Water injection (engine)

In internal combustion engines, water injection, also known as anti-detonant injection (ADI), can spray water into the incoming air or fuel-air mixture, or directly into the cylinder to cool certain parts of the induction system where "hot points" could produce premature ignition. In jet engines it increases engine thrust at low speeds and at takeoff.
Water injection was used historically to increase the power output of military aviation engines for short durations, such as dogfights or takeoff. However it has also been used in motor sports and notably in drag racing. In Otto cycle engines, the cooling effects of water injection also enables greater compression ratios by reducing engine knocking (detonation). Alternately, this reduction in engine knocking in Otto cycle engines means that some applications gain significant performance when water injection is used in conjunction with a supercharger, turbocharger, or modifications such as aggressive ignition timing.
Depending on the engine, improvements in power and fuel efficiency can also be obtained solely by injecting water. Water injection may also be used to reduce NOx or carbon monoxide emissions.
Water injection is also used in some turbine engines and in some turboshaft engines, normally when a momentary high-thrust setting is needed to increase power and fuel efficiency.
Theory.
Water has a very high heat of vaporization. As the ambient temperature water is injected into the engine, heat transfers from the hot cylinder head and intake air into the water. This makes it evaporate, cooling the intake charge. A cooler intake charge means it is more dense (higher volumetric efficiency) and also has a lower tendency to knock. However, the water vapour displaces some air, negating some of the denser intake charge benefit. Knocking is generally more of a problem in forced induction engines rather than naturally aspirated, so this can help prevent it. On electronic ignition systems the ignition timing is generally retarded to prevent knock from occurring but with water injection it can be advanced closer to maximum brake torque (MBT) timing for additional power.
Composition of fluid.
Many water injection systems use a mixture of water and alcohol (often close to 50/50), with trace amounts of water-soluble oil. The water provides the primary cooling effect due to its great density and high heat absorption properties. The alcohol is combustible, and also serves as an antifreeze for the water. The main purpose of the oil is to prevent corrosion of water injection and fuel system components; it may also assist in engine lubrication when running in a high power state. Because the alcohol mixed into the injection solution is often methanol (CH3OH), the system is known as methanol-water injection, or MW50. In high performance automotive applications the use of 100% methanol contradictory to a water-methanol mixture is referred to simply as methanol injection. Safety concerns and part longevity concerns keep this as a controversial option. In the United States, the system is also commonly referred to as anti-detonant injection, or ADI.
Effects.
In a piston engine, the initial injection of water cools the fuel-air mixture significantly, which increases its density and hence the amount of mixture that enters the cylinder. The water (if in small liquid droplets) may absorb heat (and lower the pressure) as the charge is compressed, thus reducing compression work. An additional effect comes later during combustion when the water absorbs large amounts of heat as it vaporizes, reducing peak temperature and resultant NOx formation, and reducing the amount of heat energy absorbed into the cylinder walls. This also converts part of combustion energy from the form of heat to the form of pressure. As the water droplets vaporize by absorbing heat, they turn to high pressure steam. The alcohol in the mixture burns, but is also much more resistant to detonation than gasoline. The net result is a higher octane charge that supports very high compression ratios or significant forced induction pressures before onset of detonation.
Certain other engines can benefit far more from the use of water injection. Typical pulse jet engines have extremely poor fuel efficiency, specific fuel consumption, and thrust. Water injection has been proven to use the waste heat that causes a pulse jet to glow red hot and convert it into thrust. It cools the engine, it pulls more air in, and it reduces pollution. Water injection and other means of boost may be able to transform the pulse jet from a noisy, inefficient tube to a cleaner burning and powerful enough engine that may be of use in lightweight aircraft.
Fuel economy can be improved with water injection. Depending on the engine, the effect of water injection, with no other modification, like leaning out the mixture, may be quite significant.
In some cases water may also reduce CO emissions. This may be attributable to the water gas shift reaction, in which CO and H2O shift to form and H2. However, water may also increase hydrocarbon emissions, possibly due to an increased quenching layer thickness.
Control over the water injection is important. It must be injected only when conditions within the engine would otherwise be sufficient to cause detonation or other undesirable effects. This normally occurs when the engine is heavily loaded and running at full power, however may occur outside of these times in specialized engines or applications. Otherwise injecting water cools the combustion process unnecessarily, resulting in negative effects such as reduced efficiency or power.
Direct injection of water is possible and is likely advantageous. In a piston engine, this may be done at any point in the engine's cycle, depending on the desired effect, even late in the power stroke or during the exhaust stroke when used only to reduce engine temperatures.
Limitations.
Most modern consumer vehicle engines are pre-programmed with specific fuel-to-air ratios, so introducing water without re-programming the car's computer or otherwise changing these ratios will most likely provide no benefit, and may likely reduce performance or damage the engine. In addition, most modern fuel systems cannot determine that water in any form has been added, and cannot determine a new compression ratio or otherwise take advantage of lower cylinder temperatures. In most cases in pre-programmed cars, introducing water vapor via an indirect water injection method causes loss of power because the water vapor takes the place of air (and fuel in engines with either a carburetor or single point injection) that is required to complete the combustion process and produce power. Normally, only vehicles re-tuned for water injection see any benefits.
Damage can occur to the engine if too much water is injected or if the injector itself malfunctions. Water is not compressible, and too much water in the cylinder prior to, or during, the compression cycle can cause a condition called hydrolock, where the volume of liquid in the engine is close to or greater than the volume between piston and head (or between pistons in an opposed piston engine) of the engine at top dead center, resulting in extremely high cylinder pressure that may cause blown heads, shattering of the piston, connecting rods or other damage to the engine. This damage is normally fatal to the engine and typically requires a full rebuild or engine replacement.
Water injection is typically used in aviation and was not initially intended for use in consumer grade vehicles. When used in consumer grade vehicles it is normally for the extremely high performance arena (1000 HP+) where vehicles are supercharged or turbocharged and produce excessive heat. These vehicles are typically driven only in an event or controlled race and require extremely high levels of knowledge to maintain and are only driven for very short distances. In most forms of water injection, water is mixed with a combustible fuel rather than being used in isolation.
Many product scams exist touting that inserting a tube of misting spray into an intake manifold increases mileage or horsepower. However, unless the user reprograms the car's ECU or performs major modifications to the engine, power loss and damage may eventually occur.
Use in aircraft.
Water injection has been used in both reciprocating and turbine aircraft engines. When used in a turbine engine, the effects are similar, except that normally preventing detonation is not the primary goal. Water is normally injected either at the compressor inlet or in the diffuser just before the combustion chambers. Adding water increases the mass being accelerated out of the engine, increasing thrust and it also serves to cool the turbines. Since temperature is normally the limiting factor in turbine engine performance at low altitudes, the cooling effect lets the engine run at higher RPM with more fuel injected and more thrust created without overheating. The drawback of the system is that injecting water quenches the flame in the combustion chambers somewhat, as there is no way to cool the engine parts without also cooling the flame. This leads to unburned fuel out the exhaust and a characteristic trail of black smoke.
Piston-engined petrol military aircraft used water injection technology prior to World War II to increase takeoff power. This was used so that heavily laden fighters could take off from shorter runways, climb faster, and quickly reach high altitudes to intercept enemy bomber formations. Some fighter aircraft also used water injection for a boost in short bursts during dogfights.
As a general rule, the fuel mixture is set at full rich on an aircraft engine when running it at high power settings (such as during takeoff). The extra fuel does not burn; its only purpose is to evaporate to absorb heat. This uses fuel faster and also decreases the efficiency of the combustion process. By using water injection, the cooling effect of the water lets the fuel mixture run leaner at its maximum power setting. Many military aircraft engines of the 1940s utilized a pressure carburetor, a type of fuel metering system similar to a throttle body injection system. In a water-injected engine, the pressure carburetor features a mechanical "derichment valve" that makes the system nearly automatic. When the pilot turns on the water injection pump, water pressure moves the derichment valve to restrict fuel flow to lean the mixture while at the same time mixing the water/methanol fluid into the system. When the system runs out of fluid the derichment valve shuts and cuts off the water injection system, while enriching the fuel mixture to provide a cooling quench to prevent sudden detonation.
Due to the cooling effect of the water, Otto cycle aircraft engines with water injection can be made to produce more power through higher charge densities at the time of combustion. The additional charge density is typically achieved by allowing higher manifold pressures before the onset of detonation. This is normally done by adding or increasing the amount of forced induction or further opening of the throttle. However a similar result may be achieved via higher engine stroke. This has historically been the primary use of a water injection systems in aircraft.
The extra weight and complexity added by a water injection system was considered worthwhile for military purposes, while it is usually not considered worthwhile for civilian use. The one exception is racing aircraft, which focus on making a tremendous amount of power for a short time. In this case, the disadvantages of a water injection system are less important.
Water injection use in turbine engines has been limited, again, mostly to military aircraft. Many pictures are available of Boeing B-52 takeoffs that clearly show the black smoke emitted by turbine engines running with water injection. For early B-52s, water injection was seen as a vital part of take-off procedures. For later versions of the B-52 as well as later turbine-powered bombers, the problem of taking off heavily loaded from short runways was solved by the use of more powerful engines that had not been available previously.
Early versions of the Boeing 707 fitted with Pratt & Whitney JT3C turbojets used water injection for extra takeoff power, as did Boeing 747-100 and 200 aircraft fitted with Pratt & Whitney JT9D-3AW and -7AW turbofans; this system was not included in later versions fitted with more powerful engines. The BAC One-Eleven airliner also used water injection for its Rolls-Royce Spey turbofan engines. Filling the tanks with jet fuel instead of water led to the Paninternational Flight 112 crash.
Use in automobiles.
A limited number of road vehicles with forced induction engines from manufacturers such as Chrysler have included water injection. The 1962 Oldsmobile F85 was delivered with the Fluid-Injection Jetfire engine, which, incidentally, shares the title of "the world's first turbocharged road car" with the Corvair Spyder. Oldsmobile referred to the water/alcohol mixture as 'Turbo-Rocket Fluid'. Saab offered water injection for the Saab 99 Turbo. With the introduction of the intercooler the interest in water injection to prevent detonation almost disappeared, but recently water injection has also been of interest because it can potentially decrease nitrogen oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions in exhaust. However the most common use of water injection today is in vehicles with high performance aftermarket forced induction systems (such as turbochargers or superchargers); such engines are commonly tuned with a narrower margin of safety from detonation and hence benefit greatly from the cooling effects of vaporized water.
In 2015 BMW has introduced a version of their high performance M4 coupe, the M4 GTS, that combines water injection with intercooling. The car was featured in the 2015 MotoGP season as the official safety car for the series and was released for the commercial market in 2016. As per BMW example, current engine developments featuring water injection seem to concentrate on the effect of “Performance Improvement”. But by the mid 2020s, engine development will shift focus also on improved fuel consumption, due to the pressure on emissions reduction and related regulations.
Bosch, which co-developed the technology with BMW, offers a water injection system named WaterBoost for other manufacturers. The company claims up to 5% increase in engine performance, up to 4% decrease in emissions and up to 13% improvement in fuel economy. Similar results were published by FEV showing up to 5,3% Fuel Efficiency improvement on 2,0L displacement petrol engine and even up to more than 7% in combination with cooled exhaust gas recirculation, depending of the drive cycle considered.
Water Injection and cooled exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) could be seen as competitive technologies: it has been demonstrated that at medium load a 40-50 % Water-to-Fuel Ratio (WFR) with Port Water Injection (PWI) has the same effect as an EGR-rate of 10%, which is seen as relatively limited even for petrol engines. However, Water Injection has some benefits when compared to EGR, especially a better controllability as this is not a closed-loop as EGR, the timing of injection is not linked to other parameters as turbo charger backpressure, limited inertia (PWI timing not linked to engine operation) and combustion delay (as present with EGR). Additionally it does not deteriorate combustion stability significantly. The combustion delay linked to EGR dilution and the necessary adaption of the recirculated gas mass flow to the maximum turbocharger characteristics are typically two limiting parameters of the max. acceptable EGR rate. Therefore, some synergies can be developed when using Water Injection in area of the engine map where EGR is typically not possible (High Load / High Speed).
On-Board Water Generation.
Surveys asking customers about their willingness to regularly fill up an additional operating fluid have demonstrated that the acceptance level is limited. Therefore, the need for refilling is considered as one of the main barrier for the mass adoption of Water Injection. A key enabler is the development of on-board water generation system to run in close loop system, especially in order to guarantee consistent low level of emissions (engine emissions to raise if run without water supply). Three major sources can be investigated:
The first two variants are highly dependent on weather ambient conditions with sufficiently high humidity levels or driver habits (no A/C operation wanted). Consequently, an adequate supply of water cannot be ensured. On the contrary, condensing of water vapour formed during the combustion of gasoline is a reliable source of water: there is approximately a volume of 1L of water vapour in exhaust per each liter of gasoline fuel consumed.
In October 2019, Hanon Systems together with FEV, presented an Audi TT Sport demonstrator equipped with port Water Injection operating in close systems thanks to an Hanon Systems equipment called "Water Harvesting System". The fully packageable system was able in the most critical cases tested to condensate more than 2 times the water consumed. The quality of the water condensates was presented as being good enough to avoid problems with injectors and potential corrosion issues were not detected during the extensive test drives. the condensates were shown as transparent, without strong odour and color.
Use in diesel.
A 2016 study combined water injection with exhaust gas recirculation. Water was injected into the exhaust manifold of a diesel engine and, by opening the exhaust valve during the induction stroke, the injected water and some of the exhaust gas was drawn back into the cylinder. The effect was to reduce NOx emissions by up to 85% but at the cost of increased soot emissions.


Grigory Tkhor

Grigory Tkhor (; , in Podlipnoe January 1943, in Nuremberg) was a Soviet aviator, Spanish Civil War and Second Sino-Japanese War volunteer, and major general of the Soviet Air Force. He was captured during the course of the Battle of Kiev (1941). He got imprisoned in a number of concentration camps, and also was repeatedly tortured, until his execution by firing squad in January 1943. He was posthumously decorated with the title Hero of the Soviet Union.
Biography.
Grigory Illarionovic Tkhor was born on 28 September 1903, in the village of Podlipnoe, Konotop Raion. He belonged to a family of ethnic Ukrainian farmers. After graduating from a five grade school, he went on to work at his father's farm. In 1923 he enlisted into the Red Army. In 1924 he graduated from an infantry academy, subsequently commanding various infantry formations. In 1931, he graduated from a school for navigator pilots, in 1935 he became a pilot. He commanded a number of squadrons until 1937 when he was promoted to a command a brigade belonging to the 64th Heavy Bomber Division.
Tkhor fought in the Spanish Civil War, flying 102 combat missions in support of the Republican forces. He then served as deputy commander of the Transbaikal Military District's air force. In late April 1938, Tkhor's heavy bomber squadron left Irkutsk, to join the Soviet Volunteer Group fighting on the Chinese side in the Second Sino-Japanese War. The unit made stops in Mongolia, Suzhou and Lanzhou, before reaching its final destination Hankou. In China, Tkhor distinguished himself as an able pilot who was able to fly on a variety of aircraft, that Chinese pilots had previously discarded as unserviceable. He simultaneously acted as a senior advisor in the Republic of China Air Force. On 4 August 1939, he was granted the rank of Kombrig.
Upon his return from China, Tkhor was transferred to the Kiev Military District where he held the position of deputy commander of the 62nd Heavy Bomber Division under the rank of major general. In May 1941, he graduated from the Military Academy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Russia. At the outbreak of Operation Barbarossa he took part in the defense of the Ukrainian border. His plane was shot down in a dogfight at the closing stage of the Battle of Kiev (1941), he landed behind enemy lines and was found unconscious by a German patrol. He was initially taken to the Moabit detention center where he refused to become a turncoat despite being subjected to torture. He was subsequently detained in , a prison in Nurenberg and the Flossenbürg concentration camp. During this time frame he was questioned regularly, often returning on blood soaked stretchers. He was executed by a firing squad in January 1943. Details about his captivity and death were declassified 15 years after the end of the war.
Awards.
Tkhor was awarded with the Order of the Badge of Honour in 1936. He had been decorated with the Order of the Red Banner on three occasions (1937, 1937, 1938), he received the Order of Lenin in 1939. On 26 June 1991, Mikhail Gorbachev posthumously awarded him with the title Hero of the Soviet Union, citing his bravery during the course of World War II.
References.
Ukrainian people of World War II


Lou Bluhm

Louis Edward Bluhm (March 22, 1940 – April 5, 1990) was an American bridge player. He played bridge professionally and was an expert at both poker and gin rummy, according to the American Contract Bridge League (ACBL).
Bluhm, an accountant, was born in Muskegon Heights, Michigan, but lived in Atlanta, Georgia for 25 years. He attended Valparaiso University and served in the U.S. Air Force during the Vietnam War. He died at Williamson Medical Center in Franklin, Tennessee in 1990, at age 50.
Bluhm was inducted into the ACBL Hall of Fame in 2000. The ACBL Distinguished Player Award had been "originated for him".


RCAF Station Edgar

RCAF Station Edgar was part of the Pinetree Line of radar stations and was located at Edgar, Ontario, Canada, about northeast of Barrie. Built in 1952, the site was home to the 31st Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron and was operational in its intended role until 1964, when the complex was sold to the provincial government of Ontario in November for CA$218,225 and was used as an Adult Occupational Centre for developmentally disabled or handicapped adults until its closure in 1999. The base consisted of 84 residences, two office buildings, a swimming pool, bowling alley, baseball diamond, hospital, church and a school. As a part of the deinstitutionalization program, the government began shutting down all its institutions and by 1999, the Edgar Adult Occupational Centre was completely shut down. The Ontario Provincial Police then assumed use of the old recreational hall for instruction. They had been using the base off and on for police training and a number of other functions. In 1999, the government attempted to sell the 628,300 m² (155¼ acre) site to Nishnawbe Homes for $2.95 million, an organization dedicated to building respectable communities for first-nations people, but this deal fell through. From its 1999 closure until its 2011 demolition, the base sat mostly unused, except for occasional use by military and police as a training centre, including being the rehab centre for "Canada's Worst Driver 3" in 2007. Despite the site being idle, there is 24/7 security posted at the gatehouse making the site inaccessible to the public. In July 2011, a developer purchased the remainder of the property for $2,500 and by the fall of 2011, all the buildings had been demolished. Developer Miya Consulting plans to build 82 houses on the property.


Air Force Base Swartkop

Air Force Base Swartkop is South Africa's oldest air force base and houses the South African Air Force Museum. It is managed as part of AFB Waterkloof and houses one of the three branches of the South African Air Force Museum. The name of the air force base, "Swartkop" means "Black hill" in Afrikaans.
AFB Swartkop is located in the town Centurion (previously Verwoerdburg) in the Gauteng Province of South Africa, between Pretoria and Midrand (Johannesburg), which is a part of the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality.
History.
Air Force Station (AFS) Zwartkop was established in April 1921 after a private farm named Zwartkop was acquired by the Government in 1920. The Dutch spelling of Zwartkop was retained for the Air Force Station that was subsequently established there. On 1 April 1949, the Dutch spelling was dropped in favour of the Afrikaans spelling and resulted in Air Force Station Swartkop. The Air Force Station was upgraded to an Air Force Base on 1 February 1968. The name of the base reverted to the original "Zwartkop" in 2012.
The SAAF claims Swartkop is the second oldest air station in the world and the oldest operational air station in the world. Over the years many distinguished Squadrons have been based at Swartkop. This includes 26 Squadron SAAF which was formed there on 24 August 1942.
The Chief of the South African Air Force opened the relocated South African Air Force Museum at AFB Swartkop in 1993.
The Air Force Base reverted to Air Force Station status in 1999. This decision was made by the South African Air Force to vacate the base and leave behind the South African Air Force Museum located there and to keep the Airfield as an extension of Air Force Base Waterkloof. The SAAF Museum Historic Flight has also moved to the airfield.
As of December 2013 the South African Air Force still hasn't vacated all operational units on the base. The South African Air Force Museum currently occupies the northern side of the base while 17 Squadron is housed at the southern side of the base.
South African Air Force Memorial.
The South African Air Force Memorial is located at Swartkop. It contains a roll of honour of SAAF personnel who have been killed on duty as well as a memorial to personnel of all nations that died during the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan in South Africa.


Big Wing

The Big Wing, also known as a Balbo, was an air fighting tactic proposed during the Battle of Britain by 12 Group commander Air Vice-Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory and Acting Squadron Leader Douglas Bader. In essence, the tactic involved meeting incoming Luftwaffe bombing raids in strength with a wing-shaped formation of three to five squadrons. In the Battle, this tactic was employed by the Duxford Wing, under Bader's command.
The name "Balbo" refers to Italo Balbo, an Italian air force officer and patriotic national leader famous for leading large formations of aircraft on long distance flights before the war.
Big Wing versus Park's approach.
The Big Wing contrasted with the tactics used by Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park, the commanding officer of Fighter Command's No. 11 Group RAF (11 Group), which faced most "Luftwaffe" attacks. Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding, commanding officer of RAF Fighter Command, had put a huge amount of effort into developing the world's first integrated air defence system, incorporating the Chain Home radar stations, Royal Observer Corps ground observation posts, telecommunications and information processing. Using the tactics devised by Sir Hugh Dowding, Park met the raids with individual squadrons, which he considered to be the most flexible and effective use of his aircraft, particularly in light of the shallow depth of penetration of British airspace by the "Luftwaffe". He used hit and run tactics, with an enemy raid potentially being engaged by several squadrons in turn. The tactic had been questioned by many of Park's subordinates, who were appalled by the high losses amongst the squadrons of 11 Group. In this battle of attrition they wanted to employ larger formations to provide mutual protection and reduce casualties.
Leigh-Mallory, the commander of the neighbouring No. 12 Group RAF (12 Group) to the north, was an advocate of a Big Wing policy, causing enormous friction in his relationship with Park. One of Leigh-Mallory's subordinates was the acting leader of No. 242 (Canadian) Squadron RAF (242 Squadron), Douglas Bader, who had flown in Park's Big Wings over Dunkirk a few weeks earlier. Experience covering the French beaches against air attack had convinced Bader that large formations were essential and with Leigh-Mallory's blessing, a wing was formed at RAF Duxford to try to prove the Big Wing theory. Supported by Duxford station commander Group Captain "Woody" Woodhall, Bader's wing theory was developed over the next few days and initially involved three squadrons; 242 Squadron, No. 310 (Czech) Squadron RAF (310 Squadron) flying Hawker Hurricanes and No. 19 Squadron RAF (19 Squadron), based at nearby RAF Fowlmere flying Supermarine Spitfires.
On 7 September 1940, the Big Wing was scrambled operationally for the first time, to patrol North Weald but the formation arrived late. Bader acknowledged the fact that they were too slow forming up and for the flight to the patrol area the formation was too disjointed; the Big Wing claimed 11 enemy aircraft destroyed for the loss of one fighter. In September 1940, the wing was sent up several times to try to disrupt "Luftwaffe" raiders. The Duxford Big Wing was not an organised and rehearsed military unit, merely an ad-hoc collection of squadrons led by one of Fighter Command's less experienced squadron leaders. Between Leigh-Mallory and Bader there was no planning on how to use a Big Wing nor an assessment of its achievements. On 9 September, the Hurricanes of No. 302 Polish Fighter Squadron (302 Squadron) and the Spitfires of No. 611 Squadron RAF (611 Squadron), were allocated to the "Big Wing" and again Park requested protection of 11 Group airfields, with much the same results of 7 September.
Park had experimented with large wings (covering the earlier Dunkirk evacuation) and insisted that they were unwieldy, difficult to manoeuvre into position and rarely in the right place when needed. The 11 Group squadrons were closer to the "Luftwaffe" than 12 Group and Park pointed out that there was insufficient time over Kent and Sussex for a large formation to gain altitude against the incoming raids. Bader countered by pointing out that his wing could be used as a reserve for 11 Group. Positioned well away from the "Luftwaffe" bases in France he could be in place at altitude when the wing was needed, providing adequate early warning was given. The best early warning possible was provided to 12 Group. Bader further delayed deployment of 12 Group fighters by insisting he lead the Big Wing; to do this he had to fly 242 Squadron to Duxford from RAF Coltishall every day. Bader wanted time to fly to Duxford, land, take-off again, then form a Big Wing; the amount of early warning required for this was wildly unrealistic.
The Duxford Big Wing comprised Hurricane and Spitfire squadrons—the Spitfires were slowed by having to fly and climb at the same speed as the slower Hurricanes. Bader did not always follow ground control instructions (GCI) and often flew into 11 Group on his own initiative. For such a large formation to succeed, it need to be good planning and training; its leadership had to follow Fighter Command's battle plan but this was blatantly disregarded. If Leigh-Mallory had a vested interest in the Big Wing, then he had a responsibility to make sure that at least it was organised properly. This clash of opinions between the 11 and 12 group commanders was left unresolved by Leigh-Mallory and Dowding. Subsequent events, in which Dowding retired from his post at Fighter Command and Leigh-Mallory was promoted to command 11 Group, show that Leigh-Mallory's arguments had the sympathies of the senior officers of the RAF. These sympathies could have been due to tensions between these officers and Dowding rather than how Britain could be most effectively defended.
In "Spitfire: Portrait of a Legend", Leo McKinstry cites sources saying that Dowding was widely criticised after the Battle in RAF reviews of his strategy for keeping the control of 11 Group and 12 Group resources separate under Park and Leigh-Mallory, instead of uniting them under one command or at least coordinating them as one group. The effect of this decision was a lack of coordination between the groups, which often meant the aircraft of 11 Group were fully committed, while those of 12 Group sat idle. A letter by Park in 1968, quoted by McKinstry, illustrates the problem.
According to McInstry, in another letter Park wrote at the time he said, "Frankly I was more worried at the lack of cooperation (with Leigh-Mallory), than I was about out-witting the massed German raids".
What has been described as an "even-handed" assessment of the affair was published in the Air Ministry's Air Historical Branch history, written shortly after the battle and published in 1941,
This is the Air Ministry view, of which the most senior individuals were involved in using the Big Wing theory as the means to conspire against Dowding. Given this and the animosity towards Dowding, the Air Ministry view of the Battle of Britain cannot be said to be "even-handed". As first published by the Air Ministry there was no mention of Dowding or Park; it was withdrawn and a revised version issued in 1943 at Winston Churchill's insistence. Further evidence of this conflict can also be seen in a memo, again cited by McKinstry, which Leigh-Mallory sent to Park during the Battle, "Full explanation required why 11 Group fighters have shot down enemy fighters over 12 Gp area". This is more than a little ironic given that 12 Group was expected to reinforce the defence in 11 Group (by shooting enemy aircraft down) but instead a Big Wing was sent, often to the wrong place, causing more disruption to the well thought-out plans of 11 Group than to the "Luftwaffe".
Effectiveness.
After the Battle of Britain Leigh-Mallory never really had a chance to use the Big Wing defensively again, and it quickly mutated from a defensive to an offensive formation—Bader would eventually lead one of these new wings on massive fighter sweeps over France. To this day there is debate over the effectiveness of the "Big Wing" as it was used during the Battle. Although Leigh-Mallory and Bader argued it was a great success, post-war analysis suggests the actual number of German aircraft shot down by the wing was probably a fraction of those claimed (the claims for the Big Wing were never credible even at the time. On 15 September 1940, the Big Wing was scrambled twice against incoming raids and claimed 52 kills, eight probables and others damaged. (German records showed that six aircraft were lost). Some senior officers like Leigh-Mallory and Sholto Douglas wanted to believe these claims so that they could use the Big Wing as a political tool against Dowding. This would seem to support the idea that, for a "Big Wing", there were "not enough enemy to go around"; the Wing had too high a concentration of aircraft in the same air space looking for targets.
It could be argued that 12 Group had more time to get fighters into position but even then it failed to do so. When 11 Group was stretched to its limits and required support, due to the delay imposed by 12 Group, 11 Group airfields were left undefended. This was due not only to time wasted in forming up the Big Wing but also due to 12 Group commanders not following 11 Group's instructions and thus arriving in the wrong place. Not only did 12 Group fail to support 11 Group, they left their own airfields undefended; a large portion of UK airspace was left undefended while Leigh-Mallory and Bader tested their Big Wing theory. The time taken to form a Big Wing also wasted fuel and combined with the limited range of the fighters, reduced time over the combat zone. When 10 Group was asked to provide cover for 11 Group in similar circumstances, it was provided and 11 Group airfields defended.
Casualties for the "Big Wing" were significantly lower than in the smaller formations—suggesting that they did indeed benefit from protection in numbers. The "Big Wing" invariably joined combat with the enemy over Northern London, where the German fighter escort was at the very limit of its range and effectiveness. Consequently, the Big Wing also made very few interceptions, and as a result lower casualties would be expected on both sides. Park's tactics (which had included the occasional use of two- and three-squadron wings) were correct for the conditions he had to fight under. The most powerful argument against the Big Wing in the Battle of Britain is that without a clear idea of a target as a raid assembled over France, it was impossible for the Big Wing to get airborne and form up in time to meet it.
Another argument against the use of the Duxford Big Wing was that it was never a serious tactical proposition. It was formed after a telephone discussion between Leigh Mallory and Bader and there was no planning, protocols for its operation or discussion (let alone agreement) within Fighter Command. Leigh-Mallory did not question Bader's claims or critically assess the Big Wing's results. For a senior commander to take the word of an inexperienced junior officer and commit to such a poorly planned experiment at a critical time is questionable. The interceptions by the Big Wing only occurred over a short period of time in September, when the "Luftwaffe" switched from military targets and airfields to daylight raids on London. The "Luftwaffe" bombers were at their most vulnerable when they were at the limit of the range of the escorting Messerschmitt Bf 109s and many German fighters had already expended their fuel in combat with 11 Group aircraft over Kent.
However, it must be noted that when encountered by the "Luftwaffe" on 15 September, the Big Wing had an immense psychological impact. Having been told that the RAF was down to its last 50 fighters by their leaders, "Luftwaffe" aircrew were continuously attacked on the run over Kent, only to be confronted by a further formation of 60 RAF aircraft over London, just as their escort reached the limit of their range. This led to further demoralization in the "Luftwaffe". One reason for this level of surprise was that a recent large "Luftwaffe" fighter sweep had encountered little resistance, confirming the "Luftwaffe" leaders' belief that there were few RAF fighters left; in fact Park had recognised this fighter sweep as a ruse to get his fighters into the air; with no threat of bombing he had kept his fighters on the ground.
While not effective as a fighting tactic, the Big Wing, along with some blatant manipulation of statistics, worked as a political tool for those against Dowding. Dowding had clashed with Hugh Trenchard (founder of the RAF) while both were Royal Flying Corps commanders during the First World War. Trenchard was retired by the Second World War but was a Marshal of the RAF and still influential at the highest level in the RAF. He supported the theory of the "knock out blow", where air attack was fought by counter-attack with bombers, not defence by fighters and this view was shared by many senior RAF and Air Ministry personnel. Despite this RAF policy, Dowding got enough political support to build up Fighter Command into a very effective weapon, the weapon that won the Battle of Britain. In 1940 (and arguably throughout the war) Bomber Command was in no way capable of delivering a knock out blow to Germany, so the pro-bomber advocates were severely embarrassed by the success of Fighter Command. Dowding's "stuffy" personality and unwillingness to fight this political battle also contributed to his downfall. The Big Wing "débâcle" was a smokescreen manipulated by his political enemies to bring him down. It is understandable that Dowding did not fight back given the stress he had been under for the best part of a year, first to conserve Fighter Command, then to oversee the long battle of attrition against the "Luftwaffe".
Big Wing exercise.
The use of a Big Wing in 11 Group was explored by Fighter Command in paper exercises run by Leigh-Mallory in January 1941. The intention was to prove the superiority of large formations using the circumstances of a real attack on the Kenley, Biggin Hill and Hornchurch sectors on 6 September 1940. Leigh-Mallory mismanaged the operation, permitting the raid to progress unhindered, resulting in Kenley and Biggin Hill airbases being "bombed" while their aircraft were still on the ground. One of Park's former controllers explained Leigh-Mallory's mistakes to him. He replied that he would do better next time and that if a large-scale raid approached he would permit it to bomb its target and intercept it in force on its return to France. The enemy, he believed, would be so badly mauled that there would be no more raids.
References.
Notes


John Lapsley

Air Marshal Sir John Hugh Lapsley, (24 September 1916 – 21 November 1995) was a British fighter pilot of the Second World War and, later, a senior Royal Air Force commander.
RAF career.
Lapsely joined the Royal Air Force as an Aircraft Apprentice in 1935 later being awarded a cadetship at the RAF College Cranwell. In 1937 he was appointed to a permanent commission and a posting to No. 32 Squadron. By February 1941 he was in command of No. 274 Squadron in Malta, originally with Gloster Gladiator biplane fighters which were soon replaced by the Hawker Hurricane. He was shot down near Tobruk on 19 April 1941 and was repatriated back to England to recover. At first he was only fit for instructional duties but by 1943 he was in command of No. 125 Wing with the Hawker Typhoon fighter bomber.
After the war he attended the RAF Staff College, Bracknell and then became Officer Commanding No. 74 Squadron before taking command of the Air Fighting Development Squadron in 1949 and then taking over responsibility for Flying at the Central Flying Establishment in 1951. He went on to be Station Commander at RAF Wahn in 1954, Deputy Chief of Staff at Headquarters Second Tactical Air Force in 1961 and Director of the Defence Operations Staff on formation of the Ministry of Defence in 1964. He became Air Officer Commanding No. 19 (Reconnaissance) Group in 1967 and Air Officer Commander-in-Chief, Coastal Command in 1968. Whilst serving as Commander-in Chief won Coastal Commands Scratch Golf Championship in 1969. In that capacity he accepted the first Nimrod aircraft into service in October 1969. His last appointment was as Head of the British Defence Staff in Washington, D.C. in 1970 before retiring in 1973. Whilst serving as Commander-in Chief he won Coastal Command's Scratch Golf Championship in 1969.
In retirement he became Director General of the Save the Children Fund.
He is buried in the churchyard of St Mary's at Benhall in Suffolk.


Electronic-warfare aircraft

An electronic-warfare aircraft is a military aircraft equipped for electronic warfare (EW), that is, degrading the effectiveness of enemy radar and radio systems by using radar jamming and deception methods.
In 1943, British Avro Lancaster aircraft were equipped with chaff in order to blind enemy air defence radars. They were supplemented by specially-equipped aircraft flown by No. 100 Group RAF, which operated modified Halifaxes, Liberators and Fortresses carrying various jammers such as "Carpet", "Airborne Cigar", "Mandrel", "Jostle", and "Piperack".
List of electronic-warfare aircraft.
Examples of modern aircraft designed or modified for EW include:


Lafayette Regional Airport

Lafayette Regional Airport is a public airport two miles (4 km) southeast of Lafayette, in Lafayette Parish, Louisiana, United States. It is independently owned and operated.
The Lafayette Regional airport is located next to U.S. Highway 90 (future Interstate 49) on the east side of the city, close to offshore oil and gas activity in the Gulf of Mexico. Lafayette Regional is home to one of the largest helicopter companies in the world, Petroleum Helicopters International (formerly PHI-Petroleum Helicopters Inc.).
Although the Lafayette Regional airport does not have international flights, regional jet service is operated nonstop to three hubs: Atlanta (ATL), Dallas/Ft. Worth (DFW) and Houston (IAH). Delta Air Lines began mainline Boeing 717-200 jet service nonstop to Atlanta effective July 3, 2014, in addition to its regional jet flights operated by Delta Connection. United Airlines began expanded service from Lafayette featuring a new daily nonstop flight to Denver which became effective August 19, 2014, and was operated by its regional partner United Express until this flight was discontinued on October 23, 2015. Delta, via Delta Connection, previously provided nonstop service from Lafayette to its hub in Memphis, TN until 2011. Allegiant Air initiated nonstop service to Las Vegas on November 3, 2011, but then discontinued these flights in February 2012. Frontier Airlines began new service into Lafayette with Airbus A320 jetliners effective October 24, 2018 with two nonstop flights a week to Denver (DEN) as well as two nonstop flights a week to Orlando (MCO) with both of these destinations being hub cities for Frontier. Frontier ended its seasonal service to Orlando from Lafayette in August 2019 and then ended its seasonal service from Lafayette to Denver on November 10, 2019 with flights to both cities planned to resume in the spring of 2020. However, Frontier has since stated it will not be resuming flights from Lafayette with its service now suspended indefinitely.
Passenger growth.
The airport serves the greater Lafayette metropolitan area as well as nearby New Iberia and other population centers in south central Louisiana, which has a combined population of approximately 530,000 people. In 2019, 527,460 passengers flew in and out of the airport, the highest in its history.
Facilities and aircraft.
Lafayette Regional Airport (LFT) covers at an elevation of above mean sea level. It has three asphalt runways: 4L/22R, , 4R/22L, , and 11/29, . It has one helipad, .
In the year ending May 31, 2016, the Lafayette Regional airport had 47,239 aircraft operations, an average of 129 per day: 48% general aviation, 45% air taxi, 2% military and 5% scheduled commercial. At that time, there were 144 aircraft based at this airport: 54% single-engine, 17% multi-engine, 20% jet and 9% helicopter.
Cargo operations.
Lafayette Regional Airport has now completed a new cargo terminal on the southwest side of the airfield near the PHI headquarters. It is approximately 22,500 square feet. Construction commenced in September 2010. It provides parking for two Boeing 757 aircraft on its apron and also is accessible to existing taxiways that connect to runways 4R/22L. The relocation of the cargo ramp provides cargo carriers such as UPS and FedEx direct access to U.S. Highway 90 (future Interstate 49 freeway corridor). Currently, UPS bases a Boeing 757-200 aircraft at the airport. FedEx previously based two (2) Boeing 727-200 trijets on the airfield until this aircraft type was retired from their fleet on June 21, 2013. The FedEx Boeing 727s have now been replaced with a Boeing 757-200 aircraft. These Boeing 757 jets operated by both FedEx and UPS are currently the largest aircraft to use the airport on a regular basis. DHL had operated a Douglas DC-9 aircraft configured for freight operations from Lafayette; however, this company subsequently shut down all of their flight operations in the U.S. It was envisioned by airport officials that the old cargo ramp would create more room for a planned main terminal building extension. However, the Lafayette Regional airport is now building a completely new passenger terminal which will replace the existing terminal.
Terminal expansion study.
A preliminary study was being conducted concerning the existing terminal building at Lafayette Regional Airport in planning for future growth and construction. Adding an extension to the terminal would have allowed Lafayette Regional Airport to handle more air traffic, which could entice international carriers to use it as a connecting airport. This would require a U.S. Customs department office stationed at the airport, which would bring Lafayette Regional Airport to an 'international airport' status. However, international service from Lafayette appears unlikely at this time due to the relatively small population base in the area as well as the presence of large international and domestic passenger hubs located relatively nearby in Atlanta (Delta Air Lines), Dallas/Fort Worth (American Airlines) and Houston (United Airlines).
New airport terminal.
On December 6, 2014, local voters approved a ballot measure that will enable a new one percent sales tax to be collected in order to fund construction of a completely new passenger air terminal at Lafayette Regional Airport. According to an article in the Lafayette Daily Advertiser newspaper, airport officials will use the funds generated by the sales tax to select a design firm, finalize a design and develop construction plans. While construction of the new terminal is underway, the existing passenger terminal will be used. Once the new terminal is in operation, plans call for the existing terminal to be demolished.
Construction of the new terminal began in September 2018. As of the beginning of October 2018, the hangar that was present on the spot of the new terminal location had been demolished and cleaned up to proceed onto construction of the terminal. A public live webcam has been added at the airport facing where the new terminal will be built, and can be viewed on the airport's website.
According to the 2021 Lafayette Regional Airport annual report, all funding for the new terminal has been obtained and the facility is scheduled to open in the fourth quarter of 2021.
History.
World War II.
The airport opened as Lafayette Municipal Airport on November 29, 1930. On July 5, 1942, during World War II, the airport was commandeered by the United States Army Air Forces and used as a contract primary pilot training airfield under the AAF Gulf Coast Training Center (later Central Flying Training Command). The 384th Army Air Force Base Unit administered the contract to a civilian-operated primary flying school (Lafayette School of Aeronautics) as a sub-base of DeRidder Army Air Base, Louisiana, which also had four (4) auxiliary airfields located nearby for emergency and overflow landings. Fairchild PT-19s were the primary trainer; several PT-17 Stearmans and a few P-40 Warhawks were assigned.
Control of the airfield was transferred from DeRidder AAB to Third Air Force (Esler Field) on March 24, 1944. The mission of base became training of replacement combat aircrews. On September 30, 1945, the airfield was deactivated and returned to civil control.
Postwar civil use: airline service.
In 1948, Eastern Air Lines began the first scheduled passenger service into Lafayette. During the 1950s, Eastern operated up to ten flights a day with Martin 4-0-4 and Convair 340 twin prop "Silver Falcon" airliners with up to five flights a day to New Orleans via Baton Rouge and up to five flights a day to Houston Hobby Airport via Lake Charles, LA and Beaumont/Port Arthur, TX. According to its December 1, 1958 system timetable, Eastern was operating a daily round trip flight with a Convair 340 on a routing of Brownsville - Corpus Christi - Houston Hobby Airport - Beaumont/Port Arthur - Lake Charles - Lafayette - Baton Rouge - New Orleans - Mobile - Pensacola - Montgomery - Birmingham - Atlanta. Other Eastern flights featured continuing, no change of plane service to such destinations as Charlotte and San Antonio. Eastern served Lafayette until the mid-1960s with Convair 440 propliners when it then ceased all service into the airport.
Trans-Texas Airways (TTa) began serving Lafayette during the mid-1950s. In 1956, TTa was operating two departures a day with Douglas DC-3 aircraft to Shreveport via an intermediate stop in Lake Charles with continuing service to Dallas and on to Fort Worth via stops in the east Texas cities of Longview, Marshall and Tyler. By 1959, Trans-Texas had expanded its DC-3 service from the airport with four nonstop flights a day to New Orleans as well as two nonstop flights a day to Alexandria, LA with continuing service to Little Rock via stops in El Dorado, AR and Camden, AR in addition to maintaining its two flights a day schedule to Shreveport and Dallas. Flights to Houston were then introduced during the 1960s which were operated with Douglas DC-3 and Convair 240 propliners followed by Convair 600 turboprops. By 1969, Trans-Texas Airways had changed its name to Texas International Airlines.
The first jet service into the airport was operated by Texas International Airlines (TI) with Douglas DC-9-10 twinjets to Houston, Dallas/Ft. Worth, New Orleans and other cities. Texas International introduced jets into Lafayette with the DC-9 in the early 1970s. TI also served the airport with Convair 600 turboprops. In February 1976, Texas International was operating direct DC-9 jet service from Los Angeles (LAX) to Lafayette with six intermediate stops en route via Albuquerque, Roswell, NM, Midland/Odessa, Dallas/Fort Worth, Houston and Beaumont. By 1979, Texas International was operating ten jet flights a day from Lafayette with Douglas DC-9-10s and McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30s nonstop to Houston, New Orleans, and Lake Charles, LA with direct, no change of plane jet service to Dallas/Ft. Worth, Denver, Los Angeles, Salt Lake City, Albuquerque and Little Rock. In 1982, Texas International was operating three DC-9 flights a day from Dallas/Ft. Worth (DFW) to Lafayette via Houston (IAH). A fourth daily DC-9 flight was operated from Houston to Lafayette as well by TI at this time. Later that year Texas International was merged into Continental Airlines which in turn continued to serve Lafayette with Boeing 727-100, Boeing 727-200, Douglas DC-9-10 and McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30 jet flights to Houston. Continental jets were then replaced by Continental Express ATR 72, ATR 42 and Embraer EMB-120 Brasilia regional turboprop aircraft. Continental later reintroduced mainline nonstop jet service to Houston. In September 1994 Continental was operating direct McDonnell Douglas MD-80 service from New York Newark Airport to Lafayette via Baltimore and Houston.
During the 1990s, American Eagle and Delta Connection were competing with nonstop service to Dallas/Fort Worth (DFW) with American Eagle flying Saab 340 turboprops and Delta Connection (operated by code sharing partner Atlantic Southeast Airlines) flying Embraer EMB-120 Brasilia propjets. At this same time, Atlantic Southeast Airlines operating as Delta Connection was operating direct service to Atlanta with Embraer EMB-120 propjets via an intermediate stop in Meridian, MS. Delta Connection would eventually introduce Embraer ERJ-135 regional jet service to Dallas/Fort Worth which was subsequently discontinued when Delta Air Lines shut down their DFW hub operation in 2005. The American Eagle service to Dallas/Fort Worth had been previously operated by Metroflight Airlines, a division of Metro Airlines, flying Convair 580 turboprops on behalf of American Airlines via a code sharing agreement during the mid-1980s.
Several independent commuter airlines served Lafayette over the years as well. In 1970, Air East Airlines was operating nonstop service to New Orleans with up to five flights a day. Royale Airlines, based in Shreveport, Louisiana, served the airport with Beechcraft 99, Embraer EMB-110 Bandeirante, Grumman Gulfstream I and Short 330 turboprops. In November 1984 Royale was flying to Houston Intercontinental Airport and New Orleans from Lafayette with hourly shuttle service operated to both destinations on weekdays in addition to operating direct flights to Shreveport. Another commuter air carrier, Metro Airlines, served Lafayette with Short 330 turboprops nonstop to Houston Intercontinental. L'Express Airlines, based in the New Orleans area, operated nonstop to Houston Hobby Airport and New Orleans with Beechcraft turboprops. Air New Orleans served Lafayette during the mid-1980s with flights to New Orleans. Hammond Air Service flew nonstop to Houston Hobby Airport with de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter turboprops and Piper prop aircraft. Other commuter air carriers operating nonstop service to New Orleans in the past included Vantage Airlines in 1974 and Southern Skies in 1981.
Past mainline jet service previously operated by Continental Airlines was also flown with Boeing 737-300 and Boeing 737-500 jetliners nonstop to Houston until Continental turned over all service into Lafayette to its regional affiliates, Continental Express operated by ExpressJet and Continental Connection operated by Colgan Air. Following the merger of Continental with United Airlines, ExpressJet and Colgan Air then became United Express air carriers. Major airline mainline jet service resumed on July 3, 2014, when Delta Air Lines began Boeing 717-200 flights between Lafayette and Atlanta. The airport was also served by Northwest Airlink with nonstop Saab 340 turboprop and Canadair CRJ200 regional jet flights to Memphis. Following the merger of Northwest Airlines with Delta Air Lines, Canadair CRJ200 regional jet service operated by Delta Connection to Memphis was discontinued. The majority of passenger flights at the airport are now flown with CRJ900 and ERJ-145 series regional jets flown by Envoy Air or Mesa Airlines with both carriers operating as American Eagle to Dallas/Ft. Worth on behalf of American Airlines. Additional United Express service to Houston is operated by Republic Airlines with larger Embraer ERJ-170 regional jets and also by Mesa Airlines with larger Embraer ERJ-175 regional jets. Some American Eagle flights to DFW were being operated by ExpressJet with Canadair CRJ200 regional jets. Colgan Air, operating as United Express, ceased serving Lafayette during the summer of 2012. Colgan had flown Bombardier Q400 high-speed propjets (which is the largest and fastest member of the DHC-8 Dash 8 aircraft family) as well as Saab 340 turboprops operating feeder service for United to Houston. ExpressJet replaced the Colgan service with additional Embraer ERJ-135 and Embraer ERJ-145 regional jet frequencies operating as United Express nonstop to Houston. Vision Airlines briefly served Lafayette during the summer of 2011 with Dornier 328 propjets nonstop to Ft. Walton Beach/Destin, FL via the Northwest Florida Regional Airport located on Eglin Air Force Base.
Current and past airline jet operations.
The three regional airlines serving Lafayette, American Eagle, Delta Connection and United Express, currently use regional jets for their flights. The exception was Delta Air Lines which began mainline service nonstop to Atlanta on July 3, 2014, using the Boeing 717-200 jetliner but is not currently operating this aircraft type into Lafayette. Delta Connection also began serving Lafayette with 76-seat Canadair CRJ900 regional jets which like the B717 feature first class, "Economy Comfort" and standard coach seating. Previously, the only mainline jet aircraft type serving Lafayette (following the cessation of Continental Airlines mainline jet service) was the twice weekly McDonnell Douglas MD-80 service flown by Allegiant Air nonstop to Las Vegas. On June 7, 2012 Delta Connection began daily service to Atlanta on Canadair CRJ700s with wi-fi, 9 first class seats, and 56 economy class seats including an enhanced "Economy Comfort" section featuring increased legroom. These flights provided the only first class service available at the time from Lafayette. In Delta's November 2012 timetable all CRJ700 service to Lafayette was replaced with smaller Canadair CRJ200s. Delta Connection then resumed dual-class service between Lafayette and Atlanta on June 10, 2013, with Canadair CRJ700 and CRJ900 regional jet flight featuring wi-fi as well as 9 First Class seats, 8 "Economy Comfort" seats and 48 Economy seats. Several of the other Delta Connection flights between LFT and ATL continue to use single class Canadair CRJ200 regional jets. The CRJ700 was the largest airliner type to serve Lafayette. However, that changed when Delta began 110-seat Boeing 717 service nonstop to Atlanta on July 3, 2014. The B717, featuring first class, "Economy Comfort" and standard coach seating, was one of the larger aircraft types to serve Lafayette with scheduled passenger flights and marked the return of mainline jet aircraft service at the airport at the time. One of the largest aircraft types to previously serve Lafayette was the McDonnell Douglas MD-80 flown by Allegiant Air with nonstop service to Las Vegas before this airline ceased all flights from the airport. Another large aircraft type to serve the airport was the Airbus A320 flown by Frontier Airlines before this air carrier discontinued its service to Lafayette.
Other airlines are now operating larger regional jet types into Lafayette. United Express introduced larger Canadair CRJ700 (operated by SkyWest Airlines), Embraer ERJ-170 (operated by Republic Airlines) and Embraer ERJ-175 (operated by Mesa Airlines) regional jet service with first class and coach seating on a number of flights to Houston. American Eagle has also now introduced larger Canadair CRJ900 regional jets featuring first class and coach seating on its service to Dallas/Fort Worth in addition to its all coach ERJ-145 flights to DFW.
Previous nonstop Denver service: United Express.
United Airlines began daily nonstop service to Denver from the airport effective on August 19, 2014. These flights were operated by United regional affiliate and code sharing partner United Express with Embraer ERJ-145 regional jets. This service marked the first time Lafayette had nonstop flights to the United hub in Denver. However, on July 27, 2015, United Airlines announced it would be ending this United Express service to Denver and the flight was discontinued on October 23, 2015.
Previous nonstop Denver and Orlando service: Frontier Airlines.
Frontier Airlines began serving Lafayette on October 24, 2018 with nonstop Airbus A320 jetliner flights operated twice a week to both Denver (DEN) and Orlando (MCO) with both of these cities serving as hubs for the airline. Frontier ended its seasonal service to Orlando in August 2019 and then also ended its seasonal service to Denver on November 12, 2019 with flights to both cities said to resume in the spring of 2020. However, Frontier has since stated that it will not resume flights into Lafayette with its service now suspended indefinitely.
Other notable past operations.
In March 2001, Air Force One landed in Lafayette transporting President George W. Bush, the 43rd President of the United States. This Boeing 747-200B (USAF aircraft designation VC-25A) flight into Lafayette with President Bush on board appears to have been the largest aircraft ever to land at the airport. More recently, U.S. Air Force C-17 "Globemaster III" aircraft have flown into Lafayette. These large, four engine, military transport jets were supporting air show activities at the airfield. In addition, United Airlines uses Lafayette Regional as a diversion airport when inclement weather disrupts flight operations at the airline's major connecting hub located at Houston Intercontinental Airport (IAH) in Texas. Up to five (5) Boeing 737 jetliners operated by United have been observed on the airport ramp at one time due to weather diversions.


Tony Lovell

Anthony Desmond Joseph "Tony" Lovell, (9 August 1919 – 17 August 1945) was a fighter pilot and flying ace of the Royal Air Force during the Second World War. He served in the Battle of Britain, on Malta, and over France, but was killed in a flying accident shortly after the war in Europe had ended.
Early life.
He was the son of Stuart C. A. Lovell and of Clare Mary Lovell, of Portrush, Northern Ireland. It had been expected that he would train for the Roman Catholic priesthood but directly upon graduation from Ampleforth College he joined the Royal Air Force.
Royal Air Force service.
Lovell joined the RAF on a short service commission in November 1937 and was commissioned acting pilot officer on 9 January 1938, graduating from No, 6 Flying Training School at RAF Netheravon he was posted to No. 41 Squadron RAF at RAF Catterick on 20 August 1938 flying Supermarine Spitfire Mark Ia fighters and confirmed pilot officer on 25 October 1938.
He was promoted flying officer on 25 May 1940.
Over Dunkirk on 31 May 1940 he shared the destruction of a Heinkel He 111 bomber and on 1 June 1940 he shared another. On 8 July 1940 Lovell claimed a Ju 86. In combat off Dover on 28 July 1940, he was attacked by a Messerschmitt Bf 109 reportedly flown by leading Luftwaffe fighter ace Werner Mölders of JG 51 and crashed on landing at RAF Manston. Lovell had been wounded in the thigh and was admitted to Margate Hospital. On 5 September 1940 he was shot down over the Thames Estuary and baled out unhurt. His Supermarine Spitfire (serial number "R 6885") crashed and burned out at South Benfleet. Lovell was appointed to command "B" Flight in October 1940 at RAF Hornchurch.
He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross on 26 November 1940 as a flight lieutenant flying with No. 41 Squadron RAF. His citation read:
Becoming a fighter controller for a period of rest he was promoted acting flight lieutenant on 25 May 1941. Lovell was promoted flight lieutenant on 25 October 1941, In October 1941 Lovell was given command of No. 145 Squadron RAF as acting squadron leader transferring to the Middle East with his squadron in spring 1942 but soon resigned his command in Egypt completely frustrated by the lack of aircraft for his squadron.
On 10 February 1942 he was awarded a Bar to the Distinguished Flying Cross as acting squadron leader commanding with No. 145 Squadron RAF. His citation states:
He was quickly posted back into action, to Malta in July 1942 to join No. 603 Squadron RAF and promoted temporary squadron leader on 1 June 1942. When the squadron was disbanded on 3 August 1942 it was partly incorporated into No. 1435 Flight RAF to form a full squadron with Lovell in command.
He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order on 30 October 1942 as squadron leader commanding a fighter squadron during the Battle of Malta. His citation reads:
After a rest at the beginning of 1943—during which he served as a fighter controller—Lovell was appointed to No. 242 Group as acting wing commander and was promoted full squadron leader on 9 April 1943. He led No. 322 Wing over Corsica and then No. 244 Wing during the invasion of Italy and the South of France.
He was awarded the American Distinguished Flying Cross on 14 November 1944 as acting wing commander. His brother Stuart was killed on active service with the RAF in 1944.
On 23 February 1945 Lovell was awarded a Bar to the Distinguished Service Order as a wing commander and fighter leader. As the war came to an end Lovell was serving as chief flight instructor at No. 71 Operational Training Unit at Ismailia, he returned to England in June 1945 and in July 1945 joined the RAF School of Air Support at Old Sarum.
His success as an air ace is recorded by eminent air warfare scholars Chris Shores and Clive Williams as 16 enemy aircraft destroyed, 6 shared destroyed, 2 probably destroyed, 9 damaged, 4 shared damaged and 1 destroyed on the ground. This was accomplished during 5 operational tours.
Death.
On 17 August 1945 Lovell was killed when he crashed into a field adjoining Old Sarum airfield having lost height while performing aerobatics in a Spitfire Mark XII (serial number "EN234").


Atlantic Air Lift

Atlantic Airlift was a French regional airline. It provided the only scheduled service to the Île d'Yeu Aerodrome, on the Île d'Yeu off the west coast of France. The service linked the Île d'Yeu with Nantes Atlantique Airport. The airline made its first flight in April 2005. It operated two daily return flights, using a nine-seat Cessna 208B Grand Caravan. The airline meanwhile ceased operations.


Wedderburn Airstrip

Wedderburn Airstrip is an unlicensed private airfield located in Wedderburn, New South Wales, an outer rural suburb of Sydney Australia. The airfield caters to recreational aircraft owners and pilots, all of whom are members of the New South Wales Sport Aircraft Club.
Overview.
The airfield was established to provide club members with a low cost option for owning and operating their aircraft. The operating costs of the airfield are paid through club membership fees and leasing of hangar space. The grounds are maintained by a caretaker who resides on site. It is reported that the annual operating cost under this model is approximately $65,000. The airfield has become more popular with recreational flyers following the closure of Hoxton Park Airport in 2008. Upgrades to airport facilities have been completed progressively as funds permit and include the sealing of the entire length of runway 17/35 in 2008 and ongoing works to seal the apron and taxiway areas.
In addition to regular flying club events, Wedderburn holds an annual open day and fly-in, an event that includes displays of a variety of home-built, ultralight, historic and military aircraft as well a barbecue and family friendly activities. The event is intended to be a social gathering for club members and an opportunity for interested members of the community to look around the facilities. In previous years, money raised has been donated to organisations such as CareFlight.
Facilities.
Wedderburn airfield has a single runway, aligned 17/35 measuring approximately long. The strip has been progressively upgraded using funding from club members and was sealed to full length in 2008. There is currently no night lighting available, limiting the airport to daytime visual flight rules operation only. As Wedderburn caters to small recreational and general aviation category aircraft, the facilities are limited to use by aircraft not exceeding maximum takeoff weight.
There is no control tower at the airfield, so pilots are required to coordinate takeoff and landings using a discrete Common Traffic Advisory Frequency. Weather information is available from nearby Camden Airport. Fuel (Avgas) is available and the site houses close to 100 hangars for the storage of members' aircraft.