CFB Winnipeg

Canadian Forces Base Winnipeg , (CFB Winnipeg) is a Royal Canadian Air Force base located within the City of Winnipeg, Manitoba. Co-located at the Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport, CFB Winnipeg is home to many flight operations support divisions, as well as several training schools. Its primary RCAF lodger unit is 17 Wing, commonly referred to as 17 Wing Winnipeg.
One of the facilities at CFB Winnipeg is the Billy Bishop Building which houses the headquarters of 1 Canadian Air Division (1 CAD) as well as the headquarters of Canadian North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) Region.
History.
Established in 1922 by the federal government's Canadian Air Board (a two squadron Canadian Air Force formed in 1918 was disbanded in 1920), Winnipeg was opened as an aerodrome and became known as RCAF Station Winnipeg in 1925 after the Royal Canadian Air Force was formed the previous year from the second Canadian Air Force
Initially, the base served as a winter home for units that operated across northern Manitoba. During World War II, the base played an expanded role, participating in the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP). During that time, they trained more than 130,000 personnel from across Canada ranging from pilots, navigators, observers and wireless operators. RCAF Station Winnipeg also became an important supply and repair depot and base to ferry and inspect units for the air force.
Following the war, RCAF Station Winnipeg continued to provide training for pilots and navigators from many allied countries, as well as base active RCAF squadrons. The formation of No.2 Air Observer School & Central Navigation School was created from the increased training activities which graduated over 5,000 aircrew from foreign countries.
The air force has long had a reserve or auxiliary presence there: No. 112 Squadron from 1932 to 1940 and then, since 1946, No. 402 Squadron. This latter unit has used, successively, the P-51D Mustang, Harvard Trainer, de Havilland Vampire, Canadair CT-133 Silver Star, Beech C-45 Expeditor, de Havilland Otter and were the last Canadian squadron to fly the CC-129 Dakota.
The February 1, 1968 unification of the RCAF with the Royal Canadian Navy and Canadian Army formed the Canadian Forces. As a result, RCAF Station Winnipeg was renamed as Canadian Forces Base Winnipeg (North).
The Canadian Army camp Fort Osborne Barracks, later renamed Kapyong Barracks, home of the 2nd Battalion, Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry (PPCLI), was merged with the RCAF base, becoming Canadian Forces Base Winnipeg (South). Kapyong Barracks closed in June 2004 and 2PPCLI re-located to CFB Shilo near Brandon. The Kapyong Barracks name was also transferred to the new garrison facility in CFB Shilo.
CFB Winnipeg became home to several transport and utility squadrons, as well as headquarters for Air Command, which was formed in 1975. A realignment of the Canadian Forces in the mid-1990s saw Air Command HQ move to National Defence Headquarters. As with other AIRCOM bases across Canada, CFB Winnipeg's squadrons were grouped under a wing system, in this case 17 Wing Winnipeg, which is the highest-level unit at the base.
As a RCAF training centre, CFB Winnipeg is currently home to 3 Canadian Forces Flying Training School (although the unit itself is located in Portage la Prairie, west of Winnipeg), 402 Squadron (which conducts training done by the former Canadian Forces Air Navigation School or CFANS), the Canadian Forces School of Aerospace Studies (CFSAS), the Canadian Forces School of Survival and Aeromedical Training (CFSSAT), as well as the Canadian Forces School of Meteorology (CFS Met).
Current usage.
For flight operations support, the base houses the following units:
Museum.
The base is home to the Air Force Heritage Museum and Air Park , which is located on the second floor of Building 66.
Outside on static display are:


List of Caribbean Airlines destinations

Caribbean Airlines operates scheduled services to the following destinations:


Air reserve component

The air reserve components (ARC) are the Air Force Reserve (AFR) and the Air National Guard of the United States (ANGUS).


Bishe Kola Airbase

Bishe Kola Airbase is a military airport located in Bisheh Kola near Amol, Iran.


Dan Shomron

Lt. Gen. Dan Shomron (Hebrew: דן שומרון) (August 5, 1937 in Kibbutz Ashdot Yaakov – February 26, 2008) was the 13th Chief of Staff of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), from 1987 to 1991.
Shomron first saw combat in the 1956 Sinai campaign. During the Six-Day War, he commanded a unit on the Egyptian front, and was the first paratrooper to reach the Suez Canal. He was decorated with the Medal of Distinguished Service for this action.
In 1974, Shomron received the command over the Infantry Corps and Paratroopers Brigade of the IDF. He planned and commanded Operation Entebbe in 1976, during which Yonatan Netanyahu (brother of Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu) was killed fulfilling his duty as breaching force commander. Although Shomron was proclaimed a hero for that role, he did not always feel comfortable with that appellation, saying
When asked what he most remembered about Operation Entebbe and the rescuing of the hostages, he said,
In 1978, Shomron was in charge of the evacuation and dismantling of Yamit and army bases in the Sinai Peninsula, which occurred within the framework of the Camp David Accords with Egypt.
In 1983, Shomron established the ground forces command, to be in charge of the infantry, tanks, artillery and engineer corps. He was its first commander.
In 1987, Shomron became the 13th Chief of Staff of the IDF, holding this position until 1991. After finishing his term, he served as the Chairman of the Israeli Military Industries.
Shomron died on February 26, 2008, from complications of a brain aneurysm three weeks earlier. He was 70 years old.
Shomron was played by Harris Yulin in the film "Victory at Entebbe" (1976). He was portrayed by Charles Bronson in "Raid on Entebbe" (1977).
Recognition.
In 1973, he received the Medal of Distinguished Service as a Maj. as a result of his actions during the Six Day War.
In 1977, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
In 2009, the Kinneret Center on Peace, Security and Society was renamed The Dan Shomron Center for Society, Security and Peace.


John Breen (RAF officer)

Air Marshal John Joseph Breen, (8 March 1896 – 9 May 1964) was a First World War aviator and senior officer in the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the Second World War.
Early life.
Born in Dublin, Ireland, on 8 March 1896, Breen was the son of Inspector-General T. J. Breen of the Royal Navy, and was educated at Beamont College then Trinity College, Dublin. He entered the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, and was commissioned into the Royal Irish Regiment. He obtained the Royal Aero Club Aviator's Certificate at the Military School, Shoreham, on 18 November 1915.
Service.
Breen was seconded from the Royal Irish Regiment to the Royal Flying Corps in 1915.
He transferred from the British Army to the RAF in 1918 as a captain in 1918. He was promoted to squadron leader in 1925 with No. 24 Squadron RAF. He was posted to Iraq as commander of an armoured car wing. He then commanded No. 84 Squadron RAF and No. 33 Squadron RAF before a period of study at the Imperial Defence College. As a wing commander in 1935 he was attached to the Sudan Defence Force in Khartoum.
From 27 June 1940 he was appointed Air Officer Commanding No. 1 Group at RAF Bomber Command and served in this post during the Battle of Britain, but in December 1940 he was moved to the Air Ministry on promotion to air commodore. He later served as Director General of Personnel for the RAF and as Head of the Postwar Planning Executive before retiring as an air marshal on 2 May 1946. He died in 1964 aged 68.


Powerfin

Powerfin Propellers, is an American manufacturer of composite propellers for homebuilt, light-sport and ultralight aircraft, as well as wind power generation systems. The company headquarters is located in Hurricane, Utah, although it was formerly in El Campo, Texas and originated in Arlington, Washington.
Products.
Powerfin produces carbon fiber two, three, four and five-bladed propellers for two-stroke and four-stroke engines up to the Rotax 914 of .
The company is noted for its use of the Clark Y airfoil, infinite blade angle adjustment, as well as for the very low rotating inertia of its designs, a key wear factor on lightweight engine gearboxes. The propeller blades are constructed of carbon fiber and aramid pre-preg cloth with a foam core, and cured in an autoclave. The company's Apex series of two- to five-bladed propeller hubs were CAD/CAM designed and are created on a Haas VF-4 CNC vertical milling station.
History.
Founded by Stuart Gort, the company went out of business in 2009. It was acquired by powered parachute manufacturer Frederick Scheffel and production moved to Texas in late 2009 and then to Utah in 2012.


Labrador Air Safari


List of airlines of Germany

This is a list of current airlines of Germany.


Tatsinskaya Airfield

The Tatsinskaya Airfield was the main airfield used by the German Wehrmacht during the Battle of Stalingrad to supply the encircled 6th Army from outside.
Overview.
The Tatsinskaya Airfield, 260 km west of Stalingrad, became the most important airfield for the supply of the trapped 6th Army in Stalingrad after all land connections were severed after 24 November 1942, when the airlift began.
From Tatsinskaya, a Ju 52 plane would take approx. 1¼ hour to reach Stalingrad, from where it would return after a 3½ hour turnaround, theoretically making it possible to complete a mission in six hours. Tatsinskaya served as the main base for the Ju 52 transport planes, while Morozovskaya was mainly used by the He 111 bombers, which were converted to transport planes.
The airfield was under threat of being taken by the Soviet Red Army but Hermann Göring forbade its evacuation, despite request from Major General Fiebig, who was in charge of the air supply for Stalingrad. On 23 December Göring gave permission to evacuate, but it was too late; Tatsinskaya was overrun a day later, with the German Luftwaffe losing almost 70 of the 180 Ju 52s stationed there and all ground equipment. The fall of the airfield, along with the one at Morozovskaya being threatened, brought supplies to the 6th Army to a halt until the 26th. Although briefly retaken by the Germans on the 28th, Tatsinskaya fell back into Soviet hands by 31 December.
After the fall of Tatsinskaya, the Ju 52 from there were relocated to Salsk, while the He 111 went to Novocherkassk, increasing the distance to travel considerably.
The airfield was guarded by the Romanian Army, specifically by Vickers/Reșița 75 mm anti-aircraft guns. Similarly to German 88 mm flak, these guns also proved effective against Soviet armor. Romanian gunners destroyed 5 Soviet tanks while defending the airfield.
Location.
The still existing airfield is located approximately east of the town of Belaya Kalitva, near the "stanitsa" of Tatsinskaya.
Battle of Stalingrad airfields.
Pocket airfields.
Seven airfields were used inside the pocket to supply the 6th Army:
External airfields.
Eleven airfields were used to supply the 6th Army from outside of the pocket:


Turbocharger

A turbocharger, colloquially known as turbo, is a turbine-driven, forced induction device that increases an internal combustion engine's power output by forcing extra compressed air into the combustion chamber.
This improvement over a naturally aspirated engine's power output is because the compressor can force more air—and proportionately more fuel—into the combustion chamber than atmospheric pressure (and for that matter, ram air intakes) alone.
Manufacturers commonly use turbochargers in truck, car, train, aircraft, and construction-equipment engines. They are most often used with Otto cycle and diesel cycle internal combustion engines.
History.
Forced induction dates back to the late 19th century, when Gottlieb Daimler patented the technique of using a gear-driven pump to force air into an internal combustion engine in 1885.
The 1905 patent by Alfred Büchi, a Swiss engineer working at Gebrüder Sulzer (now simply called Sulzer) is often considered the birth of the turbocharger. This patent was for a compound radial engine with an exhaust-driven axial flow turbine and compressor mounted on a common shaft. The first prototype was finished in 1915 with the aim of overcoming the power loss experienced by aircraft engines due to the decreased density of air at high altitudes. However, the prototype was not reliable and did not reach production. Another early patent for turbochargers was applied for in 1916 by French steam turbine inventor Auguste Rateau, for their intended use on the Renault engines used by French fighter planes. Separately, 1917 testing by the American National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and Sanford Alexander Moss showed that a turbocharger could enable an engine to avoid any power loss (compared with the power produced at sea level) at an altitude of up to above sea level. The testing was conducted at Pikes Peak in the United States using the V12 Liberty aircraft engine.
The first commercial application of a turbocharger was in 1925, when Alfred Büchi successfully installed turbochargers on ten-cylinder diesel engines, increasing the power output from . This engine was used by the German Ministry of Transport for two large passenger ships called the "Preussen" and "Hansestadt Danzig". The design was licensed to several manufacturers and turbochargers began to be used in marine, railcar and large stationary applications.
Turbochargers were used on several aircraft engines during World War II, beginning with the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress in 1938, which used turbochargers produced by General Electric. Other early turbocharged airplanes included the B-24 Liberator, P-38 Lightning, P-47 Thunderbolt and the experimental Focke-Wulf Fw 190 prototypes.
Automobile and truck manufacturers began research into turbocharged engines during the 1950s, however the problems of "turbo lag" and the bulky size of the turbocharger were not able to be solved at the time. The first turbocharged cars were the short-lived Chevrolet Corvair Monza and the Oldsmobile Jetfire, introduced in 1962. Following the 1973 oil crisis and the 1977 Clean Air Act amendments, turbocharging became more common in automobiles, as a method to reduce fuel consumption and exhaust emissions.
Turbocharging versus supercharging.
Turbochargers were originally known as turbosuperchargers because all forced induction devices are classified as superchargers. Technically, turbochargers are superchargers, however today, the term "supercharger" is typically applied only to mechanically driven forced induction devices. The key difference between a turbocharger and a conventional supercharger is that a supercharger is mechanically driven by the engine, often through a belt connected to the crankshaft, whereas a turbocharger is powered by a turbine driven by the engine's exhaust gas. Compared with a mechanically driven supercharger, turbochargers tend to be less responsive. Twincharger refers to an engine with both a supercharger and a turbocharger. In contrast to turbochargers, superchargers are mechanically driven by the engine. Belts, chains, shafts, and gears are common methods of powering a supercharger, placing a mechanical load on the engine. For example, on the single-stage single-speed supercharged Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, the supercharger uses about . Yet the benefits outweigh the costs; for the to drive the supercharger the engine generates an additional , a net gain of . This is where the principal disadvantage of a supercharger becomes apparent; the engine must withstand the net power output of the engine plus the power to drive the supercharger.
Another disadvantage of some superchargers is lower adiabatic efficiency when compared with turbochargers (especially Roots-type superchargers). Adiabatic efficiency is a measure of a compressor's ability to compress air without adding excess heat to that air. Even under ideal conditions, the compression process always results in elevated output temperature; however, more efficient compressors produce less excess heat. Roots superchargers impart significantly more heat to the air than turbochargers. Thus, for a given volume and pressure of air, the turbocharged air is cooler, and as a result denser, containing more oxygen molecules, and therefore more potential power than the supercharged air. In practical application the disparity between the two can be dramatic, with turbochargers often producing 15% to 30% more power based solely on the differences in adiabatic efficiency (however, due to heat transfer from the hot exhaust, considerable heating does occur).
By comparison, a turbocharger does not place a direct mechanical load on the engine, although turbochargers place exhaust back pressure on engines, increasing pumping losses. This is more efficient because while the increased back pressure taxes the piston exhaust stroke, much of the energy driving the turbine is provided by the still-expanding exhaust gas that would otherwise be wasted as heat through the tailpipe. In contrast to supercharging, the primary disadvantage of turbocharging is what is referred to as "lag" or "spool time". This is the time between the demand for an increase in power (the throttle being opened) and the turbocharger(s) providing increased intake pressure, and hence increased power.
Throttle lag occurs because turbochargers rely on the buildup of exhaust gas pressure to drive the turbine. In variable output systems such as automobile engines, exhaust gas pressure at idle, low engine speeds, or low throttle is usually insufficient to drive the turbine. Only when the engine reaches sufficient speed does the turbine section start to "spool up," or spin fast enough to produce intake pressure above atmospheric pressure.
A combination of an exhaust-driven turbocharger and an engine-driven supercharger can mitigate the weaknesses of both. This technique is called twincharging.
In the case of Electro-Motive Diesel's two-stroke engines, the mechanically assisted turbocharger is not specifically a twincharger, as the engine uses the mechanical assistance to charge air only at lower engine speeds and startup. Once above notch # 5, the engine uses true turbocharging. This differs from a turbocharger that uses the compressor section of the turbo-compressor only during starting and, as two-stroke engines cannot naturally aspirate, and, according to SAE definitions, a two-stroke engine with a mechanically assisted compressor during idle and low throttle is considered naturally aspirated.
Operating principle.
In naturally aspirated piston engines, intake gases are drawn or "pushed" into the engine by atmospheric pressure filling the volumetric void caused by the downward stroke of the piston (which creates a low-pressure area), similar to drawing liquid using a syringe. The amount of air actually drawn in, compared with the theoretical amount if the engine could maintain atmospheric pressure, is called volumetric efficiency. The objective of a turbocharger is to improve an engine's volumetric efficiency by increasing density of the intake gas (usually air) allowing more power per engine cycle.
The turbocharger's compressor draws in ambient air and compresses it before it enters into the intake manifold at increased pressure. This results in a greater mass of air entering the cylinders on each intake stroke. The power needed to spin the centrifugal compressor is derived from the kinetic energy of the engine's exhaust gases.
In automotive applications, 'boost' refers to the amount by which intake manifold pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure at sea level. This is representative of the extra air pressure that is achieved over what would be achieved without the forced induction. The level of boost may be shown on a pressure gauge, usually in bar, psi or possibly kPa.
The control of turbocharger boost has changed dramatically over the 100-plus years of their use. Modern turbochargers can use wastegates, blow-off valves and variable geometry, as discussed in later sections.
In petrol engine turbocharger applications, boost pressure is limited to keep the entire engine system, including the turbocharger, inside its thermal and mechanical design operating range. Over-boosting an engine frequently causes damage to the engine in a variety of ways including pre-ignition, overheating, and over-stressing the engine's internal hardware. For example, to avoid engine knocking (also known as detonation) and the related physical damage to the engine, the intake manifold pressure must not get too high, thus the pressure at the intake manifold of the engine must be controlled by some means. Opening the wastegate allows the excess energy destined for the turbine to bypass it and pass directly to the exhaust pipe, thus reducing boost pressure. The wastegate can be either controlled manually (frequently seen in aircraft) or by an actuator (in automotive applications, it is often controlled by the engine control unit).
Pressure increase (or boost).
A turbocharger may also be used to increase fuel efficiency without increasing power. This is achieved by diverting exhaust waste energy, from the combustion process, and feeding it back into the turbo's "hot" intake side that spins the turbine. As the hot turbine side is being driven by the exhaust energy, the cold intake turbine (the other side of the turbo) compresses fresh intake air and drives it into the engine's intake. By using this otherwise wasted energy to increase the mass of air, it becomes easier to ensure that all fuel is burned before being vented at the start of the exhaust stage. The increased temperature from the higher pressure gives a higher Carnot efficiency.
A reduced density of intake air is caused by the loss of atmospheric density seen with elevated altitudes. Thus, a natural use of the turbocharger is with aircraft engines. As an aircraft climbs to higher altitudes, the pressure of the surrounding air quickly falls off. At , the air is at half the pressure of sea level, which means that the engine produces less than half-power at this altitude. In aircraft engines, turbocharging is commonly used to maintain manifold pressure as altitude increases (i.e. to compensate for lower-density air at higher altitudes). Since atmospheric pressure reduces as the aircraft climbs, power drops as a function of altitude in normally aspirated engines. Systems that use a turbocharger to maintain an engine's sea-level power output are called turbo-normalized systems. Generally, a turbo-normalized system attempts to maintain a manifold pressure of .
Turbocharger lag.
Turbocharger lag (turbo lag) is the time required to change power output in response to a throttle change, noticed as a hesitation or slowed "throttle response" when accelerating as compared to a naturally aspirated engine. This is due to the time needed for the exhaust system and turbocharger to generate the required boost which can also be referred to as spooling. Inertia, friction, and compressor load are the primary contributors to turbocharger lag. Superchargers do not suffer this problem, because the turbine is eliminated due to the compressor being directly powered by the engine.
Turbocharger applications can be categorized into those that require changes in output power (such as automotive) and those that do not (such as marine, aircraft, commercial automotive, industrial, engine-generators, and locomotives). While important to varying degrees, turbocharger lag is most problematic in applications that require rapid changes in power output. Engine designs reduce lag in a number of ways:
Sometimes turbo lag is mistaken for engine speeds that are below boost threshold. If engine speed is below a turbocharger's boost threshold rpm then the time needed for the vehicle to build speed and rpm could be considerable, maybe even tens of seconds for a heavy vehicle starting at low vehicle speed in a high gear. This wait for vehicle speed increase is not turbo lag, it is improper gear selection for boost demand. Once the vehicle reaches sufficient speed to provide the required rpm to reach boost threshold, there will be a far shorter delay while the turbo itself builds rotational energy and transitions to positive boost, only this last part of the delay in achieving positive boost is the turbo lag.
Boost threshold.
The "boost threshold" of a turbocharger system is the lower bound of the region within which the compressor operates. Below a certain rate of flow, a compressor produces insignificant boost. This limits boost at a particular RPM, regardless of exhaust gas pressure. Newer turbocharger and engine developments have steadily reduced boost thresholds.
Electrical boosting ("E-boosting") is a new technology under development. It uses an electric motor to bring the turbocharger up to operating speed quicker than possible using available exhaust gases. An alternative to e-boosting is to completely separate the turbine and compressor into a turbine-generator and electric-compressor as in the hybrid turbocharger. This makes compressor speed independent of turbine speed.
Turbochargers start producing boost only when a certain amount of kinetic energy is present in the exhaust gasses. Without adequate exhaust gas flow to spin the turbine blades, the turbocharger cannot produce the necessary force needed to compress the air going into the engine. The boost threshold is determined by the engine displacement, engine rpm, throttle opening, and the size of the turbocharger. The operating speed (rpm) at which there is enough exhaust gas momentum to compress the air going into the engine is called the "boost threshold rpm". Reducing the "boost threshold rpm" can improve throttle response.
Key components.
The turbocharger has three main components:
Many turbocharger installations use additional technologies, such as wastegates, intercooling and blow-off valves.
Turbine.
Energy provided for the turbine work is converted from the enthalpy and kinetic energy of the gas. The turbine housings direct the gas flow through the turbine as it spins at up to 250,000 rpm. The size and shape can dictate some performance characteristics of the overall turbocharger. Often the same basic turbocharger assembly is available from the manufacturer with multiple housing choices for the turbine, and sometimes the compressor cover as well. This lets the balance between performance, response, and efficiency be tailored to the application.
The turbine and impeller wheel sizes also dictate the amount of air or exhaust that can flow through the system, and the relative efficiency at which they operate. In general, the larger the turbine wheel and compressor wheel the larger the flow capacity. Measurements and shapes can vary, as well as curvature and number of blades on the wheels.
A turbocharger's performance is closely tied to its size. Large turbochargers take more heat and pressure to spin the turbine, creating lag at low speed. Small turbochargers spin quickly, but may not have the same performance at high acceleration. To efficiently combine the benefits of large and small wheels, advanced schemes are used such as twin-turbochargers, twin-scroll turbochargers, or variable-geometry turbochargers.
Twin-turbo.
Twin-turbo or bi-turbo designs have two separate turbochargers operating in either a sequence or in parallel. In a parallel configuration, both turbochargers are fed one-half of the engine's exhaust. In a sequential setup one turbocharger runs at low speeds and the second turns on at a predetermined engine speed or load. Sequential turbochargers further reduce turbo lag, but require an intricate set of pipes to properly feed both turbochargers.
Two-stage variable twin-turbos employ a small turbocharger at low speeds and a large one at higher speeds. They are connected in a series so that boost pressure from one turbocharger is multiplied by another, hence the name "2-stage." The distribution of exhaust gas is continuously variable, so the transition from using the small turbocharger to the large one can be done incrementally. Twin turbochargers are primarily used in Diesel engines. For example, in Opel bi-turbo Diesel, only the smaller turbocharger works at low speed, providing high torque at 1,500–1,700 rpm. Both turbochargers operate together in mid range, with the smaller one pre-compressing the air, which the larger one further compresses. A bypass valve regulates the exhaust flow to each turbocharger. At higher speed (2,500 to 3,000 RPM) only the larger turbocharger runs.
Smaller turbochargers have less turbo lag than larger ones, so often two small turbochargers are used instead of one large one. This configuration is popular in engines over 2.5-litres and in V-shape or boxer engines.
Twin-scroll.
Twin-scroll or divided turbochargers have two exhaust gas inlets and two nozzles, a smaller sharper angled one for quick response and a larger less angled one for peak performance.
With high-performance camshaft timing, exhaust valves in different cylinders can be open at the same time, overlapping at the end of the power stroke in one cylinder and the end of exhaust stroke in another. In twin-scroll designs, the exhaust manifold physically separates the channels for cylinders that can interfere with each other, so that the pulsating exhaust gasses flow through separate spirals (scrolls). With common firing order 1–3–4–2, two scrolls of unequal length pair cylinders 1 and 4, and 3 and 2. This lets the engine efficiently use exhaust scavenging techniques, which decreases exhaust gas temperatures and emissions, improves turbine efficiency, and reduces turbo lag evident at low engine speeds.
Variable-geometry.
Variable-geometry or variable-nozzle turbochargers use moveable vanes to adjust the air-flow to the turbine, imitating a turbocharger of the optimal size throughout the power curve. The vanes are placed just in front of the turbine like a set of slightly overlapping walls. Their angle is adjusted by an actuator to block or increase air flow to the turbine. This variability maintains a comparable exhaust velocity and back pressure throughout the engine's rev range. The result is that the turbocharger improves fuel efficiency without a noticeable level of turbocharger lag.
A VGT Turbocharger can also work as an exhaust brake by closing off the exhaust entirely, for example in the RAM HD Pickup Trucks equipped with the Cummins Diesel Engine.
E-Turbo Technology.
E-Turbo technology is becoming much more feasible and practical to use across many different applications and purposes. An E-turbo is a turbocharger that is propelled by both exhaust gas, like a traditional turbo, and electric power to spin the turbines and create positive air pressure (boost). The electric power is fed to two motors capable of running at speeds of 200,000 rpm, at extreme temperatures of or higher. Allowing the turbines to be driven by two power sources is a great advantage for the average driver, commercial use and in motorsports. For the average commuter E-Turbo will use the electric power to allow the engine to run more efficiently. This electric power will be used to spool the turbo when there isn't enough exhaust gas present, this sensation is commonly known as "turbo lag". Since E-Turbos can get rid of the lag associated with traditional turbos, the overall size of the engine can be reduced and produce the same results. The turbo is no longer completely reliant on energy that is coming from the exhaust gasses. Between the smaller engine size and the electric turbo's ability to operate at lambda 1 (unlike traditional exhaust driven turbochargers) allows them to bring down over all emissions of an engine significantly. Another pro of E-turbos is they allow for a more continuous torque output at varying speeds and loads, as well as 4x better transient response than a normal turbocharger, which could be very helpful in a commercial setting. Traditionally turbo chargers would often reach peak performance closer to the top of an engines RPM range than the bottom. The E-Turbo will allow drivers to have the same amount or torque available through the whole RPM range. E-Turbos also have the advantage of using the cars wasted exhaust gas energy and converting it back into electrical energy to be used later on. It is still unclear how this will exactly be done. Garret, the company devolving this E-turbo technology has released little information to the public about it. However it can be assumed that the motors inside the turbo will act as generators when they are not needed to spin the turbines.
Compressor Side.
The compressor draws in air from the atmosphere, and compresses it to above atmospheric pressure. This compressed air is then fed into the engine. The compressor is made up of an impeller, a diffuser and a volute housing.
The operating range of a compressor is described by the "compressor map".
Hot / Exhaust side.
The exhaust side of the turbo where the rotational force for the Compressor turbine comes from. On the exhaust side, a turbine is spun by the spent exhaust gas that is produced by the engine. This Turbine is connected through the center of a turbo through a rotating shaft. After the exhaust has spun the turbine it continues into the exhaust and out of the vehicle.
Ported shroud.
The flow range of a turbocharger compressor can be increased by allowing air to bleed from a ring of holes or a circular groove around the compressor at a point slightly downstream of the compressor inlet (but far nearer to the inlet than to the outlet).
The ported shroud is a performance enhancement that allows the compressor to operate at significantly lower flows. It achieves this by forcing a simulation of impeller stall to occur continuously. Allowing some air to escape at this location inhibits the onset of surge and widens the operating range. While peak efficiencies may decrease, high efficiency may be achieved over a greater range of engine speeds. Increases in compressor efficiency result in slightly cooler (more dense) intake air, which improves power. This is a passive structure that is constantly open (in contrast to compressor exhaust blow off valves, which are mechanically or electronically controlled). The ability of the compressor to provide high boost at low rpm may also be increased marginally (because near choke conditions the compressor draws air inward through the bleed path). Ported shrouds are used by many turbocharger manufacturers.
Center housing/hub rotating assembly.
The center hub rotating assembly (CHRA) houses the shaft that connects the compressor impeller and turbine. It also must contain a bearing system to suspend the shaft, allowing it to rotate at very high speed with minimal friction. For instance, in automotive applications the CHRA typically uses a thrust bearing or ball bearing lubricated by a constant supply of pressurized engine oil. The CHRA may also be considered "water-cooled" by having an entry and exit point for engine coolant. Water-cooled models use engine coolant to keep lubricating oil cooler, avoiding possible oil coking (destructive distillation of engine oil) from the extreme heat in the turbine. The development of air-foil bearings removed this risk.
Ball bearings designed to support high speeds and temperatures are sometimes used instead of fluid bearings to support the turbine shaft. This helps the turbocharger accelerate more quickly and reduces turbo lag. Some variable nozzle turbochargers use a rotary electric actuator, which uses a direct stepper motor to open and close the vanes, rather than pneumatic controllers that operate based on air pressure.
Additional technologies commonly used in turbocharger installations.
Intercooling.
When the pressure of the engine's intake air is increased, its temperature also increases. This occurrence can be explained through Gay-Lussac's law, stating that the pressure of a given amount of gas held at constant volume is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature. With more pressure being added to the engine through the turbocharger, overall temperatures of the engine will also rise. In addition, heat soak from the hot exhaust gases spinning the turbine will also heat the intake air. The warmer the intake air, the less dense, and the less oxygen available for the combustion event, which reduces volumetric efficiency. Not only does excessive intake-air temperature reduce efficiency, it also leads to engine knock, or detonation, which is destructive to engines.
To compensate for the increase in temperature, turbocharger units often make use of an intercooler between successive stages of boost to cool down the intake air. A "charge air cooler" is an air cooler between the boost stage(s) and the appliance that consumes the boosted air.
Top-mount (TMIC) vs. front-mount intercoolers (FMIC).
There are two areas on which intercoolers are commonly mounted. It can be either mounted on top, parallel to the engine, or mounted near the lower front of the vehicle. Top-mount intercoolers setups will result in a decrease in turbo lag, due in part by the location of the intercooler being much closer to the turbocharger outlet and throttle body. This closer proximity reduces the time it takes for air to travel through the system, producing power sooner, compared to that of a front-mount intercooler which has more distance for the air to travel to reach the outlet and throttle.
Front-mount intercoolers can have the potential to give better cooling compared to that of a top-mount. The area in which a top-mounted intercooler is located, is near one of the hottest areas of a car, right above the engine. This is why most manufacturers include large hood scoops to help feed air to the intercooler while the car is moving, but while idle, the hood scoop provides little to no benefit. Even while moving, when the atmospheric temperatures begin to rise, top-mount intercoolers tend to underperform compared to front-mount intercoolers. With more distance to travel, the air circulated through a front-mount intercooler may have more time to cool.
Methanol/water Injection.
Methanol/water injection has been around since the 1920s but was not utilized until World War II. Adding the mixture to intake of the turbocharged engines decreased operating temperatures and increased horse power. Turbocharged engines today run high boost and high engine temperatures to match. When injecting the mixture into the intake stream, the air is cooled as the liquids evaporate. Inside the combustion chamber it slows the flame, acting similar to higher octane fuel. Methanol/water mixture allows for higher compression because of the less detonation-prone and, thus, safer combustion inside the engine.
Fuel-air mixture ratio.
In addition to the use of intercoolers, it is common practice to add extra fuel to the intake air (known as "running an engine rich") for the sole purpose of cooling. The amount of extra fuel varies, but typically reduces the air-fuel ratio to between 11 and 13, instead of the stoichiometric 14.7 (in petrol engines). The extra fuel is not burned (as there is insufficient oxygen to complete the chemical reaction), instead it undergoes a phase change from atomized (liquid) to gas. This phase change absorbs heat, and the added mass of the extra fuel reduces the average thermal energy of the charge and exhaust gas. Even when a catalytic converter is used, the practice of running an engine rich increases exhaust emissions.
Wastegate.
A wastegate regulates the exhaust gas flow that enters the exhaust-side driving turbine and therefore the air intake into the manifold and the degree of boosting. It can be controlled by a boost pressure assisted, generally vacuum hose attachment point diaphragm (for vacuum and positive pressure to return commonly oil contaminated waste to the emissions system) to force the spring-loaded diaphragm to stay closed until the over boost point is sensed by the ECU or a solenoid operated by the engine's electronic control unit or a boost controller.
Anti-surge/dump/blow off valves.
Turbocharged engines operating at wide open throttle and high rpm require a large volume of air to flow between the turbocharger and the inlet of the engine. When the throttle is closed, compressed air flows to the throttle valve without an exit (i.e., the air has nowhere to go).
In this situation, the surge can raise the pressure of the air to a level that can cause damage. This is because if the pressure rises high enough, a compressor stall occurs—stored pressurized air decompresses backward across the impeller and out the inlet. The reverse flow back across the turbocharger makes the turbine shaft reduce in speed more quickly than it would naturally, possibly damaging the turbocharger.
To prevent this from happening, a valve is fitted between the turbocharger and inlet, which vents off the excess air pressure. These are known as an anti-surge, diverter, bypass, turbo-relief valve, blow-off valve (BOV), or dump valve. It is a pressure relief valve, and is normally operated by the vacuum from the intake manifold.
The primary use of this valve is to maintain the spinning of the turbocharger at a high speed. The air is usually recycled back into the turbocharger inlet (diverter or bypass valves), but can also be vented to the atmosphere (blow off valve). Recycling back into the turbocharger inlet is required on an engine that uses a mass-airflow fuel injection system, because dumping the excessive air overboard downstream of the mass airflow sensor causes an excessively rich fuel mixture—because the mass-airflow sensor has already accounted for the extra air that is no longer being used. Valves that recycle the air also shorten the time needed to re-spool the turbocharger after sudden engine deceleration, since load on the turbocharger when the valve is active is much lower than if the air charge vents to atmosphere.
Free floating.
 A free floating turbocharger is the simplest type of turbocharger. This configuration has no wastegate and cannot control its own boost levels. They are typically designed to attain maximum boost at full throttle. Free floating turbochargers produce more horsepower because they have less backpressure, but are not drivable in performance applications without an external wastegate.
Applications.
Petrol-powered cars.
The first turbocharged passenger car was the Oldsmobile Jetfire option on the 1962–1963 F85/Cutlass, which used a turbocharger mounted to a all aluminum V8. Also in 1962, Chevrolet introduced a special run of turbocharged Corvairs, initially called the Monza Spyder (1962–1964) and later renamed the Corsa (1965–1966), which mounted a turbocharger to its air cooled flat six cylinder engine. This model popularized the turbocharger in North America—and set the stage for later turbocharged models from Porsche on the 1975-up 911/930, Saab on the 1978–1984 Saab 99 Turbo, and the very popular 1978–1987 Buick Regal/T Type/Grand National. Today, turbocharging is common on both diesel and petrol-powered cars. Turbocharging can increase power output for a given capacity or increase fuel efficiency by allowing a smaller displacement engine. The 'Engine of the year 2011' is an engine used in a Fiat 500 equipped with an MHI turbocharger. This engine lost 10% weight, saving up to 30% in fuel consumption while delivering the same peak horsepower (105) as a 1.4-litre engine.
Diesel-powered cars.
The first production turbocharger diesel passenger car was the Garrett-turbocharged Mercedes 300SD introduced in 1978. Today, most automotive diesels are turbocharged, since the use of turbocharging improved efficiency, driveability and performance of diesel engines, greatly increasing their popularity. The Audi R10 with a diesel engine even won the 24 hours race of Le Mans in 2006, 2007 and 2008.
Motorcycles.
The first example of a turbocharged bike is the 1978 Kawasaki Z1R TC. Several Japanese companies produced turbocharged high-performance motorcycles in the early 1980s, such as the CX500 Turbo from Honda- a transversely mounted, liquid cooled V-Twin also available in naturally aspirated form. Since then, few turbocharged motorcycles have been produced. This is partially due to an abundance of larger displacement, naturally aspirated engines being available that offer the torque and power benefits of a smaller displacement engine with turbocharger, but do return more linear power characteristics.
The Dutch manufacturer EVA motorcycles builds a small series of turbocharged diesel motorcycle with an 800cc smart CDI engine.
Trucks.
The first turbocharged diesel truck was produced by "Schweizer Maschinenfabrik Saurer" (Swiss Machine Works Saurer) in 1938.
Aircraft.
A natural use of the turbocharger—and its earliest known use for any internal combustion engine, starting with experimental installations in the 1920s—is with aircraft engines. As an aircraft climbs to higher altitudes the pressure of the surrounding air quickly falls off. At 5,486 m (18,000 ft), the air is at half the pressure of sea level and the airframe experiences only half the aerodynamic drag. However, since the charge in the cylinders is pushed in by this air pressure, the engine normally produces only half-power at full throttle at this altitude. Pilots would like to take advantage of the low drag at high altitudes to go faster, but a naturally aspirated engine does not produce enough power at the same altitude to do so.
The table below is used to demonstrate the wide range of conditions experienced. As seen in the table below, there is significant scope for forced induction to compensate for lower density environments.
A turbocharger remedies this problem by compressing the air back to sea-level pressures (turbo-normalizing), or even much higher (turbo-charging), in order to produce rated power at high altitude. Since the size of the turbocharger is chosen to produce a given amount of pressure at high altitude, the turbocharger is oversized for low altitude. The speed of the turbocharger is controlled by a wastegate. Early systems used a fixed wastegate, resulting in a turbocharger that functioned much like a supercharger. Later systems utilized an adjustable wastegate, controlled either manually by the pilot or by an automatic hydraulic or electric system. When the aircraft is at low altitude the wastegate is usually fully open, venting all the exhaust gases overboard. As the aircraft climbs and the air density drops, the wastegate must continuously close in small increments to maintain full power. The altitude at which the wastegate fully closes and the engine still produces full power is the "critical altitude." When the aircraft climbs above the critical altitude, engine power output decreases as altitude increases, just as it would in a naturally aspirated engine.
With older supercharged aircraft without Automatic Boost Control, the pilot must continually adjust the throttle to maintain the required manifold pressure during ascent or descent. The pilot must also take care to avoid over-boosting the engine and causing damage. In contrast, modern turbocharger systems use an automatic wastegate, which controls the manifold pressure within parameters preset by the manufacturer. For these systems, as long as the control system is working properly and the pilot's control commands are smooth and deliberate, a turbocharger cannot over-boost the engine and damage it.
Yet the majority of World War II engines used superchargers, because they maintained three significant manufacturing advantages over turbochargers, which were larger, involved extra piping, and required exotic high-temperature materials in the turbine and pre-turbine section of the exhaust system. The size of the piping alone is a serious issue; American fighters Vought F4U and Republic P-47 used the same engine, but the huge barrel-like fuselage of the latter was, in part, needed to hold the piping to and from the turbocharger in the rear of the plane. Turbocharged piston engines are also subject to many of the same operating restrictions as gas turbine engines. Pilots must make smooth, slow throttle adjustments to avoid overshooting their target manifold pressure. The fuel/air mixture must often be adjusted far on the rich side of stoichiometric combustion needs to avoid pre-ignition or detonation in the engine when running at high power settings. In systems using a manually operated wastegate, the pilot must be careful not to exceed the turbocharger's maximum rpm. The additional systems and piping increase an aircraft engine's size, weight, complexity and cost. A turbocharged aircraft engine costs more to maintain than a comparable normally aspirated engine. The great majority of World War II American heavy bombers used by the USAAF, particularly the Wright R-1820 "Cyclone-9" powered B-17 Flying Fortress, and Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp powered Consolidated B-24 Liberator four-engine bombers both used similar models of General Electric-designed turbochargers in service, as did the twin Allison V-1710-engine Lockheed P-38 Lightning American fighter during the war years.
Turbocharged aircraft often occupy a performance range between that of normally aspirated piston-powered aircraft and turbine-powered aircraft. Despite the negative points, turbocharged aircraft fly higher for greater efficiency. High cruise flight also allows more time to evaluate issues before a forced landing must be made.
As the turbocharged aircraft climbs, however, the pilot (or automated system) can close the wastegate, forcing more exhaust gas through the turbocharger turbine, thereby maintaining manifold pressure during the climb, at least until the critical pressure altitude is reached (when the wastegate is fully closed), after which manifold pressure falls. With such systems, modern high-performance piston engine aircraft can cruise at altitudes up to 25,000 feet (above which, RVSM certification would be required), where low air density results in lower drag and higher true airspeeds. This allows flying "above the weather". In manually controlled wastegate systems, the pilot must take care not to overboost the engine, which causes detonation, leading to engine damage.
Marine and land-based diesel turbochargers.
Turbocharging, which is common on diesel engines in automobiles, trucks, tractors, and boats is also common in heavy machinery such as locomotives, ships, and auxiliary power generation.
Turbochargers are also employed in certain two-stroke cycle diesel engines, which would normally require a Roots blower for aspiration. In this specific application, mainly Electro-Motive Diesel (EMD) 567, 645, and 710 Series engines, the turbocharger is initially driven by the engine's crankshaft through a gear train and an overrunning clutch, thereby providing aspiration for combustion. After combustion has been achieved, and after the exhaust gases have reached sufficient heat energy, the overrunning clutch is automatically disengaged, and the turbo-compressor is thereafter driven exclusively by the exhaust gases. In the EMD application, the turbocharger acts as a compressor for normal aspiration during starting and low power output settings and is used for true turbocharging during medium and high power output settings. This is particularly beneficial at high altitudes, as are often encountered on western U.S. railroads. It is possible for the turbocharger to revert to compressor mode momentarily during commands for large increases in engine power.
Business and adoption.
Garrett Motion (formerly Honeywell Turbo Technologies), BorgWarner and Mitsubishi Turbocharger are the largest manufacturers in Europe and the United States. Several factors are expected to contribute to more widespread consumer adoption of turbochargers, especially in the US:
In 2017, 27% of vehicles sold in the US were turbocharged. In Europe 67% of all vehicles were turbocharged in 2014, and were expected to grow to 69% by 2019. Historically, more than 90% of turbochargers were diesel, however, adoption in petrol engines is increasing.
The U.S. Coalition for Advanced Diesel Cars is pushing for a technology neutral policy for government subsidies of environmentally friendly automotive technology. If successful, government subsidies would be based on the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards rather than supporting specific technologies like electric cars. Political shifts could drastically change adoption projections. Turbocharger sales in the United States increased when the federal government boosted corporate average fuel economy targets to 35.5 mpg by 2016.
Safety.
Turbocharger failures and resultant high exhaust temperatures are among the causes of car fires.


Donald Leslie Brothers

Donald Leslie Brothers (November 8, 1923 – February 9, 2017) was a lawyer and political figure in British Columbia. He represented Rossland-Trail in the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia from 1958 to 1972 as a Social Credit member.
He was born in Grand Forks, British Columbia, the son of Montezuma Leslie Brothers and Lorna May Cumming, and was educated at the University of British Columbia. Brothers served as a pilot in the Royal Canadian Air Force during World War II. In 1947, he married Dorothy Marie Crowe. Brothers ran unsuccessfully in the federal riding of Kootenay West as a Social Credit candidate in 1957. He was first elected to the provincial assembly in a 1958 by-election held after Robert Sommers was convicted of bribery and conspiracy. Brothers served in the provincial cabinet as Minister of Mines and Petroleum Resources and as Minister of Education. He was defeated by Christopher D'Arcy when he ran for reelection in 1972. He died at the age of 93 in 2017.


Aircraft part

An aircraft part is an article or component approved for installation on a type-certificated aircraft. Approval for these parts is derived from the jurisdictions of the countries that an aircraft is based. In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration oversees the approval for these parts under Federal Aviation Regulation Part 21.
Manufacture of parts.
Production Certificate.
A production certificate holder may produce parts from the type design that is associated with the production approval. Parts manufactured under a Production Certificate are considered to be "approved parts."
Parts Manufacture Approval.
A Parts Manufacturer Approval, or PMA, is one way to obtain approval to produce replacement or modification parts for installation on a type-certificated product. Such parts are considered to be "approved parts."
Technical Standard Order Authorization.
Parts and assemblies may be produced under a Technical Standard Order Authorization (TSOA). Such parts are considered to be "approved parts."
Owner produced parts.
The FAA permits the aircraft owner or operator to produce replacement parts from scratch (using the original as a template and using the same dimensions and materials), and document it in the logbooks as an "owner-produced part" in accordance with FAR §21.9(a)(5). In doing this, the owner could enlist the aid of an A&P, a machine shop, or anyone certified or uncertified personnel and the part would still qualify as an owner-produced part. This ability is granted by the FAA to aircraft owners/operators, so long as the parts they produce are for installation on their own aircraft and not for sale or for installation on an aircraft they do not own (which would require PMA approval instead). All owner-produced parts must still be considered airworthy, by conforming to the aircraft's type design. An A&P that agrees the owner-produced part is airworthy and that the installation is a considered a "minor repair" can approve the aircraft for return to service.
The FAA will consider a part to be owner-produced (and therefore legal) if the owner is meaningfully involved in its production in any of the following ways:
Life limited parts.
Life limited parts are parts that, as a condition of their type certificate, may not exceed a specified time, or number of operating cycles, in service
[Canadian Aviation Regulations/ CAR 101.01]
Flight critical parts.
Flight critical parts are usually regulated by the FAA and the European Union. These include, navigation systems, communication systems, traffic collision avoidance system (TCAS), etc.
Repairable parts.
Some high value aircraft parts can be repaired using various re-manufacturing processes such as machining, welding, plating, etc. The techniques described in Advisory Circular 43.13-1B are generally used as guidance for repair processes that are not specifically described by the manufacturer.
Used.
Low jet fuel prices and new programs delays lead to keeping airliners in service for longer, relying increasingly on used parts: their market will grow from $4.5 billion in 2016 to $7.7 billion in 2026.
Demand for aircraft recycling is thus growing with 9,300 retirements in the decade including 4,000 narrowbodies.
The most prized are life limited parts from CFM56s and less from IAE V2500s.
Suspected unapproved parts.
Suspected unapproved parts are those aeronautical parts that should be deemed unairworthy and are therefore not eligible for installation on an aircraft or another aeronautical product because their design, manufacture or distribution is in conflict with
aviation regulations. This means that such a part may not have an approved design, may be manufactured by an unapproved manufacturer, distributed by an unapproved distributor, possibly even taken from scrap aircraft while bypassing mandatory and costly shop inspection and recertification processes.
Indicators for an unapproved or bogus part may reach from missing, incomplete or counterfeit certification, missing or manipulated identification plates, physical aspects like surface grain structure, shape, colour, or weight deviating from the removal part, to any indicators of poor workmanship as well as a suspiciously low purchase price.
Suspected unapproved parts shall be reported to the national aviation authority.
Trade Associations Representing the Aircraft Parts Industry.
Aircraft parts are produced by manufacturers. FAA approved aircraft and aircraft parts manufacturers are represented by the Aerospace Industries Association (commercial aircraft manufacturers), General Aviation Manufacturers Association (general aviation aircraft manufacturers) and Modification and Replacement Parts Association (MARPA) (aircraft parts manufacturers).
The Aeronautical Repair Station Association represents organizations which repair aircraft and aircraft components (including aircraft parts).
Some aircraft parts are sold by distributors. Distributors of aircraft parts are represented by the Aviation Suppliers Association.


Albert S. Heinrich

Albert Sigmund Heinrich (October 27, 1889 – June 25, 1974), was an American pioneer aviator in Baldwin, New York, who flew the first American monoplane, and designed the "Heinrich Pursuit" aircraft.
Biography.
He was born on October 27, 1888, in Brooklyn, New York and he had a brother, Arthur O. Heinrich (1887-?). He started by building speed boats. He died on June 25, 1974, in Fort Ashby, West Virginia.
Albert S. Heinrich was born in Brooklyn, N.Y. October 27, 1889. He died June 25, 1974. Shortly after the turn of the century, Albert and his brother, Arthur O. were building and very successfully racing speed boats. Their dreams and ambitions were turned to aviation by the work of the Wright Brothers. However, they felt that an airplane should have only one pair of wings like a bird. Construction was started in 1909, and in May 1910 it was successfully flown. Albert, age 21, was the pilot on the first flight. Arthur, age 23, piloted the second flight. They had to teach themselves to control their plane and did so after becoming airborne. Every airplane they built was a success. They built trainers and operated two flying schools. During the first World War, they built a number of airplanes for the U.S. Army.
When his brother died in 1958, Albert retired and moved to Florida. Later he went to live in Fort Ashby, West Virginia.
This from The Early Birds of Aviation CHIRP, January, 1975 Number 81


Ajman International Airport

Ajman International Airport () was an upcoming airport which is currently a construction project in Ajman, the smallest emirate of the United Arab Emirates. Ajman is surrounded on its landlocked north, south and eastern borders by Sharjah. The airport is being constructed in the eastern district of Ajman, in the Al Manama enclave. This construction project is one worth $571 million which is forecasted to accommodate for 1 million passengers and a minimum of 400,000 tonnes of cargo when completed. It has an expected completion date of late 2020. This is set to enable more accessible travel to Ajman and encourages development on the surrounding area with plans to expand and open hotels, restaurants, commercial offices, residential units, retail, educational centres and exhibition halls. According to a feasibility study by ICTS Europe and Booz Allen Hamilton (BAH) new construction project is set to achieve more than 1 million passengers within the first three years of opening and operating.As of February 2021, Constriction has not started yet and the project is probably canceled or on hold .
Location.
Ajman International Airport will be located in the smallest emirate of the United Arab Emirates, Ajman. Ajman is landlocked in the north, south and eastern borders by Sharjah which is the current closest international airport to Ajman. The new airport facility is being constructed with an area of 60 million square feet, 60 km away from Ajman City, in the eastern district of Ajman, in the Al Manama enclave, linking Fujairah on the east coast and Sharjah on the west coast. The site is in a location in the heart of the Northern Emirates and connected by the existing road infrastructure to other emirates.
Currently, to engage in international travel, residents of Ajman must travel hours to Dubai and Sharjah to the nearest airport. This further applies to imports and export cargo. This construction project allows for the ease of import and exports of goods to and from Ajman and global destinations.
As 90% of the population currently resides in the city, the Ajman International Airport will help facilitate a wider spread of the population within the emirate along the city and Al Manama enclave.
History.
The Government of Ajman granted White Lake Consortium (WLC) the initial sole concession to design, build and operate the upcoming airport. Other corporations involved in this construction project are ICTS Europe, Steel Law, Booz Allen Hamilton (BAH) and Fakhruddin Group, a United Arab Emirates based developer. In September 2014, the Crown Prince of Ajman, Prince Sheikh Ammar Bin Humaid Al Nuaimi provided final approval to Whitelake Consortium (WLC) to build and operate the proposed Ajman International Airport development plan which is approximately AED1.2 billion (US$570 million). The first phase of the construction project was set to build the initial terminal buildings for departures and arrivals, runways, a cargo complex, aviation school, maintenance workshops, free zone and a commercial zone. The new airport was to have capacity for 1 million passengers annually by 2018. This was to increase Ajman's tourism numbers within the emirate.
In February 2015, the CEO of the Ajman International Airport, Rashido Omrani claimed the airport was still to be expected to be completed in 2018. This construction project was said to include extra space for a large MRO centre and a terminal with capacity even greater than 1 million passengers. Delays in the construction of the airport constantly occurring has led to the new completion date to be by 31 December 2020.
The facilities of this airport have been designed, with a 4000-metre-long runway, to accept aircraft like the Airbus A380. To expand airport usage facilities to serve the needs of the air cargo and logistics, maintenance and executive aircraft operations will be created.
Operations.
The Ajman International Airport has operational guidelines based upon those of surrounding emirates. However, further intervention as well as experimentation once the airport begins operating is required due to the high amount of air traffic with limited air space in the United Arab Emirates.
Facilities.
In these early stages of construction and opening, twenty-five airlines including Emirates, Etihad and Air Arabia have sent letters of intent for landing rights at this airport. To accommodate for employees of the airport as well as other investments in the airport area, multiple residential and commercial properties will be developed alongside this as the airport will be located 60 km outside the Ajman city. The Ajman International Airport has provoked further construction such as retailers and restaurants in the surrounding area which is able to accommodate to staff of the airport due to the airport's profound distance from the main city centre and residential units. This further accommodates to tourists on limited time layovers which in turn, boosts economic activity in the emirate.
Flight movements.
Ajman International Airport, after its initial completion will begin with transporting cargo then with flying passengers to other emirates within the United Arab Emirates and will then further begin its international flights as the domestic flights run smoothly to alleviate any issues with the function and processes. After initial flights, this will further extend passenger flights internationally. However, as this construction project is not set to be a large international airport to the measure of that of other emirates in the United Arab Emirates, international flights will be limited to closer destinations and accommodate to layovers.
Regulation.
The director of the Aviation Authority, Saif, Al Suwaidi stated that the approval for the operations of the airport in Ajman require evaluating the common airspace and agreements among the other airports operating in the other emirates of the United Arab Emirates including Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, Ras Al Khaimah and Fujairah. The close proximity of these five airports poses major challenges for the establishment of the Ajman International airport due to the limited airspace. The Aviation Authority is in the process of holding meetings with all airports, more specifically, in the north of the United Arab Emirates such as Dubai, Sharjah and Ras Al Khaimah to continue achieving the highest level of safety for air traffic in the country. This will be further tested and implemented in the initial stages of opening and running the airport with beginning in low cost carrier (LCC) and cargo transportation as the primary use. Through testing and enforcing different regulations in cargo transportation, the airport will further begin to engage in other functions and processes, including passenger travel.
Security.
Ajman International Airport, being part of the United Arab Emirates will follow after its neighbouring emirates such as Dubai and Abu Dhabi in terms of the security measures taken when entering the country. This further includes restrictions on fire, explosives, illicit substances and guns. This further extends to carry on luggage in terms of liquid, sharp objects and flammable item restrictions. Furthermore, similar to that of Abu Dhabi International Airport and Dubai International Airport, passengers engaging in layover flights will also have security measures with carry on luggage x-ray scanners and walk through metal detectors regardless of whether they will be exiting the Ajman International Airport to go to Ajman itself.
Airlines and Destinations.
Passengers.
After its opening in 2021, when passengers are able to fly, Ajman International Airport, is set to cater to a minimum of one million passengers per annum and is estimated to rise up to 10.4 million by 2046. This airport is set to be driven largely by low cost carrier (LCC) and cargo operations in the first initial phase of its opening, the new airport is projected to achieve a significant amount of international passenger traffic over five years of it opening. However, 70% of its air traffic is set to come from low cost carriers (LCC) and 30% from regional flights. Although Ajman International Airport is set to cater to this large amount, it is not set to be equal to the measure of airports of other larger emirates such as Abu Dhabi and Dubai, specifically in passenger transportation.
Cargo.
After the opening of the airport, Ajman International Airport intends on beginning its processes and functions with cargo. This allows for the airport to further assess efficiency of the airport's functionality and make improvements fit for passengers to begin travel. Ajman International Airport will accommodate a minimum of 400,000 tonnes of cargo. Due to the emirate's smaller size in terms of area and population, the airport is set to also be smaller than that of neighbouring emirates such as Dubai International Airport and Sharjah International Airport. Therefore, cargo and airport maintenance are set to make up most of the airport's business. This further facilitates trade to occur within the United Arab Emirates and boost the economy by adding additional trading ports, specifically, the Ajman International Airport.
Access.
Due to the surrounding construction of residential units to occur around the Ajman International Airport, the commute is set to be quick for locals living in the surrounding area. However, this may be difficult for locals living in Ajman City as the airport construction site is 60 km away from the main city. Due to the minimal public transport available in Ajman, the airport will be accessible mainly by private cars and taxis, specifically for those living in the city. Currently, due to the lack of air transportation in existence in Ajman, residents are required to travel to Sharjah airport, one hour away or Dubai airport, one and a half hours away via a car or one bus from Ajman to Dubai which runs hourly. Ajman is only 12 km from Sharjah Airport which is the major base for Air Arabia from where approximately 19 airlines operated more than 35,000 scheduled flights in 2017. The current large air transportation hub of Dubai International Airport is a further 15 km away with one of the world's largest passenger air transportation, approximately 81 scheduled passenger airlines and 199,000 flights in 2017.
Future Expansions and Plans.
A feasibility study was conducted by ICTS Europe, an aviation specialist and Booz Allen Hamilton (BAH), an international consultancy firm. According to His Highness Shaikh Humaid Bun Rashid Al Nuaimi, member of the Supreme Council and Ruler of the emirate of Ajman, after reviewing the feasibility study, claims the new airport construction project aims to meet the growing demand for aviation infrastructure in the United Arab Emirates. As the Ajman International airport brings more people into this emirate and boosts tourism as well as occupancy of resorts, further expansions and developments of the area will occur. Although this airport does not aim to compete with other larger airports in the country, it aims to further contribute to tourism revenue with a considerable number of hotels also growing in recent years. Tourism in Ajman has been undergoing rapid growth after recovering from the financial crisis in 2007-2008. Popular attractions and locations for tourists, facilitating this rapid growth, include the Ajman National Museum located at Ajman Fort, the Red fort and the museum in the inland enclave of Manama, near where the construction site of the new airport is situated. Ajman's corniche is also a popular tourist destination for families, contributing to this rapid tourism growth, featuring a number of fast food retailers, coffee shops and stalls. Expatriates of Ajman often venture to the ‘Outside Inn,’ a popular watering hole which also possesses a number of hotels such as Ramada, Ajman Palace, the Kempinski the Ajman Saray and the Fairmont Ajman which further boosts economic upturn from tourism in Ajman.
This airport will be open for big businesses and allows to provide more income for the emirate. This airport is estimated to create over 28,000 new jobs such as border security, taxi drivers, retailers, flight attendants, builders and pilots. The United Arab Emirates plans to invest $USD136 billion in aviation infrastructure in the next 10 years and has an estimate of 15 million to tourists by 2020. Taking into consideration this growth in tourism, this airport construction project, aims to expand and open more hotels, restaurants, commercial offices, residential units, retailers, educational centres and exhibition halls. The additional construction projects to come in response to the Ajman International Airport are further set to boost the overall economy for the emirate alongside the airport.


Liaison pilot

A liaison pilot was a World War II United States enlisted pilot, whose wings bore an "L" in the center. They flew light single engine liaison aircraft. Included were many enlisted aviation students who washed out of pilot training after having soloed and were given the opportunity to become liaison pilots. Flight training consisted of about 60 hours of flying time and stressed such procedures as short field landings and takeoffs over obstacles, low altitude navigation, first aid, day and night reconnaissance, aerial photography, and aircraft maintenance. Unarmored and unarmed—except perhaps for a .45 pistol or .30 carbine—these men in 28 different squadrons flew low and slow with wheels, skis, or floats. They flew varied and often hazardous missions in nearly every theater—medical evacuation from forward areas; delivering munitions, blood plasma, mail, and other supplies to front lines; ferrying personnel; flying photographic or intelligence missions; serving as air observers for fighters or bombers; and other critical yet often unpublicized missions.
During the campaign to recapture the Philippines, pilots of the 25th Liaison Squadron flew a dozen Stinson L-5 Sentinel aircraft in short 30-minute flights (December 10–25, 1944) delivering supplies (including a 300-bed hospital) to the 6,000 men of the 11th Airborne Division isolated in the mountains of Leyte. In another mission, an Army officer wounded in the chest in New Guinea was evacuated in a liaison aircraft as the pilot pumped a portable respirator with one hand while he flew the aircraft with the other. In the northwestern U.S., some liaison pilots flew forest patrols (Project Firefly) watching for fires ignited by incendiary bombs carried across the Pacific beneath unmanned Japanese high altitude balloons.


CKT (airline)


Hugh Calkins

Hugh Calkins (February 20, 1924 – August 4, 2014) was an American lawyer and educator, who served as a member of the Harvard Corporation from 1968 to 1985.
Early life.
Calkins was born in Newton, Massachusetts in 1924, and went to Phillips Exeter Academy before attending Harvard University. As an undergraduate, he served briefly as president of the "Harvard Crimson" in 1942. He graduated "magna cum laude" in mechanical engineering, and joined the United States Air Force, serving until 1946.
Career.
After the war, Calkins returned to Harvard to attend law school, was president of the "Law Review", and graduated with enough honors in 1949 to win a job as a law clerk to Learned Hand, then the chief judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. He spent the following year clerking for Justice Felix Frankfurter on the Supreme Court of the United States.
Lawyer.
In 1951, Calkins moved to Cleveland, where he made a name for himself and worked for the law firm Jones Day. Calkins was active in regard to national legal issues, most notably serving as deputy director of President Eisenhower’s Commission on National Goals. He was elected to the Harvard Corporation in 1968, on the basis of work he had done setting long-term goals for the government. His efforts landed him on the master list of Nixon political opponents.
Calkins stepped down from the Harvard Corporation in 1985, and was succeeded by Henry Rosovsky.
Educator.
After retiring from his legal career, Calkins began a second career in public education. He earned a teaching certificate at John Carroll University, spent several years teaching in inner-city Cleveland schools, founded a charter school and ran an organization called Initiatives in Urban Education. He also founded Plan for Action by Citizens for Education (PACE) and served on the Cleveland Board of Education from 1965 to 1969.
Death.
Calkins died on August 4, 2014, at the age of 90.


USS Mahan (DD-364)

USS "Mahan" (DD-364) was the lead ship of the United States Navy's s. The ship was named for Rear Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan, a 19th-century naval historian and strategic theorist. Her design ushered in major advances over traditional destroyers. Among them were a third set of quadruple torpedo tubes, protective gun shelters, and emergency diesel generators. Along with a steam propulsion system that was simpler and more efficient to operate.
"Mahan" began her service in 1936. She was first assigned to the US Atlantic Fleet and then transferred to Pearl Harbor in 1937. When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, "Mahan" was at sea with Task Force 12. The task force's mission to Midway Island was aborted to participate in the post-attack search for the enemy strike force. Unable to locate it, the task force returned to Pearl Harbor.
Early in World War II, "Mahan" took part in raids on the Marshall and Gilbert Islands. In the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, Admirals Chester Nimitz and William Halsey commended the destroyer group (of which "Mahan" was a member) for a stellar effort in screening the aircraft carriers and against heavy odds. During the New Guinea campaign to take the northeast coast from the Japanese, "Mahan" was engaged in the amphibious landings at Salamaua, Lae, and Finschhafen. She participated in landings at Arawe and Borgen Bay (near Cape Gloucester), New Britain, and provided support for the troop landing at Los Negros Island in the Admiralty Islands.
Late in the Pacific War, the Japanese kamikaze relentlessly plagued US Naval operations. On 7 December 1944, a group of suicide aircraft overwhelmed and disabled "Mahan" at Ormoc Bay, Leyte, in the Philippine Islands. On fire and exploding, the ship was abandoned, and a US destroyer sank her with torpedoes and gunfire.
Characteristics.
"Mahan" displaced at the standard load and at the deep load. The ship's overall length was , the beam was and her draft was . She was powered by two of General Electric's geared steam turbines, which developed a total of for a maximum speed of . Four Babcock & Wilcox or four Foster Wheeler water-tube boilers generated the superheated steam needed for the turbines. "Mahan" carried a maximum of of fuel oil, with a range of at . Her peacetime complement was 158 officers and enlisted men. The wartime complement increased to approximately 250 officers and enlisted men.
"Mahan" had a tripod foremast and a pole mainmast. To improve the anti-aircraft field of fire, the tripod foremast was constructed without nautical rigging. In silhouette, the ship was similar to the larger that immediately preceded her. She was fitted with the first emergency diesel generators, replacing the storage batteries of earlier destroyers. Gun crew shelters were built fore and aft for the superimposed weapons.
A third quadruple set of torpedo tubes was added, with one mount on the centerline and two in the side positions. This required relocating one 5 inch/38 caliber gun to the aft deckhouse. "Mahan" incorporated a new generation of land-based steam propulsion machinery. With boiler pressures increasing to 600 PSI (pounds per square inch), and high-pressure turbines that had double reduction gears, which ran faster and more efficiently than that of her predecessors.
Armament.
The main battery of "Mahan" consisted of five 5 inch/38 caliber guns, later four in 1942, equipped with the Mark 33 ship gun fire-control system. Each gun was dual-purpose, configured for surface and aerial targets. Her anti-aircraft battery originally had four water-cooled .50 caliber machine guns. The ship was fitted with three quadruple torpedo-tube mounts for twelve 21 inch (533 mm) torpedoes, guided by the Mark 27 torpedo fire-control system. Depth charge roll-off racks were rigged on the stern of the ship.
In early 1942, the "Mahan"-class destroyers began a wartime armament refitting process, but most of the class was not fully refitted until 1944. "Mahan" was refitted in June 1944 at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard. The notable refits to the "Mahan"-class included the removal of one 5 inch/38 gun, typically replaced with two twin Bofors 40 mm guns and five 20 mm Oerlikon guns.
Construction and service.
"Mahan" was built by United Dry Docks (successor to the Morse Dry Dock and Repair Company) in Staten Island, New York. Her keel was laid down on 12 June 1934 and she was launched on 15 October 1935, sponsored by Kathleen H. Mahan (the admiral's great-granddaughter). The ship was commissioned on 18 September 1936, with Commander J. B. Waller in command. The ship departed for Caribbean and South American ports within two months of her commission, combining her initial training and shakedown cruise with a goodwill tour. She remained in the Atlantic until July 1937, then headed to the Southern California coast for fleet training before steaming to her new station at Pearl Harbor.
Rising tension between Japan and the United States stretched back to 1931 with Japan's invasion of Manchuria in the Mukden Incident. Japan's continued aggression, instigating the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 and invading French Indochina in 1940—to which the United States and European powers responded with embargoes on iron and oil imports—further heightened the tension. The Japanese thereafter decided to attack the Western powers in Asia, beginning with a surprise attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor. When the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, "Mahan" was at sea with the aircraft carrier , three cruisers and four destroyers as part of Task Force 12. "Lexington"s mission was to ferry Marine aircraft to reinforce Midway Island. After news of the attack on Pearl Harbor, the task-force commander received orders to terminate the ferry mission and to search for the Japanese strike force. Unable to locate them, the task force returned to Pearl Harbor on 12 December.
She put to sea in late December with 103 Marines to reinforce their detachment at Johnston Island (about 750 nautical miles—860 miles, or 1,390 km—west of Hawaii), and evacuated 47 civilians to Hawaii the following month. A convoy assignment took "Mahan" to Samoa, where she joined Task Force 17 (including the carrier , two cruisers and five destroyers). The task force carried out raids on Jaluit Atoll, Mili Atoll and Makin Atoll (Butaritari) in the Marshall Islands and Gilbert Islands. "Mahan" moved on to Canton Island in late February 1942, temporarily assigned to offshore patrol duty. By early April, she was at sea with a convoy bound for San Pedro, California. The ship then steamed north to the Mare Island Naval Shipyard for overhaul, docking on 18 April 1942.
"Mahan" was back operating in the waters off Pearl Harbor in August 1942. By mid-October, she had steamed out of Pearl Harbor as part of Task Force 16 with the carrier , the battleship , two cruisers and seven destroyers. On 24 October they joined Task Force 17, which included the carrier , four cruisers and six destroyers. The two carrier groups formed Task Force 61 under the command of Rear Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid, and was ordered to the Santa Cruz Islands to strike the Japanese if they moved on Guadalcanal.
After the task force anchored off the islands on the morning of 26 October, "Enterprise"s search planes spotted the enemy carrier force and dropped two 500-pound bombs on the , setting the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands in motion. When it subsided, the Navy had lost 74 aircraft, the carrier "Hornet" and one destroyer; "Enterprise", "South Dakota", one cruiser and one destroyer were damaged. The Japanese lost about 100 aircraft, but their ship casualties were much lower. Nimitz and Halsey expressed their satisfaction with Kinkaid's force and their battle against heavy odds, and the destroyers in the "Hornet" and "Enterprise" screens were commended for a stellar effort.
En route to Noumea, New Caledonia, on 27 October, a Japanese submarine contact caused the American ships to take evasive action. In the confusion, "Mahan" and battleship "South Dakota" collided: both ships were seriously damaged. Commander R. W. Simpson was "Mahan"'s captain at the time, having taken command in early 1941. Temporary repairs were made to "Mahan" at Noumea, and she headed back to Pearl Harbor for a new bow.
Fully repaired, "Mahan" left Pearl Harbor on 9 January 1943 for the South Pacific. In subsequent months she escorted convoys between the New Hebrides and the Fiji Islands, performed patrol assignments off New Caledonia, and engaged in operations in Australian waters. By August her base of operations was Milne Bay, New Guinea, which along with Buna, Papua New Guinea, was used as a staging area for an advance to gain possession of the Japanese-held northeast coast of New Guinea. The operation began in August 1943, with plans to strike Lae, New Guinea. Two weeks earlier, "Mahan", under Lieutenant Commander James T. Smith, and three other US destroyers had cleared the Lae approaches and the waters between Salamaua and Finschhafen, bombarding Japanese installations at Finschhafen. In early September the Lae Task Force, under Rear Admiral Daniel E. Barbey, left Milne Bay for Lae with 8,000 Australian troops. By the evening of 4 September, the troop landing was completed. On 11 September Salamaua was under Allied control, and Lae was taken by 16 September. "Mahan" and other US destroyers had provided cover for the amphibious landings.
Defeated at Lae, the Japanese pulled back to Finschhafen, which the Americans and Australians chose as the site of their next offensive. On 21 September an assault force under Barbey left Buna, escorted by US destroyers including "Mahan", and stopped at Lae to pick up an Australian infantry brigade. Additional US destroyers were attached to the force, preceding the convoy to the rendezvous point. On 22 September, before daylight, the amphibious force stormed the beach at Finschhafen; by noon, all troops were ashore. As the destroyers began to withdraw from the area, ten Japanese torpedo planes winged across the water, targeting "Mahan" and five other US destroyers. The ships returned fire, shooting down eight of the ten planes; the remaining two escaped. This scrimmage ended without any hits by enemy planes. By 2 October, Finschhafen was in the hands of the Allies.
On 14 December 1943, the amphibious force led by Barbey mustered at Buna, New Guinea, in preparation for the landing at Arawe, New Britain. With it was a bombardment group, composed of "Mahan" and four other US destroyers. Setting sail on the 14th, the force dropped anchor off Arawe early the next morning, and "Mahan" and her sister ships bombarded the Japanese shore defenses at the main landing point. The shelling from the 5"/38 guns and the bazooka-fired rockets sent the Japanese into retreat, and by mid-morning the beachhead was secured.
Christmas 1943 found "Mahan" steaming with Barbey's amphibious force to Borgen Bay, near Cape Gloucester, New Britain. The entrance to Borgen Bay was risky, with uncharted waters; "Mahan" and were picked to sound out the channel and mark the way. They moved through the channel, with two minesweepers laying buoys in their wake. The force shadowed the buoys, and made its way through the passage. On the morning of the 26th, the Marines landed on the beach unopposed. The Japanese struck forcefully later that afternoon, but the Americans would not be dislodged.
In late February 1944, "Mahan" was in action with the Seventh Fleet supporting the troop landing at Los Negros Island in the Admiralty Islands. Although the supporting ships came under heavy fire, the troops made it ashore. Three weeks later, the Japanese force at Los Negros was defeated.
In early 1944, after extended wartime duty in the Pacific, the veteran destroyer was ordered to California for overhaul and moored again at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard. "Mahan" left the yard in early July for Pearl Harbor, participating in exercises there until 15 August. She returned to New Guinea on 20 October via Eniwetok, Jaluit, Guam, Saipan and Ulithi, escorting convoys between Hollandia (Jayapura) and Leyte. By the end of November 1944, "Mahan" was performing anti-submarine patrol off Leyte in the Philippines.
Sinking.
In November 1944, bad weather and hostile terrain bogged down the ground campaign to seize Leyte from the Japanese. The chief impediment to retaking Leyte was the Japanese ability to reinforce and resupply its headquarters at Ormoc City, on the west side of Leyte, and the Americans' inability to counter this advantage. Thus, the unavoidable decision was made for an amphibious attack on Ormoc.
On the morning of 7 December 1944, three years to the day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, troops of the US 77th Infantry Division landed south of Ormoc City. At the same time, "Mahan" was patrolling the channel between Leyte and Ponson Island. The amphibious strike by the infantry met with little opposition, but nine Japanese bombers and four escort fighters converged on "Mahan". In "Kamikaze" (1997), Raymond Lamont-Brown wrote: "Observers were to record of this, one of the most unusual and devastating of kamikaze assaults of 1944, that the Japanese aircraft used torpedo-launching tactics, but when they had been hit ... they switched to kamikaze attacks, diving on "Mahan"". During the assault, US Army fighters downed three Japanese aircraft and damaged two more. "Mahan" shot down four but took three direct kamikaze hits, as David Sears observed in "At War With the Wind" (2008), "... the most calamitous [being] a direct hit to the superstructure near the No. 2 gun."
Exploding and awash in flames, "Mahan" was turned by Commander E. G. Campbell toward the picket line in a last hope to save her before issuing the order to abandon ship. The destroyers and rescued the survivors; one officer and five men were missing, and thirteen seriously wounded (including burns). A US destroyer sank "Mahan" with torpedoes and gunfire because she was not salvageable.
"Mahan"’s captain praised the performance of his crew during the ordeal. He described their response as disciplined and courageous.
Honors.
"Mahan" received five battle stars for her World War II service.


Keith Alexander (Manitoba politician)

Arnold Keith Alexander (June 12, 1921 – December 18, 1972) was a politician in Manitoba, Canada. He was a Progressive Conservative member of the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba from 1958 to 1966.
Born in Russell, Manitoba, Alexander was educated at the University of Manitoba. He served as a pilot in the Canadian Armed Forces from 1941 to 1954. After retiring from the armed forces, he farmed in the Tummel area of Manitoba until 1969. The following year, Alexander became a United Church minister.
Alexander was first elected to the Manitoba legislature in the 1958 election, defeating incumbent Liberal-Progressive Ray Mitchell by 198 votes in the constituency of Roblin. He was re-elected by a greater margin in the elections of 1959 and 1962, and did not run in 1966. He served as a backbench supporter of Dufferin Roblin's government thorough his time in office.
He died in Kenville, Manitoba at the age of 51.


Plane guard

A plane guard is a warship (commonly a destroyer or frigate) or helicopter tasked to recover the aircrew of planes or helicopters which ditch or crash in the water during aircraft carrier flight operations.
Ships.
For ships, the plane guard is positioned at least 500 yards behind the carrier and either to port and clear of the carrier, or at a point intersecting the carrier's final approach line. Ships in the latter position provide an additional point of reference to approaching aircraft. One of the ship's boats is prepared for launch and swung over the side, but not placed in the water. If an aircraft ditches or crashes, either while approaching the carrier to land or following a failed landing, the ship proceeds to the approximate position of the aircraft, and the prepared boat is deployed to rescue the aircrew.
The plane guard role is dangerous for ships, as aircraft carriers must often change speed and direction to preserve optimum take-off and landing conditions for their aircraft, and a lack of awareness or any incorrect manoeuvres on the part of either ship can place a plane guard ship under the bows of a carrier travelling at full speed. Both HMAS "Voyager" (in 1964) and USS "Frank E. Evans" (in 1969) were lost while incorrectly manoeuvering during plane guard duties which resulted in collisions with the Australian aircraft carrier HMAS "Melbourne".
Helicopters.
After World War II, plane guard duties and search-and-rescue roles were sometimes carried out by amphibious aircraft. However, prior to the Korean War helicopters were discovered to be more efficient and effective in both roles. As helicopters came into more common usage, they supplemented and sometimes replaced plane guard ships, as they could retrieve crashed aircrew faster and more safely than the ships. However, night operations still required a ship in the plane guard position.


Karl Kessel

Karl Kessel (1 June 1912 – 24 August 1997) was a German officer during World War II and a general in the armed forces of West Germany. He was a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross of Nazi Germany. Kessel joined the Bundeswehr in 1956 and retired in 1970 as a Generalmajor.