the territory to the British in the Seven Years' War. Until then, it was the most northwesterly settlement of New France. In 1836 the Hudson's Bay Company established a post on Old Fort Island, and in 1861, the Company opened a post on the mainland at Kenora's current location.
In 1878, the company surveyed lots for the permanent settlement of "Rat Portage" ("portage to the country of the muskrat") — the community kept that name until 1905, when it was renamed "Kenora".
Kenora was once claimed as part of the Province of Manitoba, and there are early references to Rat Portage, Manitoba. There was a long lasting argument between the two provinces known as the Ontario-Manitoba boundary dispute. Each province claimed the town as part of their territory and the dispute lasted from 1870 to 1884. Although Ottawa had ruled the town part of Manitoba in 1881, the issue was finally taken up with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council which eventually decided in Ontario's favour. Kenora officially became part of the province of Ontario in 1889. Boundaries were drawn up for the provinces and the Northwest Angle on Lake of the Woods which definitively drew the borders between Ontario, Manitoba, Canada, and Minnesota, U.S.
Gold and the railway were both important in the community's early history: gold was first discovered in the area in 1850, and by 1893, 20 mines were operating within of Rat Portage, and the first Canadian ocean-to-ocean train passed through in 1886 on the Canadian Pacific Railway. Among the entrepreneurs attracted to the town was the Hon. JEP Vereker, a retired British army officer and youngest son of the 4th Viscount Gort.
Later, a highway was built through Kenora in 1932, becoming part of Canada's first coast-to-coast highway in 1943, and then part of the Trans-Canada Highway, placing the community on both of Canada's major transcontinental transportation routes. The original barrier to the completion of the highway concerned the crossing of the Winnipeg River at two locations. The single span arch bridges are among the longest of their type in North America.
During the Prohibition era in the United States, the Lake of the Woods served as a smuggler's route for the transport of alcohol.
In December 1883, there was a large fire in Rat Portage, rendering 70 of the town's then population of 700 homeless.
The Stanley Cup was won by the Kenora Thistles hockey team in 1907. The team featured such Hall of Famers as Billy McGimsie, Tommy Phillips, and Art Ross, for whom the Art Ross Trophy is named. Kenora is the smallest town to have won a major North American sports title.
Rat Portage is mentioned in Algernon Blackwood's famous 1910 story, "The Wendigo".
In 1967, the year of the Canadian Centennial, Kenora erected a sculpture known as Husky the Muskie. It has become the town's mascot and one of its most recognizable features.
A dramatic bank robbery took place in Kenora on May 10, 1973. An unknown man entered the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce heavily armed and wearing a "dead man's switch", a device utilising a clothespin, wires, battery and dynamite, where the user holds the clothespin in the mouth, exerting force on the clothespin. Should the user release the clothespin, two wires attached to both sides of the pin complete an electrical circuit, sending current from the battery, detonating the explosives. After robbing the bank, the robber exited the CIBC, and was preparing to enter a city vehicle driven by undercover police officer Don Milliard. A sniper, Robert Letain, positioned across the street, shot the robber, causing the explosives to detonate and kill the robber. Most of the windows on the shops on the main street were shattered as a result of the blast. Recently, Kenora Police submitted DNA samples from the robber's remains to a national database to identify him; however, the suspect was never positively identified.
The importance of the logging industry declined in the second part of the 20th century, and the last log boom was towed into Kenora in 1985. The tourist and recreation industries have become more important.
Geography.
Neighbourhoods.
In addition to the formerly separate towns of Keewatin and Jaffray Melick, the city also includes the neighbourhoods of Norman, Rabbit Lake, Rideout, Pinecrest, Minto, and Lakeside.
Keewatin currently forms the westernmost section of the City of Kenora. Norman was a small community located halfway between the village of Keewatin and Rat Portage. The Village of Keewatin was founded in 1877 while the Village of Norman was founded in 1892; both communities amalgamated with Rat Portage in 1905 to form the Township of Kenora. Keewatin eventually separated and was founded as a Township in 1908.
The Jaffray Melick neighbourhood currently delineates the north-easternmost section of the City of Kenora. The Township of Jaffray was founded in 1894 and the Township of Melick in 1902; the two townships were amalgamated in 1908 as Jaffray and Melick, and renamed as Jaffray Melick in 1911. Compared to Keewatin, Norman, and Rat Portage, Jaffray Melick is the most rural community, with few retail stores and one golf course, Beauty Bay, on Black Sturgeon lake.
Climate.
Kenora has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification "Dfb") with warm summers and cold, dry winters. Its climate is influenced by continental air masses. Winters are cold with a January high of and a low of . Temperatures below occur on 45 days. The average annual snowfall is , which is lower than places to the east as it is influenced by the dry air of continental high pressure zones, resulting in relatively dry winters. Summers are warm with a July high of and a low of and temperatures above occur on 5.3 days. The average annual precipitation is , with most of it being concentrated in the summer months with June being the wettest month and February the driest.
During the winter Kenora will get precipitation mostly in the form of snow, other forms of winter precipitation include ice, sleet, and freezing rain. Snow cover usually lasts from November till March, about 154 days or 42% of the year;. The city frequently gets thunderstorms during the summer, averaging 24 days a year with thunderstorms.
The highest temperature ever recorded in Kenora was on 11 July 1936. The coldest temperature ever recorded was on 20 January 1943.
Demographics.
Kenora had a population of 15,096 people in 2016, which was a decrease of 1.6% from the 2011 census count. The median household income in 2005 for Kenora was $59,946, which is slightly below the Ontario provincial average of $60,455.
Economy.
Forestry, tourism and mining are the three largest sectors of the Kenora economy. The population balloons in the spring and summer to almost double the normal population when summer residents move in. The Lake of the Woods and numerous smaller lakes situated all around Kenora are the major draw for cottagers who summer here. Many are from the neighbouring province of Manitoba and the state of Minnesota.
Tourism.
Kenora, a site of natural attractions, has visitors from all over the world year round. In the summer months visitors come to the area to undertake activities including swimming, biking, fishing, hiking, and boating. Kenora's tourist industry is also active during the winter months as visitors come not only to observe its natural environment but also to partake in ice fishing, snowboarding, skiing (both downhill and cross country) and snowmachining.
Kenora has two travel information centres. One is the newly renovated (2011) pavilion, located on the Harbourfront (the blue and grey building on Bernier Dr). The second information centre, called the Discovery Centre, opened July 22, 2011, and serves visitors year-round from its location at 931 Lake View Drive (just off of highway 17 West aka the Trans Canada highway).
Arts and culture.
The city's most prominent cultural venue is the downtown Harbourfront, a park on the shore of Lake of the Woods which hosts the city's annual winter and summer festivals, as well as concert series, and other special events.
Kenora is home to Huskie the Muskie, a statue of a fighting muskellunge. Huskie the Muskie, as it is known, is situated in McLeod Park at the northernmost tip of Lake of the Woods.
The city's downtown core has a public arts project, with 20 murals depicting the region's history painted on buildings in the business district.
The city is home to a major international freshwater bass fishing tournament.
Kenora is sometimes stereotyped as an archetypal hoser community, evidenced by the phrase "Kenora dinner jacket" as a nickname for a hoser's flannel shirt.
The City of Kenora is home to the Lake of the Woods Museum, which has won awards from the Ontario Historical Society and the Ontario Museum Association for its exhibits and programming. It was called "one of the coolest little museums in Canada" by the CAA. In June 2011, the Museum was recognized by the Ontario Historical Society for its exhibit, "Bakaan nake'ii ngii-izhi-gakinoo'amaagoomin (We Were Taught Differently): The Indian Residential School Experience," based on stories of residential school life told by local residents. Most recently the museum in 2012 the museum was awarded the 2012 Ontario Museum Association Award of Excellence in Special Projects for its work on the IPad based "mobile tour".
St. Alban's Anglican Cathedral is in Kenora.
The now defunct Kenora Thistles ice hockey team is widely seen as a monument in the city's history, having won the Stanley Cup in 1907, making Kenora the smallest city to have ever gotten the trophy. Many local contemporary ice hockey clubs pay homage to the team by using its name, including the town's amateur, junior, and senior-level men's team.
Government.
Kenora is represented in the House of Commons by Conservative MP Eric Melillo, and in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario by MPP Greg Rickford of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario.
Kenora has been served by two mayors since the municipal amalgamation in 2000. Dave Canfield served from 2000 until 2006, when he was defeated by Len Compton in the 2006 municipal election; Compton did not run in the subsequent 2010 municipal election, however, and Canfield was re-elected as his successor.
Some residents of Kenora, citing dissatisfaction with the level of government service provided to the region by the provincial government, have proposed that the region secede from Ontario to join the province of Manitoba.
Military presence.
The federal government maintains an armoury (Kenora Armoury at 800-11th Avenue North) in Kenora for the 116th Independent Field Battery, RCA.
Infrastructure.
Transportation.
Via Rail offers passenger service to Redditt on the CN transcontinental rail line, approximately 30 minutes and north of Kenora. The CP transcontinental rail line passes directly through town.
Kenora Airport is located east northeast of the city centre.
M.S. Kenora is a cruise located at the waterfront.
Highway 17 passes through Kenora's urban core, and the Highway 17A Kenora By-Pass goes around the city. Both routes are designated as part of the Trans-Canada Highway. Highway 658 extends northerly from Kenora to Redditt.
Kenora Transit operates three routes, from Monday to Saturday, 7:00am to 6:30pm.
Health care.
Kenora's hospital, Lake of the Woods District Hospital, has three facilities in the city: the hospital itself, Morningstar Rehabilitation Centre, and Mental Health and Addictions services, located in St. Joseph's Health Centre.
Housing.
Since Kenora is one of two judicial districts in Northwestern Ontario, it has disproportionate housing shortage as people from across the region with little to no social support in Kenora are unable to find places to stay after release from prison or while waiting in the city before their court dates. The situation worsened in 2013, when the judge in the Rainy River District moved and the position and its responsibilities was transferred to Kenora.
Education.
Two school boards and a community college function in the Kenora Area.
The Keewatin-Patricia District School Board operates one high school (Beaver Brae Secondary School) and four elementary schools (Keewatin Public School, Evergreen School, King George IV School, and Valleyview School).
The Kenora Catholic District School Board operates one high school (Saint Thomas Aquinas High School) and three elementary schools (École Ste. Marguerite-Bourgeois, Pope John Paul II School and St. Louis School). The elementary school, officially named Pope John Paul II, amalgamated approximately 350 students from the former Mount Carmel and Our Lady of the Valley schools. École Ste. Marguerite-Bourgeois is a French immersion school.
Confederation College has a Kenora campus and serves post-secondary and adult education needs in the city and surrounding area.
Housed within the college is Contact North, which offers Kenora residents local access to university and college programs not directly offered by the college campus. Contact North is Ontario's most extensive distance education network providing access to education and training opportunities in remote locations of Northern Ontario through a network of access centres. Contact North works with 13 colleges and universities.
There is also an Indigenous college and education facility added called Seven Generations, located in the building that once housed Lakewood Junior High School before becoming Seven Generations Education Institute. It prepares Indigenous and Non-Indigenous students for work within the community and surrounding region.
Media.
The major news source in Kenora is the "Kenora Daily Miner and News", one of Canada's smallest daily newspapers.
Television.
Kenora was Canada's smallest (and North America's second smallest) television market, served by only one television station, CJBN-TV channel 13, a Global affiliate that ceased broadcasting in January 2017. The Kenora region is not designated as a mandatory market for digital television conversion. The Winnipeg outlets of CBC Television (CBWT-DT), Radio-Canada (CBWFT-DT), CTV (CKY-DT) and Global (CKND-DT) are piped in via cable.


Samuel Blommaert

Samuel Blommaert ("Bloemaert", "Blommaerts", "Blommaart", "Blomert", etc.) (11 or 21 August 1583 in Antwerp – 23 December 1651 in Amsterdam ) was a Flemish/Dutch merchant and director of the Dutch West India Company from 1622 to 1629 and again from 1636 to 1642. In the latter period he was a paid commissioner of Sweden in the Netherlands and he played a dubious but key role in Peter Minuit's expedition that led to the Swedish colonizing of New Sweden. In 1645 he was appointed for a third time as a manager of the WIC, being one of the main investors from the beginning.
Early life.
Blommaert was born in Antwerp, Duchy of Brabant, in current day Belgium. He was the son of Margaretha Hoefnagel and the wealthy merchant Lodewijk Blommaert (1537–1591), who in 1581 was schepen of Antwerp and in 1583 captain at Fort Lillo on the eastern border of the Scheldt. Margaretha died when Samuel was young and his father moved the family to London when Antwerp was occupied in 1585 by the Duke of Parma. He remarried but died in 1591. Samuel was apprenticed in Stade, The Hague, and Vienna. In 1602 he visited Benin. In 1603, Samuel enlisted with the Dutch East India Company and traveled to the Dutch East Indies on a ship under admiral Steven van der Hagen. In the years 1605–1606 he stayed on Borneo. In 1607 he was sent by the board to Sukadana West Kalimantan to rescue Hans Roeff, who had died when Blommaert arrived. He returned to Bantam with 633 diamonds. In 1609/1610 he again stayed on Sambas, Borneo. In September 1610 he left sooner than expected for Texel and arrived in June 1611. Pieter Both had to investigate the case.
He settled in Amsterdam, where he became a prominent merchant. On 5 June 1612, he married Catharina Reynst, a daughter of Gerard Reynst, with whom he would have 12 children between 1613 and 1633, each born in Amsterdam. His daughter Constantia (1626-) married the admiral Isaac Sweers.
Early career.
Blommaert was involved in a company which traded on Angola, together with Frans Jacobsz. Hinlopen, and Lucas van der Venne. In 1615 Jacob le Maire carried a letter from his father to be presented to Governor Reynst, with an offer to carry (smuggle) goods to his son-in-law Samuel Blommaert in Amsterdam. Blommaert was investigated in Amsterdam by the board of the East-India Company on January 30, 1616 about a vessel, named "Mauritius de Nassau", sailed from a Dutch port, under the command of Jan Remmetszoon, of Purmerend. The ship was ostensibly destined for Angola, but from there she was ordered to direct her course for "Terra Australe, called Terra del Fuego." The plan, therefore, was, from the west coast of Africa to sail southward, until the supposed South-land should have been reached, and then "to explore the whole of the coast of Terra Australi as far as the Straits of Magellanes, on the chance of finding an opening that might allow a passage to the South-sea; and on such opening being found, to run into and through the same, in order to discover whether they could in such manner get into the South-sea; should such passage to the South-sea have been found, they had orders to return home forthwith, but in case adverse circumstances should prevent them from doing so, they were to run on for the East Indies."
After November 1620 he settled on Keizersgracht with a view on Westerkerk. He told one of his neighbors, professor Nicolaes Tulp, stories on bestiality he heard on Borneo.
New Netherlands.
By 1622, he had become one of the directors of the Amsterdam chamber of the recently founded Dutch West India Company. For years Blommaert was involved in the copper trade and industry. In 1627 he had an argument about a cargo of 34 Swedish guns. In 1628 he collaborated with Kiliaen van Rensselaer, Samuel Godijn en Albert Coenraetsz. Burgh. In company with Godyn, a fellow-director, he bargained with the natives for a tract of land reaching from Cape Henlopen to the mouth of the Delaware River. This was in 1629, three years before the charter of Maryland, and is the oldest deed for land in the state of Delaware. The purchase was ratified in 1630 by Peter Minuit and his council at Fort Amsterdam.
A company was formed to colonize the tract that included Blommaert, Godyn, Kiliaen van Rensselaer (Patroon of Rensselaerswyck), Joannes de Laet (the geographer), and David Pietersen de Vries. A ship of eighteen guns was fitted out to bring over the colonists and subsequently defend the coast, with incidental whale-fishing to help defray expenses. A colony of more than thirty souls was planted on Lewes creek, a little north of Cape Henlopen, and its governorship was entrusted to Gillis Hosset. This settlement antedated by several years any in Pennsylvania, and the colony at Lewes practically laid the foundation and defined the singularly limited area of the state of Delaware, the major part of which was included in the purchase. A palisaded fort was built, with the "red lion, rampant," of Holland affixed to its gate, and the country was named Swaanendael or Zwaanendael Colony, while the water was called Godyn's Bay now known as Delaware Bay. The estate was further extended, on May 5, 1630, by the purchase of a tract twelve miles square on the coast of Cape May opposite, and the transaction was duly attested at Fort Amsterdam.
The existence of the little colony was short, for the Indians came down upon it in revenge for an arbitrary act on the part of Hosset, and it was destroyed, not a soul escaping to tell the tale. According to acknowledged precedent, occupancy of the wilderness served to perfect title; but before the Dutch could reoccupy the desolated site at Lewes, the English were practically in possession.
New Sweden.
In 1635, he started a brass factory in Nacka, outside Stockholm, to boost the export. Swedish chancellor Count Axel Oxenstierna subsequently visited Holland. Soon after he left, Blommaert started to send letters to the chancellor to advise him. In 1636, Blommaert became the consul for Sweden in Amsterdam. Blommaert tried to attract workers and experts from Aachen. He secretly assisted with the fitting out of the first Swedish expedition with "Fogel Grip" and "Kalmar Nyckel" to New Sweden in 1637 and engaged Peter Minuit to command it. When two expeditions turned out to be unprofitable for Blommaert, he withdrew. In those years, Blommaert was too heavily interested in seizing Spanish ships, which sailed from the Caribbean loaded with silver, to make the New Sweden colonization more successful.
Blommaert's thirty-eight letters to the Swedish chancellor Count Axel Oxenstierna, from 1635 to 1641 are of great importance to the history of New Sweden. These letters were published in "Repertorium Veterrimarum Societatum Litterariarum" 1870–1879 of the Utrecht Historical Society and in "Bijdragen en Mededeelingen" (1908).


John Askin

John Askin (1739–1815) was a leading fur trader, merchant, and official. He was instrumental in the establishment of British rule in Upper Canada.
Biography.
He was born in Aughnacloy, Northern Ireland in 1739; his ancestors are believed to have originally lived in Scotland with the surname Erskine. He came to North America with the British Army in 1758. After the British took over New France, he entered the fur trade and operated a trading post at Fort Michilimackinac. In 1781, he formed a partnership with Robert Hamilton’s son Alexander and Richard Cartwright; Askin was based in Detroit. From 1786 to 1789, he was part of a group of trading companies known as the Miamis Company. He was also involved in a shipping business and land speculation; he was one of the partners involved in the Cuyahoga Purchase along the south shore of Lake Erie. In 1789, he was named justice of the peace at Detroit. When Detroit was turned over to the Americans in 1796, he became a justice of the peace for the Western District and moved to Sandwich (Windsor) in 1802. Askin was connected to the Family Compact through a number of business and social ties, particularly associating with James McGill, who underwrote much of his debt. Through these connections, he assumed a number of political roles, including lieutenant-colonel for the local militia, member of the Land Board of Hesse, and local magistrate.
In 1795, Askin was part of a partnership with Ebenezer Allen and Charles Whitney of Vermont, Robert Randall of Philadelphia and several other British subjects in Detroit including William Robertson, which planned to buy the entire lower Michigan peninsula from the United States government. Following the transfer of Fort Detroit by the British in 1796, Askin abandoned his farm, Private Claim # 1, which was acquired by Elijah Brush whom later served as Mayor of Detroit.
Concession 2 lot 14, Barton Township; where present day Hamilton, Ontario is, was part of the original Crown Grant to John Askin on July 10, 1801. He sold to Nathaniel Hughson Sr., who sold to James Durand around 1806.
John Askin was the father of John Askin Jr., a fur trader like himself. The senior Askin died at Sandwich in 1815.


Curries Woods

Curries Woods is a neighborhood in the southern part of Greenville in Jersey City, New Jersey bordering Bayonne. It was named after James Curie, who was on the town Committee for Greenville when it was its own Township in the 19th century. The area remained rural until the later part of the century when the Central Railroad of New Jersey built a line connecting ferries to Elizabeth, New Jersey and New York City. Currie's Woods still remained untouched through the late part of the century and it was valued for its woods, rocky shore and dunes on Newark Bay. A lot of the land was eventually lost, but a tract was set aside in the early part of the 20th century. A small cemetery, the Old Greenville Cemetery, was nearby. This park lost much of its land to the city's largest Housing Authority project in 1959, except a small tract in Bayonne, Mercer Park.
Pamrapo.
The area overlapping the city line was earlier called Pamrapo. The name is a derivation of a phrase from the Algonquian language spoken by the Hackensack people, a phratry of the Lenni-Lenape who lived in the northeastern New Jersey at the time of European contact in the 17th century. A possible meaning could be "rock" or "point of rocks" which would refer to the terrain and the original ravine in Bergen Hill, or lower Hudson Palisades, found there. Spellings included "Pimbrepow", "Pembrepock", "Pemmerepoch", "Pimlipo", "Pemrepau", "Pemrapaugh", "Pamrapough", "Pamrepaw" and "Pamropo".
Two streets, one in Greenville and another in northern Bayonne still bear the name. Patents for land Achter Kol (beyond the ridge) were issued in 1654, as an extension of the Pavonia, New Netherland settlement, which were centered on Communipaw and Harsimus. The Pamrapo Bank, founded in Bayonne in the 19th century, takes its name from this area. The Central Railroad of New Jersey maintained a station called Pamrapo along the right of way now used by the Hudson Bergen Light Rail
City Line.
While the original Lehigh Valley Terminal Railway tracks, New Jersey Route 185, New Jersey Turnpike Newark Bay Extension (I-78) create a physical boundary and de facto border with Bayonne the actual city cuts diagonally across the neighborhood along the route of the Morris Canal. The unusual path of the canal was made necessary by Bergen Hill, lower the Hudson Palisades. Travelling parallel to the base of the ridge it was cut through a natural break in the rock formation, and then travelled northwest to join the Hackensack River, a filled portion still seen in Country Village.
Transportation.
Merritt Street,a section of which part is designated Hudson County Route 707, is a short street in the neighborhood where Old Bergen Road and Ocean Avenue end and Avenue C begins. The street is terminus for New Jersey Transit bus 6
See also.
Odonyms in Hudson County, New Jersey


Sierra Madre Range (Wyoming)

The Sierra Madre Range is a mountain range in the western United States, located in south-central Wyoming and north-central Colorado. Geologically, it may be considered an extension of the Park Range of Colorado. South of the Great Divide Basin, the US Continental Divide runs along the Sierre Madre high points. Its western basins drain into the Colorado River and its eastern into the North Platte River. Buck Mountain (11,396 feet (3474 m)) is the highest peak in the range and lies within Colorado. Bridger Peak () is its highest elevation on the Wyoming side of the range.
Copper resources within the range were extracted during the late 19th and early 20th centuries by the Ferris-Haggarty mine which lies about two miles west of Bridger Peak. Its operations were centered near Encampment 15 miles to the east. Gold findings in the range during the 1890s sparked a short-lived gold rush that attracted thousands of prospectors. The possibility of further discoveries renewed interest during the late 20th and early 21st centuries.
Much of the range lies within the Medicine Bow – Routt National Forest. Protected areas include the Encampment River Wilderness, the Huston Park Wilderness, and parts of the Mount Zirkel Wilderness. The range is traversed by Wyoming Highway 70, which (except in winter when the road is closed) crosses the Continental Divide at an elevation of at Battle Pass near the old Battle mining site.
The range supports a number of popular game species, including elk, mule deer, and grouse, along with other species mentioned in the state's Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy Report. In 2009 the state's Game and Fish Department, describing its wildlife as "world class", issued a report recommending that the area's natural values be analyzed and that energy development leases in the area be withdrawn.


Norway House

Norway House is a population centre of over 5,000 people some north of Lake Winnipeg, on the bank of the eastern channel of Nelson River, in the province of Manitoba, Canada. The population centre shares the name "Norway House" with the northern community of Norway House and Norway House 17, a First Nation reserve of the Norway House Cree Nation (Kinosao Sipi Cree Nation). Thus, Norway House has both a Chief and a Mayor.
The community is located by air north of Winnipeg, by air east of The Pas, and by air south of Thompson. To drive from Winnipeg, it is approximately ; from Thompson, it is about . Major economic activities include commercial fishing, trapping, logging, and government services. Seasonal unemployment varies, with peaks as high as 70%.
Norway House was an important establishment of the Hudson's Bay Company for most of the 19th century, serving as a major depot, and from the 1830s, as the seat of the Council of the Northern Department of Rupert's Land.
History.
After the arrival of Europeans in North America, the Hayes River became an important link in the development of Canada. The Hayes was the favoured route between York Factory and the interior of western Canada for explorers, fur traders and European settlers from 1670 to 1870, because transit was easier and food was more readily available. After Anthony Henday's explorations, Joseph Smith was sent in 1756, from York Factory, to explore the area. He ascended the Nelson River seeking Lake Winnipeg. He reached Little Playgreen Lake on September 21 that year.
In 1816, Lord Selkirk sent out a band of Norwegians, apparently ex-convicts, to build a road from York Factory to Lake Winnipeg and a series of supply posts. They built Norway House at Mossy Point on the west side of the Nelson's outflow from Lake Winnipeg in 1817, replacing the former Jack River post at that location. In the last days of the rivalry between the Hudson's Bay Company and the North West Company, prior to their union in 1821, Colin Robertson, of the Hudson's Bay Company from their office in Montreal, organized a brigade of mostly French-Canadians led by John Clarke, bound for the Athabasca country to compete with the North West Company by developing the trade of supplying the colonists in addition to the company's usual business of trading furs.
In 1822, Governor Simpson passed through Norway House in the depth of winter on his way to Cumberland House. Simpson traveled through Norway House to the Columbia District in 1824-25, journeying from York Factory. He investigated a quicker route than previously used, following the Saskatchewan River and crossing the mountains at Athabasca Pass. This route, which passed through Norway House, was thereafter followed by the York Factory Express brigades.
In 1825 or 1826, much of the post was destroyed by fire. In 1826, the company abandoned its position on Mossy Point in favour of its present position on the East River, now known as the Jack River, in order to be nearer to the fishery, the food supply of its population.
In 1830, Cumberland House, formerly the most important post in the interior, was supplanted by Norway House. From the 1830s, the Councils of the Hudson's Bay Company (annual meetings of its chief factors) met at Norway House rather than York Factory. These meetings would involve planning decisions for the following year and promotions from clerk to Chief Trader and from Chief Trader to Chief Factor. Such promotions were within the authority of the Governor and Committee. The recommendations of the council would be given to Governor Simpson who would make his recommendations to London.
The last of the great Northern Council meetings that were started by Simpson a half century earlier was convened at Norway House by Donald Smith in July 1870. The men met around a great oak table with Smith as the new Governor, following his success in negotiations earlier that year concerning the Red River Rebellion on behalf of Canada, and empowered him to represent them in London concerning the rights of the Chief Factors and Chief Traders to share in the £300,000 transfer fee payable upon the surrender of Rupert's Land.
The remnants of the former Hudson’s Bay Company fort established in 1825; the company's principal inland depot for the fur trade and the site where Treaty 5 was signed in 1875 was designated a National Historic Sites of Canada in 1932. Surviving buildings include the Archway Warehouse (1839-1841), the Gaol (1855-1856) and the Powder Magazine (1837-1838).
Demographics.
The northern community of Norway House had a population of 308 in 2011 a decrease of 38.0% since 2006. The community included 155 private dwellings on a land area of 110.15 square km.
Norway House 17 had a population of 4,758 in 2011 an increase of 16.9% since 2006. The community included 2,239 private dwellings on a land area of 72.99 square km.
These two adjoining communities form a population centre of 5,066.
Transportation.
Provincial Road (PR) 373, an all-weather road, leads from Norway House past PR 374 which leads to Cross Lake, through Jenpeg and then joins Provincial Trunk Highway 6.
There is a ferry that shuttles vehicles across the Nelson Channel just north of Norway House. This ferry runs most of the year, except into the winter months when an ice bridge is opened. The ferry is known to get stuck occasionally in the freeze-up season and cause delays.
The most important means of transportation in this remote territory is the airplane. Manitoba Northern Airports maintains Norway House Airport with a crushed-rock airstrip. There are daily flights to Winnipeg on two private airlines: Perimeter Air and NAC Air.
Services.
Norway House has several restaurants, two hotels, a Royal Bank branch, two Northern stores,2 Tim Horton locations and a KFC fast food restaurant, a full service post office, two video stores and paved roads within the community. The Kinosao Sipi Mall and the recently-added cell phone service are improvements to this northern community, as well as Norway House Cree Nation Broadband Internet,
Norway House is served by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the NHCN Band police.
Education.
The Helen Betty Osborne Ininiw Education Resource Centre is a kindergarten to Grade 12 school with preschool program as well. It was preceded by the Rossville Residential school. It is one of the most technologically-advanced schools in the province and one of the biggest schools of the Frontier School Division.
Norway House is home to a regional centre of the University College of the North and has satellite degree programming from Brandon University's Faculty of Education and the University of Manitoba.
Climate.
Norway House has a subarctic climate (Dfc) bordering a warm summer continental climate (Dfb). As is typical in Manitoba, precipitation patterns are dominant in summers, with winters being cold and dry. Norway House has the coldest recorded temperature in Manitoba.
Treaty and York Boat Days.
The Treaty and York Boat Days are annually each summer from the beginning of August for a week; the York Boat events serve as the main attraction. These are team boat races with participants aged 8–18.


David T. McNab

David T. McNab is a Métis historian. He is a professor at York University and cross-appointed in the departments of Equity Studies and Humanities in the Faculty of Liberal Arts and Professional Studies. McNab works on Aboriginal land and treaty rights issues in Canada and as a claims advisor.
Education.
McNab has a Bachelor of Art (Honours) in History from Waterloo Lutheran University (now Wilfrid Laurier University.) A Master of Arts in History from McMaster University and a PhD from the University of Lancaster where he wrote his dissertation on the topic of "Herman Merivale and the British Empire, 1806-1874 : with special reference to British North America, Southern Africa and India."
Career.
McNab has published extensively on historical and contemporary issues related to Indigenous history, identity, land claims and governance, both in article and book form. His book "No Place for Fairness" provides an account of the history of Indigenous land claims in Ontario. He has worked as a claims advisor for a number of Indigenous groups and is an active consultant on a range of Indigenous issues. He was the Aboriginal Historical Consultant for TV Ontario on an hour long documentary on "Legend and Memory: Ontario First Nations", which aired March 29, 2002. This documentary was later nominated for a Gemini Award. He has also worked as a treaty and historical advisor for a number of communities, such as Bkejwanong First Nations, Mohawks of Akwesasne, and Algonquins of Golden Lake.
In 2017, McNab was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada.


Joseph Ingraham

Joseph Ingraham (1762–1800) was an American sailor and maritime fur trader who discovered several islands of the Marquesas Islands while on his way to trade along the west coast of North America. He was also a prisoner in the American Revolutionary War and an officer in the United States Navy.
Early life.
During the War of Independence, Ingraham was a sailor captured by the British. He spent part of the war on a prison ship. In 1787, he was second mate aboard the "Columbia Rediviva" under the command of John Kendrick when it sailed to the Pacific Northwest to engage in the fur trade.
Pacific voyages.
On September 16, 1790, Ingraham set sail from Boston as captain of the brig . The owners and investors of the ship and venture were Thomas Handasyd Perkins, Russell Sturgis, James and Thomas Lamb, and James Magee. These investors also owned the "Margaret", which, under Captain James Magee, frequently sailed in company with the "Hope". Ingraham's intention was to return to the northwest coast to partake in the fur trade. Ingraham and his ship sailed around Cape Horn on January 26, 1791.
Their next stop was at Madre de Dios Island in Chile on April 14. While in this Spanish port they took on some provisions before sailing north again. A few days later, on April 19, 1792, Ingraham discovered a small uncharted island group. These islands were situated roughly nine degrees south of the Equator. Captain Ingraham named the group Washington Islands, and named many of the individual islands: Washington Island for the president, Adams Island for the vice president, Federal Island, Franklin Island, Knox Island and Lincoln Island for a general. The island are approximately at 9° 20' south of the Equator and 140° 54' west of Greenwich. These islands are part of the Marquesas Islands. From the Marquesas archipelago, Ingraham sailed north to the Sandwich Islands before sailing on to the Queen Charlotte Islands on the northwest coast of North America.
After arriving off the coast of North America, Ingraham set about trading for the fur pelts he was sent to bargain for from the natives. On September 26, 1792, Ingraham encountered his former captain, Captain Robert Gray, captain of the "Columbia", in Neah Bay off Cape Flattery. Gray was there to sell his small craft, , to the Spanish. "Adventure" was under the command of Ingraham's former shipmate Robert Haswell. The next day Ingraham and "Hope" set sail with the Spanish vessel "Princesa" that was sailing north to Nootka Sound to deliver Spain's new administrator to that outpost. After spending the summer trading for fur pelts from the natives along the coast, Ingraham sailed to China via the Sandwich Islands, and then back to Boston. On the journey to the Chinese mainland the ship log shows the crew passing by the island of Formosa. This voyage was a commercial failure.
Later life.
During the United States' undeclared Quasi-War with France in the late 1790s, Ingraham served as a naval officer. He was a lieutenant, last appearing on Navy Department records on June 14, 1799. Joseph Ingraham was lost at sea in fall 1800 while serving on the USS "Pickering".
Legacy.
Ingraham Bay and Ingraham Point, in Alaska, are named for Joseph Ingraham.