Girnar

Standing tall at 3672 feet, Girnar is an ancient hill in Junagadh. This centuries old hill is covered with 866 Hindu and Jain temples that are spread over the summits. One will have to climb 9999 steps to reach the final summit. Trek to Girnar Hill starts from Girnar Taleti.
Geology.
Mount Girnar is a major igneous plutonic complex which intruded into the basalts towards the close of the Deccan Trap period. The rock types identified in this complex are gabbros (tholeiitic and alkalic), diorites, lamprophyres, alkali-syenites and rhyolites. The parent gabbroic magma is shown to have given rise in sequence to diorites, lamprophyres and alkali-syenites. The rhyolite, though earlier considered a product of differentiation, is now believed to be an independent magma without any genetic link with the gabbro and its variants.
History.
Ashoka's edicts at Mount Girnar, Junagadh.
Fourteen of Ashoka's Major Rock Edicts, dating to circa 250 BCE, are inscribed on a large boulder that is housed in a small building located outside the town of Junagadh on Saurashtra peninsula in the state of Gujarat, India. It is located on Girnar Taleti road, at about 2 km (1.2 mi) far from Uperkot Fort easterly, some 2 km before Girnar Taleti. An uneven rock, with a circumference of seven meters and a height of ten meters, bears inscriptions etched with an iron pen in Brahmi script in a language similar to Pali and date back to 250 BCE, thus marking the beginning of written history of Junagadh.
On the same rock there are inscriptions in Sanskrit added around 150 CE by Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I, the Saka (Scythian) ruler of Malwa, a member of the Western Satraps dynasty (see Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman). The edict also narrates the story of Sudarshan Lake which was built or renovated by Rudradaman I, and the heavy rain and storm due to which it had broken.
Another inscription dates from about 450 CE and refers to Skandagupta, the last Gupta Empire.
The protective building around the edicts was built in 1900 by Nawab Rasool Khan of Junagadh State at a cost of Rs 8,662. It was repaired and restored in 1939 and 1941 by the rulers of Junagadh. The wall of the structure had collapsed in 2014.
A much smaller replica of these Girnar edicts has been positioned outside the entrance of the National Museum in Delhi.
Similarly, inside the Parliament Museum at New Delhi, an exhibit replicates the act of artists sculpting inscriptions of Girnar edict on a rock.
Girnar Ropeway.
Girnar ropeway is a ropeway on Mount Girnar which is Asia's longest ropeway. First proposed in 1983, the construction started only in September 2018 due to government approval delays and litigation. The construction and operation is managed by Usha Breco Limited. The project was inaugurated on 24 October 2020 by now Prime Minister Narendra Modi. It connects Girnar taleti to Ambaji temple with in 10 minutes of ropeway ride. The ropeway is 2,320 metres (7,600 ft) long, takes passengers 850 metres (2,800 ft) above the hill to the Amba temple.
Jain Temples.
Girnar was anciently called Raivatagiri or Ujjayantagiri, sacred amongst the Jains to Neminath, the 22nd Tirthankar, and a place of pilgrimage before 250 BCE.
Situated on the first plateau of Mount Girnar at the height of about 3800 steps, at an altitude of 2370 ft above Junagadh, still some 600 ft below the first summit of Girnar, there are Jain temples with marvelous carvings in marble.
Some 16 Jain temples here form a sort of fort on the ledge at the top of the great cliff. These temples are along the west face of the hill, and are all enclosed.
On entering the gate, the large enclosure of the temples is on the left, while to the right is the old granite temple of Man Singh, Bhoja Raja of Kutch, and farther on the much larger one of Vastupala. Built into the wall on the left of the entrance is an inscription in Sanskrit. Some 16 Jain temples here form a sort of fort on the ledge at the top of the great cliff, but still 600 feet below the summit. The largest temple is the Neminath temple, standing in a quadrangular court 195 x 130 feet. It was built from 1128 to 1159. It consists of two halls (with two porches, called the mandapas), and a shrine, which contains a large black image of Neminatha, the 22d Tirthankara. Around the shrine is a passage with many images in white marble. Between the outer and inner halls are two shrines. The outer hall has two small raised platforms paved with slabs of yellow stone, covered with representations of feet in pairs called "padukas," which represent the 2452 feet of the Ganadharas, first disciples of Tirthankaras. On the west of this is a porch overhanging the perpendicular scarp. On two of the pillars of the mandapam are inscriptions dated 1275, 1281, and 1278—dates of restoration. The enclosure is nearly surrounded inside by 70 cells, each enshrining a marble image, with a covered passage in front of them lighted by a perforated stone screen.
The principal entrance was originally on the east side of the court, but it is now closed, and the entrance from the court in Khengar's Palace is that now used. There is a passage leading into a low dark temple, with granite pillars in lines. Opposite the entrance is a recess containing two large black images; in the back of the recess is a lion rampant, and over it a crocodile in bas-relief. Behind these figures is a room from which is a descent into a cave, with a large white marble image which is mostly concealed by priests. It has a slight hollow in the shoulder, said to be caused by water dropping from the ear, whence it was called "Amijhara", "nectar drop." Neminath is said to have attained Moksha from Girnar so this place is frequently noted in Jain literature.
In the North porch are inscriptions which state that in Samwat 1215 certain Thakurs completed the shrine, and built the Temple of Ambika.
After leaving this there are three temples to the left that on the south side contain a colossal image of Rishabha Deva, the first Tirthankar, exactly like that at Palitana temples, called Bhim-Padam. On the throne of this image is a slab of yellow stone carved in 1442, with figures of the 24 Tirthankars.
Opposite this temple is a modern one to Panchabai. West of it is a large temple called Malakavisi or Meravasi, sacred to Parshwanath, built in the 15th century. North of this is another temple of Parshwanath, which contains a large white marble image canopied by a cobra, whence it is called Sheshphani, an arrangement frequently found in the South India but uncommon in North India. It bears a date of 1803. The last temple to the north is Kumarpal's temple, built by Chaulukya king Kumarapala, which has a long open portico on the west. It appears to have been destroyed by the Muslims, and restored in 1824 by Hansraja Jetha. These temples are along the west face of the hill, and are all enclosed.
Outside to the north is the Bhima Kunda, a tank 70 feet by 50 feet, in which Hindus bathe. Immediately behind the temple of Neminath is the triple one temple, Vastupala-Tejpala temple, erected by the brothers Tejapala and Vastupala (built in 1177), who also built the Dilwara Temples on Mount Abu. The plan is that of three temples joined together. The shrine has a blue black image of Mallinath, the 19th Tirthankar. Farther north is the temple of Samprati Raja, This temple is probably one of the oldest on the hill, dating to 1158. Samprati is said to have ruled at Ujjain in the end of the third century BCE, and to have been the son of Kunala, Ashoka's third son.
Neminath Temple.
The Neminath temple is the largest temple of the group standing in a quadrangular court 195 x 130 feet. The temple was rebuilt completely by Sajjana, the governor of Saurashtra appointed by Jayasimha Siddharaja, in 1129 CE. There is an inscription on one of the pillars of the "mandapa" stating that it was repaired in 1278 CE.
It consists of two "rangamandapa" halls with two porches and a central shrine ("Gudhamandapa"), which contains a large black image of Neminath sitting in the lotus position holding a conch in his palm.
The principal hall in front of the central shrine measures across from door to door inside 41' 7" x 44' 7" from the shrine door to that leading out at the west end. The roof is supported by 22 square columns of granite coated with white lime while the floor is of tessellated marble.
Round the central shrine is a circumambulatory passage ("pradakshina") with many images in white marble including that of a Ganesha and a Chovishi or slab of the twenty four Tirthankara. Between the outer and inner halls are two shrines.
The outer hall measures 38' x 21' 3". The outer hall has two small raised platforms paved with slabs of yellow stone, covered with representations of feet in pairs called "paduka"s, which represent the 2452 feet of the Gandharas, first disciples of Tirthankaras.
On the west of this is a closed entrance with a porch overhanging the perpendicular scarp of the hill. On two of the pillars of the mandapa are inscriptions dated 1275, 1281, and 1278 — dates of restoration.
The enclosure in which these "rangamandapa"s and the central shrine are situated, is nearly surrounded inside by 70 little cells, each enshrining a marble image on a bench, with a covered passage running round in front of them lighted by a perforated stone screen.
The principal entrance was originally on the east side of the court; but it is now closed, and the entrance from the south side of court in Khengar's Palace is that now used.
On south side, there is a passage leading into a low dark temple, with granite pillars in lines. Opposite the entrance is a recess containing two large black images; in the back of the recess is a lion rampant, and over it a crocodile in bas-relief. Behind these figures is a room from which is a descent into a cave, with a large white marble image which is mostly concealed. It has a slight hollow in the shoulder, said to be caused by water dropping from the ear, whence it was called "Amijhara", "nectar drop". There are few shrines in the court dedicated to Jain monks. In the North porch are inscriptions which state that in Samwat 1215 certain Thakurs completed the shrine, and built the Temple of Ambika.
There is a small temple of Adinath behind the Neminath temple facing west which was built by Jagmal Gordhan of Porwad family in VS 1848 under guidance of Jinendra Suri.
Adabadji Adinatha temple.
There are three temples to the left of the passage from the north porch of the Neminath temple. Of them, the temple on the south contains a colossal image of Adinatha, the first Tirthankar, exactly like that at Palitana temples. The image is in standing meditating ("kausaggiya") position On the throne of this image is a slab of yellow stone carved in 1442, with figures of the 24 Tirthankars.
Panchmeru temple.
On the north, opposite the Adabadji temple, there is Panchabai's or Panchmeru temple which was built in VS 1859. It contains five sikhars or spires each enshrining quadruple images.
Meraka-vasahi.
West of Panchmeru temple, there is a large temple. The temples is called Malekavasahi, Merakavasahi or Merakavashi due to false identification. Madhusudan Dhaky noted that the Merakavasahi was a small shrine somewhere near east gate of Neminatha temple while the current temple is large one and outside the north gate of the Neminatha temple. Based on its architecture, Dhaky dates the temple to 15th century and notes that it is mentioned as Kharataravasahi built or restored by Bhansali Narpal Sanghavi in the old itineraries of Jain monks. The temple is depicted in the "Shatrunjaya-Giranar Patta" dated 1451 CE (VS 1507) in Ranakpur temple so it must have built before it. The temple may have been built as early as 1438 CE. Dhaky believes that the temple may have been built on the site of the Satyapuravatara Mahavira's temple built by Vastupala.
According to an anecdote said by modern Jain writers, Sajjana, the minister of Chaulukya king Siddharaja Jayasimha, built the Neminatha temple using the state treasury. When he collected the funds to return as a compensation, the king declined to accept it so the funds were used to built the temple. Dhaky concludes that the anecdote is not mentioned in any early work and is false.
Sahastraphana (thousand hooded) Parshwanatha, the image which was consecrated in 1803 CE (VS 1459) by Vijayajinendra Suri, is currently the central deity in the temple. The temple originally housed the golden image of Mahavira and brass images of Shantinatha and Parshwanatha on its sides.
The east facing temple has 52 small shrines surrounding the central temple. It has an open portico with ceilings with fine carvings. In the "bhamti" or cloisters surrounding the court, there are also some remarkable designs in carved ceilings. The roof of the "rangamandapa" has fine carvings. The shrine proper must have been removed and replaced with new one at the end of the sixteenth century or the start of the seventeenth century. It is known that Karmachandra Bachchhavat, minister of the king of Bikaner, had sent a funds to renovate temple in Shatrunjaya and Girnar under Jinachandrasuri IV of Kharatara Gaccha during the reign of Akbar. There is a shrine housing replica of Ashtapada hill in the south, shrine with Shatrunjayavatar in west, behind the main temple, and Samet Shikhar (or Nandishwar Dwipa) in north.
Sangram Soni's Temple.
North of the Melakavasahi, there is a temple of Parshwanath in the enclosure. The original temple on the site was Kalyanatraya temple dedicated to Neminatha built by Tejapala, brother of Vastupala. This Kalyanatraya contained quadruple images in three tires as the central deity. The new temple on the site was built in 1438 CE (VS 1494) by Oswal Soni Samarasimha and Vyavahari Maladev. The spire of this 15th century temple is replaced by new spire built c. 1803 CE. The temple is now mistakenly known as Sangram Soni's temple. It was repaired by Premabhai Hemabhai about 1843. It contains a large white marble figure of Parswanatha bearing the date 1803 CE with the polycephalous cobra over him whence he is styled "Seshphani". This temple is peculiar in having a sort of gallery and like the previous one of the central deity faces the east whilst the others mostly face the west.
Kumarapala's Temple.
The last temple to the north is known as the Kumarapala's temple which is falsely attributed to 12th century Chaulukya king Kumarapala. Based on the literary, epigraphic and architectural evidence, Madhusudan Dhaky concluded that the temple belongs to 15th century and was built by Purnasinha Koshthagarika (Punsi Kothari). The central deity was Shantinatha and was consecrated by Jinakirti Suri probably in 1438 CE. The part of the original temple was destroyed by the 18th century and appears to have been restored in 1824 CE by Hansraja Jetha which is known from the inscription.
The temple is west facing. The original temple had 72 shrines surrounding the central temple which no longer exist. The central temple has a modern long open portico supported by twenty four columns. The temple proper or "mandapa" and shrine are small and the ceilings and architraves are restored. The "mandapa" with its beautiful pendentive and the pillars and lintels of the portico. The shrine contains three images; in the middle Abhinandana Swami dedicated in 1838 and on either side Adinatha and Sambhavanatha dated 1791.
Mansingha Bhojaraja temple.
To the east of the Devakota, there are several temples: the principal being the temple of Mansingha Bhojaraja of Kachchh, an old granite temple near the entrance gate which is now dedicated to Sambhavanatha.
Vastupala-vihara.
Vastupala-vihara is a triple temple, the central fane measuring 53 feet by 29 has two domes and finely carved but much mutilated and the shrine which is 13 feet square with a large niche or "gokhla" on the left side contains an image of Mallinatha. Beneath the image is the inscription mentioning Vastupala and his family members.
On either side this central temple, there is a large hall about 38 feet 6 inches from door to door containing a remarkable solid pile of masonry called a "samovasarana" that on the north side named "Sumeru" having a square base and the other "Sameta Sikhara" with a nearly circular one. Each rises in four tiers of diminishing width almost to the roof and is surmounted by a small square canopy over images. The upper tiers are reached by steps arranged for the purpose. On the outside of the shrine tower are three small niches in which images have been placed and there are stone ladders up to the niches to enable the "pujari"s to reach them. The temple was completed in 1232 CE. There are six large inscriptions of Vastupala in the temple dated VS 1288. Originally Shatrunjayavatara Adinatha was the central deity of the temple. The roofs of temple were rebuilt in the 15th century.
There is another temple on the cliff behind the Vastupala-vihara which is now known as Gumasta temple. The temple was built by Vastupala and was dedicated to Marudevi. Another shrine behind Vastupala-vihara is dedicated to Kapardi Yaksha.
Samprati Raja temple.
Farther north of the Vastupala-vihara, the Samprati Raja temple is situated. The temple was built in 1453 (VS 1509) CE by Shanraj and Bhumbhav from Khambhat. It was originally dedicated to Vimalanatha. According to Dhaky, the temple was built on the site of Stambhanatirthavatara Parshwanatha temple built by Vastupala. The temple is mistakenly attributed to Maurya ruler Samprati.
It is built against the side of a cliff and is ascended to by a stair. Inside the entrance there is another very steep flight of steps in the porch leading up to a large "mandapa" to the east of which is added a second "mandapa" and a "gambhara" or shrine containing a black image of Neminatha dedicated by Karnarama Jayaraja in 1461.
Other temples.
To the east of Vastupala vihara and Samprati Raja temples, and on the face of the hill above, there are other temples among them an old one going by the name of Dharmasa of Mangrol or Dharamchand Hemchand built of grey granite the image being also of granite. Near it is another ruined shrine in which delicate granite columns rise from the corners of the "sinhasana" or throne carved with many squatting figures. Near this is the only shrine on this mount to Mahavira.
South of this, and 200 feet above the Jain temples on way to the first summit, is the Gaumukhi Shrine, near a plentiful spring of water.
Away on the north, climbing down the steps, there are two shrines dedicated to Neminatha in Sahsavan where he said to have taken renunciation and attained omniscience. Neminatha is said to have attained Nirvana or died on the highest peak of the Girnar. There is a modern Samovasarana temple.
Tanks.
Outside to the north of the Kumarapala's temple, there is the Bhima Kunda, a tank measuring 70 feet by 50 feet. Below it and on the verge of the cliff is a smaller tank of water and near it a small canopy supported by three roughly hewn pillars and a piece of rock containing a short octagonal stone called "Hathi pagla" or "Gajapada," the elephant foot, a stratum on the top of which is of light granite and the rest of dark the lower part is immersed in water most of the year.
According to an anecdote said by modern Jain writers, Sajjana, the minister of Chaulukya king Siddharaja Jayasimha, built the Neminatha temple using the state treasury. When he collected the funds to return as a compensation, the king declined to accept it so the funds were used to built the temple. Dhaky concludes that the anecdote is not mentioned in any early work and is false.
Sahastraphana (thousand hooded) Parshwanatha, the image which was consecrated in 1803 CE (VS 1459) by Vijayajinendra Suri, is currently the central deity in the temple. The temple originally housed the golden image of Mahavira and brass images of Shantinatha and Parshwanatha on its sides.
The east facing temple has 52 small shrines surrounding the central temple. It has an open portico with ceilings with fine carvings. In the "bhamti" or cloisters surrounding the court, there are also some remarkable designs in carved ceilings. The roof of the "rangamandapa" has fine carvings. The shrine proper must have been removed and replaced with new one at the end of the sixteenth century or the start of the seventeenth century. It is known that Karmachandra Bachchhavat, minister of the king of Bikaner, had sent a funds to renovate temple in Shatrunjaya and Girnar under Jinachandrasuri IV of Kharatara Gaccha during the reign of Akbar. There is a shrine housing replica of Ashtapada hill in the south, shrine with Shatrunjayavatar in west, behind the main temple, and Samet Shikhar (or Nandishwar Dwipa) in north.
Girnar's Initial trek.
The base of the mountain, known as Girnar Taleti, is about 4 km east of the center of Junagadh. There are temples and other sacred places all along this stretch.
The traveller, in order to reach Girnar Taleti from Junagadh city, will pass through the Wagheshwari or Vagheshwari Gate [Girnar Darwaza], which is close to the Uparkot fort area, Easterly.
At about 200 metres from the gate, to the right of the road, is the Temple of Wagheshwari (Upale Vagheshwari maa), which is joined to the road by a causeway about 150 yards long. An ancient Verai Mata mandir and a modern Gayatri Shakti Peeth mandir are nearby.
About a furlong beyond this is a stone bridge, and just beyond it on the right are the Ashoka's Major Rock Edicts. The edicts are inscribed high up on a large, domed mass of black granite measuring roughly 20 feet x 30 feet. The inscription is in Brahmi script. On the same rock can be found an inscription of the Western Satrap ruler Rudradaman, the Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman.
On leaving Ashoka's edicts, the route crosses the handsome bridge over the Sona-rekha, which here forms a fine sheet of water over golden sand, then passes a number of temples, at first on the left bank of the river and then on the right, to the largest of the temples. This is dedicated to Damodar, a name of Krishna, from Dam, a rope, because by tradition his mother in vain attempted to confine him with a rope when a child. The reservoir, Damodar Kund, at this place is accounted very sacred.
Next is an old shrine of Bhavnath, a form of Shiva, close to Girnar Taleti; Mrigi kund and Sudharshan lake are nearby.
Most persons who are not active climbers will probably proceed up the mountain in a swing "doli" from Taleti. A long ridge runs up from the west, and culminates in a rugged scarped rock, on the top of which are the temples. Close to the old shrine is a well called the Chadani vav.
The paved way begins just beyond this and continues for two-thirds of the ascent. The first resthouse, Chadia Parab, is reached, 480 feet, above the plain; and the second halting-place at Dholi-deri, 1000 feet above the plain. From here the ascent becomes more difficult, winding under the face of the precipice to the third resthouse, 1400 feet up. The path turns to the right along the edge of a precipice, which is very narrow, so that the "doli" almost grazes the scarp, which rises perpendicularly 200 feet above the traveller. On the right is seen the lofty mountain of Datar, covered with low jungle. At about 1500 feet there is a stone dharmsala, and from this there is a fine view of the rock called the Bhairav-Thampa, "the terrific leap," because devotees used to cast themselves from its top, falling 1000 feet or more.
At 2370 feet above Junagadh the gate of the enclosure known as the Deva Kota, or Ra Khengar's Palace, is reached.
Further trek.
South of this, is the Gaumukhi Shrine, near a plentiful spring of water.
From it the crest of the mountain (3330 feet) is reached by a steep flight of stairs. Here is an ancient temple of Amba Mata, which is much resorted to by newly married couples . The bride and bridegroom have their clothes tied together, and attended by their male and female relations, adore the goddess and present cocoa-nuts and other offerings. This pilgrimage is supposed to procure for the couple along continuance of wedded bliss.
Festivals.
The main event for Hindus is the Maha Shivaratri fair held every year on the 14th day of the Hindu calendar month of Magha. At least 1 million pilgrims visit the fair to participate in pooja and parikrama of Girnar hill. The procession begins at Bhavnath Mahadev Temple at Bhavnath. It then proceeds onwards to various akharas of various sects of sadhus, which are in Girnar hill from ancient times. The procession of sadhus and pilgrims ends again at Bhavnath temple after visiting Madhi, Malavela and Bara Devi temple. The fair begins with hoisting of fifty-two "Gaja" long flags at Bhavnath Mahadev temple. This fair is the backbone of the economy of Junagadh, as more than ten lakh pilgrims who visit the fair generate a revenue of 250 million in only five days.


Jeddah

Jeddah ( ), also spelled Jedda, Jiddah or Jidda ( ; , ), is a city in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia and the country's commercial center. With a population of about 4,697,000 people as of 2021, Jeddah is the largest city in Makkah Province, the second-largest city in Saudi Arabia (after the capital Riyadh), and the eighth-largest in the Middle East. Jeddah Islamic Port, located on the Red Sea, is the thirty-sixth largest seaport in the world and the second-largest and second-busiest seaport in the Middle East (after Dubai's Port of Jebel Ali).
Jeddah is the principal gateway to Mecca, the holiest city in Islam, located just to the east, while Medina, the second-holiest city, is located to the north.
Economically, Jeddah is focusing on further developing capital investment in scientific and engineering leadership within Saudi Arabia, and the Middle East. Jeddah was independently ranked fourth in the Africa – Mid-East region in terms of innovation in 2009 in the Innovation Cities Index.
Jeddah is one of Saudi Arabia's primary resort cities and was named a Beta world city by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network (GaWC). Given the city's close proximity to the Red Sea, fishing and seafood dominate the food culture unlike other parts of the country. In Arabic, the city's motto is "Jeddah Ghair", which translates to "Jeddah is different". The motto has been widely used among both locals as well as foreign visitors. The city is widely perceived as the most liberal city in Saudi Arabia and is a popular tourist destination in the region.
Etymology and spelling.
There are at least two explanations for the etymology of the name "Jeddah", according to Jeddah Ibn Al-Qudaa'iy, the chief of the Quda'a clan. The more common account has it that the name is derived from "Jaddah", the Arabic word for "grandmother". According to eastern folk belief, the Tomb of Eve, considered the grandmother of humanity, is located in Jeddah. The tomb was sealed with concrete by religious authorities in 1975 due to some Muslims praying at the site.
The Berber traveler Ibn Battuta visited Jeddah during his world trip in around 1330. He wrote the name of the city into his diary as "Jiddah".
The British Foreign and Commonwealth Office and other branches of the British government formerly used the older spelling of "Jedda", contrary to other English-speaking usages, but in 2007, it changed to the spelling "Jeddah".
T. E. Lawrence felt that any transcription of Arabic names into English was arbitrary. In his book, "Revolt in the Desert", Jeddah is spelled in three different ways on the first page alone.
On official Saudi maps and documents, the city name is transcribed "Jeddah", which is now the prevailing usage.
History.
Pre-Islam.
Traces of early activity in the area are testified by some Thamudi scripts that were excavated in Wadi Briman (), east of the city, and Wadi Boweb (), northwest of the city. The oldest Mashrabiya found in Jeddah dates back to the pre-Islamic era .
Some believe that Jeddah had been inhabited before Alexander the Great, who had a naval expedition to the Red Sea, by fishermen in the Red Sea, who considered it a center from which they sailed out into the sea as well as a place for relaxation and well-being. According to the Ministry of Hajj, Jeddah has been settled for more than 2500 years.
Excavations in the old city have been interpreted as that Jeddah was founded as a fishing hamlet by the Yemeni Quda'a tribe (), who left central Yemen to settle in Makkah after the collapse of Sad (dam) Marib Dam in Yemen in 115 BC.
Under the Caliphates.
Jeddah first achieved prominence around AD 647, when the third Muslim Caliph, Uthman Ibn Affan, turned it into a port making it the port of Makkah instead of Al Shoaib port southwest of Mecca.
The Umayyads inherited the entire Rashidun Caliphate including Hejaz and ruled from 661AD to 750AD. In AD 702 Jeddah was briefly occupied by pirates from the Kingdom of Axum. However, Jeddah remained a key civilian harbour, serving fishermen and pilgrims travelling by sea for the Hajj. It is also believed that Sharifdom of Mecca, an honorary Viceroy to the holy land, was first appointed in this period of the Islamic Caliphate . Jeddah has been established as the main city of the historic Hijaz province and a historic port for pilgrims arriving by sea to perform their Hajj pilgrimage in Mecca.
In 750, in the Abbasid Revolution, the Abbasids successfully took control of almost the whole Umayyad Empire, excluding Morocco (Maghrib) and Spain (Al-Andalus). From 876, Jeddah and the surrounding area became the object of wars between the Abbasids and the Tulunids of Egypt, who at one point gained control of the emirates of Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Hejaz. The power struggle between the Tulunid Governors and the Abbasids over Hejaz lasted for nearly 25 years, until the Tulunids finally withdrew from Arabia in 900 AD.
In 930 AD, the main Hejazi cities of Medina, Mecca and Taif were heavily sacked by the Qarmatians. It is probable, though not historically confirmed, that Jeddah itself was attacked by Qarmatians.
Soon after, in early 935, the Ikhshidids, the new power in Egypt, took control of the Hejaz region. There are no historical records that detail the Ikhshidid rule of Hejaz. At this point in time, Jeddah was still unfortified and without walls.
The Fatimids, Ayyubids, and Mamluks.
In 969 AD, the Fatimids from Algeria took control in Egypt from the Ikhshidid Governors of Abbasids and expanded their empire to the surrounding regions, including The Hijaz and Jeddah. The Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean through the Red Sea. Their trade and diplomatic ties extended all the way to China and its Song Dynasty, which eventually determined the economic course of Tihamah during the High Middle Ages.
After Saladin's conquest of Jerusalem, in 1171 he proclaimed himself sultan of Egypt, after dissolving the Fatimid Caliphate upon the death of al-Adid, thus establishing the Ayyubid dynasty. Ayyubid conquests in Hejaz included Jeddah, which joined the Ayyubid Empire in 1177 during the leadership of Sharif Ibn Abul-Hashim Al-Thalab (1094–1201). During their relatively short-lived tenure, the Ayyubids ushered in an era of economic prosperity in the lands they ruled and the facilities and patronage provided by the Ayyubids led to a resurgence in intellectual activity in the Islamic world. This period was also marked by an Ayyubid process of vigorously strengthening Sunni Muslim dominance in the region by constructing numerous "madrasas" (Islamic schools) in their major cities. Jeddah attracted Muslim sailors and merchants from Sindh, Southeast Asia and East Africa, and other distant regions.
In 1254, following events in Cairo and the dissolution of the Ayyubid Empire, Hejaz became a part of the Mamluk Sultanate.
The Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama, having found his way around the Cape and obtained pilots from the coast of Zanzibar in AD 1497, pushed his way across the Indian Ocean to the shores of Malabar and Calicut, attacked fleets that carried freight and Muslim pilgrims from India to the Red Sea, and struck terror into the surrounding potentates. The Princes of Gujarat and Yemen turned for help to Egypt. Sultan Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri accordingly fitted out a fleet of 50 vessels under the Governor of Jeddah, Hussein the Kurd (aka. Mirocem). Jeddah was soon fortified with a wall, using forced labor, as a harbor of refuge from the Portuguese, allowing Arabia and the Red Sea to be protected.
Ottoman Empire.
In 1517, the Ottoman Turks conquered the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt and Syria, during the reign of Selim I.
The Ottomans rebuilt the weak walls of Jeddah in 1525 following the defense of the city against the Lopo Soares de Albergaria's Armada at the Siege of Jeddah (1517). The new stone wall included six watchtowers and six city gates. They were constructed to defend against the Portuguese attack. Of the six gates, the Gate of Mecca was the eastern gate and the Gate of Al-Magharibah, facing the port, was the western gate. The Gate of Sharif faced south. The other gates were the Gate of Al-Bunt, Gate of Al-Sham (also called Gate of Al-Sharaf), and Gate of Medina, facing north. The Turks also built The Qishla of Jeddah, a small castle for the city soldiers. In the 19th century, these seven gates were minimized into four giant gates with four towers. These giant gates were the Gate of Sham to the north, the Gate of Mecca to the east, the Gate of Sharif to the south, and the Gate of Al-Magharibah on the seaside.
Jeddah became a direct Ottoman Eyalet, while the remaining Hejaz under Sharif Barakat II became a Vassal state to the Ottoman Empire 8 years after the Siege of Jeddah in 1517.
Parts of the city wall still survive today in the old city. Even though the Portuguese were successfully repelled from the city, fleets in the Indian Ocean were at their mercy. This was evidenced by the Battle of Diu. The Portuguese soldiers' cemetery can still be found within the old city today and is referred to as the site of the Christian Graves.
Ahmed Al-Jazzar, the Ottoman military man mainly known for his role in the Siege of Acre, spent the earlier part of his career at Jeddah. In Jeddah in 1750, he killed some seventy rioting nomads in retaliation for the killing of his commander, Abdullah Beg, earning him the nickname "Jezzar" (butcher).
On 15 June 1858, rioting in the city, believed to have been instigated by a former police chief in reaction to British policy in the Red Sea, led to the massacre of 25 Christians, including the British and French consuls, members of their families, and wealthy Greek merchants. The British frigate , anchored at port, bombarded the city for two days in retaliation.
First Saudi State and Ottoman–Saudi War.
In 1802, Nejdi forces conquered both Mecca and Jeddah from the Ottomans. When Sharif Ghalib Efendi informed Sultan Mahmud II of this, the Sultan ordered his Egyptian viceroy Muhammad Ali Pasha to retake the city. Muhammad Ali successfully regained the city in the Battle of Jeddah in 1813.
World War I and the Hashemite Kingdom.
During World War I, Sharif Hussein bin Ali declared a revolt against the Ottoman Empire, seeking independence from the Ottoman Turks and the creation of a single unified Arab state spanning from Aleppo in Syria to Aden in Yemen.
King Hussein declared the Kingdom of Hejaz. Later, Hussein was involved in a war with Ibn Saud, who was the Sultan of Nejd. Hussein abdicated following the fall of Mecca, in December 1924, and his son Ali bin Hussein became the new king.
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
A few months later, Ibn Saud, whose clan originated in the central Nejd province, conquered Medina and Jeddah via an agreement with Jeddans following the Second Battle of Jeddah. He deposed Ali bin Hussein, who fled to Baghdad, eventually settling in Amman, Jordan, where his descendants became part of its Hashemite royalty.
As a result, Jeddah came under the sway of the Al-Saud dynasty in December 1925. In 1926, Ibn Saud added the title King of Hejaz to his position of Sultan of Nejd. Today, Jeddah has lost its historical role in peninsular politics after Jeddah fell within the new province of Makkah, whose provincial capital is the city of Mecca.
From 1928 to 1932, the new Khuzam Palace was built as the new residence of King Abdul Aziz in Jeddah. The palace lies south of the old walled city and was constructed under the supervision of the engineer Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden. After 1963, the palace was used as a royal guest house; since 1995, it has housed the Regional Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography.
The remaining walls and gates of the old city were demolished in 1947. A fire in 1982 destroyed some ancient buildings in the old town center, called Al-Balad, but much is still preserved. A house-by-house survey of the old districts was made in 1979, showing that some 1000 traditional buildings still existed, though the number of structures with great historic value was far less. In 1990, a Jeddah Historical Area Preservation Department was founded.
The modern city has expanded wildly beyond its old boundaries. The built-up area expanded mainly to the north along the Red Sea coastline, reaching the new airport during the 1990s and since edging its way around it toward the Ob'hur Creek, some from the old city center.
Geography.
Jeddah is located in Saudi Arabia's Red Sea coastal plain (called Tihamah). Jeddah lies in the Hijazi Tihama () region which is in the lower Hijaz mountains. Historically, politically and culturally, Jeddah was a major city of Hejaz Vilayet, the Kingdom of Hejaz and other regional political entities according to Hijazi history books. It is the 100th largest city in the world by land area.
Climate.
Jeddah features an arid climate ("BWh") under Koppen's climate classification, with a tropical temperature range. Unlike other Saudi Arabian cities, Jeddah retains its warm temperature in winter, which can range from at dawn to in the afternoon. Summer temperatures are extremely hot, often breaking the mark in the afternoon and dropping to in the evening. Summers are also quite steamy, with dew points often exceeding , particularly in September. Rainfall in Jeddah is generally sparse, and usually occurs in small amounts in November and December. Heavy thunderstorms are common in winter. The thunderstorm of December 2008 was the largest in recent memory, with rain reaching around . The lowest temperature ever recorded in Jeddah was on February 10, 1993. The highest temperature ever recorded in Jeddah was on June 22, 2010.
Dust storms happen in summer and sometimes in winter, coming from the Arabian Peninsula's deserts or from North Africa.
Economy.
Jeddah has long been a port city. Even before being designated the port city for Mecca, Jeddah was a trading hub for the region. In the 19th century, goods such as mother-of-pearl, tortoise shells, frankincense, and spices were routinely exported from the city. Apart from this, many imports into the city were destined for further transit to the Suez, Africa, or Europe. Many goods passing through Jeddah could not even be found in the city or even in Arabia.
All of the capitals of the Middle East and North Africa are within two hours flying distance of Jeddah, making it the second commercial center of the Middle East after Dubai.
Also, Jeddah's industrial district is the fourth largest industrial city in Saudi Arabia after Riyadh, Jubail and Yanbu.
King Abdullah Street.
King Abdullah Street is one of the most important streets in Jeddah and runs from King Fahd Road by the waterfront in the west of Jeddah to the eastern end of the city. It is famous for hosting numerous corporate offices and commercial developments. It will be near the HSR Entrance in Jeddah central train station which connects Jeddah with Makkah, AL-Madinah, and King Abdullah Economic City (KAEC). And it also has the tallest flagpole in the world at a height of 170 m (558 ft). This road also faced a catastrophe in 2011 when it was submerged with rainwater.
Tahliyah Street.
Tahaliyah Street is an important fashion and shopping street in central Jeddah. It contains many upscale departments and high fashion brands stores as well as boutiques. It has been renamed "Prince Mohammad bin Abdul Aziz Road" by the government, but this official name is not widely used. It also has many fine dining options.
Madinah Road.
Madinah Road is a historically significant street in Jeddah. It links the Southern districts with the North and contains the Main offices of several companies and showrooms. The northern end of the road links to the King Abdul Aziz Int'l Airport, which is a contributing factor to heavy traffic on this road at most times during the day.
Culture.
Religious significance.
Most citizens are Sunni Muslims. The government, courts, and civil and criminal laws enforce a moral code established by Shari'ah. A very small minority of Saudi citizens are Shia Muslims, and there is also a large foreign workforce.
The city has over 1,300 mosques. The law does not allow other religions' buildings, books, icons and expressions of faith. However, private religious observance not involving Muslims nor offending public order and morality is tolerated.
Since the 7th century, Jeddah has hosted millions of Muslim pilgrims from all over the world on their way to Hajj. This merge with pilgrims has a major impact on the society, religion, and economy of Jeddah.
Cuisine.
Jeddah's multi-ethnic citizenry has influenced Jeddah's traditional cuisine.
Some dishes are native to the Hejaz, like Saleeg and Mabshūr is a white-rice dish, cooked in broth, often made with chicken instead of lamb meat. Jeddah cuisine is popular as well and dishes like, Foul, Shorabah Hareira (Hareira soup), Mugalgal, Madhbi (chicken grilled on stone), Madfun (literally meaning "buried"), Magloobah, Kibdah, Manzalah (usually eaten at Eid ul-Fitr), Magliya (a local version of falafel) and Saiyadyia which can be acquired in many traditional restaurants around the city, such as Althamrat, Abo-Zaid, Al-Quarmooshi, Ayaz, and Hejaziyat.
Some were imported from other Saudi regions like Kabsa from Najd, Arīka and Ma'sūb from the southern Saudi region. Other Dishes were imported from other cultures through Saudis of different origins, like Mantu , Yaghmush and Ruz Bukhāri from Central Asia, Burēk and Šurēk and Kabab almīru from Turkey and the Balkans, Mandi from Yemen, Mutabbag from Yemen-Malaysia, Biryāni and Kābli rice dishes from South Asia.
Grilled meat dishes such as shawarma, kofta, and kebab have a good market in Jeddah. During Ramadan, sambousak and ful are especially popular at the evening iftar meal. These dishes are found in Lebanese, Syrian, and Turkish restaurants.The most popular local fast-food chain, begun in 1974, is Al Baik, with branches in Jeddah and the neighbouring cities of Makkah, Madinah and Yanbu. Their main dish is broasted (broiled and roasted) chicken, commonly known by Jeddawis as "Broast", and a variety of seafood. Other local fast food restaurants have sprung up, like Al Tazaj, which serves seasoned grilled chicken (called Farooj) and a side of Tahina with onion and spices. Foultameez serves Foul and Tameez as fast food; Kudu and Herfy serve Western fast food; Halawani serves local variants of Shawerma; and Shawermatak has pioneered drive-through sales of Shawerma. Another popular fast-food chain is Hot and Crispy, an Arabic franchise popular for their spiced curly fries.
Indian, Bangladeshi, Pakistani, and other Asian foods are also popular. Italian, French, and American restaurants are also to be found.
Open-air art.
During the oil boom in the late 1970s and 1980s, there was a focused civic effort led by the then city's mayor Mohamed Said Farsi to bring art to Jeddah's public areas. As a result, Jeddah contains a large number of modern open-air sculptures and works of art, typically situated in roundabouts, making the city one of the largest open-air art galleries in the world. Sculptures include works by Jean/Hans Arp, César Baldaccini, Alexander Calder, Henry Moore, Joan Miró and Victor Vasarely. They often depict traditional Saudi items such as coffee pots, incense burners, palm trees, etc. The fact that Islamic tradition prohibits the depiction of living creatures, notably the human form, has made for some very creative, as well as bizarre, modern art. These include a giant geometry set, a giant bicycle, and a huge block of concrete with several cars protruding from it at odd angles and a monumental sculpture by Aref Rayess called "Swords of God (Soyuf Allah)".
Museums and collections.
There are about a dozen museums or collections in Jeddah, with varied educational aims and professionalism. These include the Jeddah Regional Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography run by the Deputy Ministry of Antiquities and Museums, the Jeddah Municipal Museum, the Nasseef House, the Humane Heritage Museum, the private Abdul Rauf Hasan Khalil Museum and the private Arts Heritage Museum.
Events and festivals.
Red Sea International Film Festival.
Jeddah has been selected as a place for the annual Red Sea International Film Festival that will be held in 2020.
Jeddah International Book Fair.
Jeddah hosts an annual international book fair called Jeddah international book fair. It is the second largest book fair in Saudi Arabia, and it was first held in 2015. The book fair is held annually in early December.
Jeddah Season.
Jeddah Season is a part of the Saudi government's Saudi Seasons initiatives that aims at launching a high-level tourism activities in Saudi Arabia. The first version of the season has been held in June–July 2019. Around 150 activities and events have been organized in five destinations in Jeddah. As Saudi Seasons 2019 aims at shedding the light on the diverse Saudi culture and heritage. Jeddah was chosen because it is one of the most culturally-rich Saudi cities with a history that spans over 3,000 years. Most of Jeddah Season's events and activities have been held at King Abdullah Sports City, Jeddah's historical area, Al-Hamra Corniche, and the Jeddah Waterfront.
Jeddah Season aim to make Jeddah the most preferred tourist destination in the world and the best season of Saudi Seasons.
Media.
Jeddah is served by four major Arabic-language newspapers, "Asharq Al-Awsat", "Al Madina", "Okaz", and "Al Bilad", as well as two major English-language newspapers, the "Saudi Gazette" and "Arab News". "Okaz" and "Al-Madina" are the primary newspapers of Jeddah and some other Saudi cities, with over a million readers; their focus is mainly local.
Internet blogs specifically informative of the locality are abundant in Jeddah, catering mostly to the widespread expatriate population. Of these are constituted websites that have garnered international acclaim for informativeness, such as Jeddah Blog, the recipient of the Bronze Expat Blog Award in 2012 and the Gold Award in 2013 and is among Feedspot's Top 100 Middle East blogs. Other amateur websites catering to specific topics in the region exist as well.
Jeddah represents the largest radio and television market in Saudi Arabia. Television stations serving the city area include Saudi TV1, Saudi TV2, Saudi TV Sports, Al Ekhbariya, the ART channels network and hundreds of cable, satellite, and other specialty television providers.
The Jeddah TV Tower is a high television tower with an observation deck.
Accent.
The Jeddah region's distinctive speech pattern is called the Hejazi dialect; it is among the most recognizable accents within the Arabic language.
Cityscape.
Old Jeddah.
The Old City known as Al-Balad with its traditional multistory buildings and merchant houses, that often still belong to the families that inhabited them before the oil-era, has lost ground to more modern developments. Nonetheless, the Old City contributes to Hejazi's cultural identity. Since it has been granted UNESCO World Heritage status, in 2014, several traditional buildings have been restored and made open to the public. In 2019, the Saudi crown prince, Muhammad bin Salman, has issued a royal decree that orders The Ministry of Culture to restore 50 historical buildings in Jeddah. Several historic mosques from different eras are located in al-Balad, as well as one of oldest museums in the city, called Bayt Naseef or Naseef house, displaying local furniture and interior design of the past 150 years, approximately.
Resorts and hotels.
The city has many popular resorts, including Durrat Al-Arus, Al-Nawras Mövenpick resort at the Red Sea Corniche, Crystal Resort, Radisson Blu, The Signature Al Murjan Beach Resort, Al Nakheel Village, Sands, and Sheraton Abhur. Many are renowned for their preserved Red Sea marine life and offshore coral reefs.
Consulates.
One of two consulates of the United States of America in Saudi Arabia is located in Jeddah, along with the consulates for 67 other countries such as Afghanistan, the United Kingdom, Indonesia, France, Germany, Greece, Turkey, Philippines, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Italy, Russia and People's Republic of China. Some of the other consulates present include, countries of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Arab League states.
Historical Jeddah.
Historical Jeddah is situated on the eastern shore of the Red Sea. From the 7th century AD, it was established as a major port for Indian Ocean trade routes, channeling goods to Mecca. It was also the gateway for Muslim pilgrims to Mecca who arrived by sea. These twin roles saw the city develop into a thriving multicultural centre, characterized by a distinctive architectural tradition, including tower houses built in the late 19th century by the city's mercantile elites, and combining Red Sea coastal coral building traditions with influences and crafts from along the trade routes.
Within a defensive wall that was built during Ottoman rule, the old city of Jeddah, Al-Balad, was divided into districts, or "Haras", where business and trade centred around traditional "souks", or market places, and "khans", covered markets that were generally connected to shops.
Harrat Al-Mathloum (District of the Wronged).
Located in the North East, this district was named after Abdulkarim Al-Barzangi, a Hijazi rebel who was crucified by the Ottomans, some of its landmarks are:
Harrat Al-Sham (The Levantine District).
Located in the north and named after its orientation, some of its landmarks are:
Built by Bakr Basha, the governor of Jeddah in 1735.
Harrat Al-Yemen (The Yemeni District).
Located in the south and is also named after its orientation, its landmarks include:
Harrat Al-Bahar (The Seafront District).
Located in the southwest, some of its landmarks are:
Landmarks.
Abdul Raouf Khalil Museum.
Founded by Sheikh Abdul Raouf Khalil in 1996, this museum not only presents the rich Islamic cultural heritage of the city but also its preislamic history that goes back to 2500 years; it traces the various civilizations that inhabited the region. Located in the downtown district, it boasts of large collection of items and artifacts belonging to the Ottoman Turks and the fishermen tribes who were the first inhabitants of the region.
King Fahd's Fountain.
King Fahd's Fountain was built in the 1980s, can be seen from a great distance and, at , is the highest water jet in the world according to the Guinness World Records. The fountain was donated to the City of Jeddah by the late King Fahd bin Abdul Aziz, after whom it was named.
Al-Rahmah Mosque.
Sometimes referred to as the floating mosque because of it being built above water, this fascinating mix of the old architecture and the new was built in 1985. It is a popular spot among tourists and natives looking to lounge by the seaside.
Al-Jawhara Stadium.
Is a new stadium launched in 2014, located north of Jeddah, is used mostly for football, reaching a full capacity of 62,241 spectators. It is the largest stadium in Jeddah, and the second-largest in Saudi Arabia.
King Saud Mosque.
The largest mosque in the city. Built-in 1987, it displays beautiful Islamic architecture and was built by Egyptian architect Abdel Wahed El Wakil.
NCB Tower.
Built-in 1983 and believed to be the highest tower in Saudi Arabia during the 1980s, with a height of over , the National Commercial Bank was Saudi Arabia's first bank.
IDB Tower.
The Islamic Development Bank is a multilateral development financing institution. It was founded by the first conference of Finance Ministers of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC, now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation), convened 18 December 1973. The bank officially began its activities on 20 October 1975.
Jeddah Municipality Tower.
This is the headquarters of the metropolitan area of Jeddah. The municipality's new building is going to be not only Jeddah's tallest but is also going to dethrone the Burj Khalifa.
This proposed tower, formerly known as the Kingdom Tower, is being built in Jeddah by Prince Al-Waleed bin Talal and will stand tall. Upon its completion, it will be the tallest skyscraper in the world. The building has been scaled down from its initial proposal, since the ground proved unsuitable for a building that tall, to a height of at least (the exact height is being kept private while in development, similar to the Burj Khalifa), which, at about one kilometre (), would still make it by far the tallest building or structure in the world to date, standing at least taller than the Burj Khalifa in Dubai. Construction began in April 2013 and there was steady progress, but in January 2018, building owner JEC halted structural concrete work with the tower about one-third completed due to labor issues with a contractor following the 2017–19 Saudi Arabian purge. JEC had said they planned to restart construction in 2020.
King Road Tower.
King Road Tower is a commercial and office building, the external walls of which are used to show commercials. The building also has a helipad on its roof. King Road Tower has the largest LED display in the world on its walls.
Al Jawharah Tower.
Al Jawharah Tower is a residential high-rise under construction. It became the third-tallest structure in Jeddah when completed in 2014.
Jeddah Flagpole.
The King Abdullah Square on the intersection of Andalus Road with King Abdullah Road has the world's tallest flagpole. It is high and the Saudi flag atop it weighs . On the 84th Saudi Arabia National Day, September 23, 2014, the flagpole hoisted a huge Saudi flag before a crowd of thousands. The flagpole succeeded Dushanbe Flagpole as the tallest flagpole in the world.
Entrance of Mecca.
Bab Makkah, also known as Makkah Gate, is a limestone coral gateway that leads into the historic Al-Balad district of Jeddah.
The Mecca Gate, named the "Quran Gate", is located 60 km outside Jeddah on the Makkah Mukkarram road of the Jeddah - Mecca Highway. It is the entrance to Mecca and the birthplace of Muhammad. The gate signifies the boundary of the "haram" area of the city of Mecca, where non-Muslims are prohibited to enter. The gate was designed in 1979 by an Egyptian architect, Samir Elabd, for the architectural firm IDEA Center. The structure is that of a book, representing the Quran, sitting on a "rehal", or book stand.
Jeddah waterfront.
The new waterfront was inaugurated in November 2017, by Makkah Governor, Prince Khaled Al-Faisal.It spans an area of on the Red Sea. It has many facilities including swimming beaches, huts, floating marina dock, washrooms, restaurants, parks, dancing fountains, playgrounds, and access to wifi.
This project of developing JW (Jeddah Waterfront) has been awarded as Jeddah Innovation Award of the year 1439H in the field of government innovation, by the province of Jeddah.
Education.
Schools, colleges and universities.
, Jeddah had 849 public and private schools for male students and another 1,179 public and private schools for female students. The medium of instruction in both public and private schools is typically Arabic, with emphasis on English as a second language. However, some private schools administered by foreign entities conduct classes in English. These include 10+ Indian schools following the CBSE board of education system, several Pakistani and Bangladeshi schools as well. , Jeddah also had four Philippine international schools, with two more scheduled to open shortly afterward.
Jeddah's universities and colleges include the following:
Jeddah is also home to several primary, intermediate and secondary schools such as:
Italian international school
Libraries.
The central library at King Abdulaziz University (main branch) is a five-story building that has a large collection of Arabic and English language books, rare books, and documents as well as access to several online databases. It is open for public access and allows the borrowing of books after requesting a library card. Saturdays are dedicated to female visitors.
King Abdul Aziz Public Library is a philanthropic institution that was founded and supported by the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Abdullah Bin Abdulaziz, chairman of its board of directors. Established in 1985, the library was officially opened by the King on 27 February 1987. It emphasises Islamic and Arabic heritage and history of the Kingdom. The library is divided into three branches (men's, women's, and children's).
The limited number of libraries is criticized by the public. As a result, King Abdullah, Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, has approved the King Abdullah Project for the Development of Public Libraries, and approximately SAR150 million is budgeted to be spent.
In April 2014, Prince Mishaal Ibn Abdullah Abdulaziz opened a new public library in Jeddah by Makkah Governor, under the name of King Fahd Public Library.
King Fahd Public Library was built over an area of within the main Campus of King Abdulaziz University (KAU) in Jeddah. it includes a diverse collection of books and reference material classified into three sections to meet the needs and wants of a wide range of readership. Spaces have been set apart for youths, children and women.
Sports.
Jeddah is the home of the 2 biggest well-known football clubs teams Al-Ittihad Club (Jeddah) and Al-Ahli Saudi FC. Both teams play their league matches at King Abdullah Stadium which is located northern part of Jeddah nearby King Abdelaziz Airport
The city is home to the 2015 Saudi Arabian basketball Champion Al-Ittihad Jeddah, which plays its home games in the "Prince Abdullah Al-Faisal Basketball Arena".
On 5 November 2020, it was announced that Jeddah will host a round of the 2021 FIA Formula 1 World Championship. The circuit is proposed as a street circuit, winding the roads of Jeddah.
Transport.
Airport.
Jeddah is served by King Abdulaziz International Airport. The airport has four passenger terminals. One is the Hajj Terminal, a special outdoor terminal covered by large white tents, which was constructed to handle the more than two million pilgrims who pass through the airport during the Hajj season. The Southern Terminal is used by Saudia and Flynas (both based in Saudi Arabia), while the Northern Terminal serves foreign airlines. A plan for the extension of the airport is being developed. The Royal Terminal is a special terminal reserved for VIPs, foreign kings and presidents, and the Saudi royal family. A portion of the airport, King Abdullah Air Base, was used by Coalition B-52 heavy bombers during Operation Desert Storm in 1991.
Before King Abdulaziz Airport opened in 1981, Kandara Airport served Jeddah. It was at Kandara, a neighborhood very near the town center. However, the old Jeddah airport experienced heavy congestions, especially during Hajj seasons. After the airport became defunct, the area was redeveloped for housing.
Seaport.
The Jeddah Seaport is the 32nd busiest seaport in the world . It handles the majority of Saudi Arabia's commercial movement.
In 2017 Jeddah seaport handled 4,309,765 TEUs and in the year 2018 handled 4,215,248 TEUs.
Jeddah is part of the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road that runs from the Chinese coast to the Upper Adriatic region with its rail connections to Central and Eastern Europe.
Road and rail.
Highway 40, which begins in Jeddah, connects the city to Mecca, Riyadh and Dammam on the east coast. Jeddah does not have any rapid transit system, but a rail system connecting the city to Riyadh is now under construction. The Haramain High Speed Rail Project will provide a connection to Mecca and Medina. There is a contracted plan to build an extensive light metro system known as the Jeddah Metro, throughout the city by 2020. Jeddah's main highways run parallel to each other.
Issues and challenges.
The city is challenged by pollution, weak sewage systems, a weak storm drain system that led to massive floodings, heavy traffic, epidemics, and water shortages.
Pollution and environment.
Air pollution is a problem for Jeddah, particularly on hot summer days. The city has experienced bush fires, landfill fires, and pollution from the two industrial zones in the north and the south of the metropolitan area. A water treatment factory and the seaport also contribute to water pollution. Much of the seafront, however, is considered to be safe and clean.
Ramboll has acted as Environmental Consultant on the Jeddah Environmental Impact Assessment as well as the Jeddah Environmental Social Masterplan.
Terrorism.
On 6 December 2004, a group of five men associated with the terrorist group Al-Qaeda (Al-Qaeda Organization in the Arabian Peninsula) conducted a mid-day attack on the U.S. Consulate, which killed five Consulate workers. The group was led by Fayez ibn Awwad Al-Jeheni, a former member of the Saudi religious police. Two other assailants were subsequently identified by the Saudi authorities as residents of Jeddah's Al-Jamia suburb and other slums on Saudi Arabia's increasingly urbanised west coast. Buildings were attacked, hostages taken and used as human shields, and the U.S. and non-U.S. staff were under siege, although the chancery/consular section building itself was never penetrated. Closed-circuit video feeds documented that the Saudi security personnel assigned to protect the facility fled when the vehicle holding the terrorists pulled up to the front gate and ran past the Delta barrier. Inside the compound, however, an armed Saudi security guard employed by the embassy shot and killed one terrorist before being fatally shot himself.
The attackers spread and ignited a flammable liquid on the front of the chancery building, and opened fire on the front doors, both of which actions did not have any penetrating effect. The Consulate's U.S. Marines released tear gas in front of the chancery building, but the terrorists had already left that location. More than an hour later, Saudi special forces made it through traffic and, along with others from their unit who arrived in a helicopter, fought to retake the compound. Two of the terrorists were killed in the final fight, with another dying later in hospital and the final militant being captured alive. Four Saudi special forces and a further 10 hostages were wounded in the crossfire.
The five Foreign Service National employees who died during the terrorist attack were Ali Yaslem Bin Talib, Imad e-Deen Musa Ali, Romeo de la Rosa, Mohammed Baheer Uddin, and Jaufar Sadik. The casualties came from Yemen, Sudan, Philippines, India and Sri Lanka.
The attack underscores the ongoing vulnerabilities of Westerners to threats, terrorist actions, and the environs. In a communiqué posted in online publications such as "Sawt al-Jihad" (Voice of Jihad) and "Mu'askar al-Battar" (Al-Battar Training Camp), Al-Qaeda hinted at the symbolic nature of the U.S. Consulate attack, stating: "Know that the Mujahideen are determined to continue on their path, and they will not be weakened by what has happened to them."
Terrorist activities have persisted from 2004 to the present day. In 2004 there was an unsuccessful shooting attack on a U.S. Marine visiting the Saudi American Bank and an attempt to simultaneously explode car bombs at Saudi American Bank and Saudi British Bank branches in Jeddah on the anniversary of the 2001 "9-11" terrorist attacks on the U.S. On 26 August 2012, a spokesman for the Interior Ministry announced that terrorists were arrested in Jeddah who had been preparing explosives for attacks within the kingdom.
Traffic.
Roads and highways within and exiting the city are frequently clogged with traffic. Mass transit is rare and planning is nascent; most Jeddawi adults have at least one car. Motorcycles are rare on the roads, further impacting the traffic patterns. Days immediately preceding and following the holy days are particularly noisome and cost hundreds of thousands many hours because of traffic jams. The Saudi Gazette reports that there is a plan in the works to tackle the traffic issue. A reported 3 billion Saudi Riyals will be put into constructing flyovers and underpasses in an effort to expedite traffic. The plan is scheduled to take about five years from its start to finish.
Sewage.
Prior to the construction of a waste treatment plant, Jeddah's wastewater was disposed of by either discharge into the sea or via absorption into deep underground pits. As the city grew, a proper waste management plant was created and the built-up part of the city was connected with a sewer system by the 1970s. However, even with the ever-increasing population, the original sewer system has hardly been expanded. The original plant cannot cope with the amount of waste inundating it daily. As a result, some untreated sewage is discharged directly into the sea and the entire northern part of the city remains completely unconnected to the sewage system, instead of relying on septic tanks. This has been responsible for a large number of sewage tankers.
In late 2011, a storm drainage system was built in the south Jeddah area (similar to that of the Los Angeles storm drain) to reduce the risk of floods.
Floods.
On 25 November 2009, heavy floods affected the city and other areas of Makkah Province. The floods were described by civil defence officials as the worst in 27 years. , 77 people were reported to have been killed, and more than 350 were missing. Some roads were under a metre (three feet) of water on 26 November, and many of the victims were believed to have drowned in their cars. At least 3,000 vehicles were swept away or damaged. The death toll was expected to rise as flood waters receded, allowing rescuers to reach stranded vehicles.
On 26 January 2011, again, heavy floods affected the city and other areas of Makkah Province. The cumulative rainfall exceeded the recorded in four hours during the 25 November 2009 flash floods. Streets including Palestine Street, Madinah Road, and Wali Al-Ahad Street were either flooded or jammed with traffic. Cars were seen floating in some places. Meanwhile, eyewitnesses told local newspaper "Arab News" that East Jeddah was swamped and floodwater was rushing west towards the Red Sea, turning streets into rivers once again.
On 17 November 2015, heavy floods affected the city. Streets affected by the flood include Palestine Street, Madinah Road, and many others. Cars were seen burning, and many trees fell as a result of the violent flood. 3 deaths were also reported. 2 of the fatalities (including a child) were hit by lightning while crossing a street.
On 21 November 2017, heavy floods affected the city once more and Jeddah Islamic Port stopped operations for about 3 hours. Jeddah police received 11,000 phone calls on 911 from people enquiring about alternative roads and weather conditions. There were 250 reports of electrocution. Five people were electrocuted, two died.
Districts.
Metropolitan Jeddah comprises 137 districts:
Twin towns – sister cities.
Jeddah is twinned with:


Cantidiano Valqueiro Barros Private Natural Heritage Reserve

The Cantidiano Valqueiro Barros Private Natural Heritage Reserve () is a private natural heritage reserve in the state of Pernambuco, Brazil. It protects an area of dry "caatinga" vegetation.
Location.
The Cantidiano Valqueiro Barros Private Natural Heritage Reserve is in the municipality of Floresta, Pernambuco.
It has an area of , part of the Fazenda Taboleiro Comprido.
History.
The owner of the Tabuleiro Comprido farm, Natanael Valgueiro Barros, was opposed to hunting and deforestation.
He raised cattle, sheep and goats on the land, which also supports a flock of emus, now much reduced in size by hunters.
The National Institute for Colonization and Agrarian Reform (INCRA) declared that the farm was unproductive, and threatened to expropriate and develop it.
The environmental group SOS Caatinga and others helped with a campaign against INCRA's proposal, calling it an environmental disaster to clear the well-preserved "caatinga".
They gained the support of the federal representative of the RPPN program in Pernambuco.
The Cantidiano Valqueiro Barros Private Natural Heritage Reserve was recognized by Romulus Melo, president of the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA), by ordnance 177 on 31 December 2002.
The ordnance was published on 3 January 2003.
The RPPN is the second in the Pernambuco "caatinga", the first being the Maurício Dantas RPPN.
It became part of the Caatinga Ecological Corridor, created in 2006.
Environment.
The Köppen climate classification is Bs s'h', with a long dry season from April to October and a short rainy season from November to March.
Average daily temperature is .
Average annual rainfall is .
The reserve protects an area of "caatinga" vegetation, most of it found in depressions between the plateau areas.
Plants species include "Amburana cearensis", "Anadenanthera colubrina", "Aspidosperma pyrifoliam", "Cnidoscolus quercifolius" and various species of Croton, Mimosa and Cactus.
Harris's hawk ("Parabuteo unicinctus") and white-cheeked pintail ("Anas bahamensis") were reported in the reserve in 2005.


Covered Market, Oxford

The Covered Market is a historic market with permanent stalls and shops in a large covered structure in central Oxford, England.
Location.
The market is located to the north of the High Street towards the western end between Cornmarket Street and Turl Street. To the north is Market Street. Most of the entrances are from the High Street and Market Street (with four entrances from each street). It is also possible to gain access from Cornmarket via the Golden Cross alley, with its small up-market shops.
History.
The Covered Market was officially opened on 1 November 1774 and remains in use. It was established in response to a general wish to clear 'untidy, messy and unsavoury stalls' from the main streets of central Oxford.
John Gwynn, the architect of Magdalen Bridge, drew up the plans and designed the High Street front with its four entrances. In 1772, the newly formed Market committee, half of whose members came from the town and half from the university, accepted an estimate of nine hundred and sixteen pounds ten shillings, for the building of twenty butchers' shops.
Twenty more soon followed, and after 1773 meat was allowed to be sold only inside the market. From this nucleus, the market grew, with stalls for garden produce, pig meat, dairy products and fish.
Today.
Today the covered market is still home to numerous traders, around half being food retailers, including market shops selling fresh food such as greengrocers and butchers (including some producing the Oxford sausage). There are also newer gift shops, bakeries and sandwich shops. Most of the shops are larger than the original stall sizes, with the result there are fewer businesses in the covered market than in the past.
The Covered Market may be accessed via the four entrances on the High Street, via Golden Cross (from Cornmarket), and from three entrances on Market Street.
In 2017, Oxford City Council, which owns the Covered Market, announced a £1.6m investment in the fabric of the building, including roof repairs, improved public conveniences, external paving and new signage.
In May 2017, the Covered Market received 'the Royal seal of approval' when it was visited by Prince Charles and the Duchess of Cornwall.


Angeles Crest Highway

The Angeles Crest Highway is a two-lane (one lane of travel in each direction) highway over the San Gabriel Mountains, in Los Angeles County, California. Its route is to/through the San Gabriel Mountains National Monument and the Angeles National Forest. With the exception of a -long section in La Cañada Flintridge, the entire route is part of California State Route 2.
The road is in length, with its western terminus at the intersection at Foothill Boulevard in La Cañada Flintridge and its eastern terminus at the Pearblossom Highway (State Route 138) northeast of Wrightwood. The majority of the route passes through the San Gabriel Mountains located north of the Greater Los Angeles Area. Segments of the road reach altitudes above , with a summit of at the Dawson Saddle, which makes this road one of the highest in Southern California.
The segment from La Cañada Flintridge to the Los Angeles–San Bernardino county line is known as the Angeles Crest Scenic Byway, which is both a National Forest Scenic Byway and an officially designated California Scenic Highway.
Route description.
The route is best described as mountain-rural. Because the route passes through the protected San Gabriel Mountains National Monument and Angeles National Forest, development is very limited. There are not many buildings between La Cañada Flintridge and Wrightwood save for Newcomb's Ranch, and forest service campgrounds and visitor centers. Other points of interest along the route include the Mountain High and Mt. Waterman ski areas.
Mount Wilson and its Mount Wilson Observatory and various radio/television transmitters are about 4.5 miles from the junction of Mount Wilson Road and Angeles Crest Highway. Depending on visibility conditions, impressive views of the Los Angeles Basin are possible from the vicinity of Mount Wilson. The most frequent hindrances of what can be seen are the smog and/or a marine layer covering the basin below.
The westernmost segment of the highway, combined with Angeles Forest Highway to/from State Route 14, is heavily travelled by southbound traffic in the morning (and corresponding northbound traffic in the afternoon) that comprises commuters who live in the Antelope Valley and work in the Greater Los Angeles Area. The route is a convenient alternative to the Antelope Valley Freeway (State Route 14) and the Golden State Freeway (Interstate 5), both located to the west, for reaching the Foothill Freeway (Interstate 210) and San Gabriel Valley. Because the road is a two-lane highway, its vehicle capacity is significantly lower than either of the two freeways.
In contrast, the remainder of the Angeles Crest Highway is lightly traveled. Typically, this traffic is composed of vacationers, sightseers, and locals. The three areas comprising Mountain High ski resort are just west of Wrightwood.
History.
Construction of Angeles Crest Highway began in 1929. It was originally intended to be a fire access road. In 1941 construction stopped because of World War II. In 1946, after the war, construction resumed; the completed highway eventually opened in 1956. The road was constructed by prison labor from Camp 37, which has since been razed. Division of Highways (now known as CalTrans) staff lived at a site called Cedar Springs. The staff is now located at Chilao Flats. Children of the staff attended Chilao Mountain School, a one-room school; the school has been closed for several years.
Angeles Crest Highway was originally planned to be upgraded to a freeway in the 1950s, but was later considered geographically improbable and the plans were abandoned.
Roads in the San Gabriel Mountains have a high number of single-vehicle auto and motorcycle accidents. As an example, in the predawn hours of December 8, 2004, at about north of its junction with the Angeles Crest Highway, killing 3 of the 10 people in the van. The van was a carpool carrying workers of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory from the Antelope Valley to work in Pasadena. It was determined upon investigation by the CHP that the driver fell asleep at the wheel of the van. The Angeles Crest Highway and Angeles Forest Highway have figured in various murders, not as scenes of the murders but as drop-off points for the bodies of the victims, including that of Linda Sobek, a model kidnapped and found dead in the area in 1995.
The motion picture "Donnie Darko", released in 2001, was partially filmed on Angeles Crest Highway. In the opening scene with Donnie waking up in the middle of the road, next to his bike, the camera zooms in on Donnie, then loops around and shows a view of the valley seen from Angeles Crest Highway. The highway is also used later in the movie for other scenes. The Angeles Crest Highway is also used extensively in the motion picture "The Love Bug" for racing scenes, as well as in the sequel film "Herbie Goes to Monte Carlo", where the highway doubles for "The French Alps".
Access and closures.
Intersections with other roads are few, which can be problematic in the event of road closures due to acts of nature such as landslides and fires. At about the midpoint of the highway is the junction with the north terminus of State Route 39. However, access to State Route 39 is not possible as it is closed indefinitely to automobile traffic because of persistent landslides along its route. Therefore, travelers to the Angeles National Forest preferring the Angeles Crest Highway corridor should expect to be on the Angeles Crest Highway throughout much of its length, use available alternate routing where possible, or be willing to turn around and retrace their trip at any point along its route if necessary.
The Angeles Crest Highway is normally closed in the winter from Islip Saddle to Vincent Gap due to rockfall and avalanche hazards.
The winter storms of 2004/05 caused several landslides and significant damage to the highway. Thus, the highway never reopened in the summer of 2005. Damage to the highway was estimated to be over $4 million as of November 2005. Terri Kasinga, a spokeswoman for the California Department of Transportation, stated in November 2005 "It is definitely not going to open until next spring (of 2006)". However, a March 2006 storm caused even more extensive damage to the highway, including a complete washout of a large section of roadway, further delaying the reopening of the highway. The long closure caused concern for the United States Forest Service and other emergency services agencies because it hindered access, particularly with firefighting efforts, and it hurt business in Wrightwood. After a four-and-a-half year closure, the highway reopened on May 20, 2009. Repairs included the construction of a new bridge intended to allow landslides to pass underneath without damaging the road. The work cost $10.5 million.
A moratorium on three-axles trucks was imposed in 2009 following the deaths of two people when a tractor trailer lost control and crashed into a La Cañada Flintridge business (other California highways have similar truck bans such as I-580 and SR 85 but have been implemented for different reasons).
Cell phone reception can be sporadic and, when available, signal strength and clarity is poor. Although the surrounding mountainous terrain is the primary reason for this, the limited presence of, and/or proximity to, cellular communication antennas to receive and transmit signals along the route contributes to the problem.
The Federal Lands Recreation Enhancement Act passed in December 2004, protects the Angeles National Forest. Although anyone can park at the side of the road and access the wilderness along the side of the road, doing so for extended periods of time, such as camping or hiking, requires a National Forest Adventure Pass available for a $5.00 fee.
2009 Station Fire closure.
During the 2009 wildfire season the large fire known as the "Station Fire" burned the mountains through which Route 2 travels. The fire damaged the signs, guardrails, and lane striping, as well as leaving large boulders and other debris all over the road. As a result, the highway was closed by Caltrans until November 30, 2009. It was briefly re-opened until mud and rock slides in early 2010 forced a portion of the highway to be closed again from 2 miles east of the I-210 junction to 14 miles east of La Cañada Flintridge. It reopened on June 3, 2011.


Tagus Estuary Natural Reserve

Tagus Estuary Natural Reserve () is a natural reserve in Portugal. It is one of the 30 areas which are officially under protection in the country. The estuary of the Tagus River is the largest wetland in the country and one of the most important in Europe, a sanctuary for fish, molluscs, crustaceans, and especially to birds that stop-over on their migration between northern Europe and Africa. It is the largest estuary in western Europe, with about , and regularly hosts 50,000 wintering waterfowl
Characterization.
The Nature Reserve was established in 1976, covering an area of , characterized by an extensive surface of estuarine waters, vast fields intersected by creeks, marshes, salt flats and alluvial agricultural land (marshlands).
Not exceeding above sea level and a depth of , distributed over the counties of Alcochete, Benavente and Vila Franca de Xira, the reserve falls mostly in the upstream area of the estuary of the Tagus which, with an area extending over about , is the largest in Western Europe.
Around the estuary a saltmarsh has developed which is a zone of high productivity of polychaetes, molluscs and crustaceans, is an important breeding area for various fish species. However, it is the water birds which give the Tagus estuary its international importance. The flocks of wintering species reach up to about 120,000 individuals. The counts regularly carried out in this protected area during the winter show more than 10,000 ducks and 50,000 shorebirds. In the case of the pied avocet ("Recurvirostra avosetta"), up to 25% of the population wintering in Europe has been counted on the Tagus Estuary. The many other species present attest to the biological richness and value for nature conservation in this region: the greater flamingo ("Phoenicopterus roseus"), greylag goose ("Anser anser"), the dunlin ("Calidris alpina"), black-tailed godwit ("Limosa limosa"), hen harrier ("Circus cyaneus"), osprey ("Pandion haliaetus"), bluethroat ("Luscina svecica"), common firecrest ("Regulus ignicapillus") and Eurasian penduline tit ("Remiz pendulinus")
In the wetlands around the estuary nesting birds include red-crested pochard ("Netta rufina"), little bittern ("Ixobrychus minutus"), little egret ("Egretta garzetta") and purple heron ("Ardea purpurea"), marsh harrier ("Circus aeruginosus"], Montagu's harrier ("Circus pyagurgus"), black-winged stilt ("Himantopus himantopus"), collared pratincole ("Glareola pratincola") and little tern ("Sternula albifrons"). While the associated redbeds contain great reed warbler ("Acrocephalus arundinaceus"), Savi's warbler ("Locustella luscinioides") and other warblers. The nearby fields have stone-curlew ("Burhinus oedicnemus") and calandra lark ("Melanocorypha calandra") breed on adjacent farmland. Little bustard ("Tetrax tetrax") occurs all year but is more numerous in winter. Raptors which may be seen over the fields include black-winged kite ("Elanus caeruleus"), short-toed eagle ("Circaetus gallicus") and booted eagle ("Aquila pennatus")
Nearby patches of woodland hold short-toed treecreeper ("Certhia brachydactyla"), European nightjar ("Caprimulgus europaeus"), red-necked nightjar ("Caprimulgus ruficollis"), Iberian magpie ("Cyanopica cooki") and many passerines.
During the Spring and Autumn many species stopover on the Tagus during their migration these include curlew sandpiper ("Calidris ferruginea") in large numbers with many other shorebirds in smaller numbers, Common redshank and Balck-tailed Godwits reach their peak numbers during migration too. Other migrants which may be seen include Eurasian spoonbill ("Platalea alba"), Mediterranean gull ("Larus melanocephalus") and black tern ("Chlidonias niger") and many passerines.


Dalnevostochny Morskoy Nature Reserve

Dalnevostochny Morskoy Nature Reserve ( "Dalnyevastochnyy marskoy zapavyednik") (also Far East Marine Reserve) is Russian's first marine reserve, covering large portions of the sea and 30 islands in Peter the Great Gulf, on the west side of the Sea of Japan. It has the highest class of environmental protection as a federal 'zapovednik' (strict ecological reserve). There are four distinct areas with different biological and protection regimes, covering of sea area, additional land on included islands, a 500-meter conservation strip of coastline along the marine area, and a conservation buffer zone inland to a width of 3 miles. The reserve is situated on the continental coast south of Vladivostok in the Russian Far East. The administrative district is Khasansky District of Primorsky Krai. It was formally established in 1978. The reserve is part of the UNESCO "Far East Reserve" MAB Biosphere Reserve, noted for its protection of marine biodiversity, and as a re-population area for open seas fisheries.
Topography.
The Far East Marine Reserve covers about 10% of the total surface area of Peter the Great Gulf. The depth of the water average 60–70 meters in the area, and tides average about 0.5 meters. The waters of the reserve are of high transparency and purity, due to circulation patterns in the gulf. The reserve is divided into four sectors:
Being a marine reserve, most of the scientific focus is on the ecology of the seas, but there are islands and coastal buffers, which present a landscape of rocky cliffs and capes, and small peninsulas and bays. Inland from the coast are coniferous and deciduous forests.
Climate and Ecoregion.
The Far East Marine Reserve is located in the "Sea of Japan" maritime ecoregion. In this sea, bounded by Asia, Japan, and the Sakhalin Islands, the Far East Reserve is on the west coast in the center. The Sea is Japan is distinct from the Pacific Ocean, with lower salinity, higher levels of dissolved oxygen, relatively little tidal movement, and little contribution of water from rivers (less than 1% of the gulf's waters). It is also at the meeting zone of boreal waters to the north and tropical waters to the south. As a result of its characteristics, the region has very high levels of biodiversity. The coastal lands and terrestrial parts of the islands are in the Manchurian mixed forests ecoregion.
The climate of Dalnevostochny Morskoy is "Humid continental climate, cool summer" (Köppen climate classification "Dwb"). This climate is characterized by high variation in temperature, both daily and seasonally; with dry winters and cool summers. Climate in the gulf is further characterized by monsoon conditions, uneven rainfall patterns, fog, gales, and seasonally variable winds (northwest in winter, southeast in summer). Some bays in the gulf freeze over in winter, but the ice is unstable. Average air temperature in January is , and in August.
Water temperature in the gulf ranges from in January, to in August. The water temperature is thus similar to arctic waters in the winter, but sub-tropical in the summer.
Flora and fauna.
In the coastal waters there are three main vertical zones: Supralittoral zone, Intertidal zone and subtidal. The supralittoral, or splash zone, covers the area above the high tide mark; in the reserve this is mainly a region for algae, small crustaceans, and some beetles. The intertidal zone in the reserve is affected by warm temperatures in the summer, but scraped by ice and storms in the winter so that living creatures must cling in cracks and sheltered areas. The subtidal zone in the reserve, down to 200 meters, is the most biologically rich marine zone. Scientists of the Far East Marine Reserve have recorded 200 species of macroalgae, 200 of fish, 300 of molluscs, more than 200 of marine worms, and about 100 species of crustaceans.
For birds, the region is the richest in Russia - with over 340 species recorded. Great Pliez Island has some of the largest rookeries for the Japanese cormorant and black-tailed gull. The reserve is on the Far East flyway for migratory birds. The gulf is also known for its marine invertebrates, including cucumber, crab, and giant octopus. Minke whale, dolphins, and killer whales migrate into the gulf.
Ecoeducation and access.
As a strict nature reserve, the Dalnevostochny Morskoy Reserve is mostly closed to the general public, although scientists and those with 'environmental education' purposes can make arrangements with park management for visits. The reserve has made arrangements with eco-tourism operators to provide guided sea excursions to certain portions of the territory for members of the public. The main office is in the city of Vladivostok.


Kochkor Game Reserve

The Kochkor Game Reserve is located in Kochkor District of Naryn Province of Kyrgyzstan. It was established in 1975 with a purpose of reproduction of pheasant, tolai hare, and other game animals. The game reserve occupies .


Jacarenema Ecological Reserve

Jacarenema Ecological Reserve () is an ecological reserve in the state of Espírito Santo, Brazil.
It is near the city of Vila Velha, is readily accessible to the public and does not conform to standard Brazilian definitions of environmental units.
Location.
The Jacarenema State Ecological Reserve has an area of , covering the Morro da Concha sandbar, the estuary of the Jucu River, and a mosaic of areas of Restinga along the Rodovia do Sol.
It was created by Municipal decree 056/83.
It is accessible for fishing, swimming and boating.
The reserve may be reached via the 1896 Madalena bridge from the Barra do Jucu neighbourhood, or by walking along the Itaparica beach from the north.
There are ruins of Jesuit buildings in the reserve.
The Jacarenema Ecological Reserve was created by state law 5.427 of 1997 at the initiative of deputy Claudio Vereza, supported by governor Vitor Buaiz.
The reserve's definition does not conform to the National System of Conservation Units (SNUC) which does not recognise this type of conservation unit.
Environment.
The Jacarenema State Ecological Reserve contains sandbank vegetation of the Atlantic Forest biome that is still in good condition.
The mangroves along the river bank include Avicennia germinans (42.26%), Laguncularia racemosa (34.42%), Hibiscus tilliaceus (9.80%) and Rhizophora mangle (4.57%)
The river often receives waste water from the municipalities along its course, as well as urban garbage that accumulates around the mangroves at its mouth in the ecological reserve.
A 2006 report found that 5.45% of the standing trees were dead, apparently due to the impact of pollution.


Crag Cave

Crag Cave is a cave in Ireland, located just outside Castleisland, County Kerry.
Formed in elevated limestone rock, the system extends to of surveyed passage, on two levels. It is the 7th-longest cave system in the Republic of Ireland, and the 10th-longest in the whole of Ireland.
History of exploration.
While the Geological Survey of Ireland in 1859 acknowledged the presence of "caves worn by water, some of which can be traversed for some distance," positive efforts at exploration were not made until 1981, when the upper part of the cave was explored to a sump, named the "Green Lake". When hydrological testing of water both in the cave's active streamway and in the sump showed that the two were chemically distinct from each other, it was postulated that the sump was only "perched" above the water table and that further dry passage might be found on the far side. The sump was dived by Martyn Farr in 1983, providing the first access to the large caverns beyond. A boulder obstruction nearby was passed, allowing a dry connection into the new chambers. Following the breakthrough, of passage was explored and surveyed.
Between 1981 and 1985, further exploration and surveying brought the total length of the cave to , with a vertical range of approximately . The entire cave system runs under Castleisland itself, starting at Glounsharoon and ending on the far side of town at the Killarney Road.
Show cave.
Around of the Crag Cave system was developed as a show cave by local residents Dr. Donal and Mrs Margaret Geaney, under whose land the cave was first discovered. The cave was developed between 1987 and 1989 by building a shaft (which is the only man-made entrance) and putting in pathways, railings, lights and a music system.
Crag Cave attracts thousands of visitors every year. Tourists are given a guided tour of the cave which takes a half an hour. There are many chambers in the cave, including the Cathedral and the Crystal Gallery. Many of the features in the cave have been named after locations or characters from J.R.R. Tolkien's Middle-earth.
The tourist centre contains a gift-shop, coffee shop and a children's play area.


Sangam, Srikakulam district

Sangam is a village and a pilgrimage site in Vangara mandal in Srikakulam district in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India.
Sangam is a village and a pilgrimage site in Vangara mandal in Srikakulam district in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India.
It is about 56 kilometers from Srikakulam Town and 20 kilometers from Rajam.
Religious Importance.
Nagavali, Suvarnamukhi and Vegavati rivers confluence (join together) takes place here and hence it is referred as Triveni Sangam.
The idol of Lord Sangameswara, another name for Lord Shiva, was here installed (vigraha pratista) by Balaram, the brother of Lord SriKrishna. This is one of the five 'Linga Kshetras'. Thousands of devotees gather here on Maha Shivaratri festival every year.


Araguaia State Park

The Araguaia State Park () is a state park in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil.
It protects an area of annually flooded "cerrado" in the transition to Amazon rainforest, and is rich in biodiversity.
Location.
The Araguaia State Park is in the municipality of Novo Santo Antônio, Mato Grosso.
It has an area of .
It borders the municipalities of São Félix do Araguaia and Ribeirão Cascalheira, and the state of Tocantins.
It is the southernmost part of the continuum of protected areas that extend along the right bank of the Araguaia River in Mato Grosso.
It is in the Araguaia basin between the Araguaia and its tributary the Rio das Mortes.
History.
From the 1970s, driven by tax incentives, the state of Mato Grosso has converted huge areas of Amazon and "cerrado" forest into large-scale agro-pastoral systems. Most of the unoccupied land was in remote, inaccessible and protected areas.
The types of protected land depend on land use.
Thus 83.77% of permanently flooded land is protected, while only 3.87% of open treed savanna is protected.
The Araguaia State Park was created by law 7.517 of 28 September 2001 with an area of about .
The objectives were to protect water resources, allow movement of native fauna, preserve a representative sample of ecosystems in the area and support controlled public use, education and scientific research.
It was to be administered by the State Environment Foundation (FEMA).
The park was classed as IUCN protected area category II (national park).
At time of creation five years maximum were allowed for FEMA to prepare a management plan.
The park was modified by law 8.458 of 17 January 2006.
The management plan was published in 2007.
It was approved in December 2008.
On 27 June 2011 the state government published a law authorizing an "exchange" with the Fundação Nacional do Índio (Funai) that would bring the Xavante people of the Maraiwatsede Indigenous Territory (TI) into the park, and regularize ownership by squatters in the TI.
Funai responded that it had no interest in the exchange, which was unconstitutional since indigenous territory is inalienable.
Environment.
The vegetation is in the transition between Amazon rainforest and the "cerrado", which results in a high level of biodiversity.
The park is flooded annually.
Typical Amazon forest fauna include the robust capuchin monkey and howler monkey.
Fauna of the "cerrado" include maned wolf ("Chrysocyon brachyurus") and pampas deer ("Ozotoceros bezoarticus").
Wetland fauna include marsh deer ("Blastocerus dichotomus") and capybara ("Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris").
The park is also home to aquatic animals such as Amazon river dolphin ("Inia geoffrensis"), giant otter ("Pteronura brasiliensis") and turtles.