Islam in Uganda

According to the 2013 National Census, Islam in Uganda was practised by 13.7 percent of the population. The Pew Research Center in 2014, however, estimated that 11.5 percent of Ugandans were Muslim, compared to 35.2 percent of Tanzanians, 9.7 percent of Kenyans, 6.2 percent of South Sudanese, 2.8 percent of Burundians, and 1.8 percent of Rwandans. The vast majority of Muslims in Uganda are Sunni. Small Shia and Ahmadi minorities are also present.
The Iganga District in the east of Uganda had the highest percentage of Muslims according to a 2009 published report.
19th century.
Islam had arrived in Uganda from the north and through inland networks of the East African coastal trade by the mid-nineteenth century. Some Baganda Muslims trace their family's conversion to the period in which Kabaka Mutesa I converted to Islam in the nineteenth century. Islam entered Uganda through the Buganda route in the 1840s and the northern Uganda route through the Turko- Egyptian influences. Kasozi, (1986: 23) gives 1844 as the year when the first Muslim Arab trader; Ahmed bin Ibrahim reached the King's court in Buganda.
2002 census.
The 2002 national census recorded that Muslims represented 12.1 percent of the population.
Geographical distribution.
Yumbe District is the only district with a Muslim-majority (76%). Muslims form a significant minority in the districts of Mayuge (36%) and Iganga (34%).


Evripidis Stylianidis

Evripidis Stylianidis (, also transliterated "Evripidis Stilianides") is a Greek politician who has served as Minister for the Interior, Minister for Education and Minister for Transport and Communications. He is a member of New Democracy.
Personal life and education.
Evripidis Stylianidis was born on 8 April 1966 in Maroneia, near Komotini in the Rhodope regional unit of Thrace.
Between 1984 and 1989 he studied at the Law School of the Democritus University of Thrace in Komotini, graduating with a Bachelor's degree. Between 1991 and 1994 he studied at the Law School of the University of Hamburg, graduating with a PhD in constitutional law, before serving in the Artillery Corps of the Hellenic Army between 1994 and 1995.
He is married to Stergioula Papachristou and speaks Greek and German.
Professional life.
From 1991 until 1994, Stylianidis worked at the Greek General Consulate in Hamburg, Germany, cooperating with the Greek Foreign Ministry. Between 1995 and 1996 he was an advisor to the president of the New Democracy political party in Greece in issues concerning youth affairs and cultural diplomacy. From 1997 until 1998, as a European Public Law Center (EPLC) fellow, he taught in the Master's degree programme in public law at the Law School of the National and Capodistrian University of Athens. From 1997 until 2000, Stylianidis was a researcher at European Public Law Center (EPLC).
Political life.
Evripidis Stylianidis first entered politics in 1994 with New Democracy as a Member of the European Parliament nominee.
In 1996 he ran for parliament, but the election law at the time did not enable his party to elect an MP in the Rhodope constituency, albeit it is claimed that he received the most votes. In 2000 he was elected a Member of the Parliament of the Hellenes for the Rhodope Prefecture, and re-elected in 2004. In 2001, he was appointed New Democracy's alternative coordinator for foreign affairs, a position he held until 2004.
He has also been a member of the NATO Parliamentary Assembly and vice president of the Greece–Brazil and Greece–Germany and member of the Greece–Russia Parliamentary Friendship Committees.
In the January 2015 election he won a seat in the parliament. But lost his seat in the September 2015 election.
Ministerial positions.
On 19 September 2007, Evripidis Stylianidis became the Minister for National Education and Religious Affairs.
After a government reshuffle, he was appointed Minister for Transport and Communications on 8 January 2009. After the elections of 7 October 2009, he is a parliament member with the main opposition party of New Democracy.


Maha Sona

Maha Sona or Maha Sohona (Sinhala: මහ සෝනා, මහ සොහොනා) is a "yaka" (or "yakseya" or "devaya", meaning demon) in Sinhalese folklore, who is said to haunt afterlife. The name Maha Sona means " the greatest demon" or "god or demon of the cemetery" in the Sinhala language. It is the most feared god or demon in Sri Lanka. Originally a giant who had been defeated and decapitated in a duel by another giant named Gotaimbara (lived in the 1st century BC), Maha Sonaa has had his head replaced with that of a bear or tiger. He is believed to kill people by crushing their shoulders and also by afflicting illnesses. Traditional exorcism rituals are performed to repel the demon in such cases. Sri Lanka Army's Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol units are popularly known as the "Maha Sohon Brigade", named after this demon.
Origins.
In local folk traditions Maha Sona is formerly a human known as Ritigala Jayasena (Jayasena of Ritigala), a fierce warrior living around the reign of King Dutugamunu. After offending Gotaimbara (one of the Ten Giant Warriors of King Dutugamunu) in a drunken stupor, they agree to a bare-hands dual. Depending on the version of the tale, Gotaimbara decapitates Jayasena either accidentally or by a single kick, where the cadaver is removed to an open graveyard. Seeing the predicament of Jayasena, a deity takes pity and tries to revive him before the cadaver goes cold (or another time limit is reached). Since there is very little time remaining, the deity finds a bear head in a hurry and fits it before reviving him. In the chaos of trying to locate Jayasena's head within the time limit, the deity fits the head backwards. Following Jayasena's revival and seeing the grotesque form, people who come across him are terrified to the point of falling ill. Either because he was found or encountered in a large graveyard, the new persona is dubbed 'Maha Sohona or Maha Sohon Yaka (Great Demon of the Graveyard)' by people according to the popular origin versions. It is also worth noting, the term 'sohon' (සොහොන්) in Sinhala not only means grave or cemetery, but can also mean 'foul' in general. Therefore, 'Maha Sohona' can also mean 'The Great Fell'.
However, folk songs around the country also provide alternative origins to Maha Sona without linking him to the person Jayasena. Depending on the folk songs he may be called a demon or a deity. Maha Sona remains probably the deepest etched supernatural being in the Sri Lankan psyche, unsurpassed by the terror the name invokes.
Characteristics.
Maha Sona is believed to haunt graveyards, looking for human prey. He also haunts large rocks and hills, surrounded by human corpses. Junctions where three roads meet are other haunting grounds of this demon, and he is able to spread cholera and dysentery. Maha Sohona is chief to 30,000 demons, and often uses various disguises, each time riding a particular animal such as a goat, deer, horse, sheep and elephant.
The tall demon has four eyes and four hands and his skin is red in colour. He has the head of a bear or tiger, rides a pig and drinks the blood of a buffalo he carries in his right hand. He is also armed with a pike in his left hand.
Maha Sona kills people at night by striking them between the shoulders. The mark of a hand will be embossed on the flesh of the body after this. Apart from killing, he is also able to possess humans.
Exorcism.
In traditional exorcism rituals, dancers dressed as Maha Sona perform to cure patients of illnesses that are believed to have been afflicted by the demon. A traditional mask depicting the face of Maha Sona is used in these rituals. Also, it is believed that when he comes to the earth in the form of a man no one can stop him.
In Galle District Sri Lanka Mahasona and other demons (yakshas) such as Riri Yaka were benevolent, though they caused illness in the victims, resulting in healing rituals. Exorcists are of a particular caste, the Berawayas, of whom sadly the majority perished in the Boxing Day Tsunami. The exorcist does not refer to Mahasona as evil, but jokes with him, play cards and eat meat usually throughout the night, till the patient is well the next morning. Professor Bruce Kapferer has written extensively on this in his book 'A Celebration of Demons: Exorcism and the Aesthetics of Healing in Sri Lanka'. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2nd edition, 1983.


Kwang Sheng

Sik Kwang Sheng () is the current vice president of the Singapore Buddhist Federation, the abbot of Kong Meng San Phor Kark See Monastery, and the founder of the Buddhist College of Singapore.
Overview.
Early life.
Effectively bilingual, Ven Kwang Sheng was educated in Victoria School. He ordained as a monk in 1980 and became one of the more illustrious disciples of the highly revered Ven Hong Choon (宏船老师). Ven Kwang Sheng reportedly suffered from tinnitus which he sought treatments regarding.
Career.
Ven Kwang Sheng has been the president of the Singapore Buddhist Federation since 2006, and is the sixth abbot of Kong Meng San Phor Kark See Monastery since 2004. He helmed KMSPKS since 1995 as its chief administrator, and founded the Buddhist College of Singapore in 2005. Past appointments include the president of the Inter-Religious Organisation in Singapore, the chairman of the Maha Bodhi School Management Committee, Manjusri Secondary School Management Committee and the Mee Toh School Management Committee. Some other entities that he sits on with honorary appointments include Singapore Buddhist Free Clinic, Bright Hill Evergreen Home which is named after Kong Meng San Phor Kark See Monastery
He was awarded an honorary doctorate degree in educational administration on 1 May 2011 by Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University of Thailand in recognition of his outstanding contributions towards Buddhism.
Venerable Kwang Sheng is also an avid Buddhist musician and has co-produced several bestselling albums such as "Reverence", "Buddha Smiles", "Collection of Buddhist Songs" and "Om Mani Padme Hum".
In 2014, Kwang Sheng became the first non-Muslim religious leader in Singapore to make a donation to the Aid to Syrian Refugees in Turkey (Asrit) initiative.


Recruiting for Jihad

Recruiting for Jihad is a 2017 documentary film offering a close-up look at Ubaydullah Hussain, the Norwegian former spokesperson of the Salafi-jihadist group Profetens Ummah. For a three-year period, directors/journalists Adel Khan Farooq and Ulrik Imtiaz Rolfsen film Hussain's everyday activities promoting Jihadism until Norwegian authorities suddenly arrest him for providing material support of terrorism by recruiting for ISIS.
The documentary takes a turn as the Norwegian Police Security Service seize the footage from the documentary as evidence. The filmmakers has to fight to protect the rights of independent journalists to pursue news stories in the public interest while protecting confidential sources. Several Norwegian press associations reacted, claiming protection of journalistic sources. Supported by The Association of Norwegian Editors, Rolfsen challenged the PST, but lost in two lower levels of the Norwegian judicial system, before winning the case in The Supreme Court of Norway in November 2015. On April 4, 2016 this verdict was awarded the Columbia Global Freedom of Expression Prize in 2015.
The documentary was planned to air in 2015, but due to the seizure and subsequent trial Rolfsen was forced to halt the production. The film was released April 5, 2017 on NRK (Norwegian Broadcast Corporation).
US premiere on Sundance Now, AMC Networks' premium streaming service, on April 19 2018 as part of five original documentaries, curated as part of its TAKE 5: The Shadow of ISIS collection.


Karya Siddhi Hanuman Temple

Karya Siddhi Hanuman Temple is a Hindu temple in Frisco, Texas. Its one of the biggest temples in the area. It is one of two Hindu temples in Frisco, the other being Hindu Temple of Frisco.
History.
Construction on the temple started around 2007 for Hindus in the Dallas-Fort Worth area and completed in 2009. The main deity of the temple is Hanuman. The temple opened on July 23, 2015 and a week later, on August 1, KSH Temple set the world record for the longest continuous chanting with over 24 hours of recitation of Hanuman Chalisa. The Chant was led by Sri Ganapathy Sachchidananda Swamiji and was his 3rd world record. The temple is open all days of the week.
Facilities.
KSH Temple cost $11 million dollars and regularly offers worship services along with classed in Yoga, Carnatic Music, Indian Dancing and Indian Chanting as well as classes on Hinduism. The Temple also offers language learning classes for Hindi, Marathi, Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Gujarati. The Temple also has a prayer hall, a cafeteria, a dining hall, an auditorium and a stage. The Temple's most notable feature is its 72 foot tall "rajagopuram", a tower designed to allow sunlight to pass through from one end to the other.


Sidney Nowell Rostron

Sidney Nowell Rostron (10 August 1883 – 17 March 1948) was a Church of England priest, theologian, and academic. He was the first Principal of St John's College, Durham, serving from 1909 to 1911. He then returned to parish ministry and was vicar of a number of parishes. During World War I, he served with the Army Chaplains' Department as a military chaplain. From 1928 to 1942, he was additionally Whitehead Professor of Pastoralia at the London College of Divinity.
Early life.
Sidney Nowell Rostron was born on 10 August 1883 in Douglas, Isle of Man. His father was the Reverend I. Rostron, a vicar. Sidney would later add his middle name to his surname to be known as Nowell-Rostron. He was educated at Liverpool College, then an all-boys public school in Liverpool, England. Having won a scholarship as the Sizer Exhibitioner, he matriculated into St John's College, Cambridge in 1903 to study the Theological Tripos. He graduated from the University of Cambridge in 1905 with a first class Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree; as per tradition, in 1909 his BA was promoted to a Master of Arts (MA (Cantab)) degree.
In 1905, Nowell Rostron was selected to become that year's Naden Divinity Student at St John's College. This is a scholarship that funds a year of post-graduate research in divinity. He was awarded the Hulsean Prize for an essay written in 1906. From 1905 to 1906, he also trained for ordained ministry at Ridley Hall, Cambridge, an Evangelical Anglican theological college.
Ordained ministry.
Early ministry.
Nowell Rostron was ordained in the Church of England as a deacon in 1906 and as a priest in 1907; both times by Edmund Knox, the then Bishop of Manchester. From 1906 to 1909, he served his curacy at the Church of St George, Hulme, Manchester. During this time, he was also a lecturer at the Scholae Episcopi, a short-lived theological college in Manchester. In 1909, he was chosen as the first Principal of St John's Hall; a Church of England theological college and a new college of Durham University. During his headship of the college, he also held permission to officiate in the Diocese of Durham. In 1912, he left Durham to become Vicar of St Lawrence, Kirkdale, Liverpool. In 1914, he moved once again and became Vicar of St Andrew's Church, Maghull, Liverpool.
Military service.
Nowell Rostron temporarily left his parish post to serve as a military chaplain during World War I. On 25 April 1916, he was commissioned into the Army Chaplains' Department as a temporary Chaplain to the Forces 4th Class (equivalent in rank to a captain). He spent 12 months serving on the Western Front in France. On 14 December 1918, he was made an Honorary Chaplain to the Forces 4th Class. He received two medals for his service: the British War Medal and the Victory Medal.
Later ministry.
In March 1918, Nowell Rostron was appointed Secretary of the British and Foreign Bible Society. He held that appointment for a four-year term. In 1922, he became Vicar of St Matthew's, Bayswater. In 1928 or 1930, he joined the London College of Divinity as Whitehead Professor of Pastoralia; he held this academic position in addition to his parish ministry. In 1933, he moved to Berkshire where he had been appointed Rector of Bradfield.
In 1935, Nowell Rostron returned to London where he became Vicar of Paddington and a chaplain to St Mary's Hospital. In August 1941, he was appointed Vicar of St Stephen's Church, Lansdown in Bath, Somerset, and he left London to take up the post in the October. He finally stepped down as Whitehead Professor in 1942. From 1944 until his death in 1948, he was Rector of Marston Moreteyne in Bedfordshire.
Personal life.
Nowell Rostron was married to Ellen Vivian ("née" Davies) who was from Port Elizabeth, South Africa.
Nowell Rostron died on 17 March 1948 at the Rectory of Marston Moreteyne; he was aged 64.


Muslim Executive of Belgium

The Muslim Executive of Belgium (; ) is the official Muslim interlocutor of the Belgian federal government for the implementation of the July 19, 1974 law recognizing Islam as one of the subsidized religious or secular communities in Belgium according to the law of March 4, 1870.
It was set up by a royal decree on July 3, 1996. The group is close to Moroccan officialdom.
In 2018, the Great Mosque of Brussels came under the control of the Muslim Executive of Belgium after the Belgian government terminated the concession of Saudi Arabia.


Satguru Uday Singh

Shri Uday Singh Ji (Punjabi: ਸ਼੍ਰੀ ਉਦੈ ਸਿੰਘ ਜੀ) is the current spiritual leader of the Namdhari community and is headquartered at Takht Sri Bhaini Sahib, Ludhiana.
Life and background.
Shri Satguru Uday Singh Ji is the nephew of the current head Satguru Jagjit Singh Ji and declared himself the current leader in 2012 .
In 2013, Singh travelled to the UK to meet his British devotees and was attacked by an extremist with an axe. His attacker was jailed for 17 years.
In 2015, Singh was doing a world tour to meet members of his global community and included a trip to Ireland.
In 2016, the Namdhari leader was given permission to bullet proof 3 of his cars and was accorded Z-plus security from the Indian government after the murder of the Namdhari matriarch Mata Chand Kaur Ji and a bomb blast in Jalandhar.
In 2018, he inaugurated a new old age home in Patiala.
In 2020 he encouraged Indians to remain at home amidst the COVID-19 pandemic.
Celebration of 550th Birth Anniversary of Guru Nanak Dev Ji.
In 2019, the Namdhari leader organised a special nagar kirtan to commemorate the 550th birth anniversary of Guru Nanak Dev JI in Sultanpur Lodhi.


Eyre Hutson (priest)

 Eyre Hutson (1830–1915) was an Anglican priest: most notably Archdeacon of the Virgin Islands from 1885 until his death.
He was born in Barbados on 6 September 1830. He was educated at Codrington College and ordained in 1855. After curacies in Trinidad and Barbados he was Chaplain to the Bishop of Antigua from 1879 until his appointment as Archdeacon with the Rectory of All Saint's, Danish West Indies.
His son Edward was Bishop of Antigua from 1911 until 1936; and Archbishop of the West Indies from 1922. Another son Eyre was Governor of British Honduras 1918 to 1925. A third son John Hutson was President of the Legislative Council of Barbados. His daughter Susan was the mother of grandson Archdeacon of Antigua from 1906 until 1921.


Protestant Church of Maluku

The Protestant Church of Maluku is a Reformed church in Indonesia. It is known locally as: Gereja Protestan Maluku or simply GPM. It was formed on September 6, 1935 when it was separated from the Protestant Church in Indonesia.
The Protestant Church of Maluku has congregations only in the provinces of Maluku and North Maluku.
Church leadership.
Current Church leaders.
GPM Synod Daily Worker Assembly for the 2020-2025 Period :
Leader: Pdt. Drs. Elifas Tomix Maspaitella.
Co-Leader 1: Pdt. Ny. L. Bakarbessy-Rangkoratat S.Th
Co-Leader 2: Pdt. H. I. Hetharie
General Secretary: Pdt. S.I. Sapulette
Deputy General Secretary: Pdt. R. Rahabeat
Member of MPH:
• Pdt. Y. Colling
• Pdt. N. Souisa-G
• Pnt. Ny. D. Sahertian
• Pnt. F. Papilaya
Note :
Previous Church leaders.
1935–1938
1938–1940
1940–1942
1942–1943 (Zaman Pendudukan Jepang)
1943–1946
1946 (Transisi di Zaman Kemerdekaan RI)
1946–1947
1947–1948
1948–1949
1949
Sek. : Pdt. P. Souhuwat
Bend. : Pdt. M.F. Syauta
1949–1950 (Persoalan RMS dan Sikap Sinode GPM)
1953–1957
1957–1961 (dikeluarkan Pesan Tobat - 1960)
1965–1970 (Reorganisasi Struktur dan Kepemimpinan GPM (I))
1970–1974
Visitator : Pdt. M.J. Wattimena, S.Th
1974–1976
Visitator : Pdt. F.C.Lewier, M.Th
1976–1978
Visitator : Pdt. D. Louhenapessy
1978–1983 (Reorganisasi Struktur dan Kepemimpinan GPM (II))
Visitator : Pdt. E.P. Kaihena, S.Th
Pdt. M. Alfons
Drs. A. Rahalus
Staff BPH Sinode GPM:
Sek. Dep.Kekes : Pdt. E.P. Kaihena, S.Th (merangkap)
Sek.Dep.Pelpem : Pdt. J. Ospara, S.Th
Sek.Dep.Finek : Bpk. L. A. Tahalele
Dir. LPJ GPM : Pdt. F.C. Lewier, M.Th (merangkap)
1983–1985
Visitator : Pdt. D. Lohenapessy
Pdt. W. Davidz, M.Th
Pdt. L. Lohy, S.Th
Staff BPH Sinode GPM:
Pdt. W. Davidz, M.Th (Pjs)
Pdt. Ny. A. Maail (Pjs)
1986–1990
 Pdt. L. Lohy, S.Th (Pjs)
Visitator : Pdt. M.J. Wattimena, S.Th
 Pdt. W. Davidz, M.Th
 Pdt. L. Lohy, S.Th
Staff BPH Sinode GPM:
1990–1995 (Reorganisasi Struktur dan Kepemimpinan GPM (III))
Anggota : Pdt. M.J. Wattimena, M.Th
 Pdt. J. de Queljoe, S.Th
 Pnt. Drs. G. Sabono
Staff BPH Sinode GPM:
1995–2000
Anggota : Pdt. W. Davidz, M.Th
 Pdt. Ny.A. Maail
 Pnt. I.M. Pesireron
Staff BPH Sinode GPM:
 Pdt. W. Homy, Sm.Th (pengganti)
 Pdt. J. Tuhumena, S.Th (pengganti)
2000–2005
Anggota : Pdt. M.M. Siahaya, S.Th
 Pdt. Ny. J. Komul-Pattiasina, S.Th
 Pnt. Drs. J. Labetubun
Staff BPH Sinode GPM:
2005–2010 (terjadi Sentralisasi Keuangan GPM 70:30%, Hasil Keputusan BPL ke-31 Tahun 2008 di Tual)
Anggota : Pdt. A. Orno, S.Si
 Pnt. J. de Queljoe, S.Th
 Pnt. Ir. Ny. M. Soukotta, M.Sc
Staff BPH Sinode GPM:
 Pdt. N. Taberima, S.Th (penggantian)
Annual Church meeting.
Every year the church has an annual meeting (Sidang MPL) where plans are made for the next following year. This meeting usually happens in November of each year.
Location of annual meeting:
Every five years at the big church meeting (Sidang Raya MPL) new board members are chosen.
Each board member can serve for a maximum of two consecutive terms. This meeting is always in Ambon.
The church currently has 575,000 members and 775 congregations, with over 750 pastors in 33 church districts throughout Maluku and part of North Maluku.


Sinan ibn Salamah ibn Mohbik

Sinan Bin Salamah bin Mohbik () (8/628-53AH/673AD) born on the day of conquest of Makkah.
Biography.
Salama, his father prepared to leave for the war of Hunain and heard the news of his birth, he compelled to put off his expedition but later expressed these words:
Muhammad prayed for Sinan when he was taken to him. He as usual put his Lughab in his mouth. He also touched his face with blessing hands. He named him Sinan with subject to his father's words.
Sinan was a child he was habitual to collect the scattered dates in the garden. The day he was busy to collect the dates along with other children, the Caliph Umar happened to come there. The children went away within no time but Sinan remained still at that place and did not moved to go. The Caliph came near and inquired of him but he responded in a manner which moved the Caliph to love and help him to reach home safe and sound.
Battle.
Sinan Bin Salamah bin Mohbik sent two times as a governor of Sind (modern-day Pakistan) during 42 and 48AH(664,670AD) at the time of Amir Muawiyah I (41-60H/663-81AD).


Episcopal Diocese of Central Ecuador

The Episcopal Diocese of Central Ecuador () is a missionary church of the Anglican Communion for the interior region of Ecuador with headquarters in Quito. It forms part of Province IX of the Episcopal Church. The current acting bishop is Victor Scantlebury.


Emil Bachrach

Emanuel Maurice "Emil" Bachrach (4 July 1874 – 28 September 1937) was a Russian Jewish-born American entrepreneur and philanthropist in the Philippines.
Career.
Emil arrived in the United States from Russia at the age of 18. Soon after, in 1901, he moved to Manila with around 850 US dollars and started a successful furniture company. Later Emil secured a franchise from Ford Motor Company and started Bachrach Motors Inc, and later still, the Philippine Air Taxi Co (PATCO) in 1930. PATCO was bought by Andrés Soriano in 1939 and two years later merged into Philippine Airlines (PAL), which inherited its license to operate as an airliner. Emil Bachrach was a philanthropist, who supported both Jewish and Christian causes and accommodated Jews fleeing from Nazi Germany. He was a major contributor to the building of the Jewish Temple Emil Synagogue.
Bachrach met Mary McDonald in 1916, who was another American expatriate who owned and managed landmark hotels in Baguio, such as the Nevada Hotel and Pines Hotel, as well as Delmonico Hotel in Manila. After a short courtship the two married, and Mary not only became a loving wife to Bachrach, but also became an invaluable business partner. Emil and Mary were close to her sister Annie's daughter, Minna Levine. Minna's father was Hyman M. Levine. would later marry another influential White Russian immigrant Bernard Gaberman. They had two children Mari Gaberman and Earl "Butch" Gaberman.
Bachrach was also instrumental in the establishment of the Commonwealth's Bureau of Aeronautics which would be the precursor of the Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines, as he was appointed by the Governor-General Dwight F. Davis as a member of a committee which studied the potential for civil aviation around the archipelago. The committee recommended the creation of the Bureau under the Department of Commerce and Industry, the adaption of United States air traffic regulations, and the establishment of airports and airfields around the country.
During World War II, the widow of Bachrach, Mary McDonald, had to surrender their residence "Casa Blanca" or also known as the "Bachrach Mansion" along Manga Ave., cor Buenos Aires St., in Santa Mesa, Manila, as it was commandeered by Gen. Tomoyuki Yamashita upon his assignment in the Philippines in October 1944. After the Battle of Manila Gen. Douglas MacArthur and his family took up residence in the said mansion. After the war, Mary Bachrach moved to the United States, and the mansion was acquired by Club Filipino and was inaugurated by President Ramon Magsaysay on September 21, 1956.


Religion in Maharashtra

Religion in Maharashtra is characterized by the diversity of religious beliefs and practices. Maharashtra possesses six of the world's major religions; namely Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity, and Sikhism.
According to the 2011 census, Hinduism was the principal religion in the state at 79.83% of the total population, while Muslims constituted 11.54% of the total population. Maharashtra has the India's largest Buddhist and Jain populations. Buddhism accounted for 6% in Maharashtra's total population, with 6.53 million followers, which is 77% of all Buddhists in India. Jains, Christians and Sikhs constituted 1.2%, 1.0%, 0.2% of the population respectively.
Hinduism.
Hindus form 79.83% of the state's total population as per 2011 census and Hinduism plays an important role in the lives of the Maharashtrian people in their day-to-day life. Ganesh, Vitthal, other incarnations of Vishnu such as Ramchandra and Krishna, Maruti, Dattatreya, and Shiva Family deities such as Shankar and Parvati are deities popular with Hindus of Maharashtra. The varkari tradition holds a strong grip on the local Hindus of Maharashtra. The public Ganesh festival started by Lokmanya Tilak in the late 19th century is very popular. Marathi Hindus also revere Bhakti saints associated with varkari sects such as Dnyaneshwar, Savata Mali, Tukaram, Namdev, Janabaii and Chokhamela. Many religious figures from 19th and 20th century are revered.They include Swami Samarth, Gajanan Maharaj, Sai baba of Shirdi, Tukdoji Maharaj, Gondavalekar Maharaj, and Gadge Maharaj.
Maharashtra has significant Hindu populations with origins in other states and regions of India, which adds to the diversity of temples and traditions in the state. The state has numerous recently built temples by groups such as the Swaminarayan sect, ISKON, and South Indian communities.
Ceremonies, rituals, and festivals of Marathi Hindus.
The main life ceremonies in Hindu culture include those related to birth, weddings, initiation ceremonies, as well as death rituals. Other ceremonies for different occasions in Hindu life include "Vastushanti" and "Satyanarayan" which is performed before a family formally establishes residence in a new house. Satyanarayana Puja is a ceremony performed before commencing any new endeavour or for no particular reason. Invoking the name of the family's gotra and the "kula daivat" are important aspects of these ceremonies for many communities.
Like most other Hindu communities, the Marathi people have a household shrine called a "devaghar" with idols, symbols, and pictures of various deities for daily worship. Ritual reading of religious texts known as "pothi" is also popular in some communities.
In some traditional families, food is first offered to the preferred deity in the household shrine, as "naivedya", before being consumed by family members and guests. Meals or snacks are not taken before this religious offering. In present times, the naivedya is offered by families only on days of special religious significance.
Many Marathi people trace their paternal ancestors to one of the seven or eight sages, the saptarshi. They classify themselves as gotras, named after the ancestor rishi. Intra-marriage within gotras (Sagotra Vivaha) was uncommon until recently, being discouraged as it was likened to incest.
Most Marathi families have their own family patron or protective deity or the "Kuladaivat". This deity is common to a lineage or a clan of several families who are connected to each other through a common ancestor. The Khandoba of Jejuri is an example of a Kuladaivat of some families; he is a common Kuladaivat to several castes ranging from Brahmins to Dalits. The practice of worshiping local or territorial deities as Kuladaivats began in the period of the Yadava dynasty. Other family deities of the people of Maharashtra are Bhavani of Tuljapur, Mahalaxmi of Kolhapur, Mahalaxmi of Amravati, Renuka of Mahur, Parashuram in Konkan, Saptashringi on Saptashringa hill at Vani in Nasik district, and Balaji.
At birth, a child is initiated into the family ritually. The child's naming ceremony may happen many weeks or even months later, and it is called the "barsa". During the naming ceremony, the child's paternal aunt has the honor of naming the infant. When the child is 11 months old, they get their first hair-cut. This is also an important ritual and is called "Jawal". In the Maratha community, the maternal uncle is given the honour of the first snip during the ceremony.
In Brahman, CKP and Gaud Saraswat Brahman communities when a male child reaches his eighth birthday, he undergoes the initiation thread ceremony variously known as Munja "Vratabandha", or Upanayanam. 96 kuli marathas generally conduct the Upanayanam ceremony before marriage.
Marathi Hindu people are historically endogamous within their caste but exogamous with their clan.Cross-cousin alliances are allowed by most Marathi Hindu communities. Hindu marriages, take place by negotiation. The Mangalsutra is the symbol of marriage for the woman. Studies show that most Indians' traditional views on caste, religion, and family background have remained unchanged when it came to marriage, that is, people marry within their own castes, and matrimonial advertisements in newspapers are still classified by caste and sub-caste.
Elements of a traditional Marathi Hindu wedding ceremony include "seemant poojan" on the wedding eve. The "dharmic" wedding includes the "antarpat" ceremony followed by the vedic ceremony which involves the bridegroom and the bride walking around the sacred fire seven times to complete the marriage. Modern urban wedding ceremonies conclude with an evening reception. A Marathi Hindu woman becomes part of her husband's family after marriage and adopts the gotra as well as the traditions of her husband's family. After weddings and after thread ceremonies, many Maratha and Deshastha Brahmin families arrange a traditional religious singing performance by a Gondali group
Marathi Hindu people dispose their dead by cremation. The ashes are gathered in an earthen pitcher and immersed in a river on the third day after death. This is a 13-day ritual with the "pinda" being offered to the dead soul on the 11th and a "Śrāddha" ceremony followed by a funeral feast on the 13th. Cremation is performed according to vedic rites, usually within a day of the individual's death. "Śrāddha" becomes an annual ritual in which all forefathers of the family who have passed on are remembered.
Hindu Marathi people celebrate several festivals during the year.These include Gudi Padwa, Ram Navami, Hanuman Jayanti, Narali Pournima, Mangala Gaur, Navaratri, Janmashtami, Ganeshotsav, Kojagiri, Diwali, Khandoba Festival (Champa Shashthi), Makar Sankranti, Shivaratri, Holi, RakshaBandhan and Shiv Jayanti. Most villages in Maharashtra also have a Jatra or Urus in honor of the village deity.Most of these festivals are also celebrated by Hindu communities in the state who have origins in other regions of India.
Syncretic traditions.
Maharashtra has shrines dedicated to saints and holy men all over the state that are revered by both Hindus and Muslims. The Naunaths of Hindus have counterparts among Muslims too. The shrine of Kanifnath is visited by both Hindus and Muslims. In modern times, Sai Baba of Shirdi has been embodied this syncretic tradition.
Islam.
Islam is the second largest religion in the state, with 12,967,840 adherents comprising 11.54% of the population, per estimates.The Muslim population in the state is heterogeneous.The majority of Muslims are mostly Sunni Muslims. The population in the state is highly urbanised, and spread across different regions.The urban character of the community in Maharashtra can be seen from the fact that Mumbai, the capital city of Maharashtra, is approximately 18.8% Muslim per the Census. Mumbai, the capital city of the state, has approximately over 3 million Muslims, and the Muslim population of Mumbai is the city with a large Muslim population among any city outside Muslim-majority countries. Similarly, Nagpur, the second capital of Maharashtra, has population that is 11% Muslim. In Aurangabad City, Muslims form 30.79% of the population, while in the northern city of Malegaon, Muslims are 79% of the population. Eid-ul-Fitr (Ramzan Eid) and Eid-ul-Azha (Bakari Eid) are the two most important Muslim festivals in the state.
Buddhism.
Buddhism is the third largest religion in the state. Buddhism accounts 5.81% in Maharashtra's total population. 6,531,200 people are followers of Buddhism in Maharashtra as per 2011 census. Maharashtra account for 77.36% of all Buddhists in India. Marathi Buddhists are followers of Navayana Buddhism of the Dalit Buddhist movement, a 20th-century Buddhist revival movement in India that received its most substantial impetus from Babasaheb Ambedkar born in Hindu Mahar family who called for the conversion of Dalits to Buddhism to escape a caste-based society that considered them to be the lowest in the hierarchy.
Jainism.
Jains are a major group in Maharashtra. Jain community census for 2011 in Maharashtra area was 1,400,349 (1.25%). They are mostly concentrated in the urban cities in Western Maharashtra.
The vast majority of Jains in Maharashtra originate from the Marwad and Mewad regions of Rajasthan and from the state of Gujarat. There are also indigenous Marathi Jain communities such as Saitwal, Chaturtha, Panchama & Kumbhoja found in Maharashtra. Rulers of Maharashtra from the 1st millennium CE such as Rashtrakuta and the Chalukya were followers of Jain religion. Along with Hindu and Buddhist caves, there are a number of Jain caves at the ancient cave complex of Ellora.
Christianity.
Christians account for 1,080,073 or 0.96% of Maharashtra's population. Most of the Christians are Catholics and Protestants. There are also Goan, Mangalorean, Keralite and Tamilian Christians in the urban pockets of Mumbai and Pune.
There are two ethnic Christian communities in Maharashtra:
Sikhism.
There is a sizeable Sikh population in Maharashtra, with the 2011 census indicating 223,247 or 0.20% adherents. Major cities in the state such as Mumbai, Pune, Nagpur, Nashik and Aurangabad have significant Sikh populations. Nanded, the second largest city in the Marathwada region (after Aurangabad), is an important holy place for the Sikh faith and is famous for the Hazur Sahib Gurudwara. Hazūr Sāhib ("presence of the master"), also spelled Hazoor Sahib, is one of the five takhts (seats of temporal authority) in Sikhism. Located on the banks of the River Godavari, it is where the 10th Guru, Gobind Singh died. The Gurudwara within the complex is known Sach-Khand, "Realm of Truth".
At a stone-throw distance from the Hazoor Sahib Gurudwara, there lies the Langar Sahib Gurudwara which is very famous for its grand Langar.
In all the city has 13 major Gurudwaras with historic significance.
There is a significant Sikh population in Mumbai, Pune, Nagpur, Nashik and Aurangabad.
Zoroastrians.
There are two Zoroastrian communities in Maharashtra.
Judaism.
The Bene Israel ("Sons of Israel") are a community of Marathi Jews originally from villages in the Konkan region. who migrated in the late 17th century to the nearby cities, primarily Mumbai, but also to Pune, and Ahmedabad. Prior to these waves of emigrations and to this day, the Bene Israel formed the largest sector of the subcontinent's Jewish population. The native language of the Bene Israel is Marathi. Most Bene Israel have now emigrated to Israel, Canada and other Commonwealth countries. Before the Indian Independence this community numbered at least 80,000.


Islam in Tunisia

Islam is the official state religion in Tunisia. According to CIA, 99.1% of its adherents are Sunni Muslims. The constitution of Tunisia states that the country's “religion is Islam”, the government is the “guardian of religion”, and requires that the president be Muslim. The predominant madhhab in the country is the Maliki school.
Overview.
Majority Muslims in Tunisia nominally belonging to the Sunni Malikite madhhab, but a small number of Ibadhi Muslims (Kharijites) still exist among the Berber-speakers of Jerba Island. There is no reliable data on the number of practicing Muslims. There is a Sufi Muslim community, but no statistics regarding their size, as they are considered Sunnis. Reliable sources report that many Sufis left the country shortly after independence when their religious buildings and land reverted to the Government. Although the Sufi community is small, its tradition of mysticism permeates the practice of Islam throughout the country. During annual Ramadan festivals, Sufis provide public cultural entertainment by performing religious dances.
Government and Islam.
The January 2014 Constitution states the country's “religion is Islam.” It designates the government as the “guardian of religion” and requires that the president be Muslim. The constitution guarantees freedom of belief, conscience, and exercise of religious practices, and the neutrality of mosques and houses of worship from partisan exploitation. It stipulates the state's commitment to disseminate the values of moderation and tolerance, protect holy sites, and prevent "takfir" (Muslim accusations of apostasy against other Muslims). The constitution admits the possibility of restrictions on religious freedom, giving general reasons for this as protecting the rights of third parties, national defense, and public security, morality, and health.
The government controls and subsidizes mosques and pays the salaries of prayer leaders. The President appoints the Grand Mufti of the Republic.
Four religious holidays are included among the national holidays in Tunisia: Eid al-Adha, Eid al-Fitr, Muharram, and Mawlid.
Islamic religious education is mandatory in public schools, but the religious curriculum for secondary school students also includes the history of Judaism and Christianity from the Islamic perspective and sources. The Zeitouna Koranic School is part of the Government's national university system.
Generally, Shari'a-based interpretation of civil law is applied only in some family cases. Some families avoid the effects of Shari'a on inheritance by executing sales contracts between parents and children to ensure that sons and daughters receive equal shares of property.
According to the US State Department's International Religious Freedom Report, there have been some reports as of 2004 that the married interfaith couples to register the birth of their children and receive birth certificates if the mother was Christian and the father was Muslim and the parents tried to give their children non-Muslim names.
History.
The area that is now Tunisia came under the rule of Islam during the Umayyad Caliphate, (661–750/A.H.).
The Umayyads founded the first Islamic city in North Africa, Kairouan where in 670 AD that the Mosque of Uqba, or the Great Mosque of Kairouan, was constructed;. This mosque is the oldest and most prestigious sanctuary in the Muslim West with the oldest standing minaret in the world; it is also considered a masterpiece of Islamic art and architecture. Zitouna mosque-university, was created around 703 AD, and became the center of Tunisia's Islamic scholarship and preaching.
The Muslim Arab governors of Tunis founded the Aghlabid Dynasty, which ruled Tunisia, Tripolitania and eastern Algeria from 800 to 909. Its capital Kairuan became the most important centre of learning in the Maghreb, most notably in the field of Theology and Law.
1800–2011.
Tunisia was influenced more heavily by Europe during the colonial era (it was a French protectorate and in 1945 had 144,000 colonialists living in it) and is considered the most westernized of Muslim North African states. Its first president, Habib Bourguiba, was committed to secularism,
and dismantled University of Ez-Zitouna, replacing it with a faculty of Shari`a and Theology attached to the Tunis University in 1958.
A Personal Status Code made law in 1956 prohibited polygamy, raised the age of marriage for girls to 17 years of age, made it easier for women to get a divorce, and banned forced marriages for minor girls. He also named a Grand Mufti of the Republic.
His successor, Zine El Abidine Ben Ali (1987–2011), created a Higher Islamic Council. He required that imams of mosques be appointed by the Ministry of Religious Affairs. The ministry often appointed members of the ruling Democratic Constitutional Rally party, which also controlled the content of prayer services. A law passed in 1988 forbid all activities and meetings in mosques by people other than those appointed by the state.
In 2004, the US State Department reported that people were sometimes interrogated just for associating or being seen in the street with practising Muslims. The government allowed the construction of mosques provided they were built in accordance with national urban planning regulations, but upon completion, they became the property of the Government. There were also frequent reports that police sometimes harassed or detained men with beards whom the Government suspected because of their "Islamic" appearance.
After the revolution.
The fall of the Ben Ali regime has loosened religion repression and brought more religious conservatism, and sometimes more extremism. The 1988 law banning non-state approved activities and meetings at mosques was discontinued allowing much longer hours of operation.
For some months after Ben Ali's overthrow in the 2010–2011 Tunisian Revolution, many of the imams his regime had appointed were replaced, "often by violent Islamists", accused of having collaborated with the old regime. By October 2011, the Ministry of Religious Affairs announced that it had lost control of about 400 mosques. (Another indication of the ascendance of conservative Islam was the large plurality the Islamist Ennahda party won in the 2011 Constituent Assembly election.)
In March 2013, the minister of religious affairs at the time, Nourredine Khademi, called upon Tunisians to fight jihad in Syria. As of early 2015 about 3,000 Tunisians are believed to have gone to fight in Syria. Calls came for legalization of polygamy, from Commission for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice A new mufti appointed in 2013, (Hamda Saïd) was known to have supported polygamous marriage.
In August 2013, the Tunisian government declared Ansar al-Shari`a an illegal terrorist organization following its alleged involvement in the political assassinations of secularist politicians Chokri Belaid and Mohamed Brahmi in 2013.
Following an Islamist attack on July 16, 2014 killing 12 army soldiers, the prime minister's office created a “crisis unit” to coordinate efforts to combat terrorism. Shortly thereafter, the ministry closed two religious radio stations and one television channel it accused of spreading hate speech and advocating violence, and 157 associations—mostly Islamic—because of alleged links with terrorism and incitement to violence. (Human Rights Watch called these suspensions disproportionate and arbitrary.) Islamist Attacks on tourists (over 60 civilians, mostly tourists, were killed in 2015 by jihadis), devastating Tunisia's tourist industry.
In December 2014 the Ministry of Religious Affairs announced it had re-asserted state control over all mosques in Tunisia and in cooperation with civil society organizations, trained imams in moderate discourse when delivering sermons. But, at least as of 2014, the content of prayer services is not controlled by government authorities.
In 2017 a handful of men were arrested for eating in public during Ramadan, they were convicted of committing “a provocative act of public indecency” and sentenced to month-long jail sentences. The state in Tunisia has a role as a "guardian of religion" which was used to justify the arrests.
Since 2017, Tunisian Muslim women can legally and officially marry non-Muslim men.


Cashibo (mission)

Cashibo is a missionary base in the jungle of Peru, located near the city of Pucallpa. The name "Cashibo" is used both for the bases of the Swiss mission "Indicamino" and the base of the "South American Mission", which are located about 5 kilometers apart.
The part of Cashibo that is referred to as the Swiss Mission is a base of "Indicamino" about 3 kilometers away from the main road, the Carretera Federico Basadre, which leads from Pucallpa to Lima. "Indicamino" is an Evangelical Mission that has worked for fifty years in Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia. The people working there are mostly European (Swiss and German), but there are also several Peruvian workers. The main goal of the Swiss Mission is to teach the Bible to different students from all over Peru, so that they can teach the Gospel to their own people. But at the base of the Swiss Mission natives can also get an education in the areas of carpentry, cattle breeding, and mechanics.


Pacific Adventist University

Pacific Adventist University (PAU) is a tertiary institution located 21 kilometres (30 minutes) outside Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea, and operated by the South Pacific Division of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. Both the faculty and the student body are international in composition. While most students come from Papua New Guinea and other Pacific island nations such as Tonga, Fiji, Samoa, Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands, others have come from Africa, Australia, Pakistan, China, the Philippines, and the United States.
It is a part of the Seventh-day Adventist education system, the world's second largest Christian school system.
Campus.
The campus is also known as a bird sanctuary. One species of bird at the campus is unique to this area of the world. Mike Tarburton, who is also known as the "bird man" had stayed there and carefully monitored the bird life. He has now transferred to Australia for retirement, and his work has been taken up by his students. The campus is often visited by bird watchers from all over the world.
The university is also home to the Koiari Park Adventist Church, the services of which are conducted in English. There is also a second church in which services are conducted in Tok Pisin. The senior church Pastor is currently Pr Lucas Marley, who is himself a graduate of P.A.U.
Farming.
PAU is home to Port Moresby city's fresh produce. Every Sunday morning as early as 5 am, city residents queue up to bag their portion for the week. Many expatriates, business houses and the well-to-do in the city enjoy the fresh vegetables and fruits, and paid breakfast is also served by residents while the market runs its course. Thus, PAU enjoys a good portion of financial economical benefit apart from the appropriations from its church and the fees.
History.
The institution was established as Pacific Adventist College, a college of higher education, in 1983 and given a charter as a university by the Papua New Guinea government in 1997. Currently the school offers bachelor's and (some) master's degrees in Business, Education, Science, Health Science (Nursing), Theology and Humanities.
Academic divisions.
The university is divided into the following schools:
Publications.
A Pacific Adventist University Monograph Series has begun publication with faculty member Jennifer Jones' study of Seventh-day Adventist Church music in Papua New Guinea. This volume was co-published by the Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies.
At the twenty-fifth anniversary of founding of the University (August 2009) a new electronic journal was launched called "Davaria: Journal of Pacific Adventist University." "At the same time the university launched a further communication venture when it set up a Community Radio Station—Radio 2G; 97.9 FM"


Islam in Cyprus

Islam was introduced to Cyprus when the island finally fell to Ottoman conquerors in 1571. Prior to this, the Muslim presence on the island was itinerant. Conversion to Islam was not compulsory but the majority of the Catholic Latin population of the island, along with a smaller subsection of the Greek Orthodox population, converted to Islam for preferential tax status–as dictated by the Ottoman millet system. This tax system required a small payment and in return the citizens received protection from the state as well as other benefits.
Before the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974, the Turkish Cypriots (the Muslim community of Cyprus) made up 18% of the island's population and lived throughout the island. Today, most of the estimated 264,172 Muslims are based in the north of the island. Turkish Cypriot society is markedly secular though, at least formally; adherents to the faith subscribe mostly to the Sunni branch, with an influential stream of Sufism underlying their spiritual heritage and development. Nazim al-Qubrusi, the leader of the Naqshbandi-Haqqani order, hailed from Larnaca and lived in Lefka. Another branch among the Turkish Cypriot Muslims is the Alevism. There are a few Ahmadi Muslims in Turkish Cypriot.
History.
Islam came to Cyprus early on in the Arab conquests though a permanent presence only followed the Ottoman conquest in 1571.
It is rumored that an aunt of Muhammad, Umm Haram, had accompanied one of the early Arab expeditions to the island. She died during the expedition and was buried at the present Hala Sultan Tekke monument.
Since the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974, the Muslim population in the north of the island has been bolstered by settlers from Turkey who are almost exclusively Sunni Muslims. The status of these settlers is disputed under international law and specifically the prohibition, under the Geneva Convention, on the cross-border transfer of populations by states aiming to engineer changes in the demographic make-up of other states.
The segregation of Cypriot Turks and Greeks has effected that most of the Muslims in the territory controlled by the Republic of Cyprus are Arab immigrants and refugees, unrelated to the Turks historically living in the area.
Important landmarks.
Several important Islamic shrines and landmarks exist on the island including:


Dansalan Declaration

The Dansalan Declaration was published by Philippine Muslims on March 18, 1935 requesting not to be included in the Philippines and be granted separate independence by the United States.
The declaration was prepared by Didato Amai Manabilang and one hundred twenty datus of Lanao, with 30 sultans who signed a strongly worded letter, popularly known as "Dansalan Declaration" to the U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the U.S. congress that in the U.S. grant of Philippine independence, Mindanao and its Muslim inhabitants should not be included and should remain under American rule to be granted separate independence at the right time. The Declaration stressed that Luzon and the Visayas are Christian-dominated while Mindanao is predominantly Muslims and therefore the two people with different religion and culture cannot peacefully co-exist with one another.
The Dansalan Declaration was introduced by Congressman Robert Bacon (Democrat, Ohio) as an amendment to the Philippine Independence bill at the U.S Congress but was defeated by the lobby of pro-Philippine Independence leaders led by President Manuel L. Quezon.
Many Muslim scholars believe that had the U.S. Congress adopted the Dansalan Declaration the secessionist wars for an independent Mindanao state waged by the Moro National Liberation Front and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front and other extremist groups would have been prevented. The secessionist wars which continued to this day have claimed the lives of more than 100,000 mostly Muslim lives and 10,000 soldiers and policemen.


Punjabi Hindus

Punjabi Hindus are an Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic and religious group who are Punjabis from the Punjab region and follow Hinduism. While Punjabi Hindus are mostly found in India today, they have their roots in the wider Punjab region, a region that is split between India and Pakistan.
In Indian state of Punjab, they makeup approximately 38.5% of the state's population and are a majority in the Doaba region.
Presently, there is a very miniscule Punjabi Hindu community that remains in Pakistan, concentrated in cities such as Lahore. There is also large diaspora communities in many countries including in Canada, Australia, the United States, and the United Kingdom.
Punjabi Hindu community.
Prominent Indian nationalists from Punjab, such as Lala Lajpat Rai, belonged to the Punjabi Hindu community. Religious reform groups such as the Arya Samaj sect were active in propagating their message in Punjab.
During the early part of the 20th century, the Samaj and organisations inspired by it, such as Jat Pat Todak Mandal, were active in campaigning against caste discrimination. Other activities in which the Samaj engaged included campaigning for the acceptance of widow remarriage and women's education.
Ancient history.
Punjab during Mahabharata times was known as Panchanada. Punjab was part of the Indus Valley Civilization, a culture which is more than 5000 years old.
The main site in Punjab was the city of Harrapa. The Indus Valley Civilization spanned much of what is today India and Pakistan and eventually evolved into the Indo-Aryan civilization. The arrival of the Indo-Aryans led to the flourishing of the Vedic civilization along the length of the Indus River. This civilization shaped subsequent cultures in South Asia and Afghanistan. Punjab was part of the great ancient empires including the Gandhara Mahajanapadas, Achaemenids, Macedonians, Mauryas, Kushans, Guptas, Hindu Shahi, Gurjara-Pratihara and old Rajputana. Agriculture flourished and trading cities (such as Multan, Lahore, Jalandhar, and Rupnagar) grew in wealth.
Due to its location, the Punjab region came under constant attack and influence from the west and witnessed centuries of foreign invasions by the Greeks, Kushans, Scythians, Turks, Arabs, and Afghans. The city of Taxila, claimed to have been founded by Taksh the son of Bharat who was the brother of Ram. It was reputed to house the oldest university in the world, Takshashila University. One of the teachers was the great Vedic thinker and politician Chanakya. Taxila was a great centre of learning and intellectual discussion during the Maurya Empire. It is a UN World Heritage site, valued for its archaeological and religious history.
1947 Partition.
An estimated 2.7 million Punjabi Hindus migrated from West Punjab and North-West Frontier Province (present-day Pakistan) to East Punjab & Delhi (present-day India) during the Partition.
This split the former British province of Punjab between the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The mostly Muslim western part of the province became Pakistan's Punjab province; the mostly Sikh and Hindu eastern part became India's East Punjab state (later divided into the new states of Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh). Many Hindus and Sikhs lived in the west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and the fears of all such minorities were so great that the Partition saw many people displaced and much intercommunal violence. Some have described the violence in Punjab as a retributive genocide.
The newly formed governments had not anticipated, and were completely unequipped for, a two-way migration of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the new India-Pakistan border. Estimates of the number of deaths vary, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 2,000,000. The worst case of violence among all regions is concluded to have taken place in Punjab.
Punjabi Suba and trifurcation of Punjab.
After Partition, Sikh leaders and political parties demanded a "Punjabi Suba" (Punjabi Province) where Punjabi language written in the Sikh Gurumukhi script would be the language of the state in North India.
Although Punjabi Hindus of Ambala speak Punjabi as their first language, at the instigation of the Arya Samaj they stated Hindi as their mother tongue in the censuses of 1951 and 1961. Some areas of the erstwhile East Punjab state where Hindi, Haryanvi and Western Pahari speaking Hindus formed the majority became part of the newly created states of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh in 1966. Where as Doaba region of Punjab where Punjabi Hindus formed majority remained in Punjab. This made Punjab a Sikh-majority state in India.Today, Punjabi Hindus makeup approximately 38.5% population of present Punjab State of India.
Culture and traditions.
Hinduism in Punjab, as in many other parts of India, has adapted over time and has become a synthesis of culture and history. It centres on using Dharma to purify the soul ("Atman") and to connect with a greater "eternal energy" ("Paramātmā"). Hindus do this while acknowledging the concept of "Brahman" or "external energy", which is metaphysically believed to be the single binding energy behind the diversity that exists in the universe. In Punjab, like in many other regions of Northern India, Hindus revere ancient texts that narrate stories of deities (Devas and Devis) that had reached their highest Paramātmā. Deities in Hinduism are honoured for their roles in ancient Indian history, as they were the upholders of the principles of Dharma in the past. Hindus believe that an Ishvara (supreme) "Bhagavan" (God) manifests itself through these Devas and Devis. Major deities worshiped include Rama and Sita from the "Ramayana", Krishna and Radha from the "Mahabharata", as well as the Trimurti and Tridevi of Shiva and Parvati, Vishnu and Lakshmi, and Brahma and Sarasvati, along with other prominent deities such as Durga Mata Ji, Ganesha and Hanuman.
Though, boundaries between major sects of Hinduism are extremely fluid, however Hindus of Punjab mostly
follow Shaktism and Vaishnavism.
As Hindus believe that Dharma is universal and evolves with time, many Hindus also value other spiritual paths and religious traditions. They believe that any traditions that are equally able to nurture one's "Atman" should be accepted and taught. Hinduism itself encourages any being to reach their own self-realization in their own unique way either through Bhagavan or through other means of devotion and meditation.
Udasis.
Udasi is a religious sect of ascetic sadhus centred in Punjab Region. The Udasis were key interpreters of the Sikh philosophy and the custodians of important Sikh shrines until the Akali movement. They brought many converts into the Sikh fold during the 18th and the early 19th centuries. However, their religious practices border on a syncretism of Sikhism and Hinduism. When the Singh Sabha, dominated by Khalsa Sikhs, redefined the Sikh identity in the early 20th century, the Udasi mahants were expelled from the Sikh shrines. Since then, the Udasis have increasingly regarded themselves as Hindus rather than Sikhs.


Islam in the Comoros

According to the 2006 estimate by the U.S. Department of State, roughly 98% of the population in the Comoros are Muslim. Virtually all Muslims in the Comoros are Sunni belonging to Shafi'i school of jurisprudence. Most adherents are Arab-Swahili, but there are also people of Indian, largely Gujarati, descent.
History.
Local legend claims Islam was brought to the islands during Muhammad’s lifetime, brought by two Comorian nobles, Fey Bedja Mwamba and Mtswa Mwandze, who visited Mecca. Historical evidence suggests Arab merchants and exiled Zayidi Persian Shirazi princes first introduced the religion. Islam has long played a central role in the Comoros. Ruling families learned Arabic, performed "Hajj", and maintained ties with other Muslim communities, such as Kilwa, Zanzibar and Hadramawt. Several Sufi "tariqa", including the Shadhili, the Qadiriya, and the Rifa'i, are also active.
Hassan ibn Issa, a 16th-century Shirazi chief who claimed descent from the Islamic prophet Muhammad, encouraged conversion and constructed numerous "masaajid". In the 19th century, Sheikh Abdalah Darwesh initiated the Shadiliya "tariqa" in the Comoros. Born in Grande Comore, Sheikh Darwesh traveled throughout the Middle East and later converted Said Muhammad Al-Maarouf (d. 1904), who became the Shadilya’s supreme guide. Sheikh Al-Ami ibn Ali al-Mazruwi (d. 1949) was the first of the region's "ulama" to author Islamic literature in Swahili. Al-Habib Omar b. Ahmed Bin Sumeit (d. 1976) studied in Arab countries before serving as teacher and "qadi" in Madagascar, Zanzibar, and, after 1967, the Comoros.
Mosques and holy places.
Hundreds of mosques are scattered throughout the islands, as well as numerous "madrassah". Practically all children attend Quranic School for two or three years, usually starting around the age of five; there they learn the rudiments of Islam and Arabic linguistics. When rural children attend these schools, they sometimes move away from home and assist their teacher in working his land. In 1998, a new Grand Mosque, financed by the emir of Sharjah, was inaugurated in Moroni. The tombs of Islamic holy men and founders of ṭarīqah are frequently visited on religious occasions.
Holidays and festivals.
Comorians follow religious observances conscientiously and strictly adhere to religious orthodoxy. During colonization, the French did not attempt to supplant Islamic practices and were careful to respect the precedents of "sharia" as interpreted by the Shafi'i school of thought. All Muslim holidays are observed, including "Id al-Adha, Muharram, Ashura, Mawlid, Laylat al-Mi'raj" and Ramadan. Mawlid is marked by celebrations culminating in a feast prepared for the ulama. Many women wear the "chirumani", a printed cloth worn around the body. Comorians often consult mwalimus or fundi and marabouts for healing and protection from "jinn". "Mwalimus" activate "jinn" to determine propitious days for feasts, have a successful marriage, conduct healing ceremonies, and prepare amulets containing Quranic "ayat".
Political Islam.
The chaotic economic and political climate since independence in 1975 has been detrimental to the development of human rights and social justice. Rival factions have sought to mobilize religious support both to uphold and contest political power and social inequality. Political opponents have relied on their own interpretation of the Quran and "hadith", advocating "Shariah" to rectify political corruption. Competing Islamic views have entered politics, both to justify and challenge the government. European trained government officials have adopted Western political ideologies and secularism while continuing to support leaders of Islamic brotherhoods. Islamism and Wahhabism has become increasingly as students returned from Islamic studies abroad. In response to perceived injustice and chaos within the Comorian government, Islamists hope to create an Islamic republic. Suspected al-Qaeda member Fazul Abdullah Mohammed was born in Moroni in the Comoros and has Kenyan as well as Comorian citizenship.


Bour Kry

Samdech Preah Sanghareach Bour Kry (, ) (born 11 January 1945) is the seventh and current Supreme Patriarch of the Thammayut order of Cambodia.
Early life.
Bour Kry was born in Battambang and was ordained as a Buddhist monk in 1963. His early years in the monkhood were devoted to the study of the Pali Canon. In the following years, he was given the spiritual post of Secretary of the Mekon and appointed to the head of a monastery on the Thai-Cambodian border.
Exile in France.
The rise to power of the Khmer Rouge in 1975 began a grim and violent period for the country, and the existence of the Cambodian Sangha was put in critical danger. Bour Kry managed to flee, arriving in France in 1976. In 1977, he founded the Association Bouddhique Khmer (Khmer Buddhist Association) with a small group of expatriate monks and laypersons. The growth of this religious community in the following years led to the establishment of Vatt Khémararam at Créteil, a suburb of Paris, in 1980. Bour Kry's continued support for the Southeast Asian refugee community saw the foundation of Secours Bouddhique International (International Buddhist Assistance), a humanitarian organization independent of the monastery, in 1982.
Royal nominations.
Prince Norodom Sihanouk appointed Bour Kry to the rank of Spiritual Eminence () in 1987. Following the signing of the Paris Agreement in 1991, King Norodom Sihanouk further appointed Bour Kry to the head of the Cambodian Buddhist Dhammayuttika order with the title of Supreme Patriarch ().
Social and religious activities.
After 1991 Bour Kry returned regularly to Cambodia to assist in the reconstruction and redevelopment of Buddhist schools and monasteries. The number of Dhammayuttika monasteries has since grown to over 150. The Preah Sihanouk Dhammadhiraj Buddhist Institute was founded in 1995 with the goal of education and professional training for Cambodia's poorest youth, the revitalization of Buddhist teachings, and the introduction of Cambodian youth to Khmer culture and traditions.
Bour Kry has been involved in addressing the spread of AIDS, participating in international discussions on the topic and encouraging the role of the monastery in disseminating health information. He has also been active in spreading information concerning drug and cigarette dependence in Cambodia.
Titles.
As the Supreme Patriarch of the Dhammayuttika Nikaya, Bour Kry's full official title is "Samdech Preah Aphiserei Sukonthea Mohasangreacheathipadei (Abhisirī Sugandhā Mahāsangharājādhipati)" (). This title means 'Of Higher Merit and Pure Virtue, Great Supreme Patriarch Leader'. In letters with King-Father Sihanouk, an abbreviated title is used in the valediction: "Samdech Preah Sangreach" ().


Christianity in Egypt

Christianity is the second largest religion in Egypt. Verifiable data available from Egyptian censuses, and other large-scale nationwide surveys indicate that Christians presently constitute around 5% of the Egyptian population. Nevertheless, some media and other agencies, estimate the Christian population of Egypt to be between 10-15%. The higher estimates are sometimes based on figures provided by the churches themselves. While a minority within Egypt, Egypt's Christian population is the largest in absolute numbers in the Middle East and North Africa. The history of Egyptian Christianity dates to the Roman era as Alexandria was an early center of Christianity.
Demographics.
The vast majority of Egyptian Christians are Copts. The word "Copt" is indirectly derived from the Greek Αἰγύπτιος Aigýptios meaning simply "Egyptian".
Over 92% of Egyptian Christians belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria,<ref name="U.S.Dept of State/Egypt"></ref> an Oriental Orthodox Church. The Coptic Church constitutes the largest Christian community in the Middle East and has approximately 10 million members, including a global diaspora of about 1 million. The Coptic Orthodox Church is headed by the Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa on the Holy See of Saint Mark, currently Pope Tawadros II. Affiliated sister churches are located in Armenia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, India, Lebanon and Syria.
Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Coptic Evangelical Church and various Coptic Protestant denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Alexandria and Cairo, and are members of the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Latin Catholic Church, the Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East, the Maronite Church, the Armenian Catholic Church, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, or the Syriac Orthodox Church. Scattered among the various churches are a number of believers in Christ from a Muslim background. A 2015 study estimates some 14,000 such believers in Egypt.
In Egypt, Copts have relatively higher educational attainment, relatively higher wealth index, and a stronger representation in white collar job types, but limited representation in security agencies. The majority of demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators are similar among Copts and Muslims.
History.
Egyptian Christians believe that the Patriarchate of Alexandria was founded by Mark the Evangelist around AD 33, and Christianity entered Egypt because of The Apostle Mark.
By AD 300 it is clear that Alexandria was one of the great Christian centres. The Christian apologists Clement of Alexandria and Origen both lived part or all of their lives in that city, where they wrote, taught, and debated.
With the Edict of Milan in 313, Constantine I ended the persecution of Christians. Over the course of the 4th century, paganism was suppressed and lost its following, as the poet Palladas bitterly noted. Graffiti at Philae in Upper Egypt proves worship of Isis persisted at its temples into the 5th century.
Alexandria became the centre of the first great schism in the Christian world, between the Arians, named for the Alexandrian priest Arius, and their opponents, represented by Athanasius, who became Archbishop of Alexandria in 326 after the First Council of Nicaea rejected Arius's views. The Arian controversy caused years of riots and rebellions throughout most of the 4th century. In the course of one of these, the great temple of Serapis, the stronghold of paganism, was destroyed. Athanasius was alternately expelled from Alexandria and reinstated as its Archbishop between five and seven times. Another religious development in Egypt was the monasticism of the Desert Fathers, who renounced the material world in order to live a life of poverty in devotion to the Church.
Under Muslim rule, the ethnic Copts were cut off from the main stream of Christianity, and were compelled to adhere to the Pact of Umar covenant. They were assigned to Dhimmi status. Their position improved dramatically under the rule of Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century. He abolished the Jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) and allowed ethnic Copts to enroll in the army. Pope Cyril IV, 1854–61, reformed the church and encouraged broader Coptic participation in Egyptian affairs. Khedive Isma'il Pasha, in power 1863–79, further promoted the Copts. He appointed them judges to Egyptian courts and awarded them political rights and representation in government. They flourished in business affairs.
Some ethnic Copts participated in the Egyptian national movement for independence and occupied many influential positions. Two significant cultural achievements include the founding of the Coptic Museum in 1910 and the Higher Institute of Coptic Studies in 1954. Some prominent Coptic thinkers from this period are Salama Moussa, Louis Awad and Secretary General of the Wafd Party Makram Ebeid.
In 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser led some army officers in a coup d'état against King Farouk, which overthrew the Kingdom of Egypt and established a republic. Nasser's mainstream policy was pan-Arab nationalism and socialism. The ethnic Copts were severely affected by Nasser's nationalization policies, though they represented about 10–20% of the population. In addition, Nasser's pan-Arab policies undermined the Copts' strong attachment to and sense of identity about their Egyptian pre-Arab, and certainly non-Arab identity which resulted in permits to construct churches to be delayed along with Christian religious courts to be closed.
Pharaonism.
Many Coptic intellectuals hold to "Pharaonism," which states that Coptic culture is largely derived from pre-Christian, Pharaonic culture, and is not indebted to Greece. It gives the Copts a claim to a deep heritage in Egyptian history and culture. Pharaonism was widely held by Coptic scholars in the early 20th century. Most scholars today see Pharaonism as a late development shaped primarily by western Orientalism, and doubt its validity.
Persecution and discrimination.
Religious freedom in Egypt is hampered to varying degrees by discriminatory and restrictive government policies. Coptic Christians, being the largest religious minority in Egypt, are also negatively affected. Copts have faced increasing marginalization after the 1952 coup d'état led by Gamal Abdel Nasser. Until recently, Christians were required to obtain presidential approval for even minor repairs in churches. Although the law was eased in 2005 by handing down the authority of approval to the governors, Copts continue to face many obstacles and restrictions in building new churches. These restrictions do not apply for building mosques.
In 2006, one person attacked three churches in Alexandria, killing one person and injuring 5–16. The attacker was not linked to any organisation and described as "psychologically disturbed" by the Ministry of Interior. In May 2010, The Wall Street Journal reported increasing waves of mob attacks by Muslims against ethnic Copts. Despite frantic calls for help, the police typically arrived after the violence was over. The police also coerced the Copts to accept "reconciliation" with their attackers to avoid prosecuting them, with no Muslims convicted for any of the attacks. In Marsa Matrouh, a Bedouin mob of 3,000 Muslims tried to attack the city's Coptic population, with 400 Copts having to barricade themselves in their church while the mob destroyed 18 homes, 23 shops and 16 cars.
Members of U.S. Congress have expressed concern about "human trafficking" of Coptic women and girls who are victims of abductions, forced conversion to Islam, sexual exploitation and forced marriage to Muslim men.
Boutros Boutros-Ghali is a Copt who served as Egypt's foreign minister under President Anwar Sadat. Today, only two Copts are on Egypt's governmental cabinet: Finance Minister Youssef Boutros Ghali and Environment Minister Magued George. There is also currently one Coptic governor out of 25, that of the upper Egyptian governorate of Qena, and the first Coptic governor in a few decades. In addition, Naguib Sawiris, an extremely successful businessman and one of the world's 100 wealthiest people, is a Copt. In 2002, under the Mubarak government, Coptic Christmas (January 7) was recognized as an official holiday. However, many Copts continue to complain of being minimally represented in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion. Most Copts do not support independence or separation movement from other Egyptians.
While freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Egyptian constitution, according to Human Rights Watch, "Egyptians are able to convert to Islam generally without difficulty, but Muslims who convert to Christianity face difficulties in getting new identity papers and some have been arrested for allegedly forging such documents." The Coptic community, however, takes pains to prevent conversions from Christianity to Islam due to the ease with which Christians can often become Muslim. Public officials, being conservative themselves, intensify the complexity of the legal procedures required to recognize the religion change as required by law. Security agencies will sometimes claim that such conversions from Islam to Christianity (or occasionally vice versa) may stir social unrest, and thereby justify themselves in wrongfully detaining the subjects, insisting that they are simply taking steps to prevent likely social troubles from happening. In 2007, a Cairo administrative court denied 45 citizens the right to obtain identity papers documenting their reversion to Christianity after converting to Islam. However, in February 2008 the Supreme Administrative Court overturned the decision, allowing 12 citizens who had reverted to Christianity to re-list their religion on identity cards, but they will specify that they had adopted Islam for a brief period of time.
In August 2013, following the 3 July 2013 Coup and clashes between the military and Morsi supporters, there were widespread attacks on Coptic churches and institutions in Egypt by Sunni Muslims.
 According to at least one Egyptian scholar (Samuel Tadros), the attacks are the worst violence against the Coptic Church since the 14th century.
"USA Today" reported that "forty churches have been looted and torched, while 23 others have been attacked and heavily damaged". The Facebook page of the Muslim Brotherhood's Freedom and Justice Party was "rife with false accusations meant to foment hatred against Copts", according to journalist Kirsten Powers. The Party's page claimed that the Coptic Church had declared "war against Islam and Muslims" and that "The Pope of the Church is involved in the removal of the first elected Islamist president. The Pope of the Church alleges Islamic Sharia is backwards, stubborn, and reactionary." On August 15, nine Egyptian human rights groups under the umbrella group "Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights", released a statement saying, In December … Brotherhood leaders began fomenting anti-Christian sectarian incitement. The anti-Coptic incitement and threats continued unabated up to the demonstrations of June 30 and, with the removal of President Morsi … morphed into sectarian violence, which was sanctioned by … the continued anti-Coptic rhetoric heard from the group's leaders on the stage … throughout the sit-in.
On February 25, 2016 an Egyptian court convicted four Coptic Christian teenagers for contempt of Islam, after they appeared in a video mocking Muslim prayers.


Omori Sogen

 was a Japanese Rinzai Rōshi, a successor in the Tenryū-ji line of Rinzai Zen, and former president of Hanazono University, the Rinzai university in Kyoto, Japan. He became a priest in 1945.
Biography.
Ōmori Sōgen was a teacher of Kashima Shinden Jikishinkage-ryū swordsmanship, and a calligrapher in the Taishi school of Yamaoka Tesshū. He became well known for his unique approach to Zen practice integrating insights from his martial and fine arts training with traditional Zen methods; this approach has been described as a unity of "Zen", "Ken" ("sword", referring to martial arts or physical culture), and "Sho" ("brush", referring to calligraphy or fine arts).
Ōmori founded Seitai-ji monastery in Japan and Daihonzan Chozen-ji in Honolulu, Hawaii, the first Rinzai headquarters temple established outside Japan according to Rinzai canon law.
Dharma successors and descendants of Omori Roshi are active in both Japan and the West. In the United States, along with Chozen-ji, Daiyuzenji has been established in Chicago, and Korinji near Madison, Wisconsin. In Germany and Austria, there are active groups connected to Sasaki Gensō Rōshi and Hozumi Genshō Rōshi.
Ōmori is the author of more than 20 books in the Japanese language.
Ōmori was also well known for his right-wing ultra-nationalist political activism and influence in government circles prior to the outbreak of the Second World War.