Schenectady, New York

Schenectady () is a city in Schenectady County, New York, United States, of which it is the county seat. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 66,135, making it the state's the ninth-largest city by population. The name "Schenectady" is derived from the Mohawk word "skahnéhtati", meaning "beyond the pines". Schenectady was founded on the south side of the Mohawk River by Dutch colonists in the 17th century, many of whom were from the Albany area. The Dutch transferred the name "Skahnéhtati" which is in reality the Mohawk name for Albany, New York. These Dutch were prohibited from the fur trade by the Albany monopoly, which kept its control after the English takeover in 1664. Residents of the new village developed farms on strip plots along the river.
Connected to the west via the Mohawk River and Erie Canal, Schenectady developed rapidly in the 19th century as part of the Mohawk Valley trade, manufacturing, and transportation corridor. By 1824, more people worked in manufacturing than agriculture or trade, and the city had a cotton mill, processing cotton from the Deep South. Numerous mills in New York had such ties with the South. Through the 19th century, nationally influential companies and industries developed in Schenectady, including General Electric and American Locomotive Company (ALCO), which were powers into the mid-20th century. Schenectady was part of emerging technologies, with GE collaborating in the production of nuclear-powered submarines and, in the 21st century, working on other forms of renewable energy.
Schenectady is in eastern New York, near the confluence of the Mohawk and Hudson rivers. It is in the same metropolitan area as the state capital, Albany, which is about southeast.
History.
When first encountered by Europeans, the Mohawk Valley was the territory of the Mohawk nation, one of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, or "Haudenosaunee." They had occupied territory in the region since at least 1100 AD. Starting in the early 1600s the Mohawk moved their settlements closer to the river and by 1629, they had also taken over territories on the west bank of the Hudson River that were formerly held by the Algonquian-speaking Mahican people.
In the 1640s, the Mohawk had three major villages, all on the south side of the Mohawk River. The easternmost one was Ossernenon, located about 9 miles west of present-day Auriesville, New York. When Dutch settlers developed Fort Orange (present-day Albany, New York) in the Hudson Valley beginning in 1614, the Mohawk called their settlement "skahnéhtati," meaning "beyond the pines," referring to a large area of pine barrens that lay between the Mohawk settlements and the Hudson River. About 3200 acres of this unique ecosystem are now protected as the Albany Pine Bush. Eventually, this word entered the lexicon of the Dutch settlers. The settlers in Fort Orange used "skahnéhtati" to refer to the new village at the Mohawk flats (see below), which became known as Schenectady (with a variety of spellings).
In 1661, Arendt van Corlaer, (later Van Curler), a Dutch immigrant, bought a large piece of land on the south side of the Mohawk River. Other colonists were given grants of land by the colonial government in this portion of the flat fertile river valley, as part of New Netherland. The settlers recognized that these bottomlands had been cultivated for maize by the Mohawk for centuries. Van Curler took the largest piece of land; the remainder was divided into 50-acre plots for the other first fourteen proprietors; Alexander Lindsey Glen, Philip Hendrickse Brouwer, Simon Volkertse Veeder, Pieter Adrianne Van Wogglelum, Teunise Cornelise Swart, Bastia De Winter atty for Catalyn De Vos, Gerrit Bancker, William Teller, Pieter Jacobse Borsboom, Pieter Danielle Van Olinda, Jan Barentse Wemp(le), Jacques Cornelise Van Slyck, Marten Cornelise Van Esselstyn, and Harmen Albertse Vedder. As most early colonists were from the Fort Orange area, they may have anticipated working as fur traders, but the Beverwijck (later Albany) traders kept a monopoly of legal control. The settlers here turned to farming. Their 50-acre lots were unique for the colony, "laid out in strips along the Mohawk River", with the narrow edges fronting the river, as in French colonial style. They relied on rearing livestock and wheat. The proprietors and their descendants controlled all the land of the town for generations, essentially acting as government until after the Revolutionary War, when representative government was established.
From the early days of interaction, early Dutch traders in the valley had unions with Mohawk women, if not always official marriages. Their children were raised within the Mohawk community, which had a matrilineal kinship system, considering children born into the mother's clan. Even within Mohawk society, biological fathers played minor roles.
Some mixed-race descendants, such as Jacques Cornelissen Van Slyck and his sister Hilletie van Olinda, who were of Dutch, French and Mohawk ancestry, became interpreters and intermarried with Dutch colonists. They also gained land in the Schenectady settlement. They were among the few "métis" who seemed to move from Mohawk to Dutch society, as they were described as "former Indians", although they did not always have an easy time of it. In 1661 Jacques inherited what became known as Van Slyck's Island from his brother Marten, who had been given it by the Mohawk. Van Slyck family descendants retained ownership through the 19th century.
Because of labor shortages in the colony, some Dutch settlers brought African slaves to the region. In Schenectady, they used them as farm laborers. The English also imported slaves and continued with agriculture in the river valley. Traders in Albany kept control of the fur trade after the takeover by the English.
In 1664 the English seized the Dutch New Netherland colony and renamed it New York. They confirmed the monopoly on the fur trade by Albany, and issued orders to prohibit Schenectady from the trade through 1670 and later. Settlers purchased additional land from the Mohawk in 1670 and 1672. (Jacques and Hilletie Van Slyck each received portions of land in the Mohawk 1672 deed for Schenectady.) Twenty years later (1684) Governor Thomas Dongan granted letters patent for Schenectady to five additional trustees.
On February 8, 1690, during King William's War, French forces and their Indian allies, mostly Ojibwe and Algonquin warriors, attacked Schenectady by surprise, leaving 62 dead, 11 of them African slaves. American history notes it as the Schenectady massacre. A total of 27 persons were taken captive, including five African slaves; the raiders took their captives overland about 200 miles to Montreal and its associated Mohawk mission village of Kahnawake. Typically the younger captives were adopted by Mohawk families to replace people who had died. Through the early 18th century in the raiding between Quebec and the northern British colonies, some captives were ransomed by their communities. Colonial governments got involved only for high-ranking officers or other officials. In 1748, during King George's War, the French and Indians attacked Schenectady again, killing 70 residents.
In 1765, Schenectady was incorporated as a borough. During the American Revolutionary War the local militia unit, the 2nd Albany County Militia Regiment, fought in the Battle of Saratoga and against Loyalist troops. Most of the warfare in the Mohawk Valley occurred farther west on the frontier in the areas of German Palatine settlement west of Little Falls. Because of their close business and other relationships with the British, some settlers from the city were Loyalists and moved to Canada in the late stages of the Revolution. The Crown granted them land in what became known as Upper Canada and later Ontario.
New Republic.
It was not until after the Revolutionary War that the village residents were successful in reducing the power of descendants of the early trustees and gained representative government. The settlement was chartered as a city in 1798. Long interested in supporting higher education and morals, the members of the city's three oldest churches—the Dutch First Reformed Church, St. Georges Episcopal Church, and First Presbyterian Church—formed a "union" and founded Union College in 1795 under a charter from the state. The school had started in 1785 as Schenectady Academy. This founding was part of the expansion of higher education in upstate New York in the postwar years.
During this period, migrants poured into upstate and western New York from New England, but there were also new immigrants from England and Europe. Many traveled west along the Mohawk River, settling in the western part of the state, where they developed more agriculture on former Iroquois lands. A dairy industry developed in the central part of the state. New settlers were predominantly of English and Scotch-Irish descent. In 1819, Schenectady suffered a fire that destroyed more than 170 buildings and most of its historic, distinctive Dutch-style architecture.
New York had passed a law for gradual abolition of slavery in 1799, but in 1824, there were still a total of 102 slaves in Schenectady County, with nearly half residing in the city. That year the city of Schenectady had a total population of 3939, which included 240 free blacks, 47 slaves, and 91 foreigners.
In the 19th century, after completion of the Erie Canal in 1825, Schenectady became an important transportation, manufacturing and trade center. By 1824 more of its population worked in manufacturing than agriculture or trade. Among the industries was a cotton mill, which processed cotton from the Deep South. It was one of many such mills in upstate whose products were part of the exports shipped out of New York City. The city and state had many economic ties to the South at the same time that some residents became active in the abolitionist movement.
Schenectady benefited by increased traffic connecting the Hudson River to the Mohawk Valley and the Great Lakes to the west and New York City to the south. The Albany and Schenectady Turnpike (now State Street) was constructed in 1797 to connect Albany to settlements in the Mohawk Valley. The Mohawk and Hudson Railroad started operations in 1831 as one of the first railway lines in the United States, connecting the city and Albany by a route through the pine barrens between them. Developers in Schenectady quickly founded the Utica & Schenectady Railroad, chartered in 1833; Schenectady & Susquehanna Railroad, chartered May 5, 1836; and Schenectady & Troy Railroad, chartered in 1836, making Schenectady "the rail hub of America at the time" and competing with the Erie Canal. Commodities from the Great Lakes areas and commercial products were shipped to the East and New York City through the Mohawk Valley and Schenectady.
The last slaves in New York and Schenectady gained freedom in 1827, under the state's gradual abolition law. The law first gave freedom to children born to slave mothers, but they were indentured to the mother's master for a period into their early 20s. Union College established a school for black children in 1805, but discontinued it after two years. Methodists helped educate the children for a time, but public schools did not accept them.
In the 1830s, the abolitionist movement grew in Schenectady. In 1836, Rev. Isaac Groot Duryee (also recorded as Duryea) co-founded the interracial Anti-Slavery Society at Union College and the Anti-Slavery Society of Schenectady in 1837. Freedom seekers were supported via the Underground Railroad route that ran through the area, passing to the west and north to Canada, which had abolished slavery.
In 1837 Duryee, together with other free people of color, co-founded the First Free Church of Schenectady (now the Duryee Memorial AME Zion Church). He also started a school for students of color. The abolitionist Theodore S. Wright, an African-American minister based in New York City, spoke at the dedication of the church and praised the school.
Through the late 19th century, new industries were established in the Mohawk Valley and powered by the river. Industrial jobs attracted many new immigrants, first from Ireland, and later in the century from Italy and Poland. In 1887, Thomas Edison moved his Edison Machine Works to Schenectady. In 1892, Schenectady became the headquarters of the General Electric Company. This business became a major industrial and economic force and helped establish the city and region as a national manufacturing center. GE became important nationally as a creative company, expanding into many different fields. American Locomotive Company also developed here, from a Schenectady company, and merging several smaller companies in 1901; it was second in the United States in the manufacture of steam locomotives before developing diesel technology.
20th century to present.
Like other industrial cities in the Mohawk Valley, in the early 20th century, Schenectady attracted many new immigrants from eastern and southern Europe, as they could fill many of the new industrial jobs. It also attracted African Americans as part of the Great Migration out of the rural South to northern cities for work. General Electric and American Locomotive Company (ALCO) were industrial powerhouses, influencing innovation in a variety of fields across the country.
Schenectady is home to WGY, the second commercial radio station in the United States, (after WBZ in Springfield, Massachusetts, which was named for Westinghouse.) WGY was named for its owner, General Electric (the G), and the city of Schenectady (the Y). In 1928, General Electric produced the first regular television broadcasts in the United States, when the experimental station W2XB began regular broadcasts on Thursday and Friday afternoons. This television station is now WRGB; for years it was the Capital District's NBC affiliate, but has been the area's CBS affiliate since 1981.
The city reached its peak of population in 1930. The Great Depression caused a loss of jobs and population in its wake. In the postwar period after World War II, some residents moved to newer housing in suburban locations outside the city. In addition, General Electric established some high-tech facilities in the neighboring town of Niskayuna, which contributed to continuing population growth in the county. In the latter part of the 20th century, Schenectady suffered from the massive industrial and corporate restructuring that affected much of the US, including in the railroads. It lost many jobs and population to other locations, including offshore. Since the late 20th century, it has been shaping a new economy, based in part on renewable energy. Its population increased from 2000 to 2010.
Geography.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which of it is land and of it (1.27%) is water.
It is part of the Capital District, the metropolitan area surrounding Albany, New York state's capital. Along with Albany and Troy, it is one of the three principal population and industrial centers in the region.
Interstate 890 runs through Schenectady, and the New York State Thruway (Interstate 90) is nearby. Amtrak has a station in Schenectady. The nearest airport is Schenectady County Airport; the nearest commercial airport is Albany International Airport.
Schenectady's ZIP code of 12345 has attracted media attention on account of its simplicity.
Schenectady has a humid continental climate that is hot-summer ("Dfa") bordering upon warm-summer ("Dfb".) Average monthly temperatures range from 22.9 °F in January to 71.8 °F in July.
Economy.
Schenectady was a manufacturing center known as "The City that Lights and Hauls the World"—a reference to two prominent businesses in the city, the Edison Electric Company (now known as General Electric), and the American Locomotive Company (ALCO).
GE retains its steam turbine manufacturing facilities in Schenectady and its Global Research facility in nearby Niskayuna. Thousands of manufacturing jobs have been relocated from Schenectady to the Sun Belt and abroad. Corporate headquarters are now in Boston.
ALCO produced steam locomotives for railroads for years. Later it became renowned for its "Superpower" line of high-pressure locomotives, such as those for the Union Pacific Railroad in the 1930s and 1940s. During World War II, it converted to support the war, making tanks for the US Army. As diesel locomotives began to be manufactured, ALCO joined with GE to develop diesel locomotives to compete with GM's EMD division. But corporate restructuring to cope with the changing locomotive procurement environment led to ALCO's slow downward spiral. Its operations fizzled as it went through acquisitions and restructuring in the late 1960s. Its Schenectady plant closed in 1969.
In the late 20th century, due to industrial restructuring, the city lost many jobs and suffered difficult financial times, as did many former manufacturing cities in upstate New York. The loss of employment caused Schenectady's population to decline by nearly one-third from 1950 into the late 20th century. The early industries had left many sites contaminated with hazardous wastes. Such environmental brownfields have needed technical approaches for redevelopment.
In the 21st century, Schenectady began revitalization. GE established a renewable energy center that brought hundreds of employees to the area. The city is part of a metropolitan area with improving economic health, and a number of buildings have been renovated for new uses. Numerous small businesses, retail stores and restaurants have developed on State Street downtown.
Price Chopper Supermarkets and the New York Lottery are based in Schenectady.
In December 2014, the state announced that the city was one of three sites selected for development of off-reservation casino gambling, under terms of a 2013 state constitutional amendment. The project would redevelop an ALCO brownfield site in the city along the waterfront, with hotels, housing and a marina in addition to the casino.
In February 2017, the Rivers Casino & Resort opened with 66 table games and 1,150 slot machines on a 50,000-square-foot gambling floor with a steakhouse and a restaurant lounge. The $480 million residential-retail project on 60 acres includes a marina, two hotels, condos, apartments and retail and office space for tech firms.
Demographics.
In the census of 2010, there were 66,135 people, 26,265 (2000 data) households, and 14,051 (2000 data) families residing in the city. The population density was 6,096.7 people per square mile (2,199.9/km2). There were 30,272 (2000 data) housing units at an average density of 2,790.6 per square mile (1,077.2/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 59.38% (52.31% Non-Hispanic) (7.07 White-Hispanic) White, 24.19% African American, 14.47% Hispanic or Latin of any race, 8.24% from other races, 5.74% from two or more races, 2.62% Asian American, 0.69% Native American, and 0.14% Pacific Islander. There is a growing Guyanese population in the area. The top ancestries self-identified by people on the census are Italian (13.6%), Guyanese (12.3%), Irish (12.1%), Puerto Rican (10.1%), German (8.7%), English (6.0%), Polish (5.4%), French (4.4%). These reflect historic and early 20th-century immigration, as well as that since the late 20th century.
The Schenectady City School District is very diverse; (71%- 2011)(80%–2013) of district students receive free or reduced lunch. The student population of the school district is majority minority: 35% Black (48% Graduate), 32% White (71% Graduate), 18% Hispanic (51% Graduate), 15% Asian (68% Graduate). As of 2016, the graduation rate for the high school was 56%.
Using 2010 data, there were 28,264 households, out of which 31.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.0% were married couples living together, 24.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 45.5% were non-families. 38.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.98.
In the city, the year 2010 population was spread out, with 26.3% under the age of 18, 13.6% from 18 to 24, 30.7% from 25 to 44, 21.1% from 45 to 64, and 7.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32. For every 100 females, there were 92.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.4 males.
The median income for a household in the city in 2000 was $29,378 (2010–$37,436), and the median income for a family was $41,158. Males had a median income of $32,929 versus $26,856 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,076. About 20.2% of families and 25.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 41.5% of those under age 18 and 5.6% of those age 65 or over.
Religion.
The largest religious body is the Catholic church, with 44,000 adherents, followed by Islam, with 6,000 followers. The third largest religious body is the Reformed Church in America, with 3,600 members. The fourth is the United Methodist denomination, with 2,800 members.
Notable congregations are the First Presbyterian Church (Schenectady, New York), which is affiliated with the PCA. First Reformed Church RCA is formed in the 17th century, one of the oldest churches in the town. St George's Episcopal Church dates back to 1735; it shared facilities with the Presbyterians for more than 30 years.
Rail transportation.
Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides regular service to Schenectady, with Schenectady station at 322 Erie Boulevard. Trains include the "Ethan Allen," "Adirondack," "Lake Shore Limited," "Maple Leaf," and "Empire Service". Schenectady also has freight rail service from Canadian Pacific Railway and Norfolk Southern Railway.
In the early 20th century, Schenectady had an extensive streetcar system that provided both local and interurban passenger service. The Schenectady Railway Co. had local lines and interurban lines serving Albany, Ballston Spa, Saratoga Springs and Troy. There was also a line from Gloversville, Johnstown, Amsterdam, and Scotia into Downtown Schenectady operated by the Fonda, Johnstown, and Gloversville Railroad. The nearly 200 leather and glove companies in the Gloversville region generated considerable traffic for the line. Sales representatives carrying product sample cases began their sales campaigns throughout the rest of the country by taking the interurban to reach Schenectady's New York Central Railroad station, where they connected to trains to New York City, Chicago and points between.
The bright orange FJ&G interurbans were scheduled to meet every daylight New York Central train that stopped at Schenectady. Through the 1900s and into the early 1930s, the line was quite prosperous. In 1932 the FJ&G purchased five lightweight "bullet cars" (#125 through 129) from the J. G. Brill Company. These interurbans represented state-of-the-art design: the "bullet" description referred to the unusual front roof that was designed to slope down to the windshield in an aerodynamically sleek way. FJ&G bought the cars believing that there would be continuing strong passenger business from a prosperous glove and leather industry, as well as legacy tourism traffic to Lake Sacandaga north of Gloversville. Instead, roads were improved, automobiles became cheaper and were purchased more widely, tourists traveled greater distances by car, and the Great Depression decreased business overall.
FJ&G ridership continued to decline and in 1938 New York state condemned the line's bridge over the Mohawk River at Schenectady. The bridge had once carried cars, pedestrians, and the interurban, but ice flow damage in 1928 prompted the state to restrict its use to the interurban. When the state condemned the bridge for interurban use, the line abandoned passenger service, and the bullet cars were sold. Freight business had also been important to the FJ&G, and it continued over the risky bridge into Schenectady a few more years.
Education.
The city is served by the Schenectady City School District, which operates 16 elementary schools, three middle schools and the main high school Schenectady High School. Brown School is a private, nonsectarian kindergarten-through-8th grade school. Catholic schools are administered by the Diocese of Albany.
Wildwood School is a special education, all-ages school.
Schenectady's tertiary educational institutions are Union College, a private liberal arts college, and Schenectady County Community College, a public community college.
Representation in popular culture.
Due to its early importance in national history and the economy, Schenectady figured in popular culture.


Margarita Schuyler

Margarita Schuyler (January 12, 1701–August 28, 1782), known primarily as Madame Schulyer and Aunt Schuyler during her lifetime, daughter of Johannes Schuyler, society leader, and advisor. The wife of Colonel Philip Schuyler, she frequently hosted Native Americans, British soldiers, travelers, and family members. Schuyler was a leader of Albany society and a philanthropist. She had her large barn outfitted and operated as a hospital during the Battle of Ticonderoga in 1777. She did not have children of her own, but she took in children of family members to ensure that they had a good education. She was the subject of "Memoirs of an American Lady" by Anne McVickar Grant.
Early life.
Born January 12, 1701, Margarita Schuyler was the daughter of widow Elsie Staats Wendell Schuyler and Col. Johannes Schuyler (1668–1747), from the large extended family, Schuyler family. Elsie was a widow with eleven children when she married Johannes, who was ten years her junior. Johannes was a fur trader, member of the militia, a businessman, and a politician. From her father, she learned Indian Affairs, military tactics, and politics.
Margarita was one of four children born to Elsie and Johannes, her siblings were Phillip, Johannes, and Catalyntja (wife of Cornelis Cuyler. She grew up on a family farm and a house on State Street in Albany. She later inherited a house on State Street from her father's estate.
Personal life.
She married Phillip Schuyler (1695–1758), son of her paternal uncle Pieter Schuyler and Maria Van Rensselaer. They were married in December 1720 at the Albany Dutch Church. They did not have any children. Phillip Schuyler was a "gentleman of distinction and high respectability in the colony". Her husband was known as Colonel Phillipus Schuyler.
Leader.
Schuyler became known lovingly as "Aunt" by her extended family and "Madame Schuyler" for her role in Albany as a matriarchal figure and hostess. She was called "Good Lady, Madame Schuyler" by French Canadian prisoners. Known for her intelligence, common sense, refinement and courtesy, she was said to be the "arbiter of elegance and morals" in Albany. She was also a political and military advisor.
The Schuylers lived at Schuyler Flatts, a manor between Troy and Albany along the banks of the Hudson River, that was a retreat for Schuyler family members and travelers, since she had a home large enough to take in guests and there were no hotels at that time. The location, alongside the Hudson and along routes traveling from New England through Kinderhook or Bennington, Vermont, made it a convenient stop for travelers. It was also the "centre of the best society" that Albany could furnish". Leading up to and during war time, she had more guests, while also more involved in tending to a greater number of neighbors in need, so that it was difficult to manage having enough food and provisions. Her pantry was augmented by meat provided by Native Americans who had enjoyed her hospitality.
Schuyler provided hospitality for British officers, including General John Bradstreet who was a friend. During the French and Indian Wars, Seven Years' War and the American Revolution, Schuyler Flatts was used for staging of the troops, lodging for women and children as their men were at war, and tending to the sick and injured in the large barn that was outfitted as a hospital, where Schuyler and other women could tend to up to 500 soldiers. The hospital was used during the Battle of Ticonderoga in 1777.
Concerned about her continual interest in education, she scheduled time each day to read consequential book and she ensured that "her own flock of nieces and nephews" received a proper education. Although she did not have children of her own, there were always children around her who benefited from lessons provided by Schuyler "in preparation for their future duties in life". After her husband died, she "clung more closely" to the children in her charge. During the throes of war, whose stores of food were taken and as they were besieged by battles and racketeers, she became the spokesperson for the residents. She negotiated a meeting in 1765 with the family members near and far and Native Americans for the release of children taken during war while their parents worked in the fields or had been orphaned. The mothers reunited with their children were joyful, while the Native American mothers who had taken in the children were sorrowful. They were upset to lose the children that they raised, and many believed that the children would not be as happy in their birth family's homes.
Death and legacy.
Phillip died on February 16, 1758. Schuyler died on August 28, 1782 at Schuyler Flatts. They were originally interred at a burial plot at Schuyler Flatts and were later reinterred at Albany Rural Cemetery.
She was the subject of "Memoirs of an American Lady" by Anne McVickar Grant and the "The Aunt Schuyler House" in "The Annals of Albany".
References.
Notes
Citations
External links


Lake Winnipeg

Lake Winnipeg () is a very large, relatively shallow lake in North America, in the province of Manitoba, Canada. Its southern end is about north of the city of Winnipeg. Lake Winnipeg is Canada's sixth-largest freshwater lake and the third-largest freshwater lake contained entirely within Canada, but it is relatively shallow (mean depth of ) excluding a narrow deep channel between the northern and southern basins. It is the eleventh-largest freshwater lake on Earth. The lake's east side has pristine boreal forests and rivers that were in 2018 inscribed as Pimachiowin Aki UNESCO World Heritage Site. The lake is from north to south, with remote sandy beaches, large limestone cliffs, and many bat caves in some areas. Manitoba Hydro uses the lake as one of the largest reservoirs in the world. There are many islands, most of them undeveloped.
The Sagkeeng First Nation holds a reserve on Turtle Island, in the southern part of the lake. The Anishinaabe people have been in this area for hundreds of years.
Hydrography.
Lake Winnipeg has the largest watershed of any lake in Canada, receiving water from four U.S. states (North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota and Montana via tributaries of the Oldman River) and four Canadian provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan, Ontario and Manitoba).<ref name="Stewart/Watkinson"></ref> The lake's watershed measures about . Its drainage is about 40 times larger than its surface, a ratio bigger than any other large lake in the world.
Lake Winnipeg drains northward into the Nelson River at an average annual rate of 2,066 cubic metres per second (72,960 cu ft/s), and forms part of the Hudson Bay watershed, which is one of the largest drainage basins in the world. This watershed area was known as Rupert's Land when the Hudson's Bay Company was chartered in 1670.
Tributaries.
The Saskatchewan River flows in from the west through Cedar Lake, the Red River (including Assiniboine River) flows in from the south, and the Winnipeg River (draining Lake of the Woods, Rainy River and Rainy Lake) enters from the southeast. The Dauphin River enters from the west, draining Lake Manitoba and Lake Winnipegosis. The Bloodvein River, Berens River, Poplar River and the Manigotagan River flow in from the eastern side of the lake which is within the Canadian Shield.
Other tributaries of Lake Winnipeg (clockwise from the south end) include; Meleb Drain (drainage canal), Drunken River, Icelandic River, Washow Bay Creek, Sugar Creek, Beaver Creek, Mill Creek, Moose Creek, Fisher River, Jackhead River, Kinwow Bay Creek, Jackpine Creek, Mantagao River, Solomons Creek, Jumping Creek, Warpath River, South Two Rivers, North Two Rivers, South Twin Creek, North Twin Creek, Saskachaywiak Creek, Eating Point Creek, Woody Point Creeks, Muskwa Creek, Buffalo Creek, Fiddler Creek, Sturgeon Creek, Hungry River, Cypress Creek, William River, Bélanger River, Mukutawa River, Crane Creek, Kapawekapuk Creek, Marchand Creek, Leaf River, Pigeon River, Taskapekawe Creek, Bradbury River, Petopeko Creek, Loon Creek, Sanders Creek, Rice River, Wanipigow River, Barrie Creek, Mutch Creek, Sandy River, Black River, Sandy Creek, Catfish Creek, Jackfish Creek, Marais Creek, Brokenhead River and Devils Creek.
Geology.
Lake Winnipeg and Lake Manitoba are remnants of prehistoric Glacial Lake Agassiz, although there is evidence of a desiccated south basin of Lake Winnipeg approximately 4,000 years ago. The area between the lakes is called the Interlake Region, and the whole region is called the Manitoba Lowlands.
Natural history.
Fish.
The varying habitats found within the lake support a large number of fish species, more than any other lake in Canada west of the Great Lakes. Sixty of seventy-nine native species found in Manitoba are present in the lake.<ref name="Stewart/Watkinson_occurence"></ref> Families represented include lampreys (Petromyzontidae), sturgeon (Acipenseridae), mooneyes (Hiodontidae), minnows (Cyprinidae), suckers (Catostomidae), catfish (Ictaluridae), pikes (Esocidae), trout and whitefish (Salmonidae), troutperch (Percopsidae), codfish (Gadidae), sticklebacks (Gasterosteidae), sculpins (Cottidae), sunfish (Centrarchidae), perch (Percidae), and drum (Sciaenidae).
Two fish species present in the lake are considered to be at risk, the shortjaw cisco and the bigmouth buffalo.
Rainbow trout and brown trout are stocked in Manitoba waters by provincial fisheries as part of a put and take program to support angling opportunities. Neither species is able to sustain itself independently in Manitoba.
Smallmouth bass was first recorded from the lake in 2002, indicating populations introduced elsewhere in the watershed are now present in the lake.
White bass were first recorded from the lake in 1963, ten years after being introduced into Lake Ashtabula in North Dakota.
Common carp were introduced to the lake through the Red River of the North and are firmly established.
Birds.
Lake Winnipeg provides feeding and nesting sites for a wide variety of birds associated with water during the summer months.
Isolated, uninhabited islands provide nesting sites for colonial nesting birds including pelicans, gulls and terns. Large marshes, shores and shallows allow these birds to successfully feed themselves and their young. Pipestone Rocks are considered a globally significant site for American white pelicans. In 1998, an estimated 3.7% of the world's population of this bird at the time were counted nesting on the rocky outcrops. The same site is significant within North America for the numbers of colonial waterbirds using the area, especially Common terns. Other globally significant nesting areas are found at Gull Island and Sandhill Island, Little George Island and Louis Island. Birds nesting at these sites include Common and Caspian terns, Herring gull, Ring-billed gull, Double-crested cormorant and Greater scaup.
Lake Winnipeg has two sites considered globally important in the fall migration. Large populations of waterfowl and shorebirds use the sand bars east of Riverton as a staging area for fall migration. The Netley-Libau Marsh, where the Red River enters Lake Winnipeg, is used by geese, ducks and swallows to gather for the southward migration.
Piping Plovers, an endangered species of shorebird, are found in several locations around the lake. The Gull Bay Spits, south of the town of Grand Rapids are considered nationally significant nesting sites for this species.
Environmental issues.
Lake Winnipeg is suffering from many environmental issues such as an explosion in the population of algae, caused by excessive amounts of phosphorus seeping into the lake, therefore not absorbing enough nitrogen. The phosphorus levels are approaching a point that could be dangerous for human health.
The Global Nature Fund declared Lake Winnipeg as the "threatened lake of the year" in 2013.
In 2015, there was a major uptick of zebra mussels in Lake Winnipeg, the reduction of which is next to impossible because of a lack of natural predators in the lake. The mussels are devastating to the ecological opportunities of the lake.
History.
It is believed Henry Kelsey was the first European to see the lake, in 1690. He adopted the Cree language name for the lake: "wīnipēk" (ᐐᓂᐯᐠ), meaning "muddy waters". La Vérendrye referred to the lake as "Ouinipigon" when he built the first forts in the area in the 1730s. Later, the Red River Colony to its south took the lake's name for Winnipeg, the capital of Manitoba.
Lake Winnipeg lies along one of the oldest trading routes in North America to have flown the British flag. For several centuries, furs were traded along this route between York Factory on Hudson Bay (which was the longtime headquarters for the Hudson's Bay Company) over Lake Winnipeg and the Red River Trails to the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers at Saint Paul, Minnesota. This was a strategic trading route for the First British Empire. With the establishment of the Second British Empire after Britain's loss of the Thirteen Colonies, a significant increase in trade occurred over Lake Winnipeg between Rupert's Land and the United States.
Economy.
Transportation.
Because of its length, the Lake Winnipeg water system and the lake was an important transportation route in the province before the railways reached Manitoba. It continued to be a major transportation route even after the railways reached the province. In addition to aboriginal canoes and York boats, several steamboats plied the lake, including "Anson Northup", "City of Selkirk", "Colvile", "Keenora", "Premier", "Princess", "Winnitoba", "Wolverine" and most recently the diesel-powered "MS Lord Selkirk II" passenger cruise ship.
Communities.
Communities on the lake include Grand Marais, Lester Beach, Riverton, Gimli, Winnipeg Beach, Victoria Beach, Hillside beach, Pine Falls, Manigotagan, Berens River, Bloodvein, Sandy Hook, Albert Beach, Hecla Village and Grand Rapids. A number of pleasure beaches are found on the southern end of the lake, which are popular in the summer, attracting many visitors from Winnipeg, about 80 km south.
Commercial fisheries.
Lake Winnipeg has important commercial fisheries. Its catch makes up a major part of Manitoba's $30 million per year fishing industry. The lake was once the main source of goldeye in Canada, which is why the fish is sometimes called Winnipeg goldeye. Walleye and whitefish together account for over 90 percent of its commercial fishing.


Elk Mountains (Colorado)

The Elk Mountains are a high, rugged mountain range in the Rocky Mountains of west-central Colorado in the United States. The mountains sit on the western side of the Continental Divide, largely in southern Pitkin and northern Gunnison counties, in the area southwest of Aspen, south of the Roaring Fork River valley, and east of the Crystal River. The range sits west of the Sawatch Range and northeast of the West Elk Mountains. Much of the range is located within the White River National Forest and the Gunnison National Forest, as well as the Maroon Bells-Snowmass Wilderness and Raggeds Wilderness. The Elk Mountains rise nearly 9,000 ft. above the Roaring Fork Valley to the north.
The highest peaks in the range are its fourteeners, Castle Peak (14,265 ft), Maroon Peak (14,156 ft), Capitol Peak (14,130 ft), Snowmass Mountain (14,092 ft), Pyramid Peak (14,018 ft), and North Maroon Peak (14,014 ft). Maroon Peak and North Maroon Peak are collectively known as the Maroon Bells, a popular destination for recreation alpinism. Mount Sopris (12,953 ft) sits at the northwest end of the range and dominates the skyline of the lower Roaring Fork Valley and the town of Carbondale, Colorado, serving as an unofficial symbol of the area.
Additional notable peaks in the range include:
The range provides a formidable barrier to travel and is traversed only by backroad passes and trails, including Schofield Pass, Pearl Pass, and Taylor Pass. State Highway 133 traverses McClure Pass, at the western end of the range. The range has been the site of mining activity since the days of the Colorado Silver Boom, which saw the founding of mining towns such as Aspen and Ashcroft. In the late 19th century, the western and southern flank of the range became the site of intense coal mining activity which continues to the present day. Treasure Mountain, overlooking the town of Marble, is home to the famous Yule Marble Quarry. Quarried marble was used to create The Tomb of the Unknowns, the Lincoln Memorial, Denver Post Office and other buildings. The range receives a great deal of snowfall due to its position to the west of the continental divide and the westerly origin of many winter storms. This is exploited by the ski areas in the vicinity of Aspen, which are located on the flanks of smaller mountains alongside the Roaring Fork Valley.


Sebastian Croll

Sebastian Croll was a Dutchman said to have been made the first commissary of Fort Orange in 1617, which was built on the site of the present-day city of Albany, New York.
He was also an elder in the "Church in the Fort," which was founded by the Rev. Jonas Michaelius in 1628.
The last name "Croll" is pronounced in Dutch, similar to the English pronunciation, but according to an upper class widow living in Hudson, New York in 1909, one Mrs. Anna R. Bradbury, "Croll" is pronounced as "crull" in Dutch. Thus she claimed that he introduced the cruller to the New World, and that she thus believed him to be the eponym for the pastry. This belief has been repeated in other later US works.


Lindsay, Ontario

Lindsay is a community of 20,713 people (2016 census) on the Scugog River in the Kawartha Lakes region of south-eastern Ontario, Canada. It is approximately west of Peterborough. It is the seat of the City of Kawartha Lakes (formerly Victoria County), and the hub for business and commerce in the region.
Lindsay Transit provides bus service to the community and surrounding area.
History.
The Township of Ops was surveyed in 1825 by Colonel Duncan McDonell, and Lots 20 and 21 in the 5th Concession were reserved for a town site. The same year settlers began to come to the region, and by 1827, the Purdys, an American family, built a dam on the Scugog River at the site of present-day Lindsay. The following year they built a sawmill, and in 1830, a grist mill was constructed.
A small village grew up around the mills, and it was known as Purdy's Mills. In 1834, surveyor John Huston plotted the designated town site into streets and lots. During the survey, one of Huston's assistants, Mr. Lindsay, was accidentally shot in the leg and died of an infection. He was buried on the riverbank and his name and death were recorded on the surveyor's plan. The name Lindsay remained as the name of the town by government approval. Lindsay grew steadily and developed into a lumbering and farming centre.
With the arrival of the Port Hope Railway in 1857, the town saw a period of rapid development and industrial growth. On June 19 of the same year, Lindsay was formally incorporated as a town. In 1861, a fire swept through the town and most of Lindsay was destroyed with hundreds of people left homeless. It took many years for Lindsay to recover from this disaster. In the late 19th century, local photographers Fowler & Oliver worked out of the Sunbeam Photo Gallery. It was also the home to Sir Samuel Hughes, the Canadian Minister of Militia during the First World War. The Victoria Street Armouries were built during this time.
In 2001 Lindsay's town government was officially dissolved and merged, with Victoria County into the new City of Kawartha Lakes.
Railway.
The first railway to arrive in Lindsay was the Port Hope, Lindsay & Beaverton Railway (PHL&B), originally chartered in 1846 as the Peterborough & Port Hope Railway. The first train arrived at the St. Paul and King Streets station (Lindsay’s first) on the east side of the Scugog River on October 16, 1857. In 1871 it continued on over the Scugog River across a swing-bridge, gained height on the west bank, and then headed west out to Beaverton. It was renamed the Port Hope Railway in 1869.
Lindsay’s second railway began as the Fenelon Falls Railway in 1871, changing its name to the Lindsay, Fenelon Falls & Ottawa River Valley Railway, and then to the Victoria Railway. It reached and terminated at Haliburton in 1878. At its Lindsay end, it connected with the original Midland Railway route on William Street North at "Victoria Junction" in 1875, and its original Lindsay terminus was at the PHL&B/Midland station at St. Paul and King Streets. In 1877, it applied to the Town of Lindsay to extend its railway down Victoria Avenue to Glenelg Street to connect with the WPP&L (see below), where a brick station (Lindsay’s second) was built on Victoria Ave between Glenelg and Melbourne Streets to serve the two railways as a union station.
Lindsay’s third railway was the Port Whitby & Port Perry Railway, extended from Port Perry to Lindsay in 1876, reaching Albert Street, Lindsay on June 15, 1877 as the Whitby, Port Perry & Lindsay Railway (WPP&L).
In 1881, the Midland Railway acquired the neighbouring smaller railways and built two links important to Lindsay. One was between Wick (Blackwater) Jct., and Cresswell (Manilla Jct.) in early 1883 for a direct route between Lindsay and Toronto (hitherto via Lorneville Jct.); and the other ("the Missing Link") between Peterborough and Omemee in late 1883, for a direct Lindsay – Peterborough connection (hitherto via Millbrook Jct.).
In Lindsay, a new entry from Omemee was then decided upon, and a bridge was built over the Scugog River at the east end of Durham St. The track now came along just south of Durham to Cambridge Street, where it curved north to connect with the former Victoria Railway on Victoria Avenue. A new station (Lindsay’s third) was built at the south end of William Street in 1883, at which time the King at St. Paul Street station was abandoned. The new station burned in 1885, and the former union station was taken back into use until 1890 when a grand new two-storey station was built (Lindsay’s fourth), that lasted until 1963. The union station was demolished around 1890. A freight shed was built on the site, which was destroyed by fire in 1954. (It was replaced by another freight shed, demolished in 2006.)
In 1887 the Midland Railway made Lindsay its operational headquarters. A large freight yard was built south of Durham between Lindsay and Hamilton Sts, and the Port Hope engine house was dismantled and rebuilt in Lindsay as a running shed, together with the attendant shops, on the east side of Albert St. south of Durham. In the meantime the old swing-bridge across the Scugog River at Lindsay and Colborne Sts. was dismantled in 1887, and the former Midland Railway route across Victoria Jct. and through what is now the Lindsay airport was abandoned when
the new direct line from Lindsay out to Midland was built in 1907. The Grand Trunk Railway (GTR) took over the Midland in 1884, and Lindsay became a division point for the GTR’s 8
th (Belleville, Peterborough and Port Hope), 9th (Midland and Coboconk) and 10th (Scarboro Jct., Whitby and Haliburton) Districts. The GTR was merged into the Canadian National Railways in 1923. (The Maynooth Sub. was added to Lindsay’s control in 1931, then at its peak as a railway centre.)
In the meantime Bobcaygeon interests had applied for, and in 1890 obtained, a charter for the Lindsay, Bobcaygeon & Pontypool Railway (LB&P) from Burketon Jct. (west of Pontypool) on the CPR’s then main MontrealToronto line, north to Lindsay. Construction began in 1901, and the line opened in 1904. The LB&P ducked under the GTR at the Scugog River bridge, following the east bank of the river to a station at Caroline Street (Lindsay’s fifth). The last train to Bobcaygeon was in 1957.
To commemorate the 150th Anniversary, a monument was carved in front of the old town hall on Kent Street, by chainsaw carver Gerald Guenkel, of Omemee. It shows the importance of locomotives to Lindsay’s history.
Media.
Broadcast.
CKLY-FM plays a classic hits format branded as Bob FM. It was formerly known as 910 CKLY on AM.
Peterborough's Global Television affiliate CHEX-TV covers the region daily with its "Newswatch" news programs. The municipality also draws intermittent news coverage from CTV Toronto and A-Channel Barrie.
Climate.
Lindsay is in a humid continental climate zone with warm, humid summers and cold winters.
On occasion the first snowfall occurs earlier than November, though the snow usually melts within a short period of time. Temperatures start to increase again in late February and last from late-June to mid-September.
Government and infrastructure.
The Ontario Ministry of Community Safety and Correctional Services operates the Central East Correctional Centre.
Education.
Primary and secondary schools.
Trillium Lakelands District School Board operates secular public schools:
Peterborough Victoria Northumberland and Clarington Catholic District School Board operates public Catholic schools:
Private schools:
Healthcare.
Ross Memorial Hospital.
Ross Memorial Hospital is the only hospital in Lindsay. It was founded on November 20, 1902 by James Ross, who died on September 20, 1913. On April 14, 2005 the hospital finished a major renovation. A new dialysis unit was opened in 2008.
Culture.
Through direction from the Hockey Hall of Fame the history of the world's oldest stick was traced through the Lindsay Public Archives to verify the stick was carved between 1852 and 1856 by Alexander Rutherford Sr. of Fenelon Township near Lindsay. This stick sold for $2.2 million at an auction.
Scenes from the movies "A Christmas Story" (1983) and "A Cool Dry Place" (1998) were filmed in Lindsay. In 2001, Lindsay played host to an episode of the "OLN" Reality Series "Drifters: The Water Wars" as they passed through the Trent-Severn Waterway.
The Kawartha Art Gallery, located on the 2nd Floor of the Public Library, is the only public art gallery in Lindsay, and by virtue of amalgamation, the City of Kawartha Lakes. It is the steward of a permanent collection of over 160 pieces, including pieces by A. J. Casson, Jack Reid, Robert Harris, and Norval Morrisseau.
Cityscape.
Lindsay has a 150th anniversary song, entitled A Song For Lindsay. It was written and performed by recording studio owner Bob May, and local high-school student/vocalist Bethany Rees.
Landmarks.
One of Lindsay's popular landmarks is the old burnt down mill.
Forest fire protection history.
Ontario's former "Department of Lands and Forests" (now the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources) ran one of its 17 forest fire districts from Lindsay. Formed in 1946 "The Lindsay Forest Fire District" served as the headquarters for the protection and study of forests in Haliburton, Victoria, Durham, Peterborough and Northumberland Counties. The Lindsay office was also responsible for the maintenance and manning of the 13 fire tower lookouts within its boundaries. The towerman's purpose was as an early detection to protect the local forests from fire. The district's towers included: Harburn, Bruton, Eyre, Glamorgan (Green's Mountain), Harvey, Cardiff, Digby, Lutterworth, Sherbourne (St. Nora), Dorset, Clarke (Ganaraska Forest), Haldimand (Northumberland Forest) and Methuen (Blue Mountain). When a fire was spotted in the forest a towerman would get the degree bearings from his respective tower and radio back the information to headquarters. When one or more towermen from other towers in the area would also call in their bearings, the forest rangers at headquarters could get a 'triangulation' read and plot the exact location of the fire on their map. This way a team of forest firefighters could be dispatched as soon as possible to get the fire under control. Most of these towers were put out of use in the late 1960s when aerial detection systems were put in place.


Torpy River

The Torpy River is a tributary of the Fraser River, rising in the Northern Rockies and the McGregor Range, a subdivision of the McGregor Plateau, and forming the boundary between the Rockies and the McGregor Plateau.


Princess Louise (sidewheeler)

Princess Louise was a sidewheel steamboat built in 1869. From 1869 to 1879 this ship was named "Olympia". In 1879 the name was changed to "Princess Louise", after Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll, a daughter of Queen Victoria who was married to Marquess of Lorne (1845-1914), Governor General of Canada from 1878 to 1883. "Princess Louise" was the last sidewheeler to be operated commercially on the coast of British Columbia.
Design and construction.
"Olympia" was built in 1869 in New York City by John English and Sons to the order of George S. Wright, a pioneer steamboat man on Puget Sound. The ship was long, with a beam of and depth of hold of . The hull was built of seasoned white oak.
Power was supplied by single-cylinder walking beam type steam engine, manufactured by John Roach & Sons. The cylinder was in diameter and had a stroke of 11 feet (132 inches). The engine generated 350 horsepower. Overall size of the vessel was 971 gross tons, and, as of 1874, 493 registered tons. The ship had an auxiliary sailing rig as a brig. The official United States steamboat registry number was 19297.
Construction of "Olympia" was supervised by Capt. James Bolger, who commanded the vessel in the 75-day delivery voyage around Cape Horn. "Olympia" arrived in San Francisco on November 19, 1869. Continuing north, "Olympia" arrived at the city of Olympia on December 3, 1869.
Operations.
On December 7, 1869, "Olympia" was employed on the Olympia-Victoria route for the first time, running under the ownership of the Finch and Wright partnership. "Olympia" was a replacement for the older and slower "Eliza Anderson", a vessel once so profitable that it became known as the "floating gold mine", which the partnership then used as a reserve boat. In April 1870, the partnership suffered a business reverse when the mail contract was lost to Capt. J.T. Nash, who had submitted an annual bid of $12,000 to carry mail on weekly runs to Victoria, British Columbia and on a semi-weekly route between Olympia and Port Townsend, Washington Territory. Nash, who was to take over the mail contract on July 1, 1870, prepared by purchasing and reconstructing the half-completed sidewheeler "Tacoma".
To do this, Nash secured the financial backing of two successful businessmen from Portland, Oregon, Edwin A. and Louis A. Starr. When the rebuilding of "Tacoma" was complete, the vessel was renamed "Alida", and the Starrs were in full ownership of the vessel. They also assumed Nash's interest in the mail contract. Nash took over running a smaller vessel, "Varuna", in alliance the Starrs. Once Edwin Starr acquired his master's license, the Starr brothers bought another steamer, "Isabel", which was somewhat larger than "Alida", and was considered one of the most seaworthy vessels on the coast.
1871 steamboat race.
To meet the challenge of the Starrs, the Wright and Finch partnership brought out "Eliza Anderson" as their primary vessel and undercut the Starrs on passenger fares and freight rates. "Isabel" proved to be a speedier vessel than "Anderson" and so Wright and Finch substituted "Olympia" in the competition against the Starrs. The Starrs however responded by commissioning Joseph Gates, a well-regarded engineer on Columbia river steamboats, to design and build a steamer which would run faster and cheaper than "Olympia". This vessel, which was named the "North Pacific", was constructed at the Gates and Colyer shipyard in San Francisco, and launched on May 18, 1871. Capt. Dan Morrison brought "North Pacific" into the Strait of Juan de Fuca on June 23, 1871. For a few days after that, "North Pacific" was engage in trial trips. Meanwhile, Finch, in command of "Olympia" was preparing for a race to show the public which steamboat was superior. Finch went so far as to have the coal lumps on "Olympia" sorted into uniform sizes.
On June 27, 1871, "Olympia" and "North Pacific" were both at Victoria, with "Olympia" scheduled to depart for Port Townsend in the morning, with "North Pacific" making the same run in the afternoon. Intending to challenge "North Pacific" that day, Finch delayed departure of "Olympia" but kept steam up in the boiler. Word spread around Victoria, which tended to favor "Olympia", that a race was impending, and bets were made favoring "Olympia" at 10 to 1 over "North Pacific". The Starrs meanwhile tried to lower expectations by telling people that their ship was not yet ready for racing.
When "North Pacific" cast off lines, "Olympia" did likewise, and followed "North Pacific" out of Victoria harbor. As "North Pacific" made a south-easterly course for Point Wilson, of open water away from Victoria, "Olympia"'s firemen poured on the coals, causing clouds of black smoke to spew out of the ship's smokestack. "Olympia", the heavier, oak-built vessel, was favored over the long open stretch, whereas "North Pacific" was thought to be able to better in the narrower waters near Point Wilson.
The resulting race between the two vessels, each of which was almost new, and represented the highest point of technical achievement for the time, was long remembered by the people on board the ships and alongside the wharves of Victoria and Port Townsend. Over most of the run, the two steamers ran almost side by side at maximum speed. But as the neared Point Wilson, "North Pacific" drew ahead, reaching Port Townsend in 2 hours and 41 minutes, 13 minutes and four miles (6 km) ahead of "Olympia".
Finch and Wright soon composed their differences with the Starrs, who bought the Finch and Wright dock and warehouse in Olympia. In addition, in a typical anti-competitive agreement of the time, paid Finch and Wright a subsidy to keep "Olympia" off the Victoria route. Finch and Wright then withdrew "Olympia" to California.
"Olympia" was based in California for the next seven years and managed to collect another subsidy from a California rival in return for staying out of competition. During this time "Olympia" made a voyage to Hawaii.
Canadian service.
By 1878, the Starrs had paid $50,000 to "Olympia"'s owners, and they decided to terminate the subsidy. "Olympia" was then returned to Puget Sound, and was then under the ownership of George S. Wright. At that time, the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) was engaged in a competitive struggle with John Irving, who had recently purchased the former Gold Rush steamer "Wilson G. Hunt". To beat the "Hunt", the Hudson's Bay Company HBC bought "Olympia" from Wright for $75,000. The ship was reregistered in Canada and assigned Canadian registry #72682.
HBC operated "Olympia" under the ship's original name until May 1879, when it changed the name to "Princess Louise", after Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll (1848-1939), a daughter of Queen Victoria, who was married to Marquess of Lorne (1845-1914), Governor General of Canada from 1878 to 1883. In the summer of 1879, competition between "Princess Louise" and the "Hunt" drove rates down on the routes between Vancouver Island and the mainland. In August 1879 "Princess Louise" ran an excursion around Vancouver Island, which was possibly the first such cruise to take place.
In 1880, HBC and Irving settled the rate war. In a monopolistic arrangement which became known as the "'arf and 'arf agreement", HBC ships would carry passengers to and from New Westminster, where they would transfer to an Irving-owned stternwheeler for the trip up river to the head of navigation at Yale. This was a suitable arrangement for the "Princess Louise" because as a sidewheeler the ship required improved docking facilities that were not available upriver from New Westminster.
In the late summer of 1880, when word reached Victoria that the steamship "Otter" had wrecked five miles (8 km) out of Bella Bella on August 19, 1880, "Princess Louise" was sent to the scene with the Lloyd's agent and HBC officials on board in an attempt to salvage "Otter". This proved to be not possible, and "Princess Louise" was forced to return to Victoria with as much cargo as could be salvaged from the Otter.
In May 1881, the Canadian Pacific was anxiously recruiting as many laborers as it could for the difficult work of completing the transcontinental rail line down the valley of the Fraser River. "Princess Louise" transported the first group of laborers, who had been recruited from San Francisco and from China to New Westminster on March 25, 1881.
Transfer of ownership.
In 1883, the Canadian Pacific Navigation Company was incorporated. Although the stated capital was $500,000, divided into 5,000 shares valued at $100 each, the actual paid-up capital was only $336,000, divided in 3,360 shares at $100 per share. Most of the shares were controlled indirectly by John Irving, but the Hudson's Bay Company was also allocated a total 1,150 shares. This was in return for transferring ownership of three HBC steamships, including the "Princess Louise" to the new company, with 750 shares specifically allocated to the "Princess Louise".
"Princess Louise" began its first trip for the new company on March 13, 1883, steaming under Capt. William McCulloch, from Victoria, to Alert Bay, Prince Rupert, Metlakatla, Port Simpson, the Skeena River, Wrangell, Alaska and way ports along the route. On May 4, 1883, the new company announced that "Princess Louise" would be put on a regular route from Victoria to Burrard Inlet and Port Moody, British Columbia.
Also in 1883, "Princess Louise" was refitted with new boilers, manufactured by Albion Iron Works of Victoria. Other overhaul work was completed and the ship was returned to service before the beginning of 1884. In October 1887, the mayor of Vancouver, which then was the second largest city in British Columbia next to Victoria, tried to discourage visitors to Vancouver Island by denouncing "Princess Louise" as unseaworth. John Irving felt this went too far, and he threatened to sue the mayor for libel. He also banned the mayor from travel on any of the company's ships.
From 1886 to 1890, "Princess Louise" was operated on northern routes, serving among other communities the many cannery ports in coastal British Columbia. In 1898, "Princess Louise" was used like many other ships on the west coast to carry gold seekers to the Klondike goldfields.
On August 16, 1890, "Princess Louise" developed a serious leak which forced the ship to return to Victoria. "Princess Louise" was replaced on the route by "Islander".
In 1895 "Princess Louise" was estimated to be worth $35,000.
In September 1898, "Princess Louise" returned to Victoria carrying 8,100 cases of canned salmon from Alert Bay, but on this trip there had been a fatal accident. Three of the crew had fallen overboard when they were leaning on a railing posing for a photograph. They were washed beneath the sidewheel and never seen again./
Canadian Pacific Railway.
In 1901, the Canadian Pacific Railway purchased the Canadian Pacific Navigation Company and all its ships, including "Princess Louise". The name of "Princess Louise" inspired the Canadian Pacific to name a new series of coastal liners as "Princesses". In 1901, Capt. James W. Troup reported that "Princess Louise" was in poor mechanical condition, with worn out boilers and engines badly in need of repair. Because the hull was still in good condition, and capable of being operated in the often-dangerous waters of the Strait of Georgia, Troup recommended that the engines be replaced. This however was not done. Even so, the CPR did use "Princess Louise" in the winter to replace the sternwheeler "R.P. Rithet" on the route from Victoria to New Westminster and points on the lower Fraser River. In the summers, the "Princess Louise" was a secondary vessel on northern routes to Rivers Inlet, Port Simpson, British Columbia, and the Queen Charlotte Islands. Ships on this route departed Victoria twice a month, on the 1st and the 15th at 11:00 p.m., and stopped in Vancouver the next day on the way north.
Disposition.
In November 1906 "Princess Louise" was sold to Marpole McDonald of Victoria, who removed the machinery and converted the vessel to a barge. In 1908 McDonald sold the barge to Vancouver Dredging and Salvage Company. In 1916, the barge was sold again to Britannia Mining and Smelting Company, which in turn, in 1917, sold the barge to Whalen Pulp and Paper Co., which in the same year beached the hull on Howe Sound at Woodfibre, British Columbia. The unpowered vessel is also reported to have sunk a considerable distance away from Woodfibre, at Port Alice, British Columbia in 1919 on northern Vancouver Island.


Lower Lake Fork Valley, Colorado

The Lake Fork of the Gunnison River begins in high mountains in the western region of the U.S. state of Colorado, draining the northeastern part of the San Juan Mountains.
After passing through Lake San Cristobal, one of the larger natural lakes of Colorado, it is joined at Lake City by Henson Creek, and from there flows north. About 22 miles (35 km) north of Lake City, it enters the Lake Fork Canyon, and at the north end of the canyon, joins the Gunnison River just before it enters the Gunnison River canyon. For the purposes of this discussion, we will consider the lower Lake Fork Valley to be that part of the river between Lake City and the canyon.
The area is not unlike many other areas in the west. Early on, it was Ute Indian land and when white men began moving into the area, using places and resources of the Utes, there were conflicts. The discovery of gold in Colorado brought numbers of prospectors into the mountains. To deal with these problems, a treaty was signed in 1868, giving much of western Colorado to the Utes. However, gold continued to attract prospectors to the area and troubles continued. To deal with it, a group of Ute leaders were taken to Washington, D.C. in 1873, and under protest, they signed the Brunot treaty which opened a large portion of the San Juan Mountains to prospectors and mining.
Otto Mears, a man responsible for many of the railroads and roads in Colorado, hired Enos Hotchkiss to build a road into the Lake City area, from which it was to continue on to the west. Hotchkiss found gold near present Lake City in 1875, and the town was started. Thus began the era when minerals and mining defined much of the character of the Lake Fork area. Even at these early times, though, there were people who saw the beauty of the mountains and realized that the area had great resources for raising cattle, and so ranches, although secondary to mining, began. With more and more people in the area, there was need for mail and other services and the stagecoach became important. One of these stagecoach routes began at Sapinero, the small town at the intersection of the Lake Fork and the Gunnison Rivers. The route went up over Sapinero Mesa on the east side of the Lake Fork Canyon. A small stream called Johnson Gulch (after an early squatter who built a cabin there) runs from the east to the Lake Fork river, just above the canyon. The stage road dropped into Johnson Gulch and then down into the valley of the Lake Fork. From there it went 2 miles (3 km) to the south where a stage station and large barn were built at what was later called Barnum Station. From there, it continued up the Lake Fork valley to Lake City.
Only small amounts of minerals were able to be taken from the Lake City area in wagons and so pressure for a railroad developed. In 1881, the Denver and Rio Grande (D&RG) built a rail line into Gunnison and then continued to the west to Sapinero. Although a branch had been planned for Lake City, the lack of money delayed it. Finally, in 1879, it was completed. This was the end of the stagecoach in this area. The rail line came up the Lake Fork Canyon and at Johnson Gulch, a water tank was built to provide water for the steam engines. This was called Madera Siding. The rail line continued to the area below Barnum Station where holding corrals were built, and this was an important loading place for cattle which were then shipped to Sapinero and from there on east across Marshall Pass. The major use of the rail line, however, was to carry increasing mineral wealth from the Lake City area. Ranchers along the valley were also dependent on the train to bring mail and needed supplies.
As with so many other mining areas, the mines of Lake City began producing less and less. Finally in 1933, the rail line was making little money and was abandoned by the D&RG. The line was purchased and called the San Cristobal Railroad, and a galloping goose was built to run on the tracks and to take mail and other things to and from Lake City. The galloping goose was a combination between a car and a railway car, built on a Pierce-Arrow body. It used a gasoline engine and could be driven up the railroad tracks and carry mail and limited amounts of freight. This was never very successful, though, and the rail line was completely abandoned in 1939. By this time, there were automobile roads into the area, and mail was brought into the valley from Gunnison in this way.


John Colman

John Colman (died September 6, 1609) was a crew member of the "Half Moon" under Henry Hudson who was killed by Native Americans by an arrow to his neck.
Biography.
On September 6, 1609, only five days after the arrival of the first Dutch and English sailors, John Colman was reportedly killed by attacking Native Americans by an arrow to his neck. Colman was an "accomplished sailor" and served as second mate on Henry Hudson's ship. The "Half Moon" sailed into New York Harbor and was anchored between Coney Island and Sandy Hook. Colman was part of a 5 man crew that was aboard a rowboat that was scouting the area. Allegedly, two canoes filled with Native Americans attacked and fired a volley of arrows, killing Colman and wounding two others. The survivors of the attack returned to the "Half Moon" at 10 a.m. on September 7, 1609 with Colman's body. He was buried that day either at what is now Coney Island, Staten Island, Sandy Hook or Keansburg, New Jersey. The forgotten location was then named Colman's Point. A contemporary account of his death was written in the journal of Robert Juet, the first mate of the "Half Moon." The most likely point of Coleman's burial may have been Sandy Hook, or "Coleman's Point".
"He was shot in the throat by an arrow: and as he had been a companion of Hudson's in his Polar adventures, having burind him on the beach, he named Sandy Hook "Coleman's Point," in honor of him"
-Excerpt from "The Catskill Mountains and the Region Around" 1867
Legacy.
The murder of John Colman was the basis for a poem by Thomas Frost, "The Death of Colman", where he writes:
Then prone he fell within the boat,

A flinthead arrow through his throat

And now full many a stealthy skiff

Shot out into the bay;

And swiftly, sadly, pulled we back

To where the Half Moon lay;

But he was dead our master wept

He smiled, brave heart, as though he slept.

His death is commemorated by a mural at the Hudson County Courthouse in Jersey City. The New York Times has called it "the first recorded murder in what became metropolitan New York".
People of the Hudson Highlands area believed that Colman's spirit became the Dwerg, Heer of Dunderberg, a goblin who dressed in Dutch clothing, who raise storms to sink ships at World's End (the area just north of West Point where the Hudson is over 200 feet deep.) The Heer appears in writings by Washington Irving.
Evan Pritichard, author of "" speculates the attack on Colman occurred because he strayed too near a wampum making outpost, provoking a preemptive strike by wary Native peoples living near Manhattan.


Pembina Trail

The Pembina Trail was a 19th century trail used by Métis and European settlers to travel between Fort Garry and Fort Pembina in what is today the Canadian province of Manitoba and U.S. state of North Dakota. The trail followed the west bank of the Red River. There were many alternative routes depending on conditions and which communities travellers wanted to avoid. The Pembina Trail was the part of the larger Red River Trail network and is no longer in use today as a trail, however, a modified version of it is now the Lord Selkirk and Pembina Highways in Manitoba.
History.
The Pembina Trail and network of Red River Trails have been in regular use since at least 1823. As communities along the Red River between Fort Garry and Pembina grew, churches were built and residents began to communicate with other communities, resulting in increased travel to and from. The Pembina Trail was not only used for travel between Fort Garry and Pembina for social or political reasons, it was also used as a main route to access the Red River Trails. This connection is important because it allowed groups of Métis and settlers to access the ever decreasing populations of bison on the prairies.
The trail began in Fort Garry and made its way south, passing through the 49th parallel North, or the Canada–United States border. As Métis had varied histories with many other Indigenous communities, the trail would often deviate to avoid coming in contact with any enemies. A letter written by Father Joseph Provencher provides evidence for another reason settlers and Métis may visit Pembina: to avoid the harsh winter climate of Fort Garry.
Cultural mixing was prominent along the trails, as these routes passed through numerous Indigenous and settler communities. As groups passed, they would network and build relationships, which was fundamental to their success as a community. This cultural difference created a duality to records, as some were written through a Métis or Indigenous perspective, while most were recorded through a settler perspective.
Once in Pembina, travellers had access to the three major routes of the Red River Trails network, the East Plains Trail, the West Plains Trail and the Woods Trail. The Woods Trail is often confused as the Pembina Trail, however they were part of two separate networks. A more direct version of the Pembina Trail is now a four-lane paved road that serves as the Lord Selkirk Highway (Highway 75) and Pembina Highway that run along the Red River between Winnipeg and Pembina.


Elbridge Trask

Elbridge Trask also known as Eldridge Trask (July 15, 1815 – June 23, 1863) was an American fur trapper and mountain man in the Oregon Country. Immortalized by a series of modern historical novels by Don Berry, he is best known as an early white settler along Tillamook Bay on the coast of the U.S. state of Oregon. The Trask River and Trask Mountain along the Northern Oregon Coast Range are also named after him.
Early life.
Elbridge Trask (aka Eldridge Trask) was born on July 15, 1815 in Beverly, Massachusetts. He was the son of John and Bethiah Trask.
Frontiersman.
In 1835, Elbridge Trask joined the employ of the Columbia River Fishing and Trading Company of Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth. In December he arrived at Fort Hall in present-day Idaho and joined his first trapping expedition with experienced mountain men the following December. Much of what is known about this portion of his life comes from the journals of his traveling companion Osborne Russell. In January 1838 he camped at Jackson Hole with Jim Bridger and spent the next year acquiring a large number of beaver pelts in the Yellowstone area. In August 1839, he became separated from his party, which waited for him for several days until threat of an attack from the Blackfoot forced his party to return to Fort Hall. The following month he returned to Fort Hall by himself unharmed. On August 22, 1842, while in the Snake River valley, he and Osborne Russell joined a wagon train led by the missionary Dr Elijah White headed the Willamette Valley.
Marriage and family.
While serving as a guide for the wagon train, Elbridge Trask met Hannah Able, a young widow from Indiana with a baby daughter traveling with the William T. Perry wagon. On arriving at Willamette Falls at present-day Oregon City, the two were married on October 20, 1842.
Elbridge Trask and his wife Hannah set up a homestead in Clatsop Plains near Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia River. In 1852, they left the Clatsop Plains to settle near Tillamook Bay south along the coast. They were the first white family to settle in the bay, establishing a homestead along the Trask River, which is named for him. Trask Mountain in the Northern Oregon Coast Range is also named after him.
As conflict between the white colonizers and the natives of the Tillamook region grew, Trask met with the last free leaders of the Tillamook people, Chief Kilchis and Chief Illga, to negotiate a peace agreement, but conflicts continued intermittently.
Death.
Elbridge Trask died on June 23, 1863 near Tillamook in Tillamook County, Oregon. He was buried on his own property.
Descendants.
Elbridge Trask is further survived by a number of his great-grandchildren, including Jaycee Miller and Leif Schueler.
In popular culture.
In 1960 Elbridge Trask was popularized in the historical novel "Trask" by Don Berry. The novel, as well as its two sequels, are collectively known as the "Trask novels."


Crazy Mountains

The Crazy Mountains, often called the Crazies, are a mountain range in the northern Rocky Mountains in the U.S. state of Montana.
Geography.
Spanning a distance of 40 miles (64 km), the Crazy Mountains are located between the Musselshell and Yellowstone rivers. The highest peak is Crazy Peak at . Rising over above the Great plains to the east, the Crazies dominate their surroundings and are plainly visible just north of Interstate 90.
The Crazy Mountains form an isolated island range east of the Continental Divide. Other isolated ranges in Montana include the Castle Mountains, Little Belt Mountains, Big Snowy Mountains, Little Snowy Mountains, Bears Paw Mountains, Judith Mountains, North and South Moccasin Mountains, Highwood Mountains, Little Rocky Mountains, Sweet Grass Hills, Bull Mountains and, in the southeastern corner of the state near Ekalaka, the Long Pines.
Geology.
The Big Timber Stock, a large igneous intrusion, forms the bedrock in the Crazy Mountains. The stock is of Tertiary age, and consists of diorite and gabbro with zones of Quartz Monzodiorite, and which has been intruded by many dikes and sills.
Geological features of the Crazy Mountains include:
Wildlife.
Due to the eastern location, these mountains are drier and less densely forested than other mountain ranges in Montana. There are at least 40 alpine lakes in the range, 15 of which are named. The Crazy Mountains sit in both Gallatin National Forest and Lewis and Clark National Forest. The Crazies support a healthy herd of mountain goats and the occasional elusive wolverine.
History.
In 1916, the Crazy Mountains were proposed as a location for a national park, but Congress failed to pass the legislation. National Park Service officials considered the area again in 1935, but reported that a national park would not be feasible because "half of the land, every alternate section, is owned by the Northern Pacific Railroad or is in private hands."
Access.
The Crazies are almost completely surrounded by private lands making access into the mountains somewhat difficult, especially in the southern section where the highest peaks are located.
Name origin.
The name Crazy Mountains is said to be a shortened form of the name "Crazy Woman Mountains" given them, in complement to their original Crow name, after a woman who went insane and lived in them after her family was killed in the westward settlement movement.
The Crow people called the mountains "Awaxaawapìa Pìa", roughly translated as "Ominous Mountains", or even rougher and less accurately, "Crazy Mountains". They were famous to the Crow people for having metaphysical powers and being unpredictable—a place used for vision quests.


Andrew Colvile

Andrew Colvile (born Andrew Wedderburn; 6 November 1779 – 3 February 1856) was a Scottish businessman, notable as the governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, a huge organisation set up for the North American fur trade but also instrumental in the early history of Canada. He was also chairman of the West India Docks.
Early life.
Andrew was born Andrew Wedderburn in 1779. His sister Jean married Thomas Douglas, 5th Earl of Selkirk, in 1807. His brother James Wedderburn (born ) was Solicitor General for Scotland until his death in 1822; his posthumous daughter Jemima Blackburn became a highly regarded artist, and played the role of an elder sister to James Clerk Maxwell, the physicist. Andrew's other legitimate brother was Peter Wedderburn Ogilvy, who became a sea captain; his sons went into the army.
Andrew had a half-sibling whom he very publicly rejected: the son of his father by an enslaved woman in Jamaica. When the mixed-race Robert Wedderburn showed up at the family seat seeking to claim kinship, he was sent away with a flea in his ear. Following this rejection, Robert wrote "The Horrors of Slavery", which was circulated by the abolitionist movement. Andrew furiously denied the claims, and in turn insulted Robert's mother.
Career.
Andrew remained in Europe, inherited his father's estates and set up as a sugar broker (Wedderburn and Company). When his brother-in-law began buying into the Hudson's Bay Company, Andrew followed suit. By 1810, he was on the HBC board and worked to rationalize the company's administration. In 1820, he was largely responsible for sending out Sir George Simpson to take charge of HBC affairs in Canada. During Simpson's long administration (1821–1860) the two worked closely together, one in London business circles and the other in the wilds of Canada.
Family.
His grandfather, Sir John Wedderburn, 5th Baronet of Blackness, was involved with the Jacobite rising of 1745, and was convicted of treason. The punishment for this was threefold: the death penalty, the confiscation of all his estates (he had property at Inveresk), and the attainting of his family, including the baronetcy. At least two of his sons moved to Jamaica, including Andrew's uncle and father. The former, John Wedderburn of Ballendean, is notable for the civil case brought under Scots law by his former slave Joseph Knight.
Andrew's father, James Wedderburn, set up as a doctor without academic qualification. After 28 years, James had become a wealthy slave-owner and sugar planter. In 1773 James moved back to Inveresk—the estate had been restored—and married. At some point James changed his name from Wedderburn to Wedderburn Colvile.
His first wife was Elizabeth Susannah, daughter of John Wedderburn of Clapham, but she died in 1803, only a year after their marriage. They had no children, but he inherited the Wedderburn estate in Jamaica.
In 1806, he married the Hon. Mary Louisa Eden, fifth daughter of William Eden, 1st Baron Auckland, and was thus connected to an influential family of politicians and diplomats. The couple had four sons and 12 daughters:
Legacy.
Several places were named after him, directly and indirectly. Many of them are near Kettle Falls, an ancient and important salmon fishing site on the upper reaches of the Columbia River, in what is today the state of Washington, near the Canada–United States border. In 1825 the HBC moved its trading post for that region from Spokane House and named the new site Fort Colvile (NB spelling). It was abandoned in 1870, and flooded over by the Grand Coulee Dam in 1940; the Colville people derive their name from their association with this trading post. n 1859, the U.S. Army established a new Fort Colville (two Ls) at Pinkney City, Washington, which was operational till 1882. The city of Colville, Washington was established nearby at about that time. Colville National Forest has its headquarters there. Near to the city is the Colville Air Force Station (now closed).
On Vancouver Island a new settlement was named Colville Town, but was renamed Nanaimo in 1860.


Yellowstone (steamboat)

The steamboat Yellowstone (sometimes Yellow Stone) was a side wheeler steamboat built in Louisville, Kentucky, for the American Fur Company for service on the Missouri River. By design, the "Yellowstone" was the first powered boat to reach above Council Bluffs, Iowa, on the Missouri River achieving, on her maiden voyage, Fort Tecumseh, South Dakota, on June 19, 1831. The "Yellowstone" also played an important role in the Texas Revolution of 1836, crossing the Texas Army under Sam Houston over the swollen Brazos River ahead of Santa Anna's pursuing Mexican Army.
Early career on the Missouri River.
The "Yellowstone" was built between 1830 and 1831 in Louisville, Kentucky, for the American Fur Company to service the fur trade between Saint Louis, Missouri, and the trading camps along the Missouri River up to the mouth of the Yellowstone River in western North Dakota in support of their Montana fur trade. Prior to the "Yellowstone", fur traders beyond Council Bluff relied on un-powered keelboats which had to be dragged up-river for supply and then floated downstream with their furs. Beginning in St. Louis, The "Yellowstone" made her maiden voyage on April 16, 1831 and reached Pierre, South Dakota, on June 19, 1831, six hundred miles farther than any other steamboat, dramatically opening the way for regular travel and trade along the upper stretches of the Missouri River. She returned, fully loaded, to Saint Louis on July 15, 1831.
The following year, 1832, the "Yellowstone" reached the mouth of the river for which she was named. That voyage was chronicled by George Catlin.
In 1833, German naturalist Prince Alexander Philipp Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied, together with Swiss artist Karl Bodmer traveled the Missouri River on board the "Yellowstone". That journey was also chronicled in Maximilian's "Reise in das Innere Nord-Amerikas". Karl Bodmer's depiction of the "Yellowstone" struggling over a sand bar may be the most accurate depiction of the steamboat in existence.
In July 1833, the crew and passengers of the "Yellowstone" was overcome by cholera. Many of the crew and passengers, including the firemen and assistant Indian Agent Robinson Pemberton Beauchamp, died, and the boat was under threat of being burned by locals in both Iowa and Nebraska who were afraid of contagion. Leaving famed steamboat captain, then a clerk and pilot, Joseph LaBarge, to hold and protect the boat and its ailing crew, the "Yellowstone"'s captain, Anson G. Bennett, ventured downstream to St. Louis, and soon returned with a new crew.
From 1831 through 1833, regular runs of the steamboat took advantage of the higher river due to April snow melts and again in June and July by favor of snow melt from the Rocky Mountains. During the winters when ice prevented such travel and late summer when water levels were insufficient for the six foot draft of the vessel, the "Yellowstone" served the cotton and sugar cane markets along the lower Mississippi River. After the final July 1833 run up the Missouri River, the steamboat continued the work along the Mississippi River with Captain John P. Phillips, under new ownership.
In November 1835, the "Yellowstone" steamed to New Orleans for a significant refit, a second boiler was added and much of the wooden components replaced with newer wood. Meanwhile, she was sold yet again and registered by the new owners for trade runs in foreign (specifically, the then Mexican Texas) waters.
Career in Texas Revolution.
The steamboat was purchased by Thomas Toby & Brother to focus upon the cotton trade along the Brazos River in Texas, carrying bales from the growers down to Quintana on the Gulf Coast. Departing New Orleans on New Year's Eve, 1835, she was loaded with arms, ammunition and forty-seven volunteers of the Mobile Greys destined to support the Texans in their fight for Independence against Santa Anna.
In late March and early April 1836, despite three Mexican forces under Generals Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, Antonio Gaona and Jose Urrea all searching for the Texas army along the right bank of the Brazos River, the "Yellowstone" steamed upstream to continue collecting cotton from the growers. In early April, Santa Anna was camped at San Felipe de Austin, fifteen miles below the yet undiscovered Texas camp near Groce's Landing, while General Gaona was marching southward down the Brazos from the San Antonio Road, leaving the Texans caught between.
On April 2, Sam Houston sent word to the "Yellowstone" to remain at Groce's Landing, and prepare to assist in crossing the Texas Army. The captain and crew complied. On April 12, the "Yellowstone" began crossing the entire Texas Army, completing the crossing with multiple trips by mid-afternoon the following day. On April 14, as the Texans marched toward San Jacinto, the "Yellowstone", still armored in cotton bales, began her sprint downstream to pass the Mexican camps on her way to the Gulf.
With her bell clanging and smoke billowing, the "Yellowstone" sent many of the Mexican soldiers running in fear, having never known the existence of such a craft as a steamboat. One Mexican soldier is reported to have attempted to lasso her by her smoke stack as others fired on the craft heeding Santa Anna's order to capture the boat for his own crossing. The bullet-ridden stacks represented the only damage the steamboat incurred as she quickly outran her pursuers.
Soon after the Texans' victory at San Jacinto on April 21, 1836, the "Yellowstone" was waiting nearby and received the wounded Commander in Chief, Sam Houston, the new republic's interim president David G. Burnet, the captured Santa Anna and forty-seven Mexican prisoners. She was held for a time for the purpose of returning the captive Santa Anna to Mexico, but Santa Anna's return would be delayed many months.
Later that year and still in service (then as a packet boat along Buffalo Bayou), the "Yellowstone" was called upon to take the body of Texas hero Stephen F. Austin to burial, and then return mourners along the Brazos River afterward.
Final disposition.
The ultimate fate of the "Yellowstone" is not recorded. Texas legend is that she sank in Buffalo Bayou in 1837; however, no record of such an end exists. A record does exist stating that a steamboat by that name passed through the Louisville and Portland Canal on the Ohio River, in the summer of 1837. The Daughters of the Republic of Texas Library in San Antonio is said to contain a brass bell purported to be that of the "Yellowstone".


Kettle Falls, Washington

Kettle Falls is a city in Stevens County, Washington, United States, named for the nearby Kettle Falls on the Columbia River. The population of the city was 1,595 at the 2010 census a 4.5% increase over the 2000 census.
History.
The original Kettle Falls was officially incorporated on December 17, 1891 on the bank of the Columbia. After it was flooded by the Grand Coulee Dam in 1940, city planners relocated the town at a community called Meyers Falls, near the railroad lines, helping to ensure its success as a trans-shipment point for the logging, agriculture, and paper industries. This is its present location, eight miles northwest of Colville and roughly 80 miles northwest of Spokane.
Geography.
It is south of the Canada–US border at Laurier and adjacent to Lake Roosevelt, the reservoir of the Columbia River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , all land.
Demographics.
2010 census.
As of the census of 2010, there were 1,595 people, 676 households, and 419 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 726 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 90.9% White, 0.1% African American, 2.0% Native American, 0.4% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.6% from other races, and 5.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.7% of the population.
There were 676 households, of which 31.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.7% were married couples living together, 12.3% had a female householder with no husband/wife present, 5.0% had a male householder with no wife/husband present, and 38.0% were non-families. 31.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.95.
The median age in the city was 38.6 years. 26.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.9% were from 25 to 44; 25.4% were from 45 to 64; and 16.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.6% male and 52.4% female.
2000 census.
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,527 people, 632 households, and 398 families living in the city. The population density was 1,631.1 people per square mile (627.2/km2). There were 686 housing units at an average density of 732.8 per square mile (281.8/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 91.29% White, 0.07% African American, 3.86% Native American, 0.20% Asian, 0.07% Pacific Islander, 0.65% from other races, and 3.86% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.75% of the population.
There were 632 households, out of which 33.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.2% were married couples living together, 11.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.0% were non-families. 31.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 3.05.
In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 29.4% under the age of 18, 8.3% from 18 to 24, 25.9% from 25 to 44, 20.5% from 45 to 64, and 15.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.2 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $27,031, and the median income for a family was $34,375. Males had a median income of $33,750 versus $23,750 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,614. About 15.1% of families and 21.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26.0% of those under age 18 and 12.9% of those age 65 or over.


William Sinclair (fur trader)

William Sinclair (b. c. 1794 – 12 October 1868) was a chief factor of the Hudson's Bay Company. He was a brother of James Sinclair and his father, also William Sinclair, founded the first fort at Oxford House.
William was four when his father was building the HBC post at Oxford House and he joined the company there in 1808 and worked in that district until 1816 when he was called to the company headquarters in Britain. Weather forced them to winter in James Bay and his resourcefulness in these trying circumstances furthered his career.
Sinclair was an important part of the Bow River expedition of 1822–23 led by Donald McKenzie who was Governor of the Red River Colony and an explorer/fur trader. The trek was to the forks of the South Saskatchewan and Red Deer rivers. He added an 850-mile side trip on this occasion, along with John Edward Harriott, to the Cypress Hills and Missouri country.
William Sinclair's career became increasingly filled with important tasks and he was regarded as a valued officer of the Hudson's Bay Company.