History of El Paso, Texas

Founded as El Paso del Norte (at what is now Ciudad Juárez, Mexico) by Spanish Franciscan friars at an important mountain pass, the area became a small agricultural producer though most settlement was south of the river where modern Mexico lies. The city was considered part of New Mexico under Spanish Conquerors and was tied economically to Santa Fe, New Mexico and the Chihuahuan mining districts of San Felipe El Real and San José del Parral.
The Texas Revolution when Texas revolted from Mexico, which itself had recently become independent from Spain, did not involve paseños as the region was a part of Chihuahua. However, after Texas' annexation by the United States the boundary of the state was claimed to include what would become this important trading center.
As railroads were built through the area it boomed as a commercial center. The World Wars and the Texas Oil Boom helped develop the city further. As international trade has become increasingly important in the U.S., and Juárez has grown as a manufacturing center, El Paso's economic importance has continued to expand.
Pre-Columbian era.
Archeological evidence at the ((Keystone Wetlands)) and Hueco Tanks sites indicates thousands of years of human settlement within the El Paso region. A "hueco" is a Spanish term for a hollowed out cavity for holding water, or for pounding "maize". The inhabitants during this era were maize farmers. One of the two thousand images at Hueco Tanks is of a black and white figure of Tlaloc, the goggle-eyed Mesoamerican rain god; most of the images are of abstractions, people and animals. The Manso, Suma, and Jumano Indians were identified as present by the earliest Spanish explorers. These people ultimately became assimilated into the local settler population, becoming part of the Mestizo culture that is prevalent in Mexico and is visible throughout the Southwest. Others integrated themselves with the different Mescalero Apache bands that for many years roamed the region.
Arrival of Spaniards.
Juan de Oñate, was the New Spain, born in present-day Zacatecas, Zacatecas, Mexico, first explorer to arrive at the Rio Grande near El Paso (near the current small town of San Elizario, which is about downstream of El Paso), where he ordered his expedition party to rest and where a Mass in thanksgiving for reaching the water of the Rio Grande was celebrated, on April 20, 1598.
El Paso del Norte (the present day Ciudad Juárez), was founded on the south bank of the Río Bravo del Norte, (Rio Grande) in 1659 by Fray García de San Francisco. Agriculture flourished thanks to the complex irrigation system built by the Spanish and Indians, including a massive earthen dam. Vineyards and fruits constituted the bulk of the regional production. The Spanish Crown and the local authorities of El Paso del Norte had made several land concessions to bring agricultural production to the northern bank of the river in present-day El Paso, like the Bracito Grant. However, the Apaches dissuaded production and settlers to cross the river. The water provided a natural defense against them.
In 1680, after the successful Pueblo Revolt that decimated the Spanish colonies in northern New Mexico, El Paso became the base for Spanish governance of the territory of New Mexico, although the largest civilian center was in the Real de San Lorenzo. From El Paso, the Spaniards led by Diego de Vargas, grouped once again to recolonize the precious Spanish territory that was centered in Santa Fe and stretched from Socorro (New Mexico) to the areas that included Taos. The eighteenth century witnessed the area's rapid growth, giving the district a population of over 5,000. These included Spaniards, criollos, mestizos, and indigenous spread along the river from El Paso to San Lorenzo, Senecú, Ysleta, and El Rancho de los Tiburcios. The military post assigned to the settlement's defense was moved over the eighteenth century to various sites, including San José, San Elizario, and El Carrizal.
Historical records indicated that the first permanent agricultural enterprise north of the Río Grande located in present-day El Paso was the Ponce de León Ranch, on land granted in 1825. Earlier efforts—such as the "lost mission" of Nuestra Señora de las Caldas and El Rancho de los Tiburcios—had been discouraged through Indian raids and floods.
El Paso remained largely undeveloped during most of the period of Spanish control. Instead, Spanish settlement was centered on El Paso del Norte (the present day Ciudad Juárez). However, the Spanish crown and the local authorities of El Paso del Norte had made several land concessions to bring agricultural production to the northern bank of the river in present-day El Paso, frequent Indian raids and warfare overwhelmed any attempts. The Apache Wars and subsequent Comanche Wars left northern Mexico, then including present-day New Mexico, Texas, and Coahuila, in a state of perpetual instability. Consequently, present-day Juárez remained the northernmost villa with the Río Bravo del Norte, and Apache attacks dissuading settlement and development north. The water of the river, the sand dunes to the south ("médanos"), and the fortifications at Paso del Norte and El Real de San Lorenzo provided a natural defense against further raids; however, in some decades, several-thousand-strong Apache armies made raids deep into Mexico, slaughtering the male population and enslaving women and children. As a result, the Rio Grande proved to be a boundary line of actual Hispanic presence.
Texas independence.
El Paso was the southernmost locality of the Provincia de Nuevo Mexico (modern New Mexico). It communicated with Santa Fe and Mexico City by the Royal Road. Few foreign travelers, outside of Spanish merchants and officials, ventured that far north. It took six months for a trading caravan to reach Mexico City. American spies, traders and fur trappers visited the area since 1804 (Spanish documents curiously described these interlopers as "españoles de Inglaterra" meaning "Spaniards from England") and some intermarried with the area's Hispanic elite. Among these were Kentucky native Hugh Stephenson, who married doña Juana María de Azcárate. Notable travelers included Zebulon Pike. American settler families only arrived in significant numbers, after the Mexican–American War in 1849.
Although there was no combat in the region during the Mexican Independence, Paso del Norte experienced the negative effects it had on the trade of its wines and produce that kept the town alive. It also experienced a major avulsion that left the towns of Ysleta, San Elizario and Socorro on the other side of the Rio Grande.
In the first Mexican constitution (1824), given the dominance that Chihuahuan merchants had on New Mexico, Paso del Norte went to the state of Chihuahua after being part of New Mexico for 200 years. The town elected its first local government in 1825 and opened the first official school in 1829.
The Texas revolution (1836) was not felt in the region. The area was never considered part of Texas until 1848. The Battle of El Brazito near Las Cruces was fought by Missouri volunteers led by Col. Alexander William Doniphan, for whom Doniphan Drive was named, in El Paso. Given the blurry reclamations of the Texas Republic that wanted a chunk of the Santa Fe trade, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo effectively made the settlements on the north bank of the river a formal American settlement, separate from Old El Paso de Norte on the Mexican side. A number of loyal Mexican families abandoned New Mexico and were resettled to the region south of El Paso's lower valley settlements, where, under the leadership of Guadalupe Miranda—the last secretary of Mexico's New Mexican government—sought to provide land and funds to displaced families. Mexican Catholic clergy also were active in these communities, with some of the most notable including Father Antonio Borrajo.
The present Texas-New Mexico boundary placing El Paso on the Texas side was drawn in the Compromise of 1850.
A number of important developments during the 1850s shaped the character of the area north of the river. The Stephenson-Azcárate family acquired a tract from the Ponce de León grant in the vicinity of today's I-10 "Spaghetti Bowl" interchange. It was called "El Rancho de la Concordia" or "Stephensonville" after Hugh Stephenson's childhood home in Concordia, Missouri. The Archbishop of Durango later gave permission for the blessing of a private chapel there, San José de la Concordia, whose ruins persisted until the 1930s; its camposanto or burial grounds were the origins of Concordia Cemetery. Further west, a settlement on Coons' Rancho called Franklin became the nucleus of El Paso, Texas. El Paso County was established in March 1850, with San Elizario as the first county seat. The United States Senate fixed a boundary between Texas and New Mexico at the thirty-second parallel, thus largely ignoring history and topography. Following the establishment of the San Antonio-El Paso Road, a military post called "The Post opposite El Paso" (meaning opposite El Paso del Norte, across the Rio Grande) was established in 1854. That same year San Antonio-El Paso Mail was established, passing through Franklin in 1854. In 1857, the San Antonio-San Diego Mail Line, the first mail coach route from the East to California passed through Franklin, soon followed by the Butterfield Overland Mail in 1858. A year later pioneer Anson Mills completed his plat of the town, calling it El Paso, a name that resulted in endless confusion until the name of the town across the river, El Paso del Norte, was changed to Ciudad Juárez in 1888.
El Paso was incorporated in 1873 and encompassed the small area communities that had developed along the river (Magoffinsville, Concordia, Hart's Mill).
The Confederate States of America.
During the U.S. Civil War, Texas, along with most other southern slave states, declared that they had seceded from the Union to join the Confederacy. The Confederacy had some support from the area's Anglo residents, like Col. Hugh Stephenson, but as elsewhere in Texas, far less support from Mexicans, who were the majority. Confederate forces controlled Fort Bliss in 1861 until the city's occupation by the Union California Column in 1862. It was then headquarters for the 5th Regiment California Volunteer Infantry until December 1864. After the war concluded, the town's population began to grow.
County seat at Tigua land in Ysleta.
The Tigua Indians had occupied at least of land around Ysleta, land that King Charles V of Spain had deeded to them, since the 1680 pueblo revolt against the Spaniards in New Mexico. In 1874, the Texas Legislature passed "An Act to Repeal an Act to Incorporate the Town of Ysleta in El Paso County", with a six-month delay of effect that resulted in the conveyance of over 500 parcels of Tigua property to Americans. The Tiguas lost almost all of their land.
The El Paso county seat was moved to Ysleta that year, from San Elizario, and stayed until it was moved to El Paso in 1883. These were the years of the San Elizario Salt War and other conflicts between the Mexicans, the Americans, the Tigua, and the Apaches. The Hispanic population saw its leadership in the old Mexican clergy—particularly in the Spanish-born Antonio Borrajo—and the mercantile elite, who sought to maintain ownership of community resources within the Hispanic community.
Frontier town.
With the arrival of the Southern Pacific, the Texas and Pacific, and the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe railroads in 1881, the population boomed to 10,000 by the 1890 census. With a tempting green valley and a nearly perfect climate year-around, the town attracted a constant stream of newcomers, including many merchants, entrepreneurs, and professionals who came to the region to benefit from the Mexican Free Trade zone. Others arrived seeking a cure for respiratory ailments in the warm, dry climate. Various sanatoriums were established catering to their needs. Small immigrant communities–Jewish, Italian, and Chinese–also arrived, adding to the diversity of the bustling town. The origins of the Jewish community dates from at least the 1880s, with the first Reformed synagogue, Temple Mt. Sinai, built in 1898. The cosmopolitan community established many educational and cultural institutions, including a symphony orchestra that is the oldest in Texas. The American Catholic hierarchy gradually exerted control over the El Paso Valley, sending out Jesuit priests who developed a network of parishes and schools over the 1880s–1910s. Their work established the foundations for the Diocese of El Paso, created by Pius X in 1914. Among the dozens of Jesuits active in El Paso, one of the most notable was Father Carlos Pinto (1841–1919), known as "the apostle of El Paso," for his work among the Mexican population. A native of southern Italy, Pinto arrived in Northern New Mexico and Colorado in the 1870s, working there until he was assigned to El Paso ca. 1890. Pinto established the parishes of the Immaculate Conception (El Paso's first English-speaking Catholic Parish in 1893), Sacred Heart/Sagrado Corazón (El Paso's first Spanish-speaking Catholic Parish in 1893), St. Ignatius (1905), Guardian Angel (1908), and Holy Family (1914) parishes, among others. Working with the Sisters of Loretto at the Foot of the Cross, the Jesuits established schools at these parishes. A distinct architectural style is evident in these structures that have yet to attract serious historical research. The Jesuit High School in Ysleta was briefly expanded into a junior college in the mid-twentieth century.
However, as with other frontier regions, undesirables also arrived: gamblers, gunfighters, thieves, murderers, and prostitutes. After the arrival of the railroads, El Paso became a boomtown. Some historians, like Leon Metz, have stressed in their narratives the lawlessness that accompanied the arrival of Anglos, with "scores of saloons, dance halls, gambling establishments, and houses of prostitution lin[ing] the main streets." El Paso hired a town marshal with rough reputation, Dallas Stoudenmire, who was known to shoot first and ask questions later. The "Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight" took place here on April 14, 1881. This was prior to the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral in Tombstone, Arizona. Stoudenmire, the sixth marshal in eight months, was hired to "clean" and tame a remote, violent and wild town. Stoudenmire was an effective marshal due to his fierce reputation and dexterity with his pistols. He effectively intimidated a violence-hardened town and used fear to control the City Council. On May 28, 1882, the City Council announced they were firing the marshal. Stoudenmire learned of this discussion, he entered the Council Chambers; they were terrified and remained quiet. Stoudenmire strolled up and down the chamber as he scolded, cursed and threatened to shoot. Drawing out and twirling his pistols, he threatened, "I can straddle every God-damn aldermen on this council!" The coerced Council members quickly voted unanimously to retain Stoudenmire as town marshal. Stoudenmire glared at them for a few seconds before he calmed down and put away his pistols. Knowing Stoudenmire's fearsome reputation, the Mayor defused a tense situation by calling for an abrupt adjournment. Stoudenmire exited the Chamber and a potentially fatal incident was averted.
In 1883 the county seat was moved from Ysleta, Texas to El Paso. This was decided in a strongly disputed election in which counted votes were nearly three times the number of voters.
In 1887 a smelter was established by Robert Safford Towne of Kansas City Consolidated Smelting west of town for the purpose of processing lead and copper ore imported from Mexico. This smelting facility was subsequently purchased by Asarco in 1899. Over time, two small settlements developed around the smelter, acquiring the Hispanicized name "La Esmelda", or "Smeltertown". The Catholic parish of Santa Rosalía y San José del Río served these communities.
Prostitution and gambling flourished until World War I, when the Department of the Army pressured El Paso authorities to crack down on vice. Many of these activities continued in neighboring Ciudad Juárez, especially during the Prohibition, which benefited bars and saloons on the Mexican side of the border. The Concordia Cemetery, also known as El Paso's Boot Hill, is now preserved by the Concordia Heritage Association.
Taft–Díaz assassination attempt.
In 1909, William Howard Taft and Porfirio Díaz planned a summit in El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad Juárez, Mexico, a historic first meeting between a U.S. president and a Mexican president and also the first time an American president would cross the border into Mexico But tensions rose on both sides of the border, including threats of assassination, so the Texas Rangers, 4,000 U.S. and Mexican troops, U.S. Secret Service agents, FBI agents and U.S. marshals were all called in to provide security. Frederick Russell Burnham, the celebrated scout, was put in charge of a 250 private security detail hired by John Hays Hammond, a nephew of Texas Ranger John Coffee Hays, who in addition to owning large investments in Mexico was a close friend of Taft from Yale and a U.S. vice-presidential candidate in 1908. On October 16, the day of the summit, Burnham and Private C.R. Moore discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the procession route. Burnham and Moore captured, disarmed, and arrested the assassin within only a few feet of Taft and Díaz.
The Mexican Revolution.
The Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) began in 1910, and Ciudad Juárez was the focus of intense fighting. Occasionally, stray shots killed civilians on the El Paso side. El Paso became a center of intrigue as various exiled leaders including Victoriano Huerta and (for a time) Pancho Villa were seen in the city. In January 1914, General John Joseph Pershing was stationed at Fort Bliss, where he was responsible for security along the border and mounted the ill-fated Pancho Villa Expedition against Pancho Villa after the infamous raid on Columbus, New Mexico on March 9, 1916. During this time period many refugees from Mexico fled to El Paso to escape the violence and economic disruption of the Revolution.
A significant Mexican middle class population developed cultural, social, and educational institutions catering to their needs, including many located in central El Paso and in the Sunset Heights area. These included the Ateneo Porfirio Díaz, the Casino Mexicano (housed in the Toltec Building), Professor Servando Esquivel's Colegio Palmore, and the Colegio de las Hermanas de Jesús y María. The Jesuit Order, expelled from Mexico during the Revolution, played an important role in the development of community institutions and schools, aiding the American and Italian Jesuits already active in El Paso. They staffed parishes like Santo Angel, San Ignacio, and Sagrado Corazón in South El Paso and the Sagrada Familia, in Sunset Heights, as well as a chapel in Smeltertown. South El Paso street was the premier artistic and cultural center of Mexican El Paso, with over a dozen cinemas and theaters that featured the latest films, as well as vaudeville performers, tandas skits, carpas comics, nightclubs, and the occasional touring Spanish-language theatrical and opera company, such as that of the grande dame of the Mexican stage, Virginia Fábregas. Mexican cinemas in El Paso were important to the development of subtitles. Around the start of the 20th century, bilingual interpreters called out in Spanish the English-language text of American movies, and this gradually gave way to on-screen translations. Azteca Films—a leading production company in mid 20th century Mexico, was housed in El Paso in the 1930s–1950s, and brought to South El Paso street theaters premier screenings featuring stars like María Félix.
The Roaring 20s, the Great Depression, the Repatriation, and the Second World War.
Beginning in the 1920s and into the 1930s, El Paso became the birthplace of several locally and nationally well-known businesses and events. In 1930, Conrad Hilton opened his first high-rise hotel in El Paso, the now Plaza Hotel. The Plaza Theatre opened on September 12, 1930.
The 1920s and early 1930s would prove to be a particularly violent period in El Paso's history. During World War One the city's legal saloons were shuttered by wartime liquor policies and remained so in the months that followed the Armistice with the passage of the Dean Act, a statewide prohibition law that would remain in effect until 1935. However, given the city's proximity to Juarez, where nightclubs, dance halls and gambling dens flourished in the 1920s and where alcohol remained legal, El Paso would become a major hub in the illicit liquor trade during both state and nationwide prohibition. Between 1920 and 1933, there were perhaps hundreds of shootouts between area lawmen and smugglers in and around El Paso resulting in the deaths of numerous local and federal officers and countless bootleggers. Simultaneously, the narcotics trade along the Rio Grande also flourished, setting the stage for the drug wars that would plague the region in the decades to come.
In 1934, Walter Varney and Louis Mueller established the passenger airline called Varney Speed Lines in El Paso and operated out of the old El Paso Municipal Airport (1934–36) and then the El Paso International Airport. After the airline was taken over in 1937 by Robert Six, he relocated its headquarters to Denver, Colorado and renamed it with the more recognized name of Continental Airlines, as was known until its purchase by United Airlines in 2010. Although Continental Airlines would have its headquarters stationed in Denver, El Paso was still a major hub for the airline up until the late 1980s.
The college football Sun Bowl has been held in El Paso since 1936 and is the second oldest bowl game in the nation. Second only to the Rose Bowl.
The Great Depression greatly affected the city, halting its boom years. Many moved away, seeking opportunity elsewhere in the West, particularly in Tucson and Phoenix, which boomed in the 1940s thanks to the defense industries established there. El Paso experienced an influx of Mexicans and Mexican Americans expelled from other parts of the country between 1931 and 1934, when some 400,000 were forcibly "repatriated." The Civilian Conservation Corps as well as the Work Projects Administration aided many of the unemployed, who were hired to do work on public buildings and building roads and infrastructure, such as Scenic Drive. Another important project of the period was the privately funded Cristo Rey shrine and road project.
Post-war era.
After the Second World War, Wernher von Braun and other German rocket scientists were brought to Fort Bliss in El Paso, along with many of the V2 rockets and rocket parts, starting the American rocket program; they were later moved to Huntsville, Alabama. One V2 rocket is still on display at Fort Bliss. The popular drink, the Margarita, was another famous invention given a home in El Paso. It is claimed to have been first mixed in the El Paso-Juárez area at Tommy's Place Bar on July 4, 1945 by Francisco "Pancho" Morales. Morales originally left bartending in Mexico to become a US citizen. He is listed in the Texas Almanac's Sesquicentennial Edition (1857–2007, under M) Obituaries of famous Texans. His story is best captured in an October 1973 Texas Monthly article "The Man Who Invented the Margarita" by Brad Cooper, and later in his obituary in the Washington Post on January 2, 1997.
From the Second World War until the 1980s, El Paso grew rapidly into a sprawling city. The expansion of Fort Bliss from a frontier post to a major Cold War military center brought in thousands of soldiers, dependents, and retirees. The industrial economy was dominated by copper smelting, oil refining, and the proliferation of low wage industries (particularly garment making), which drew thousands of Mexican immigrants. New housing subdivisions were built, expanding El Paso far to the west, northeast and east of its original core areas.
With the election of Raymond Telles, the city's first Hispanic mayor in 1957, the demand for civil rights amongst the Hispanic population began. Stretching into the tumultuous 1960s, and converging with America's anti-war and civil rights demonstrations, great strides were achieved that became evident in the 1970s. While African Americans were integrated into then Texas Western College in 1954, greater changes came in the 1960s and 1970s as the city's Mexican American population, largely under the leadership of LULAC and Veterans' Groups, moved to provide greater educational opportunities for Mexican American or Chicano youth.
In 1963, the U.S. agreed to cede Chamizal, a long-disputed part of El Paso, to Mexico due to changes in the course of the Rio Grande, which forms the international boundary between the two countries. The area boundaries were rationalized and the Rio Grande was re-channeled. A former island in the river was re-developed. The Chamizal National Memorial, administered by the National Park Service is now a major park in El Paso; "El Chamizal" is the corresponding park in Juárez.
Over the 1960s and 1970s, El Paso's economy boomed, benefiting from low wages, the international crossing, and regional transportation networks. Particularly successful were a number of clothing manufacturers (and the sweatshops that serviced them), providing a livelihood to thousands of Mexican Americans and Mexicans. The development of the maquiladora industry in Ciudad Juárez also aided in the development of the textile and clothing industry. Growth was not without conflict, as Mexican American and Mexican seamstresses sought to improve their working conditions, and organized labor unions that businessmen worked hard to defeat.
Since 1990, the local economy has been adversely affected by competition with low wage labor abroad, and the closure of the main copper smelter due to fluctuating metal prices, and excessive lead contamination found throughout many of the surrounding areas. The implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1994 affected the local economy, with transport, retail, and service firms expanding, and the accelerated loss of many industrial jobs. El Paso is sensitive to changes in the Mexican economy and the regulation of cross border traffic; the Mexican peso devaluation of late 1994 and increasingly stringent controls of cross border traffic after the September 11, 2001 attacks were felt strongly in El Paso. In contrast to almost every other border city and popular belief, the commercial traffic at the ports of entry went un-interrupted during the immediate aftermath of 9/11.
Since the 1849 establishment of Fort Bliss in the El Paso area, El Paso has seen many booms in population. More recently, the Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) commission has marked the base to receive more than 30,000 soldiers, which is estimated to add $547 million to the El Paso economy. The expected 100,000 people destined for El Paso (30,000 soldiers and 70,000 dependents) will bring to El Paso a rise in population that has not been seen since the Mexican Exodus of the 1910s in which the town's population grew by at least 60,000 people that were trying to escape the carnage of the Mexican Revolution.
Recent citywide projects funded through the election of bonds have once again pushed the urban sprawl onward for El Paso. The most prominent of these projects was the complete refurbishment of the Plaza Theatre in Downtown El Paso. The project was completed on March 17, 2006 at a cost of $38 million. With the completion of a new freeway on the city's eastern edge, the city should experience the usual urban sprawl that accompanies such construction. With the arrival of military personnel and expansion of Biggs Army Airfield, the city is also constructing a new "Inner Loop" (Loop 375 to Fred Wilson Avenue) that will connect the eastern section of the city to the Army Airfield. Once completed, Biggs Army Airfield is expected to be larger than the current space at Fort Bliss. Beginning in mid 2008, El Paso's city council decided to reinvest in downtown, with a full redevelopment initiative.


Chen Nan-kuang

Chen Nan-kuang () is a Taiwanese economist and academic. He became the Deputy Governor of the Central Bank of the Republic of China in March 2018.
Education.
Chen obtained his bachelor's and master's degree in economics from National Taiwan University (NTU) in 1987 and 1989 respectively. He then obtained his doctoral degree in economics from University of Minnesota in the United States.
Early careers.
Chen was the assistant professor of the department of economics of NTU from August 1997 until July 2003. In August 2003 until July 2008, he was an associate professor within the same department of the university, and finally he became a professor of the department in August 2008, which continued until March 2018, when he left that position for the Central Bank of the Republic of China in Tawain.


Tyurkmen, Plovdiv Povince

Tyurkmen is a village in Southern Bulgaria, Plovdiv Province, Brezovo municipality. As of 15 June 2020, the current population of the village is 240 people. The village is located at an altitude of 196 meters above sea level.
Infrastructure.
There is a library but there is no school in the village. There are around 30 children in the village who travel on a daily basis to Brezovo to attend school. Due to the bad road conditions, the school bus often passed through the open fields, instead of the road. The transport is organized by the town hall. In 2018, villagers rose to a protest against dangerous road infrastructure between nearby villages.
In 2014, an illegal Marijuana farmhouse was busted in the area by the police force. There is also a nearby dam with a large population of Carps, crucians, and redfin fish. There is a wide variety of bird species, living around it.
Nearby Sight Seeings.
In a neighboring village Granit, the oldest tree in Bulgaria can be found, a 1668 year old oak. The water springing in the area is also often referred to as the cleanest water in the country. The village used to have the largest almond plantations in Bulgaria.
Holidays.
The yearly festival of the village is on 20 October. On 1 February an honorary day of vineyards is held, when villagers plant vines and pour them with red wine for a ritual of better harvest.


Mystic River Railroad Bridge

The Mystic River Railroad Bridge is a railroad bridge carrying Amtrak's Northeast Corridor over the Mystic River in Mystic, Connecticut, between the towns of Groton and Stonington.
There have been three bridges at this location. The first bridge was a single-tracked, wooden drawbridge in 1819, which was replaced with a steel swing bridge in 1875.
The current bridge was built in 1984, and is a truss-style swing bridge, providing of vertical clearance when closed.
The two tracks running over the bridge are owned by Amtrak, are part of its Northeast Corridor route, and are used to operate its Northeast Regional and Acela Express services. There is a proposal, however, to extend Shore Line East Commuter Rail Service from its current terminus in New London to Mystic, which would require crossing this bridge.
The bridge is the easternmost drawbridge on the Amtrak-owned Northeast Corridor in Connecticut.


Slovenian nationality law

Slovenian nationality law is based primarily on the principles of Jus sanguinis, in that descent from a Slovenian parent is the primary basis for acquisition of Slovenian citizenship. However, although children born to foreign parents in Slovenia do not acquire Slovenian citizenship on the basis of birthplace, place of birth is relevant for determining whether the child of Slovenian parents acquires citizenship.
Slovenia became independent from Yugoslavia on June 25, 1991, and transitional provisions were made for the acquisition of Slovenian citizenship by certain former Yugoslav citizens.
Dual citizenship is permitted in Slovenia, with the exception that those acquiring Slovenian citizenship by naturalisation are normally required to renounce any foreign citizenship they hold.
Transitional provisions on independence - 25 June 1991.
Prior to independence in 1991, Slovenians were citizens of Yugoslavia. However, within Yugoslavia an internal "citizenship of the Republic of Slovenia" existed, and at independence any Yugoslav citizen who held this internal "Slovenian citizenship" automatically became a Slovenian citizen.
Certain other former Yugoslav citizens were permitted to acquire Slovenian citizenship under transitional provisions:
Citizenship by birth and adoption.
A child born in Slovenia is a Slovenian citizen if "either" parent is a Slovenian citizen
Where the child is born outside Slovenia the child will be automatically Slovenian if:
A person born outside Slovenia with one Slovenian parent who is not Slovenian automatically may acquire Slovenian citizenship through:
Children adopted by Slovenian citizens may be granted Slovenian citizenship.
Citizenship by naturalization.
A person may acquire Slovenian citizenship by naturalization upon satisfying the following conditions:
Exceptions to the requirements for naturalization
Children aged under 18 can normally be naturalized alongside their parent, if resident in Slovenia. Those aged 14 or over must normally give their own consent.
Deprivation of citizenship.
Involuntary deprivation of citizenship.
Involuntarily deprivation of citizenship occurred in Slovenia during a period of 'identity erasure' whereby a number of vital records and registries were cleansed of people when the former Yugoslavia collapsed. Involuntary deprivation of Slovenian citizenship may only occur, though, when the Slovenian holds a second nationality, and only deprived in circumstances of which are based on "activities ... contrary to the international and other interests of the Republic of Slovenia". These are generally defined as:
Voluntary deprivation of citizenship.
Slovenian citizens who possess another nationality may normally renounce Slovenian citizenship if resident outside Slovenia.
Dual citizenship.
Dual citizenship is restricted but not prohibited in Slovenia. Persons who become Slovenian through naturalisation may be required to renounce their former nationality upon acquisition of Slovenian nationality. Slovenians by birth who hold a multiple nationality may be subject to circumstances where they can be legally deprived of their citizenship in certain circumstances.
Citizenship of the European Union.
Because Slovenia forms part of the European Union, Slovenian citizens are also citizens of the European Union under European Union law and thus enjoy rights of free movement and have the right to vote in elections for the European Parliament. When in a non-EU country where there is no Slovenian embassy, Slovenian citizens have the right to get consular protection from the embassy of any other EU country present in that country. Slovenian citizens can live and work in any country within the EU as a result of the right of free movement and residence granted in Article 21 of the EU Treaty.
Travel freedom of Slovenian citizens.
Visa requirements for Slovenian citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Slovenia. As of January 2019, Slovenian citizens had visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to 180 countries and territories, ranking the Slovenian passport 11th in the world according to the Visa Restrictions Index.
In 2017, the Slovenian nationality is ranked seventeenth in Nationality Index (QNI). This index differs from the Visa Restrictions Index, which focuses on external factors including travel freedom. The QNI considers, in addition, to travel freedom on internal factors such as peace & stability, economic strength, and human development as well.


First Mexican Republic

The First Mexican Republic, known also as the First Federal Republic (), was a federated republic, under the Constitution of 1824. It was a nation-state officially designated the United Mexican States (, ). The First Mexican Republic lasted from 1824 to 1835, when conservatives under Antonio López de Santa Anna transformed it into a centralized state, the Centralist Republic of Mexico.
The republic was proclaimed on November 1, 1823 by the Constituent Congress, months after the fall of the Mexican Empire ruled emperor Agustin I, a former royalist military officer-turned-insurgent for independence. The federation was formally and legally established on October 4, 1824 when the Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States came into force.
It was bordered on the north by the United States and Oregon Country (or Columbia District); on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Central America, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico.
The First Republic was plagued through its entire twelve year existence by severe financial and political instability. Administrations were regularly interrupted by military coup d'états. The first president of the Republic, Guadalupe Victoria was also the only president who completed his full term in this period and in almost 30 years of independent Mexico. As in the early U.S., the president and vice president were elected separately and the men did not have to be of the same party, contributing to governmental instability. Political controversy, ever since the drafting of the constitution tended to center around whether Mexico should be a federal or a centralist state, with wider liberal and conservative causes attaching themselves to each faction respectively.
General Antonio López de Santa Anna repealed the Constitution of 1824 on October 23, 1835, and the Federal Republic became a unitary state, the Centralist Republic. The unitary regime was formally established on December 30, 1836, with the enactment of the seven constitutional laws.
Independence and immediate aftermath.
The Spanish overseas possession of the Viceroyalty of New Spain lasted for 300 years, from 1521 with the fall of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan and the foundation of Mexico City until the collapse of the viceroyalty in following years of civil war and military stalemate. An insurgency for independence from Spain lasted from the initial 1810 mass revolt, led by secular cleric Miguel Hidalgo and continued under another secular cleric, José María Morelos, and carried on the hot country of Mexico's south by Vicente Guerrero. Augustin Iturbide, a royalist military officer born in New Spain of Spanish parents, made a strategic alliance with insurgent leader Guerrero under the Plan of Iguala, in which the former foes fought in tandem to oust Spanish rule. The plan proclaimed Mexico a nation-state; Roman Catholicism as the sole religion; the equality of Spaniards those born in Mexico ("Americanos"), thereby abolishing colonial-era legal racial designations; and was to be a constitutional monarchy. The joint forces of the insurgent guerrillas and the royal army formed the Army of the Three Guarantees, and royal rule collapsed in New Spain. The incoming viceroy Juan O'Donojú signed the Treaty of Córdoba, recognizing New Spain's independence. Iturbide entered Mexico City in triumph on September 27, 1821. The new, independent nation-state was named the Mexican Empire.
Rise and fall of the First Mexican Empire.
Elite American-born Spaniards in New Spain had no real experience with exercising political power other than on their city councils, so that monarchy was the familiar form of rule. No European of royal blood stepped in to assume the royal title in Mexico. A minority of the Constituent Congress in search of stability chose as monarch the general Agustín de Iturbide, who had led the war effort against Spain. He was proclaimed Emperor of Mexico on May 18, 1822. Political turmoil ensued, with Iturbide dissolving the Constituent Congress in October 1822 and jailing the legislators. Several members were jailed simply for expressing their disagreement with Iturbide. When Iturbide eliminated the elected Congress, he established an appointed National Board in its place. The dismissal of the Congress, the dictatorial style of government adopted by the Emperor, and the absence of solutions to the serious problems that the country was going through increased the conspiracies to change the imperial system.
The military men sent to crush the opposition instead proclaimed against Iturbide and issued the Plan of Casa Mata, which sought to create a new constituent assembly. Generals Antonio López de Santa Anna and Guadalupe Victoria drafted the Plan of Casa Mata in December 1822, which was proclaimed on 1 February 1823. It appealed to the political subdivisions of Mexico who sought local autonomy and home rule. Several insurrections occurred in the Mexican provinces beginning in December, but they were all put down by the Imperial Army, except for Santa Anna's forces in Veracruz. Santa Anna had previously made a secret agreement with General Echávarri, the commander of the Imperial forces. By this agreement, the Plan of Casa Mata was to be proclaimed throughout Mexico on February 1, 1823, and Echávarri was to switch sides to join the insurgents. This plan did not recognize the First Mexican Empire and called for the convening of a new Constituent Congress. The insurrectionists sent their proposal to the provincial delegations and requested their adherence to the plan. In the course of just six weeks, the Plan of Casa Mata traveled to such remote places as Texas, and almost all the provinces supported the plan.
Antonio López de Santa Anna proclaimed the Plan of Casa Mata, which was later joined by Vicente Guerrero and Nicolás Bravo. Iturbide was forced to reinstate the Congress, and in a vain attempt to save the order and keep the situation favorable to his supporters, he abdicated on March 19, 1823. However, the restored Congress declared the appointment of Iturbide void "ab initio", and thus refused recognition of the abdication. On 8 April, the Congress declared the Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba void as well. With that the Empire was dissolved and the country declared its freedom to establish itself as it saw fit.
Provisional Government of Mexico (1823-1824).
The forced abdication of the emperor made the debate about how Mexico should constitute itself as a nation-state an urgent issue. It decided on a federated republic, which was the preferred form of government for most of Mexican provinces. The Bourbon Reforms of the eighteenth century had created administrative districts, intendancies, which decentralized power from the viceroy in Mexico City and empowered the intendants to communicate directly with the crown about their issues, rather than having Mexico City convey information. With this, provinces found themselves with a level of home rule that they were reluctant to give up when New Spain threw off Spanish rule and established the constitutional monarchy. With the end of that bridging period between Spanish monarchical rule and the Mexican monarchy, regions of Mexico sought to reassert their autonomy. For historian Timothy Anna, "the transition federal republic was the real 'revolution' because the old gave way to the new in Mexican history.” In the period after abdication, Mexico opted to form a federal republic, much as the United States had already done (and later Canada did), a practical and workable solution "that allowed competent national government and an effective regional voice [which] was a delicate balancing act requiring frequent revision."
1824 Constitution of Mexico.
Following the abdication of Iturbide as emperor, a second constituent congress convened to draft a formal constitution. The Constitution of 1824 empowered regions of Mexico to assert their political power, resulting in a constitution that reinforced radical federalism, "with a weak national government fiscally dependent upon the states." It was weak foundation for the new sovereign state to confront challenges. Conservatives who supported traditions rooted in the colonial order, especially centralized power of the state, were concerned about the framework of the strongly federalist constitution favored by most liberals. However, liberal intellectual José María Luis Mora lamented that Mexico, as well as other new Latin American republics established "solid governments." He opined "The reply is too easy: these [new republics] have not from adopted the representative system anything but the forms and its exterior apparatus. They have tried to unite intimately the despotic and miserable laws and customs of the old absolutism with the principles of a system in which all must be liberty and openness."
Key elements of the constitution were:
Creating new institutions.
States had to create a functioning political system, which under the constitution was to have powers divided between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The new system had to grapple with creating a new legal system and deciding who was a citizen.
The 1821 Plan of Iguala signaled a new direction for an independent Mexico, calling for the abolition of class distinctions and legal racial categories, while continuing traditional lack of equal standing for women. In the new federated republican era, equality before the law meant eliminating noble titles and special privileges ("fueros") of particular groups. The result in theory leveled differences between classes. The transition from royal civil and criminal courts to a court system in the new order was not easy. Crown edicts no longer had force and new legal codes had not yet come into being. No one knew what laws were valid, there were vacancies in judgeships, and few trained lawyers. States were accorded the power over most civil and criminal legal matters. The separate court of the mostly Spanish merchants, the consulado, was abolished, but the military and ecclesiastical courts remained in place as part of their "fuero". For members of indigenous communities, the removal of colonial-era protections of their community lands and their access to the special General Indian Court made them more vulnerable in the new federated republican order.
Spain and Spaniards in Mexico.
Although the last viceroy of New Spain signed the Treaty of Córdoba, Spain refused to recognize the loss of it valuable colony. Spanish military officers in Cuba, territory controlled by Spain, offered to mount a reconquest of Mexico. Spain still controlled the coastal fort of San Juan Ulúa until 1825. Spanish agents sought to assess the political situation in Mexico in the 1820s, looking for an opening to reassert control. "The Spanish government vacillated between planning military reconquest and seeking other means to achieve a negotiated return to Mexican dependency."
Many Spaniards did remain in Mexico after independence, but elite Mexicans viewed them warily, particularly those who had fought in the royalist army. This is despite the pledge of the Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba guaranteeing equality between peninsular- and American-born Spaniards. All in Mexico were to be Mexican citizens, but with the question of the standing of the Spaniards was in doubt. There was strong anti-Spanish sentiment in the country, but expelling them challenged the tenets of liberal ideology, which stressed equality before the law. A leading liberal, José María Luis Mora, a diocesan priest and liberal intellectual, was opposed to Spaniards’ expulsion on ideological grounds, but also on practical grounds, since Spanish merchants had been vital to the flourishing of the colonial economy.
In 1827, Mexico expelled remaining peninsular-born Spaniards, called disparagingly "gachupines". In 1829, a Spanish expeditionary force was launched from Cuba, with the expectation that many Mexicans would support it. The Spaniards were wrong.
Politics in the era of Guadalupe Victoria.
The lack of political experience of Mexican elites prior to independence and their sharply held opposing views meant that political life was both highly polarized and chaotic. Two leaders emerged, articulating the views of the two main political views. Lucas Alamán from the time he was a young man representing New Spain at the Cortes of Cádiz in 1812 until his death in 1853 was the voice of Mexican conservatism. Conservatives did not repudiate colonial-era institutions and sought a way to recreate what they considered the order and stability of that era, and were proponents of centralism, that is, a strong central government. Lorenzo de Zavala was the early voice of Mexican liberals was from Yucatán and emerged as a spokesperson for a Mexico that looked beyond the traditions and constraints of the colonial era, and were proponents of federalism, that is, for empowerment of states over the central government. The constitution of 1824 had enshrined federalism as its organizing principle, so that conservatives, who had supported Mexican independence but favored a strong central government, found themselves reviled as opponents of progress by the liberals.
The first election immediately after the promulgation of the 1824 brought two heroes of independence to the fore as candidates. Guadalupe Victoria was considered a “natural choice” for the presidency. His opponent for the election was another hero of the insurgency, Nicolás Bravo. Both men ran restrained campaigns, and were, in fact, occupied with peacekeeping in the post-independence period. Bravo, however, signaled that he was opposed to the states’ rights of federalism and moved to protect Spaniards still in Mexico. Victoria won the indirect election, carrying all the northern states, most in favor of federalism. He served his entire four-year term, a feat not duplicated for decades. The fact that it lasted did not mean it was effective. It had no clear cut program of its own and was generally passive.
Mexicans had no experience with electoral democracy, not least those considered their leaders. In the absence of a tradition of political parties, Mexican elites sorted themselves into rival rites of the Freemasons in the mid 1820s. Many conservatives, including Alamán, were affiliated with the Scottish Rite Masons, the elite group that was most sympathetic to the Spanish system. Many liberals, including Zavala and Vicente Guerrero, were affiliated with the York Rite Masons. The "Yorkinos" functioned as "the first political party for laboring people" and became a vehicle to mobilize the popular classes, organizing them for political purposes. Since Masonic meetings were carried on in secret, politics took on the air of secrecy and conspiracy, but the "Yorkinos" in particular generated published propaganda, so that their views were widely disseminated throughout the country with the formation of "Yorkino" lodges. Foreign interests became involved in Mexican politics through the rival Masonic lodges. Joel Roberts Poinsett, the U.S. government emissary to Mexico, involved himself in Masonic politics on the side of the Yorkinos, viewing them as most favorable to U.S. interests. The British envoy, Henry G. Ward and other British diplomats quietly worked with the Scottish Rite Mexican politicians.
Pro-Spanish elements in Mexico sought the reinstatement of Spain's rule in Mexico. In January 1827, conspirators to bring that about were exposed and jailed, which led to the expulsion of Spaniards in December 1827. Other political agitation in the period saw the formulation of the in Tulancingo by Col. Manuel Montaño to dissolve "secret societies," in particular the "Yorkinos", expel the U.S. Ambassador Joel Roberts Poinsett, who meddled in Mexican politics promoting the "Yorkinos", and renovate the Victoria cabinet to displace "Yorkinos" who served in it. The legislature in Veracruz supported the plan. President Victoria put Vicente Guerrero in charge of combating the small group of armed elite rebels. Nicolás Bravo had joined the rebels and was captured, along with Montaño. Guerrero argued for leniency for Bravo, who was sent into exile. The Veracruz legislature was not dissolved, despite their support for the plan. The rebellion and the government's suppression of it discredited those who had wanted a centralist government with an authoritarian head of state. They were forced to moderate their stance for the time being and join with those opposing the country's populists led by Guerrero.
Election of 1828.
Presidential elections in Mexico were indirect, with state legislatures casting the votes for candidates. Unlike the election that brought Guadalupe Victoria to the presidency, the 1828 election saw that partisan conflicts of the new republic in raw form. Once again leaders from the war of independence stood for election, Vicente Guerrero, the insurgent leader of the south who had kept alive the idea of Mexican independence, and Manuel Gómez Pedraza, who had fought against the insurgents for independence and participated in the capture of José María Morelos. Other candidates were Anastasio Bustamante, Melchor Múzquiz, and Ignacio Godoy. Guerrero was a liberal, with a wide popular following. Gómez Pedraza was the choice of the conservatives, although he was a moderate and a "Yorkino". The Masonic lodges that had come to prominence as the stand-ins for political parties during Guadalupe Victoria's presidency were mobilized during the 1828 election. However, there was no direct campaigning by candidates. Guerrero refrained from public speaking, in part because he was still suffering from the effects of a war wound in his chest, but more importantly so that those serving in state legislatures would not be dissuaded from voting for him because of his strong following in the popular classes. Guerrero's following came to be called the "People's Party," which supported broad male suffrage, support for decisions of municipalities, and support for federalism and against the power of Mexico City. Their campaign literature extolled his record as a hero of the insurgency.
The opposition to Guerrero was not just politically conservative in its stance, but openly racist and raising fears about his mixed-race, black and mestizo followers. Carlos María Bustamante, the ideologue for Gómez Pedraza, raised the specter of Mexico becoming like Haiti, the former slave colony of France that overthrew European rule.
Gómez Pedraza won the election, but under duress he renounced his victory on 3 December 1828 and went into exile. Liberal adversaries included General Antonio López de Santa Anna, who supported Guerrero. The election was annulled, and under the , Vicente Guerrero assumed the presidency in 1829.
Presidency of Vicente Guerrero (1829).
Guerrero became president on 1 April 1829, with conservative Anastasio Bustamante as his vice president. The legitimacy of Guerrero's presidency was in doubt from the beginning, since the 1828 election results were annulled under pressure of a liberal revolt, and Gómez Pedraza, the duly elected president, was forced to renounce office. Some traditional federalists leaders, who might have supported Guerrero, did not do so because of the electoral irregularities. In his farewell speech from the presidency, Guadalupe Victoria cordially endorsed his old friend and fellow liberal insurgent Guerrero. For Guerrero's supporters, a visibly mixed-race man from Mexico's periphery becoming president of Mexico was a step toward in what one 1829 pamphleteer called "the reconquest of this land by its legitimate owners" and called Guerrero "that immortal hero, favorite son of Nezahualcoyotzin", the famous ruler of prehispanic Texcoco.
The nasty racial slurs and disparagement of his character in the campaign of 1828 did not let up when he assumed the presidency. In his inaugural address, he pointed to his long service to the nation fighting for independence, but also importantly to his holding of high office in independent Mexico. He said, "The representatives are to be found in all classes of the people, and the true titles of superiority, the only ones that cause distinction and preference, are discovered wherever talent and virtue appear." In his first address to congress, he pledged that "the administration is obliged to procure the widest possible benefits and apply them from the palace of the rich to the wooden shack of the humble laborer." He went on to extol liberal values of equality before the law and rewards for those with talent and virtue.
The national treasury was empty and future revenues were already liened. Spain continued to deny recognition of Mexico's independence and threatened reconquest. Guerrero's supporters were strongly anti-Spanish and there had already been one order for their expulsion under the Victoria government. Guerrero called for the establishment of public schools, which would give access to education of Mexico's popular classes. In the colonial era, education was exclusively in the hands of the Catholic Church and the main beneficiaries were elite men. Guerrero also called for land title reforms, industry and trade development, and other programs of a liberal nature. Now president, Guerrero championed the causes of the racially oppressed and economically oppressed. He ordered an immediate abolition of slavery on September 16 of 1829. In central Mexico, there were few black slaves, so that the gesture was largely symbolic, but in the Mexican state of Texas, where Anglo-American slave-holding southerners were colonizing, the decree went against their economic interests.
During Guerrero's presidency, the Spanish tried to reconquer Mexico, but they failed, being defeated at the Battle of Tampico.
Church-State relations.
The Spanish monarchy had the full power to appoint clerics in its overseas possessions through the papal grant of the Patronato Real. When Mexico obtained its independence, Roman Catholicism continued to be the only permissible faith. However, the question of the power of appointment of clerics was highly contested. The Mexican government asserted that the right passed to the new national government, in what was termed the "Patronato nacional". With Spain not recognizing Mexico's independence, the papacy claimed that the patronato reverted to itself, the original grantor. The Spanish crown had systematically replaced elite American-born Spaniards in positions in the civil and religious spheres, so that anti-Spanish sentiment now fell on Spanish clerics. When Mexico expelled peninsular-born Spaniards in 1827, many bishops and other members of the ecclesiastical hierarchy left, leaving all high church positions vacant until 1840. The lack of bishops and parish priests meant that the connection between Mexican Catholics and the institution of the church was damaged, weakening its authority and its influence among the vast number of poor parishioners. During the early 1830s, under vice president Valentín Gómez Farías, the Mexican state undertook an early reform of church-state relations, with the backing of Mexican liberals. The missions in the northern regions were secularized and their resources confiscated, the educational system, previously in the hands of the Church, was secularized; the state ceased collecting tithes, a 10% tax on agricultural output, on behalf of the church, and declared monastic vows were no longer binding. President Antonio López de Santa Anna reasserted his role as head of state and cancelled the anti-clerical measures, but they were a precursor to the mid-nineteenth-century liberal Reform.
Conflicts with Indigenous peoples in Northern Mexico.
In Alta California during the late colonial era the Franciscans had established missions from San Diego in the south to the San Franciscan bay area in the north. In 1824, indigenous in four central coast missions revolted against ill-treatment by non-indigenous authorities. The Chumash revolt was suppressed, the mission indigenous pardoned and urged to return to the missions, but the revolt was serious and challenged the narrative of peaceful mission indigenous.
The republic would largely adopt Spanish colonial policy with regard to the Apache, "establicimiento", or the system by which the Spanish sought to settle the Apache and make them sedentary by offering these "Apaches de Paz" (Peaceful Apaches) goods and land in exchange for peace and abandonment of nomadic lifestyle. The Mexican state followed the practice of its Spanish colonial predecessor, with inadequate military resources to suppress the northern indigenous groups that did not recognize outsiders sovereignty over their territory. Mexico faced an insufficient defense network against the Comanches and Apaches in the Northern States. Even going so far as to include a royal signature, pre-Republican Mexico reinstated Spanish Indian policies to the letter. While some peace treaties did exist between locals and "los indios", the peace did not last long, as Apaches would often simply take their violence elsewhere when villages proved to be too difficult to raid. With these ineffective policies in place, combined with an ever-evolving and adapting Comanche Empire, the Early Republic faced a formidable foe with an inadequate infrastructure. The lack of appropriate defense against raids might not have been so large of a problem for the Republic, if "establicimiento" had not all but been forgone by the 1830s, with post-independence 1820s economic instability causing many regions to drastically reduce rations to the "Apaches" "de Paz".
The Apache were supplied with guns by US American merchants. Goods including guns and shoes were sold to the Apache, the latter being discovered by Mexican forces when they found traditional Apache trails with American shoe prints instead of moccasin prints. The cycle of heightened violence between Mexicans and Apaches further destabilized the Republic, with bloody and violent suppression of Apaches. Discontent among the northern Mexican states reached a peak in 1837, when the governor of the Sonora declared that "the United States has already as much as declared a state of war between our two nations" with regard to both the annexation of Texas and the illegal enterings/selling of weapons committed by United States' citizens.
End of the First Mexican Republic.
Under Mexican army General Antonio López de Santa Anna, a former federalist turned centralist and eventual dictator, the conservative forces in Mexico suspended the 1824 Constitution and replaced it with the Siete Leyes ("Seven Laws") in 1835. The Seven Laws transformed the federated republic into a unitary state known as the Centralist Republic of Mexico.
Several states openly rebelled against these changes including Alta California, Tabasco, Sonora, Nuevo México, Northern Coahuila y Tejas, San Luis Potosí, Querétaro, Durango, Guanajuato, Michoacán, Yucatán, Jalisco, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, and Zacatecas. Civil war quickly spread across the Mexican states, and three new governments declared independence: the Republic of Texas, the Republic of the Rio Grande and the Republic of Yucatán. The Texas Revolution was already underway when the "Siete Leyes" came into force, and the new powers of the Mexican central government were yet another grievance for their movement.


Temporary Liquidity Guarantee Program

The Temporary Liquidity Guarantee Program (TLGP) was a program administered by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) from 2008 to 2012 in the aftermath of the financial crisis of 2007–2008. The program sought to promote confidence in the US banking system by guaranteeing interbank loans and no-interest transaction accounts, such as checking accounts. It was announced through an Interim Rule on October 14, 2008.
Components.
The Temporary Liquidity Guarantee Program had two primary components: the Debt Guarantee Program, by which the FDIC guaranteed the payment of certain newly issued senior unsecured debt, and the Transaction Account Guarantee Program, by which the FDIC guaranteed certain noninterest-bearing transaction accounts. FDIC insured entities could opt out of either program.
Debt Guarantee Program.
The Debt Guarantee Program guaranteed all newly issued senior unsecured debt up to prescribed limits issued by participating entities. As a result of this guarantee, the unpaid principal and contract interest of an entity’s newly issued senior unsecured debt were to be paid by the FDIC if the issuing insured depository institution failed or if a bankruptcy petition were filed by the respective issuing holding company. More than 6000 banks opted out of the program.DGP Opt-out list (.xls)
The Debt Guarantee Program passed out debt guarantees in excess of $600 billion. Yet, unlike the other major agencies bailing out the financial sector during the global financial crisis of 2008—the Federal Reserve and the U.S. Treasury—the FDIC has never disclosed the identity of all the banks taking advantage of the bailout guarantees. Wilson and Wu (2011) find that the recipients of the FDIC debt guarantees paid their CEOs significantly more than their peers. Thus, bailed out CEOs made significantly more than bank CEOs not accepting the FDIC's bailout loan guarantees.
The Debt Guarantee Program stopped guaranteeing outstanding loans at the end of 2012.
Transaction Account Guarantee Program.
The Transaction Account Guarantee Program provided for a temporary full guarantee by the FDIC for funds held at FDIC-insured depository institutions in noninterest-bearing transaction accounts above the existing deposit insurance limit. This would continue through the end of 2010. Thereafter section 343 of the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act provided similar transaction account insurance until the end of 2012.


Ambassadors of the United States

Ambassadors of the United States are persons nominated as ambassadors by the President to serve as United States diplomats to individual nations of the world, to international organizations, and as ambassadors-at-large. Their appointment needs to be confirmed by the United States Senate. An ambassador can be appointed during a recess, but he or she can serve as ambassador only until the end of the next session of Congress unless subsequently confirmed. Ambassadors serve "at the pleasure of the President", meaning they can be dismissed at any time. Appointments change regularly for various reasons, such as reassignment or retirement.
An ambassador may be a career Foreign Service Officer (career diplomatCD) or a political appointee (PA). In most cases, career foreign service officers serve a tour of approximately three years per ambassadorship whereas political appointees customarily tender their resignations upon the inauguration of a new president. As embassies fall under the State Department's jurisdiction, ambassadors answer directly to the Secretary of State.
The United States Department of State provides lists of ambassadors which are updated periodically. (A recent list was issued on December 4, 2018. A further 24 nominees were confirmed on January 2, 2019, and a number of ambassadorships remain vacant.) A listing by country of past chiefs of mission is maintained by the Office of the Historian of the U.S. Department of State. That same office maintains a list of the names and appointment dates of past and present ambassadors-at-large, as well as chiefs of mission to international organizations. This information may also be available in the final pages of the aforementioned periodically updated lists of overseas ambassadors.
Current U.S. ambassadors.
Note that the information in this list is subject to change due to regular personnel changes resulting from retirements and reassignments. The State Department posts updated lists of ambassadors approximately monthly, accessible via an interactive menu-based website.
Ambassadors to international organizations.
Current ambassadors from the United States to international organizations:
Ambassadors-at-Large.
Current Ambassadors-at-Large from the United States with worldwide responsibility:
Other Chiefs of Mission.
Senior diplomatic representatives of the United States hosted in posts other than embassies. Unlike other consulates, these persons report directly to the Secretary of State.
Special Envoys, Representatives and Coordinators.
These diplomatic officials report directly to the Secretary of State. Many oversee a portfolio not restricted to one nation, often an overall goal, and are not usually subject to Senate confirmation. Unlike the State Department offices and diplomats listed in other sections of this Article, the offices and special envoys/representatives/coordinators listed in this Section are created and staffed by direction of top Federal Executive administratorsprimarily U.S. Presidents and Secretaries of Statewhose political or organizational management philosophies may not be shared by their successors. As such, many of these positions may go unfilled upon assumption of office by successor Presidential Administrations, with their offices sometimes merged with or subsumed into other offices, or abolished altogether.
Notable past ambassadors.
Many well-known individuals have served the United States as ambassadors, or in formerly analogous positions such as envoy, including several who also became President of the United States (indicated in boldface below). Some notable ambassadors have included:
Ambassadors killed in office.
Eight United States Ambassadors have been killed in officesix of them by armed attack and the other two in plane crashes.


Klausenburg (Hasidic dynasty)

Klausenburg, also known as Sanz-Klausenburg, is a Hasidic dynasty that originated in the Transylvanian city of Cluj-Napoca (, ), today in Romania.
At the behest of Rabbi Yekusiel Yehudah Halberstam, Klausenburger Rebbe from 1927–1994, the movement was split into two separate movements after his death, headed by his two sons. The Sanz-Klausenburger Hasidim are located in Borough Park, New York City, while the Sanzer Hasidim are based in Kiryat Sanz, Netanya, Israel. There are also followings in Jerusalem; Stamford Hill, London; Antwerp; and Union City, New Jersey.
Sanz-Klausenburg rabbinical lineage.
The Klausenburger Rebbes are descended from Rabbi Chaim Halberstam of Sanz, who was a disciple of Rabbi Naftoli Tzvi of Ropshitz. Rabbi Naftoli was a disciple of Rebbe Elimelech of Lizhensk author of "Noam Elimelech". Rebbe Elimelech was a disciple of Rebbe Dovber, the "Maggid" (Preacher) of Mezritch, the primary disciple of the Baal Shem Tov, the founder of Hasidism.
History.
The Klausenburger dynasty was founded by Rabbi Yekusiel Yehudah Halberstam in 1927, when he assumed the position of Rav of Klausenburg, the capital city of Transylvania in western Romania. Halberstam was the great-grandson of Rabbi Chaim of Sanz, founder of the Sanz Hasidic dynasty.
Rabbi Yekusiel Yehudah Halberstam grew up in Rudnik, Poland, and was known as a child prodigy and an excellent scholar. In the town of Klausenburg, which he led until the outbreak of World War II, he attracted many followers, and a great number of Sanz Hasidim began to follow the young Rebbe.
As a result of the Holocaust, almost the entire community was destroyed. Approximately 15% survived the Holocaust, including the Rebbe, who lost his wife and eleven children. He emerged as a leader in the displaced persons camps in Europe as he created a communal survivors organization called She'aris Hapleitah ("the surviving remnant"), which operated religious schools for boys and girls and yeshivas for young men in 19 different DP camps, as well as a host of religious services.
In 1947, he emigrated to America and established his court in the Williamsburg section of Brooklyn, where he began a widescale movement to increase Jewish observance. He founded many Jewish day schools and institutions of higher learning. He launched revolutionary programs for comprehensive study of the Talmud. He created a program called Mifal HaShas, in which students would master thirty folios of the Talmud in one month. His influence permeated areas as far as Canada, Mexico, and Israel.
In 1957, he established the Kiryat Sanz neighborhood in the beachside city of Netanya, Israel. Over the next few years, he raised money for the establishment of girls' and boys' schools and yeshivas, an orphanage, an old-age home, and a hospital to serve this community. He moved to Kiryat Sanz in 1960. In 1968, he founded yet another Sanz community in Union City, New Jersey, and afterwards divided his time between that community and his residence in Netanya.
Halberstam died on June 18, 1994, and was buried in Netanya. In his will, he divided leadership of the Klausenburger Hasidim between his two sons (both born in his second marriage after World War II). His elder son, Zvi Elimelech Halberstam, became the Sanz-Klausenburger Rebbe (also called Sanzer Rebbe) of Netanya, and Shmuel Dovid Halberstam became the Sanz-Klausenburger Rebbe of Brooklyn.
Sanz-Klausenburg today.
The Rebbe's sons-in-law are:
In contrast to the custom among many Rebbes, the Klausenburger Rebbe did not take sons-in-law exclusively from rabbinic families; rather, he chose the best students of his yeshiva to marry his daughters. The only exception was Rabbi Shlomo Goldman, an accomplished Torah scholar even in his youth, who is the son of the previous Zhviller Rebbe in Israel.
Other prominent figures in Sanz-Klausenburg are:


Child Rescue Nepal

The Child Rescue Nepal (formerly Esther Benjamins Trust) is a UK registered charity that promotes children's rights in Nepal. As a result of the work of the Trust it is now illegal to imprison Nepali children alongside their parents or for them to work in Indian circuses. It has recently become one of the pioneers of deinstitutionalisation in Nepal.
Initiatives.
Prison Children Project.
In 2002, the charity's first projects in Nepal involved the rescue of innocent children from prison; these were children who had been jailed alongside parents upon whom they were dependent and in the absence of any family members who were willing to look after them. The children were rescued with the agreement of the parents and looked after in community-based refuges where they could attend school and associate freely with their peers.
The story made several headlines, and in November 2001 the Nepal government outlawed the jailing of innocent children. Although it still happened on a small scale, having highlighted the issue and brought the numbers down, a number of local NGO's were able to manage the vastly reduced number of children.
Circus Children Project.
In 2002 one of the trust's Nepali partners heard about the trafficking of children from Nepal into Indian circuses where they were ostensibly employed as performers. The reality – as revealed by research commissioned by the Trust in 2002 – was slavery and extremes of abuse inside circuses that existed as de facto prisons. In conjunction with the Indian and Nepalese authorities, the Trust launched a rescue program for the children with great success, and a child trafficking route was closed. The program was instrumental in the release of around 700 children and young people, half of whom were freed by circus raids and the other half released by the circuses to avoid adverse publicity. The Trust's co-workers in Nepal tracked down the traffickers and 20 of them were imprisoned.
In 2006 a Nepalese court first recognized the Indian circus as being a potential trafficking destination and this set a legal precedent. In April 2011 the Indian Supreme Court ruled that performers inside circuses could not be under 18.
Disability projects.
The Trust has also supported the School for Deaf Children in Bhairahawa and the Disabled Day Care Centre in Butwal. When the Trust started working with the school for deaf children it only offered a primary education, it now offers School Leaving Certificate. Just six deaf schools operate across Nepal but the trust has built new classrooms, extended the hostel for boarders, employed the first deaf teacher, and funded a number of scholarships. The Trust supported the development of the disabled day care centre, installed play equipment and sent physiotherapy volunteers.
Deinstitutionalisation.
The children freed from the jails, the circuses (and from a smaller street children project who could not be immediately reunited with their families) were originally housed in a small community home. Gradually this grew into something of an institution. The trust is one of the first charities in Nepal working through the programme of deinstitutionalisation to support families to improve their own circumstances so that they can be reunited with their children without the children being at risk of further trafficking. The trust have now completed the closure of the large home, many children have been reunited with strengthened families with the remainder housed in three small, family-like homes.


Lists of ambassadors of Brazil

Lists of ambassadors of Brazil include:


Franklin Archibald Dick

Franklin Archibald Dick (May 2, 1823 – February 18, 1885) was an American lawyer, politician and military officer during the American Civil War. He served as a Republican member of the Missouri state legislature and worked with Francis P. Blair Jr. to oppose slavery in Missouri. He served as volunteer assistant adjutant general to Brigadier General Nathaniel Lyon in the struggle to prevent Missouri secession to the Confederacy that resulted in the Camp Jackson Affair. He also served as Missouri provost marshal general and lieutenant colonel under Major General Samuel Curtis. After the war, he worked as a law partner with Montgomery Blair at the Blair House in Washington, D.C.
Early life and education.
Dick was born in Chester, Pennsylvania on May 2, 1823, the only son of Archibald Thomas Dick and Hannah Rogers. He entered the University of Pennsylvania at the age of sixteen in 1839 as a law student. He graduated in 1842 and moved to the then frontier town of St. Louis, Missouri, where he practiced law from 1844 to 1861. He worked as an assistant editor at the St. Louis Democrat newspaper. He was an active supporter of the movement to abolish slavery and joined the Free Soil Party in 1849. He became a member of the Republican Party upon its founding in 1854. In 1857, he was elected to the Missouri legislature and voted for the end of slavery in Missouri.
He married Myra Madison Alexander on November 25, 1851. Myra's sister, Apolline, was married to Francis Preston Blair Jr., a Missouri congressman and a leader of the Unconditional Union Party. Dick helped organize the business affairs of Blair when he fell into debt after the 1857 depression.
American Civil War.
Camp Jackson affair.
After the election of President Lincoln, the pro-secessionist governor of Missouri, Clairborne F. Jackson was expected to lead Missouri to secede from the Union. Dick, Blair and other pro Union advocates in the city of St. Louis were concerned that Jackson would take possession of the St. Louis Arsenal and use the large stock of arms kept there to support Confederate leaning militias. Blair and Captain (later brigadier general) Nathaniel Lyon transferred the arms from the St. Louis Arsenal to Alton, Illinois to prevent their capture and usage by pro-confederacy militias.
In mid-April 1861, Jackson wrote to Confederate President Jefferson Davis, asking for heavy artillery to breach the walls of the arsenal. Around May 1, Jackson called up part of the Missouri Volunteer Militia (MVM) for "maneuvers" near St. Louis, under the command of Brigadier General Daniel M. Frost. The MVM set up Camp Jackson, about northwest of the arsenal.
Davis agreed to Jackson's request and delivered two 12-pound howitzers, two 32-pound siege guns, 500 muskets, and ammunition. MVM officers met the shipment at the St. Louis riverfront, and transported them to Camp Jackson.
Lyon wanted to scout Camp Jackson for himself. Dick borrowed a dress, shawl and bonnet from his mother in law in order to disguise the general. Dick provided the carriage and Lyon was able to observe the camp from inside the carriage disguised as Dick's mother in law and reported back that secessionist flags were flown within the camp and Confederate guns were located at the camp.
On May 10, 1861, Lyon, Blair, and other Unionists met in Dick's law office and decided to capture Camp Jackson. At Lyon's urging, Dick served as his volunteer assistant adjutant general during the Camp Jackson affair. Lyon, with the Home Guards and a U.S. regular Army company, captured several hundred secessionist state militia which had been positioned to seize the Arsenal. The Camp Jackson Affair gave the Federal cause a decisive initial advantage in Missouri but also inflamed secessionist sentiments in the state.
Dick was sent by Blair to Washington to convey concerns to President Lincoln about General William S. Harney's leniency in dealing with secessionists. Montgomery Blair took Dick to meet with President Lincoln and Secretary of War Simon Cameron. Dick had been directed to lobby for Nathaniel Lyon's ideas for the protection of St. Louis, ask for Lyon's confirmation as brigadier general, and request Harney's removal. Dick returned to St. Louis with Lincoln's promotion for Lyon effective May 17, and an order for Blair to remove Harney at his discretion. When Harney met with the former governor and head of the Missouri State Guard, Sterling Price, the Union supporters led by Blair delivered the orders on May 30, 1862, which opened the way for Lyon to take control of troops in Missouri.
Dick continued to write letters to Lincoln with updates on the state of affairs in Missouri.
Provost marshal general.
After Camp Jackson was disbanded, Missouri was under martial law, and remained so for the entire Civil War. Dick served on the Board of Assessments which identified and fined Southern sympathizers. Through his participation in the seizure of goods and banishment of Rebels and their families, he earned the hatred of many old St. Louisans, Conditional Unionists, and Rebels.
On November 5, 1862, Dick was commissioned by Governor Hamilton Rowan Gamble as aide-de-camp to Major General Samuel Curtis with the rank of lieutenant colonel. General Curtis assigned Dick as provost marshal general for the Department of Missouri which included the states of Missouri, Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas and sections of Illinois and Tennessee. In this position, Dick was responsible to keep order in the state and oversee the local provost marshals, enforce Curtis's orders for the Confiscation Act of 1862, banish and assess disloyal persons, and supervise prisons and prisoners.
Dick moved his family back and forth from St. Louis to Philadelphia for safety during the war, though he had to return to his law practice in St. Louis to earn a living. He was superseded as provost marshal general by James Brodhead.
After the war.
After the Civil War ended, at the urging of Francis P. Blair Sr., Dick practiced law with Montgomery Blair, working out of offices in the Blair House on Pennsylvania Avenue across from the White House. The Blair House is now the official guest house for the White House. Dick purchased a summer home he named "Hillside" near West Chester, Pennsylvania. Dick died on February 18, 1885, and was interred in Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.


Marion Running Track

Transportation in Hudson County, New Jersey


Trade-Mark Cases

The Trade-Mark Cases, 100 U.S. 82 (1879), were a set of three cases consolidated into a single appeal before the United States Supreme Court, which in 1879 unanimously ruled that the Copyright Clause of the Constitution gave Congress no power to protect or regulate trademarks. Congress then passed the Trade Mark Act of 1881, which was based on the Commerce Clause power, and therefore passed constitutional muster.
The three cases were United States v. Steffens, United States v. Wittemann, and United States v. Johnson. "Steffens" and "Wittemann" dealt with alleged counterfeiting of marks associated with champagne, while "Johnson" dealt with alleged counterfeiting of a mark associated with whiskey.
The opinion was written by Justice Samuel Freeman Miller.
The Court did not exclude all possibility of Congress regulating trademarks. Congress, however, read the decision very strictly and in a new trademark law enacted in 1881 regulated only trademarks used in commerce with foreign nations, and with the Indian tribes, areas specified under the Commerce Clause. It was not until 1905 that Congress would again enact a trademark law generally governing marks in use in the United States, though the 1905 act was also carefully worded to fall within the Commerce Clause.


Movement House

Movement House is a building under construction in Kampala, the capital of Uganda and the largest city in that country. The building is sometimes referred to as NRM House, in reference to its largest tenant, the National Resistance Movement (NRM), the ruling political party in Uganda since 1986.
Location.
The skyscraper is located on Hannington Road, on Nakasero Hill, one of the most prestigious locations in Kampala's central business district. This location is adjacent to Crested Towers South, the headquarters of Stanbic Bank (Uganda) Limited, and Crested Tower North, the headquarters of the European Union mission in Uganda. The two towers lie to the west of Movement House. To the south, across Nile Avenue, is the under-construction Kampala Intercontinental Hotel. The coordinates of Movement House are: Latitude:0.318334; Longitude:32.589445 (+0° 19'06.00"N, +32° 35'22.00"E). The street address of the building is 36 Hannington Road, Nakasero, Kampala.
Overview.
When completed as expected, in 2016, the building will house the headquarters of the NRM, the ruling political party in Uganda. It will also house rentable office and retail space, restaurants, banking halls, conference facilities, a shopping complex, movie theatres, and a roof garden. The building will sit on land that measures about , which once belonged to the first East African Community (1967 - 1977). It will be one of the tallest buildings in the city, at 27 stories above ground.
History.
The NRM is attempting to generate income for itself by investing in commercial real estate. The 27-storey building is being constructed in memory of the 27 young people who started the NRM in February 1981. Construction began in 2013, to commemorate 27 years since NRM first shot its way to power in 1986.
Construction costs.
The estimated total cost of construction is approximately US$12.5 million (UGX:30 billion). The funds will be raised from about 100,000 willing party members with an average donation of 300,000 Uganda Shillings (US$125) each. Construction is expected to begin in early 2013 with commissioning of the building in 2016. As of December 2014, approximately UGX:7 billion (US$2.6 million) had been raised from party members. Another UGX:16 billion (approx.: US $5 million), was raised during June 2015, at two separate dinners hosted by President Museveni at State House, Entebbe.


De Volksbank

De Volksbank ("the people's bank") is a Dutch retail bank offering financial products to both companies and individuals. Prior to a 2017 restructuring, it was called SNS Bank, which remains its major brand name. It became a subsidiary of SNS Reaal in 1997 when the holding company bought the insurance company Reaal. The bank and its parent were rescued by the Dutch government in 2013 and have been state owned since then. In 2016, SNS Bank was the fourth-largest bank in the Netherlands in terms of total assets.
History.
The history of the bank goes back to 1817 when the first Netherlands savings bank () was established as Nutsspaarbank. The saving bank movement was part of a campaign to encourage individual citizens to save for their future. The savings banks used these funds to provide mortgages to individuals who would otherwise not have the ability to buy their own house, much like the building society movement in the UK.
In 1987 a merger with several regional banks, including "Gelders-Utrechtse Spaarbank" en "Spaarbank Limburg," formed SNS Bank. SNS is an abbreviation for "Samenwerkende Nederlandse Spaarbanken" (English: "Co-operating Dutch savings banks"). The holding was called Sanes Holding N.V.
The second half of the 20th century saw a big consolidation of spaarbanks in the Netherlands. Some joined SBS Bank, while others joined VSB (, ), which later became part of Fortis. In 1990, following several more mergers, SNS Bank N.V. and its holding company SNS Groep N.V. were formed.
In 1997, SNS Groep N.V. and insurer REAAL Group N.V. merged into SNS REAAL N.V.
The holding company was listed on the Euronext stock exchange in Amsterdam on May 18, 2006. On December 4, 2006, it was announced that SNS REAAL would purchase "RegioBank" from ING Bank in a €50M deal.
On February 1, 2013 SNS Bank and its parent SNS REAAL were nationalized by the Dutch government to save it from default. Investors were expropriated as a result of the nationalization and originally, the Ministry of Finance did not want to provide any compensation at all, but in February 2021, after years of legal proceedings, a Dutch court ruled that the government must pay 804 million euros plus interest to them.
In September 2016 it was announced that SNS Bank would be called De Volksbank as of 1 January 2017. De Volksbank has a single banking permit and continues to operate under multiple brand names, including SNS Bank, ASN Bank, BLG Wonen and RegioBank.


John N. Hendren

John N. Hendren (1822 — 1898) had been a Virginia attorney and judge who served as the second Treasurer of the Confederate States of America, serving during the last year of the American Civil War.
Hendren was born in Staunton, Virginia. He was the nephew of locally prominent Presbyterian minister John Hendren. He attended The College of William & Mary, studied law, passed his bar exam, and established a prosperous legal practice in Staunton. He married, raised a family, and built a large mansion, "Selma."
Secretary of the Treasury Christopher Memminger resigned his post on July 18, 1864, and was replaced by fellow South Carolinian George Trenholm. However, Edward C. Elmore initially stayed on as Treasurer under Trenholm, but resigned in the autumn. Shortly afterward, Hendren posted his bond on October 10, 1864, and assumed the role of Treasurer. He stayed in his post until the fall of the Confederacy in April 1865.
Following the war, Hendren returned to Staunton and was a judge for Augusta County, Virginia.


Andrew Bailey (banker)

Andrew John Bailey (born 30 March 1959) is a British central banker who has been Governor of the Bank of England since 16 March 2020.
Previously he served as the Chief Cashier of the Bank of England from January 2004 until April 2011, Deputy Governor of the Bank of England from April 2013 to July 2016, and Chief Executive of the Financial Conduct Authority from 2016 to 2020.
Education.
Bailey attended Wyggeston Boys' Grammar School, Leicester from where he went to Queens' College, Cambridge, where he gained a BA in History and a PhD from the Faculty of History, University of Cambridge in 1984 with a thesis on "The impact of the Napoleonic Wars on the development of the cotton industry in Lancashire: a study of the structure and behaviour of firms during the Industrial Revolution".
After university, Bailey became a research officer at the London School of Economics, before joining the Bank of England in 1985.
He has worked at the Bank of England in a number of areas, most recently as executive director for banking services and as Chief Cashier, as well as head of the bank's Special Resolution Unit (SRU). Previous roles include Governor's private secretary, and head of the International Economic Analysis Division in Monetary Analysis.
Since the onset of the financial crisis in August 2007 and until April 2011, Bailey was responsible for the bank's special operations to resolve problems in the banking sector, and in 2009 was chairman and chief executive of Dunfermline Building Society Bridge Bank Ltd.
On 1 April 2013 Bailey became the chief executive of the new Prudential Regulation Authority and the first deputy governor of the Bank of England for Prudential Regulation.
On 26 January 2016, it was announced that Andrew Bailey would take over as CEO of the UK Financial Conduct Authority. He replaced Tracey McDermott, who became acting CEO after Martin Wheatley resigned following a vote of no confidence by George Osborne in July 2015.
In March 2020 the Treasury select committee criticised the performance of the Financial Conduct Authority. The committee said it would monitor closely the culture, operations and transparency of the FCA. This followed damning criticisms of the watchdog by consumer and industry groups during Bailey’s tenure as its chief executive.
On 3 June 2019, it was reported in "The Times" that Bailey was the favourite to replace Mark Carney as the new Governor of the Bank of England. Sajid Javid had also intervened in support of Bailey. According to "The Economist", "He is widely seen within the bank as a safe pair of hands, an experienced technocrat who knows how to manage an organisation."
His term will expire on 15 March 2028.


Shambhu Singh

Maharana Shambhu Singh (22 December 1847 – 7 October 1874), was the Maharana (r. 1861–1874) of Princely state of Udaipur. He was a son Shardul Singh of Bagore and nephew of Maharana Swarup Singh. Also known by the name of Rajat Garg. The rich and diverse land of India had faced numerous invasions and marauding before the British set their foot as merchants and slowly took over the dominance of the Indian main land. With the great Indian rebellion of 1857, the governance of India was transferred to the Queen and a new era had begun with Maharana Shambhu Singh ascending the throne of Mewar.
He was a descendant of Maharana Sangram Singh II; was adopted by Maharana Swarup Singh as his nominated heir. Maharana Shambhu Singh ascended the throne as a minor and a British Political agent was appointed to guide the young Maharana. Unlike his predecessors, the financial conditions at the time were relatively stable and progressive and he continued to replenish the state treasury after he was provided full powers as the king of Mewar.
After attaining complete control, he set up various new rules and offices for improving administrative resources, organised administration and income of temples and sacred places and introduced new legal code for Mewar. Under him the military was reorganised, various jail reforms were introduced and new construction of roads and railway tracks started. In spite of being formally uneducated, he gave education supreme importance and expanded various existing schools and introduced numerous new ones. Most importantly, he was the first to set up a school for girls and thus promoted opportunities of education for everyone. He enforced special measures to curb the Sati pratha and imposed heavy monetary fines on offenders.
Thus with various reforms in public facilities and infrastructure, Shambhu Singh was considered a liberal and well-managed king of his times. But with his untimely death at a young age of 27 years, his dreams of the revival of his homeland to the ancient golden times were stalled. He left behind no heir and his cousin Sajjan Singh, who himself was a minor at the time of his death; succeeded him and went ahead in continuation with the reforms paved by his predecessor.