Etymology.
The indigenous peoples of the area referred to the lake as Elk Lake (Nêhiyawêwin: "wâwâskesiwisâkahikan", Dënesųłiné: "tzalith tway"). The earliest Europeans translated this name into English as "Red Deer Lake" and in French as "Lac la biche" ("Lake of the doe"). Over time, the French name came to be used in English as well.
History.
Historic voyageur highway.
Lac La Biche was on the historical voyageur route that linked the Athabaskan region to Hudson Bay. David Thompson and George Simpson used the fur trade route via the Beaver River from the main Methye Portage route that reached the Athabasca River. Thompson was the first known European to record his sojourn on Lac La Biche. Thompson, who referred to the lake as Red Deers Lake, arrived October 4, 1798 and overwintered there. He entered copious notes in his diary on the Nahathaway (the Cree), their customs, traditions, and the Western Forest Land, including the large supply of whitefish and beaver.
Fur trade posts.
Although the Montreal-based North West Company was already active in the area, Thompson established the first permanent settlement in Lac La Biche on his 1798 trip, a Hudson's Bay Company trading post which he named Red Deers Lake House. In 1799, Peter Fidler arrived in the area after Thompson's departure, and as the post. This new structure was known as Greenwich House. It was also abandoned by 1801, but Lac La Biche was established as a permanent place of residence for some French-Canadian and Métis freetraders and their families. Fur trade activity continued unbroken, due to the importance of the portage, and Lac La Biche was visited by fur traders such as Gabriel Franchère and Ross Cox. David Thompson returned in 1812.
Another temporary Hudson's Bay Company post was erected in 1817, but the portage was abandoned by the company in 1825. Almost no written records exist for the following two decades.
Oblate mission.
A Roman Catholic mission was established in 1853 by Oblate missionaries. Historian Paul Robert Magocsi notes how the settlement grew over the next few decades:
The Lac La Biche Mission is now a National Historic Site and Provincial Historic Resource. It was the site of one of the first residential schools in Alberta.
Treaties and insurrection.
The Government of Canada sought to extinguish the First Nations' title to the land across the prairies, in order to open the land up to settlement. Treaty 6 was negotiated in 1876 and covered the lands to the south of Lac La Biche.
The new Hudson's Bay Company post at Lac La Biche was looted on April 26, 1885 during the Northwest Rebellion by members of Big Bear's band. Their plan to loot the nearby Roman Catholic Mission was stopped by the local Cree and Métis population. Métis Scrip Records show many residents of the area were awarded scrip by the Government of Canada from 1885 until the 1920s.
Treaty 8, covering the lands north of Lac La Biche, was negotiated in 1899. This set the stage for rail and settlement.
Demographics.
As a designated place in the 2016 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Lac La Biche recorded a population of 2,314 living in 895 of its 1,048 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2011 population of 2,520. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2016.
Lac La Biche County's 2016 municipal census counted a population of 2,682 in Lac La Biche, a change from its 2013 municipal census population of 2,895.
In the 2011 Census, the dissolved Town of Lac La Biche had a population of 2,520 living in 929 of its 1,038 total dwellings, a −8.6% change from its 2006 population of 2,758. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2011.
As a population centre in the 2011 Census, Lac La Biche had a population of 2,544 living in 938 of its 1,047 total dwellings, a −7.8% change from its 2006 population of 2,758. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2011.
Economy.
The community is supported by the oil patch, logging, forestry, agriculture, and commercial fishing.
Jamie Davis Towing (featured on the Highway Thru Hell reality show) has an operation in Lac La Biche.
Attractions.
Lac La Biche is home to the Lac La Biche Golf Course, while numerous lakes and campgrounds provide outdoor recreation opportunities in the area, including Lakeland Provincial Park to the east. Lac La Biche County has a small museum dedicated to sharing the history of the area, it is located in the Jubilee Hall building, beside the recreation grounds where the baseball diamonds, splash park, and green space are also located.
Government.
The Hamlet of Lac La Biche comprises Lac La Biche County's Ward 7. Omer Moghrabi was elected as mayor in 2017, Councillors Lorin Tkachuk and Colin Cote represent Ward 7 on Lac La Biche County Council. Provincially, the community has been represented by every major political party in Alberta history (expand table for details).
Infrastructure.
Lac La Biche Airport (YLB) is located west of Lac La Biche. It features a fully serviced paved airstrip.
Education.
The main campus of Portage College is located in Lac La Biche. The college has an ACAC hockey team named the Portage Voyageurs. The team's first season began in the fall of 2008.
Media.
Media outlets serving Lac La Biche and area include the "Lac La Biche Post" weekly newspaper and the "Boom 103.5" radio station.


Patti LaBoucane-Benson

Patti LaBoucane-Benson (born February 20, 1969) is a Canadian academic and politician. A Métis, she serves as director of research at the Native Counselling Services of Alberta. She was appointed to the Senate of Canada on October 3, 2018 by Prime Minister Justin Trudeau.
On January 31, 2020, she was appointed Government Liaison by Representative of the Government in the Senate Marc Gold. The role entails acting as a whip to secure votes for government legislation.
She was the winner of the Burt Award for First Nations, Métis and Inuit Literature in 2016 for "The Outside Circle", a graphic novel she cowrote with Kelly Mellings.


The Island at the Center of the World

The Island at the Center of the World: The Epic Story of Dutch Manhattan and the Forgotten Colony That Shaped America is a 2005 non-fiction book by the American journalist Russell Shorto. It covers the period of Manhattan under Dutch colonial rule, when the territory was called New Netherland. The book also discusses the conflict between Adriaen van der Donck and Peter Stuyvesant.


David Edward Jackson

David Edward Jackson (1788 – December 24, 1837) was an American pioneer, trapper, fur trader, and explorer. Born in what is now West Virginia, as a married man he moved with his family to Ste. Genevieve, Missouri, where in 1822 he became a clerk for the William Ashley and Andrew Henry fur trade partnership, based in St. Louis, Missouri joining a major expedition to the upper Missouri River.
In 1826 Jackson became a partner in the company. He and his partners sold out in 1830, as the fur trade was declining. Jackson became involved in other expeditions, including to Santa Fe (in present-day New Mexico) and California, both under Mexican control since it had achieved independence from Spain in 1821.
Having suffered from ill health, Jackson returned to St. Louis and tried to get his affairs in order. He traveled in 1837 to Paris, Tennessee, for business related to local investments. He contracted typhoid fever and died there several months later.
Early life.
Paternal ancestry.
David Edward Jackson was the grandson of John Jackson (1715 or 1719 – 1801) and Elizabeth Cummins (also known as Elizabeth Comings and Elizabeth Needles) (1723–1828). John Jackson was a Protestant (Ulster-Scottish) from Coleraine, County Londonderry, Ireland. While living in London, England, he was convicted of the capital crime of larceny for stealing £170; the judge at the Old Bailey sentenced him to seven years of indentured servitude in the British colonies of North America. Elizabeth, a strong, blonde woman over tall, born in London, was also convicted of larceny in an unrelated case for stealing 19 pieces of silver, jewelry, and fine lace, and received a similar sentence. They both were transported on the prison ship "Litchfield", which departed London in May 1749 with 150 convicts. John and Elizabeth met on board and had declared their love in the weeks before the ship arrived at Annapolis, Maryland. Although they were sent to different locations in Maryland for their indentures, the couple married in July 1755.
The family migrated west across the Blue Ridge Mountains to settle near Moorefield, Virginia (now West Virginia) in 1758. In 1770, they moved farther west to the Tygart Valley. They began to acquire large parcels of virgin farming land near the present-day town of Buckhannon, including 3,000 acres (12 km²) in Elizabeth's name. John and his two teenage sons were early recruits for the American Revolutionary War, fighting in the Battle of Kings Mountain on October 7, 1780. John finished the war as captain and served as a lieutenant of the Virginia militia after 1787. While the men were in the Army, Elizabeth converted their home to a haven, "Jackson's Fort," for refugees from Indian attacks.
John and Elizabeth had eight children. Their second son was Edward Jackson (March 1, 1759 – December 25, 1828); Edward and his wife had three boys and three girls; the second boy being David. Their third son was Jonathan Jackson, father of Thomas, known as Stonewall Jackson when he served as a general in the Civil War.
Childhood.
David Edward Jackson, son of Col. Edward Jackson, was born in Randolph County in the Allegheny Mountains of what was then part of Virginia and is now in West Virginia. When he was eight, his mother died. His father remarried three years later. In 1801, when he was 13, his family moved west, settling near Weston, West Virginia Lewis County, on the Allegheny Plateau. Jackson's father and stepmother had nine more children.
Ashley and Henry.
Jackson married and moved to Ste. Genevieve, Missouri, with his wife and four children in the early 1820s, planning to engage in farming. The town had been founded by French colonists in the late 18th century. His older brother, George, had preceded him to the area and owned a sawmill.
Instead of farming, Jackson responded to William Ashley's advertisement looking to employ men for his and Andrew Henry's new fur trade venture. Jackson was probably hired as a clerk. In the spring of 1822, Jackson headed up the Missouri River with Henry and 150 other men in a fur trade expedition to Native American tribes on the upper river. A few weeks later, Ashley sent more men, including Jedediah Smith on a boat called the "Enterprize". It sank and left the men stranded in the wilderness for several weeks.
Ashley himself brought up an additional 46 men on a replacement boat, and they and the stranded group finally reached Fort Henry. It had been built over the summer by the first group of 150 men.
It is not known if Jackson returned to St. Louis with Ashley that fall, or traveled with Jedediah Smith in the spring of 1823. At that time, Major Henry ordered Smith and some other men to go down the Missouri to Grand River in order to meet Ashley and buy horses from the Arikara, but warning him of the Native Americans' hostility to whites. They had recently had a skirmish with men from the Missouri Fur Company. Ashley, who was bringing supplies as well as 70 new men up the river by boat, met Smith at the Arikara village on May 30. They negotiated a trade for several horses and 200 buffalo robes. They planned to leave as soon as possible to avert trouble, but weather delayed them. An incident precipitated an Arikara attack on the Ashley party. Forty Ashley men were caught in a vulnerable position, and 12 were killed.
Ashley and the rest of the surviving party traveled by boat downriver, ultimately enlisting aid from Colonel Henry Leavenworth, Commander of Fort Atkinson. In August, Leavenworth sent a force of 250 military men, 80 Ashley-Henry men, 60 men of the Missouri Fur Company, and a number of Lakota Sioux warriors, enemies of the Arikara. They intended to subdue and punish the Arikara. After a botched campaign, Leavenworth negotiated a peace treaty.
Either David Jackson or his brother George had been appointed commander of one of the two squads of the Ashley-Henry men in this military expedition.
Smith, Jackson & Sublette.
Little is known about Jackson's movements until just after the 1826 Rocky Mountain Rendezvous, a major gathering of trappers and traders. It is presumed he was at the first, 1825 rendezvous held on Henry's Fork of the Green River, but he may not have been at the one held in 1826 at Bear River in Cache Valley. Soon after the rendezvous, Ashley, along with his party taking back the furs, traveled with Smith and William Sublette to near present-day Georgetown, Idaho. There, Jackson and the other men bought out Ashley's share of the Ashley-Smith partnership.
As a partner, Jackson took on the role of field manager, possibly because of his similar role when working for Ashley. That fall, Jackson, Sublette, and Robert Campbell trapped along the Snake River system, then moved up into the upper Missouri and over the Great Divide to the headwaters of the Columbia River.)
Jackson and his party traveled south to Cache Valley, where they spent the rest of the 1826-1827 winter. He was at the 1827 rendezvous at Bear Lake, then returned to St. Louis, Missouri, which had become a center of fur trade, with Sublette for a short time.
Jackson returned to the fur country for the 1828 rendezvous, after which he traveled with a party to the Flathead Lake, Montana region, where they wintered. The next spring, Smith found him along the Flathead River. The two partners and their men trapped down to Pierre's Hole, where they joined Sublette. The rendezvous that year (1829), was held near present-day Lander, Wyoming. Jackson is thought to have returned afterward to the upper Snake River region in northwest Wyoming, then traveled east to spend the winter with Smith and Sublette along the Wind and Powder rivers. Jackson returned to the upper Snake in the spring of 1830, then returned to the Wind River Valley for the annual rendezvous.
At the rendezvous, Smith, Jackson and Sublette sold out their interests in the fur trade to a group of men who called the firm the Rocky Mountain Fur Company. The three partners returned to St. Louis, having made a tidy profit in their enterprise.
Trip to Santa Fe.
By early 1831, Jackson was in southeast Missouri's lead belt, attending to his personal affairs and those of his brother George, who died on March 26, 1831. On April 7, he returned to St. Louis to meet with his partners for a trade trip to Santa Fe, which was controlled by the Spanish. The caravan of wagons left St. Louis on April 10, 1831, traveling down the Santa Fe Trail. To save time, the group decided to take the "Cimarron cutoff," at the risk of not finding water for two days. Smith went missing while looking for water, but the caravan continued on, hoping he would find them.
Upon reaching Santa Fe on July 4, 1831, the members of the trading party discovered a Mexican merchant at the Santa Fe market offering several of Smith's personal belongings for sale. When questioned about the items, the merchant indicated that he had acquired them from a band of Comanche hunters. Smith had encountered and been killed by a group of Comanche. His death resulted in Jackson and Sublette reorganizing their partnership.
California.
While in Santa Fe, Jackson partnered with David Waldo, to journey to California to sell the merchandise he had transported from Missouri. Waldo convinced him of the viability of traveling to California to purchase mules, and to drive them back to Missouri to sell, to yield more profit. Jackson and Sublette traveled to Taos where Jackson met Ewing Young, who had traveled between Santa Fe and California the previous year. He persuaded Jackson that his knowledge of the area would be indispensable to Jackson and Waldo in the mule venture. It was decided Jackson would take a group of men directly to California, and travel through the area buying mules. Young and his group of men would trap along the way to California, and meet up with Jackson in time to drive the mules back to Santa Fe. Jackson left for Santa Fe on August 25, 1831.
On September 6, Jackson's group left Santa Fe. Members of the group included, Jackson and his slave, Jim; Jedediah Smith's younger brother Peter, Jonathan Trumbull Warner, Samuel Parkman, and possibly David's brother William Waldo; Moses Carson, brother of Kit; and four other men. Several weeks later, they reached Tucson, Arizona, and went on to the Gila River, which they followed to the Colorado River. They crossed the Colorado River and the Colorado Desert, reaching San Diego in early November.
Jackson traveled up the California coast as far north as the lower end of the San Francisco Bay. By the end of March, 1832, when he met with Young in Los Angeles, he had purchased only 600 mules and 100 horses rather than the more than 1,000 they had planned. In May, the two groups drove the animals to the Colorado River, reaching it at its floodstage in June. After 12 days, they had the animals swim across. Jackson's and Young's parties again split; Young to take $10,000 of Jackson/Waldo cash and property and return to California and continue trapping and buying mules to drive back later. Jackson took possession of the skins which Young had trapped to that point.
Due to the summer heat, many of the mules died on the way back to Santa Fe, which the party reached in the first week of July. Jackson sold part of the herd of animals in Santa Fe. Ira Smith, another Jedediah Smith brother, had traveled to Santa Fe to meet Peter. Ira and Jackson headed back to St. Louis with the remaining animals.
Later years and death.
Upon his return to Missouri, the 44-year-old Jackson began to have health problems. He spent his remaining years trying to put his financial affairs in order. He had never heard from Ewing Young, after leaving him with the substantial amount of cash and property at the Colorado River, but was never healthy enough to return to California to try to collect payment. In January 1837, he finally was able to travel to Paris, Tennessee, to try to collect money on some investments he had made there. While there, Jackson contracted typhoid fever. He lingered for several months and died on December 24, 1837.
Young's later years.
Ewing Young left California for Oregon in 1834. With the money and property secured from Jackson, he had capital for several ventures. In February 1841, Young died without any known heir and without a will. Probate court had to deal with his estate, which had many debtors and creditors among the settlers. Doctor Ira L. Babcock was selected as supreme judge with probate powers to deal with Young's estate. The activities that followed Young's death contributed to the creation of a provisional government in the Oregon Country.


Armegot Printz

Armegot Printz (1625–1695) was a Swedish noble. She was the daughter of Johan Björnsson Printz, governor of New Sweden, and she married her father's successor, governor Johan Papegoja. She is the most well documented and known woman of New Sweden.
Life.
Armegot Printz was born in Bottnaryd, Småland, Sweden. She was the daughter of the Swedish noble Johan Printz, colonel lieutenant of the Västgöta cavalry, and the German Elisabet Bock. She, as well as her mother and siblings, accompanied her father to Germany during his participation in the Thirty Years' War in the army of Gustav II Adolf of Sweden. In 1642, after her father's appointment as governor of the Swedish colony New Sweden in America, she followed her father to America in the company of her siblings and stepmother, where they arrived in February 1643.
New Sweden.
In New Sweden, her father had The Printzhof manor built as their residence at Tinicum Island. In 1645, the poor noble Johan Papegoja arrived to the colony with permission from Per Brahe to marry Armegot. After the marriage took place, her spouse was given a position in the colony by her father and the couple settled in Fort Christina, where they had four sons. Armegot Printz was described as dominant, proud and willful, and was said to have totally dominated the relationship. In 1653, Papepgoja replaced her father as governor so Armegot was given the position of first lady of the colony.
When her husband was replaced by Johan Risingh and returned to Sweden, Armegot remained in the colony to manage her father's properties. She also stayed in Fort Christina, where she kept control of the staff and retained the position of first lady until Risingh managed to have her removed to Printzhof. After this, five officials turned in their notices and wished to join Armegot's service instead. Risingh persuaded them to stay, but blamed the conflict on the influential position of Armegot and wrote to Sweden for a wife to undermine her status.
Dutch.
In 1655, however, New Sweden was conquered by the Dutch. The Printzhof, where Armegot had allowed her neighbours to hide their valuables, was looted.
When her possession of Printzhof was questioned by the Dutch, she had her ownership of Printzhof, as well as her possession of Fort Tinicum, confirmed by the Dutch governor in New Amsterdam. In 1662, she sold Printzhof to Dutch merchant Joost de la Grange (1623-1664). She travelled to the Netherlands to collect her payment, but was not paid. She visited her family in Sweden, and upset the local church authorities by her refusal to submit to her husband. In 1663, she returned to America to claim the payment for Printzhof, which was now owned by de la Grange's widow's new husband Andrew Carr. The process was drawn out for years. Meanwhile, she resided at Printztorp (now Chester, Pennsylvania), where she managed an inn, a tavern and a liquor distillery.
Death.
In 1675, Printzhof was given back to her, and the year after, she sold it and returned to Sweden. She spent her remaining life travelling between the estates of her children and died at Läckö Castle.


Rocky Mountain House Airport

Rocky Mountain House Airport, , is located north northeast of Rocky Mountain House, Alberta, Canada.
In June 2017, a team of airshow specialists kicked off the Canadian Arctic Aviation Tour, a series of air shows across Canada's North in celebration of the 150th anniversary of Canada. Some of the key performers were Team Rocket, Kyle Fowler, Bud and Ross Granley and Jerzy Strzyz.


Lesser Slave Lake

Lesser Slave Lake is located in central Alberta, Canada, northwest of Edmonton. It is the second largest lake entirely within Alberta boundaries (and the largest easily accessible by vehicle), covering and measuring over long and at its widest point. Lesser Slave Lake averages in depth and is at its deepest. It drains eastwards into the Athabasca River by way of the Lesser Slave River.
The town of Slave Lake is located at the eastern tip of the lake, around the outflow of Lesser Slave River.
Conservation and development.
Due to its location on a major fly-way for migrating birds, Lesser Slave Lake is popular with birders. The nearby Lesser Slave Lake Provincial Park has lakeside camping facilities located along sand beaches, with some rocky beaches as well. Fishing is popular and legal. The entire north shore of the lake is protected, other reserves being Hilliard's Bay Provincial Park, "Lesser Slave Lake Wildland" and "Grouard Trail Park Reserve".
Highway 2 and the Canadian National Railway follow the southern shore of the lake, and the Bicentennial Highway has its southernmost point at eastern end of the lake.
A number of Indian reserves are established at the shores of the lake:
Accidents.
On February 14, 1968, a Cessna 182H CF-WUK plane crashed into the lake due to ice forming on the wings and causing the pilot to lose control. The pilot was a Graham James Cox, a former 501 Squadron Commander during World War 2. Both he and his two passengers died in the accident. The passengers were William Henry Lucus and Kenneth McIntosh McMillan.
On May 20, 2011, a Bell 212 helicopter crashed into the lake while fighting the 2011 Slave Lake fire. The pilot, 54-year-old Jean-Luc Deba of Montreal, died. On the one-year anniversary, a park at Canyon Creek was named in Deba's honor.


Monjo Company

The Monjo Company was a New York City-based fur trading business that obtained furs in the Canadian arctic, Alaska, and the Northwest United States, and sold them wholesale in New York during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was among the eleven largest fur importers in New York.
Founding.
The Monjo company was founded by Nicholas F. Monjo, a Spanish immigrant from Algiers, shortly after the Civil War, in Brooklyn, New York, and became a substantial business by the early 1880s.
The company was located at 160 Mercer St, opposite Fireman’s Hall in 1884, when the building suffered a fire. Monjo losses in water damage totaled nearly $3000. By 1905, the company was located at 34-36 Houston Street and had become the American agent for A & W Nesbitt & Co. of London. The business later leased an . storefront on West 25th Street in New York City, and at one time was a partner in the Monjo, Murley & Hennessey, New York and London fur commission house.
F. N. Monjo and schooner purchases.
N. F. Monjo’s son, Ferdinand Nicolas Monjo (1875–1929) of Stamford, Connecticut, took over the business by the early 1900s. F. N. Monjo was born in Brooklyn, but moved to Stamford after he graduated from school.
In early 1906 the company purchased a whaling schooner, the "Era", from the Thomas Luce Company of New Bedford and hired Capt. George Comer as its master. Comer wrecked the vessel shortly afterwards on the coast of Newfoundland.
The company’s second purchase was the "A. T. Gifford". Capt. Comer commanded this vessel during two voyages to Hudson Bay during 1907-1912 hunting for whales and trading for furs, followed by Capt. James Wing in 1913, and finally by Capt. Arthur Gibbons in 1915. The "Gifford" met disaster with its entire crew killed in 1915 in Hudson Bay.
In June 1913, Monjo sent two traders, George Cleveland and Mr. Bumpus to establish a trading post at Cape Fullerton. The post lasted until about 1919.
The Monjo family.
Ferdinand Nicholas Monjo died at his home "The Cedars" in Stamford, CT in 1929. His obituary notes "He was head of a wholesale fur business at 152 West Twenty-fifth Street, New York, bearing his name." He was married to Jennie Rogers Monjo. At the time of his death he was a director of the New York Auction Company and the co-director of the Charity Chest of the Fur Industry of the City of New York as well as the Fur Trade Foundation. Ferdinand and Jennie May Monjo had three sons: Ferdinand Monjo Jr., Edward R. Monjo, and George L. Monjo. F. N. Monjo’s grandson, Ferdinand Nicholas Monjo III (1924–1978), became a popular children’s author, and wrote about his grandfather’s business in several of his books.


Joseph Robidoux III

Joseph Robidoux III (12 February 1750 – 16 March 1809), son of Joseph Robidoux II and Marie Anne Le Blanc, and was an early fur trader in Missouri and Nebraska. He and his sons had a long relationship with the American Fur Company, founded by John Jacob Astor. Joseph was born in Sault-au-Récollet, Quebec, Canada, and relocated to St. Louis with his parents when he was 10, traveling via the Chicago Portage.
Joseph established a number of establishments, engaging in trade with anyone offering items of value. In the later 18th and early 19th centuries, St. Louis was a major trading hub with both the Indians and Western settlers. Frequently changing hands among the British, French and Spanish, the rules were often confusing, and Joseph managed to be on many sides of an issue. As an example, in his last letter before his tragic suicide, Meriwether Lewis wrote to Thomas Jefferson:
On my way to St. Louis, last fall, I received satisfactory evidence that a Mr. Robideau [sic], an inhabitant of St. Louis, had, the preceding winter, during intercourse with the Ottoes and Missouris, been guilty of the most flagrant breaches of the first of those misdemeanors above mentioned ... And Mr. Robidoux and sons still prosecute their trade."
On 21 September 1782, Joseph married Catherine Marie Rollet (1767-1798). Joseph and Catherine had nine children, eight of which lived to adulthood:
Joseph died in St. Louis in 1809.
Sources.
Willoughby, Robert J., The Brothers Robidoux and the Opening of the American West, University of Missouri Press, Columbia, 2012
Lewis, Hugh M., "Robidoux Chronicicles, French-Indian Etnoculture of the Trans-Mississippi West", Trafford, Canada, 2004
Thwaites, Reuben Gold (ed.), "Original Journals of the Lewis & Clark Expedition, 1804-1806", Arno Press, New York, 1969
"Genealogical Dictionary of Canadian Families, 1608-1890", Tanguay Collection


Mount Lindo

Mount Lindo is a summit near Morrison, Colorado in Jefferson County, Colorado, in the United States. With an elevation of 7,814 feet (2,382 m), Mount Lindo is the 4,256th highest summit in the state of Colorado. While not notable for its height, Mount Lindo is known locally for the 393-foot lighted cross erected on its eastern face, which can be seen at night for miles across the Denver metropolitan area. The cross is near U.S. Route 285.
History.
Francis VanDeber owned the land on Mount Lindo in the 1940s, and he built the cross near his resting place so that his wife could see it from her Denver home after he passed away. Donald Frees also participated in the creation of the cross, which was first lighted on the morning of March 29, 1964.
In 2015, the cross underwent a restoration.


New Utrecht, Brooklyn

New Utrecht () was a town in western Long Island, New York encompassing all or part of the present-day Bath Beach, Bay Ridge, Bensonhurst, Borough Park, Dyker Heights and Fort Hamilton neighborhoods of Brooklyn, New York City. New Utrecht was established in 1652 by Dutch settlers in the Dutch colony of New Netherland, the last of the original six towns to be founded in Kings County. New Utrecht ceased to exist in 1894 when it was annexed by the City of Brooklyn, and became part of the City of Greater New York when Brooklyn joined as a borough in 1898.
History.
Dutch settlement.
In 1643, Anthony Janszoon van Salee, a half-Dutch, half-Moroccan son of a pirate, and a resident of New Amsterdam, obtained from the Director General of New Netherland a patent on a tract of land of more than 200 acres on western Long Island. It ran along the shore of the Bay opposite Staten Island. Most of the land was undeveloped until 1652, when Cornelius van Werckhoven took it over. A surveyor, Werckhoven was born in Utrecht in the Netherlands, and became a principal investor in the Dutch West India Company. Upon Van Werckhoven's death in 1655, Jacques Cortelyou, guardian for Werckhoven's children, received permission to sell lots of the land to create a town. Twenty lots were laid out. Cortelyou named the settlement "Nieuw Utrecht" after Werckhoven's hometown.
Nicasius de Sille, an attorney from Arnhem, Gelderland, was one of the first to purchase a lot. He built a house using locally available stone, topped with red roof tiles imported from the Netherlands. He moved to New Utrecht from his former residence in New Amsterdam, at the lower part of the island near the current intersection of Broad Street and Exchange Place. De Sille served as an advisor to Governor Petrus Stuyvesant and as a "schout fiscal", a combination of sheriff and district attorney. In 1660, de Sille completed a "List of the Inhabitants of New Amsterdam", at the behest of Stuyvesant. The names and addresses on the list correspond to the houses drawn on the Castello Plan.
Once a defensive palisade wall was erected around the town of New Utrecht on western Long Island, more residents settled there. In 1657, New Utrecht was granted status as a village, and in 1661 Governor Peter Stuyvesant provided New Utrecht its own charter. New Netherland was taken over by the English in 1664, who changed its name to the Province of New York.
The Bensons were among the original Dutch settlers in New Utrecht. Other early families in the town include di Sille, Van Pelt, Cropsey, and Nostrand. Cropsey Avenue and Nostrand Avenue in Brooklyn are named for the latter two founding families.
What is called the Van Pelt Manor House was built in stages. The first section, of stone, was built by Jan Van Cleef (Cleve) around 1675 and later sold to Nicholas de Meyer, who sold it to Teunis Van Pelt. An agreement with de Meyer allowed Van Cleef to live in the dwelling from 1691 until his death c. 1699. Around 1686, the house was enlarged and a second floor was added. Van Pelt's land was never established in deed nor granted the status of "Manor".
New Utrecht Cemetery and Reformed Church.
Initially, the residents in New Utrecht went to Flatbush for Dutch Reformed religious services. But they created New Utrecht Cemetery in 1654. In 1677, they chartered New Utrecht Reformed Church to provide for a local congregation. They built their first church in 1700. The second (and current) church was built in the 1830s, using bricks from the first church. It has been designated as a National Historic Landmark, as has the cemetery.
In 1856, yellow fever spread from Staten Island to the inhabitants of Bay Ridge and Fort Hamilton in western Long Island. The New Utrecht Cemetery contains a monument, erected in 1910, to honor Dr. James E. DuBois and his assistant Dr. John L. Crane, who died fighting the outbreak. The church received landmark status in 1966; the parish house and the cemetery received landmark status in 1998. Both the church and the cemetery are listed in the National Register of Historic Places.
New Utrecht in Kings County.
In 1683, when the English established Kings County within the Province of New York, New Utrecht was one of its six original towns. It came to encompass the villages of New Utrecht, Bath, Fort Hamilton and Bay Ridge. Town records were kept in the Dutch language until 1763. That year the British defeated France in the Seven Years' War and took over its territory in North America east of the Mississippi River. They asserted their power in New York as well, requiring records to be in English.
Revolutionary War.
During the American Revolution, the British made New Utrecht their base of operations for the Battle of Long Island. The old Cortelyou mansion served as General Howe's headquarters after he landed on Long Island in August 1776. The British brought the mortally wounded American General Nathaniel Woodhull to the Nicasius di Sille house for treatment. The house was demolished in 1850.)
The bluff on which Fort Hamilton was built in the 1820s was occupied at this time by the houses of Denyse Denyse, Abraham Bennett, and Simon Cortelyou. In the bombardment from the British ships, on August 26, 1776, the Bennett and Denyse dwellings were struck by their shots. From 1776 to the end of the British occupation, sympathizers with the Patriot cause traveled by fishing boats at night across The Narrows to meet with compatriots in Staten Island and New Jersey.
During the War of 1812, the US Army began construction of a fort on Hendrick's Reef, an island offshore the southern tip of what is now Bay Ridge. Originally named Fort Diamond, it was renamed as Fort Lafayette in 1825 to honor the Marquis de La Fayette, a hero of the American Revolution. Construction of the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge required the destruction of this fort in 1960. The Brooklyn-side bridge pillars now occupy the fort's former foundation site.
A literary club called the "Winter Society" founded the Free Library of the Town of New Utrecht in 1894.
New Utrecht was annexed by the City of Brooklyn on July 1, 1894. It became part of the consolidated City of New York on January 1, 1898.
After city unification.
The area that encompassed the town center of New Utrecht is located in what is now Bensonhurst, Brooklyn. Eighty-fourth Street between Sixteenth and Eighteenth avenues approximates the main thoroughfare of the town. The rest of the town's lands are today the neighborhoods of Borough Park, which has a large Hasidic Jewish population, and Bay Ridge. In the 18th century, Bay Ridge was known as Yellow Hook. The name was changed after several outbreaks of yellow fever that struck the New York area in the 19th century.


Red Rock, Ontario

Red Rock is a township in Northwestern Ontario, Canada, located in the Thunder Bay District. The community of Red Rock sits on the shore of Lake Superior, about 16 km west of the Nipigon River where it drains into Nipigon Bay on the north shore of Lake Superior. The population as of 2011 is 942.
History.
During the Second World War, a prisoner of war camp was established here housing primarily German prisoners.
The Red Rock Folk Festival, held by the Live From the Rock Folk & Blues Society, is held each year.
Economy.
Red Rock's main source of employment was a kraft paper mill owned by Norampac. The mill originally consisted of two kraft paper machines but in late 2005 was reduced to running one machine. On August 31, 2006, Norampac announced the indefinite closure of the container board plant. This was due to unfavourable economic conditions such as the rising price of fibre, energy costs and the strengthening Canadian dollar.
In September 2007 Norampac announced the sale of its Red Rock plant to American Logistic Services Inc. A new plywood mill was supposed to be operational by fall 2008, this deadline had been pushed back to spring 2009. The plans were ultimately cancelled however as the plant was torn down and the land was sold to Riversedge Developments in April 2015. There has been talk of constructing a sea port and biomass plant on the land, but it remains unclear whether this will be the case.


Rabbit Ears Range

The Rabbit Ears Range (elevation approximately 11,000 ft) is a mountain range of the Rocky Mountains in north central Colorado in the United States. The range stretches east-west along the continental divide forming the border between Grand and Jackson Counties, separating Middle Park (south) from North Park (north). The range connects the Front Range on the east with the Park Range and the Gore Range on the west. It is traversable at Willow Creek Pass. Muddy Pass separates the Rabbit Ears range to the east from the Park Range to the north. Rabbit Ears Pass, and Rabbit Ears Peak, despite their names, are not in the Rabbit Ears Range, but actually reside in the Park Range to the south.


Gunnison, Colorado

The City of Gunnison is the Home Rule Municipality that is the county seat and the most populous municipality of Gunnison County, Colorado, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 5,854. It was named in honor of John W. Gunnison, a United States Army officer who surveyed for the transcontinental railroad in 1853.
History.
The City of Gunnison got its name from the first known European-American explorer of the area, John W. Gunnison. He was searching for a route for the transcontinental railroad in 1853 and only stayed for three days before traveling west to Utah. Gunnison saw its first population increase in the 1870s, due to the mining surge throughout the state. The railroad arrived soon after in 1880 to appreciative miners, ranchers, and farmers.
In the early 1800s, the groups moving into the Gunnison area were mainly fur trappers and mountain men, trying to make a living for themselves in the rocky mountain terrain. But a drop in fur prices in the 1840s essentially cut out the need for their jobs.
The late 1850s saw the start of people joining the hunt for gold in Gunnison county. Miners were in search of placer gold, but with the growing numbers of white men in the area, this brought conflict between the Ute tribes still around the county. At least several miners were killed by these tribes and this caused some of the miners to flee the area, caring more for their lives than potential gold bonanzas.
With the mining boom, Gunnison began to see an increase of people around the 1870s. Along with the miners coming in, ranchers and farmers were among the others that led to the Ute people becoming forced out of the area. The mining camps in Gunnison and around the county reportedly produced about 130,000 ounces of gold from the beginning of the gold rush through 1959. At the start this was mostly from placer deposits, but the largest amounts were from a by-product of silver-lead ore. The largest deposits were found along the Taylor River, as well as the Tincup and the Washington Gulch districts.
Before the railroad reached Gunnison in 1880, there was a debate as to which railroad line would claim the town as their territory. The D&RG and DSP&P were both battling for control over the area. This split the town into two sides, both disagreeing as to where the railroad depots should be placed in town. The "old" and "new" sides of town ended up agreeing to disagree and were happy to have any railroad come through town. Both lines ended up coming through town anyway, although the DSP&P shortly discontinued service to Gunnison. The D&RG was later reorganized as the D&RGW railroad and was a prominent line to Gunnison for about seventy years; it served as the primary means of transportation for the townspeople into the 1950s.
Also in 1880, the cattle industry in Gunnison was established. Realizing the poor conditions for farming (with only about eleven inches of rainfall annually and the short growing season due to the high elevation and alpine environment) the local farmers turned to ranching and began breeding cattle. To do this effectively, they had to clear and level fields for grazing purposes. Irrigation ditches also had to be cut into the ground to properly irrigate the fields in order to grow hay for the horses and cattle. Many of these practices are still in use, which can be seen while driving through and around the town to the various ranches that are still in operation.
John and William Outcalt were among the earliest settlers of Gunnison. They started their own ranch just north of town along the southeast bank of the Gunnison river. The brothers hailed from New Jersey, but decided to make the trip west for the sake of adventure and the prospect of making money. The eldest brother, John, built the irrigation system for their ranch and quickly began growing hay and other various grains. When the railroad came through town, he convinced them to expand more and ended up paying for and building the rail that ran through his property. Naming this stop Hay Spur, they produced enough hay to ship out over 800 carloads each year, which mainly headed north to the settlers of which is now the town of Crested Butte, helping feed their mules. Along with the hay, carloads of potatoes and other vegetables from the Gunnison area were being sent to Crested Butte to supply the miners with food and also to support their animals.
John Outcalt is also known to be one of the most famous men in the town. He helped build the Paragon School, which is still standing today in the Gunnison Pioneer Society museum on the east end of town. Originally a shipbuilder and carpenter in New Jersey, he incorporated his skills in the building of the school which is why it is still standing today. John was also praised by the local natives; when he first arrived in town he worked as a carpenter on the Los Pinos Indian reservation, and was considered the most trusted White man in the area. This helped in the long run because, according to legend, they saved his life on numerous occasions.
Gunnison residents isolated themselves from the surrounding area during the Spanish Influenza epidemic for two months at the end of 1918. All highways were barricaded near the county lines. Train conductors warned all passengers that if they stepped outside of the train in Gunnison, they would be arrested and quarantined for five days. This served as partial inspiration for the novel "The Last Town on Earth" (2006) by Thomas Mullen. The isolation was ultimately unsuccessful, as townspeople became restless after a few months, and the isolation was lifted in February 1919 only to have the flu arrive a month later, killing several.
Geography.
Gunnison County is situated at an altitude of .
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of . All of it is land and none of it is covered by water. Gunnison is near Blue Mesa Reservoir. Primary access to Gunnison is from Salida to the east via Monarch Pass or from Montrose, Colorado to the west via Cerro Summit on U.S. Highway 50. U.S. Highway 50 is the main east-west thoroughfare through the town. There are numerous other ways to get to Gunnison, some of which are subject to seasonal closures (Kebler Pass, Cottonwood Pass). At the 2010 Census there was a population of 15,324 within the county.
Climate.
Gunnison is located at the bottom of several valleys. Due to its location in the Rocky Mountains, cold air in all the valleys settles into Gunnison at night, making it one of the coldest places in winter in the United States, especially when snowpack is present. The average January low is , and the average July high is . The record low is , recorded at Blue Mesa Reservoir. The record high is , set on August 15, 1931.
The city typically experiences moderate snowfalls, with an average of per year. Early fall and late spring snows are not uncommon, and snow can remain on the ground in town from as early as November to as late as April. Surrounding mountains experience very heavy snowfall with longer periods of snow on the ground. Many locations average of snow annually. The snow is welcome to the area, as it is beneficial to water supplies and local ski resorts. Total liquid precipitation averages nearly per year in the city of Gunnison, while surrounding mountains may receive anywhere from 15 to over 40 inches (380 to 1,000 mm) annually, depending upon elevation and local topography.
Under the Köppen climate classification, Gunnison has a humid continental climate ("Dfb").
Demographics.
As of the census of 2010, there were 5,854 people, 2,318 households, and 991 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,829.4 people per square mile (705.3/km2). There were 2,645 total housing units at an average density of 826.6 per square mile (318.7/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 86.9% White, 0.6% African American, 2.4% Native American, 0.6% Asian, 0% Pacific Islander, 6.6% from other races, and 2.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 14.2% of the population.
There were 2,318 households, out of which 20.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.6% were married couples living together, 7.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 57.2% were non-families. 34.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.2 and the average family size was 2.9.
In the city, the population breakdown was 26.1% under the age of 19, 23.4% from 20 to 24, 26.1% from 25 to 44, 16.8 from 45 to 64, and 7.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 25.2 years. For every 100 females, there were 120.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 128 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $39,181, and the median income for a family was $59,836. Males had a median income of $35,818 versus $28,476 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,776. 18.9% of families and 30.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 42.2% of those under age 18 and 16.6% of those age 65 or over.
Education.
Gunnison is home to Western Colorado University which received its third renaming since its beginnings from an approval of Governor John Wright Hickenlooper on August 1, 2012. The college was founded as The Colorado State Normal School for Children by a bill signed on April 16, 1901 by Governor James B. Orman. In 1923, the college's name was changed to Western State College of Colorado because its role expanded from a teaching institution to a liberal arts college. Historical papers in the Leslie Savage Library on campus state that the school was the first liberal arts college on the Western Slope of Colorado.
The Gunnison Valley is also served by the Gunnison Watershed RE1J School District which includes Public and Non Public schools. The public schools in the RE1J school district are located in Crested Butte and Gunnison; Marble Charter School is located in the Statutory Town of Marble in northwest Gunnison County. Public Schools in Gunnison Watershed RE1J School District:
The law concerning non public schools, 22-33-104, C.R.S., requires that a sequential program of instruction be provided by an independent or parochial school. Such program shall include, but not be limited to, communication skills of reading, writing, and speaking, mathematics, history, civics, literature, and science. Some of the non-public schools in Gunnison County adhering to these C.R.S. are:
Media.
Gunnison's newspaper, "Gunnison Country Times", is published weekly. There are also various radio stations that serve the area, including KWSB-FM (91.1), which is affiliated with Western Colorado University. KBUT of Crested Butte also simulcasts NPR broadcasts at 90.3 FM.
In film.
The 1902 silent film short "The Girls in the Overalls" directed by Harry Buckwalter is set on the Vidal Ranch in Gunnison.
Gunnison County is the setting of the science fiction film "", although the film was actually shot in the towns of Port Coquitlam and Port Moody, British Columbia.
On television.
Gunnison is the setting of the 1960–1961 syndicated western television series "Two Faces West".
Gunnison is the birthplace of the American actress Donna Anderson, a supporting cast member of the ABC western series, "The Travels of Jaimie McPheeters" (1963–1964).
Gunnison is the setting for Season 11, Episode 19 of the CW series "Supernatural" entitled "The Chitters".
In literature.
In 2009, Gunnison appeared as a launch site and mission control facility in Stephen Baxter's post-apocalyptic science fiction novel "Ark".
Gunnison is the setting for Eternal Starling, the first book in the Emblem of Eternity trilogy by Angela Corbett.
Transportation.
The Gunnison–Crested Butte Regional Airport serves the valley and nearby Crested Butte with both commercial airline and general aviation flights.
Gunnison Valley Rural Transportation Authority (RTA) operates bus service between Gunnison and Crested Butte serving Western Colorado University and Crested Butte Mountain Resort. Gunnison is part of the statewide Bustang system, which connects the town to Denver.
The League of American Bicyclists has awarded Gunnison the silver level in bicycle friendliness.
Activities.
Winter.
Winter activities for Gunnison include skiing at Crested Butte Mountain Resort, skiing at Monarch Ski Area, snowmobiling, cross country skiing, back country skiing, ice fishing, ice skating, hunting, and snowshoeing.
Summer.
Activities during the summer in Gunnison include fishing on the Gunnison River, Tomichi Creek and Blue Mesa Reservoir. Hiking in any of the numerous areas within a short distance of town like Curecanti National Recreation Area, Tomichi State Wildlife Area, Sapinero State Wildlife Area, McIntosh State Wildlife Area. Biking activities include road biking and mountain biking; Hartman's Rock has many bike trails for mountain biking as well as motorcross and rock climbing. One rafting practice is to rent a raft in Almont and drift down the Gunnison River to the town of Gunnison. Below the Hwy 50 bridge on the Gunnison river is the kayak park. The Gunnison Ranger District Office located at 216 North Colorado Street offers maps and information about details particular to vehicle access, private, BLM, federal and state properties, trails, and other areas of interest.
Gunnison also hosts festivals and farmers markets during the summer months.
Cattlemen's Days.
A rodeo in Colorado takes place over a 10-day period in July featuring PRCA Rodeo activities as well as family-based activities. Cattlemen’s Days celebrated its 112th year of rich western heritage in a first class and nationally recognized rodeo event for the year 2012. In 2011, this rodeo was nominated as one of the five finalists for "Mid-sized rodeo of the year". It continues to be a leader in PCRA rodeos in fund-raising for breast cancer with their "Tough enough to wear pink campaign". Cattlemen's Days also offers scholarships to support and further the education of 4-H and FFA exhibitors.


Red River cart

The Red River cart is a large two-wheeled cart made entirely of non-metallic materials. Often drawn by oxen, though also by horses or mules, these carts were used throughout most of the 19th century in the fur trade and in westward expansion in Canada and the United States, in the area of the Red River and on the plains west of the Red River Colony. The cart is a simple conveyance developed by Métis for use in their settlement on the Red River in what later became Manitoba. With carts, the Metis were not restricted to river travel to hunt bison. The Red River cart was largely responsible for commercializing the buffalo hunt.
Description.
According to the journal of North West Company fur-trader Alexander Henry the younger, the carts made their first appearance in 1801 at Fort Pembina, just south of what is now the Canada–United States border. Derived either from the two-wheeled used in French Canada or from Scottish carts, it was adapted to use only local materials.
Because nails were unavailable or very expensive in the early West, these carts contain no iron at all, being entirely constructed of wood and animal hide. The cart can be dismantled, the wheels covered with bison hides to make floats and the box placed on top. Thus the cart can be floated across streams. Red River carts are strong enough to carry loads as heavy as . Two parallel oak shafts or "trams" bracket the draft animal in front and form the frame of the cart to the rear. Crosspieces hold the floorboards, and front, side and rear boards or rails made of willows or dimension lumber enclose the box. These wooden pieces are joined by mortices and tenons. Also of seasoned oak is the axle, lashed to the cart by strips of bison hide or "shaganappi" attached when wet, which shrink and tighten as they dry. The axles connect two spoked wheels, in diameter, which are "dished" outward from the hub, in the form of a shallow cone, for extra stability.
Motive power for the carts was originally supplied by small horses obtained from the First Nations. After cattle were brought to the Selkirk Settlement in the 1820s, oxen were used, preferred because of their strength, endurance, and cloven hooves, which spread their weight in swampy areas. The cart, constructed of native materials, can easily be repaired. A supply of shaganappi and wood are brought; a cart can break a half-dozen axles in a one-way trip. The axles are ungreased, as grease will capture dust, which acts as sandpaper and can immobilize the cart. The resultant squeal sounds like an untuned violin, giving it the sobriquet "the North West fiddle"; one visitor wrote that "a den of wild beasts cannot be compared with its hideousness."
Uses.
The Red River Trails on which the carts were used extended from the Red River Colony via fur-trading posts, such as Pembina and St. Joseph in the Red River Valley, to Mendota and St. Paul, Minnesota. Furs were the usual cargo on the trip to St. Paul, and trade goods and supplies were carried on the trip back to the colony.
The Carlton Trail was also an important route for the carts, running from the Red River Colony west to Fort Carlton and Fort Edmonton in present-day Saskatchewan and Alberta, with branches such as the Fort à la Corne Trail. The carts were the primary conveyance in the Canadian West from early settlement until the coming of the Canadian Pacific Railway toward the end of the century. Carts could not be used west of Fort Edmonton because there were no roads or trails passable by wheeled vehicles over the Rocky Mountains.
The Hudson's Bay Company would use Red River carts as their main commercial cart in the 1860s. This was due to an increased success of the Minnesota cart route instead of the York Factory boat route.
Invented and developed by the Métis and Anglo-Metis peoples the Red River cart became a symbol of their heritage rooted in mobility and social networks.
Surviving examples, models and replicas.
The National Museum of American History displays a Red River cart collected in the 1850s in its American Enterprise exhibition. Models may be found at St. Louis, Selkirk, Manitoba, Duck Lake and Prince Albert, Saskatchewan. The Clay County, Minnesota, Historical Society, and Fort Vancouver National Historic Site in Vancouver, Washington has a full-scale replica cart. Fort Nisqually Living History Museum in Washington State has a half-scale replica.
The Remington Carriage Museum, Cardston, Alberta, also has a full-size replica of a Red River cart, as does Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site in La Junta, Colorado.
The Faculty of Native Studies at the University of Alberta displays a full-size replica of a Red River Cart in front of their home in Pembina Hall. This Red River Cart was donated to the Faculty by the Métis Nation of Alberta in November 2015. The Métis also donated an example to the Juno Beach Centre in France to commemorate their participation in the invasion of Normandy in 1944 and the liberation of Europe.


Sangre de Cristo Mountains

The Sangre de Cristo Mountains (Spanish for "Blood of Christ") are the southernmost subrange of the Rocky Mountains. They are located in southern Colorado and northern New Mexico in the United States. The mountains run from Poncha Pass in South-Central Colorado, trending southeast and south, ending at Glorieta Pass, southeast of Santa Fe, New Mexico.
The mountains contain a number of fourteen thousand foot peaks in the Colorado portion, as well as all the peaks in New Mexico which are over twelve thousand feet.
The name of the mountains may refer to the occasional reddish hues observed during sunrise and sunset, and when alpenglow occurs, especially when the mountains are covered with snow. Although the particular origin of the name is unclear, it has been in use since the early 19th century. Before that time the terms "La Sierra Nevada", "La Sierra Madre", "La Sierra", and "The Snowies" (used by English speakers) were used. According to tradition, "sangre de Cristo" were the last words of a priest who was killed by Native Americans.
Land management and recreation overview.
Much of the mountains are within various National Forests: the Rio Grande and San Isabel in Colorado, and the Carson and Santa Fe in New Mexico. These publicly accessible areas are managed by the United States Forest Service and are popular for hunting, camping, hiking, mountain biking, backpacking, climbing, and cross-country and downhill skiing.
The mountains include two large wilderness areas, the Sangre de Cristo Wilderness in Colorado and the Pecos Wilderness in New Mexico, as well as some smaller wilderness areas, such as Latir Peak Wilderness. The Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve lies on the southwest side of the mountains in Colorado and are managed by the National Park Service.
Subranges.
The Sangre de Cristo Mountains are divided into various subranges, described here from north to south. Use of the terms "Sangre de Cristo Range" and "Sangre de Cristo Mountains" is inconsistent and either may refer to either the northernmost subrange, the southernmost subrange, or the mountains as a whole.
Sangre de Cristo Range.
The Sangre de Cristo Range, the largest and most northerly subrange of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, runs directly along the east side of the Rio Grande Rift, extending southeast from Poncha Pass for about 75 miles (120 km) through south-central Colorado to La Veta Pass, approximately 20 miles (32 km) west of Walsenburg. They form a high ridge separating the San Luis Valley on the west from the watershed of the Arkansas River on the east.
Crestones.
The Crestones are a group of four 14,000+ foot (4,268+ m) peaks (fourteeners) in the Sangre de Cristo Range above Crestone, Colorado.
Spanish Peaks.
The Spanish Peaks are a pair of mountains, West Spanish Peak, , and East Spanish Peak, , located in southwestern Huerfano County, Colorado. The Spanish Peaks were designated a National Natural Landmark in 1976 as one of the best known examples of igneous dikes. The mountains can be seen from as far as to the north from Colorado Springs, to the south from Raton, New Mexico, and to the east from La Junta, Colorado.
Culebra Range.
The Culebra Range runs almost due north and south, with its northern limit at La Veta Pass in Colorado, and its southern limit at Costilla Creek, just south of Big Costilla Peak in New Mexico. Its highest point is Culebra Peak at , which is notable for being the only fourteener in Colorado which is on private land. Climbers wishing to ascend Culebra must pay a fee (currently US$100 per person), and the number of climbers per year is limited. It is also the most southerly fourteener in the U.S. Rockies. Standing to the east of the main crest are the two prominent Spanish Peaks (West: , East: ). These peaks were important landmarks on the mountain branch of the Santa Fe Trail.The bioregion receives very little water and has an annual precipitation of .This region is also home to the "Culebra Micro-basin" which has a rich agricultural history in the state of Colorado.
Taos Mountains.
The Taos Mountains span the western lobe of the range from Costilla Creek in the north, to Tres Ritos in the south. They include the highest point in New Mexico, Wheeler Peak, at , which is part of the Wheeler Peak Wilderness. Other notable peaks include Pueblo Peak, which at rises dramatically above Taos Pueblo, and Latir Peak, at . Williams Lake is located below Wheeler Peak in the Wheeler Peak Wilderness.
Taos Ski Valley lies just to the west of Wheeler Peak. Much of the central portion of the Taos Mountains is on Taos Pueblo land. As viewed from Taos, they are locally called "Taos Mountain."
The southern portion of the Taos Mountains, between Palo Flechado Pass and Tres Ritos (U.S. Route 64 and NM Route 518), is lower and less dramatic than the northern section, with its high point being Cerro Vista, . The Fernando Mountains are a small subrange lying in this section, just south of US Route 64.
Cimarron Range.
The Cimarron Range lies across the Moreno Valley to the east of the Taos Mountains. It is a lower range, with its highest point being Baldy Mountain at . The Philmont Scout Ranch lies on the east side of the Cimarron Range.
Rincon Mountains.
This is a minor subrange, significantly lower than the rest of the Sangre de Cristos; it lies east of the southernmost portion of the Taos Mountains.
Santa Fe Mountains.
Rounding out the Sangre de Cristo Mountains are the Santa Fe Mountains, which include all peaks south of NM Route 518. This group lies near Santa Fe and surrounds the Pecos Wilderness, which protects the source watershed of the Pecos River. The peaks include Truchas Peak, , as their highest point. Other notable peaks are Santa Fe Baldy () and Jicarita Peak (). The Pecos Wilderness is crossed by many trails and is popular for backpacking and for fishing in its high alpine lakes.
Geology.
The Sangre de Cristo Mountains were uplifted during the Cenozoic Laramide orogeny. They are bounded on the west by the Rio Grande rift and on the east by a series of reverse and thrust faults. Vertical displacement along the faults is at least , and gravity measurements suggest the uplift has been thrust eastward great distances. This faulting places Precambrian basement rock in contact with sedimentary strata along the eastern margin of the uplift except where igneous rocks have been intruded along the fault.


Charles Bayly

Charles Bayly, (fl. c. 1630–1680), the first overseas governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, likely spent his early years in the court of Queen Henrietta Maria, the wife of Charles I. He was an English born French Roman Catholic in this Protestant court and this implies that his father was part of the Queen's staff.
Bayly was sent to France at age 12 or 13 and some time later was returning to London, was brought on board a ship headed for America and spent 14 years as a bond-servant. He appears in Quaker records as a member and living in Anne Arundel County, Maryland in 1657. He returned to England in 1660 and there followed years of travel and imprisonment for various actions as a Quaker.
In 1670, for reasons undetermined, Bayly was released from prison and made the first overseas governor of the Hudson's Bay Company and in June sailed for Fort Nelson at the mouth of the Nelson River. This was the first headquarters of the Hudson's Bay Company in North America.
Bayly spent 1670 and 1671, until they sailed home, exploring and trading, mostly from the HBC location at Rupert River which had been established in 1668 by an expedition of Médard des Groseilliers. In subsequent years he established the first post at Moose Factory and explored and developed trade.
In 1679 Bayly was recalled under charges of mismanagement; probably related to poor management rather than dishonesty. His career at the HBC, despite the charges, was successful. Although he neglected book-keeping detail, his activities in James Bay were important to the Company's first ten years of its existence. He died while the charges were being prepared.


Deer Lake First Nation

Deer Lake First Nation is an Oji-Cree First Nations band government in Northern Ontario, located north of Red Lake, Ontario Canada. It is one of the few First Nations in Ontario to have signed Treaty 5. It is part of the Keewaytinook Okimakanak Council (Northern Chiefs) and the Nishnawbe Aski Nation. As of December, 2007, the First Nation had 1,072 registered members, of which their on-reserve population was 868.
Deer Lake is policed by the Nishnawbe-Aski Police Service, an Aboriginal-based service.
Language.
The people of Deer Lake are closely related to the people of Sandy Lake First Nation and North Spirit Lake First Nation. The three reserves speak a unique dialect of the Anishinaabe language commonly known as Oji-Cree language.
In the local language, the people of Deer Lake call themselves Anishinawbe. In English Oji-Cree is becoming the most popular self-designation, while Cree remains popular as well. Ojibway is rarely used except to refer to the Native people to the south.
Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada data from 2001 reported that 68% of Deer Lakers learned their native language as their first language with the rest speaking English first. Public conversation is heard in both languages with the oldest members using native language almost exclusively, and the youngest members using almost only English. Most adults comfortably navigate between the two, while younger adults and teenagers comprehend the language but rarely speak it. To reverse the trend of language loss, local education efforts have implemented native-language immersion programs in the preschool, kindergarten, and early-elementary grades.
Literacy in the native language using Cree syllabics is also emphasized by the local school and churches. Since the coming of Christianity and syllabic bibles in the early 20th century, Deer Lake has used its own version of the western variant of syllabics in which the "s", "sh", "z", and "zh" sounds are combined into one set of characters and some of the finals are different from the more commonly found versions in Ontario and Manitoba.
Reserve.
The Deer Lake Reserve is within the boundaries of the territory described by Treaty 5. The community of Deer Lake is located on this reserve. It is connected to Pikangikum First Nation, Sandy Lake First Nation, and North Spirit Lake First Nation by winter/ice roads. Regularly scheduled flights to and from the community are provided by Wasaya Airways.
History until colonization.
Traditionally, the people of the Deer Lake area were semi-nomadic and like all Anishinaabe peoples organized themselves by doodem (clan). Small groups maintained seasonal camps based on family and clan and moved around according to where the hunting and fishing was best. When the Hudson's Bay Company established fur trade posts at what is now Kitchenuhmaykoosib Inninuwug First Nation on Big Trout Lake and Island Lake on Island Lake in the 18th century, traditional patterns of living changed little with an increased emphasis on trapping for trade. The Deer Lake area remained inaccessible to white traders, however, and only the men who brought fur to the distant posts had any contact with whites.
By the 19th century, overtrapping and changes in the economics of the fur trade had devastating effects on the people of the area. With the boreal forests largely depleted of fur-bearing animals, the Hudson's Bay Company closed their posts and game remained scarce. Starvation and disease were all too common during this time. When the HBC returned toward the end of the 19th century, they assigned family names to each of the clans. The Pelican clan became the Meekis family after their patriarch Meekis (Shell). The Sucker clan became the Fiddlers and later the Quills). Many members of the Caribou and Sturgeon clans were given the surname Rae, while other Sturgeons were designated Mamakeesic after their patriarch. The Cranes were either Kakegamic or Kakepetum after their leaders, two brothers known by those names. At this time, these names were only used in trading, but they would later become official with census records and are now the most common surnames found in Deer Lake.
By 1900, the people of the area were among the last Indigenous peoples in North America living with virtually no colonial influences. Christianity, which by that time had come to most Oji-Cree communities, and Canadian law had almost no influence in the communities. Under Jack Fiddler a powerful "ogema" (chief and shaman) of the Sucker doodem, the people survived in the traditional way. This, however, began to change.
The arrival of North-West Mounted Police officers in 1906 to arrest Fiddler and his brother Joseph marked the first time most Deer Lakers had ever seen a white person. The elderly Fiddler brothers were charged with murder for killing a windigo (an evil cannibalistic spirit that possesses a person during times of famine) and taken away.
History in the reserve era.
In 1910, Robert Fiddler, the son of Jack, signed Treaty 5 at the east end of Deer Lake, and the Deer Lake First Nation began its formal relationship with the Government of Canada and the British Crown. The Fiddlers and many others soon left for better farming lands at Sandy Lake and others still went to settle at North Spirit Lake, and the only members of the "Deer Lake Band" still living at Deer Lake were the Meekis, Rae, and Quill families. The population of the entire band at all three locations at this time was 78 individuals, but this number grew with an influx of newcomers from Island Lake in Manitoba and numbered over 300 in 1929. It was that year that commissioners representing the Government of Ontario (the province of Ontario had absorbed the area from the District of Keewatin in 1912), determined that the Sandy Lake settlement was actually in the territories covered in the adhesions to the James Bay Treaty (Treaty 9), and created a reserve for the Deer Lake Band at Sandy Lake Narrows ignoring the fact that a significant portion of the band still resided at Deer Lake and had yet to have a reserve formally designated under the terms of the 1910 treaty.
As the 20th century progressed the people of Deer Lake came more and more into contact with the outside. Cree missionaries brought Methodism and Anglicanism, and local people led by Adam Fiddler built and maintained churches. As Jack Fiddler foretold in a vision, airplanes came and took children away to residential schools. An HBC post with a store and post office was established, and Canadians Oscar and Jeanette Lindokken established a nursing station. In this period, the people of Deer Lake were largely denied their sovereign rights and became a colonized people. In some ways, traditional structures and cultural practices broke down, while in other ways they were maintained or modified.
In 1985, the Deer Lake First Nation formally split from the Sandy Lake First Nation with each achieving full band status. The two reserves maintain close relations, however, given the shared history and amount of family connections.
Government.
Governance.
The leadership of their customary electoral system of government consists of Chief Roy Dale Meekis, Deputy Chief Corey J Meekis and six Councillors: David Meekis, Leonard Mamakeesick, Albert Mamakeesic, Carolyn Meekis, Saulas Meekis and Gary Meekis. Their two-year terms for Deer Lake began on July 15, 2015.
In 1985 the First Nation gained full band status and has worked to take control over its own services. Today the band operates most of its community services or shares them through the Keewaytinook Okimakanak Council or the Nishnawbe Aski Nation.
Transportation.
The community is served by Deer Lake Airport.


John McGillivray

John McGillivray (circa 1770 - October 13, 1855) was a Canadian fur trader and political figure in Upper Canada.
He was born at Strathnairn, Inverness-shire, Scotland around 1770. He came to Canada with a distant cousin, William McGillivray, who was a partner in the North West Company, and became a clerk for the company in the Lower English River department. He was transferred to the Athabasca River department in 1801 as a wintering partner and then became the head of the Athabasca department in 1810 where competition with the Hudson's Bay Company was fierce. In August 1816, he was arrested at Fort William by Lord Selkirk, although he claimed he was not involved in the Battle of Seven Oaks. He was not prosecuted and returned to the Rainy Lake region in 1817. In 1818, plagued by rheumatism, he retired and settled near Williamstown.
He was appointed to the Legislative Council of the province in 1839. He also served as a justice of the peace. In 1852, he was recognized as the chief of the McGillivary clan in Scotland.
He died near Williamstown in 1855.


Blanc-Sablon, Quebec

Blanc-Sablon is the easternmost community in Le Golfe-du-Saint-Laurent Regional County Municipality, in the administrative région of Côte-Nord, in the province of Quebec, Canada. With a population of 1,118 inhabitants, it is the most populous community in the county municipality.
Geography.
Blanc-Sablon is located on the north coast of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence near the entrance of the Strait of Belle Isle. Two significant bays, Brador and Blanc-Sablon, mark its shores and the headland that separates these bays is dominated by Mont Parent, a 100-metre (328 ft) high flat-topped hill named after Martin Parent, a local fisherman in the middle of the 19th century. The municipality borders Côte-Nord-du-Golfe-du-Saint-Laurent, Quebec to the south-west, and L'Anse-au-Clair, Labrador to the north-east.
 The estuary of the Brador River and Blanc-Sablon River has a lagoon designated barachois, separated from the sea by sand or gravel. Seawater enters at high tide.
The Blanc-Sablon archipelago is located off the coasts of the villages of Blanc-Sablon and Brador and includes Long Island, Lazy Island, Basin Island, Island of the Parrots, Wood Island and Greenly, housing the Bird Sanctuary of Brador Bay.
The municipality of Blanc-Sablon has several land protrusions into the Gulf of St. Lawrence; from east to west, they are Point Saint-Charles, Morel's Point, Lazy Point, Hunting Point, "À la Barque" Point, Cape Crow and Point Jones.
Accessibility.
Ferry services.
Being at the eastern end of the Côte-Nord region, Blanc-Sablon is served by a ferry for the communities along the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, connecting with the coastal communities of Saint-Augustin, Gros-Mécatina, Tête-à-la-Baleine, Harrington Harbour, La Romaine and Kegashka, as well as Anticosti Island at Port-Menier. This service is funded by the Government of Quebec. The ferry service's main goal is to make up for the gap in Route 138, which remains unbuilt between Kegaska and Old Fort (in Bonne-Espérance).
Blanc-Sablon is also the northern terminus of a ferry service across the Strait of Belle Isle to the island of Newfoundland, mainly serving as a connection with nearby Labrador. This -long ferry service, operated by the , is funded entirely by the government of Newfoundland and Labrador and connects with a southern terminus at St. Barbe on Newfoundland Island's Great Northern Peninsula. During winter months, ice conditions sometimes require the service to divert to Corner Brook instead of St. Barbe.
Road access.
So far, the Municipality of Blanc-Sablon is inaccessible directly via the rest of the Quebec road network. From the west, Route 138 has been built to the village of Kegashka; then following a gap, a segment restarts at the village of Old Fort and continues to Blanc-Sablon, ending at the border with Labrador where it becomes the Trans-Labrador Highway (Route 510). To connect the rest of Quebec from Blanc-Sablon, a traveller can take the Relais Nordik ferry (not drive-on/off, but can accommodate cars in shipping containers), or drive via Route 510 that connects Wabush on the border of Labrador and Quebec; then Route 389 of connects Wabush and Baie-Comeau to Quebec, passing to the east of Manicouagan Reservoir. This trip by the north (between Baie-Comeau and Blanc-Sablon) is . Once Route 138 is completed, the road distance between Baie-Comeau and Blanc-Sablon is estimated to be between to ; thereby reducing the distance about 38%.
The Government of Quebec invests annually for the future extension of Route 138 to Blanc-Sablon.
Air travel.
The Lourdes-de-Blanc-Sablon Airport provides scheduled air service to Blanc-Sablon.
History.
The place was already known to early European explorers who may have named it after the fine white sand of the eponymous bay ("blanc" means "white", whereas "sablon" is the diminutive form of "sable" meaning "sand"). Or it may be named after Blancs-Sablons Cove in Saint-Malo, home town of Jacques Cartier, who landed at the place in 1534 and set up a cross near the current site of Lourdes-de-Blanc-Sablon.
During the 16th and 17th centuries, Basque and Portuguese fishermen seasonally frequented the area. In 1704, Augustin Le Gardeur de Courtemanche, landlord of the lower Côte-Nord at that time, built Fort Pontchartrain at the current location of Brador. Permanent settlement did not begin until the 19th century with the arrival of French-Canadians, Acadians, and Jersey settlers. In 1858, the Mission of Longue-Pointe-de-Blanc-Sablon was established and took the name Lourdes-de-Blanc-Sablon or Notre-Dame-de-Lourdes at the end of 19th century. In 1884, the post office opened.
The area was first incorporated in 1963 as part of the Municipality of Côte-Nord-du-Golfe-Saint-Laurent, but separated on January 1, 1990, and became the Municipality of Blanc-Sablon.
Fifty hectares of land in Blanc-Sablon were designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 2007, as they contain over 60 archaeological sites relating to 9000 years of human occupation, including the Archaic, Dorset and European periods.
In August 2014, Blanc-Sablon mayor Armand Joncas expressed his personal discontent over neglect of the Basse-Côte-Nord area by the Quebec government, and discussed the secession of the Basse-Côte-Nord from Quebec to join the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, even though the mayor does not have any political or judicial powers to do so. Joncas cited a lack of a continuous road network to Quebec, isolation and lack of interest from the Quebec government and close logistics and cultural identity with the people of Labrador as his reasons.
Communities.
The municipality includes three villages: Blanc-Sablon, Lourdes-de-Blanc-Sablon, and Brador Bay.
Lourdes-de-Blanc-Sablon.
Lourdes-de-Blanc-Sablon () is the largest community in the municipality, and is located on the headland that separates Brador Bay from Blanc-Sablon Bay. It was originally known as Longue-Pointe (Long Point) until the beginning of the 20th century. It has a small natural harbour, and long depended on the fishing business.
Brador.
Brador or Brador Bay () is on the eastern shore of the namesake bay, north of the village of Lourdes-de-Blanc-Sablon. While known in the 18th century as Fort Pontchartrain and Phélipeaux Bay, its current name is the shortened form of Labrador. In French, the syllable "la" is a definite article, and in documents from the 17th and 18th century, this syllable was considered as such and separated from the rest of the name. François Martel de Brouague, the King's Commander of this region from 1714 to 1760, referred to this location as: "A la Baye de Phélipeaux, coste de la Brador" ("At the Bay of Phélipeaux, coast of the Brador").
Climate.
Blanc-Sablon experiences a subarctic climate (Köppen climate classification "Dfc"). It has short, cool summers, and very long and harsh winters. Although its latitude is only 51 degrees north, and its climate is tempered by the Atlantic Ocean, it experiences a much colder climate than other cities of the same latitude due to the cold Labrador Current. For example, London, England, on the same latitude, has an annual mean that is nearly 10˚C (18˚F) milder.
Education.
Centre de services scolaire du Littoral operates:


William Kennedy (explorer)

William Kennedy (April 1814 – January 25, 1890) was a Canadian fur trader, politician, and historian.
Life.
Kennedy was born at Cumberland House, Saskatchewan, a son of the Hudson's Bay Company Chief Factor, Alexander Kennedy and his English/Cree wife, Aggathas Margaret (Mary) Bear, daughter of Philip Turnor, a cartographer for the HBC. He travelled extensively through the western region, with his family, residing at many Hudson's Bay Company Posts and Forts including Fort Spokane and Fort Astoria while his father was the Chief Factor of the Columbia District. At thirteen, he was sent to his father's birthplace of St. Mary's Hope in the Orkney Islands of Scotland for his education. He returned to Canada after his father's death. Wanting to return to England to become a surgeon like his older brothers, he could not get the sponsorship. Instead, he took employment as a fur-trader with the Hudson's Bay Company HBC).
Kennedy worked at Coulange House as an HBC apprentice clerk in 1834. He married “à la façon du pays” Sarah Stevens (Algonquin) in 1834 and they had two children, William and Anthony. He left his wife and children for a posting to Fort Chimo in Ungava Bay in Quebec, and then served at various posts in northern Quebec and Labrador. He left the HBC in 1846 because he disagreed with the policy of selling liquor to indigenous people.
Kennedy was commander of Lady Franklin's sponsored expedition in 1851 to find her husband, Sir John Franklin, using the ketch "Prince Albert". His second in command was Joseph René Bellot, a French Navy sub-lieutenant. The expedition was well organized as Kennedy was well versed in northern travel, and used as many experienced men as he could find and outfitted them in native clothing. While the expedition did not find Franklin, it did acquire substantial knowledge of the Canadian Arctic. This was because of his preparedness and leadership: adapting the dress and survival techniques of the Inuit peoples, bringing a custom-made kayak for independent travel away from the ship, stopping in Greenland to purchase a dog-sled team, and asking the locals for the best routes and information of the area. They returned to Britain in October 1852 without losing any men, having recorded the flora, fauna, and cartography of the area; a first for any Arctic exploration to that date.
Lady Franklin placed Kennedy in charge of her auxiliary steamship "Isabel" to search the Arctic via the Bering Strait early in 1853. However, most of the crew including his sailing master Robert Grate mutinied at Valparaiso in August, claiming the vessel was too small for her mission. After two years trading around the South American coast while trying to find another crew willing to sail to the Arctic, he gave up and returned the "Isabel" to England in 1855.
After returning to England Captain Kennedy wrote a book about his expedition, earning further acclaim and public recognition. The British Historical Society invited him to present his drawings and findings to its members.
Upon his return to Canada in 1856, he became active in establishing a mail service between Toronto and the Red River Colony.
Before and after the Lady Franklin expedition Kennedy wrote several open letters to the Globe newspaper, which were printed, and received a great deal of attention. These letters questioned the leaders of Upper and Lower Canada for enabling the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) to govern Rupert's Land when they didn't have the legal authority.
Captain Kennedy collaborated with his nephew, Alexander Kennedy Isbister, a surgeon and barrister in the British parliament, also a former HBC employee, Métis, and staunch critic of the company. Utilizing his access he was able to directly reference the original company documents in the Parliament's archives. He determined that the agreement between the Magistrate and HBC granting authority to govern had expired decades earlier. The HBC's authority to govern continued solely because it had been uncontested. Kennedy challenged the governing authority of the HBC in the public arena of Canada's media. Isbister challenged it in the British Parliament. Isbister hand-delivered petitions from the residents of Rupert's Land and represented their requests to self-govern, twice, on the floor of the British Parliament.
Both Kennedy and Isbister risked their reputations, personal safety, social position, and utilized their personal funds, to bring this information to the attention of the people. After a decade of petitioning, campaigning, and soliciting the British upper class for support, the Parliament relented. Choosing to restructure instead of granting self-government, they united the regions of Upper and Lower Canada with Rupert's Land into the country of Canada. To this day, the second petition presented by Isbister resides in the National Gallery.
By 1860, Captain Kennedy settled at his family home in the Red River Settlement with his wife, Eleanor Cripps (a friend of Lady Franklin). During this period he operated a store with his brother George, eventually becoming active in the community as a magistrate, and member of the Board of Education of Manitoba. He was invited to present his Arctic findings at the first scientific address of the newly-formed Historical and Scientific Society of Manitoba, 1879.
By the 1880s, his niece's husband, John Norquay the Premier of Manitoba, recruited Captain Kennedy to be an active voice for the development of a railway from Winnipeg to Churchill. This was an important line in the quest to break the Canadian Pacific Railway's supply-chain monopoly over the region. He died before the line could be completed.
Kennedy, a supporter of the Canada party, did not participate during the 1869–70 Red River Rebellion because he was bed-ridden and crippled with arthritis.
During the 1910s, the Women's Canadian Club hosted a ceremony recognizing Captain Kennedy with a placard mounted at St. Andrews church. The inscription reads, "To William Kennedy, Arctic Explorer, by Sir Ernest Shackleton, the famous Antarctic explorer."
During the 1860s, Kennedy rebuilt his family home at Red River in the river-stone style, naming it The Maples. Currently, it still exists as the Red River House Museum at St. Andrews, which highlights the unique architecture from this era, and showcases his belongings from his period.


Acquackanonk people

The Acquackanonk were a Lenape group whose territory was on the Passaic River in northern New Jersey. They spoke the same dialect (Unami) and shared the same totem (turtle) as the neighboring Hackensack, Tappan and Rumachenanck (later called the Haverstraw).
It may mean "a place in a rapid stream where fishing is done with a net".
Alternatively, "at the lamprey stream" from contemporary "axkwaakahnung" (spellings include Achquakanonk, Acquackanonk) Lastly it may mean "where gum blocks were made for pounding corn".
"Ackquekenon" was spelling used by European explorer Jasper Danckaerts in 1679.
Part of the territory which they inhabited came into the possession of the Surveyor General of New Netherland Jacques Cortelyou, some "12,000 morgens at Aquackanonk on the Passaic, purchased by himself and associates of the Indians." A deed for the land (for Hans Didereck and others) is dated March 25, 1676. It was first settled in 1678 by Dutch traders, who in 1693 formed a Dutch Reformed congregation
Acquackanonk Township was incorporated in 1693. It was located in the northern part of Essex County, New Jersey. In 1837, Passaic County was created, incorporating this township and some portions of both Bergen County and Essex County. When formed, the township included parts of present-day Clifton, Paterson and Passaic.


Fort Nya Korsholm


Waputik Mountains

The Waputik Mountains are a mountain range of the Canadian Rockies, located on the Continental Divide between Banff and Yoho National Park. Covering an area of , the range is located west of the Howse, Blaeberry and Amiskwi Rivers and east of the Bow and Mistaya Rivers and south to Kicking Horse Pass. Named in 1884 by George M. Dawson, "waputik" is the Stoney Indian word for white goat.
Many of the highest peaks of the range are heavily glaciated as they sit within the Waputik and Wapta Icefields. The range is further divided into the President Range and Waputik Range
This range includes the following mountains and peaks:


List of mountain peaks of New Mexico

This article comprises three sortable tables of major mountain peaks of the U.S. State of New Mexico.
The summit of a mountain or hill may be measured in three principal ways:
Highest major summits.
Of the highest major summits of New Mexico, Wheeler Peak exceeds elevation, 11 peaks exceed , and 26 peaks exceed elevation.
Most prominent summits.
Of the most prominent summits of New Mexico, Sierra Blanca Peak is an ultra-prominent summit with more than of topographic prominence and 12 peaks exceed of topographic prominence.
Most isolated major summits.
Of the most isolated major summits of New Mexico, Sierra Blanca Peak exceeds of topographic isolation and three peaks exceed of topographic isolation.


Jacques Babie

Jacques Babie (c. 1633 – 28 July 1688) was the patriarch of a Canadian family (later spelled Bâby) that were successful fur traders for generations in Lower and Upper Canada. Their success earned them political roles in Canada even after Great Britain took over control of the territory.
Biography.
Military.
Babie moved to Canada from France in 1665 as part of a French regiment to fight the Iroquois nations, which were based in present-day New York and Pennsylvania south of the Great Lakes. After a peace agreement was reached in 1666 by Alexandre de Prouville Marquis de Tracy, Babie obtained his discharge from the army.
Trading.
He settled near Trois-Rivières to farm and compete in the fur trade. By 1668 he was actively engaged in the fur trade, working with First Nations along the upper Saint-Maurice and Ottawa rivers. He was also eligible to participate in the annual fur market in Montreal. He also continued to acquire land.
Personal life.
Babie married and had 11 children. At the time of his death in Champlain, Quebec, he left behind a comfortable inheritance. His youngest son, Raymond Babie, was the father of Jacques Baby, dit Dupéron, and François Baby, both of whom were notable in their generation.