Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge

Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge is a National Wildlife Refuge located in five separate units in Baldwin and Mobile Counties, United States, directly west of Gulf Shores, Alabama on the Fort Morgan Peninsula. The refuge serves as a resting and feeding area for migratory birds and as a sanctuary for native flora and fauna. The refuge is one of the largest undeveloped parcels of land on the Alabama coast.
Established in 1980, Bon Secour (the name, in French, means "safe harbor") is smaller than most other national wildlife refuges, and is divided into Sand Bayou, Perdue, Little Point Clear, Fort Morgan, and Little Dauphin Island.
The Perdue unit is the most developed. Most units are located on the Fort Morgan Peninsula in Baldwin County, except Little Dauphin Island, which is in Mobile County. More than 50,000 guests visit the refuge annually. The fiscal year 2005 budget was $404,000.
Protected habitats within the refuge include beaches and sand dunes, scrub forest, fresh and saltwater marshes, fresh water swamps, and uplands.
Wildlife.
The refuge seeks to conserve an undisturbed beach and dune ecosystem which will serve as a refuge for endangered and threatened plant, fish, and wildlife species, as well as a habitat for migratory birds.
Some of the refuge's endangered species are the Alabama beach mouse which lives among the sand dunes and sea oats, and green, loggerhead, and Kemp's ridley sea turtles, which nest along the beach.
Approximately 400 species of birds have been identified on the refuge, usually during migratory seasons, ranging from ospreys and herons to seven species of hummingbirds. There have been sightings of deer, bobcat, alligators, red fox, wild pig, coyotes, and armadillos.
Trail networks.
There are four trails in the Perdue unit of the refuge with a combined length of five miles.
Developments.
Bon Secour suffered extensive damage on September 16, 2004 due to a near direct hit from Hurricane Ivan and the accompanying storm surge. Ivan destroyed much of the wildlife habitat and left extensive debris in its wake including propane tanks, boats, jet skis, trailers, parts of buildings, and other construction debris. The Jeff Friend and Pine Beach trail systems suffered extensive damage. Debris cluttered the Jeff Friend unit, while the Pine Beach trail suffered the loss of both the Gator Lake boardwalk and observation pavilion. Following repairs and the replacement of the boardwalk, both trails are now open to the public. The dunes of the Purdue and Fort Morgan units suffered extensive damage but natural processes are beginning to repair the damage.
After cleaning up a second wave of less-extensive damage from Hurricane Katrina, limited access to the refuge beach in the Purdue unit reopened in October 2005.


Straume Nature Reserve

The Straume Nature Reserve () is located in the municipality of Bø in Nordland county, Norway.
The nature reserve lies south of Straume on the west side of Langøya. It includes two lakes—Førevatnet and Saltvatnet—and a shallow inlet called Skjørisen. It covers an area of , of which is water. The area is protected to preserve the central parts of an important wetland area with natural vegetation and wildlife, and especially a rich and specialized bird population. The nature reserve was established on December 19, 1997. Norwegian County Road 820 passes between the two halves of the nature reserve.


Allen David Broussard Catfish Creek Preserve State Park

Allen David Broussard Catfish Creek Preserve is a Florida State Park, located about ten miles east of Dundee, off US 27. This region is part of the Atlantic coastal plain.
Wildlife.
This state park is home to cougars, wood storks, foxes, deer, Florida scrub jays, salamanders, bald eagles, gopher tortoises, bobcats, coyotes, Florida scrub lizards, coral snakes and crocodiles.
Admission and Hours.
There is no entrance charge. Florida state parks are open between 8 a.m. and sundown every day of the year (including holidays).


Rila Monastery Nature Park

Rila Monastery Nature Park () is one of the largest nature parks in Bulgaria, spanning a territory of in the western part of the Rila mountain range at an altitude between . It is in Rila Municipality, Kyustendil Province and includes forests, mountain meadows, alpine areas and 28 glacial lakes. With a little more than 1 million visitors, it is the second-most visited nature park in the country, after Vitosha Nature Park.
It was established in 1992 as part of the newly founded Rila National Park. In 2000 some territory of the national park was reassigned to the Rila Monastery and was recategorized as a nature park because by law all lands in national parks are exclusively state-owned. Most of the park is owned by the monastery. The park includes one nature reserve, Rila Monastery Forest, with an area of , or 14% of its total territory.
The park falls entirely within the Rodope montane mixed forests terrestrial ecoregion of the Palearctic temperate broadleaf and mixed forest biome. There are approximately 1400 species of vascular plants, 282 species of mosses and 130 species of freshwater algae. The fauna is represented by 52 species of mammals, 122 species of birds, 12 species of reptiles, 11 species of amphibians and 5 species of fish, as well as 2600 species of invertebrates. The endemic Rila oak ("Quercus protoroburoides") inhabits only the Rilska River valley within the park's boundaries and is of special conservation significance.
The park is named after the Rila Monastery, a cultural and spiritual centre of Bulgaria, founded during the First Bulgarian Empire by the 10th century ascetic and saint John of Rila. It was designated an UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983.
Park administration and ownership history.
Rila Monastery Nature Park is administered by a directorate based in the town of Rila and subordinated to the Executive Forest Agency of the Ministry of Environment and Water of Bulgaria. The directorate implements the state policy for the management and control of the protected area and controls the coordination between the owner of the larger part of the park, the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, and the state institutions. It maintains the ecosystems and the biodiversity and encourages environmentally-friendly tourism. The park falls within the International Union for Conservation of Nature management category V (protected landscape/seascape). Its territory is included in the European Union network of nature protection areas Natura 2000 under the code Rila Monastery BG0000496.
The territory of the modern park has been closely connected with the Rila Monastery ever since its foundation in the 10th century. The Bulgarian emperors Ivan Asen II (r. 1218-1241) and Kaliman I (r. 1241-1246) donated to the monastery lands, forests and pastures in the valley of the river Rilska, as well as in the regions of Kyustendil, Blagoevgrad, Melnik and Razlog. Emperor Ivan Shishman (r. 1371-1395) reconfirmed the monastery's privileges and further increased its territory with the Rila Charter which describes the borders of the lands. After the Liberation of Bulgaria from Ottoman rule in 1878, the territory of the modern park was under the jurisdiction of the Rila Monastery until 1947, when it was nationalized by the government of the People's Republic of Bulgaria. In 1997 the government adopted legislation to allow the restitution of the nationalized forests and in 2000 the former possessions of the monastery were restored.
Geography.
Overview.
Rila Monastery Nature Park is situated in the Rila mountain range in the south-west of the country. It is entirely located in Rila Municipality of Kyustendil Province with coordinates between 42°03' and 42°11' northern latitude and 23°12' до 23°32' eastern longitude. The park encompasses the western part of the mountain within the catchment area of the rivers Rilska and Iliytsa. Of the total area of 252.535 km2, forests cover 143.707 km2 and alpine meadows – 130 km2. By road the park is accessible through the III-107 third class road which begins from the I-1 first class road at the town of Kocherinovo.
Relief and geology.
The zones of the Rila mountain range that fall within the park are formed mainly by metamorphic rocks – gneiss, biotite gneiss, amphibolite, mica, schist and marble, bordering to the north and to the east with coarse-grained granite, granite-gneiss, smooth-grained granite and pegmatite veins. The metamorphic mantle has a general inclination to the south-west by the magnitude of 35 to 60°.
The average altitude of the park is 1750 m and the highest summit is Rilets at 2713 m. The valley of the river Rilska from the Fish lakes to the Kirilova meadow divides the territory of the park into two principal orographic crests, Skakavishko and Riletsko. They are connected with the main orographic and hydrographic junction of the mountain, Kanarata peak (2691 m), through which passes the watershed between the Black Sea and Aegean Sea catchment areas.
The glacial relief is typical for the highest zone of the park and dates from the Pleistocene. During the glacial periods the limits of the permanent snow cover were at 2200 m. The glaciers melted down 10–12000 years ago. They were of Alpine type and descended into the valleys reaching as low as 1200–1300 m. Evidence of that limit are the moraines along the river Rilska at 1250 m altitude. The most typical features from that period are the cirques found in the glacial valleys of Rilska and its tributaries. Many cirques contain lakes, such as the Smradlivo Lake, the largest glacial lake in the Balkans, or the Fish Lakes.
Climate.
The high vertical amplitude and the western orientation of the valleys of the rivers Rilska and Iliyna to the Struma valley have a considerable influence on the climate. The rugged terrain and the thermocline of 0.7 °C per 100 m determine the significant climate difference between the regions with lower and higher altitude in the park. The mean temperature at the Rila Monastery (1175 m altitude) in January is -2.8 °C and in June is 16 °C, with minimum and maximum temperature of -25 °C and 36 °C respectively. The mean annual temperature at the altitude of 2000–2500 m varies in the interval of 0 to 5 °C; it is negative above 2500 m. Rila Monastery Nature Park is characterized with frequent temperature inversions, i.e. increase in temperature with height, due to the penetration of warm and often more humid air masses of Mediterranean origin from the Struma valley to the west. The number of days with temperature inversions varies between 200 and 220 annually.
The annual precipitation in the lower parts of the park is 700–800 mm. At the altitude of 1000–2200 m it varies between 1050 and 1200 mm, and at higher altitudes the precipitation decreases. The driest month is February and the most humid months are May and June. The annual evaporation is 450–500 mm at the altitude of 800–1000 m and 350–400 mm at 1000–2200 m, which determines a positive water balance. At higher altitudes the humidity of the air is 80–85 % and falls to 30% in the cold and dry winter days. Due to the orientation of the slopes in the park, permanent snow cover is formed by mid-December. The duration of the snow cover at around 1200 m is 160–180 days and reaches 190–200 days at higher altitudes. In March the thickness of the snow cover is 60–70 cm in the lower areas of the park but it can surpass 200 cm in the alpine zone. Melting begins during the first ten days of April. In the cirques the snow firn, which forms specific natural habitat, melts in mid-June.
Hydrology.
Rila Monastery Nature Park contains 28 glacial lakes situated at altitudes above 2200 m. They provide a source for numerous streams and creeks which form the park's main river, the 51 km-long Rilska River. The river rises at the Fish Lakes and flows into the Struma near the town of Kocherinovo. It has a catchment area of 390 km2 and a total annual discharge of 241.9 million m3. Most of the water flow comes from the left tributaries, situated on the northern slopes of the ridge. The main water source is the snow that accumulates in the winter months.
Most of the park's lake groups fall within Rilska's catchment zone – Smradlivite Lakes, a group of three lakes that includes Bulgaria's largest glacial lake with an area of 21.2 ha, a volume of 1.72 million m3 and a depth of 28 m; the Black Lake; Devil's Lake (seven lakes); Monastery Lake (three lakes); Marinkovsko Lake; the Dry Lake; and the Fish Lakes, the largest lake complex in the park, consisting of four entities. The catchment area of the river Iliyna includes the four Karaomerichki Lakes, Mramorets Lake and Lake Kamenitsa.
Biology.
Ecosystems and habitats.
Forest ecosystems cover 70% of the park's territory. The lowest zones (800–1500 m) are occupied with beech forests consisting primarily of European beech ("Fagus sylvatica"), riparian deciduous forests dominated by grey alder ("Alnus incana") and mixed forests of beech, common hornbeam ("Carpinus betulus") and hop hornbeam ("Ostrya carpinifolia"). Above these ecosystems are located xerothermic oak forests, dominated by sessile oak ("Quercus petraea"), whose upper zones are covered by European beech, European silver fir ("Abies alba") and Bulgarian fir ("Abies borisii-regis"). Coniferous ecosystems occupy altitudes between 1300 and 2200 m and consist of Norway spruce ("Picea abies"), Macedonian pine ("Pinus peuce"), Scots pine ("Pinus sylvestris") and firs. Secondary ecosystems that replace primeval forests cover 5% of the park consist mainly of common aspen ("Populus tremula"), silver birch ("Betula pendula") and common hazel ("Corylus avellana") replacing spruce and pine forests. The park is the only habitat of a local endemic tree species, the Rila oak ("Quercus protoroburoides") that grows only in three localities along the Rilska River valley.
Alpine ecosystems cover 20% of the park's area at 2200–2500 m and are dominated by dwarf mountain pine ("Pinus mugo"). Other species in these ecosystems are green alder ("Alnus viridis"), Waldstein's willow ("Salix waldsteiniana"), common juniper ("Juniperus communis"), "Chamaecytisus absinthioides" and "Festuca valida". Grass ecosystems consist primarily of perennial grasses, such as "Sesleria comosa", "Festuca riloensis", "Agrostis rupestris", etc. A specific element of these ecosystems is the calcareous vegetation zone with species like "Elyna bellardii", "Carex kitaibeliana", "Salix retusa", "Salix reticulata", "Dryas octopetala", etc.
Rila Monastery Nature Park falls within the Rodope montane mixed forests terrestrial ecoregion of the Palearctic temperate broadleaf and mixed forest. The park includes 85 habitats based on the Coordination of Information on the Environment (CORINE) classification methodology, or 21% of all habitats in Bulgaria. Of them, 37 are found exclusively in the forest zone, 34 in the Alpine zone and 14 are found in both zones.
Flora.
The park is home to 1400 species of vascular plants, or 38.88% of Bulgaria's total diversity. The highest number of species is concentrated in the coniferous and subalpine zones. The highest concentration of species is found in the Rila Monastery Forest Reserve, the valleys of the rivers Iliyna and Radovichka, and at the foothills of Kalin peak. The least diverse zone is the Alpine, with 250–300 species. There are five florogeographic components – Eurasian (158 species), Cirqumboreal (135 species, including glacial relicts), Central European (125 species), Mediterranean (307 species) and endemic (123 species, including 6 local, 27 Bulgarian and 90 Balkan endemic species). The most common local endemics are Rila primrose ("Primula deorum") and Rila oak ("Quercus protoroburoides"), and from the Bulgarian ones – "Jasione bulgarica", "Alopecurus riloensis", "Silene velenovskyana" and Rila violet ("Viola orbelica"). Balkan endemic species include Bulgarian avens ("Geum bulgaricum"), yellow mountain lily ("Lilium jankae"), "Fritillaria gussichiae", etc. The number of relict species is 110, or 7.86% of the park's vascular flora, including 77 glacial and 33 Tertiary relicts. 96 species are registered in the Red Book of Bulgaria and 14 are included in the IUCN Red List.
There are 35 tree species in the park, which is 32% of the 109 tree species found in Bulgaria. Coniferous woods form 68.3% of the forests and deciduous woods make up the other 31.7%. The distribution by species is as follows: European beach – 21.6%, dwarf mountain pine – 17.4%, Norway spruce – 16.7%, Scots pine – 14.6%, silver fir and Bulgarian fir – 12.7%, Macedonian pine – 6.9%, sessile oak and Rila oak – 4.6%, silver birch – 1.5%, common aspen – 1.3%, grey alder – 1.1%, other – 1.6%. The average age of the woods is 99 years; centenary forests form 53.7% of the total forest mass.
There are 164 moss species, or 58% of the known diversity in the Rila mountain range. The highest moss concentrations are found in and along the rivers Rilska and Iliyna, their tributaries and the wet meadows in the Alpine zone.
Fungi.
The number of fungi species in the park is 306. They are classified into 3 classes, 26 orders, 54 families and 140 genera. The most common order are Agaricales with 109 species and the most diverse families are Tricholomataceae (62 species), Russulaceae (40 species), Cortinariaceae (31 species), Coriolaceae (19 species) и Boletaceae (15 species). The species distribution by forest ecosystems is as follows: beech (69), alder (47), spruce and fir (80), and Macedonian pine (36).
The species with highest conservation importance is "Suillus sibiricus" which in Europe grows only in the forests of Macedonian pine in Bulgaria and the Republic of Macedonia, and in the forests of Swiss pine in the Alps. The number of edible mushrooms is 38, including Agaricus augustus, mosaic puffball ("Handkea utriformis"), peppery milk-cap ("Lactifluus piperatus"), weeping milk cap ("Lactifluus volemus"), charcoal burner ("Russula cyanoxantha"), "Russula grisea" and "Russula olivacea".
Fauna.
Rila Monastery Nature Park is inhabited by 202 vertebrate species. There are 52 species of mammals. The number of bats species is 15, or 50% of the diversity in Bulgaria and 45% in Europe. There are 20 species of small mammals: 9 Insectivora, 1 Lagomorpha and 13 Rodentia. Of them the European snow vole is a relict. The large mammals include 13 Carnivora and 4 Artiodactyla species. The most typical mammals in the park are the grey wolf, golden jackal, red fox, brown bear, European badger, European polecat, European otter, European pine marten, beech marten, wildcat, wild boar, red deer, roe deer and chamois.
The avian species in the park are 122, of which at least 97 are nesting. Important birds of prey with high conservation value include the griffon vulture, cinereous vulture, eastern imperial eagle and booted eagle. The park is one of the two nesting localities in the country of the lanner falcon and the common rosefinch. Rila Monastery Nature Park is an important sanctuary of the hazel grouse, rock partridge, western capercaillie, Eurasian pygmy owl, boreal owl, black woodpecker, white-backed woodpecker, red-breasted flycatcher, wallcreeper, Alpine accentor and Alpine chough. Most of the listed species have at least 5% of their total national population in the territory of the park.
There are 12 reptile species, not counting the spur-thighed tortoise which breeds just outside the park's limits near the village of Pastra. The largest diversity is found in the lower zones – 10 species. Rila Monastery Forest Reserve is home to 5 reptile species. The population of the Aesculapian snake is of European importance. Of national importance are the populations of the slowworm, viviparous lizard, smooth snake and common European viper. The amphibians are represented with 11 species, with highest diversity in the wet deciduous forests and the forest streams. Rila Monastery Forest Reserve is the most important area for amphibians conservation. Three species have a population of national importance: the Alpine newt, yellow-bellied toad and common frog.
The ichthyofauna includes 5 fish species: common minnow, Maritsa barbel, brown trout, rainbow trout and brook trout. The limited number of species is determined by the predominant bodies of water – glacial lakes, streams and upper river courses, which are inhabited by few fish species. Most of the fishes are found in the river Rilska.
The invertebrate fauna is poorly studied. There are between 2475 and 2600 identified species, including 1703 insects, but their actual number is estimated to be 6500–7000. The main hotspots are Rila Monastery Forest Reserve, the area around the Fish Lakes to the east and the Kalin reservoir, as well as the areas around the river Radovichka and Bukovo bardo. There are 96 rare, 85 endemic and 146 relict species; 116 are included in worldwide or European lists of endangered animals. Some of the endangered species include beetles: "Calosoma sycophanta", "Carabus intricatus", "Morimus funereus"; net-winged insects: "Libelloides macaronius"; ants: "Formica lugubris", "Formica pratensis", "Formica rufa"; butterflies: "Parnassius apollo", "Parnassius mnemosyne", "Euphydryas aurinia", "Polyommatus eroides", "Apatura iris", "Carterocephalus palaemon", "Colias caucasica", "Erebia rhodopensis", "Charissa obscurata", "Limenitis populi", "Melitaea trivia", "Zerynthia polyxena", etc.
Cultural and historical heritage.
The principal architectural monument in the park is Rila Monastery, situated at an altitude of 1147 m and declared a UNESCO's world heritage site in 1983. The Monastery is considered to be a cultural and spiritual centre of Bulgaria. With its architecture and frescos Rila Monastery represents a masterpiece of the creative genius of the Bulgarian people and has exerted considerable influence on architecture and aesthetics within the Balkan area.
The monastery was founded by the medieval Bulgarian hermit and saint John of Rila during the reign of emperor Peter I of Bulgaria (r. 927–969). It developed into one of the main cradles of Bulgarian culture, literature and spirituality, and was richly donated by several Bulgarian emperors. In the 13th century the relics of John of Rila were transferred to the capital Tarnovo but after the fall of the Bulgarian Empire under Ottoman rule they were returned to the monastery in 1469. Rila Monastery remained an important centre for pilgrimage. In the 18th century it became one of the main hubs of the Bulgarian National Revival.
The monastery complex covers an area of 8,800 m2 and consists of a church, a defensive tower and monastic apartments encircling an inner yard. The exterior of the complex resembles a fortress with its high stone walls and little windows. The oldest surviving structure is the 23 m high Hrelyo's Tower, constructed in 1334–1335 by orders of the feudal lord Hrelyo. The five-storey tower contains a chapel dedicated to the Transfiguration and decorated frescoes dated from the second half of the 14th century. The other medieval edifices were destroyed in a fire in the early 19th century. The five-domed Church of Our Lady of the Assumption was built in 1833. It is covered with spectacular frescoes and houses a magnificent carved wooden iconostasis, executed in 1842. The residential part contains about 300 chambers, four chapels, an abbot's room, a kitchen, a library housing 250 manuscripts and 9,000 old printed books, and a donor's room. They have spacious verandas, wood-carving decoration, paintings and furniture.
The centrepiece of the monastery's museum is Rafail's Cross, a wooden cross made from a single piece of wood measuring 81×43 cm. It contains 104 biblical scenes and 650 miniature figures. The cross was carved by a monk named Rafail using fine burins and magnifying lenses. The whole process took 12 years and the monk had gone blind in 1802 when the work was finished.
Tourism.
Tourism is the most important sector in the park and has the largest potential to be a source for sustainable income. Rila Monastery Nature park is the second most visited nature park in Bulgaria after Vitosha, which is situated next to the nation's capital Sofia. Around 96% of all adult Bulgarians have visited the Rila Monastery at least once; of them 60% have come more than twice. In 2008 the park was visited by 1,002,204 people. Of them, approximately 1/3 are foreign citizens. More than 2/3 of the visitors come to the park for a one-day trip without staying overnight. Around 90% of all tourists visit the monastery. Half of the tourists arrive in two of the summer months, July and August. More than 2/3 arrive by car via the III-107 third class road, the park's only highway access; the rest come by foot from Rila National Park.
The most popular routes through the park are: Rila Monastery–Kirilova polyana–Dry Lake–Kobilino branishte; Rila Monastery–Fish Lakes–Smradlivo Lake; Rila Monastery–Malyovitsa; Rila Monastery–Seven Rila Lakes and E4 European long distance path.


Zorkul Nature Reserve

Zorkul Nature Reserve is a 1610 km2 nature reserve in south-eastern Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province in eastern Tajikistan, adjoining the border with Afghanistan’s Wakhan District. The area was made a zakaznik in 1972 for the conservation of bar-headed geese and upgraded to a full nature reserve in 2000. It has also been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA).
Description.
The reserve occupies a wide valley 320 km east of the provincial capital of Khorugh, lying between the southern Alichur and Vahan ridges of the eastern Pamir Mountainss at 4000–5460 m above sea level. The landscape consists mainly of gentle slopes of sparsely vegetated alpine steppe. The core of the reserve is the 3900 ha freshwater Zorkul lake at an altitude of 4125 m. The maximum depth of the lake is 6 m. Its surface is covered by vegetation. Bar-headed geese and other waterfowl breed on islands in the lake. Although land use in the reserve is prohibited, its surrounds are used as pasture.
Fauna.
As well as for bar-headed geese, with up to 125 breeding pairs using the site, the reserve was classified as an IBA because it supports significant numbers of the populations of several other bird species, either as residents, or as overwintering, breeding or passage migrants. These include Tibetan snowcocks, Himalayan snowcocks, ruddy shelducks, saker falcons, Himalayan vultures, lesser sand plovers, brown-headed gulls, yellow-billed choughs, Hume's larks, white-winged redstarts, white-winged snowfinches, rufous-streaked accentors, brown accentors, black-headed mountain-finches, Caucasian great rosefinches and red-fronted rosefinches.
Mammals found in the area include long-tailed marmots, juniper voles, silver mountain voles, tolai hares, Royle's pikas, Marco Polo sheep. Siberian ibex, snow leopards, Eurasian lynx, Pallas's cats, grey wolves, red foxes, Turkmenian weasels, stoats and brown bears.
The two fish species found in the lake are the false osman and the Sattar snowtrout. No amphibians or reptiles have been recorded.


Olyokma Nature Reserve

Olyokma Nature Reserve () (also Olekminsky) is a Russian 'zapovednik' (strict nature reserve) located south of the middle reaches of the Lena River on the right bank of its second largest tributary - the Olyokma River at the junction of the Aldan Highlands and Prilensky Plateau in Olyokminsky District of the Sakha Republic (Yakutia). The area is remote and relatively undisturbed, being 80 km from a town.
Topography.
The region is in the foothills of southwest Yakutia, on the Prilenskoye-Aldan plateau, an area cut by river valleys. The major rivers of the Prilenskoye plateau are the Tuolby and Amga River. Within the borders of the reserve are 85 streams and rivers stretching from 3 to 110 km, acting as tributaries of the Olyokma, Tuolby, and Amga.
Climate and Ecoregion.
Olyokma is located in the "East Siberian taiga" ecoregion. The ecoregion covers the area between the Yenisei River and Lena River down to the Okhotsk Sea. Its northern border reaches the Arctic Circle, and its southern border reaches 52°N latitude. The dominant vegetation is light coniferous taiga with Dahurian larch Larix gmelini forming the canopy in areas with low snow cover. This ecoregion is rich in minerals.
The climate of Olyokma is "Subarctic climate, without dry season" (Köppen climate classification Subartic climate (Dfc)). This climate is characterized by mild summers (only 1-3 months above ) and cold, snowy winters (coldest month below ). Snow begins in October in Olekminsky, and last on average 200 days. Average annual precipitation is 400–500 mm.
Flora and fauna.
The reserve is covered 88% by forest, mostly conifers. Some zoning is seen: above 1,000 meters are more tundra communities, in a belt at 900–1000 meters is a sub-taiga of Dahurian larch, and from 400–900 meters is larch-pine forest with alder and rhododendron understory. Olyokma is notable for relatively high levels of bidoversity: of the total 1,010 species of vascular plants in the East Siberian taiga ecoregion, 650 are found in Olyokma.
Ecotourism.
As a scientific nature reserve, the Olyokma Reserve is mostly closed to the general public, although scientists and those with 'environmental education' purposes can make arrangements with reserve management for visits. There are a few 'ecotourist' routes in the reserve that are made available to a limited number of school groups and ecotourists accompanied by reserve guides, and which require permits to be obtained in advance. The main office is in the city of Olekminsk.


Great Pontal Reserve

The Great Pontal Reserve (), formally called the Pontal do Paranapanema State Reserve (), is an ecological reserve is the state of São Paulo, Brazil.
It was created in 1942, but over the years suffered considerable degradation by illegal invasions and squatters.
It was partly flooded after construction of the Eng Sérgio Motta Dam on the Paraná River.
The reserve today is a poor agricultural region mostly used for cattle and sugar cane farming.
Creation.
The Pontal do Paranapanema occupies the extreme west of the state of São Paulo.
It is bounded to the north and west by the Paraná River and to the south by the Paranapanema River.
To the east it was bounded by the advancing agricultural frontier.
European occupation of the Pontal do Paranapanema region began in earnest when the Sorocabana Railway reached the Paraná River in 1917.
Urban centers were built along the railway and intensive logging began, followed by farming of coffee, cotton, peanuts and cattle.
The governor of São Paulo state in the early 1940s, Fernando Costa, created three reserves to protect public land in the region.
The Morro do Diabo Forest Reserve, which later became the Morro do Diabo State Park, was created on 29 October 1941.
The Lagoa São Paulo Reserve was created on 6 November 1942, and the Great Pontal Reserve was created by decree 13.075 of 25 November 1942.
These three reserves covered of forest.
Degradation.
Over the years that followed the Lagoa São Paulo and Great Pontal reserves continued to be invaded by squatters and deforested, often with government support.
Costa's successor, Adhemar de Barros allowed this process, supported by the local mayors.
Lagoa São Paulo Reserve was the first to be invaded, followed by the Great Pontal Reserve, which was reduced by Adhemar de Barros in 1944 from to .
Between 1945 and 1965 most of the Great Pontal Reserve was deforested to make way for large cattle farms or for small farms of 5–15 "alqueires" around urban locations.
Jânio Quadros came to power in 1955 and took a series of measures to protect the Lagoa São Paulo and Great Pontal reserves, which still had much of their forest cover intact.
His successors were not interested in conservation, and in his second term Adhemar de Barros repealed the decrees published by Jânio Quadros, apart from one that had created the Morro do Diabo State Park.
In 1975 the state launched construction of hydroelectric power plants on the Paranapanema and Paraná Rivers.
Employees on these projects squatted on land in the reserves after they were dismissed.
Flooding.
Damming of the Paraná River began in the 1980s for construction of the Engenheiro Sérgio Motta Hydroelectric Power Plant.
The dam was built by the Companhia Energética de São Paulo (CESP).
Law 10.018 of 2 July 1998 suppressed of the Lagoa São Paulo Reserve and of the Great Pontal Reserve that were being flooded by the reservoir.
CESP was responsible for indemnities arising from the flooding.
Later history.
By 1997 the reserve was a legal fiction that existed only on paper.
The government proposed to end the land disputes by an arrangement under which squatters would return a portion of their land to the state in return for a clear title to the remainder.
Three NGOs proposed modifications to the plan, which were partially accepted, to ensure that as far as possible the state would receive forested land.
The forests would be used to create new conservation units linked through corridors to the Morro do Diabo State Park, and surrounded by agroforestry buffer zones.
The Mico Leão Preto Ecological Station was created by federal decree on 16 July 2002.
It consists of four separate fragments of Atlantic Forest within the Pontal do Paranapanema.
As of 2003 the Great Pontal Reserve still officially covered in the municipalities of Euclides da Cunha Paulista, Marabá Paulista, Mirante do Paranapanema, Presidente Epitácio, Rosana and Teodoro Sampaio.
Low fertility of the soil and distance from natural markets has meant that only cattle and sugarcane are profitable, and the region is the poorest in the state of São Paulo.
In 2016 the Institute of Ecological Research (IPE) was undertaking various projects in the Pontal, including bee farming, planting bushes for sale, tree nurseries, coffee farming, studies of large mammals in the forest remnants and the Atlantic Forest Corridors project.


Pettigo Plateau

Pettigo Plateau is a blanket bog and wet heath, Ramsar site, protected area and national nature reserve of approximately in County Donegal.
Features.
Pettigo Plateau was legally protected as a national nature reserve by the Irish government in 1984. In 1986, the site was also declared Ramsar site number 334. The site is a Special Protection Area, and with Dunragh Loughs a Special Area of Conservation. The protected area extends into County Fermanagh, with cross border cooperation in monitoring and surveying taking place there between the RSPB and BirdWatch Ireland.
Pettigo Plateau is located to the west of Lough Derg. The reserve's habitats are blanket bog, lakes and wet heath, being one of the few intact bogs in County Donegal. Among the recorded flora on the reserve are cowberry, white sedge and a wide variety of bog moss species. Fauna include badgers, common frogs, common lizards, Irish hare and otters. Numerous birds live on the reserve such as merlin, hen harriers, peregrines and it is a breeding site for golden plovers. Greater white-fronted geese overwinter at the reserve. The highland blanket bogs of Pettigo Plateau are rare in Ireland, and span low hills and broad basins with a large quantity of acidic, nutrient-poor pools and lakes.
The area is now uninhabited, but two cottages remain from the last families to live on what was part of the Leslie estate in the mid-1800s. Access to the site is along an old trackway that runs through the reserve.


Red Rock Road


Gunns Plains Cave

Gunns Plains Cave is a limestone show cave, near Gunns Plains in the North West of Tasmania, twenty kilometres from Ulverstone.
History.
The cave was first entered in 1906 by a local Gunns Plains man, Bill Woodhouse, while hunting for possums. A possum eluded him down a hole which led him directly to the cave. This opening served as the original entrance to the cave and early tourists needed to descend by rope from it, three stories to the cave floor. 54 steps were later constructed from concrete, leading from the natural cave floor to a new entrance cut into the hillside. This steep and narrow staircase still exists in its entirety and remains the only public entrance and exit to the cave
Because candlelight and torchlight were troublesome, power and fixture lighting was installed throughout to illuminate the walking track and the cave's unique features. In 2003 the system was updated to be of more benefit to visitors.
As of 2004 the cave is maintained on behalf of the Tasmania Parks and Wildlife Service by Geoff and Patricia Deer, who lease the rights to manage the cave. There are daily tours. The cave tour was fully re-lit using LED lighting in 2008.
Features.
The public section of the cave runs 275 metres, is well lit and is for the most part a simple walk.
Many beautiful cave formations are present, such as stalactites, stalagmites, helictites and a large array of dazzling flowstone are present in the public section of the cave.
A further one kilometre of wild cave was mapped in the early 20th century, but is more difficult to access.
Nature.
The cave is a host to an assortment of wildlife. The cave is inhabited by the endangered Tasmanian Giant Freshwater Crayfish, Platypus, freshwater fish and eels. Glow worms (Arachnocampa) can be consistently found with their silk threads dangling from the ceiling. Cave crickets and spiders are also present.


Kanger Ghati National Park

Kanger Ghati National Park (also called Kanger Valley National Park) was declared a national park in 1982 by the Government of India. Near Jagdalpur in the Bastar region of Chhattisgarh, it is one of India's densest national parks, and is known for its biodiversity, landscape, waterfalls, and subterranean geomorphologic limestone caves, and as the home of the Bastar hill myna, the state bird of Chhattisgarh.
Located amidst the 34-km-long scenic Kanger Valley, a biosphere reserve, it is one of the most picturesque national parks of India. It covers an approximately consisting mainly of hilly terrain. It derives its name from the Kanger River, which flows throughout it.
The park is noted for its highly heterogeneous land formations, from low, flat areas to steep slopes, plateaus, valleys, and stream courses. Its vast, undulating terrain harbours habitats for diverse flora and fauna. It has a sizable tribal population, and is a popular destination for hikers, wildlife enthusiasts and researchers.
Coordinates and area.
The location and area of the park can be seen on the map of the region.
The national park lies within the following geographical coordinates:
The total area of the national park is . The valley starting from the Tirathgarh waterfalls to the Kolab River (Odisha State boundary) is nearly long and the average width is about
Flora and fauna in the park.
Flora.
The flora in the park consists chiefly of mixed moist deciduous type of forests with predominance of sal, teak and bamboo trees. In fact, the Kanger Valley is the only region in the Peninsular India where one of the last pockets of virgin and untouched forests are still left.
According to the survey done by the Botanical Survey of India and other research organizations, the national park has 553 floral species out of which 12 species are new to Chhattisgarh; 43 species are reported rare.
Floral diversity includes in situ gene bank of medicinal plants, grasses, climbers, wild sugarcane, canes, ferns, epiphytes, Sal, teak, bamboo and their rich associates.
Fauna.
Major wildlife of the Kanger Valley National Park are tigers, leopards, mouse deer, wild cat, chital, sambar, barking deer, jackals, langurs, rhesus macaque, sloth bear, flying squirrel, wild boar, striped hyena, rabbits, pythons, cobra, crocodiles, monitor lizards and snakes. The avian fauna at the park includes hill myna, spotted owlet, red jungle fowl, racket-tailed drongos, peacocks, parrots, steppe eagles, red spurfowl, phakta, bhura teeter, tree pie and heron among many others.
A few tributaries form marshy land in early dry season due to natural seepage. Ekta Jhodi, Kyam nullah, Karanji Jhodi, Rajamunda, Punji Jhodi, Komkel Jhodi forms good marshy areas which are good habitat of wild boar and sloth bear. Chital, barking deer, and panther are mainly found in this marshy area. Kariya Ama Nallah is a perennial marshy belt and is ideal habitat for the wild boar, sloth bear, chital, leopard and tiger.
The fauna that have been recorded in the national park include:
Human settlements in the park and adjoining areas.
The national park comprises two ranges viz: Kotamsar and Koleng Ranges. The Kotamsar Range, forming the western half on the park is dotted with revenue villages on its boundary and there is hardly any forest area outside the park for fuel wood, small wood, bamboo and other non-timber forest produce. So the Zone of Influence (Zl) for people in this range is 10 km. The Koleng Range forming the eastern half of the park has a lesser number of villages on its boundary and is comparatively free from biotic pressure. So in the central portion Zone of Influence is 10 km and on eastern boundary it is 5 km. All together there are 48 villages within 5 km radius of national park boundary and only one forest village (Kotamsar) is inside the national park.
Geology, rock, soil and terrain.
The national park has remarkable geological diversity. The national park has mainly Cuddapah group of rock formation and at some places Vindhyan group of rock formation, shales are the common rock formation of Cuddapah group, which are horizontally bedded, at many places calcareous, the other rock formation is slate.
In the northwestern part i.e. Tirathgarh, Kamanar, Kotamsar there is outcrop of limestone, sandstone, quartzite and laterites. In northern middle part form Nagalsar to Radhanaras at many places limestone is well exposed and outcrops of quartzite and laterites. limestone caves of Kotamsar, Dandak, Devgiri, and Kailash are present in this part. In the northeastern part from Pulcha to Kolab River, rock is shale and some quartzite with outcrops of granite.
In the southsestern part, rock is of vindhyan group mainly granite and sandstone. At few places granite and mica are also present.
In the southern middle part, rock is of caddapah group of quartzite and granite. At many places mica schist are present. Shale and sandstone have also outcropped.
In the southeastern part, rock is primarily of cuddapah group of granite, shale, slate, sandstone and occasional quartzite outcrop. On slopes laterites are present. At some places vindhyan group of rock are also present.
Soil.
Poor and rocky soil is found on the hill tops and slopes. Recent deposits are alluvial soils, high and low level laterites, and ferruginous conglomerates. The soils are yellowish-brown, brownish red, reddish and brown in colour and mostly residual in nature. These soils are loamy, sandy and lateritic in nature. The thickness of soil varies from 4 to 6 feet. The soil is slightly acidic with PH value ranging from 5.3 to 7.0.
Terrain.
The park is Valley of Kanger River. The river flows from NW to SE direction centrally through deep gorges. Both sides of the valley are very steep and are associated with hill ranges. The entire park area is hilly. The eastern half portion is very hilly; the western half is comparatively less hilly. There are small plateaus interspersed with hills. The entire park is full of seasonal nullahs and these nullahs join Kanger River from both sides. Major tributaries of Kanger river from north are Durmunda nullah, Champal Nallah, Kala Jhodi, Mama Bhancha Nallah, Jaraha Nallah, Matkal Jhodi, Kodri Bahar Nallah, Musari Nallah, Karanjr Jhodi, Bade Beda Nallah, Dudung Jhodi. Major tributaries joining Kanger from south are Munga Bahar Nallah, Ekta Jhodi, Karanjl Jhodi, Raja Munda Nallah, Kyam Nallah, Punji Jhodi, Kataguda Nallah, Komkel Jhodi, Kopang Nallah.
The altitude of the park varies from above mean sea level. Terrain on northeastern, eastern and southeastern sides is very hilly, steep, high and quite difficult for human intrusion. Kolab River on the eastern border is very rocky with dens and is difficult for human intrusion.
The national park is well known for the presence of subterranean limestone caves with dripstones and flowstones [Annexure-9]. The formations of stalactites and stalagmites are still growing. The caves in the national park provide shelter for various species of wildlife. The caves in the national park are inhabited by leopards, porcupines, hyenas, bears, bats, fishes, snakes, frogs, crickets etc.
The overhangs are mostly found in the western part (Tirathgarh) and eastern portion (Near Kolab River) of the national park which provide a good habitat for honeybees especially the rock bees. Dens are found on the rocky portions of the National park where wild dogs (dholes), jackals, wolves, foxes, mongoose, etc. occupy them for shelter and breeding.
Cliffs are present in Tirathgarh waterfall area and in the western portion of the national park along the Kanger River and Kolab River. They provide ideal habitat for bats, eagles, pigeons, swifts and some reptile species. The bouldery drainages can be seen at Tirathgarh waterfall region, Kanger Dhara and at points where the Kanger River flows from steep height.
Sand banks are observed along the Kanger River especially at points where the Kanger River takes a curve. Sand banks are seen at Bhainsadarha located on the eastern portion of the national park where mugger crocodiles ("Crocodylus palustris") use it for basking purposes. Smooth Indian otters are also found using this habitat.
Kanger River.
Kanger River is among one of very few perennial rivers of Bastar and herein lies the importance of the river and the park. Kanger River is a lifeline and hills are its recharging reservoir; the whole national park is the catchment of Godavari River.
Limestone caves.
The Kanger Valley National Park has huge limestone deposits where some of them are in the form of caves and the rest of it are in the form of layers or beds one upon the other. These deposits are present above the soil as well as under the ground level. The underground portions form the caves.
The national park is very famous for the long subterranean geomorphological limestone caves and is a major tourist attraction in the region. All limestone caves are present north of Kanger River between Madarkonta and Kodri Bahar. These are Kotamsar cave, Kailash Cave, Dandak Cave, Devgiri Cave. Many other caves were also discovered in the national park. These caves have very fine structures of dripstones i.e. stalactites and stalagmites. Chemically these formations are recrystallized calcium carbonate. These structures have taken million of years to form.
Kotamsar and Kailash caves are opened for tourists and other caves are closed for tourists. Only those caves which have openings have been discovered in the National park. There are many caves which have no opening and they are yet to be discovered.
Places to visit.
As approaches to most of the places do not have proper signages guiding movements and it being largely a virgin area, one should visit these places with assistance and under guidance of the local inhabitants.
The routes prescribed for tourism in the national park as follows:
Tirathgarh Waterfalls.
Tirathgarh Waterfalls can be termed as "Milky Fall" because of the white colour of the water as it descends down the rocky slope giving an impression as if milk is falling.
It is located around 38 km from Jagdalpur in the renowned eco tourism site of Kanger Valley National Park. The Tirathgarh Falls is one of the most visited waterfalls in Chhattisgarh. Water cascading from the hills surrounding the falls provides splendid views. Splashing streams of water come down at speed from a height of more than 100 feet on the river Mugabahar which originates in a lake not very far away from this point. The area surrounding the fall features green forests.
The water flowing through the various streams and crossing numerous paths along the way in a zigzag manner and finally ending up in the falls is a treat to watch. Besides the natural environment associated with this place, Tirathgarh Falls is also an important religious place featuring a temple which is dedicated to Shiva Parvati. Every year, thousands of tourists and devotees come here from within the state and across India for the views of Tirathgarh Falls as well as to offer prayers at the temple. The best season to visit this place is in the months of October through February.
Kotumsar Caves.
Kotumsar Caves are situated at a distance of about 40 km (25 mi) from Jagdalpur. Kotumsar Caves are about 35 meters below ground level and around 1371 meters long.
Kotumsar Cave is a subterranean limestone cave located near the banks of Kanger River in the western portion of the national park. It was discovered by the local people around year 1900 and explored by a renowned geographer Shri Sankar Tiwari in 1951 and it is one of the best known caves in Chhattisgarh as well as in India.
The floor of the cave consists of soil/clay, pebbles, rocks and water pools with several lateral and downward passages. Perpetual darkness and constant temperature (28 °C + 1 °C) prevails inside the cave. For entry into the cave, cement concrete steps, Steel steps and railings are available near the entrance side.
These caves have got the distinction of being India's first most biologically explored cave. As they are underground, there is pitch-darkness inside. It features stalactite and stalagmite formations. Entry to the caves is through the narrow stairs and visitors have to pass through tall, narrow chambers for gaining access to the main hall that features superb acoustics. The caves feature five chambers having several blind wells. Many tribal tales are also associated with it and are also known as Gupanpal or Kutamsar Caves. The stalactites found inside the cave have been an interesting research topic for scientists and even arouse the curiosity among the visitors.
Kotumsar Cave harbours a variety of fauna like bats, frogs, snakes, crickets, spiders, fishes, millipedes, etc. Fishes and frogs are found in the ditches of the cave where as bats, spiders, crickets are found on the ceilings and walls of the cave. Dr. Jayant Biswas has well documented the biology of the cave organisms living in Kotumsar Cave
There is lack of oxygen when going deep into the caves. In view of which, for safety reasons, entry beyond certain points has been restricted.
The cave is closed from 15 June to 31 October during rainy season. The cave needs removal of debris before tourist season.
Kailash Caves.
Kailash Caves are located in the Kanger Valley National Park area near Mikulwada. The caves are located around 40 km from Jagdalpur. Discovered recently in 1993, the caves are around 250 meters long and are situated at an altitude of 40 meters above the ground level. It features stalactite and stalagmite formations that offer stunning sight.
Access to the cave is through a narrow opening and at the end of the cave is a huge stalagmite formation in the shape of Shivlinga. The hollow walls of the cave, when struck by hand, make incredible musical sounds.
Bhainsa Darha.
It is located at a distance of 65 km from Jagdalpur. Kanger river is full of deep gorges so darha (water pools) maintain very hygienic quality of water. Crocodiles are mainly found in these darhas. One of the famous ones is Bhainsa Darha.
It is surrounded by mountains with thick greenery from all sides. The watch tower situated at Bhainsa Darha gives an awesome view of lake. Bhainsa Darha lake has crocodiles and tortoises.
It takes a drive of about two hours to reach Bhainsa Darha. The best time to visit is during winter season. Remember during rainy season roads are closed. It is risky to travel by bike as roads are not good. It is a dense forest so if a vehicle gets punctured then no one will be there to help you. Also no mobile coverage. So you are trapped. Always prefer 4 wheeler especially going with family.
Kanger Dhara.
Kanger Dhara is located inside the Kanger Valley National Park, 36 km from Jagdalpur. For reaching Kanger Dhara, one should get the applicable permission and tickets from the District Forest Office located at the entry to the park.
It is a picnic spot where individuals and families alike spend time. Small cascading falls give visitors enough space to take a bath.
The best season for visiting the park is from winters up to summers, after which the park closes for the tourist from the beginning of monsoons in the month of July.
Being in the laps of Kanger Valley, Kanger Dhara waterfalls is actually produced by the Kanger River due to presence of undulating rocks present there. Geologists suggest that the area was a sedimentary terrain, later intruded by Igneous rock bodies, due to which, the area has got such folded structures.
Just at the beginning of the downstream of Kanger river, when the river falls from undulating folded rocks, it presents a view of small cascades of water fall, which forms the Kanger Dhara.
Dandak Cave.
Similar to Kotumsar Cave, one can see the stalactites and stalagmites in fantastic formations.
Best season to visit.
The best season to visit the Kanger Valley is November–June.
How to reach the park.
Kanger Valley is well approachable from Jagdalpur in the Chhattisgarh state of India as can be seen on the road network map of the area.
Entry into the national park is permitted form Netanar and Kotamsar barriers. Netanar barrier is situated at 33 km from Jagdalpur on the road passing through village Sargipal, Bodal, Murma, and Netanar. The park starts after 3 km from the Netanar barrier. Main entry of the park is from Kotamsar barrier situated at 27 km from Jagdalpur on the Jagdalpur-Darbha road i.e. NH 221 (connecting Jagdalpur to Vijayawada in Andhra Pradesh). Inside the park there is good network of Murram and Kutcha roads.
Raipur (330 km) is the nearest airport and Jagdalpur (27 km) is the nearest railhead and bus stand from the Kanger Valley National Park.
Rest houses, hotels, lodges, and resorts of good quality are available for lodging at Jagdalpur. Inside the park, forest rest houses at Kotamsar and Tirathgarh are available. The nearest petrol pump is at Jagdalpur. Forest wireless system is at Tirathgarh & Netanar.


E6 European long distance path

The E6 European long distance path or E6 path is one of the European long-distance paths from the northwest tip of Finland through Sweden, Denmark, Germany and Austria to the Adriatic coast in Slovenia. A second section starts again in Greece to finish in Turkey.
Finland.
Responsible organisation: None
European Ramblers' Association doesn’t take the responsibility for E6 in Finland, because of no ERA Member Organisation in this country.
Some of the places passed on the north-to-south route include:
Sweden.
Responsible organisation: Svenska Turistforeningen
Some of the places passed on the north-to-south route include:
Denmark.
Responsible organisation: Dansk Vandrelaug
Route
The E-path starts in Kastrup Airport in Copenhagen and follows the southern side of Copenhagen towards Roskilde.
An alternate E6 starts in Helsingør and follows Nordsjællandsruten to Roskilde. It goes through North Zealand and passes nationalpark Kongernes Nordsjælland.
From Roskilde the E-path follows partly the trail Skjoldungestien to Ringsted.
From Ringsted to Korsør the E-path follows its own track.
In Korsør you take the train over Great Belt to Nyborg, where the E-path continues south towards Svendborg, where it follows the trail Øhavsstien on the southern part of Fyn.
Take the ferry from Svendborg to Ærøskøbing on the island Ærø and continue along Øhavsstien to Søby.
Take the ferry from Søby to Fynshav, where you continue south to meet the Leading Quality Trail Gendarmstien.
Follow Gendarmstien, passing Sønderborg and Gråsten towards Kruså.
The E-path is well documented on Waymarked Trails
The E-path is not well marked on Fyn !
Germany.
Responsible organisation: Deutsche Wanderverband
Some of the places passed on the north-to-south route include:
Austria.
In Austria the E6 follows the routes of Nordwaldkammweg (from Dreisesselberg to Nebelstein) and Nord-Süd-Weitwanderweg 05 (North-South-Trail) to Eibiswald near the Slovenian border.
Some of the places passed on the north-to-south route include:
Slovenia.
Some of the places passed on the north-to-south route include:
Greece.
Some of the places passed on the north-to-south route include:
Turkey.
Some of the places passed on the north-to-south route include:


Extremo Norte do Tocantins Extractive Reserve

The Extremo Norte do Tocantins Extractive Reserve () is an extractive reserve in the state of Tocantins, Brazil.
Location.
The Extremo Norte do Tocantins Extractive Reserve is divided between the municipalities of Sampaio (6.12%) and Carrasco Bonito (93.88%) in the state of Tocantins.
It has an area of .
The reserve lies to the north of the TO-201 highway, south of the Tocantins River.
History.
The Extremo Norte do Tocantins Extractive Reserve was created by federal decree 535 of 20 May 1992.
On 9 December 2005 the Minister of the Environment appointed representatives of agencies and NGOs to elaborate the proposal for occupying the territory of the reserve.
The deliberative council was created on 23 May 2011.
The reserve is administered by the Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation (ICMBio).
It is classed as IUCN protected area category VI (protected area with sustainable use of natural resources).
Its purpose is to protect the livelihoods and culture of the traditional extractive population, and ensure the sustainable use of natural resources of the unit.
Economy.
As of 2009 the population of the reserve was fairly young.
About 25% of the population is illiterate and 32% have no more than three years of education, mostly women.
About 30% of girls do not attend school but help the family in production activities.
The reserve is served by health centres in the Carrasco Bonito municipal seat.
The main economic activity is processing and marketing of babassu palm fruit, mainly by the women.
The men cultivate rice, beans, maize and cassava, mainly for their family consumption.
A 2015 study reported that after 22 years the families of the reserve still lived outside it in surrounding communities.
The result had been constant competition for resources and disputes with farmers, and steady clearance of the babassu to expand pasturage for livestock.


Lough Barra Bog

Lough Barra Bog is a blanket bog, Ramsar site and national nature reserve of approximately in County Donegal.
Features.
Lough Barra Bog was legally protected as a national nature reserve by the Irish government in 1987. In 1987, the site was also declared Ramsar site number 373.
The Bog is a lowland blanket bog in the upper Gweebarra river valley on the southern edge of Glenveagh National Park. It provides a habitat for three bird species protected under the EC Bird Directive, Greenland white-fronted Goose, merlin and golden plover. Adjacent to Lough Barra Bog is the Ramsar site and nature reserve, Meenachullion Bog, making it part of the largest area of intact lowland blanket bog of the northwest of Ireland. The reserve contains many flushes, small pools, and some remaining native deciduous woodland, predominately made up of "Quercus petraea".


Minnetonka Cave

Minnetonka Cave is one of the larger limestone caves in the state of Idaho. It is located in Cache National Forest in Bear Lake County, Idaho, United States, above the village of St. Charles (located at the north end of Bear Lake). “Minnetonka” is a misunderstanding of the words Mni and Tanka, derived from one of three Indigenous dialects: Dakota, Lakota or Nakota. “Mni Tanka”, pronounced (Mini-Tah-“nasal n”-Kah) translates into “Big/Large Water”. Tours through the cave are offered from Memorial Day (weather permitting) through Labor Day by Scenic Canyons Recreational Services, the concessionaire that holds the special use permit from the United States Forest Service. The half-mile route through the cave is lined with stalactites and stalagmites.
The cave is a hibernaculum to five different species of bats. One species, the Townsend's Big-eared Bat ("Corynorhinus townsendii"), while not on the endangered species list is on the lists of both the State of Idaho and the Forest Service as a species of concern.


American Land Conservancy

The mission of American Land Conservancy is to conserve land for the benefit of people and wildlife.
About ALC.
American Land Conservancy is a non-profit land conservation organization dedicated to protecting America’s natural heritage by conserving land for the benefit of people and wildlife. Since 1990 ALC has conserved more than of land and water resources, working farms and ranches, and wildlife habitat, nationwide.
Programs.
In its first 15 years, ALC pursued projects based on the opportunities at-hand, tackling projects across the country. Their work is now focused on the following regional landscape programs:
Conservation ethic.
The organizations 'conservations ethic includes the following principles:
Conservation services.
Direct Purchase – ALC works with landowners who wish to sell or donate their exceptional land for conservation by finding a public agency or conservation buyer to own and manage the land permanently. Funding for acquisition can come from state or federal appropriations, philanthropic foundations or individuals. Sample projects include the BK Leach Memorial Conservation Area in Missouri, Crow Creek Falls in Montana, and High Meadows in Nevada.
Conservation Easement – A conservation easement is a legal agreement between a landowner and a land trust or government agency that permanently limits uses of the land in order to protect its conservation values. It allows the landowner to continue to own and use the land and sell it or pass it on to heirs subject to the restrictions of the easement. ALC often works with a conservation partner who holds and monitors the easement. Sample projects include the Hearst Ranch in California (in conjunction with the California Rangeland Trust) and Bridgeport Valley in California, and Kaskaskia Island in Illinois.
Acquisition of Surface or Sub-surface Rights - Sometimes the surface of a landscape is protected, but a company or individual owns the assets on top (timber), or underneath the surface (mining, water, natural gas). ALC acquires these rights to prevent development and habitat destruction in pivotal landscapes. Sample projects include Bodie State Historic Park in California, Denali National Park in Alaska, and Valles Caldera in New Mexico.
History.
The genesis of American Land Conservancy can be traced to founder Harriet Burgess' first trip down the Grand Canyon. The trip guide was the legendary Martin Litton, founder of Grand Canyon Dories, editor for Sunset Magazine, and as described by David Brower, "conscience of the Sierra Club." Martin inspired her to see the natural world as never before.
Many years and many trips later, Harriet started ALC in order to pursue the protection of another canyon – Topanga Canyon in the Santa Monica Mountains of Southern California. She founded ALC with the contents of a modest retirement fund, and proceeded to option the Topanga Canyon property from the owners—for $1. Ten years later, the project was successfully completed.
Under Harriet, ALC’s mission was to fill a niche in the land preservation movement, taking on projects too large for purchase by local land trusts and too complicated and high-risk for larger, national land trusts. Some of ALC’s signature projects over the years have included the acquisition of tens of thousands of acres for the Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest in California and Nevada, large-scale wetlands restoration along the Mississippi River, and most recently, conservation of the Hearst Ranch on the California Central Coast.
Since the beginning, Martin Litton played a vital role as co-founder, connecting Harriet and her cause to such conservation legends as Bruce Babbitt, David Brower, Pete McCloskey, Margaret Owings, Galen Rowell, Wallace Stegner, Stuart Udall, Ardis Walker, and more. By staying the course and never backing down from a challenge, ALC’s small staff was able to conserve hundreds of thousands of acres across fourteen states during Harriet’s era.


Blanche Harbour-Douglas Bank Aquatic Reserve

Blanche Harbour-Douglas Bank Aquatic Reserve is a marine protected area in the Australian state of South Australia located in the waters of Spencer Gulf adjoining the localities of Blanche Harbor and Cultana on the east coast of Eyre Peninsula.
It was declared in 1980 to protect “the mangrove-seagrass communities and the associated fish nursery areas for fisheries management.”
Since 2012, it has been located within the boundaries of a ‘sanctuary zone’ in the Upper Spencer Gulf Marine Park.
The aquatic reserve is classified as an IUCN Category VI protected area.


Fossil Cave

Fossil Cave (5L81), formerly known as The Green Waterhole, is a cave in the Limestone Coast region of south-eastern South Australia. It is located in the gazetted locality of Tantanoola about north-west of the city of Mount Gambier, only a few metres from the Princes Highway (Route B1) between Mount Gambier and Millicent. It is notable both as a paleontological site and as a cave diving site.
Description and naming.
The cave is formed in 30-million-year-old Oligocene coralline limestone. The cave is a karst sinkhole and is largely filled with water. The surface depression is about long and wide. Beneath the surface it extends to a maximum length of and a width of .
The name of the cave was changed on 23 April 1989 by the Government of South Australia from "The Green Waterhole" to "Fossil Cave" with the change being published in The South Australian Government Gazette on 4 May 1989.
Fossils.
Since the mid 1960s, a variety of Pleistocene subfossil material of birds and mammals has been found and recovered by divers from the surface of a rockpile to a depth of about below the water surface. The probable accumulation mode was by animals drowning when they fell into the cave while attempting to use it as a source of drinking water. Dating of the subfossil remains indicated that their deposition occurred mainly between 15,000 and 40,000 years ago. As well as representing many living animals, examples of extinct species recovered from the cave include the birds "Centropus colossus" and "Orthonyx hypsilophus", and the mammals "Thylacinus cynocephalus", "Thylacoleo carnifex", "Propleopus oscillans", "Macropus titan", "Protemnodon anak", and the sthenurine kangaroos "Procoptodon gilli", "Procoptodon maddocki" and "Simosthenurus occidentalis".
Exploration.
Fossils were first collected from the cave in 1964 followed by a further collection in 1968, a number of expeditions which were organised by the South Australian Museum from years 1968 to 1974 and an excavation carried out by the South Australian Underwater Speleological Society (SAUSS) in 1987.
The cave's submerged extent has been surveyed at least three times including by the Flinders University Underwater Club (FUUC) in 1978, Allum and Garrad in 1979 and the SAUSS in 1987.
Recreational diving.
Fossil Cave is a notable cave diving site. Access for cave diving is limited to holders of the Cave Divers Association of Australia's Advanced Cave grade.


Basket Swamp National Park

Basket Swamp is a national park in New South Wales, Australia, 558 km north of Sydney, and 15 kilometres north east of Tenterfield.
The park is named after Basket Swamp, a waterlogged area in the western sector of the park.


Smocza Jama

Smocza Jama (Polish for "dragon's den") is a limestone cave in the Wawel Hill in Kraków. Owing to its location in the heart of the former Polish capital and its connection to the legendary Wawel Dragon, it is the best known cave in Poland.
Morphology.
Smocza Jama has two entrances, one natural and one artificial — a 19th-century waterwork well. They are connected by three large chambers. A side passage, discovered in 1974, leads under the St. Stanislaus and St. Wenceslaus's Cathedral. In the underground pools lives a rare crustacean troglobiont, "Niphargus tatrensis", relict of the Tertiary sea fauna.
Smocza Jama has the length of 276 m and vertical range of 15 m.
History.
13th century Bishop of Kraków Wincenty Kadłubek wrote in his "Chronica seu originale regum et principum Poloniae" that:
Smocza Jama was first mentioned on the turn of the 12th century in Wincenty Kadłubek's "Chronica Polonorum", which is also the source of the first known version of the Wawel Dragon legend, later further developed by Jan Długosz and Marcin Bielski. The name of the cave was first given in 1551 in Marcin Bielski's "Kronika wszystkiego świata".
In the 16th and 17th century, an infamous public house had been operating at the entrance to the cave and inside. It served as an inspiration for poets such as Jan Andrzej Morsztyn.
In the 18th century, Wawel was fortified. Inside the cave, supporting pillars were raised under the walls, and its main entrance was bricked up. Two remaining smaller openings were bricked up in 1830. The cave has been reopened in 1842 and made accessible to the general public. In 1972, a fire-breathing statue of the Wawel Dragon by Bronisław Chromy has been erected at the entrance to the cave.


Montgomerieston

Montgomerieston, sometimes known as Montgomeryston (NGR NS 333 220) or Ayr Fort, was a small burgh of regality and barony of only 16 acres or 6.5 hectares located within the walls of the old Ayr Citadel, also known as Cromwell's Fort or Oliver's Fort, situated in the town of Ayr, South Ayrshire, Scotland. Montgomerieston was named for the Montgomerie family, Earls of Eglinton.
History.
The Earls of Eglinton.
Under Oliver Cromwell five citadels were built in Scotland to control the Scots, such as at Leith, Perth, Inverlochy, Ayr and Inverness, with Ayr being the largest. The Ayr Citadel, built 1652–1653, was designed by the Dutch architect named Hans Ewald Tessin; it was constructed to a hexagonal plan with six bastions. Construction was far from easy with the sand substrate collapsing into pits and water flooding the workings. It had a moat filled with freshwater around it, 90 ft across at the curtain walls and 50 ft across at the bastions. The fort contained two or three 'bomb proof' magazines, one of which is said to have served as a gate.
After 1660 the citadel had been partly dismantled to prevent its use by persons hostile to King Charles II, although the moat was not infilled until around 1800. Wells were dug to provide an independent water supply for the soldiers. The seaward side of the fortifications were kept, possibly for use as a battery should the need arise.
After the restoration of the monarchy under King Charles II these citadels were erected as burghs. As recompense for the losses incurred by the Earl of Eglinton through his support of King Charles I the citadel at Ayr, as a burgh of regality and barony was given to the 7th Earl, Hugh who christened it 'Montgomerieston' after his family's name.
An additional reason for the gift to the Montgomerie family was that as Barons of Ardrossan much of their castle at Ardrossan had been dismantled and shipped to Ayr to supply stone to build the citadel in the first place. The stone is of a similar type to that of Ardrossan Castle and the speed at which the citadel was constructed suggests that a ready supply of quarried stone was available. The cost of the construction was such that Cromwell is said to have commented "Has it been built of Gold?" Some of the stones carry mason's marks.
This creation in 1663 of the burgh of 'Montgomeriestoun' as it was originally spelt, had been totally opposed by the magistrates of the town. As a partial payment for a debt the burgh was later passed to the Kennedy family.
A lasting benefit of the construction of the citadel was that it protected the church and the town from the ever present danger of inundation by blown sand.
Baron Muir.
The Provost of Ayr, John Muir, and others, purchased the Barony of Montgomerieston from Lord Alexander Montgomerie in 1687, together with its 'liberties and pertinents'.
Baroness Susanna Montgomerie.
In 1727 the barony was purchased for Susanna Montgomery, Countess of Eglinton by Captain Nugent. Some privileges were retained by the provost for in 1747 objections were made to the countess having restricted access across the old moat, thereby preventing the people of Ayr from walking where they wished.
The Kennedy barons.
In 1755, Susanna Montgomery, Countess of Eglinton, who was from the Kennedy family of Culzean Castle sold the barony to a relation to whom she owed £700, Sir Thomas Kennedy, later the 9th Earl of Cassillis. The property remained largely unchanged until 1854 when John Miller purchased it.
Baron Miller.
In the 1850s an antiquarian and gunsmith called John Miller returned to Ayrshire from Calcutta where he had made his fortune. Miller purchased the Barony of Montgomerieston and built a Gothic style residence for himself using the tower of St John's church as its centrepiece. He also added an extension to a pre-existing corbelled turret at the end of one of the bastions which is known today as 'Miller's Folly', although the lower courses may be original. A somewhat eccentric character, John Miller styled himself as 'Baron Miller' of Montgomerieston. After having sold off much of the 16 or 17 acres of the 'estate' for residential development, Miller died in 1910 and in 1914 the 3rd Marquess of Bute purchased what was left of the barony and St John's Tower was restored by the 4th Marquess; the 5th Marquess presented it to the Royal Burgh of Ayr in 1949.
St John the Baptist's church.
First mentioned in 1233 this was the medieval church dedicated to Saint John the Baptist, patron saint of Ayr. The church was used by Cromwell's soldiers as a look-out tower as well as an armoury and chapel, the congregation had been forced out and the Auld Kirk of Ayr came to be built to house them with some financial assistance from Cromwell. The 'Citadel' church was in public use again between 1687 and 1689, after which it ceased to be used for worship and much of it was demolished, the tower itself only being spared as it was a valuable sea-mark for sailors and a look-out for ships.
Burials appear to have continued however judging from Francis Grose's comments in 1789 about new tombstones. Following the sale of the barony to the Countess of Eglinton the town burgesses were very concerned about the condition of the tower and it was repaired with a flat roof added. The old Ayr castle stood nearby the church, within the walls of the citadel.
John Miller built his 'Fort Castle' home around the tower and only in 1913-1914 was it restored to appear much like its original appearance as recorded by John Slezer in his 'Theatrum Scotiae', thanks to the 3rd and 4th Marquess's of Bute's interest in preserving ancient buildings.
A ley tunnel is said to have run from St John's tower to Greenan Castle and in the 1950s reports circulated of the discovery of its entrance with stories of skeletons hanging in chains.
The Commercial past.
As a commercial venture pursued by the Earls of Eglinton to rival the Royal Burgh of Ayr itself, the burgh was never a great success. In 1662 the Earl of Eglinton was however given the rights by the Privy Council who in 1662 passed a special act in his favour that gave the earl the right to the manual labour of all the vagrants and temporarily unemployed in Renfrewshire, Ayrshire and Galloway. These individuals were taken to Montgomerieston where he had a wool factory. The heritors from the parishes had to support the labourers to the tune of £6 Scots per month while they were there and the earl only had to provide food and clothing. If the heritors did not pay then the amount was to be taken from their estate funds. These rights lasted for 15 years for the vagrants and five years for the unemployed.
Despite the low costs this business was not a success and it disappears from the records after a relatively short period of time, the buildings being turned into a brewery. In the muniment records of Irvine it is recorded that the council agreed to pay for the maintenance of two 'poor boys' in 1664-1665 who were housed at the "manufactory of Ayre alias Montgomeriestoun". The behaviour of the 'enslaved' workers was very poor and in 1665 the earl was urged to control their behaviour by the Archbishop of Glasgow.
Montgomerieston brewery.
Susanna Montgomery, Countess of Eglinton during her period of ownership established a brewery here and it is also recorded that in 1734 whisky was being distilled here and that cinnamon and herbs were being used to produce drinks. In 1754 tenants rented brewery buildings here and in 1787 the Ayr magistrates went to court to obtain payment of 'intown multure' against the brewery operators, McCracken & McConnell, however the right of thirlage was shown at the Court of Session to lie with the Earl and the independence of the Burgh of Montgomerieston was reaffirmed. A kiln and a brewery was located here in the time of the time of Earls of Cassillis and it provided £50 sterling rent per year.
Residential use.
In the 1850s Baron Miller laid out Montgomerieston as a residential area. His feu plan, produced by Clarke and Bell survives, however the square outline and circular central area layout was not followed. Street names appropriate to the history of the barony and burgh have been applied, such as Eglinton Terrace and Montgomerie Terrace for the first barons and later Cassillis Street and Ailsa Place for the Kennedy barons. Cromwell himself is remembered at Cromwell Road.


Narsobawadi

Narasimhawadi commonly known as Narsobawadi or Narsobachi Wadi is a small town in Shirol Tahasil in Kolhapur district, Maharashtra. Narsobawadi gets its name from the presence of 'Shri Narasimha Saraswati', the Purna Avatar of Lord Dattatreya.
With much archaeological value, this became a major pilgrim spot for many Shri Dattatrey devotees. Also, there is a confluence of the two rivers Panchganga and Krishna.
About.
Narasimhawadi is famous for the Hindu temple of Shri Narasimha Saraswati () (1378–1458) located on the banks of the river Krishna.
Shri Dattatreya in his Narasimha Saraswati incarnation is believed to have lived here for as long as 12 years. (Ref. Shri Gurucharitra). The life story of Shri Narasimha Saraswati, his philosophy and related stories are described in Shri Guru Charitra. There are no images or idols here which show his presence. But there are two padukas or slippers which immortalize his great avatar.
Temple's Daily Schedule:
Vasudevanand Saraswati Maharaj, also known as Tembe Swami, a saint of recent times who is regarded as an incarnation of Dattatreya stayed here for 12 years. The room where Maharaj stayed is near the famous Datta temple which has the padukas of Dattatreya.
Location and transportation.
Narasimhawadi is a small town located at the banks of Krishna river. It is about 3 km from Shirol Taluka. Kurundawad is the nearest town and is about 2 km away. State transport bus depot is located close to the temple premises.
Narasimhawadi may be reached by state transport buses that available from Jaysingpur and Kolhapur.
Nearest railway station is Jaysingpur which is about 17 km from this place.
There are state transport buses connecting nearby cities. There are share jeeps and private vehicles available too.
The typical distances from major cities in Maharashtra are:
Pune – Narsoba Wadi (254 km), Sangli – Narsoba Wadi (22 km), Miraj – Narsoba Wadi (19 km), Jaysingpur – Narsoba Wadi (16.7 km), Kolhapur – Narsoba Wadi (52 km), Audumbar – Narsoba Wadi (53 km), Nipanni – Narsoba Wadi (45 km), Mumbai – Narsoba Wadi (405 km via Mumbai Bangalore Express Highway). (Ref. Google Maps)
Amenities.
The town is known for its Basundi and Kandi pedhe. kavathachi barfi is another local delicacy. There are many small food stalls around temple premises serving hot local preparations like amboli, kat-wada, mirchi bhajiyas and fresh sugarcane juice. Lodgings is available at local brahmin houses at reasonable rate. The hosts also serve simple homemade Brahmin meals.