Reserve Bank of Australia Building, Sydney

Reserve Bank of Australia Building is a heritage-listed bank building at 65 Martin Place, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It was added to the Australian Commonwealth Heritage List on 22 June 2004.
History.
Martin Place was originally a small lane called Moore Street which ran between George Street and Pitt Street and was widened into a substantial thoroughfare as part of the setting for the General Post Office in 1891. In 1921, Moore Street was renamed Martin Place. In 1926, the Municipal Council of Sydney purchased a number of properties in Macquarie and Phillip Streets in anticipation of the extension of Martin Place to Macquarie Street, including those properties which would later be demolished for the Reserve Bank of Australia's head office building. After Martin Place was formed the residential land on either side of the street was auctioned in 1936 however, the properties between Phillip and Macquarie Streets were passed in and did not sell until after World War II. The closure of Martin Place to traffic occurred between 1968 and 1978 and it became a pedestrianised civic plaza.
History of the Reserve Bank.
The Commonwealth Bank of Australia was established by legislation in 1911. The main functions of the bank were to undertake general banking and savings bank activities. In 1945 the bank's powers were formally widened to include exchange control and the administration of monetary and banking policy with the Commonwealth Bank Act and the Banking Act. The Reserve Bank Act 1959 preserved the original corporate body under the name of the Reserve Bank of Australia to carry on the central banking functions of the Commonwealth Bank, but separated commercial banking and savings banking activities into the Commonwealth Bank of Australia. The Reserve Bank has since then been Australia's central bank with its own Board, Governor and staff.
The Reserve Bank has two broad responsibilities—monetary policy and the maintenance of financial stability, including the stability of the payments system. The Bank's powers are vested in the Reserve Bank Board and the Payments System Board. In carrying out its responsibilities, the Bank is an active participant in financial markets and the payments system. It is also responsible for the printing and issuing of Australian currency notes. As well as being a policy-making body, the Reserve Bank is a large financial institution which provides selected banking and registry services to Australian Government and state government customers and some overseas official institutions. Its assets include Australia's holdings of gold and foreign exchange. The Bank is wholly owned by the Australian Government.
A requirement of the Reserve Bank Act 1959 was that the head office of the bank must not be in the same building as the head office of the Commonwealth Bank of Australia (CBA) or any other bank. In line with this requirement, separate buildings were constructed for the state capitals Darwin and Canberra. The Bank currently consists of a Head Office, located in Sydney, branches in Adelaide and Canberra, regional offices in Melbourne, Brisbane and Perth and representative offices in London and New York.
Reserve Bank site.
The land on which the Reserve Bank is built, was in the 19th century occupied on by the first Wesleyan Chapel built in 1821 and subsequently used as a Unitarian Chapel in 1850, a Wesleyan School House also built in 1821 and purchased in 1843 by the Roman Catholic Church to be used as a school (demolished ). There was also a freestanding Georgian house occupied by a solicitor and a Georgian cottage.
By the mid-1870s following the demolition of the church and school a row of three three-storey Italianate terrace houses known as "Lucretia Terrace" was erected (). The Georgian house was demolished and two four-storey late Victorian terrace houses were erected (1891). In the Georgian cottage was demolished and the cottage next door and two three-storey terraces were built; one of these was demolished in 1921 and a three-storey brick building known as "Whitehall" was erected on the site.
In 1957, the Director-General of Works (Dr Lodge) suggested to the Governor of the Commonwealth Bank that the site at the top of Martin Place, owned by the Sydney City Council would be suitable for the construction of the head office of the Reserve Bank, and it was subsequently purchased for this purpose. The Bank's administrators called for a design for the building which was contemporary and international, to exemplify a post-war cultural shift away from an architectural emphasis on strength and stability towards a design that would signify the bank's ability to adapt its policies and techniques to the changing needs of its clientele. Before plans were drawn up representatives of the Reserve Bank and the Commonwealth Department of Works made detailed studies overseas into Reserve Bank planning and organisation.
The Sydney Reserve Bank building was designed by the Commonwealth Department of Works, Bank and Special Project Division (Sydney) in 1959 under the direction of a Design Committee consisting of: C. Mc Growther, Superintendent of Reserve Bank Premises; H.I. Ashworth, Consulting Architect (Sydney University); C.D. Osborne, Director of Architecture Department of Works; R.M. Ure, Chief of Preliminary Planning, Department of Works; F.C. Crocker Architect in charge, Bank Section, Dept. of Works; and G.A. Rowe, Supervising Architect, Bank Section, Dept. of Works. The consulting engineer was D. Rudd and Partners and the builder was E.A. Watts Pty Limited. The site was cleared in 1961 and the building was completed by 1964 ready for occupation in January 1965. It was built to accommodate more than 1850 people at a cost of 10 million dollars.
In a press release on the completion of the Reserve Bank headquarters building in Sydney, the then governor, Dr H.C. Coombs highlighted the contemporary design of the building:"The massive walls and pillars used in the past to emphasise the strength and permanence in bank buildings are not seen in the new head office... Here, contemporary design and conceptions express our conviction that a central bank should develop with growing knowledge and a changing institutional structure and adapt its policies and techniques to the changing community within which it works".The Reserve Bank design is characteristic of buildings of this era on less constrained sites, where the architect utilised the opportunity to define the base from the shaft using a podium. The building was constructed using a steel frame supporting reinforced concrete floor slabs (using lightweight concrete). This was a solution to the need to produce an economical structural system using a combination of steel and concrete.
The materials used in construction of the Reserve Bank were to be of Australian origin and manufacture. Externally, maintenance and durability determined the choice of marble, granite, aluminium and glass. The facade of the tower had the structural and functional columns expressed as vertical Imperial black granite shafts with Wombeyan marble spandrel panels. The white marble faced pre-cast concrete spandrel panels alternated with recessed windows between the granite columns. The 1st, 2nd and 3rd-floor perimeter beams were faced with Wombeyan marble with a recessed glazed screen wall to the office areas behind a balcony.
Internally decorative ceilings which emphasised the structural bays appeared in buildings of the 1960s and were used in the Reserve Bank. Impressive aluminium decorative ceiling panels emphasised the structural bays of the ground floor public space and lift lobby. The entry and forecourt were paved in Narranderra Grey marble, marble being the most popular stone throughout this period. The ground floor lift lobby walls and internal walls facing the forecourt were clad in Wombeyan marble. The east and west walls of the entry vestibule were clad in Imperial black granite.
Prestige areas for the conduct of important company business in buildings of this period generally had ceilings treated in the same manner as general office ceilings, the exception being the board rooms and executive areas, as is the case in the Reserve Bank where shallow, curved plaster vaults enriched the space. The floor of the board room was paved in Wombeyan white marble. Specially woven heavy-duty wool carpet manufactured in Australia was used in the general office and executive areas.
Walls of the period were often timber panelled, in the Reserve Bank special areas had demountable timber panelling in Queensland black bean and Tasmanian blackwood.
The ground floor, and sometimes mezzanine or first floor levels, of many buildings of this period, accommodated service-based commerce. Often this activity represented a public interface for the owner/occupants of the building. The Reserve Bank was constructed with a four-storey podium divided into two upper floors with projecting horizontal fins and two floors of full height recessed glazing to the mezzanine below. This contained the two-storey public area and the banking chamber in the mezzanine over. Also included in public areas of a number of office buildings of this period was an auditorium or theatrette, and one was included in the Sydney Reserve Bank.
Also included were two residential flats to accommodate senior executives travelling from interstate, a relatively uncommon feature for office buildings of this period.
The building was the central distribution point for notes and coin for New South Wales and Papua New Guinea and the basement included the vaults or strongrooms. They were innovative in their use of concrete and metal sheet to create an impenetrable surround for the strong rooms. The metal strongroom doors are also significant for their size and sophistication.
The Reserve Bank was a prestigious and desirable place to work. There was a strong staff hierarchy and senior positions had considerable community status. This status is demonstrated in physical terms by the design of executive and staff areas in the building. In the 1960s the building was known to provide more extensive staff facilities compared with other contemporary buildings. In this building they consisted of the cafeteria, executive and Board dining rooms, the staff lounge, the staff library, a medical suite, squash courts and associated amenities, an auditorium and an observation deck on the 20th level for the use of staff and ex-staff. A firing range was provided for the training of security guards. The provision of the squash courts and the medical centre would appear to be uncommon facilities provided in multi-storey buildings of this period.
Care was often taken in selecting finishes to areas of staff relaxation, special ceiling finishes were occasionally applied, such as in the case of the Reserve Bank third floor cafeteria where the ceiling was plaster domes in a square grid. Occasionally stone veneers were applied to the walls of these areas, such as in the staff lounge of the Reserve Bank, where slate was used as the wall finish.
The service areas were designed for ease of cleaning and minimal maintenance with vinyl and ceramic tile finishes popular for both floors and walls. The Reserve Bank used ceramic tiles and vinyl to line the walls of service areas and vaults. The floors of the computer and service areas were of vinyl. The Reserve Bank used terrazzo as a floor finish in the toilets. Terrazzo was often used in this way in more prestigious 1960s developments.
The Reserve Bank is also notable for the incorporation of a fire sprinkler system, smoke detectors and fire alarms throughout. All working areas of the building were airconditioned, and notably, the ceiling in the cafeteria was perforated to form a ventilated ceiling which acts as a low-velocity supply air plenum.
The lighting of the Reserve Bank was also notable. Wallwashers were used in the Reserve Bank, where a perimeter strip of recessed fluorescents served to visually detach the ceiling from the wall in the passages and reception area. The opposite effect, that gained by concealing strip fluorescents where they would throw light upwards onto the ceiling, was more uncommon but was used in the office of the Governor of the Reserve Bank. Recessed downlights, both fluorescent and incandescent, were a popular means of lighting areas such as lift lobbies, passages and other public spaces where a softer light than that provided in the general office areas was appropriate, as was the case in the Reserve Bank. Of note was the use of recessed downlights in the cafeteria, set into the interstices of the square grid formed by the shallow cast plaster domes. The lighting of a decorative ceiling was a further area of exploration by architects and lighting engineers of the period. Usually, in the major public area of an office building, elaborate decorative ceilings could be either integrated into the lighting design or the subject of it. The latter was used in the Reserve Bank banking chamber public areas where the lighting is the focus of the decorative ceiling bays. The exterior Reserve Bank emblem was lit by shaped cold cathode tubes which follow the outline of the emblem.
The detailed aesthetic design input into the building extended beyond the building structure and facade treatments and interior design and included ancillary fixtures, fittings and objects for use specifically within the building. These included artworks specially commissioned for the public spaces, furniture, china, flatware, silverware, napery and accessories specifically selected or designed for use within the building. The interior decor and furniture were designed by the Department of Works R.M. Ure and I. Managan, with Frederick Ward, Industrial designer.
Interior furnishings including tables, chairs, couches, credenzas and desks were designed by Fred Ward. Fred Ward (1900–1990) was one of the leaders in modern Australian industrial design of the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s. During the 1950s, Ward was head of the Australian National University's design department. Around 1961 he resigned from ANU to set up private practice, after being invited by the Reserve Bank Governor Dr H.C. Coombs to undertake the furnishings of several Reserve Bank buildings including Sydney, Canberra, Adelaide and Port Morseby. His furnishings are of a simple and functional design which are now considered to be pieces of art in themselves. Ward also designed the furniture for numerous other important buildings including University House, Canberra, the Academy of Science Building, Canberra and the National Library of Australia, Canberra (with Arthur Robinson).
To further enhance the prestige of the building works of art by Australian artists and sculptors were used. Following an Australia-wide competition, the first prize winners were commissioned to execute their works for the Reserve Bank. The lift foyer features a wall relief by Bim Hilder and the freestanding podium sculpture in Martin Place is by Margel Hinder. Both sculptors were actively engaged in the post-war period designing works for multi-storied office buildings and there was a high degree of co-operation between the artists and architects at this period. Prestige buildings of this period generally commissioned public art highlighting the high profile of the buildings in company marketing strategies and also possibly arising from benevolent policies of these companies.
Bim (Vernon Arthur) Hilder (1909–1990) trained at the East Sydney Technical College and first exhibited his sculptures in 1945. Hilder had worked as a carpenter for Walter Burley Griffin. His murals were styled "wall enrichments in metal". Aside from the Reserve Bank mural (1962–64) he also designed the large mural on the facade of the Wagga Wagga Civic Theatre (1963) and a memorial fountain to Walter Burley Griffin in Willoughby City area (1965). His work is represented in the Art Gallery of New South Wales and the University of New England.
Margel Hinder (1906–1995) was American born moving later to New South Wales. Along with her husband Frank, they contributed to the development of Modernist Australian art focusing on abstraction. They were contemporaries of the Lewers, Ralph Balson, Yvonne Audette, Carl Plate, and Tony Tuckson. Margel Hinder's work is represented in every major Australian Gallery. Her major commissions include the James Cook Memorial Fountain, Newcastle (1966), Northpoint Tower (1970) (now at Macquarie University, Sydney); Woden City Plaza, Canberra; the Western Assurance Co. Building, Sydney (1960); and the State Office Block, Sydney (demolished). Hinder received an Order of Australia in 1979.
Clay from the excavations for the Bank from its initial construction and extension was set aside for the production of a series of commemorative handcrafted pots. These were commissioned from Henry A. Le Grand of Canberra, some were purchased by officers of the Bank and the others were used as decorative elements in the executive suites and remain in the building.
A specially woven tapestry, 10 ft by 5 ft for the Board Room was designed by Margo Lewers and woven in France at the Aubusson workshop in 1968. Entitled "Wide Penetration" the abstract design in blue and yellow was woven in a limited edition of three copies. The tapestry is no longer hung in the Board Room but remains in the Bank's extensive art collection.
A second specially commissioned tapestry was made in 1988 by Sue Batten for display in the Board Room. The tapestry was woven at the Victorian tapestry workshop and the design was inspired by the Bank's Charter and includes elements from the paper 5 dollar note. The tapestry is now hung in the currency display area on the ground floor.
A series of paintings by Australian artists were purchased by the Bank over a period of time and found their permanent home in the executive offices, foyers and hallways of the bank.
On Macquarie Street was a setback created to enable the establishment of a formal Australian Native garden which was designed as the result of a public competition won by Melbourne architect, Malcolm Munro. The garden was flanked on either side by shallow pools and had ornamental gravel surrounds. It was planted with Australian shrubs. This garden feature has now been replaced with landscaping including formal box hedges and flowering shrubs.
Alterations to the building.
Between 1974 and 1980 the Reserve Bank was extended to the south, this extension to the original building involved substantial additions on each floor to incorporate the adjacent site to the south. The site consisted of two properties Washington House and Federation House, both properties were demolished for the extension. The addition replicated the original building in height, form, and finishes.
From 1991–1995 upgrading of offices and basement areas, removal of asbestos requiring the stripping of all internal finishes, upgrading of building services and fire protection facilities, new ceilings, lighting and carpets and the extensive restoration and recladding of the external facade of the building.
In November 1993 the original facades were overclad. The original Wombeyan marble cladding was deteriorating due to a combination of weathering and pollution. The new facade was a combination of Australian and Italian stone, with the original Imperial Black granite from South Australia being used for the Columns and Italian Bianco Sardo grey granite for the spandrels. The work was designed by Arup Facade Engineering and was designed to have a minimum visual impact on the building. At the same time, the eastern end of the ground floor was modified from a banking chamber to form the public exhibition area.
In 2000 the Parliamentary Committee on Public Works approved changes to the building included conversion of the staff cafeteria, auditorium and staff facilities (level 3) to office accommodation; demolition of the two residential flats and creation of new cafeteria space; removal of the two squash courts and plant equipment (level 17) and conversion to office use including lowering of the high level windowsills to the north elevation and enlarging of existing recessed marble panels to windows on the south facade; conversion of level 19 ancillary space to office use; and removal of the firing range.
Description.
The Reserve Bank building is at 65 Martin Place, corners with Macquarie and Phillip Streets, Sydney, a prominent corner position fronting Martin Place between Macquarie Street and Phillip Street.
The Reserve Bank 1964, is a refined example of the Post War International style. The building is a 22-storey high-rise tower with three-level basement. It is constructed of a steel frame concrete encased with reinforced concrete slabs. The building contains some unusually long cantilever beams on the 1st to 3rd floors. The Reserve Bank provides a notable example of a characteristic of buildings of this era on less constrained sites, where the architect utilised the opportunity to define the base from the shaft using a podium. The Reserve Bank has a four-storey podium divided into two upper floors with projecting horizontal fins and two floors of full height recessed glazing to the mezzanine below. The building is entered via a bronzed railed grey and black granite terrace with steps to accommodate the site slope and adjacent footpath.
The tower section above the second floor is set back from the site boundaries on the three street frontages. The rectangular building floor plate surrounds a central bank of lifts. The tower is capped with recessed balconies to level 20. Above this is a roof terrace with full height glazing and extensive cantilever roof.
The facade treatment of the building is distinctive and derives from both the modular design created to allow office subdivision which is expressed in the window mullions and the use of materials including the extensive use of natural stone. The vertical columns faced in black granite and aluminium define the eight bays of the tower and extend up to form the supports for the balconies. The use of black polished granite cladding was a popular choice of the time, the Reserve Bank used Imperial Black granite for the columns. The subdivision of the facade into smaller vertical bays was characteristic of buildings where sun control was a central concern. Between the columns spandrel panels in grey granite alternated with recessed glazing. The glazing panels stop short of the corner.
The basements contain vehicular access areas, the main switchboard as well as the three main strongrooms and a series of voucher stores and cash handling areas. Originally they also contained extensive plant areas. The Strong Rooms are located in the basement originally used for the storage of bullion and cash. They have a degree of technical significance for their innovative use of concrete and metal sheet to create an impenetrable surround for the strong rooms. The metal strong room doors are significant for their size and sophistication.
The ground floor is symmetrical around the central main vestibule which is a two-storey volume with a general banking chamber on the western side and a public display area on the eastern side. The display area replaces the former Bonds and Stock Banking Chamber of the original design. The ground level entrance foyer/vestibule remains substantially intact including internal finishes of Wombeyan marble to the south wall, granite floor, east and west Imperial granite walls including high-level glazing, anodised aluminium ceiling and the south wall relief by Bim Hilder. Alterations include the introduction of a security desk, new entrance doors, and reconfigured glazing.
The mezzanine is set back from Martin Place frontage creating an atrium over the ground floor. With the first and second floors it forms a podium from which the office tower springs. The third floor housed the staff amenities area with a staff cafeteria and kitchen, an auditorium and staff library and a staff lounge outside the lift foyer. These areas were originally designed with a distinctive character which has now been altered by later refurbishments. The eleventh floor contains the board room (featuring a marble floor), board dining room, board members common room and reception and meeting areas. The twelfth floor contains the governor's suite, reception areas and executive suites.
The 16th floor housed two residential flats, but the flats have been removed in recent works. The floor also included the medical centre. The 17th to 19th floors held two squash courts and an observation gallery was located along the northern facade. These were all removed in recent works. The 20th floor houses staff amenities. Most lift foyers are marble lined, Level 3 is timber.
Some of the original furniture designed for the building including tables, chairs, couches, credenzas and desks remain within the public spaces, offices and special areas of the building.
The Westpac (former Bank of NSW) building erected on the opposite corner to the Reserve Bank occupies a similar footprint and has a similar mass, providing a gateway effect at the top of Martin Place.
Public art.
The main entrance foyer features an expansive wall relief by Bim Hilder. It is made up of many separate small parts of beaten copper and bronze. One section of it incorporates a six-inch piece of quartz crystal uncovered by geologist Ben Flounders in South Australia's Corunna Hills. Another displays semi-precious stones. The Martin Place forecourt features a freestanding podium sculpture by Margel Hinder. The Podium sculpture is a 26 ft high freestanding sculpture. It is unnamed and has no banking reference, but was designed to complement the architecture of the building. It is welded sheet copper on a stainless steel structural frame with molten copper decoration. The original design Maquette is also located in the Bank. Other important elements include the brass lettering text of the Bank's 1959 charter set on a black granite wall in the main foyer; the opening commemorative plaque; the Bank emblem originally located on the western parapet wall of the building constructed in cast aluminium with green enamelled finish designed by Gordon Andrews (now removed); the portrait of Dr H. C Coombs, the first Governor by Louis Kahan purchased in 1964.
Condition.
In general, the building retains its early appearance and character despite having undergone considerable alterations and modification. Internal finishes have been considerably altered in many locations, and have been replaced with new finishes. Internally the building has been remodelled at the upper office levels. The boardroom and the lift foyers have remained largely intact. The ground level double volume spaces are intact; however, there has been substantial alteration to furniture and fittings. The original marble ceiling panel has been replaced in metal.
Comparison.
In addition to the Head Office, branch offices were constructed in the central business districts of each of the state capital cities, as well as in Canberra and Darwin during the 1960s and 1970s. A number of purpose-designed office buildings were erected to designs by the Commonwealth Department of Works Banks and Special Projects Branch as part of the initial establishment of the Reserve Bank of Australia.
The buildings in Darwin and Brisbane have been sold. The Reserve Bank still owns the buildings in Perth and Hobart (sold 2001), Adelaide, Canberra, and Melbourne. The buildings constructed throughout Australia by the Bank during the 1960s reflected a confidence in things Australian and in the future.
The Canberra Branch building of the Reserve Bank was the result of an architectural competition, managed by the National Capital Development Commission. Howlett and Bailey from Perth won the competition from 131 submissions. It was constructed by Civil & Civic and completed in 1965. Also of a contemporary design, the Canberra building is in the Stripped classical style. The architectural qualities of the Canberra Reserve Bank building rely on the lightness of the structure, the regular structural pattern, the contrast between the marble-faced columns and beams and the receding pattern of the glazing. The vertical effect imparted by the columns extending over two levels gives the low rise building a sense of height and is most effective. The columns are cruciform in plan and support a beam carefully separated from the column. The glazed curtain wall is supported on the beam and uses aluminium mullions. The very strong, blank wall of the secure ground floor cash handling area on the external southeastern side of the building is another powerful reminder of its modernist qualities where the internal function gains external expression. Internally the most important space is the banking chamber. It is a symmetrical design with a central entrance under a canopy with black slate entrance floor, converting into carpet once inside the room.
The Reserve Bank, Adelaide, was built in 1963-65 to a design by the Commonwealth Department of Works architects C.D. Osborne, R.M. Ure, G.A. Row and F.J. Crocker. It is constructed from largely Australian building materials of high quality including Wombeyan marble, South Australian black granite and Victorian Harcourt grey granite. Of particular interest is the building's inward curving wall to both the east and west elevations.
Heritage listing.
The Reserve Bank building (1964) designed by the Commonwealth Department of Works, Bank and Special Project Section, is highly significant in the development of post World War II multi-storey office buildings in Australia. It is a significant example of a 1960s office building notable as being a well-designed example of the International style; its construction using high-quality Australian materials; steel and concrete construction; and interior design details and artworks. The building's significance has been retained through a major extension (1974–1980), recladding (1993) and internal refitting. Through its prestigious design and function as Australia's central bank, the building makes an important contribution to the streetscape and character of Martin Place, Macquarie Street and Phillip Street.
Reserve Bank was listed on the Australian Commonwealth Heritage List on 22 June 2004 having satisfied the following criteria.
Criterion A: Processes
The Reserve Bank building (1964) designed by the Commonwealth Department of Works, Bank and Special Project Section, is highly significant in the development of post World War II multistorey office buildings in Australia. The building's significance has been retained through a major extension (1974–1980), recladding (1993) and internal refitting. The Reserve Bank building is of historical significance in its ability to demonstrate the changing functions and role of the Reserve Bank of Australia, particularly that of the head office, since 1964. The International style of the building represents the post-war cultural shift within the banking industry, away from the traditional architectural emphasis on strength and stability towards a more contemporary and international style.
The two foyer artworks are of historical and aesthetic significance. The artworks by Bim Hilder and Margel Hinder are significant examples of Australian modernist sculpture of this period by two significant artists, who were selected as the winners of design competitions by the Reserve Bank. The furnishings by Fred Ward are of historical and aesthetic significance. Designed for the building by Ward, who was one of the leaders in modern Australian industrial design at this time, the furnishings are of a simple and functional design which are now considered to be pieces of art in themselves.
When constructed elements of the mechanical and electrical services within the building were considered advanced and innovative, and although many elements have been removed or substantially altered, their incorporation in the building is still of interest today, this included the fire sprinkler system, smoke detectors and fire alarms; interior and signage lighting; and airconditioning.
The provision of two residential flats, for use by visitors to the bank; squash courts; and firing range were relatively uncommon for the time (all removed 2001). The two doors to the main strongroom were at the time of construction the largest and most technically advanced in the southern hemisphere.
Criterion B: Rarity
When constructed elements of the mechanical and electrical services within the building were considered advanced and innovative, and although many elements have been removed or substantially altered, their incorporation in the building is still of interest today, this included the fire sprinkler system, smoke detectors and fire alarms; interior and signage lighting; and airconditioning.
The provision of two residential flats, for use by visitors to the bank; squash courts; and firing range were relatively uncommon for the time (all removed 2001).
Criterion D: Characteristic values
The Reserve Bank building (1964) designed by the Commonwealth Department of Works, Bank and Special Project Section, is highly significant in the development of post World War II multi-storey office buildings in Australia. It is a significant example of a 1960s office building notable as being a well-designed example of the International style; its construction using high-quality Australian materials; steel and concrete construction; and interior design details and artworks. The building's significance has been retained through a major extension (1974–1980), recladding (1993) and internal refitting
Criterion E: Aesthetic characteristics
Through its prestigious design and function as Australia's central bank, the building makes an important contribution to the streetscape and character of Martin Place, Macquarie Street and Phillip Street.
Criterion F: Technical achievement
The Reserve Bank building is highly significant in the development of post World War II multi-storey office buildings in Australia for its use of high-quality Australian materials; steel and concrete construction; and interior design details and artworks.
The furnishings by Fred Ward are of historical and aesthetic significance. Designed for the building by Ward, who was one of the leaders in modern Australian industrial design at this time, the furnishings are of a simple and functional design which are now considered to be pieces of art in themselves
The variety of moveable heritage items located throughout the building including furniture, china, flatware, silverware, napery and accessories, pottery, tapestry and artworks are significant having been specifically designed or purchased for the building as well as being of artistic merit in their own right.
When constructed elements of the mechanical and electrical services within the building were considered advanced and innovative, and although many elements have been removed or substantially altered, their incorporation in the building is still of interest today, this included the fire sprinkler system, smoke detectors and fire alarms; interior and signage lighting; and airconditioning.
The two doors to the main strongroom were at the time of construction the largest and most technically advanced in the southern hemisphere.
Criterion G: Social value
The building has social significance being regarded by the Australian community as the home of the Reserve Bank function and the place where significant economic policy is carried out on behalf of the nation.
Criterion H: Significant people
The artworks by Bim Hilder and Margel Hinder are significant examples of Australian modernist sculpture of this period by two significant artists, who were selected as the winners of design competitions by the Reserve Bank. The furnishings by Fred Ward are of historical and aesthetic significance. Designed for the building by Ward, who was one of the leaders in modern Australian industrial design at this time, the furnishings are of a simple and functional design which are now considered to be pieces of art in themselves
The Reserve Bank head office building is associated with successive governors of the Reserve Bank: Dr. H.C. Coombs; J.G. Phillips (KBE); H.M. Knight KBE DSC; R.A. Johnston (AC); B.W. Fraser and I.J. Macfarlane. The building is also associated with personnel of the Commonwealth Department of Works, Banks and Special Projects branch, responsible for the building's design in particular: C. McGrowther; Professor H.I. Ashworth; C.D. Osborne; R.M. Ure; F.C. Crocker; G.A. Rowe; as well as E.A. Watts (builders for both stages of construction) and Frederick Ward (furniture designer).


Nadasi Kasa

Nadasi Kasa (also Nadasi Akasa, Nadadi Akasa, or Nada Diaka) was a queen of the Saka Mahakshatrapa Rajuvula, daughter of Aiyasi Kamuia. She finds mention in inscription no A-5 of the Mathura Lion Capital.
F. W. Thomas has read this name as "Nadadi (Nadasi)- Akasa", Dr Bühler however, has read it as "Nadasia Kasaye", but Sten Konow, on the other hand, reads it as "Nada Diaka".


Vincent B. Murphy

Vincent Bernard Murphy (January 4, 1888 in Rochester, Monroe County, New York – February 25, 1956 in Washington, D.C.) was an American politician from New York.
Life.
He was the son of Daniel B. Murphy. He served in the U.S. Army during World War I.
He was a member of the New York State Assembly (Monroe Co., 3rd D.) in 1922, 1923 and 1924. He was New York State Comptroller from 1925 to 1926, elected on the Republican ticket at the New York state election, 1924, but defeated for re-election at the New York state election, 1926.
He was a delegate to the New York convention to ratify the 21st Amendment in 1933. He was a Knight of Columbus.
He was buried at the Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia.
His son Vincent Bernard Murphy, Jr. (1928–2006), was President of the United States Equestrian Team from 1983 to 1989.


Kosta Glasbruk

Kosta Glasbruk (), later known as Kosta Boda (), is a Swedish glassmaking company ("glasbruk" in Swedish) founded by two foreign officers in Charles XII's army, Anders Koskull and Georg Bogislaus Staël von Holstein, in 1742. The name is a portmanteau of the founders' surnames, Ko(skull) + Sta(el). It is located in Kosta, Sweden, which was named for the company. The surrounding region has become known as the "Kingdom of Crystal" and is now a tourist site which attracts a million visitors annually.
History.
Early production consisted of window glass, chandeliers and drinking glasses. From the 1840s, the factory was at the forefront of new trends and technical developments, producing pressed glass, and in the 1880s setting up a new glass-cutting workshop.
In 1903, the company merged with the Reijmyre glassworks but both retained their own names and Kosta went on to maintain its reputation as one of the leading Swedish manufacturers with a range of fine art glass and tableware by distinguished designers such as Vicke Lindstrand, artistic director from 1950-1973.
Having merged with Boda Glasbruk in Emmaboda Municipality, Kosta Glasbruk is still active today under the name of Kosta Boda.


Hu Lijiao

Hu Lijiao () (December 1914 – July 3, 2006) was a People's Republic of China politician. He was born in Ji'an, Jiangxi Province. He was the 3rd governor of the People's Bank of China (1964–1966) and the 1st Chairman of the People's Standing Congress of Henan Province (1979–1981) and 2nd Chairman of the People's Standing Congress of Shanghai (1981–1988).


Marcus Luttrell

Marcus Luttrell (born November 7, 1975) is a retired United States Navy SEAL who received the Navy Cross and Purple Heart for his actions in June 2005 against Taliban fighters during Operation Red Wings in which he was the lone survivor. Luttrell became a SO1 by the end of his eight-year career in the United States Navy.
Luttrell co-hosts "After Action", a TV show in which former special operations veterans talk about issues in the United States. Glenn Beck is the executive producer of the show, which airs on TheBlaze.
Early life and education.
Luttrell was born in Houston, Texas, on November 7, 1975. He began training for the U.S. Navy SEALs at the age of 14, with U.S. Army veteran Billy Shelton, who lived near Luttrell's home. Luttrell trained every day with his twin brother, Morgan, and others who aspired to join the U.S Navy and other special operations forces. Shelton trained them using various weight and endurance exercises. After high school at Huntsville High, Huntsville, Texas, Luttrell attended Sam Houston State University where he was a member of the Epsilon Zeta chapter of Delta Tau Delta fraternity. In 1998 he graduated with a B.S in International Business.
Career.
United States Navy.
Luttrell enlisted in the U.S. Navy in March 1999. After graduating from boot camp and Hospital Corpsman A-school, he transferred to Basic Underwater Demolition/SEAL (BUD/S) Class 226. However, due to a fractured femur he suffered from falling off a rope, he graduated with Class 228 on April 21, 2000. After completing BUD/S, Luttrell attended Army jump school and SEAL Qualification Training (SQT). Luttrell earned his Navy Enlisted Classification (NEC) 5326 Combatant Swimmer (SEAL) and Naval Special Warfare Insignia on February 2, 2001 after completing SQT. He was then sent to Fort Bragg, North Carolina, for the Special Operations Combat Medic (SOCM) course. SOCM was an additional six months of advanced training in conventional and unconventional medical skills, ranging from diagnosis and treatment of many conditions to advanced emergency medicine and battlefield life support.
He was deployed to Iraq with SEAL Team 5 on April 14, 2003, during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, to root out and destroy leftover Iraqi resistance and joined in the search for WMDs. Afterward, he carried out operations to eliminate or capture terrorists.
He was deployed to Afghanistan in 2005 with SEAL Team Ten as part of SEAL Delivery Vehicle Team One (SDV-1). While in Afghanistan, he was involved in Operation Red Wings, during which the four-man Special Reconnaissance element with SDV-1 was discovered by local herdsmen, subsequently ambushed, and all killed except Luttrell. Luttrell was awarded the Navy Cross for his actions during the operation. The team knew the local herdsmen might reveal their whereabouts to Taliban fighters but, because they were not armed combatants, the team allowed the herdsmen to leave despite the risk to themselves and their mission.
During the ambush of Operation Red Wings the four SEALs were attacked from three sides and took fire from RPK machine guns, AK-47s, RPG-7s, and 82mm mortars. The attack forced the SEALs into the northeast gorge of the Shuryek Valley side of Sawtalo Sar. The SEALs made a number of attempts to contact their combat operations center with a PRC-148 MBITR (Multi Band Inter/Intra Team Radio) and then with an Iridium satellite phone. They could not establish consistent communication, however, other than for a period long enough to indicate that they were under attack. Three of the four team members were killed, and Luttrell, the only survivor, was left unconscious with a number of fractures, a broken back, and numerous shrapnel wounds. Members of SEAL Team 10 attempted a rescue during the firefight, but their helicopter was shot down, and all aboard were killed. Luttrell regained consciousness and evaded the pursuing enemy, with the help of local Pashtun villagers, one of them being Mohammad Gulab, who eventually sent an emissary to the nearest U.S. base to secure Luttrell's safe rescue and ultimately saved his life. He was rescued on July 2 by Army Rangers and Afghan National Army soldiers in the woods when Gulab and several villagers were trying to get Luttrell to a safe location. Luttrell was treated by Capt. Joshua Appel and Technical Sergeant Christopher Piercecchi of the United States Air Force Pararescue.
The target of Operation Red Wings, Mohammad Ismail alias Ahmad Shah, survived the American operation but was killed during a firefight with Pakistani police in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in April 2008.
After recovering from his injuries, Luttrell returned to full-duty and deployed to Ramadi during Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2006, as part of SEAL Team Five. He later had his knees blown out and fractured his spine again. These injuries ultimately led to his discharge.
Navy Cross.
In 2007, Luttrell was awarded the Navy Cross by President Bush. The Navy Cross citation text states:
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Navy Cross to Petty Officer Marcus Luttrell, United States Navy, for extraordinary heroism in actions against the enemy while serving in a four-man Special Reconnaissance element with SEAL Delivery Vehicle Team ONE, Naval Special Warfare Task unit, Afghanistan from 27 to 28 June 2005, in the vicinity of Asadabad, Konar Province, Afghanistan. Operating in the middle of an enemy-controlled area, in extremely rugged terrain, his Special Reconnaissance element was tasked with locating a high-level Anti-Coalition Militia leader, in support of a follow-on direct action mission to disrupt enemy activity. On 28 June 2005, the element was spotted by Anti-Coalition Militia sympathizers, who immediately revealed their position to the militia fighters. As a result, the element directly encountered the enemy. Demonstrating exceptional resolve and fully understanding the gravity of the situation and his responsibility to his teammates, the unidentified SEAL fought valiantly against the numerically superior and positionally advantaged enemy force. By his undaunted courage in the face of heavy enemy fire, and absolute devotion to his teammates, Chief Petty Officer Borg will long be remembered for the role he played in the Global War on Terrorism. Petty Officer Luttrell courageous and selfless heroism reflected great credit upon him and were in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.
Returning home.
Luttrell returned to the U.S. in 2007 and co-authored the "New York Times" bestseller "".
A film version, starring Mark Wahlberg, was released on December 25, 2013.
In 2007, Luttrell was medically discharged from the Navy. In 2009, he was granted a medical retirement through the Board for the Correction of Naval Records.
In May 2012, Little, Brown and Company released Luttrell's latest book, co-authored with James D. Hornfischer, "Service: A Navy SEAL at War".
Lone Survivor Foundation.
In 2010, Luttrell established the Lone Survivor Foundation. The mission of the foundation, headquartered in Houston, Texas, is to "restore, empower, and renew hope for our wounded warriors and their families through health, wellness, and therapeutic support."
Luttrell and The Lone Survivor Foundation partnered with The Boot Campaign to help show tangible appreciation of America's active-duty military, raise awareness of the challenges they face upon return, and support the transition home.
Personal life.
Luttrell married Melanie Juneau on November 27, 2010, in Texas. Their son Axe, named after fallen SEAL comrade Matthew Axelson, was born on May 8, 2011. On January 14, 2012, at an event for St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Luttrell announced that he and his wife were expecting their second child. Their daughter, Addie, was born on August 26, 2012.
Luttrell's twin brother Morgan Luttrell is also a retired Navy SEAL; he left the Navy with the rank of lieutenant.
Luttrell endorsed the 2016 presidential campaign of former Texas governor Rick Perry and was present, alongside his twin brother Morgan, at Perry's formal announcement on June 4, 2015. Luttrell spoke at the 2016 Republican National Convention in support of Donald Trump.
Operation Red Wings controversy.
There is some conflict over the exact number of Taliban forces involved in the engagement. Luttrell filed an official after-action report in which he estimated the size of the Taliban force to be around 20–35. He claims in his book that his team were told in their briefing that around 80 to 200 fighters were expected to be in the area. Initial intel estimates were approximately 10 to 20. Official media reports from the military estimated that the Taliban force was around 20 as well, while the Navy cited 30–40 enemies in the Medal of Honor citation for LT Michael P. Murphy. In the Summary of Action related to the same Medal of Honor, the Navy cites an "enemy force of more than 50 anti-coalition militia". Ed Darack cites a military intelligence report in his book "Victory Point: Operations Red Wings and Whalers", stating that the Taliban force was 8–10, compared to the 80–200 claimed by Luttrell in "Lone Survivor". The military intelligence estimate cited by Darack is based on research from intelligence reports and aerial and eye-witness studies of the battlefield after the fact, including the men sent in to rescue Luttrell, as well as reports from Afghan intelligence.
Luttrell claimed in "Lone Survivor" that Lieutenant Murphy considered executing the unarmed civilians who stumbled upon the SEAL reconnaissance team and even put it to a vote, but this has been criticized and dismissed by many as fiction. Navy Special Warfare Command spokesman Lieutenant Steve Ruh stated that "the senior guy ultimately has the ultimate authority" for making decisions in the field. He also stated that "this is the first time I've ever heard of anything put to a vote like that. In my 14 years of Navy experience, I've never seen or heard of anything like that." Michael P. Murphy's father claims in the June 12, 2007 article "Survivor's book dishonors son's memory" in "Newsday" that his son would never have considered executing unarmed civilians, let alone putting such a grave decision up for a vote. Military protocol and rules of engagement strictly forbid harming unarmed non-combatant civilians.
Mohammad Gulab, the Afghan villager who rescued Luttrell, also disputes Luttrell's version of the story. Luttrell claims that he fired off nearly all of his rounds, but Gulab said that he was found with all 11 magazines of ammunition. Gulab also said that the Taliban heard the helicopter drop off the SEAL team, then tracked their footprints. When the Taliban found them, they were debating about what to do with the herdsmen, so they held back. After they released them, the Taliban decided to attack. Gulab claims that the locals heard the firefight, searched the hills afterward, and found no Taliban corpses. Andrew MacMannis is a former Marine Colonel who helped plan the mission and was on location for the recovery operation, and he says that there were no reports of any enemy casualties. Two videos that the Taliban shot during the firefight only show 7 men in Ahmad Shah's militia. Gulab claims that he was never given the chance to tell his side of the story, and that his interpreter before a "60 Minutes" interview told him, "Whatever Marcus says in the interview, say yes."
Awards and decorations.
Luttrell's awards include:


Dynabook Inc.

Dynabook Inc. is a Japanese personal computer manufacturer owned by Sharp Corporation; it was owned by, and branded as, Toshiba from 1958 to 2018. It claims its Toshiba T1100, launched as 1985, as the first mass-market laptop PC. Toshiba had used the brand name "DynaBook" or "dynabook" since 1989, but Dynabook became the worldwide brand in 2019.
, Dynabook Inc. had 162.9 billion yen (US$ billion) in annual sales and 2,680 employees; , Dynabook Americas described the business as being a "$60 billion global company employing nearly 200,000 in 30 countries".
History.
The company began as Kawasaki Typewriter Co., Ltd. in 1954, but was bought by Tokyo Shibaura Electric Co., Ltd. (later Toshiba Corporation). Its name was changed to Toshiba Typewriter Co., Ltd. in 1958, Toshiba Business Machines Company in 1968, Toshiba Information Systems Corporation in 1984 after merging in Toshiba Business Computers Company, and Toshiba Client Solutions Co., Ltd. in 2016.
Toshiba laptop era.
The dynabook was a portable computer concept first introduced by Alan C. Kay in the 1960s and 1970s. Tetsuya Mizoguchi, an executive in Toshiba's mainframe computer division, read Kay's paper "Personal Dynamic Media" in the March 1977 "IEEE Computer"; and inspired by the concept of a computer that could be carried and used by anyone of any age, Mizoguchi became determined to develop such a computer.
The Dynabook trademark was already owned by other companies in Japan and the United States: Toshiba didn't use the name in the U.S., but ASCII Corporation had acquired the rights in Japan, so Toshiba paid a fee to ASCII to use the name there. The trademark rights in Britain, France, and West Germany were also able to be acquired.
The first Toshiba computer with the name DynaBook was announced on June 26, 1989. In August 1989, Mizoguchi sent a letter and a Toshiba DynaBook T1000SE to Kay in Boston, and in December Kay was Mizoguchi's guest at Toshiba. In 1990, the T1000SE became mandatory for all 82 students at Methodist Ladies' College, Melbourne.
Sharp era.
In 2018, Toshiba Corporation was in the midst of an accounting scandal, and was under pressure to cut costs; Toshiba Client Solutions Co., Ltd., became 80.1% owned by Sharp Corporation, in turn majority-owned by Foxconn; Sharp paid $36 million for the shares. TCS then changed its corporate name to Dynabook. Sharp exercised a call option on the remaining 19.9% of the shares on June 30, 2020, making Dynabook wholly owned by Sharp in August 2020, and indicated plans for Dynabook to have an initial public offering in 2020 or 2021.


French fiscal package of 2007

The French fiscal package of 2007 is a series of measures implemented by the Fillon administration in 2007. The "paquet fiscal" is often called in France "loi TEPA", referring to the "law in favor of labor, employment and purchasing power" (in French "loi pour le travail, l’emploi et le pouvoir d’achat"). The package consists of fiscal measures aiming at lightening the fiscal burden on businesses, liberalize the labor market and stimulate investment.
Aims.
The bill on labor, employment and purchasing power (TEPA), whose main measures are often commonly known as the "paquet fiscal" (tax package) shall be beneficial to growth. According to the Fillon administration, shaping a taxation system more favorable to businesses and lower labor costs could encourage the growth of purchasing power, productive investment and the attractiveness of the territory. This measure, implemented short after the election of Nicolas Sarkozy in 2007 as President of the French Republic, as a strong ideological value. According to the official text, "The revival of the economy requires in priority the rehabilitation of work as a value, as a tool to improve the purchasing power and to fight unemployment".
Cost and financing.
The cost of these measures was assessed by the government to 13.6 billion euros per year.
The exemption on overtime would represent a loss of 6 billion euros for the state budget.
The cost of the reduction to 60% of the tax shield would be 600 million euros, the reform of inheritance tax would cost 1.7 billion euros and the cost on interest paid to purchase the primary residence would be of 3.7 billion euros.
The government claimed that will not thwart the European requirements on the recovery of public finances. The government was to announce a reform policy of the State (the "general review of public policies"), which would generate significant savings, for example by not replacing an official two who retired.
Debate.
The government relied on the effect of the measures announced and considers that they will both stimulate work (overtime and facilitated transmission of wealth) and increase investment in increasing the attractiveness of the French territory for owners of capital available for investment (tax shield). The parliamentary debate showed that even in the majority, some remained skeptical about the effectiveness of this tax package. the opposition also insisted in the "social unfairness" of several measures.
During the political debate in the National Assembly and the Senate, there were concerns about the compatibility of the measures announced with the state of public finances. In particular, the government claimed that these measures would help raise growth to 2.5% in 2008 while the specialized institutes, including the INSEE, forecast that it would not exceed 2.1%.
Others worry over effects in the medium and long term. In case of the failure of the measures to dynamize economic growth, the government would be forced to seek new revenues to fill gaps and comply with the commitments made at European level (reducing the debt below 60% of GDP by 2010 or 2012). The risk would be an increase in taxes (VAT, CSG and CRDS) with a bad impact on the purchasing power and reducing consumption of some households by 2009.
The parliamentary opposition and the main trade unions consider that this tax package is first "socially unfair". These criticisms referred to the lowering of the tax shield and the deduction of a portion of the interest to acquire the principal residence, which would benefit first to the biggest borrowers, and possibly causing a rise in property prices detrimental to the poorest buyers. Similarly, the exemption of overtime benefit to only a minority of employees in growing sectors and could have a counter-productive effect by limiting new hirings. In addition, these measures mainly benefiting wealthier classes would have a limited impact on consumption.


Thomas Brimelow, Baron Brimelow

Thomas Brimelow, Baron Brimelow (25 October 1915 – 2 August 1995, London, United Kingdom) was a British diplomat.
He served as Ambassador to Poland (1966–69), Permanent Under-Secretary at the British Foreign Office (1973-75), and Member of the European Parliament (1977–78).
Alistair Horne describes him as "cherubic, and unflappable, but with a piercing intellect" and ""the" Foreign Office expect on the Soviets, and Russian behaviour". He was also known to be passionate about equality of opportunity and a less stratified society in Great Britain.
He played an important role alongside US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger in negotiating the 1973 Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War between the United States and the USSR which, according to Kissinger, "owed, in fact, more to British than American expertise". Kissinger described Brimelow's role as "an example of the Anglo-American 'special relationship' at its best, even at a time when the incumbent Prime Minister (Heath) was not among its advocates. There was no other government which we would have dealt with so openly, exchanged ideas so freely, or in effect permitted to participate in our own deliberations."
He was educated at New Mills Grammar School and New College, Oxford. His daughter, Alison, was the fifth President of the European Patent Office.
Brimelow was created a life peer on 29 January 1976 taking the title Baron Brimelow, "of Tyldesley in the County of Lancashire".


Michael Kacsics

Michael from the kindred Kacsics (, ; died after 1228) was a Hungarian distinguished nobleman from the "gens" Kacsics (Kačić). His parents' identity is unknown. His only brother was Simon Kacsics, ban of Slavonia in 1212. Michael had two sons, Leustach, ancestor of the Zagyvafői family, and Falkos, the first member of the Falkos branch and grandfather of Thomas Szécsényi. Through Falkos, Michael was forefather of the Szécsényi, Farkas de Szeszárma (Lekér, Harina), Tompos de Libercse, Radó de Libercse and Geréb de Vingárt families.
Michael served as voivode of Transylvania between 1209 and 1212. Besides that he was also ispán ("comes") of Bihar County in 1209. Michael was the first voivode to receive a land grant in the province of Transylvania, around 1210. However, these originally uninhabited lands along the upper courses of the river Maros (present-day Mureș) were confiscated in 1228.
He was appointed ban of Slavonia in 1212, alongside his brother. Simon, along with Peter, son of Töre, played a decisive role in the murder of Queen Gertrude of Merania in 1213. Michael probably also took part in the preparation of the assassination. After the return of Andrew II of Hungary from Halychina, only Peter was executed by impalement, the Kacsics clan could retain their estates yet. The land confiscation in 1228 might be a sign of the subsequent retaliation.
Sources.


Graham Ragsdale

Graham Ragsdale (born 28 June 1969) is a former soldier of the Canadian Forces. He commanded the sniper team from the 3rd Battalion Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry attached to the United States Army 187th Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division during Operation Anaconda in the Shah-i-kot Valley, Paktia Province, Afghanistan in March 2002. The sniper team recorded more than 20 priority target kills, including the long distance record combat kill of set by Corporal Rob Furlong. Master Corporal Ragsdale, with selfless disregard for his own personal safety, operated his sniper team through extreme weather conditions at high altitude while under direct and indirect enemy fire aiding the success of the mission by identifying and neutralizing enemy targets and saving allied lives. He was awarded the United States Bronze Star Medal with "V" device for his actions in combat and was Mentioned in Despatches by the Canadian Forces for valiant conduct and meritorious service.
Military career.
Graham Ragsdale was born on 28 June 1969 in Owen Sound, Ontario, Canada. He joined the Canadian Forces in 1988 after graduating from secondary school and, upon completion of selection and parachute training, he was posted as a paratrooper to 2 Commando of the now disbanded Canadian Airborne Regiment, Special Service Force (SSF), where he gained the reconnaissance, sniper, tracker, machine gunner, and mountain operations qualifications.
In 1991, after his initial three year service contract, he transferred from the regular force to the primary reserve unit Canadian Rangers Patrol Group to serve as an instructor while attending university and pursuing a promising amateur boxing career. He rejoined the regular force in 1996 and was posted to the newly formed 3rd Battalion Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry, where he gained the mortarman, leadership, jumpmaster, freefall parachute instructor, unarmed combat instructor, British pathfinder and British sniper qualifications. In 2000 he completed a tour of duty in the Former Yugoslavia with NATO's Stabilization Force, and was then given the command role of battalion master sniper in charge of the sniper group that in 2002 was deployed to Afghanistan as part of the US Operation Enduring Freedom and Canadian Operation Apollo.
In contrast to the accolades of American soldiers that fought beside the Canadian snipers in the Shah-i-kot, a controversial decision made by the Canadian chain of command following Operation Anaconda unceremoniously relieved Master Corporal Ragsdale of command of the sniper group amidst misconduct allegations against Master Corporal Arron Perry. As a result, a despondent Ragsdale chose to release from the military shortly after the tour in favour of opportunities as a private military contractor in Afghanistan and North Africa during which time he was awarded the United States Secretary of the Navy Superior Civilian Medal for Valor.


Legal Tender Cases

The Legal Tender Cases were two 1871 United States Supreme Court cases that affirmed the constitutionality of paper money. The two cases were "Knox v. Lee" and "Parker v. Davis".
The U.S. federal government had issued paper money known as United States Notes during the American Civil War, pursuant to the terms of the Legal Tender Act of 1861. In the 1869 case of "Hepburn v. Griswold", the Court had held that the Legal Tender Act violated the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution. In his majority opinion, Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase did not hold that Congress lacked the power to issue paper money, but rather ruled that the notes could not be used as legal tender for "pre-existing" debts. The Supreme Court overruled "Hepburn v. Griswold" in the "Legal Tender Cases", holding that United States Notes could be used to re-pay pre-existing debts.
Legal Tender Act of 1862.
The "Legal Tender Cases" primarily involved the constitutionality of the Legal Tender Act of 1862, , enacted during the American Civil War. The Act authorized issuance of paper money, United States Notes, to finance the war without raising taxes. The paper money depreciated in terms of gold and became the subject of controversy, particularly because debts contracted earlier could be paid in this cheaper currency.
Chief Justice Chase described the sequence of events:
"Hepburn v. Griswold".
In "Hepburn v. Griswold" (1870), Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase held for a 5–3 majority of the Court that the Act was an unconstitutional violation of the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment:
Ironically, Chief Justice Chase had played a role in formulating the Legal Tender Act of 1862, in his previous position as Secretary of the Treasury. On the same day that "Hepburn" was decided, President Ulysses Grant nominated two new justices to the Court, Joseph Bradley and William Strong, although Grant later denied that he had known about the decision in "Hepburn" when the nominations were made.
"Knox v. Lee" and "Parker v. Davis".
Justices Bradley and Strong subsequently voted to reverse the "Hepburn" decision, in "Knox v. Lee" and "Parker v. Davis", by votes of 5–4.
"Juilliard v. Greenman".
The constitutionality of the Act was more broadly upheld thirteen years later in "Juilliard v. Greenman".
Background about constitutionality of paper money.
 of the Constitution explicitly forbids the states from issuing "bills of credit" (promissory notes) or making anything but gold and silver coin legal "tender". There are no corresponding explicit prohibitions limiting the power of the federal government, nor are there any explicit authorizations. The Tenth Amendment refers to reserved powers that only the states can exercise, as well as powers not delegated that continue to reside in the people. "Concurrent powers" also exist, which may be exercised by either the states or the federal government, such as the power to repel invasions, and arguably including power to make legal tender (e.g. in federal territories or elsewhere). of the Constitution specifically gives Congress power to "borrow money" and also power to "coin money and regulate the value" of both U.S. and foreign coins, and regulate interstate commerce, but does not explicitly and unambiguously grant Congress the power to print paper money or make it legal tender.
The federal government first issued paper money in 1861 to fund the Civil War. Before that, all U.S. paper money was bank-issued money. For example, paper notes were issued by the First Bank of the United States, which was a private corporation chartered by the federal government. Congress had also authorized paper money (e.g. Continentals) even before the Constitution was adopted. The Continental was issued by both the individual states and the Continental Congress under the Articles of Confederation. Those Articles specifically allowed the issuance of legal tender paper money, at the time called "bills of credit."
In "Hepburn", Chief Justice Chase noted, "No one questions the general constitutionality, and not very many, perhaps, the general expediency of the legislation by which a note currency has been authorized in recent years. The doubt is as to the power to declare a particular class of these notes to be a legal tender in payment of pre-existing debts."
Original intent and original meaning.
Originalists like Robert Bork have objected to enforcing the intentions of those framers who may have believed that paper money should be prohibited: "Scholarship suggests that the Framers intended to prohibit paper money. Any judge who thought today he would go back to the original intent really ought to be accompanied by a guardian rather than be sitting on a bench." According to law professor Michael Stokes Paulson, "Among the most common canards in critiques of originalism is that, under the original meaning of the Constitution, the issuance of paper money as legal tender would be unconstitutional, sending our economy into disarray."
Regarding paper money, Nathaniel Gorham explained at the Constitutional Convention that he "was for striking out" an explicit power of Congress to issue paper money, but Gorham was also against "inserting any prohibition." That is what ultimately happened at the Convention: language explicitly giving the federal government power to issue legal tender paper money was removed on a vote of 9–2, but an option allowing the issuance together with a prohibition against making it legal tender was not acted upon. Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution gives Congress power to "borrow money on the credit of the United States," and therefore Gorham envisioned that "The power [e.g. to emit promissory paper], as far as it will be necessary or safe, is involved in that of borrowing." The power to emit paper money (e.g. bank notes) has been justified by invoking the Necessary and Proper Clause in combination with the other enumerated powers which include the power to borrow money. The power to "issue bills of credit" is explicitly mentioned in the Constitution as a prohibition on the States, and could therefore be interpreted as a power so momentous that it would have to be conferred explicitly on the federal government rather than inferred from the Necessary and Proper Clause, although it is not entirely clear whether or not the framers intended such an interpretation, nor did the Supreme Court adopt such an interpretation in the Legal Tender Cases or subsequently.
James Madison's notes, from the Constitutional Convention in 1787, include a footnote where he says that the Constitution would not allow the federal government to use paper as currency or legal tender, though there is no indication whether or not the contents of his footnote were uttered aloud at the Convention. Thereafter, during the ratification debates, the Federalist Papers No. 44 (assumed to be authored by Madison) said that prohibiting states from emitting "bills of credit must give pleasure to every citizen, in proportion to his love of justice and his knowledge of the true springs of public prosperity." He further stated that the issuance of paper money by the states had resulted in "an accumulation of guilt, which can be expiated no otherwise than by a voluntary sacrifice of the power which has been the instrument of it."


Alpha Psi Rho

Alpha Psi Rho (ΑΨΡ, also known as APsiRho ) is an Asian/Pacific Islander-interest fraternity, and a non-profit community organization founded at San Diego State University, and has since expanded across the southwest region of the United States of America. Founded in 2000 as a group for Asian & Pacific-Islander college students to establish an identity on university campuses, Alpha Psi Rho continues to grow in impact and diversity while significantly contributing to surrounding communities and building high-caliber individuals.
Chapters.
Alpha Psi Rho has established 4 chapters and 1 colony located in California and Nevada. Active chapters and colonies denoted in bold, inactive groups in "italics".
History.
In 2000, the Ten founding fathers founded Alpha Psi Rho at San Diego State University. The Founding Fathers of this Brotherhood grew up in the 1990s, an era when Asian and Pacific Islander-Americans were struggling to find their identities in the United States. Some found prosperity in gangs. Others pursued higher education to understand themselves culturally and become capable gentlemen in this country.
The Founding Fathers enrolled at San Diego State University and became involved in cultural organizations. However, they wanted to be around people who have similar interests, lived a similar lifestyle, and hungered to make greater impacts in the community—a sense of involvement that never existed.
In 2000, the Ten Founding Fathers founded Alpha Psi Rho at San Diego State University. Alpha Psi Rho was forged upon four simple yet iron principles: Brotherhood, Academics, Prosperity, and Strength, which provide for an unyielding foundation yet limitless potential. This Lifestyle continues today and has become the essence of being a Gentleman of Alpha Psi Rho.
The Pillars.
The Foundation of this Fraternity was created on Brotherhood, Academics, Prosperity, and Strength. These ideals are to be preached and upheld by each brother to their fullest ability. Their meanings are:
Brotherhood
Academics
Prosperity
Strength
National Board Members.
2020-2022 National Board


Taxation in Switzerland

Taxes in Switzerland are levied by the Swiss Confederation, the cantons and the municipalities.
Legal framework.
Fiscal sovereignty.
Switzerland is a federal republic in which the sovereignty of the constituent states (the "cantons") is limited by the enumerated powers delegated to the federal state (the "Confederation") through the federal constitution. Consequently, the original authority to levy taxes is vested in the individual cantons of Switzerland through their constitutions. Within the bounds of the authority delegated to them by cantonal law, the municipalities may also levy taxes. The extent of that authority varies from canton to canton. While the formal framework of the most important cantonal direct taxes has been harmonised through the 1990 Federal Tax Harmonisation Law, the cantons (and, as the case may be, the municipalities) remain free to set their tax rates or establish new taxes, except on tax objects already taxed under federal law.
Since World War II, the federal constitution authorizes the Confederation to levy a number of taxes, the most significant of which are an income tax, a withholding tax and a value added tax. However, Switzerland is unique among modern sovereign states in that the authority to levy these taxes is limited in duration and extent. The Constitution imposes an upper limit on the federal tax rates and causes the federal authority to levy taxes to expire in 2020. A renewal of that authority requires a constitutional amendment, which must be approved in a popular referendum by both a majority of the popular vote and the cantons. If that renewal is not approved at the polls (as it has been six times since 1958), the Confederation itself will conceivably dissolve for lack of funds. All attempts to remove this limitation by amending the constitution to provide for a permanent federal authority to levy taxes have been rejected in Parliament or – no less than five times – by popular vote, most recently in 1991.
Constitutional limits to taxation.
The federal constitution imposes certain limits on taxation at the federal, cantonal and municipal levels. To begin with, it provides that no tax may be levied except where provided for by federal, cantonal or municipal statute. Because statutes can at all levels be made subject to a popular referendum, Swiss tax rates are in practice set directly by the voters through instruments of direct democracy.
The constitution mandates that taxation must be general and equal in nature, and it must be proportionate to one's ability to pay. The Federal Supreme Court has interpreted this as prohibiting a regressive tax, although flat rate taxes (as instituted in several cantons) are held to be constitutional by tax law scholars. Moreover, double taxation by several cantons is constitutionally prohibited, as is a confiscatory rate of taxation.
Direct taxes on natural persons.
All people resident in Switzerland are liable for the taxation of their worldwide income and assets, except on the income and wealth from foreign business or real estate, or where tax treaties limit double taxation. For tax purposes, residence may also arise if a person stays in Switzerland for 30 days, or for 90 days if he or she does not work. Moreover, non-residents are also taxed on certain Swiss assets or on the income from certain Swiss sources, such as from real estate, permanent business establishments or pensions. The income and assets of spouses are pooled and taxed jointly, but at a lower rate to offset the effects of tax progression.
Income tax.
Either a progressive or proportional income tax is levied by the Confederation and by the cantons on the income of natural persons. The income tax is imposed as a payroll tax on foreign workers without a permanent residence (C) permit, and in the form of a withholding tax on certain transient persons, such as foreign musicians performing in Switzerland.
Taxable income includes all funds accruing to a person from all sources, in principle without deduction of losses or expenses, and including the rental value of a house lived in by its owner. However, capital gains on private property (such as profits from the sale of shares) are tax-free, except where the cantons levy a tax on real estate capital gains. Certain expenses are also deductible. These include social security or pension fund payments, expenses related to the gain of income (such as employment expenses and maintenance costs of real estate) and alimonies. Gifts and inheritances are also exempt from the income tax, but are subject to separate cantonal taxes.
Non-working foreigners resident in Switzerland may choose to pay a lump-sum tax instead of the normal income tax. The tax, which is generally much lower than the normal income tax, is nominally levied on the taxpayer's living expenses, but in practice (which varies from canton to canton), it is common to use the quintuple of the rent paid by the taxpayer as a basis for the lump-sum taxation. This option contributes to Switzerland's status as a tax haven, and has induced many wealthy foreigners to live in Switzerland.
In 2011, the federal income tax varied from a bracket of 1% (for single tax payers) and 0.77% (for married taxpayers) to the maximum rate of 11.5%. Individuals earning below 13,600 and couples earning below 27,000 Swiss francs were exempt. On cantonal level, tax rates varies heavily, Obwalden adapted a 1.8% flat tax on all personal income following a cantonal referendum in 2007. In most cantons, the rate is proportional with a maximum rate of 6.5% in Bern, whereas in Zurich it was 13% and in Geneva 17.58-.76% (depending upon taxes as single or jointly).
Wealth tax.
A proportional wealth tax of around 0.3 to 0.5 percent is levied by the cantons on the net worth of natural persons. The tax is levied on the value of all assets (such as real estate, shares or funds) after the deduction of any debts.
Corporate taxation.
Switzerland has a "classical" corporate tax system in which a corporation and its owners or shareholders are taxed individually, causing economic double taxation. All legal persons are subject to the taxation of their profit and capital, with the exception of charitable organisations. Tax liability arises if either the legal seat or the effective management of a corporation is in Switzerland. To the extent non-resident companies have Swiss sources of income, such as business establishments or real estate, they are also liable for taxation. Conversely, as a unilateral measure to limit double taxation, profits from foreign business establishments or real estate are exempted from taxation.
Profit tax.
A proportional or progressive tax is levied by the Confederation (at a flat rate of 8.5%) and the cantons (at varying rates) on corporate profits. The tax is based on the net profit as accounted for in the corporate income statement, as adjusted for tax purposes. For instance, expenditures that have no business reason such as excessive depreciations, accruals or reserves, as well as disguised dividends are taxed as profits.
A number of provisions limit the double taxation of profits at the corporate level and contribute to Switzerland's tax haven status. To begin with, a "participation exemption" is granted to companies who hold 20 percent or more of the shares of other companies; the amount of tax due on the corresponding profit is reduced in proportion to the percentage of shares held. At the cantonal level only, a "holding privilege" applies to pure holding companies. They are exempt from the cantonal corporate profit tax. Moreover, cantonal law confers a "domicile privilege" on companies who are only administered in Switzerland, but whose business is conducted abroad; including shell corporations. The cantons tax only around 10 percent of the worldwide profits of such companies.
Capital tax.
A proportional tax is levied by the cantons (at varying rates) on the "Eigenkapital" (ownership equity) of companies. Thinly capitalised companies are taxed, moreover, on the liabilities that function as equity. This also means that debts paid on such liabilities cannot be deducted for purposes of the profit tax, and are subject to the federal withholding tax.
Other federal taxes.
Value added tax.
The value added tax (VAT; "Mehrwertsteuer / Taxe sur la valeur ajoutée / Tassa sul valore aggiunto") is one of the Confederation's principal sources of funding. It is levied at a rate of 7.7 percent on most commercial exchanges of goods and services. Certain exchanges are subject to a reduced VAT of 2.5 percent:
A special rate of 3.7% is in use in the hotel industry. Yet other exchanges, including those of medical, educational and cultural services, are tax-exempt; as are goods delivered and services provided abroad. The party providing the service or delivering the goods is liable for the payment of the VAT, but the tax is usually passed on to the customer as part of the price.
In 2014 total revenue from VAT was nearly CHF 11 billion (short scale) on CHF 866 billion of taxable sales. In 2013 the revenue and sales were CHF 10.3 billion and 858 billion respectively.
Federal withholding tax.
The federal withholding tax ("Verrechnungssteuer / impôt anticipé / Imposta preventiva") is levied on certain forms of income, most notably dividend payments, interest on bank loans and bonds, liquidation proceeds, lottery winnings and payments by life insurances and private pension funds. The debtor of such payments is liable for the payment of the tax; they must pay the creditor only the net amount. The tax rate is 35% for moveable capital revenue and for lottery winnings of 1 million francs or more, 15% for life annuities and pensions and 8% for other insurance benefits.
With respect to creditors resident in Switzerland, the withholding tax is only a means of securing the payment of the income or profit tax, from which the creditor may then deduct the amount already withheld, or request its refund. The same applies to foreign creditors to the extent that a tax treaty provides for it. Other foreign creditors are not eligible for a refund; with respect to them, the withholding tax is a genuine tax.
Stamp duties.
Stamp duties are a group of federal taxes levied on certain commercial transactions. The name is an anachronism and dates back to the time when such taxes were administered with physical stamps. The issue tax ("Emissionssteuer / Tassa di emissione") is levied on the issue of certain securities such as shares and bonds. Exceptions are made, "inter alia", for securities issued in the course of a commercial reorganization, and the first million CHF of funds raised are in effect exempt from taxation. The tax amounts to one percent of the funds raised and is payable by the issuer. The trade in shell companies ("Mantelhandel") is also subject to the issue tax.
The transfer tax ("Umsatzsteuer / Imposta sulla cifra d'affari") is levied on the trade in certain securities by certain qualified traders ("Effektenhändler"; mostly stockbrokers and large holding companies). The tax amounts to 0.15 or 0.3 percent depending on whether Swiss or foreign securities are traded. Finally, an insurance premiums tax of 5 or 2.5 percent is levied on certain insurance premiums.
Custom duties.
The Confederation can levy customs duties and other duties on the cross-border movement of goods entering the Swiss Customs Area. The rates are almost exclusively based on weight (e.g. CHF X per 100 kg gross). The revenue from customs duties goes into the federal coffers and amounted to approximately CHF 1.13 billion in 2016.
Casino tax.
After the removal of the casino ban from the Constitution in 1993, the Confederation received the power to collect a special tax on the revenue of casinos. The tax may not exceed 80% of the gross gaming revenue and is assigned to the AHV/IV fund.
Tax scales.
Grand casinos holding a type A concession: unlimited bets, unrestricted number of table games and slot machines. Currently, 8 Grand casinos are in operation. The basic tax rate is 40 percent for the first CHF 10 million of gross gaming revenue. For each additional million, the tax rate is increased by 0.5 percent until it reaches the maximum rate of 80 percent.
Casinos holding a type B concession: limited bets, limited selection of table games and limited number of slot machines. Currently, 13 casinos are in operation. The basic tax rate is 40 percent for the first CHF 10 million of gross gaming revenue. For each additional million, the tax rate is increased by 0.5 percent until it reaches the maximum rate of 80 percent.
Special consumption taxes.
The Confederation levies special consumption taxes on the importation or manufacture of tobacco, beer, mineral oil, automobiles and spirits.
Military service exemption tax.
Every Swiss man is required to perform military service (Art. 59 para. 1 Cst). Anyone who, for whatever reason, fails (in whole or in part) to fulfil this duty personally by doing military or civilian service has to pay military service exemption tax.
The exemption tax amounts to CHF 3 per CHF 100 of income liable to tax, but no less than CHF 400. However, it is reduced according to the total number of service days performed by the end of the relevant year. The reduction is one tenth for 50 to 99 military service days (75 to 149 civilian service days), plus another tenth for each set of 50 additional military service days (75 civilian service days) or fractions thereof.
The exemption tax assessment is carried out annually, generally in the year following the relevant year. Only those who have performed the total number of mandatory service days are entitled to a refund of the exemption tax(es) paid. The revenue from military service exemption tax amounted to approximately CHF 174 million in 2016.
Other cantonal taxes.
In addition to the taxes mentioned above, the cantons are free to introduce others. Several cantons levy an inheritance tax ("Erbschaftssteuer / Imposta di successione") and a gift tax ("Schenkungssteuer / Imposta di donazione"), although there is a trend towards abolishing those. Moreover, the cantons are required by federal law to levy a tax on the profit from the sale of real estate ("Grundstückgewinnsteuer / impôt sur les gains immobiliers / Imposta sugli utili immobiliari"). Most also levy a tax on the value of the property sold ("Handänderungssteuer / impôt sur les mutations / Tassa di mutazione") so as to discourage speculation in real estate. Taxes are also frequently levied on the ownership of dogs and motor vehicles, on lotteries, on the sale of tickets to public entertainments, or on overnight stays in certain tourist destinations.
Casino tax.
All cantons with casinos holding a type B concession amended their tax legislation and introduced a tax on gross gaming revenue of casinos. The tax may not amount to more than 40 percent of the total casino tax due to the Confederation.
Tax rates and statistics.
In 2016, some CHF 183 billion in taxes were levied in Switzerland, of which 65.5 billion was levied by the Confederation, 46 billion by the cantons, 28 billion by the municipalities and 45 billion in form of social security contributions. The overall fiscal rate was 27.8 percent of GDP in 2016. The effective individual tax rate is subject to considerable variation depending on the canton and municipality of residence. For instance, companies subject to ordinary taxation paid between 13 and 25 percent of income tax in 2006, and the "maximum" individual tax rates in major cities ranged between 12.3 percent in the Canton of Zug and 32.3 percent in the Canton of Jura.
Tax evasion.
Depending on the nature of the tax at issue, criminal offences related to the nonpayment of taxes are regulated in substantially different ways by cantonal and federal statutes. The statutes distinguish, however, between tax evasion and tax fraud"." The former is classed as a misdemeanour ("Übertretung / contravention") and is punishable by a fine of 33% to 300% of the amount of tax evaded. Tax fraud occurs if a tax evasion is committed by using falsified documents for deceptive purposes, a crime ("Vergehen / crime") punishable by additional imprisonment of up to three years or an additional fine of up to 30,000 CHF.


Alice Perrers

Alice Perrers (1348–1400) was an English royal mistress whose lover and patron was King Edward III of England. She met him originally in her capacity as a lady-in-waiting to Edward's consort, Philippa of Hainault. She went on to become the wealthiest woman in the land. However, she was despised by many and was accused of taking advantage of the far older king with her youth, beauty, and opportunistic character.
Early life and family.
Perrers was born in 1348 (exact date unknown). While no direct evidence has been found to identify her parentage, new evidence suggests that she was the daughter of a family named Salisbury. She had at least one brother named John. She married a man named Janyn Perrers around 1360, when only 12 years old. He was a jeweller and died around 1364.
A contemporary account of her background and character, written by Thomas Walsingham, a St. Albans chronicler, described her as follows:
At that same time there was a woman in England called Alice Perrers. She was a shameless, impudent harlot, and of low birth, for she was the daughter of a thatcher from the town of Henny, elevated by fortune. She was not attractive or beautiful, but knew how to compensate for these defects with the seductiveness of her voice. Blind fortune elevated this woman to such heights and promoted her to a greater intimacy with the king than was proper, since she had been the maidservant and mistress of a man of Lombardy. And while the queen was still alive, the king loved this woman more than he loved the queen.
However, this account has been questioned by historians for its validity, as Walsingham was a prominent critic of the royal court, and he despised its many 'indulgences'.
Lady-in-waiting and Edward's mistress.
Sometime before 1366, Perrers arrived at court and served as a lady-in-waiting to Philippa of Hainault, the respected and matronly queen of Edward III. Perrers's beauty and charm caught the eye of King Edward III while at court. Shortly after, around 1366, when she was only 18 years of age (the king was 55), she became the king's mistress. Only when Philippa died in 1369 of dropsy did Perrers's affair with the king become more visible. Their affair aroused envy and hatred of Perrers, as she was only 21 years old. Following the queen's death, a devastated Edward leaned heavily on her considerable abilities; her courtly dominance accelerated by his loss. Perrers acquired numerous gifts from the King and she soon became an extremely wealthy woman, amassing a fortune worth more than £20,000 (£6,000,000 in 2016). Dressed in golden garments, Perrers was paraded around London as "The Lady of the Sun" on the king's command, and courtiers were expected to behave respectfully towards her. This caused a great wave of criticism from the public and Edward's Court.
From 1370–1376, Perrers can be said to have ruled the country indirectly through Edward III, an unheard-of feat for a female of no royal descent in her early to mid-twenties. Perrers's power and eminence soon became legendary, and it was reported that she instilled fear into the populace, amongst whom no one dared to prosecute a claim against her. To her contemporaries, Perrers was seen as an ambitious, grasping, calculating and cold-hearted opportunist who manipulated the ailing King into granting her unheard-of wealth and status, at a court that brimmed with spite and loathing of her. Towards the end of Edward's reign, Perrers was accused of making his life a misery and of luring him with her charms only to further her own personal ambitions.
Marriage and children.
According to Charles Cawley, Perrers had three illegitimate children by King Edward, all while their relationship was a secret from his wife, Queen Philippa, and the public. In 1364, aged 16, Perrers gave birth to a son later named Sir John de Southeray (c. 1364-1383). John later married Maud Percy, daughter of Henry Percy, 3rd Baron Percy, and his first wife Mary of Lancaster.
A year later in 1365, Perrers gave birth to Jane (c. 1365-unknown). Jane married Richard Northland.
Aged 18, Perrers gave birth to her third child, Joan (c. 1366-bef January 1431).
Joan married Robert Skerne, a lawyer who served as a tax official and a Member of Parliament for Surrey.
Due to the king's advancing age and the fact that after his death she would no longer have his protection, Perrers contracted a secret marriage in November 1375 to Sir William Windsor, a Westmorland knight, who was appointed as the King's lieutenant in Ireland. He was 53 and she was 27. As William was a Royal Lieutenant in Ireland, he spent long periods of time absent from England and Perrers, lessening the probability of the King discovering their marriage. William and Perrers were married until William's death on 15 September 1384. He was 62 years old. They had no children.
Lands.
Though Perrers was given many gifts and land grants from Edward, her financial success was largely earned. Some contemporaries claimed that she had seduced a senile king to gain property and goods, but most of her acquisitions were owed to her intelligence, business acumen, and use of contacts, and she became a wealthy landowner. So successful was she that at the height of her power she controlled 56 manors, castles and town houses stretching over 25 counties of England from the north to the home counties. Only 15 of these were gifts from Edward. Among other properties, Perrers possessed the manor of Gaynes (at Upminster) in Essex, the place where she would die.
When property disputes arose with the abbot of St. Albans in 1374, Perrers, with the King's authority behind her, had the temerity to sit in the law courts to intimidate the judges and ensured that the abbot abandoned his claim due to the overwhelming power she possessed.
Banishment.
Prior to King Edward III's death, few had prosecuted or challenged her, but that changed in 1376, when Perrers was subjected to an ordinance that set penalties for all women (but specifically against her) who practiced 'maintenance', the offence of interfering in the due process of the law. A contemporary description of the ordinance is as follows:
Because a complaint was made to the king that some women have pursued various business and disputes in the king's courts by way of maintenance, bribing and influencing the parties, which thing displeases the king; the king forbids any woman to do it, and especially Alice Perrers, on penalty of whatever the said Perrers can forfeit and of being banished from the realm.
She was ultimately tried for corruption and subsequently banished from the kingdom by the Good Parliament, her lands forfeit. She was later able to return to England and work to regain some of her lands.
Later life and death.
Alice Perrers died in the winter of 1400/1401 at 52 years old and was buried in the church of St Laurence, Upminster.
Influence in literature.
Perrers is thought to have served as the living prototype of Geoffrey Chaucer's oft-married Wife of Bath in "The Canterbury Tales". Her influence on literature may also have extended to William Langland's Lady Mede in "Piers Plowman". In that work, the Lady represents, to the dreaming narrator, a woman of high status, one adorned with jewels and fine robes, but also a distraction and diversion from decent morals.
Perrers was also a great influence in Chaucer's life and supported him greatly.
Fictional portrayals.
Candace Robb features Alice Perrers in her Medieval Mysteries series and Perrers is the main protagonist in Robb's "The King's Mistress" written as Emma Campion. She appears in Anya Seton's novel, "Katherine". Alice Perrers is the main character in Vanora Bennett's novel "The People's Queen" that was first published in 2010. She is a character in Jean Plaidy's "Vow on the Heron". She is portrayed in Rebecca Gablé's "Das Lächeln der Fortuna", a historical novel in the German language about the time. She is portrayed as the protagonist of the 2012 novel "The King's Concubine" by Anne O'Brien and also appears in "The Traitor's Noose", the fourth novel in the "Lions and Lilies" series by Catherine A Wilson and Catherine T Wilson.


Jean-Paul St. Laurent

Jean-Paul Stephen St-Laurent (23 April 1912 – 22 December 1986) was a Canadian politician. He was born in Quebec City, Quebec.
The son of former Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent and Jeanne Renault, Jean-Paul represented the electoral district of Témiscouata in the House of Commons of Canada from 1955 to 1958.
St. Laurent was a member of the Liberal Party.
He died aged 74 in 1986.


Sultanic Highness

His Sultanic Highness (HSH) () was an honorific of the Sultan of Egypt.
History.
In 1914, as a result of the declaration of war against the Ottoman Empire (of which Egypt was nominally a part), the United Kingdom declared a protectorate over the territory. The British deposed the Egyptian Khedive (Egypt's ruler's title before "His Sultanic Highness"), replacing him with a family member who was made Sultan of Egypt.
Seven people used this title: Isma'il Fuad, Fawkia Fuad, Faruk I , Fawzia Fuad , Faiza Fuad, Faika Fuad and Fathiya Fuad .
With the Egyptian Revolution of 1919, the departure of the British from Egypt, and the proclamation of the Kingdom of Egypt in 1922, the country was recognized by the United Kingdom as a sovereign nation. Sultan Fuad I ("His Sultanic Highness") was made king of Egypt, and his descendants became "His Royal Highnesses", the princes and princesses of Egypt.