National Finance Commission Award

The National Finance Commission Award or NFC is a series of planned economic programs in Pakistan enacted since 1951. Constituted under the Article 160 of the Constitution, the program was emerged to take control of financial imbalances and equally managed the financial resources to four provinces to meet their expenditure liabilities while alleviating the horizontal fiscal imbalances. As per Constitution, the program awards the designs of financial formulas of economic distribution to provincial and federal government for five consecutive years. All together, a total of seven awards has been reimbursed since its emergence in 1951, by Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan. Stipulations and directions mentioned by the Constitution, the provisional governments and federal government competes to get higher share of the program's revenues in order to stabilize their own financial status.
Intergovernmental transfer of economic resources is chaired by the President of Pakistan whose constitutional purpose is to supervise the system of fiscal transfer to correct the vertical fiscal imbalance between provincial and federal government, and horizontal fiscal imbalances between four provinces. Government financial specialists, mathematicians, and economists studied the mathematical and statistical aspects of the program before recommending the government to enact the program. Due to the program producing a political realignment and the constitutional stipulation regarded a unanimous political concession between four provinces, the program has fever conclusive results, and only seven awards has been enacted since its emergence in 1951.
In 2010, after series of reaching the concession and public debates successfully concluded the enactment of conclusive seventh award by the program, which affected the distribution formula. In a statement released by Finance Minister Shaukat Tarin, the inverse population density, and the derivative poverty rate has become a new parametric factor in calculating the program's awards.
In federal law and the Constitution.
The National Finance Commission is constitutionally established by the Constitution which laid the foundation of equal distribution of revenues between the federal and four provincial governments of Pakistan. The Constitution grants powers to President of Pakistan to constitute the program in five consecutive years. The Constitution further stated:
History.
Raisman Program in 1951.
The program's existence was emerged in 1951 when Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan responded remarkably for initiating a series of new economic programs. This revenue sharing program was called "Raisman Award Program" (officially declared as Raisman Award of 1951), and was notified on 1 April 1, 1952. The Raisman program had gained control of taxation and transferred to federal government with allocations of 50% of proceeds to the provinces. Since 1951, there were only three of these awards (1961, 1964 and 1970) enacted by the Raisman program. All of these were given in unusual circumstances and their results remained inconclusive. The Raisman program enacted the awards during the promulgation of One Unit Program, and equally distributed with West-Pakistan and East-Pakistan. In 1970, the Raiman program enacted the third award during the martial law and a year before East Pakistan seceded. Its results too remain inconclusive which became a one reason for this secession was also their resentment on the revenue distributions of the past.
National Finance Commission.
After the separation of East-Pakistan as a direct resulting end of war with India in 1971, Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's government formed the commission under Chief Justice Hamoodur Rahman to investigate and study the loss of East Pakistan. While many factors had pointed out by the commission, generally marking the political, economical, ideological and geophysical reasons but the one emphasized the "Distribution of Resources" between each contingent. Controversially, the economic distribution of financials funds, grants, and resources were based on GNP performances and tax collection. The issue of population growth was never calculated and even raised by any civil servant or bureaucrat, since many had realized that if such factors determined, it would have resulted in greater share of East-Pakistan from the Federal Divisible Pool or in Federal Budget for East and West Pakistan.
Efforts were applied to end the economic disparity and depression among federal government and provincial governments of Pakistan by the government. While drafting the new Constitution in 1973, the issue of financial distributions, economic equality, and economic justice was specifically mentioned in separate chapter of the Constitution. The Article 160 of the Constitution of Pakistan, laid the foundation and philosophical existence of the National Finance Commission (NFC) and provides the logical framework of (NFC), in 1973. The Constitution was unanimously approved by the all and major political parties in the country, and successfully promulgated the constitution in 1973. During the fiscal period from 1973 to 1974, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and his government collaborated with the provincial governments of four provinces and successfully enacted the first financial award under NFC program; the first award proved to be success after it had produced a positive conclusive results in 1974.
The NFC program is viewed a step forward towards decentralization and establishment of fiscal federalism to promote equality, accountability, cost effectiveness, and opportunities for empowering and serving the poorest people in four provinces.
NFC Formulation.
Financial mathematics and statistics.
The NFC Award is enacted through mathematical formulation between federal government and provincial governments. The NFC generalizes the five kinds of taxation, including the income taxes, sales tax, wealth taxes, capital gains taxes, and custom duties taxes. The program is constituted under President of Pakistan who coordinated and supervise the studies and calculations conducted by financial specialists, economists, statisticians and mathematicians.
In 1997, changes in NFC formulation was carried out by Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif after including the custom duties taxes with the award. Before 1991, the custom duties taxes revenue had been awarded to federal government while the revenue of Worker Welfare Fund (WWF) remain in the four provinces where they are collected. The principality of 1991 NFC Award specifies that 63.12% of collected revenue of taxes were directed to the federal government and 37% distributed to the four provinces. Prime Minister Sharif was widely given credited for declaring a consensus on formulating the 7th NFC Award with some positive recommendations. Earlier in 1991, the financial resources were vertically distributed at a fixed ratio of 20:80 among federal and provincial governments.
Majority of the taxation and revenues are collected from Punjab and Sindh provinces of Pakistan. Almost all custom duties are collected at the Port of Karachi. Based on the formula determined in 1997, the taxation revenue collected from four provinces are: 65% of taxation revenue are collected from Sindh; the 25% taxation revenue from comes from the Punjab; 7.01% of taxation revenue collections are collected from Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa; lastly only 3.09% of taxation are collected from the largest province, Balochistan province.
Due to a constitutional obligation, the NFC Award can not be announced if the four provinces have failed to develop consensus. Minor changes in NFC formulations were carried out by Finance minister Shaukat Aziz in 2001, allocating ~50% of revenue to the four provinces against the prevailing formula of 62.89% as of 1995 NFC calculations. In 2005, President Pervez Musharraf finalizes the formula and enacted the award under the NFC program by the ratio of 52:48 among federal government and provincial governments.
Current formula and factorial changes.
Due to growing economic and financial demands, the NFC formula had to be changed to modern formula to compete with economic challenges. In 2009, Finance Minister Shaukat Tarin stated that population won't be the only parametric equation used in calculating the next NFC award. For the economic and financial distribution of the new award under the NFC program, factors such as inverse population density and rate of change in poverty have also been added and inserted in equations calculating the NFC formula by mathematicians and government statisticians in their research. In 2009, the work on new formula begins to determine the formula for new NFC award, with political parties began meeting leaders of provincial parties.
After reaching concession with the four provinces and the federal government, the seventh NFC award was enacted by the program and ultimately, the seventh award produced the conclusive results. The seventh NFC award has allotted 82.98% of financial grants to four provinces to weight to population, in which approximately 10.3% of financial grants shares were asked to be spent on reduction of poverty in the country. Under the new formula, approximately 51.74% of revenue shares were directed to Punjab; ~24.55% to Sindh; ~14.62% to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa; and ~9.09% to Balochistan Province; all shares were distributed based upon their performances. Finally in 2009, President Asif Ali Zardari signed the final release papers and enacted the 7th NFC Award under the NFC program.
The seventh award under the NFC program showed the multiplication and divisional factors and the functions in respect to following listed issues:
Previous awards under NFC program.
Since 1951, there had been three awards enacted during the fiscal year of 1951, 1961 and 1970 under the undisclosed circumstances and its results remained inconclusive. Before 1951, the sales tax was in exclusive domain of provincial governments and it was partly federalized to the extent of 50%t in 1951 under the Raisman Program of Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan. However, it was in 1974 when all sales tax was completely federalized and Prime minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto declared population as the only criterion for distribution of revenue.
The first official NFC award was enacted under this program in 1974 by the government of Prime minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, which produced a conclusive results. However, the two NFC Awards enacted during the fiscal period of 1979 and 1984 remained inconclusive as President Zia-ul-Haq failed to reach consensus and ended in a deadlock. The first award was enacted as setting the population as the only criterion for revenue distribution among the provinces. Custom duties, the main revenue earner was kept out of the divisible pool and the sales tax was completely federalized.
The fourth NFC award was declared in 1991 by the PML government after successfully reaching the concession with the four provinces. For the first time in the short history of Pakistan, the fourth NFC Award had recognized the rights of the provinces on natural resources and the provinces were given royalty and gas development surcharge on oil and gas. The first fifth NFC Award was announced in 1995 by Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto. The first fifth award remained highly controversial and debatable at the country's news channels. Soon, the second fifth award was announced by Prime minister Nawaz Sharif in 1997 after his rival, Benazir Bhutto, was dismissed. Although it remains conclusive on many parts, but the opposition targeted the implementation of the program.
Chronology of National Finance Commission Awards
In July 2000, Finance minister Shaukat Aziz presided the convection of National Finance Commission (NFC) to finalize the sixth award, due to constitutional termination of fifth awards program. In 2001, the commission was constituted under President Pervez Musharraf to supervise the work on sixth award. Finally in 2002, the sixth NFC award under the NFC program was enacted by President Pervez Musharraf but failed to reach a consensus decision. Although it was enacted but the sixth award's results remained inconclusive.
In 2010, the seventh NFC award was successfully enacted by President Asif Zardari after reaching a united concessions with the four provinces.


Autopistas de Puerto Rico

Autopistas de Puerto Rico S.E. () is a European public–private partnership, privately held company that operates the Teodoro Moscoso Bridge on behalf of the Puerto Rico Highways and Transportation Authority. The company is wholly owned by Abertis.
History.
"Autopistas de Puerto Rico S.E." was founded by Dragados y Construcciones S.A. of Spain with 74.25% stake, Supra and Company S.E. with 20% share, Rexach Construction Company with 4.75% interest and Autopistas Corporation () with 1% interest. In 1998 Valor 2000 S.A. of Spain bought Dragados' share, who in turn sold their shares to Aurea Concesiones de Infraestructura de España in 2001. In 2003, Abertis bought Aurea out, and then, in 2010, acquired the remaining 24.75% shares owned by the other two founding members. The remaining 1% is owned by "Autopistas Corporation", a shell company based in Puerto Rico which is also owned by Abertis.


Shotgun shell

A shotgun shell, shotshell or simply shell is a type of rimmed, cylindrical (straight-walled) cartridges used specifically by shotguns, and is typically loaded with numerous small, pellet-like spherical sub-projectiles called shot, fired through a smoothbore barrel with a tapered constriction at the muzzle to regulate the extent of scattering. A shell can sometimes also contain only a single large solid projectile known as a slug, fired usually through a rifled slug barrel. The shell casing usually consist of a paper or plastic tube mounted on a brass base holding a primer, and the shots are typically contained by a wadding/sabot inside the case. The caliber of the shotshell is known as its gauge.
The projectiles are traditionally made of lead, but other metals such as steel, tungsten and bismuth are also used due to restrictions on lead, and other unusual projectiles such as saboted flechettes, rubber balls, rock salt and magnesium shards also exist. Slug shells can also be made with specialty non-lethal projectiles such as rubber and bean bag rounds.
Shotguns have an effective range of about with buckshot, with birdshot, with slugs, and well over with saboted slugs in rifled barrels.
Other rounds include:
Most shotgun shells are designed to be fired from a smoothbore barrel, but dedicated shotguns with rifled barrels are limited to lead slugs or sabot slugs as "shot" would be spread too wide by the rifling. A rifled barrel will increase the accuracy of sabot slugs, but makes it unsuitable for firing shot, as it imparts a spin to the shot cup, causing the shot cluster to disperse. A rifled slug uses rifling on the slug itself so it can be used in a smoothbore shotgun.
History.
Early shotgun shells used brass cases, not unlike rifle and pistol cartridge cases of the same era. These brass shotgun hulls or cases closely resembled rifle cartridges, in terms of both the head and primer portions of the shotgun shell, as well as in their dimensions. Card wads, made of felt, leather, and cork, as well as paperboard, were all used at various times. Waterglass (Sodium silicate) was commonly used to cement the top overshot wad into these brass shell casings. No roll crimp or fold crimp was used on these early brass cases, although roll crimps were eventually used by some manufacturers to hold the overshot wad in place securely. The primers on these early shotgun shells were identical to pistol primers of the same diameter.
Starting in the late 1870s, paper hulls began replacing brass hulls. Paper hulls remained popular for nearly a century, until the early 1960s. These shotgun shells using paper hulls were nearly always roll crimped, although fold crimping also eventually became popular. The primers on these paper hull shotgun shells also changed from the pistol primers used on the early brass shotgun shells to a primer containing both the priming charge and an anvil, unlike rifle and pistol ammunition, making the shotgun shell primer taller. Card wads, made of felt and cork, as well as paperboard, were all used at various times, gradually giving way to plastic over powder wads, with card wads, and, eventually, to all plastic wads. Starting in the early 1960s, plastic hulls started replacing paper hulls for the majority of shotgun shells and by the 1980s, plastic hulls had become universally adopted.
Typical construction.
Modern shotgun shells typically consist of a plastic case, with the base covered in a thin brass plated steel covering. As noted previously, paper shells used to be common, and are still made, as are solid brass shells. Some companies have produced what appear to be all-plastic shells, although in these there is a small metal ring cast into the rim of the shell to provide strength. Often the more powerful loads will use "high brass" shells, with the brass extended up further along the sides of the shell, while light loads will use "low brass" shells. The brass does not actually provide a significant amount of strength, but the difference in appearance provides shooters with a way to quickly differentiate between high and low powered ammunition.
The base of the shell is fairly thick to hold the large shotgun primer, which is longer than primers used for rifle and pistol ammunition. Modern smokeless powders are far more efficient than the original black powder used in shotgun shells, so very little space is actually taken by powder; shotguns use small quantities of double base powders, equivalent to quick-burning pistol powders, with up to 50% nitroglycerin. After the powder comes the wadding or wad. The primary purpose of a wad is to prevent the shot and powder from mixing, and to provide a seal that prevents gas from blowing through the shot rather than propelling it. The wad design may also encompass a shock absorber and a cup that holds the shot together until it is out of the barrel.
A modern wad consists of three parts, the powder wad, the cushion, and the shot cup, which may be separate pieces or be one part. The powder wad acts as the gas seal (known as obturation), and is placed firmly over the powder; it may be a paper or plastic part. The cushion comes next, and it is designed to compress under pressure, to act as a shock absorber and minimize the deformation of the shot; it also serves to take up as much space as is needed between the powder wad and the shot. Cushions are almost universally made of plastic with crumple zones, although for game shooting in areas grazed by farm stock or wildlife biodegradable fiber wads are often preferred. The shot cup is the last part of the shell, and it serves to hold the shot together as it moves down the barrel. Shot cups have slits on the sides so that they peel open after leaving the barrel, allowing the shot to continue on in flight undisturbed. Shot cups, where used, are also almost universally plastic. The shot fills the shot cup (which must be of the correct length to hold the desired quantity of shot), and the shotgun shell is then crimped, or rolled closed.
Sizes.
Standard.
Shotgun shells are generally measured by "gauge", which is the weight, in fractions of a pound, of a pure lead round ball that is the same diameter as the internal diameter of the barrel; in Britain and some other locations outside the United States the term "bore" is used with the same meaning. This contrasts with rifles and handguns, which are almost always measured in "caliber", a measurement of the internal diameter of the barrel measured in millimeters or inches and, consequently, is approximately equal to the diameter of the projectile that is fired.
For example, a shotgun is called "12-gauge" because a lead sphere that just fits the inside diameter of the barrel weighs . This measurement comes from the time when early cannons were designated in a similar manner—a "12 pounder" would be a cannon that fired a cannonball; inversely, an individual "12-gauge" shot would in fact be a pounder. Thus, a 10-gauge shotgun has a larger-diameter barrel than a 12-gauge shotgun, which has a larger-diameter barrel than a 20-gauge shotgun, and so forth.
The most popular shotgun gauge by far is 12-gauge. The larger 10-gauge, once popular for hunting larger birds such as goose and turkey, is in the decline with the advent of longer, "magnum" 12-gauge shells, which offer similar performance. The mid-size 20-gauge is also a very popular chambering for smaller-framed shooters who favor its reduced recoil, those hunting smaller game, and experienced trap and skeet shooters who like the additional challenge of hitting their targets with a smaller shot charge. Other less-common, but commercially available gauges are 16 and 28. Several other gauges may be encountered but are considered obsolete. The 4, 8, 24, and 32 gauge guns are collector items. There are also some shotguns measured by diameter, rather than gauge. These are the .410 (10.4mm), .380 (9mm), and .22 (5.5mm); these are correctly called ".410 bore", not ".410-gauge".
The .410 bore is the smallest shotgun size which is widely available commercially in the United States. For size comparison purposes, the .410, when measured by gauge, would be around 67- or 68-gauge (it is 67.62-gauge), The .410 is often mistakenly assigned 36-gauge. The 36 gauge was in fact a .360 diameter cartridge which was in length and is now obsolete.
Other calibers.

Snake shot (AKA: bird shot, rat shot and dust shot) refers to handgun and rifle cartridges loaded with small lead shot. Snake shot is generally used for shooting at snakes, rodents, birds, and other pest at very close range. The most common snake shot cartridges are .22 Long Rifle, .22 Magnum, .38 Special, 9×19mm Luger, .40 Smith & Wesson, .44 Special, .45 ACP, and .45 Colt.
Commonly used by hikers, backpackers and campers, snake shot is ideally suited for use in revolvers and derringers, chambered for .38 Special and .357 Magnum. Snake shot may not cycle properly in semi-automatic pistols. Rifles specifically made to fire .22 caliber snake shot are also commonly used by farmers for pest control inside of barns and sheds, as the snake shot will not shoot holes in the roof or walls, or more importantly injure livestock with a ricochet. They are also used for airport and warehouse pest control.
Shot shells have also been historically issued to soldiers, to be used in standard issue rifles. The .45-70 "Forager" round, which contained a thin wooden bullet filled with birdshot, was intended for hunting small game to supplement the soldiers' rations. This round in effect made the .45-70 rifle into a small gauge shotgun, capable of killing rabbits, ducks, and other small game.
During World War II, the United States military developed the .45 ACP M12 and M15 shot shells cartridges. They were issued to pilots, to be used as foraging ammunition in the event that they were shot down. While they were best used in the M1917 revolvers, the M15 cartridge would actually cycle the semi-automatic M1911 pistols action.
Garden guns.
Garden guns are smooth-bore firearms specifically made to fire .22 caliber snake shot, and are commonly used by gardeners and farmers for pest control. Garden guns are short-range weapons that can do little harm past 15 to 20 yards, and they are quite quiet when fired with snake shot, compared to a standard ammunition. These guns are especially effective inside of barns and sheds, as the snake shot will not shoot holes in the roof or walls, or more importantly injure livestock with a ricochet. They are also used for pest control at airports, warehouses, stockyards, etc.
Shotgun gauge diameter formula.
The standard definition of shotgun gauge assumes that a pure lead ball is used. The following formulas relate the bore diameter "dn" (in inches) to the gauge "n":
For example, the common bore diameter "dn" = 0.410 inches (.410 bore) is effectively gauge "n" = 67.6 .
Lead free.
By 1957 the ammo industry had the capability of producing a nontoxic shot, made out of either iron or steel. In 1976 the Fish and Wildlife Service took the first steps toward phasing out lead shot by designating steel-shot-only hunting zones for waterfowl. In the 1970s lead-free shot shell ammunition loaded with steel, bismuth, or tungsten composite pellets instead of more traditional lead-based pellets was introduced and required for Migratory Bird Hunting (Ducks & Geese). Lead shot in waterfowl hunting was banned throughout the United States in 1991.
Due to environmental regulations, lead-loaded ammunition must be used carefully by hunters in Europe. For instance, in France, it cannot be fired in the vicinity of a pond. In fact, the laws are so complex that some hunters in Europe prefer not to risk getting into problems for firing lead pellets in the wrong places, so they opt for composite pellets in all situations. The use of lead shot is banned in Canada and the United States when hunting migratory game birds, such as ducks and geese, forcing the use of non-toxic shot in these countries for waterfowl hunting (lead shot can still legally be used in the United States for hunting game other than waterfowl). This means that manufacturers need to market new types of lead-free shotgun ammunition loaded with alternative pellets to meet environmental restrictions on the use of lead, as well as lead-based and cheaper shotshell ammunition, to remain competitive worldwide.
The C.I.P. enforces approval of all ammunition a manufacturer or importer intends to sell in any of the (mainly European) C.I.P. member states. The ammunition manufacturing plants are obliged to test their products during production against the C.I.P. pressure specifications. A compliance report must be issued for each production lot and archived for later verification if needed.
Besides pressure testing, shotshells containing steel pellets require an additional Vickers hardness test. The steel pellets used must have a hardness under 100 HV1, but, even so, steel is known to wear the barrel excessively over time if the steel pellet velocities become too high, leading to potentially harmful situations for the user. As a result, the measurement of pellet velocity is also an additional obligation for shotshells in 12-, 16-, and 20-gauges in both standard and high performance versions sold in Europe. The velocity of pellets must be below , and respectively for the standard versions. Another disadvantage of steel pellets is their tendency to ricochet unpredictably after striking any hard surface. This poses a major hazard at indoor ranges or whenever metal targets or hard backstops (e.g. concrete wall vs. a dirt berm) are used. For this reason, steel shot is explicitly banned at most indoor shooting ranges. Any shooters who are considering buying ammo loaded with steel for anything other than hunting purposes should first find out if using it won't cause undue hazard to themselves and others.
However, data supporting the danger of firing high velocity shells loaded with steel shot causing barrel wear has not been published and the US equivalent of CIP, SAAMI, does not have any such restrictive limitations on the velocity of commercial steel shotshells sold in the United States. Similarly, shotgun manufacturers selling shotguns in the United States select their own appropriate standards for setting steel hardness for shotgun barrels and for velocities of steel shotshell loaded ammunition.
Some indoor shooting ranges prohibit the use of steel shot over concern of it causing a spark when hitting an object down range and causing a fire.
Shot sizes.
Shotshells are loaded with different sizes of shot depending on the target. For skeet shooting, a small shot such as a No.8 or No.9 would be used, because range is short and a high density pattern is desirable. Trap shooting requires longer shots, and so a larger shot, usually #7½ is used. For hunting game, the range and penetration needed to assure a clean kill is considered. Shot loses its velocity very quickly due to its low sectional density and ballistic coefficient (see external ballistics). Small shot, like that used for skeet and trap, will have lost all appreciable energy by around , which is why trap and skeet ranges can be located in relatively close proximity to inhabited areas with negligible risk of injury to those outside the range.
Birdshot.
Birdshots are designed to be used for waterfowl and upland hunting, where the game is agile small/medium-sized birds. Their sizes are numbered similar to the shotgun gauges — the smaller the number, the larger the shot (except in the obsolete Swedish system, in which it is reversed). Generally birdshot is just called "shot", such as "number 9 shot" or "BB shot".
There are small differences in size of American, Standard (European), Belgian, Italian, Norwegian, Spanish, Swedish, British, and Australian shot to make matters more complex. That is because some systems go by diameter in inches (American), some go by diameter in millimeters (European), and the British system goes by the number of lead shot per ounce. Australia has a hybrid system due to its market being flooded with a mixture of British, American, and European shells.
For American shot, a useful method for remembering the diameter of numbered shot in inches is simply to subtract the shot size from 17. The resulting answer is the diameter of the shot in hundredths of an inch. For example, #2 shot gives 17-2 = 15, meaning that the diameter of #2 shot is 15/100 or 0.15". B shot is .170 inches, and sizes go up in .01 increments for BB and BBB sizes.
In metric measurement, it is easy to remember that #5 shot is 3 mm; each number up or down represents a 0.25 mm change in diameter, so e.g. #7 shot is 2.5 mm.
Number 11 and number 12 lead shot also exists. Shot of these sizes is used in specialized shotshells designed to be fired at close range (less than four yards) for killing snakes, rats and similar-sized animals. Such shells are typically intended to be fired from handguns, particularly revolvers. This type of ammunition is produced by Federal and CCI, among others.
Birdshot selection.
For hunting, shot size must be chosen not only for the range, but also for the game. The shot must reach the target with enough energy to penetrate to a depth sufficient to kill the game. Lead shot is still the best ballistic performer, but environmental restrictions on the use of lead, especially with waterfowl, require steel, bismuth, or tungsten composites. Steel, being significantly less dense than lead, requires larger shot sizes, but is a good choice when lead is not legal and cost is a consideration. It is argued that steel shot cannot safely be used in some older shotguns without causing damage to either the bore or to the choke due to the hardness of steel shot. However, the increased pressure in most steel cartridges is a far greater problem, causing more strain to the breech of the gun. Since tungsten is very hard, it must also be used with care in older guns. Tungsten shot is often alloyed with nickel and iron, softening the base metal. That alloy is approximately 1/3 denser than lead, but far more expensive. Bismuth shot falls between steel and tungsten shot in both density and cost. The rule of thumb in converting appropriate steel shot is to go up by two numbers when switching from lead. However, there are different views on dense patterns versus higher pellet energies.
Buckshot.
Larger sizes of shot, large enough that they must be carefully packed into the shell rather than simply dumped or poured in, are called "buckshot" or just "buck". Buckshot is used for hunting medium to large game, as a tactical round for law enforcement and military personnel, and for personal self-defense. Buckshot size is most commonly designated by a series of numbers and letters, with smaller numbers indicating larger shot. Sizes larger than "0" are designated by multiple zeros. "00" (usually pronounced "double-aught" in North American English) is the most commonly sold size.
The British system for designating buckshot size is based on the amount of shot per ounce. The sizes are LG (large grape – from grapeshot derived from musket shooting), MG (medium grape), and SG (small grape). For smaller game, SSG shot is half the weight of SG, SSSG shot is half the weight of SSG, SSSSG shot is half the weight of SSSG, and so on. The Australian system is similar, except that it has 00-SG, a small-game shell filled with 00 buckshot.
Loads of 12-gauge 00 buckshot are commonly available in cartridges holding from 8 (eight) to 18 (eighteen) pellets in standard shell lengths ( inches, 3 inches, and ). Reduced-recoil 00 buckshot shells are often used as tactical and self-defense rounds, minimizing shooter stress and improving the speed of follow-up shots.
Spread and patterning.
Most modern sporting shotguns have interchangeable choke tubes to allow the shooter to change the spread of shot that comes out of the gun. In some cases, it is not practical to do this; the gun might have fixed choke, or a shooter firing at receding targets may want to fire a wide pattern immediately followed by a narrower pattern out of a single barrelled shotgun. The spread of the shot can also be altered by changing the characteristics of the shell.
Narrower patterns.
A buffering material, such as granulated plastic, sawdust, or similar material can be mixed with the shot to fill the spaces between the individual pellets. When fired, the buffering material compresses and supports the shot, reducing the deformation the shot pellets experience under the extreme acceleration. Antimony-lead alloys, copper plated lead shot, steel, bismuth, and tungsten composite shot all have a hardness greater than that of plain lead shot, and will deform less as well. Reducing the deformation will result in tighter patterns, as the spherical pellets tend to fly straighter. One improvised method for achieving the same effect involves pouring molten wax or tar into the mass of shot. Another is a partial ring cut around the case intended to ensure that the shot comes out tightly bunched along with the portion of the case forward of the cut, creating a 'cut-shell'. This can be dangerous, as it is thought to cause higher chamber pressures—especially if part of the shell remains behind in the barrel and is not cleared before another shot is fired.
Wider patterns.
Shooting the softest possible shot will result in more shot deformation and a wider pattern. This is often the case with cheap ammunition, as the lead used will have minimal alloying elements such as antimony and be very soft. Spreader wads are wads that have a small plastic or paper insert in the middle of the shot cup, usually a cylinder or "X" cross-section. When the shot exits the barrel, the insert helps to push the shot out from the center, opening up the pattern. Often these result in inconsistent performance, though modern designs are doing much better than the traditional improvised solutions. Intentionally deformed shot (hammered into ellipsoidal shape) or cubical shot will also result in a wider pattern, much wider than spherical shot, with more consistency than spreader wads. Spreader wads and non-spherical shot are disallowed in some competitions. Hunting loads that use either spreaders or non-spherical shot are usually called "brush loads", and are favored for hunting in areas where dense cover keeps shot distances very short.
Spread.
Most shotgun shells contain multiple pellets in order to increase the likelihood of a target being hit. A shotgun's shot spread refers to the two-dimensional pattern that these projectiles (or shot) leave behind on a target. Another less important dimension of spread concerns the length of the in-flight shot string from the leading pellet to the trailing one. The use of multiple pellets is especially useful for hunting small game such as birds, rabbits, and other animals that fly or move quickly and can unpredictably change their direction of travel. However, some shotgun shells only contain one metal shot, known as a slug, for hunting large game such as deer.
As the shot leaves the barrel upon firing, the three-dimensional shot string is close together. But as the shot moves farther away, the individual pellets increasingly spread out and disperse. Because of this, the effective range of a shotgun, when firing a multitude of shot, is limited to approximately . To control this effect, shooters may use a constriction within the barrel of a shotgun called a choke. The choke, whether selectable or fixed within a barrel, effectively reduces the diameter of the end of the barrel, forcing the shot even closer together as it leaves the barrel, thereby increasing the effective range. The tighter the choke, the narrower the end of the barrel. Consequently, the effective range of a shotgun is increased with a tighter choke, as the shot column is held tighter over longer ranges. Hunters or target shooters can install several types of chokes, on guns having selectable chokes, depending on the range at which their intended targets will be located. For fixed choke shotguns, different shotguns or barrels are often selected for the intended hunting application at hand. From tightest to loosest, the various choke sizes are: full choke, improved modified, modified, improved cylinder, skeet, and cylinder bore.
A hunter who intends to hunt an animal such as rabbit or grouse knows that the animal will be encountered at a close range—usually within —and will be moving very quickly. So, an ideal choke would be a cylinder bore (the loosest) as the hunter wants the shot to spread out as quickly as possible. If this hunter were using a full choke (the tightest) at , the shot would be very close together and cause an unnecessarily large amount of damage to the rabbit, or, alternatively, a complete miss of the rabbit. This would waste virtually all of the meat for a hit, as the little amount of meat remaining would be overly-laden with shot and rendered inedible. By using a cylinder bore, this hunter would maximize the likelihood of a kill, and maximize the amount of edible meat. Contrarily, a hunter who intends to hunt geese knows that a goose will likely be approximately away, so that hunter would want to delay the spread of the shot as much as possible by using a full choke. By using a full choke for targets that are farther away, the shooter again maximizes the likelihood of a kill, and maximizes the amount of edible meat. This also guarantees a swift and humane kill as the target would be hit with enough shot to kill quickly instead of only wounding the animal.
For older shotguns having only one fixed choke, intended primarily for equally likely use against rabbits, squirrels, quail, doves, and pheasant, an often-chosen choke is the improved cylinder, in a barrel, making the shotgun suitable for use as a general all-round hunting shotgun, without having excess weight. Shotguns having fixed chokes intended for geese, in contrast, are often found with full choke barrels, in longer lengths, and are much heavier, being intended for fixed use within a blind against distant targets. Defensive shotguns with fixed chokes generally have a cylinder bore choke. Likewise, shotguns intended primarily for use with slugs invariably also are found with a choke that is a cylinder bore.
Dram equivalence.
"Dram" equivalence is sometimes still used as a measure of the powder charge power in a shotgun shell. Today, it is an anachronistic equivalence that represents the equivalent power of a shotgun shell containing this equivalent amount of black-powder measured in drams avoirdupois. A dram in the avoirdupois system is the mass of  pound or  ounce or 27.3 grains. The reasoning behind this archaic equivalence is that when smokeless powder first came out, some method of establishing an equivalence with common shotgun shell loads was needed in order to sell a box of shotgun shells. For example, a shotgun shell containing a 3 or 3 1/2 dram load of black-powder was a common hunting field load, and a heavy full power load would have contained about a 4 to 4-1/2 dram load, whereas a shotgun shell containing only a 2 dram load of black-powder was a common target practice load. A hunter looking for a field or full power load familiar with black-powder shotgun loads would have known exactly what the equivalence of the shotgun shells would have been in the newly introduced smokeless powder. Today, however, this represents a poorly understood equivalence of the powder charge power in a shotgun shell. To further complicate matters, "dram" equivalence was only defined for 12 gauge shotgun shells, and only for lead shot, although it has often been used for describing other gauges of shells, and even steel shot loaded shells. Furthermore, "dram" equivalence only came around about 15 years after smokeless powder had been introduced, long after the need for an equivalence had started to fade, and actual black-powder loaded shotshells had largely vanished. In practice, "dram" equivalence today most commonly equates just to a velocity rating equivalence in fps (feet-per-second), while assuming lead shot.
A secondary impact of this equivalence was that common shotgun shells needed to stay the same size, physically, e.g., 2-1/2 or 2-3/4-inch shells, in order to be used in pre-existing shotguns when smokeless powder started being used to load shotgun shells in the place of black-powder. As smokeless powder did not have to be loaded in the same volume as black-powder to achieve the same power, being more powerful, the volumes of wads had to increase, to fill the shotgun shell enough to permit proper crimps still to be made. Initially, this meant that increased numbers of over powder card wads had to be stacked to achieve the same stack-up length. Eventually, this also led to the introduction of one-piece plastic wads in the late 1950s through the early 1960s, to add additional wad volumes, in order to maintain the same overall shotgun shell length.
Dram equivalence has no bearing on the reloading of shotgun shells with smokeless powder; loading a shotgun shell with an equivalent dram weight of smokeless powder would cause a shotgun to explode. It only has an equivalence in the reloading of shotgun shells with black powder.


Foreign Secretary (Pakistan)


Emanuel Ellul

Emanuel Ellul is a Maltese economist. He was Governor of the Central Bank of Malta from 1997 to 1999.
Ellul started as an apprentice in the Malta Dockyard in 1951, where he also worked as tradesman. Awarded a scholarship, in October 1961 he studied politics and economics at Oxford University, and then worked for one year at the research department of the Trades Union Congress.
Upon his return to Malta, he was recruited by the General Workers' Union. He then served for 30 years at the Central Bank of Malta, up to being appointed Governor by Prime Minister Alfred Sant as of October 1997 - a role which he held for two years before retiring.
In 2000 Ellul joined the cabinet of Eddie Fenech Adami as adviser to the Minister of Finance, and chairman of the Government Privatisation Unit.
He managed some of the most important privatisations, including Maltacom (now Go), the lotteries department (now Maltco) and the shipyards (now Palumbo). He resigned from the role in June 2013, reportedly due to clashes with Economics Minister Chris Cardona over the independence of the unit.
Ellul is considered by many as one of the best economic minds on the island.
Along his career, Ellul was also director at a series of companies including Middlesea Valletta Life, the Malta Drydocks Corporation (in 2000) and Governor at MCAST. In 2013 he was appointed consultant to Petromal Company Limited and Enemed Co Ltd and, in 2015, was appointed a member of the Resolution Committee of the Malta Financial Services Authority.


Anne Gravoin

Anne Gravoin (born Montauban 4 November 1965) is a French concert violinist and music entrepreneur.
In 2010 she married Manuel Valls, who served between 2014 and 2016 as Prime Minister of France. However, In April 2018 Valls announced their separation.
Life and career.
Gravoin was born in south-west France at Montauban where two generations earlier Dr Corenfeld, her maternal grandfather, had settled after completing his medical studies at Strasbourg. He had emigrated from the Soviet part of Moldavia, then the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, in order to escape the predations of Stalinism. Anne Gravoin's mother became an English teacher. Her father, whose family came from Bourbonnais in the centre of the country, was a professional violinist with the Radio France Philharmonic Orchestra. Six months after her birth the family relocated from Montauban to the Paris suburb of La Varenne-Saint-Hilaire.
She studied at the Conservatoire de Paris where her teachers included Gérard Poulet, Dominique Hoppenot, and Myriam Solovieff. She won a first prize as a violinist and for her participation in chamber music.
In 1984 she started working with musician-singers such as Laurent Voulzy, Marc Lavoine and Michel Jonasz. She was the violin soloist with the "Archets Européens" ("European Bows") in 1989, with the Tours based Orchestra of Central France between 2001 and 2004, and of the "Orchestra of the Paris Conservatoire prize-winners" in 2004. She has been a member of the Menuhin Foundation since 1986. In 2007 she founded a string quartet, the "Travelling Quartet".
In 2000 Gravoin established "Régie Orchestre" (RO), one of the three largest organisations of its kind in the Paris region, and which works with musicians, mostly on short term contracts, to provide and coordinate orchestral support and collaboration, both domestically and outside France. Each year more than 400 musicians are employed. Major projects include orchestral backing for Johnny Hallyday tours, and on recording albums with artists such as Françoise Hardy, Nolwenn Leroy, Alain Souchon and Laurent Voulzy. The RO has also been collaborating on various film scores with composers such as Tôn-Thât Tiêt et Vladimir Cosma.
In 2013 the "Régie Orchestre" joined the team of musicians for the high-profile television programme "" presented by . In 2013 and 2014 it participated in the lengthy "Sur le chemin" ("On the road") tour of Emmanuel Moire, which took in more than 70 concerts across France, Switzerland and Belgium.
Personal life.
A daughter from her first marriage, Juliette, was born in 1992.


Anna Maria Calhoun Clemson

Anna Maria Calhoun Clemson (February 13, 1817 September 22, 1875) was the daughter of John C. Calhoun and Floride Calhoun (née Colhoun), and the wife of Thomas Green Clemson, the founder of Clemson University.
Early life.
Calhoun was born on the Bath plantation, in the Abbeville District of South Carolina, in February 1817. She was one of seven children. She adored her father, politician John C. Calhoun, and remained close to him until his death in 1850. Her early education was through her surroundings and family, at a day school in Edgefield, South Carolina, then later at South Carolina Female Collegiate Institute, in central South Carolina. Calhoun stayed at the South Carolina Female Collegiate Institute for about a year before she returned to her family's home at Fort Hill. When she returned, Calhoun taught her younger brothers how to read and write.
Marriage and children.
In 1835, Calhoun moved to Washington, D.C., to be a copyist for her father, with the notion that she would never marry. In early spring 1838, Calhoun met Thomas Green Clemson. The couple married on November 13, 1838, in Fort Hill, South Carolina. Clemson's job called him to Washington and the newlyweds moved to Philadelphia. The couple would have three children: a son, John Calhoun (born 1841) and Floride Elizabeth (born 1842). A third child, daughter Cornelia (known as “Nina”) was born in 1855. She died in infancy.
Shortly after the birth of their first two children, Clemson accepted a position in Belgium. The Clemson family moved over-seas for the time. As Clemson became a high-ranking diplomat to the Kingdom of Belgium, Calhoun quickly became homesick and wished to return to her father. She had never been separated from him for an extended period of time. Calhoun had a unique fascination with her father. Before her marriage to Clemson, Calhoun said to a house maid, “You who know my idolatry, for my father, can sympathize with my feelings.” (Aug. 2, 1838) The Clemson family remained overseas from 1844 to 1852 and returned home to buy one hundred acres in Maryland, four miles from Washington, DC. The couple named their new home in Maryland "The Home”.
Civil War years.
After their return to the United States, Clemson served in the Civil War, leaving Calhoun to care for the children and the farm. Calhoun's mother still lived alone in Pendleton, South Carolina, during the Civil War. During this time, Calhoun needed to travel back and forth from "The Home" to her mother, meaning she was crossing hostile lines. Calhoun and Floride packed several possessions and temporarily moved into a five-room home outside of Beltsville, Maryland, which was near Baltimore. Although she was closer to her mother, Calhoun was concerned about the Clemson family's possessions that remained in her family's estate. Calhoun and Floride decided to pack up their remaining possessions and to mail them to relatives, hoping that their items would make it through the war. Calhoun never received trouble from either the North or the South while crossing borderlines to see her mother, until 1865 when she moved back to Pendleton.
Later years and death.
In 1871, Thomas Clemson retired and he and Calhoun moved to Fort Hill, South Carolina. That same year, both of the couple's children died within 17 days of one another. Daughter Floride, who had married Gideon Lee Jr., the son of politician Gideon Lee, died on July 28, 1871, after a long illness. Son John died of injuries he suffered from a train wreck on August 10 at the age of 29.
On September 22, 1875, Calhoun died of a heart attack at Fort Hill. She was buried with her family in the Saint Philips Episcopal Church Cemetery in Pendleton, South Carolina.
Legacy.
In the years preceding Anna Calhoun Clemson's death, she and her husband discussed starting an agricultural college in upstate South Carolina. They decided that the college would be situated in Fort Hill and that John C. Calhoun's house would remain on the land. The house still stands at the center of Clemson University's campus. Anna's largest effort to help start the college before her death was the creation of a committee to gather support around the state. One of the main points of the committee was to spread the word that the college was to be built in the legacy of her father, John C. Calhoun, who did much for the state of South Carolina. In honor of his wife, Thomas Green Clemson founded Clemson Agricultural College 1889 and opened in July 1893, with a student body of 446 men.


Reactions to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting

The December 14, 2012, Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting—in which the perpetrator shot and killed his mother, 20 school children, 6 teachers, and then himself—received international attention. Governments and world leaders offered their condolences, while tributes and vigils by people were made in honor of the victims. U.S. President Barack Obama gave a televised address on the day of the shootings, saying, "We're going to have to come together and take meaningful action to prevent more tragedies like this, regardless of the politics." Obama paused twice during the address to compose himself and wipe away tears, and expressed "enormous sympathy for families that are affected". He also ordered flags to be flown at half-staff at the White House and other U.S. federal government facilities worldwide in respect for the victims. Three days after the massacre, 151,000 Americans had signed up at the Obama administration's We the People petitioning website in support of a renewed national debate on gun control. Obama attended and spoke at an interfaith vigil on December 16 in Newtown, Connecticut.
International reactions.
Leading media and organizations.
There were tributes and vigils by people in Moscow, Bangalore, Karachi and in Monrovia, Liberia. An organized candlelight vigil was held in India and a makeshift memorial set up at the U.S. embassy in Moscow. Media in the United Kingdom compared the shooting to the Dunblane school massacre, another school shooting that occurred in 1996, in which 16 children and one teacher were killed before the shooter, 43-year-old Thomas Hamilton, committed suicide. In the Marshall Islands students of Majuro Cooperative school dressed in the green and white colors of Sandy Hook Elementary and presented a condolence card to the American ambassador.
Political.
In the Canadian province of Ontario, then-Premier Dalton McGuinty announced a "locked door" policy, as part of a Safe Welcome Program at all elementary schools as of September 2013. About 2,450 elementary schools applied for and received funding from the province to install front-door buzzers and security cameras. Together with the 850 schools that installed them with provincial funding in 2005, the new equipment means about 80 per cent of Ontario's 4,000 elementary schools will have secured front doors. In the Greater Toronto Area, 1,287 schools received funding through their 12 school boards such as the Toronto Catholic District School Board, Toronto District School Board, Durham Catholic District School Board, and York Region District School Board.
Every Ontario school board is required to have a local police-school board protocol, which includes a lockdown plan that is practised at least twice each year. Professional development and training has been made available to school and board staff, along with their local police services, to put the protocol in place at both the elementary and secondary levels.
U.S. reactions.
Leading media and organizations.
Film premieres of "Jack Reacher" and "Django Unchained" were delayed following the shooting, while new episodes of Fox's "Family Guy" and "American Dad!" and Syfy's "Haven" were postponed.
On December 16, 2012, two days after the shooting, Showtime put up a warning before the start of both the season finales of both Homeland (Season 2) and Dexter (Season 7), that read: "In Light of the tragedy that has occurred in Connecticut, the following program contains images that may be disturbing. Viewer discretion is advised."
The day after the shooting, "Saturday Night Live" paid tribute to the Sandy Hook victims with a performance of "Silent Night", sung by the New York City Children's Chorus, in place of its usual comedic cold open. Two days later "The Voice" made a similar tribute at the opening of its first night of live finals. Coaches, judges and contestants performed Leonard Cohen's "Hallelujah", surrounded by candles, each holding the name of a victim, while "The X Factor" paid tribute to the victims by having the finalists of season two perform Michael Jackson's "You Are Not Alone" along with a children's choir as the names of the victims appeared on the screen behind with a message "You Are Not Alone. We Are Here With You" appearing as the song ended.
On December 16, 2012, every NFL team held a moment of silence in honor of the Sandy Hook victims and lowered their flags to half-mast. Many teams put Newtown or "SHES" decals on their helmets. The New England Patriots launched 26 flares into the night sky. The Patriots also took the muskets away from its "End Zone Militia"—Revolutionary War re-enactors who celebrate every score with gunfire. The team felt the memory of the shooting only 150 miles away was too fresh in people's minds for the sight of firearms and the smell of gunpowder. Victor Cruz of the New York Giants was the idol of one of the child victims, Jack Pinto. After learning that Jack's family planned to bury their son in a Victor Cruz jersey, Cruz called the family and wrote "RIP Jack Pinto" and "Jack Pinto my hero" on his shoes during the December 16 game against the Atlanta Falcons. He later travelled to Newtown and visited with the Pinto family. The Sandy Hook Elementary Choir was invited to sing "America the Beautiful" with Jennifer Hudson at the pre-game ceremonies at Super Bowl XLVII on February 3, 2013.
On December 16, 2012, just prior to the start of WWE's event, the audience was prompted to rise as the bell was tolled 26 times in a gesture of respect to the 26 victims of the tragedy, their families, and everyone affected by the events.
On February 2, 2013, 150 children from Sandy Hook Elementary School, their families and teachers were invited by the New York Knicks to attend their game against the Sacramento Kings.
Former Arizona Rep. Gabby Giffords traveled to Newtown and met with the families of the victims of the shooting on January 4, 2013.
The Boston Bruins hockey team scheduled a series of events in the town on February 18, 2013. They presented a street hockey clinic, a clinic with the high school's hockey team and will hold an autograph session with children as well as a meeting with first responders who will be given autographed and framed hockey jerseys.
NASCAR Sprint Cup Series driver Michael Waltrip traveled to Newtown to meet with the victims' families and the community. In the 2013 Daytona 500, he drove the #26 car for Swan Racing honoring the 26 victims, with a decal providing a number viewers could text donations to.
Songs with lyrical references to guns, bullets, and/or premature death were removed from some U.S. radio stations, including "Die Young" by Kesha, "Titanium" by David Guetta, and "Pumped Up Kicks" by Foster The People.
On Opening Day April 1, 2013 at Yankee Stadium, the New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox honored Newtown, Connecticut. The ceremonies featured a pre-game joint honor guards of police and firefighters from Newtown and a moment of silence as the Sandy Hook victims' names appeared on the video board. Players from both teams wore a ribbon on their uniforms. That same ribbon was to be painted on the field in front of both dugouts. Bud Selig, the Commissioner of Baseball, requested that all the other major league teams also wear the ribbon.
The other New York team, the Mets, also paid tribute to the victims by wearing commemorative patches on their uniforms.
Gun control.
The Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting prompted renewed debate about gun control in the United States, including proposals for making the background-check system universal, and for new federal and state legislation banning the sale and manufacture of certain types of semi-automatic firearms and magazines with more than ten rounds of ammunition.
Within hours of the shooting, a We the People petition was started asking the White House to "immediately address the issue of gun control through the introduction of legislation in Congress," and the gun control advocacy group the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence reported that an avalanche of donations in the hours after the shooting caused its website to crash. Five days later, President Obama announced that he would make gun control a "central issue" of his second term, and he created a gun violence task force, to be headed by Vice President Joe Biden. On January 16, 2013, Obama signed 23 executive orders and proposed 12 congressional actions regarding gun control. His proposals included universal background checks on firearms purchases, an assault weapons ban, and limiting magazine capacity to 10 cartridges.
On December 21, 2012, the National Rifle Association's Wayne LaPierre said gun-free school zones attract killers and that another gun ban would not protect Americans. He called on Congress to appropriate funds to hire armed police officers for every American school and announced that the NRA would create the National School Shield Emergency Response Program to help. After LaPierre's press conference, the Brady Campaign asked for donations to support its gun control advocacy and asked NRA members "who believe like we do, that we are better than this" to join its campaign. On January 8, 2013, former Congresswoman Gabby Giffords, who was shot and injured in a 2011 shooting in Tucson, launched Americans for Responsible Solutions to raise money for gun control efforts to counter the influence of powerful pro-gun groups such as the NRA.
On January 16, 2013, New York became the first U.S. state to act after the shooting when it enacted the Secure Ammunition and Firearms Enforcement (SAFE) Act. On April 4, 2013, Connecticut and Maryland both enacted new restrictions to their existing gun laws. Ten other states had passed laws that relaxed gun restrictions.
Legislation introduced in the first session of 113th Congress included the Assault Weapons Ban of 2013 (AWB 2013) and the Manchin-Toomey Amendment to expand background checks on gun purchases. Both were defeated in the Senate on April 17, 2013.
Violent video games.
During the investigation into Adam Lanza's background, officials found that Lanza had possessed "thousands of dollars' worth of violent video games". Though the link between Lanza's video game habits and the shooting was not yet clear from the investigators, the findings reopened debate on the hypothesized connection between violent video games and real-world crime.
Senator Jay Rockefeller called for regulation of the video game industry shortly after the shootings. In mid-January 2013, representatives from the video game industry met with Vice President Biden on the subject of violent video games and their regulation. In late January, Representative Jim Matheson reintroduced legislation that he had been attempting to pass that would require stores to post notices about video game ratings and restrict sales of mature and adult games to children.
The Entertainment Software Association published a statement offering its condolences to the families and stating "The search for meaningful solutions must consider the broad range of actual factors that may have contributed to this tragedy. Any such study needs to include the years of extensive research that has shown no connection between entertainment and real-life violence." The ESA retained professional lobbyist firm Brown Rudnick Government Relations Strategies, run by former Connecticut House Speaker Thomas D. Ritter to represent their interests with the state legislature.
Investor reaction.
Private equity fund Cerberus Capital Management, the owner of firearms manufacturer Remington Outdoor Company, the manufacturer of the Bushmaster brand AR-15 style rifle used in the shooting, announced its intention to sell Remington. In 2015, unable to find a buyer for Remington, Cerberus notified investors it would permit them to cash out. In 2018, Cerberus turned over Remington to bankruptcy court in Delaware.
Days after the shooting, California State Treasurer Bill Lockyer ordering an accounting of investments in gun manufacturers from California's teacher pension system California State Teachers' Retirement System (CalSTRS) and public employee pension system California Public Employees' Retirement System (CalPERS). On January 9, 2013, the Teachers' Retirement Board Investment Committee directed staff to "begin the process of divestment from firearm companies that manufacture weapons that are illegal in California." In 2013, CalSTRS divested from Sturm Ruger and the American Outdoor Brands Corporation (formerly Smith & Wesson). CalSTRS divested from Remington; completion of the divestment from Remington was delayed until 2015 due to contractual obligations regarding CalSTRS's investment in a private equity pool managed by Cerberus.


Shyamala Gopinath

Shyamala Gopinath (born 20 June 1949) is Chairperson of HDFC Bank, India's largest lender by market capitalization. Ms. Gopinath is a former deputy governor of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), a position she served for seven years.
She was actively involved in managing India's balance of payments crisis in 1991 that led to the first round of economic liberalization. Making the returns of small saving schemes market-linked was one of most significant recommendations made by the Shyamala Gopinath panel, constituted on July 8, 2010. Finally, the Government of India in February 2016 notified that instead of annual resetting of interest rates for the next financial year, the interest rates from now on will be reset every quarter based on the G-Sec yields of the previous quarter. She had earlier assisted the second Narasimhan committee on banking sector reforms.
A Certified Associate of the Indian Institute of Banking and Finance (1974), she has completed master's degree in commerce from University of Mysore (1980).
Early life.
During her school days, Shyamala Gopinath wanted to study Mathematics and become a Teacher. However, her ambitions changed after selecting Commerce stream. Incidentally, she had opted Commerce as a subject to avoid studying History. She was among the few women students to post-graduate in Commerce from University of Mysore in 1970. After her post-graduate degree, she had decided on a career in Commercial Banking and joined Bank of Baroda but at her father's insistence, she appeared for RBI competitive examination and even topped it.
Career in RBI.
Shyamala Gopinath joined the RBI as an officer in April 1972. During 1972-1996, she rose through the ranks to become Chief General Manager in 1996, a position she held until 2001. Starting June 2001, she was on deputation as Senior Financial Expert at IMF where she worked in the then Monetary Affairs and Exchange Department - Financial Institutions Division. She was responsible for the Accompanying Document to the Guidelines on Foreign exchange reserve management detailing country practices.
During July 2003 to September 2004, as Executive Director of RBI, she was responsible for the Bank Regulation and Supervision department till February 2004, among others. She was elevated to the position of Deputy Governor in September 2004. During her tenure, she was involved in reforms in forex regulations and market development. She served in this position until June 2011 during which she handled various areas ranging from financial stability, debt management, and foreign exchange reserves management, to management of capital account, financial market regulation, supervision of non-banking finance companies, payments and settlements systems, RBI accounts and the RBI balance sheet.
Legacy.
Gopinath was known to be a low profile and compassionate Deputy Governor of the RBI. Liquidity management and regulation was her forte and is known to have handled crises including the Kargil conflict of 1999, managing liquidity during the India Millennium Bond redemption in 2000, and the bankruptcy of Lehman brothers in 2008.
Role as HDFC Bank Chairperson.
With effect from January 2, 2015, Shyamala Gopinath assumed charge as part-time Non-Executive Chairperson of HDFC Bank for a period of 3 years. She is a member of Audit Committee (Chairperson), Nomination and Remuneration Committee, Risk Policy and Monitoring Committee, Customer Service Committee (Chairperson) and Fraud Monitoring Committee (Chairperson) at the bank.
Speeches.
Shyamala Gopinath has given speeches in international and domestic fora. The topics range from approach to capital account management, centrality of banks in the financial system, macro prudential approach to regulation, over-the-counter derivative markets in India, pursuit of complete markets, changing dynamics of legal risks in the financial sector, technology in banks, retail payment systems and lessons for financial policy-making, among others.
Interests.
Gopinath has often expressed her keen interest in Carnatic Music, though she never aspired to be a singer.


Jinggoy Estrada

Jose Pimentel Ejercito Jr. (born February 17, 1963), better known as Jinggoy Estrada (), is a Filipino politician, actor & film producer. He is the son of former Philippine President Joseph Estrada. Before serving two terms as a Senator of the Philippines from 2004 to 2016, he served as Vice Mayor of San Juan in 1988. After one term, he was immediately elected as the town's mayor in 1992 and served until 2001. He became acting Senate President of the Philippines in 2013.
In 2014, he was indicted and charged for allegedly "stealing" from his discretionary funds in a scandal known as the Priority Development Assistance Fund scam. He was jailed until 2016 and was acquitted after posting bail while trial is still ongoing for the multiple charges against him, he still sought reelection to the Senate in the 2019 general election, but he lost placing 15th overall.
Beyond politics, Estrada also participated in acting; he notably won the "Best Actor Award" in the 2007 Metro Manila Film Festival for the film "Katas ng Saudi".
Early life and education.
Estrada was born on February 17, 1963. He finished his primary and secondary education at the Ateneo de Manila University and earned a degree in A.B. Economics from the University of the Philippines Manila. He took up Bachelor of Laws for four years at the Lyceum of the Philippines University while serving as Vice Mayor of the then Municipality of San Juan at the age of 25. He was also bestowed an honorary Doctorate in Humanities in 2007 by the Laguna State Polytechnic University.
Political career.
Mayor of San Juan (1992 - 2001).
In 1992, he became the youngest ever elected-local chief executive in the entire nation at age 29. For three (3) consecutive terms, he administered the economic, social, political, and cultural affairs of the Municipality of San Juan beyond everyone's expectations. He spearheaded various projects and programs for the improvement of the said municipality in the form of - construction of modernized Barangay Halls with Day Care Centers in all Barangays, repair and renovation of the now San Juan National High School, and other public elementary schools, recreation centers like gymnasiums, basketball courts and play grounds and the creation of different livelihood centers, improvement and replacement of drainages, concreting of municipal roads and the construction of a four-storey San Juan Medical Center and the San Juan Municipal Gymnasium. During his incumbency, San Juan gained the reputation of being one of the most progressive municipalities and the Most Peaceful Municipality in the Philippines.
During his final tenure as Mayor, he was sworn into office as the National President of the League of Municipalities of the Philippines (LMP) from 1998 to 2001.
Senator (2004 - 2016).
In 2004, he was elected as senator. During his first term, he introduced at least 617 bills and resolutions and steered the passage of at least 16 bills either as principal sponsor or principal author. Jinggoy is hailed as the second most productive and prolific senator, next to Sen. Miriam Defensor-Santiago, who filed the most number of bills and resolutions in the Senate.
On July 23, 2007, Estrada was elected as Senate president pro tempore.
On August 15, 2007, the Supreme Court voted 13-0 to uphold the Sandiganbayan's decision to grant his bail in connection with his plunder case before the graft court. His father, former president Joseph "Erap" Estrada was the main accused in that plunder case, and was subsequently convicted. However, Erap was immediately pardoned by then Pres. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. On September 11, 2007 Estrada introduced Senate Bill 1556, proposing to make ROTC mandatory for all college students.
Jinggoy was acquitted in the plunder charge.
In 2010, he was reelected as senator, finishing in the 2nd place. During the opening of the 15th Congress on July 26, 2010, he was reelected as Senate president pro tempore.
During his stint in the Senate, he had been consistently hailed as one of the very few senators who scored perfect attendance, with no absence or late during the chamber's plenary sessions.
Involvement in the pork barrel scam.
Estrada is presently accused of another plunder charge at the Ombudsman relating to Janet Lim Napoles' pork barrel scam involving of the people's money. Two other senators—Juan Ponce Enrile and Bong Revilla—as well as more than two dozens individuals are charged with him. Estrada is accused of pocketing PHP183 million in kickbacks from fake projects.
A report by the Commission on Audit of the Philippines was released on August 16, 2013, showing alleged misuse of funds by lawmakers who allegedly endorsed part of their congressional allocations to bogus nongovernmental organizations. The accusations were the subject of a Senate probe that began later that month.
The Department of Justice of the Philippines filed its case against Estrada, Enrile and Revilla before the Ombudsman on September 16, 2013.
On June 23, 2014, Estrada was arrested and detained at the Philippine National Police Custodial Center in Camp Crame, Quezon City. The Philippine Senate on September 2, 2014 suspended Estrada from his Senate post for 90 days.
On September 16, 2017, Sandiganbayan anti-graft court released its resolution granting bail to Estrada.
On February 22, 2019, Estrada filed a request for a demurrer before the Sandiganbayan Fifth Division, asking the court to deviate from established procedure and to allow him to challenge the sufficiency of evidence midway into the trial. In March 2019, the court granted Estrada and his co-accused 10 days to file their respective demurrers; prosecution was also granted 10 days to respond.
Batas Kasambahay.
Estrada is the principal author of the Kasambahay Law, or the law promoting the interests and welfare of the domestic workers in the Philippines. Republic Act 10361, or simply the "Kasambahay Law", prescribed standards, privileges and rights of the domestic workers.
Hong Kong Airport incident.
In August 2010, Estrada claimed that while traveling to Hong Kong, he experienced a backlash of the emotions surrounding the death of 8 Chinese nationals from Hong Kong during the 2010 Manila hostage crisis. According to him, as he passed through the immigration desk in Hong Kong, officers threw back his passport at him after checking it.
Estrada said the officer may not have known who he was because he used a "regular passport" for personal travel. He also said that he "understood the pain being felt by many Hong Kong nationals".
According to "Apple Daily", the Hong Kong immigration department recorded that Estrada visited Hong Kong with a diplomat passport, and that from an alleged video surveillance record, he and three other Filipinos were accompanied by staff from the Philippine embassy and had arranged to go through the privileged passage for diplomats. The immigration officer handed back the passport to the Philippines embassy staff, not to Estrada.
Personal life.
In 1989, Estrada married Ma. Presentacion "Precy" Vitug with whom he has four children, namely, Janella Marie, Joseph Luis Manuel, Julian Emilio and Julienne. Janella previously served as Vice Mayor of San Juan from 2016 to 2019.
On May 3, 2020, the former senator was arrested over alleged violations of the COVID-19 community quarantine rules. He said that he had been distributing relief goods to residents of the city when policemen in two patrol cars arrived at the scene and invited him to the local precinct.


Basil William Douglas

Basil William Douglas, Lord Daer FRSE (1763-1794) was a short-lived influential Scottish nobleman of the 18th century. He was a politician and agricultural improver. He was an advocate for parliamentary reform and supporter of the "Friends of the People". He is one of the small group of people whom Robert Burns wrote poetry upon.
Life.
He was the second son of Helen Hamilton and Dunbar Douglas, 4th Earl of Selkirk. Despite the death of his parents first son in infancy, Douglas did not become Earl as he died before his father. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh and while studying lodged with Dugald Stewart.
In 1785 (soon after its inception in 1783) he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. His proposers were Dugald Stewart, James Gregory, and John Walker.
In 1786 he travelled with Dugald Stewart to his country house at Catrine in Ayrshire, and there, on 23 October, he was introduced to Robert Burns, Burns' first meeting with nobility. Burns wrote of this event:
"Nae honest, worthy man need care,To meet with noble, youthful DaerFor he but meets a brother"
He died in Ivybridge, Devon, and is buried in Exeter Cathedral. On his death the title of Lord Daer passed to his younger brother Thomas Douglas who soon became the 5th Earl of Selkirk.
Artistic recognition.
Lord Daer was portrayed in his meeting with Robert Burns.


Bonde Palace

The Bonde Palace () is a palace in Gamla stan, the old town in central Stockholm, Sweden. Located between the House of Knights ("Riddarhuset") and the Chancellery House ("Kanslihuset"), it is, arguably, the most prominent monument of the era of the Swedish Empire (1611–1718), originally design by Nicodemus Tessin the Elder and Jean De la Vallée in 1662-1667 as the private residence of the Lord High Treasurer Gustaf Bonde (1620–1667) it still bears his name, while it accommodated the Stockholm Court House from the 18th century and since 1949 houses the Swedish Supreme Court. On the south side of the building is the street Myntgatan and the square Riddarhustorget, while the alleys Riddarhusgränd and Rådhusgränd are passing on its western and eastern sides.
History.
The original design by Simon de la Vallée and Tessin the Younger, based on French Baroque and Renaissance prototypes, was H-shaped in plan, the planned two southern wings flanking a main court, while the northern wings surrounded a small Baroque garden. The central building was covered by a tall steep-pitched, copper-dressed roof surrounded by the cupolas of the corner pavilions, while the façades were decorated with Ionic pilasters, festoons and portraits of Roman Emperors. The Reduction in 1680 (e.g. the Crown recapturing lands earlier granted the nobility) dramatically reduced the financial power of the Bonde dynasty, and therefore, following the devastating fire of the royal palace Tre Kronor in 1697, the Royal Library and the Svea Court of Appeal were lodged in the Bonde palace. The original elaborated roof was destroyed in a fire in 1710, the original cupolas, however, are still preserved on the northern wings. In 1730, the palace was finally bought by the city in order to relocate the Town Hall from the central square Stortorget, thus definitively ending the buildings history as a private palace.
The reconstruction following another fire in 1753 produced much of the present shape of the building; the design of Johan Eberhard Carlberg resulting in the construction of the southern wings to the original plans, the addition of a new top floor, and an up-to-date low hipped roof; the present interior still reflecting the taste of the mid 18th century. As a City Hall, the palace commenced its central role in Swedish legal history by witnessing several dramatic historical events, including the public flogging of the regicide Jacob Johan Anckarström on April 27, 1792, and the mob beating, kicking, and trampling the statesman Axel von Fersen the Younger to death in 1810.
As the bridge Vasabron, extending the alley Riddarhusgränd between the Bonde Palace and the House Knights, was constructed in the 1870s, proposals were made to adapt the width of the narrow alley to that of the new bridge, plans effectively suggesting the demolition of the palace. The plans were, however, never carried through, and one of the bridge's roadways is forced to make a detour around the still intact palace. During the 19th century, the building gradually failed to accommodate the court house, and as a new court house was finally built on Kungsholmen in 1915, the palace was to accommodate various municipal offices instead, the gradual decay that followed resulting in a second proposed demolition in 1920. The building was however restored in 1925, using the original white colour of the façades.
In 1948, the building was transferred from the city to the state. A comprehensive restoration led by the architect Ivar Tengbom, including the reinforcement of the foundations, the replacement of the windows, and interior lightwells being used for installations, transformed the decayed structure to its present classical shape; the updated interiors designed by Carl Malmsten, however, making the interior connote the 1940s. Additional restorations in 1986 and 2003–2004, have carefully focused on the buildings origin from the 17th and 18th century using original materials and craftsmanship as far as possible, while adapting the offices of the Supreme Court to modern requirements regarding accessibility and security. The building is today classified as a historical monument of national interest administered and maintained by the Swedish National Property Board ("Statens Fastighetsverk").


Zvhil (Hasidic dynasty)

Zvhil is the name of a Hasidic dynasty which originated with Rabbi Moshe of Zvhil, the son of Rabbi Yechiel Michl, the Magid (Preacher) of Zlotshev. He was also the grandson of Rabbi Yitzchok of Drubitsh and Rabbi Aharon of Karlin. As in several inter-related Hasidic dynasties, family tradition held that Rabbi Moshe was a descendant of King David.
Rabbi Moshe died in 1831 and was succeeded by his son Rabbi Yechiel Michl Goldman of Zvhil. The last rebbe to reside in Zvhil was Grand Rabbi Yaakov Yisroel. Rabbi Yaakov Yisroel was also the Tsar-appointed Chief Rabbi of Ukraine.
The town of Zvhil () is located in Volhynia, in present-day Ukraine. Today it is known as Novohrad-Volynskyi. The Jewish version of the name, Zvhil, instead of Zvyahel can be attributed to the similarity between Zvhil and "Zvul" (one of the holy names for the ancient Jewish Temple in Hebrew, pronounced 'Zvil' by Ukrainian Jews).
Lineage.
Lineage The Zvhill-Monsey Dynasty


Rolf Kullberg

Rolf Evert Kullberg (3 October 1930 in Pojo, Finland – 3 September 2007 in Helsinki) was the Governor of the Bank of Finland from 1983 to 1992. He was a member of the board since 1974. Before that he worked in the ministry of finance and in a private bank.
At the end of his term as a governor Finland experienced its worst recession. Before the recession there was a long period of growth and it was easy to borrow money. Kullberg was one of the first persons to publicly warn about the possible risks. He warned that people and companies are borrowing more than they can afford.
During those hard times the main goal of the Bank of Finland was to maintain stable currency rate. Kullberg tied the currency rate of Finland's markka to ECU currency in 1991 in order to gain more stability. But finally Finland was forced to devaluate and eventually let its currency float in 1992. This was a serious setback to Kullberg and he wanted to resign from his post. However, the president of Finland Mauno Koivisto asked him to continue. In the April 1992 he made an early retirement after publicly disagreeing with the prime minister Esko Aho about financial politics.
He died 3 September 2007 at the age of 76 after a serious illness.


Palestinians in Lebanon

Palestinians in Lebanon include the Palestinian refugees who fled to Lebanon during the 1948 Palestine War, their descendants, as well as the Palestinian militias which resided in Lebanon in the 1970s and 1980s, and Palestinian nationals who have recently moved to Lebanon from countries experiencing conflict, such as Syria. Many Palestinians in Lebanon are refugees and their descendants, who have been barred from naturalisation, retaining stateless refugee status. However, some Palestinians, mostly Christian women and Shias, have received Lebanese citizenship either through marriage with Lebanese nationals or by other means.
In 2017, a census by the Lebanese government counted 174,000 Palestinians in Lebanon. Estimates of the number of Palestinians in Lebanon ranged from 260,000 to 400,000 in 2011.Human Rights Watch estimated 300,000 as of 2011. The UNRWA counted 475,075 registered Palestine refugees as of 31 December 2019. As part of its 2021 crisis response, UNRWA, estimated 180,000 Palestinian residents of Lebanon plus 27,700 Palestinian residents of Syria.
Most Palestinians in Lebanon do not have Lebanese citizenship and therefore do not have Lebanese identity cards, which would entitle them to government services, such as health and education. They are also legally barred from owning property or entering a list of desirable occupations. Employment requires a government-issued work permit, and, according to the "New York Times", although "Lebanon hands out and renews hundreds of thousands of work permits every year to people from Africa, Asia and other Arab countries... until now, only a handful have been given" to Palestinians. Palestinians in Lebanon also have to heavily rely on the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) for basic services such as health care and education, because they are not granted much access to the social services the Lebanese government provides. In February 2011, a decree was signed by Boutros Harb, the caretaker labor minister (of Lebanon), on carrying out labor law amendments from August 2010. If these labor law amendments go into effect, it will make it easier for work permits to be acquired by Palestinians. The amendments are seen as "the first move to legalize the working status of Palestinians since the first refugees arrived, fleeing the 1948 Arab-Israeli war".
Definition.
Palestinians in Lebanon include the Palestinian refugees who fled to Lebanon during the 1948 Palestine War and their descendants. In addition, it includes the Palestinian militias which resided in Lebanon in the 1970s and 1980s and Palestinian nationals who have recently moved to Lebanon from countries experiencing conflict, such as Syria.
Demographics.
Estimates of the number of Palestinians in Lebanon ranged from 260,000 to 400,000 in 2011. In 2018 Human Rights Watch estimated 174,000 "longstanding" Lebanese refugees and 45,000 Lebanese refugees more recently displaced from Syria.
The UNRWA counted 475,075 registered Palestine refugees as of 1 Jan 2019 in its twelve refugee camps in Lebanon. In 2017, a Lebanese government census counted 174,000 Palestinians in Lebanon.
Legal status.
Nationality.
Most Palestinians in Lebanon are stateless. They are not entitled to Lebanese citizenship, though most were born in Lebanon and irrespective of how many generations their families have lived in Lebanon. Some Palestinians, mostly Palestinian Christian women, have received Lebanese citizenship through marriage with a Lebanese national, and some by other means. (Lebanese nationality law does not provide for a Lebanese wife conferring Lebanese nationality to a foreign husband or to a child with a foreign father.)
During the Syrian occupation of Lebanon in 1994, the government naturalized over 154,931 foreign residents of Palestinian (mostly Palestinian Christians) and Syrian (mostly Syrian Sunnis and Christians) descent. It was argued that the purpose of these naturalizations was to sway the elections to a pro-Syrian government. This allegation is based on how these new citizens were bussed in to vote and displayed higher voting rates than the nationals did.
Other restrictions.
Without citizenship, Palestinians in Lebanon do not have Lebanese identity cards, which also entitles the holder to health, education and other government services. To receive health, education and other social services, Palestinian refugees are obligated to live in the twelve refugee camps in Lebanon set up by UNRWA. According to Human Rights Watch, Palestinian refugees in Lebanon live in "appalling social and economic conditions." Non-citizen Palestinians are also legally barred from owning property and barred from entering a list of desirable occupations.
Employment requires a government-issued work permit, and, according to the "New York Times", although "Lebanon hands out and renews hundreds of thousands of work permits every year to people from Africa, Asia and other Arab countries... until now, only a handful have been given" to Palestinians. They labor under legal restrictions that bar them from employment in at least 25 professions, "including law, medicine, and engineering," a system that relegates them to the black market for labor. And they are "still subject to a discriminatory law introduced in 2001 preventing them from registering property.
In 2016, Lebanese authorities began constructing a concrete wall with watch towers around the Ain al-Hilweh refugee camp, the largest Palestinian refugee camp in Lebanon. The wall has faced some criticism, being called "racist" by some and supposedly labeling residents as terrorists or islamists. As of May 2017, the wall construction was nearing completion.
For travel abroad non-citizen Palestinian residents of Lebanon can obtain travel documents that serve in place of passports. Travellers who hold only a Palestinian passport are refused entry to Lebanon.
Social status.
Palestinians in Lebanon also have to heavily rely on UNRWA for basic services such as health care and education, because they do not have much access to the social services the Lebanese government provides. In February 2011, a decree was signed by Boutros Harb, the caretaker labor minister (of Lebanon), on carrying out labor law amendments from August 2010. If these labor law amendments go into effect, it will make it easier for work permits to be acquired by Palestinians. The amendments are seen as "the first move to legalize the working status of Palestinians since the first refugees arrived, fleeing the 1948 Arab-Israeli war".
Israeli Arab journalist, Khaled Abu Toameh accused Lebanon of practicing apartheid against Palestinian Arabs who have lived in Lebanon as stateless refugees since 1948. According to Human Rights Watch, "In 2001, Parliament passed a law prohibiting Palestinians from owning property, a right they had for decades. Lebanese law also restricts their ability to work in many areas. In 2005, Lebanon eliminated a ban on Palestinians holding most clerical and technical positions, provided they obtain a temporary work permit from the Labor Ministry, but more than 20 high-level professions remain off-limits to Palestinians. Few Palestinians have benefited from the 2005 reform, though. In 2009, only 261 of more than 145,679 permits issued to non-Lebanese were for Palestinians. Civil society groups say many Palestinians choose not to apply because they cannot afford the fees and see no reason to pay a portion of their salary toward the National Social Security Fund, since Lebanese law bars Palestinians from receiving social security benefits."
In one of his series of articles accusing the government of Lebanon of practising "apartheid" against the resident Palestinian community, the Israeli Arab journalist, Khaled Abu Toameh describes the "special legal status" as "foreigners" assigned uniquely to Palestinians, "a fact which has deprived them of health care, social services, property ownership and education. Even worse, Lebanese law bans Palestinians from working in many jobs. This means that Palestinians cannot work in the public services and institutions run by the government such as schools and hospitals. Unlike Israel, Lebanese public hospitals do not admit Palestinians for medical treatment or surgery." Journalist Ben-Dror Yemini describes Palestinians in Lebanon as living "under various restrictions that could fill a chapter on Arab apartheid against the Palestinians. One of the most severe restrictions is a ban on construction. This ban is enforced even in the Nahr al-Bared refugee camp, bombed by the Lebanese army in 2007. Calling on Lebanon to change the systematic discrimination against his people, Palestinian journalist Rami George Khouri compared Lebanese treatment of Palestinians to the "Apartheid system" of South Africa.
Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon contain armed groups which sometimes deal in illegal drugs, and that would cause infighting among the rivals. In June 2020, a woman was shot dead in the Shatila refugee camp as she was walking on the street carrying her child during a shooting exchange between rival gangs.
Sectarian tensions.
Such accusations are believed, on the other hand, to be biased and non-realistic for numerous reasons, one of which is the fact that the Palestinian refugees are armed and the "Lebanese Army is de-facto banned from entering into the camps" due to the existence of heavy arms and balanced tensions between Lebanese communities, in which the Lebanese leftist and Islamic politicians wave out the option of having Lebanese Army control over the camps. The other reason why the critics, who most hold the Israeli citizenship live and work in Israel, criticize Lebanon, is that they ignored the "critical Lebanese demography", having the 40% Christians holding the presidency, army and central bank, in addition to the Shiites (including Hezbollah) and Druze, not in favor of empowering the Sunni Palestinians.


Enemies burnt the dear house down

"Enemies burnt the dear house down" (" Враги сожгли родную хату" (rus.) (Vragi sozhgli rodnyjy khatu)) is a famous Russian song associated with the Great Patriotic War, based on a poem by Mikhail Isakovsky (1946). It depicts losses and sufferings of the war generation and devastation of the country during Nazi occupation.
History.
Originally, the poem was written by Mikhail Isakovsky and published in a popular literature journal Znamya (1946, no.7).
Impressed by the poems’ lyrical strength, a distinguished poet and influential public person Aleksandr Tvardovsky advised composer Matvey Blanter to write music. Initially, Isakovsky was sceptical, but Blanter soon composed music that Isakovsky liked. The song was broadcast in the same year, performed by Valdimir Nechaev.However, some higher officials considered it too tragic and pessimistic and therefore forbade its public performances and broadcasting. People continued to perform the poem as a song on their own tune.
In 1960, a famous singer Mark Bernes dared to perform it publicly at a concert in Moscow. The performance was met with a standing ovation. In 1965 it was performed on musical variety show “Goluboj Ogonyok” by a personal request of Marshal Vasily Chuikov. After that, it became extremely popular in the USSR.
. Listeners confessed in their letter to the broadcasting stations that song told them about their own traumatic returns to their destroyed houses and burnt settlements. As a contemporary researcher of that period of Soviet culture writes, "That a song so honest about death, grief, loneliness, and shattered hopes could be created, published (in "Znamia" in 1946), performed, and broadcast at all, in poem form or in song, speaks to the confidence that the
wartime public expressions of the emotional costs of war could continue; the state’s reaction shows that such confidence was not completely justified".
The song could be perceived also had a hidden but recognizable opposition to the very idea of world revolution promoted by the official state ideology, on behalf of appreciation of private life.
The song is highly regarded in Russia. It is acknowledged as an iconic description of the great losses and incredible personal tragedies of the World War Two. During the war, great territories were occupied by Nazis and eventually retaken by the Soviet Red army. The war caused enormous human losses and total destruction of thousands of towns and other settlements.
The plot.
The poem has a typical ballad form. Its narration is not complicated. A demobilized soldier returns, allegedly very soon after the end of the Great Patriotic War, to his home village but discovers that his home was burnt down and all his family was killed. He has no place to go. He drifts somewhere to a crossing of two roads and finds a place that resembles a grave (or is an actual grave) and stops there. He talks to his wife " Praskovya "( an old and typically ‘peasant’ Russian female name ) confessing in his dreams about how happy they would meet after the war and about their mutual love. He had been desperately fighting for four years and conquered two countries coming back to her, but they would never meet again. The soldier takes a bottle of alcohol out of his sack and drinks it, crying for his great losses and mourning the dreams of peaceful life after the war (symbolized by his dream of a feast with friends). He drinks and cries of despair.
In the last line it is mentioned that the soldier is decorated with Medal "For the Capture of Budapest", which was given for participation in a notoriously fierce fighting during the war.
Although many singers produced their versions, the original version of Mark Bernes became a standard. Another popular version was recorded by Mikhail Pugovkin. This song is an iconic musical representation of Soviet culture and soviet mentality therefore found its place in movies and memoirs.
The title of the Song.
Isakovsky’s poem was entitled "Praskovya". However, when song gained its popularity, its first line was usually used to name the song. This line contains distinctively Ukrainian word for ‘a village house’: хата, "khata". For a native Russian speaker, this unambiguously implied that the event described in the song happened in Ukraine, which was totally occupied by Nazis in 1941-1943. Alternatively, this event could happen in Southern Russia, where population has mixed Russian and Ukrainian roots. There is no common English translation for this word.
Alternative translation of the title: “The nazis burnt his home to ashes"; "Enemies burned native hut"


William Gore (Lord Mayor of London)

Sir William Gore (1644 - 1707) was Lord Mayor of London for 1701-02, having been elected Alderman for the City Ward of Coleman Street in 1690.
A successful merchant, Gore was appointed a founding Director of the Bank of England in 1694 before serving as Governor of the Hamburg and Levant Companies.
Family.
The son of William Gore, barrister-at-law, of Morden, Surrey and his wife Jane "née" Smith, Sir William was a grandson of Sir John Gore, Lord Mayor of London (died 1636), a kinsman of Arthur Gore, 1st Earl of Arran, and great-uncle of William Gore-Langton, MP.
In 1704, Sir William bought the lordship of the manor of Tring and built Tring Park.
He died on 20 January 1707, his wife, Elizabeth "née" Hampton, having predeceased him (died 1705). Three of their sons were MPs: William, Thomas and John Gore.


Susan of Mar, Mistress of Mar

Susan Helen of Mar, Mistress of Mar (born 31 May 1963) is an interior designer and the only child and heir presumptive of Margaret of Mar, 31st Countess of Mar.
Early life and education.
She was born in 1963, the only child of Margaret of Mar, 31st Countess of Mar, and her first husband, Edwin Noel Artiss. Her parents divorced in 1976, when she was about 13 years old. That same year, her mother remarried to John Salton. After their divorce in 1981, her mother married again, to John H. Jenkin, in 1982.
Susan was educated at King Charles I School in Kidderminster, and at Christe College, Cheltenham in Gloucestershire.
Personal life.
She married Bruce Alexander Wyllie on 10 June 1989 and has two daughters:


List of mayors of Moresnet