High Flux Isotope Reactor

The High Flux Isotope Reactor (or HFIR) is a nuclear research reactor located at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, United States. Operating at 85 MW, HFIR is one of the highest flux reactor-based sources of neutrons for condensed matter physics research in the United States, and it provides one of the highest steady-state neutron fluxes of any research reactor in the world. The thermal and cold neutrons produced by HFIR are used to study physics, chemistry, materials science, engineering, and biology. The intense neutron flux, constant power density, and constant-length fuel cycles are used by more than 500 researchers each year for neutron scattering research into the fundamental properties of condensed matter. HFIR has approximately 600 users each year for both scattering and in-core research.
The neutron scattering research facilities at HFIR contain a world-class collection of instruments used for fundamental and applied research on the structure and dynamics of matter. The reactor is also used for medical, industrial, and research isotope production; research on severe neutron damage to materials; and neutron activation to examine trace elements in the environment. Additionally, the building houses a gamma irradiation facility that uses spent fuel assemblies and is capable of accommodating high gamma dose experiments.
With projected regular operations, the next major shutdown for a beryllium reflector replacement will not be necessary until approximately 2023. This outage provides an opportunity to install a cold source in radial beam tube HB-2, which would provide an unparalleled flux of cold neutrons feeding instruments in a new guide hall. With or without this additional capability, HFIR is projected to continue operating through 2040 and beyond.
In November 2007 ORNL officials announced that time-of-flight tests on a newly installed cold source (which uses liquid helium and hydrogen to slow the movement of neutrons) showed better performance than design predictions, equaling or surpassing the previous world record set by the research reactor at the Institut Laue–Langevin in Grenoble, France.
History.
In January 1958, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) reviewed the status of transuranium isotope production in the United States. By November of the same year, the commission decided to build the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, with a fundamental focus on isotope research and production. Since it first went critical in 1965, the in-core uses for HFIR have broadened to include materials research, fuels research, and fusion energy research, in addition to isotope production and research for medical, nuclear, detector and security purposes.
A low-power testing program was completed in January 1966, and operation cycles at 20, 50, 75, 90, and 100 MW began. From the time it attained its design power of 100 MW in September 1966, a little over five years from the beginning of its construction, until it was temporarily shut down in late 1986, HFIR achieved a record of operation time unsurpassed by any other reactor in the United States. By December 1973, it had completed its 100th fuel cycle, each lasting approximately 23 days.
In November 1986, tests on irradiation surveillance specimens indicated that the reactor vessel was being embrittled by neutron irradiation at a rate faster than predicted. HFIR was shut down to allow for extensive reviews and evaluation of the facility. Two years and five months later, after thorough reevaluation, modifications to extend the life of the plant while protecting the integrity of the pressure vessel, and upgrades to management practices, the reactor was restarted at 85 MW. Coincident with physical and procedural improvements were renewed training, safety analysis, and quality assurance activities. Documents were updated, and new ones were generated where necessary. Technical specifications were amended and reformatted to keep abreast of the design changes as they were accepted by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), formerly the AEC. Not only were the primary coolant pressure and core power reduced to preserve vessel integrity while maintaining thermal margins, but long-term commitments were made for technological and procedural upgrades.
After a thorough review of many aspects of HFIR operation, the reactor was restarted for fuel cycle 288 on April 18, 1989, to operate initially at very low power levels (8.5 MW) until all operating crews were fully trained and it was possible to operate continuously at higher power. Following the April 1989 restart, a further shutdown of nine months occurred as a consequence of a question as to procedural adequacy. During this period, oversight of HFIR was transferred to the DOE Office of Nuclear Energy (NE); previously, oversight was through the Office of Energy Research (ER). Following permission by Secretary of Energy James D. Watkins to resume startup operation in January 1990, full power was reached on May 18, 1990. Ongoing programs have been established for procedural and technological upgrade of the HFIR during its operating life.
In 2007, HFIR completed the most dramatic transformation in its 40-year history. During a shutdown of more than a year, the facility was refurbished and a number of new instruments were installed, as well as a cold neutron source. The reactor was restarted in mid-May of that year; it attained its full power of 85 MW within a couple of days, and experiments resumed within a week. Improvements and upgrades include an overhaul of the reactor structure for reliable, sustained operation; significant upgrading of the eight thermal-neutron spectrometers in the beam room; new computer system controls; installation of the liquid hydrogen cold source; and a new cold neutron guide hall. The upgraded HFIR will eventually house 15 instruments, including 7 for research using cold neutrons.
Although HFIR's main mission is now neutron scattering research, one of its original primary purposes was the production of californium-252 and other transuranium isotopes for research, industrial, and medical applications. HFIR is the western world's sole supplier of californium-252, an isotope with uses such as cancer therapy and the detection of pollutants in the environment and explosives in luggage. Beyond its contributions to isotope production and neutron scattering, HFIR also provides for a variety of irradiation tests and experiments that benefit from the facility's exceptionally high neutron flux.
Technical Description of HFIR.
HFIR is a beryllium-reflected, light-water-cooled and -moderated, flux-trap type reactor that uses highly enriched uranium-235 as the fuel. The preliminary conceptual design of the reactor was based on the "flux trap" principle, in which the reactor core consists of an annular region of fuel surrounding an unfueled moderating region or "island." Such a configuration permits fast neutrons leaking from the fuel to be moderated in the island and thus produces a region of very high thermal-neutron flux at the center of the island. This reservoir of thermalized neutrons is "trapped" within the reactor, making it available for isotope production. The large flux of neutrons in the reflector outside the fuel of such a reactor may be tapped by extending empty "beam" tubes into the reflector, thus allowing neutrons to be beamed into experiments outside the reactor shielding. Finally, a variety of holes in the reflector may be provided in which to irradiate materials for experiments or isotope production.
The original mission of HFIR was the production of transplutonium isotopes. However, the original designers included many other experiment facilities, and several others have been added since then. Experiment facilities available include (1) four horizontal beam tubes, which originate in the beryllium reflector; (2) the hydraulic tube irradiation facility, located in the very high flux region of the flux trap, which allows for insertion and removal of samples while the reactor is operating; (3) thirty target positions in the flux trap, which normally contain transplutonium production rods but which can be used for the irradiation of other experiments (two of these positions can accommodate instrumented targets); (4) six peripheral target positions located at the outer edge of the flux trap; (5) numerous vertical irradiation facilities of various sizes located throughout the beryllium reflector; (6) two pneumatic tube facilities in the beryllium reflector, which allow for insertion and removal of samples while the reactor is operating for neutron activation analysis; and (7) two slant access facilities, called "engineering facilities," located on the outer edge of the beryllium reflector. In addition, spent fuel assemblies are used to provide a gamma irradiation facility in the reactor pool.
Reactor Core Assembly.
The reactor core assembly is contained in an 8-ft (2.44-m)-diameter pressure vessel located in a pool of water. The top of the pressure vessel is 17 ft (5.18 m) below the pool surface. The control plate drive mechanisms are located in a sub-pile room beneath the pressure vessel. These features provide the necessary shielding for working above the reactor core and greatly facilitate access to the pressure vessel, core, and reflector regions.
The reactor core is cylindrical, approximately 2 ft (0.61 m) high and in diameter. A 5-in. (12.70-cm)-diameter hole, referred to as the "flux trap," forms the center of the core. The target is typically loaded with curium-244 and other transplutonium isotopes and is positioned on the reactor vertical axis within the flux trap. The fuel region is composed of two concentric fuel elements. The inner element contains 171 fuel plates, and the outer element contains 369 fuel plates. The fuel plates are curved in the shape of an involute, thus providing a constant coolant channel width. The fuel (93% U235 enriched U3O8-Al cermet pg.22) is non-uniformly distributed along the arc of the involute to minimize the radial peak-to-average power density ratio. A burnable poison (boron-10) is included in the inner fuel element primarily to flatten the radial flux peak providing a longer cycle for each fuel element. The average core lifetime with typical experiment loading is approximately 23 days at 85 MW.
The fuel region is surrounded by a concentric ring of beryllium reflector approximately 1 ft (0.30 m) thick. This in turn is subdivided into three regions: the removable reflector, the semi permanent reflector, and the permanent reflector. The beryllium is surrounded by a water reflector of effectively infinite thickness. In the axial direction, the reactor is reflected by water.
The control plates, in the form of two thin, nuclear poison-bearing concentric cylinders, are located in an annular region between the outer fuel element and the beryllium reflector. These plates are driven in opposite directions to open and close a window at the core mid-plane. Reactivity is increased by downward motion of the inner cylinder and the upward motion of the four outer quadrant plates. The inner cylinder is used for shimming and power regulation and has no fast safety function. The outer control cylinder consists of four separate quadrant plates, each having an independent drive and safety release mechanism. All control plates have three axial regions of different neutron poison content designed to minimize the axial peak-to-average power-density ratio throughout the core lifetime. Any single quadrant plate or cylinder is capable of shutting the reactor down.
The reactor instrumentation and control system design reflects the emphasis placed on continuity of and safety of operations. Three independent safety channels are arranged in a coincidence system that requires agreement of two of the three for safety shutdowns. This feature is complemented by an extensive "on-line" testing system that permits the safety function of any one channel to be tested at any time during operation. Additionally, three independent automatic control channels are arrayed so that failure of a single channel will not significantly disturb operation. All of these factors contribute to the continuity of operation of the HFIR.
The primary coolant enters the pressure vessel through two 16-in. (40.64-cm)-diameter pipes above the core, passes through the core, and exits through an 18-in. (45.72-cm)-diameter pipe beneath the core. The flow rate is approximately 16,000 gpm (1.01 m3/s), of which approximately 13,000 gpm (0.82 m3/s) flows through the fuel region. The remainder flows through the target, reflector, and control regions. The system is designed to operate at a nominal inlet pressure of 468 psig (3.33 x 106 Pa). Under these conditions the inlet coolant temperature is 120 °F (49 °C), the corresponding exit temperature is 156 °F (69 °C), and the pressure drop through the core is about 110 psi (7.58 x 105 Pa).
From the reactor, the coolant flow is distributed to three of four identical heat exchanger and circulation pump combinations, each located in a separate cell adjacent to the reactor and storage pools. Each cell also contains a letdown valve that controls the primary coolant pressure. A secondary coolant system removes heat from the primary system and transfers it to the atmosphere by passing water over a four-cell induced-draft cooling tower.
A fuel cycle for the HFIR normally consists of full-power operation at 85 MW for a period of 21 to 23 days (depending on the experiment and radioisotope load in the reactor), followed by an end-of-cycle outage for refueling. End-of-cycle refueling outages vary as required to allow for control plate replacement, calibrations, maintenance, and inspections. Experiment insertion and removal may be accomplished during any end-of-cycle outage. Interruption of a fuel cycle for experiment installation or removal is strongly discouraged to avoid impact on other experiments and neutron scattering.
Horizontal Beam Tubes.
The reactor has four horizontal beam tubes which supply the neutrons to instruments used by the Center for Neutron Scattering. Details for each beam tube and instrument can be found on the HFIR instrument page. Each of the beam tubes that supply these instruments is described below.
HB-1 and HB-3.
The HB-1 and HB-3 thermal neutron beam tube designs are identical except for the length. Both are situated tangential to the reactor core so that the tubes point at reflector material and do not point directly at the fuel. An internal collimator is installed at the outboard end. This collimator is fabricated out of carbon steel and is plated with nickel. The collimator provides a rectangular aperture.
A rotary shutter is located outboard of each of these beam tubes. The shutter is fabricated using carbon steel and high-density concrete. The purpose of the shutter is to provide shielding when the neutron beam is not required.
HB-2.
The HB-2 thermal neutron beam tube is situated radially relative to the reactor core, looking directly at the fuel. Two beryllium inserts are installed in the spherical tip of the beam tube to maximize the thermal neutron flux within the critical acceptance angle of the neutron scattering experiment equipment. The beam tube cavity outboard of the reactor vessel has a rectangular cross-section that converges vertically and diverges horizontally such that the aperture at the outboard window is a rectangle nominally 6-in tall by 10-in wide. A carbon steel collimator assembly is located just outboard of the beam tube window. This collimator assembly provides further neutron-beam collimation and houses a fast-neutron filter to increase the signal-to-noise ratio at the neutron scattering instruments.
A rotary shutter is located outboard of the outer collimator assembly. The shutter is fabricated using carbon steel and high-density concrete. High-density concrete blocks are placed around the shutter to prevent streaming. The purpose of the shutter is to provide shielding when the neutron beam is not required.
HB-4.
The HB-4 cold neutron source beam tube is situated tangential to the reactor core so that the tube points at reflector material and does not point directly at the fuel.
A vacuum tube fits closely inside in-vessel section of the HB-4 beam tube all the way to the spherical end. The vacuum tube contains and insulates a hydrogen moderator vessel and its associated tubing. The moderator vessel contains supercritical hydrogen at 17K (nominal). Thermal neutrons scattered into the moderator vessel from the reflector are scattered and cooled by the hydrogen so that the 4-12 Å neutrons scattered down the tube are maximized.
An internal collimator is installed in the outboard end of the HB-4 tube. This collimator is fabricated out of carbon steel and is plated with nickel. The collimator provides three rectangular apertures. The outboard dimensions of the apertures are ; ; and .
A rotary shutter is located outboard of the outer collimator assembly. The shutter is fabricated using carbon steel and high-density concrete. The purpose of the shutter is to provide shielding when the neutron beam is not required. The shutter has provisions for routing the cryogenic hydrogen transfer line, gaseous helium, and vacuum piping necessary to support the Cold Source.
In-Core Experiment Facilities.
Flux Trap Positions.
Target Positions.
Thirty-one target positions are provided in the flux trap. These positions were originally designed to be occupied by target rods used for the production of transplutonium elements; however, other experiments can be irradiated in any of these positions. A similar target capsule configuration can be used in numerous applications. A third type of target is designed to house up to nine 2 inch long isotope or materials irradiation capsules that are similar to the rabbit facility capsules. The use of this type of irradiation capsule simplifies fabrication, shipping, and post-irradiation processing which translates to a cost savings for the experimenter.
Target irradiation capsules of each type must be designed such that they can be adequately cooled by the coolant flow available outside the target-rod shrouds. Excessive neutron poison loads in experiments in target positions are discouraged because of their adverse effects on both transplutonium isotope production rates and fuel cycle length. Such experiments require careful coordination to ensure minimal effects on adjacent experiments, fuel cycle length, and neutron scattering beam brightness. Two positions are now available for instrumented target experiments: positions E3 and E6.
Peripheral Target Positions.
Six peripheral target positions (PTPs) are provided for experiments located at the outer radial edge of the flux trap. Fast-neutron fluxes in these positions are the highest available to experiments in the reactor, although a steep radial gradient in the thermal-neutron flux exists at this location.
Like the target positions, a type of PTP capsule is available that houses up to nine long isotope or materials irradiation capsules that are similar to the rabbit facility capsules. The use of this type of irradiation capsule simplifies fabrication, shipping, and post-irradiation processing which translates to a cost savings for the experimenter.
PTP irradiation capsules of each type must be designed such that they can be adequately cooled by the coolant flow available. Typical experiments contain a neutron poison load equivalent to that associated with of aluminum and of stainless steel distributed uniformly over a length. PTP experiments containing neutron poison loads in excess of that described are discouraged because of their adverse effects on isotope production rates, fuel cycle length, and fuel element power distribution.
Hydraulic Tube Facility.
The HFIR hydraulic tube (HT) facility provides the ability to irradiate materials for durations less than the standard ~23 day HFIR fuel cycle, which is ideal for the production of short half-life medical isotopes that require retrieval on demand. The system consists of the necessary piping, valves, and instrumentation to shuttle a set of long aluminum capsules (called rabbits) between the capsule loading station and the flux trap in the reactor core. The capsule loading station is located in the storage pool adjacent to the reactor vessel pool. A full facility load consists of nine vertically stacked capsules.
Normally, the heat flux from neutron and gamma heating at the surface of the capsule is limited to 74,000 Btu/h-ft2 (2.3 x 105 W/m2). Furthermore, the neutron poison content of the facility load is limited such that the reactor cannot be tripped by a significant reactivity change upon insertion and removal of the samples.
Large Removable Beryllium Reflector Facilities.
Eight large diameter irradiation positions are located in the removable beryllium (RB) near the control region. These facilities are designated as RB-1A and -1B, RB-3A and -3B, RB-5A and -5B, and RB-7A and -7B. These are generally referred to as the RB* positions. The vertical centerline of these facilities is located 10.75 in. (27.31 cm) from the vertical centerline of the reactor and they are lined with a permanent aluminum liner having an inside diameter of 1.811 in. (4.6 cm). These facilities are designed for either instrumented or non-instrumented experiments. The instrumented capsule design can also employ sweep or cooling gases as necessary. Instrument leads and access tubes are accommodated through penetrations in the upper shroud flange and through special penetrations in the pressure vessel hatch.
When not in use, these facilities contain beryllium or aluminum plugs. Because of their close proximity to the fuel, RB* experiments are carefully reviewed with respect to their neutron poison content, which is limited because of its effect on fuel element power distribution and fuel cycle length.
These positions can accommodate (i.e., shielded) experiments, making them well suited for fusion materials irradiation.
Uses for the RB* facilities have included the production of radioisotopes; High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor (HTGR) fuel irradiations; and the irradiation of candidate fusion reactor materials. The later type of experiment requires a fast neutron flux. A significant fast flux is present in addition to the thermal flux. For this application the capsules are placed in a liner containing a thermal neutron poison for spectral-tailoring. These experiments are carefully reviewed with respect to their neutron poison content and limited to certain positions to minimize their effect on adjacent neutron scattering beam tubes.
Small Removable Beryllium Facilities.
Four small diameter irradiation positions are located in the removable beryllium (RB) near the control region. These facilities are designated as RB-2, RB-4, RB-6, and RB-8. The vertical centerline of these facilit ies is located 10.37 in. (26.35 cm) from the vertical centerline of the reactor and have an inside diameter of 0.5 in. (1.27 cm). The small RB positions do not have an aluminum liner like the RB* facilities. When not in use, these positions contain beryllium plugs.
The use of these facilities has been primarily for the production of radioisotopes. The neutron poison content limits and the available pressure drop requirements for experiments in these facilities is the same as in the RB* facilities previously discussed.
Control-Rod Access Plug Facilities.
Eight 0.5-in. (1.27-cm) diameter irradiation positions are located in the semipermanent reflector. The semipermanent reflector is made up of eight separate pieces of beryllium, four of which are referred to as control-rod access plugs. Each control-rod access plug contains two unlined irradiation facilities, designated CR-1 through CR-8. Each of these facilities accommodates an experiment capsule similar to those used in the small removable beryllium facilities. The vertical centerlines of all control-rod access plug irradiation facilities are located 12.68 in. (32.2 cm) from the vertical centerline of the reactor. Only non-instrumented experiments can be irradiated in these facilities. When not in use, these facilities contain beryllium plugs. A pressure drop of 10 psi (6.89 x 104 Pa) at full system flow is available to provide primary system coolant flow for cooling experiments.
Small Vertical Experiment Facilities.
Sixteen irradiation positions located in the permanent reflector are referred to as the small vertical experiment facilities (VXF). Each of these facilities has a permanent aluminum liner having an inside diameter of 1.584 in. (4.02 cm). The facilities are located concentric with the core on two circles of radii 15.43 in. (39.2 cm) and 17.36 in. (44.1 cm), respectively. Those located on the inner circle (11 in all) are referred to as the inner small VXFs. Those located on the outer circle (five in all) are referred to as the outer small VXFs. Normally, non-instrumented experiments are irradiated in these facilities. VXF-7 is dedicated to one of the pneumatic irradiation facilities that supports the Neutron Activation Analysis Laboratory and is unavailable for other use.
A pressure drop of approximately 100 psi (6.89 x 105 Pa) at full system flow is available to provide primary system coolant flow for cooling experiments. When not in use, these facilities may contain a beryllium or aluminum plug or a flow-regulating orifice and no plug.
Large neutron poison loads in these facilities are of no particular concern with respect to fuel element power distribution perturbations or effects on fuel cycle length because of their distance from the core; however, experiments are carefully reviewed with respect to their neutron poison content, which is limited to minimize their effect on adjacent neutron scattering beam tubes.
Large Vertical Experiment Facilities.
Six irradiation positions located in the permanent reflector are referred to as the large vertical experiment facilities. These facilities are similar in all respects (as to characteristics and capabilities) to the small vertical experiment facilities described in the preceding section except for location and size. The aluminum liners in the large VXFs have an inside diameter of 2.834 in. (7.20 cm), and the facilities are located concentric with the core on a circle of radius 18.23 in. (46.3 cm). When not in use, these facilities contain beryllium or aluminum plugs.
Large neutron poison loads in these facilities are of no particular concern with respect to fuel element power distribution perturbations or effects on fuel cycle length because of their distance from the core; however, experiments are carefully reviewed with respect to their neutron poison content, which is limited to minimize their effect on adjacent neutron scattering beam tubes.
Slant Engineering Facilities.
Provision has been made for installation of up to two engineering facilities to provide additional positions for experiments. These facilities consist of 4-in. (10.16-cm)-O.D. tubes that are inclined upward 49° from horizontal. The inner ends of the tubes terminate at the outer periphery of the beryllium. The upper ends of the tubes terminate at the outer face of the pool wall in an experiment room one floor above the main beam room.
One of the engineering facilities houses the PT-2 pneumatic tube, which was installed in 1986.
Gamma Irradiation Facility.
Overview.
The HFIR Gamma Irradiation Facility is an experiment facility in the High Flux Isotope Reactor designed to irradiate materials with gamma radiation from the spent fuel elements in the HFIR loading station in the clean pool. The Gamma Irradiation Facility Chamber is a stainless steel chamber made of 0.065 wall thickness tubing to maximize the internal dimensions of chamber to accommodate as/ large as possible samples and still fit inside the cadmium post of the spent fuel loading station positions. The interior chamber is approximately inside diameter and will accommodate samples up to long.
There are two configurations for the chamber assembly, with the only difference being the plugs. The uninstrumented configuration has a top plug which is used for installation of the samples and to support the inert gas lines and maintain a leak tight environment while under water. The instrumented configuration has a chamber extension above the chamber and an "umbilical" to permit inert gas lines, electrical cables and instrumentation cables for an instrumented experiment to connect with heater controls and instrumentation testing equipment in the experiment room.
An inert gas control panel in the experiment room is required to provide inert gas flow and pressure relief to the chamber. Inert gas pressure is maintained at approximately 15 psig to assure any leakage from the chamber would be from the chamber to the pool and not water in leakage.
Samples in the chamber may be supported from the bottom of the chamber or from the plug (uninstrumented configuration only).
Radiation Dose Rates and Accumulated Doses.
Characterization of the inside surface of the chamber has been performed and Gamma dose rates at this location have been confirmed. Gamma dose rates up to 1.8E+08 can be provided. Selection of an appropriate spent fuel element can provide essentially any required dose rate.
Because of secondary reactions within sample and holder materials in the chamber, we have created neutronic models to estimate the actual dose rates to the samples in different holders and at different locations within the chamber. The peak dose rates are near the vertical center of the chamber and at the horizontal centerline of the chamber. There is a near symmetrical distribution of the dose rate from top to bottom of the chamber.
HFIR personnel are available to assist in the design of sample holders by the users to achieve the required accumulated doses and dose rates. Temperature of the samples from the required dose rate can be estimated.
Temperatures.
Recently performed irradiations have shown that temperatures from the gamma heating can be very high, exceeding in fresh spent fuel elements. Location of the samples near the chamber wall or holder design to transfer heat to the chamber wall can be used to lower the sample temperature. Selection of a more decayed spent fuel element with a lower dose rate may be necessary if temperature limits are a concern.
The minimum temperatures maintained are around (the clean pool water temperature). The use of electric heating elements and/or inert gas (argon or helium) flooding allow for controlled temperatures above .
Neutron Activation Analysis.
Neutron activation analysis (NAA) is a powerful analytical technique used to probe the elemental makeup of a wide variety of materials. NAA enjoys very high sensitivity and accuracy and is generally practiced nondestructively. Samples are bombarded with neutrons and the emissions from the radioisotopes produced are analyzed to determine both their number and identity. Several university, government, and industrial laboratories, both domestic and abroad, employ NAA to study forensic evidence, lunar and meteoritic materials, advanced materials, and high purity materials. NAA is free from classical "matrix" effects and is capable of very precise measurements having detection limits commonly in the fractions of PPM.
Reactor-based NAA was first performed at the Graphite Reactor at what is now ORNL. The PT-1 facility was installed at the HFIR in 1970 and was upgraded in 1987 when the PT-2 facility was added. Both facilities terminate in the permanent beryllium reflector portion of the reactor and facilitate the transfer of samples to and from the reactor. The PT-1 facility features the highest thermal neutron flux in the western world and offers many advantages in sensitivity for ultra-trace level determinations and for limited isotope production. The PT-2 facility offers a highly thermalized flux coupled with delayed neutron counting, giving the ability to measure very low quantities of fissile materials in minutes.
Nuclear Nonproliferation.
Delayed neutron analysis can be used for accurate screening of various materials for fissile content. The determination requires only six minutes and features a 15-picogram detection limit. Samples of smears, vegetation, soil, rock, plastics, wood, metal, and sand are equally amenable to delayed neutron analysis. This tool facilitates International Atomic Energy Agency IAEA efforts to establish wide area monitoring and enables individual inspectors to obtain large numbers of samples in the hopes of finding required evidence. By screening those samples, the very high costs of destructive analysis are required only for those samples deemed interesting. Delayed neutron analysis is becoming increasingly useful for these studies.
A recent application involves the irradiation of programmable memory devices that have been coated with a small amount of a fissile isotope. The fission events induced upon irradiation may be tracked spatially by comparing the values in memory with those assigned to memory initially; areas of differences are attributed to damage caused by the fission events. This work may assist efforts in analysis of microscopic particles that may contain evidence of undeclared nuclear activities by locating such particles.
Environmental.
NAA is well suited for determining about two-thirds of the known elements in geological and biological materials. Several projects were facilitated by NAA that otherwise would have been very challenging or impossible by other methods. Mercury contamination in the Oak Ridge area, baseline soil levels for many elements, and uranium isotopic ratio in Oak Ridge area soils and vegetation have all been accomplished on the medium and large scale. The chemistry and history of Earth's moon have been elucidated by NAA and many different meteorites have been studied. Trace elements were determined in animal bone and tissue for efforts to understand effects of habitat pollution. The fate of the dinosaurs was investigated by analyzing the element, iridium, in fossilized bone dated near in time to known major meteorite impacts. Recently, bioremediation strategies have been examined and rates of absorption of heavy elements have been determined in indigenous plants and animals.
Forensics.
Since its inception, NAA has been a tool for forensic trace element investigations. Bullet lead and jacket, paint, brass, plastic, hair, and many other materials are often of interest for criminal investigations. At ORNL, investigations involving presidents Kennedy and Taylor, investigation of cave vandals, and homicide investigations have been undertaken. ORNL is in negotiation with Brookhaven National Laboratory scientists to continue their anthropogenic investigation of ancient marble and sculpture, after the permanent shutdown of the Brookhaven reactor.
Isotope Production.
Small quantities of various isotopes have been formed in the PT-1 facility over the years. Tracers for animal studies, radiolabeled pharmaceuticals, cancer treatment trial sources, and sources in support of materials studies have been prepared inexpensively. The PT-1 facility represents the quickest access to the reactor and often the lowest cost for low-quantity isotope production. Recently, gamma densitometry sources composed of 169Yb were prepared and may be prepared on-demand for the foreseeable future.
Ultra-Trace Metrology.
Many elements may be easily and precisely measured at the parts-per-trillion level using NAA. ORNL has assisted private corporations with applied research into the properties of fiber optic starting materials and their relationship to trace element concentration and found that breakage frequency does depend on the concentration of certain elements. Diamond and diamond films have been analyzed for ultra-trace impurities and ORNL's determinations were the first to be reported on bulk synthetic diamond. ORNL has also determined uranium and thorium in organic scintillator at the 1e-15 g/g level. The scintillator is to be used in a neutrino detection project in Japan that requires material as free from natural radioactivity as possible.
Materials Irradiation.
The combined effects of neutron and gamma radiation on materials are of interest for advanced materials research, fusion energy research, and for production of hardened components and systems. A recent example is the dose response investigation of dichroic mirror ceramic materials for the fusion energy research program. The PT-1 and PT-2 facilities are well suited to fill the niche between the very high fluxes in the HFIR target region and the much lower ones in the beam tubes.


Pinjarra Power Station

Pinjarra Power Station is a natural gas-fired power station in Western Australia. It is a 280 MW base load cogeneration power station located in Alcoa's Pinjarra Alumina Refinery, near the town of Pinjarra, approximately 80 km south of Perth, Western Australia. Generated electricity is sold by Alinta Energy to contracted customers or into the WA Wholesale Energy Market. In addition to electricity, the power station supplies steam to Alcoa's refinery.


Environmental Restoration Disposal Facility

The Environmental Restoration Disposal Facility (ERDF) is a waste disposal facility located at the Hanford Nuclear Reservation in Richland, Washington, U.S.. Built in 1996, ERDF collects low-level waste, mixed waste, and other hazardous materials that are generated at Hanford. It does not collect any radioactive waste or other hazardous materials from other sites or the public. The hazardous waste dump was designed to be expanded as needed. The main storage facilities consist of single layer tanks that hold in all more than 17 million tons of nuclear waste. As of 2011, two new super tanks which hold double the amount of the single layer tanks were installed, providing safer levels of radioactivity in the surrounding ground areas and water sheds. Liners were previously installed to collect liquid released by the tanks or rain water that may seep in. The ERDF does not accept liquid waste, but water that seeps into the landfill is treated to keep the surrounding environment safe.
Clean-up of waste is done by clean-up crews around the property. It is trucked to the main facilities to be processed and packaged. At its height there were more than 600 truckloads a day. Since clean-up began, more than 12,000,000 miles have been logged by truck drivers transporting waste containers to the facility. Processing is done by compacting waste and hazardous materials to make sure no air pockets remain. After adding support to the waste by adding cement blocks so the area will not sag, a temporary cap is placed over the waste until a permanent cap seals all the waste off from the site.


Woolwich Power Station

Woolwich Power Station was a coal-fired power station on the south bank of the Thames at Woolwich.
History.
The first station was opened at the site in 1893 by the "Woolwich District Electric Lighting Company" adapted from boat repair shops, and subsequently taken over by the Metropolitan Borough of Woolwich. During later construction work in 1912 the timbers of a Tudor warship believed to be Henry VII's 1488 ship "Sovereign" were uncovered on the site.
The station was redeveloped in the 1920s and again in the 1940s and 1950s, ultimately having three fluted brick chimneys on the east side of the station. It occupied a site of just over seven and a half acres.
In 1906 alternating current and direct current was being supplied generated by a 2.5 MW machine supplied by C.A. Parsons Ltd. Between 1912 and 1917 additional plant was installed ranging from 1.5 MW to 6 MW capacity. The generating capacity, maximum load, and electricity generated and sold was as follows:
The coal used by the station was usually shipped from the Yorkshire and Northumberland areas and offloaded by crane onto a deep trough conveyor. At its peak the station was burning over 1000 tons of coal a day.
Redevelopment.
The earliest buildings on the site were replaced in 1924–28. The 1924–28 station known as the low-pressure section had four Babcock & Wilcox boilers (decommissioned 1963) and 1 × 12.5 MW Fraser & Chalmers/GEC turbo-alternator which generated at 6.6 kV. The 1940–48 intermediate-pressure section had six Babcock & Wilcox boilers and 3 × 34.5 MW Fraser & Chalmers/GEC turbo-alternators generating at 22 kV. The final 1952–57 high-pressure section had four John Thompson ‘La Mont’ boilers and 2 × 30 MW Fraser & Chalmers/GEC turbo-alternators generating at 22 kV.
The steam conditions at the turbine stop-valves of the various steam systems were:
The total steam generating capacity from 1966 to 1974 was 1,710,000 lb/hr (215.4 kg/s); then 92.0 kg/s during 1975–78.
One of the high-pressure 30 MW machines was decommissioned in 1971. The three intermediate pressure 34.5 MW machines were decommissioned in 1973, together with the intermediate-pressure boilers. The final 30 MW generator was decommissioned in 1978.
The gross generating capability was:
Electricity output.
Electricity output from Woolwich power station was as follows.
Woolwich power station annual electricity output GWh.<graph>{
 "version": 2,
 "width": 700,
 "height": 250,
 "data": [
 "name": "table",
 "values": [
 "x": 1966,
 "y": 255
 {
 "x": 1967,
 "y": 173
 {
 "x": 1968,
 "y": 168
 {
 "x": 1969,
 "y": 179
 {
 "x": 1970,
 "y": 198
 {
 "x": 1971,
 "y": 166
 {
 "x": 1972,
 "y": 141
 {
 "x": 1973,
 "y": 47
 {
 "x": 1974,
 "y": 41
 {
 "x": 1975,
 "y": 28
 {
 "x": 1976,
 "y": 1
 {
 "x": 1977,
 "y": 3
 {
 "x": 1978,
 "y": 3
 {
 "x": 1954,
 "y": 351
 {
 "x": 1955,
 "y": 395
 {
 "x": 1956,
 "y": 344
 {
 "x": 1957,
 "y": 389
 {
 "x": 1958,
 "y": 349
 {
 "x": 1961,
 "y": 249
 {
 "x": 1962,
 "y": 206
 {
 "x": 1963,
 "y": 287
 {
 "x": 1946,
 "y": 227
 ]
 ],
 "scales": [
 "name": "x",
 "type": "ordinal",
 "range": "width",
 "zero": false,
 "domain": {
 "data": "table",
 "field": "x"
 },
 "name": "y",
 "type": "linear",
 "range": "height",
 "nice": true,
 "domain": {
 "data": "table",
 "field": "y"
 "axes": [
 "type": "x",
 "scale": "x"
 {
 "type": "y",
 "scale": "y"
 ],
 "marks": [
 "type": "rect",
 "from": {
 "data": "table"
 "properties": {
 "enter": {
 "x": {
 "scale": "x",
 "field": "x"
 "y": {
 "scale": "y",
 "field": "y"
 "y2": {
 "scale": "y",
 "value": 0
 "fill": {
 "value": "steelblue"
 "width": {
 "scale": "x",
 "band": "true",
 "offset": -1
}</graph>
Closure.
The station closed on 30 October 1978 with a generating capacity of 57 megawatts. One chimney was demolished by hand in 1978, and the remaining two by explosives in 1979. The site of the main power station building is now occupied by the Waterfront Leisure Centre car park; part of the coaling jetty remains.


Waccamaw River Warehouse Historic District

Waccamaw River Warehouse Historic District is a national historic district located at Conway in Horry County, South Carolina. It includes three contributing buildings: a steamer terminal (ca. 1880), warehouse (ca. 1890), and tobacco warehouse (ca. 1900). These buildings illustrate the evolution of utilitarian structures at the end of the 19th century, documenting the shift from heavy-timber braced-frame structural members to smaller-member, balloon framing with multiple diagonal bracing and the use of a clerestory for additional light. They are the last extant warehouses in Conway associated with the commercial trade on the Waccamaw River.
It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986.


Agfa


LMR 600 Gordon

Longmoor Military Railway number 600 "Gordon" is a preserved British steam locomotive. It was built during World War II to the War Department "Austerity" 2-10-0 design by the North British Locomotive Co. at its Hyde Park Works in Glasgow in 1943, and was the last steam locomotive owned by the British Army. The middle driving wheels of the class have no flange, to ease turning on tighter tracks. Number 600 was only the second engine to emerge from a class that eventually numbered 150 engines.
Naming.
The Locomotive was named in honour of the Royal Engineers' most famous General, Charles Gordon ("Gordon of Khartoum").
Post-war service.
After the war it was used by the Royal Engineers on the Longmoor Military Railway in Hampshire, UK. When the LMR closed in 1969 it was preserved on the Severn Valley Railway, arriving there in 1972 and operating on and from 29 July of that year. In May 1980 it took part in the Locomotive Parade at Rocket 150, the 150th Anniversary of the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway at Rainhill. Gordon also served as Gordon the Big Engine from Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends as part of SVR's former Day out with Thomas events. It was withdrawn from service in 1999 after a boiler tube blew. The engine was deemed non cost effective to repair at that point in time. The loco itself is in reasonable mechanical condition, the boiler requiring further inspection and a possible retubeing and re staying.
Current status.
Gordon was given a cosmetic repaint after being stored outside for many years and was one of the first locomotives placed in The Engine House museum adjoining in March 2008. On 25 July 2008 the locomotive was formally handed-over by the Army to the Severn Valley Railway, who had been looking after it in a caretaker capacity. it is still awaiting funding for an overhaul.


Samuda Brothers

Samuda Brothers was an engineering and ship building firm at Cubitt Town on the Isle of Dogs in London, founded by Jacob and Joseph d'Aguilar Samuda. The site is now occupied by Samuda Estate.
Samuda Brothers initially leased a premises on the Goodluck Hope peninsula, Leamouth, London in 1843, by the mouth of Bow Creek. However disaster struck with one of their first ships, the "Gipsy Queen" which exploded on its test trip in November 1844. Jacob was killed with nine of the firm's employees. There was a further explosion at their shipyard in 1845 and another three workers were killed.
The firm moved to Cubitt Town in 1852, having outgrown a site that was hemmed in by other industrial premises. By this time the company was run by Joseph, Jacob having been killed in the trial of the Gipsy Queen. The Cubitt Town yard specialised in iron and steel warships and steam packets and by 1863 was said to be producing double the output of the other London shipyards combined. Orders from Germany, Russia and Japan enabled the firm to survive the 1866 financial crisis which affected many other London yards.
In 1877 Togo Heihachiro, later a prominent Japanese admiral, came for work experience with the Samuda Brothers after completing his training at Naval Preparatory School in Portsmouth, and the Royal Naval College at Greenwich. He supervised the construction of the "Fusō" before returning to Japan. He led the Imperial Japanese navy to victory in the Russo-Japanese War, establishing Japan as a Great Power.
Following the death of Joseph in 1885 attempts were made to sell the firm as a going concern. This was unsuccessful, resulting in closure in the 1890s, leaving Yarrows and Thames Ironworks as the last significant London shipbuilders.


Atinkou Thermal Power Station

Atinkou Thermal Power Station, also Atinkou Efficient Power Station, is a natural gas-fired thermal power plant under construction, in Taboth Village, near the town of Jacqueville, in the Ivory Coast.
Location.
The power station is located in the village of "Taboth", near the town known as Jacqueville, in Jacqueville Department. Jacqueville is located approximately , southwest of the city of Abidjan, the capital of Ivory Coast. The power station sits on a site that measures .
Overview.
This new, modern power station is intended to replace the old, inefficient thermal power stations, including (a) the 200 MW "Aggreko Thermal Power Plant" (b) the 100 MW "Vridi Thermal Power Plant" and (c) the 99 MW "Ciprel I Thermal Power Plant". Atinkou Power Station is also expected to form the "baseload backbone", on which to attach intermittent solar and hydroelectric supply.
The power station is a "combined cycle" installation with two phases, built separately but intended to work in synchronized harmony. The first cycle is expected to be built over an 18 months period, using a 255 MW gas turbine. In this phase, natural gas is mixed with air and ignited. The hot air produced, turns the turbine to generate the electricity.
The second phase expected to be added after the first, comprises the addition of a "heat recovery boiler" and a 135 MW steam turbine, over a 9 months period to form a 390 MW combined cycle power station. The heat recovery boiler extract some of he heat from the first cycle and uses it to heat water, producing steam. The steam is then used to produce more electricity, without any new natural gas. Total energy output by Atinkou Power Station is calculated at 2,800 GWh annually.
Ownership.
The special purpose vehicle that owns and will operate this power station is called "Atinkou S.A.", a 100 percent subsidiary of the Eranove Group. Eranove is a French water and electricity development and management conglomerate, headquartered in Paris, France. Atinkou S.A. will sell the energy generated here to the Ivorian electricity utility company, "Société de Gestion du Patrimoine du Secteur de l'Electricité (SOGEPE)", under a 20 year power purchase agreement.
Funding.
Development of this power station benefitted from loans, amounting to €404 million obtained from (a) International Finance Corporation (b) African Development Bank (c) German Investment Corporation (d) German Development Agency (e) FMO (Netherlands) (f) Emerging Africa Infrastructure Fund (EAIF) and (g) OPEC Fund for International Development.


Gianelli Power Plant

The Gianelli Power Plant, also known as the San Luis Power Plant, is a pumped-storage hydroelectric plant that is at the base of the San Luis Dam in California. During the wet season, turbines pump water from the O`Neill forebay into the reservoir, then when needed during the irrigation season, water flows from the reservoir back through the turbines and generates electricity. This is an unusual use of pumped storage where the intention is to capture irrigation water not to store power. Storage capacity delivers up to 298 hours of generation at full power.


Ural Electrochemical Combine

The Ural Electrochemical Combine () is a company located in Novouralsk, Russia. It is a subsidiary of TVEL (Rosatom group). Beginning in 1949, the plant began the production of Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU).
History.
The Ural Electrochemical Combine was important to the Soviet Union due to its history of foreign partnerships. The facility was heavily involved in the construction of centrifuge plants in Shaan-xi and Lanzhou, China in the 1990s to serve China's domestic fuel needs. The facility also enriched uranium for Kazakhstan, with the Soviet Union receiving a share of 50%, proportionate to the need to enrich to 6000 tU/yr.
The Soviet Union began replacing its gaseous diffusion equipment with centrifuge technology in the 1960s. By the end of the Cold War, when all equipment had been replaced, the facility had the capacity to produce almost 12 million SWU per year.
The facility is now converted to civilian use and no longer produces highly enriched uranium. Today, the facility enriches uranium for Low-Enriched Uranium (LEU) fuel, and develops technologies for industrial applications. In the early 2000s it accounted for 49% of Russia's enrichment capacity.


ASTRA (reactor)

ASTRA was a type of nuclear research reactor built in Seibersdorf, Austria near Vienna, at the site of the former Austrian Reactor Center Seibersdorf which now forms part of the Austrian Institute of Technology (AIT). The acronym stands for Adaptierter Schwimmbecken-Typ-Reaktor Austria (Adapted swimming pool-type reactor Austria). ASTRA operated from 1960 to 1999.
Research.
One of the most advanced experiments in physics carried out at the ASTRA reactor was an experiment on the decay of free neutrons. In this experiment, the electron-neutrino angular correlation in free neutron decay was measured via the shape of the energy spectrum of the recoil protons; the center of a highly evacuated tangential beam tube of the reactor served as neutron source.
The aim was to determine the ratio of the two coupling constants gA and gV of the weak interaction from the shape of the recoil proton spectrum. This spectrum was measured using an electrostatic spectrometer; the protons were counted using an ion electron converter of the coincidence type.
The result was |gA/gV| = 1.259 ± 0.017. This is in good agreement with the later (much more accurate) average gA/gV = - 1.2695 ± 0.0029; this value was measured using polarised neutrons and hence contains also the sign of the ratio.


John I. Nolan

John Ignatius Nolan (January 14, 1874 – November 18, 1922) was an American iron molder and politician who represented a Californian district in the United States House of Representatives.
Background.
He was born in San Francisco, California on January 14, 1874. He attended the public schools and worked as an iron molder. He was a member of the board of supervisors of the city and county of San Francisco in 1911. In 1912, he was the secretary of the San Francisco Labor Council (he was a member of the Iron Molder's Union).
In Congress; death.
Nolan was elected as a Republican to the 63rd United States Congress as San Francisco's first labor congressman, a staunch progressive reelected to the four succeeding Congresses. He served from March 4, 1913 until his death. During the 66th United States Congress, he was the chairman of the United States House Committee on Patents, and during the 67th United States Congress, he was the chairman of the United States House Committee on Labor.
He had been re-elected in 1922 to the 68th United States Congress before he died in San Francisco, California on November 18, 1922. He was interred at Holy Cross Cemetery in Colma, California. After he died, his vacant position in Congress was taken by his wife, Mae Nolan.


Genoa Generating Station

Genoa Generating Station is a base load, coal fired, electrical power station located south of Genoa, Wisconsin in Vernon County.
Genoa 3 uses low sulfur western coal from Utah and the Powder River Basin shipped via rail to the Mississippi River, then to Genoa via barge.
The plant is scheduled to be closed in 2021.


Silicon Systems

Silicon Systems Inc. (SSi) (not to be confused with SiliconSystems, Inc.) was an American semiconductor company based in Tustin, California. The company manufactured mixed-signal integrated circuits and semiconductors for telecommunications and data storage.
Company history.
Silicon Systems was founded and incorporated in California on May 17, 1972 by Gene B. Potter, Ronald H. Reeder, and William E. Drobish. SSi grew to 146 employees and $10.5 million in revenue in 1980. Its initial public offering was on January 29, 1981. The company became a supplier of integrated circuits (ICs) for computer disk drives, touch-tone receivers, vehicle loop detectors, and other applications from garage door openers to descrambling satellite broadcast signals.
The company was acquired by TDK Corporation in on May 15, 1989 for $200M.
The company grew to an annual revenue of $400 million as of 1996. It owned wafer fabrication plants in Tustin and Santa Cruz, California, an assembly and test facility in Singapore, and design facilities in San Jose and Grass Valley, California. In 1996, Texas Instruments (TI) acquired the storage products portion of SSi in a deal worth $575 million. TDK retained the communications products business as TDK Semiconductor Corporation (TSC).
In 2005, TSC was purchased by Golden Gate Capital Partners and renamed Teridian Semiconductor.
In 2010, Teridian was purchased by Maxim Integrated Products for $315M in cash.
The founders of Silicon Systems came from Scientific Data Systems.
MicroSim Corporation spun off from Silicon Systems in 1984. In 1998 MicroSim was acquired by OrCAD Systems Corporation.
Silicon Systems Inc. had no relation to another and more recent company named SiliconSystems, Inc. which was founded in 2003, made solid-state drives (SSDs), and was eventually acquired by Western Digital.
Early designs.
Designs for integrated circuit houses.
Source:
Early employees.
Early employees of Silicon Systems included:


Michael Katzban

Michael Katzban (September 11, 1876 - July 3, 1962) was a core molder and insurance salesman from Milwaukee, Wisconsin who served one term as a Socialist member of the Wisconsin State Assembly.
Background.
Katzban was born in Lemont, in Cook County, Illinois, on September 11, 1876. He came to Milwaukee in 1886, attended public and parochial schools, and learned the trade of core molder, which he continued to practice. He joined the Molders Union around 1898, and held various offices in it.
Legislative service and political activity.
He was elected to the Assembly's Fourteenth Milwaukee County district (the 14th Ward of the City of Milwaukee in 1910 to succeed Democrat Joseph Domachowski (who was not a candidate for re-election). Katzban earned 1,328 votes, to 1,184 for former Democratic Assemblyman John Szymarek and 440 for Republican Leo Kelpinski. He was assigned to the standing committees on city living conditions and on vocational education.
In 1912, after a redistricting, he ran for the Assembly in the newly-redrawn Eighth Milwaukee County district, losing to Democrat Jacob J. Litza, Jr., with 1298 votes for Litza, 1065 for Katzban, and 424 for Republican Charles Strasberger.
He served as a deputy sheriff in Milwaukee County in 1912, and in 1915-1916.
He ran once more for the Assembly from the Eighth District in 1930, coming in second with 1,912 votes to 3,041 for Republican Ben Wiczynski and 1641 for Democratic incumbent Mary O. Kryszak.
In 1945, he was elected to the executive committee of the Milwaukee County Socialist Party. In 1950, he was appointed as a Socialist member of the City of Milwaukee's Election Commission, and served a six-year term. In 1954, he was elected to the Party's state executive committee.
Personal life.
At the time of his death in 1962, he had been an insurance salesman for twenty years. He left behind a widow, Rose, and a son, John Katzban, who was village manager for the Village of Whitefish Bay, Wisconsin.


Poste Montagnais, Quebec

Poste Montagnais is a community in Quebec. It is served by the Poste Montagnais Airport. Its mainly serves the Hydro-Québec's electrical substation, "Poste Montagnais" (Montagnais Substation) in the Côte-Nord region, approximately south of the border of Labrador. It is located in the extreme western part of the Minganie Regional County Municipality, Quebec.
Climate.
Poste Montagnais has a subarctic climate (Köppen climate classification "Dfc"), with long cold winters and short warm summers. The warmest temperature recorded was on June 23, 1989. The coldest temperature recorded was on January 30, 1976. Poste Montagnais has pretty much uniform precipitation throughout the year with slightly more in the summer months. During the winter Poste Montagnais accumulates of snow which melts in the spring.


Venable Tobacco Company Warehouse

Venable Tobacco Company Warehouse is a historic tobacco storage warehouse located at Durham, Durham County, North Carolina. It consists of three storage units: Unit 1 and Unit 2 were built in 1905 and Unit 3 in the 1910s. It is a two-story, brick structure and is an example of "slow burn" masonry and wood factory construction. The warehouse is located adjacent to the Venable Tobacco Company Prizery and Receiving Room, which collectively are the only structures that remain of a larger complex.
It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.


Panipat Thermal Power Station I

Panipat Thermal Power Station I is located at Panipat in Haryana. The power plant is one of the coal based power plants of HPGCL, It was formerly known as the Tau Devi Lal Thermal Power Station.
Power plant.
The first four units was bifurcated from the total 8 units of the plant, so that to form Panipat Thermal Power Station I and II. Panipat Thermal Power Station I has an installed capacity of 447.80 MW. The First unit was commissioned in November 1979.
In order to improve the performance of the all four units of the plant, the Renovation and Modernisation has been started. The 3 cooling towers of this power plant was demolished in 2019.


Amalgamated Society of Tailors and Tailoresses

The Amalgamated Society of Tailors and Tailoresses (AST&T) was a trade union representing tailors in the United Kingdom.
The union was founded in 1866 when Peter Shorrocks convened a conference in Manchester of local societies of tailors. The conference was hugely successful, with 67 societies sending representatives, and 31 others sending messages giving their support to the formation of a national union. By the end of the year, membership of the new Amalgamated Society of Journeymen Tailors was more than 7,000, with the large majority of local societies in England and Ireland signing up, although the Scottish Amalgamated Society of Tailors remained separate.
The union campaigned for agreements on local wages, and where disputes arose, the union generally won by launching strike action in a single town. The union also campaigned against subcontracting and homeworking, and the employment of women. This last point became increasingly controversial within the union and, in 1900, it finally created a female section, and changed its name to the "Amalgamated Society of Tailors and Tailoresses". Members of the Female Section paid lower contributions, but also receive fewer benefits from the union.
In 1905, 900 members in London split away, led by James MacDonald, to form the London Society of Tailors and Tailoresses, after their requests to operate on a largely independent, federal basis were rejected. Despite this, the Amalgamated Society continued to grow, reaching 12,000 members in 1911, and including workers in closely related trades from 1927, when it adopted the name Amalgamated Society of Tailors, Tailoresses and Kindred Workers. This enabled it to maintain membership levels despite a reduction in the number of jobs in the industry, due to increased mechanisation. In 1932, on the suggestion of the Trades Union Congress, it merged into the Tailors and Garment Workers' Union, which was renamed as the National Union of Tailors and Garment Workers.


World Radio Laboratories

World Radio Laboratories, WRL, was a major supplier of amateur radio equipment from the 1950s to the 1970s. WRL was located in Council Bluffs, Iowa, USA, and run by Leo Meyerson, amateur callsign W0GFQ, and his family.
WRL manufactured some of its own products, notably under the Globe and Galaxy brand names. Globe Champion transmitter models appeared in 1948 and were reportedly the first to have the Globe logo on the front panel. The Champion covered 160-10 meters with a power input rating of 150 watts. A companion speech amplifier and modulator were sold as accessories. WRL Globe subsequently produced other amateur transmitters including the Globe King, Globe Scout, Globe Chief and the Globe SideBander.
In 1960, the Globe line was sold to Textron.
A former resident of Omaha, Nebraska, Meyerson died on April 13, 2011 in Rancho Mirage, California. He was 100.


Intersil

Intersil is an American semiconductor company headquartered in Milpitas, California. As of February 24, 2017, Intersil is a subsidiary of Renesas. The previous Intersil was formed in August 1999 through the acquisition of the semiconductor business of Harris Corporation. Intersil is a power management IC business, with specialized capability in power management and precision analog technology for applications in industrial, infrastructure, mobile, automotive and aerospace.
Company history.
The original Intersil, Inc. was founded in 1967 by the Swiss physicist Jean Hoerni to develop digital watch Integrated Circuits (ICs). The European subsidiary Eurosil was originally partially funded by SSIH, a Swiss watch company. Later-on, Intersil had a development contract with the Japanese company Daini Seikosha and became supplier of low-voltage CMOS watch ICs for Seiko. When microprocessors emerged to the market in the 1970s, Intersil participated with its 12-bit IM6100, which was the first microprocessor produced in CMOS technology and emulated the PDP-8 instruction set.
In 1988 Intersil was taken over by Harris Semiconductor, which had offered the IM6100 as second source. Harris combined these activities with the semiconductor divisions of Radiation Incorporated, General Electric and RCA they had taken over before. In 1999 Harris spun off its entire semiconductor division and Intersil Corporation was created with the largest IPO in American semiconductor industry history. The second Intersil Corporation is a different company from the original Intersil, Inc.
Next to digital circuits like microprocessors and memories like the 1k-bit CMOS RAM IM6508 and CMOS EPROMS IM6604/IM6654 Intersil designed famous analogue ICs like the ICM8038 waveform generator. A creation of Intersil (as Harris Semiconductor) is the PRISM line of Wi-Fi hardware: that group of products was sold to GlobespanVirata in 2003, and maintained by Conexant. Intersil is the manufacturer of the RCA (CDP)1802 microprocessor (also known as RCA COSMAC), a CPU traditionally used in space applications.
In the 2000s, Intersil established market leadership in Vcore power management for PCs, switching and buck boost regulators for industrial and consumer power systems, and radiation hardened analog and power ICs for military and commercial applications.
The company, under CEO Dave Bell, then began the expansion of a catalog analog business. The company also completed a series of acquisitions, two of which are still part of the portfolio, Zilker Labs digital power devices and Techwell automotive and security and surveillance products.
In 2012, with revenue in decline, the company's board of directors removed Dave Bell and began a search for a new CEO. In March 2013, the board appointed Necip Sayiner, the architect of Silicon Labs' turnaround, as CEO. Sayiner concentrated the company's efforts on power management and select target markets. The company was able to return to profitability in 2013 and in early 2014 re-launched as a power management company, with products to improve power efficiency, extend battery life and reduce size.
Japanese semiconductor company Renesas acquired Intersil on February 24, 2017.
Products.
Intersil develops and markets power management and analog technology for applications in the industrial, infrastructure, mobile, automotive and aerospace markets.
The company supplies power integrated circuits including battery management, computing power, display power, regulators and controllers and power modules; as well as analog components such as amplifiers and buffers, proximity and light sensors, data converters, timing products, optoelectronics and interface products.


Schilling Power Station

Schilling Power Station was an oil-fired power station in the proximity of the nuclear power station at Stade. It went into operation in 1960, was extended in 1962 and 1964, and was shut down in the 1980s. Since it principally served Hamburg north for the electricity supply of Hamburg and fed its current into the transformer station, the first overhead line crossing of the Elbe was built at that time at Stade, the Elbe Crossing 1. The buildings still exist today and are occasionally used for disaster control exercises.
Due to the use of heavy fuel oil, a chimney was built with a height of 722 feet or 220 metres, it was 1962-1965 the tallest chimney worldwide. It was an open lattice structure with three separate exhaust pipes from the blocks. The structure was demolished in 2005.


Independence Power Plant

Independence Power Plant is a 1,678-megawatt coal-fired base load power plant near Newark, Arkansas. The plant has two units, rated at 850 MWe each, that came online in 1983 and 1984. The plant is owned in part by Entergy Arkansas. It has a 305-meter chimney built in 1983.
Emissions.
In 2013, Environment America ranked the plant 35th on its list of the 100 dirtiest coal-fired power stations in the U.S., reporting that its 2011 emissions were equivalent to 2.3 million passenger vehicles.
The plant released 10,787,400 metric tons of greenhouse gases in 2012 according to the EPA. The emissions in metric tons comprised:
Phase-out plan.
In 2018, the owner Entergy announced a plan to close the plant by 2030.


Ivan Bubnov

Ivan Grigoryevich Bubnov (; 18 January 1872 – 13 March 1919) was a Russian marine engineer and designer of submarines for the Imperial Russian Navy.
Bubnov was born in Nizhny Novgorod and graduated from the Marine Engineering College in Kronstadt in 1891. He graduated from the Nikolayev Marine Academy in 1896. He initially joined the Admiralty Shipyard in Saint Petersburg and worked as a constructor on the battleship "Poltava".
In 1900, he was appointed Chief Assistant at the Russian Admiralty test tank and was involved in the design of the first Russian submarine, the Delfin. In 1903, he became the Russian Admiralty's submarine designer and was responsible for the following submarine classes:
In 1904, Bubnov became a lecturer at the Saint Petersburg Polytechnical University. He was commissioned into the Navy in 1907 and was head of the Admiralty test tank between 1908 and 1914.
Bubnov was promoted to Major General in the Corps of Naval Engineers in 1912. Between 1912 and 1917, he was a consultant to the Baltic Works in Saint Petersburg and the Nobel & Lessner shipyard in Reval.
Bubnov died of typhoid in Petrograd in 1919.


Wade Dump

Wade Dump was a rubber recycling facility and illegal industrial waste storage and disposal facility in Chester, Pennsylvania. It was located at 1 Flower Street on the western bank of the Delaware River just north of the Commodore Barry Bridge. A toxic fire at the site in 1978 burned out of control for several days and resulted in 43 injured firefighters and criminal charges for the owner of the site. The first responders to the fire suffered long term health consequences and higher than normal cancer rates.
In 1983, the site was designated a Superfund cleanup site by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and was remediated in stages over six years. It was removed from the National Priorities List in 1989. In 2004, it was turned into a parking lot for the city's Barry Bridge Park with approval from the state and the EPA. The sixth five year review of the site conducted by the EPA in 2018 concluded that the site continues to be protective of human health and the environment. Groundwater monitoring was discontinued in 2018 and the monitoring wells decommissioned. Periodic inspections of the site are ongoing.
History.
From about 1950 to the early 1970s, the 3-acre site was the location of Eastern Rubber Reclaiming, a rubber recycling facility. The property owner, Melvin Wade, turned the site into an illegal industrial waste storage and disposal facility which operated until 1978. ABM Disposal Company paid Wade $1.00 to $1.50 per 55-gallon drum to store industrial waste on his property. ABM Disposal was not regulated by the state and had a long criminal record of dumping abuses in the Philadelphia area. Wade accumulated 100 to 150 drums per week and eventually had 20,000 drums and 20 tank trucks full of chemical waste on the site. The drums leaked and workers dumped their contents onto the ground or into various trenches, severely contaminating the soil and ground water. More than 3 million gallons of cyanide, benzene, toluene, sodium copper cyanide, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and other chemicals were stored on the site along with thousands of tires.
In 1977, the Health Director for the City of Chester became aware of the site and inspected it along with the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (PADEP). The owner and operators of the site were ordered to cease operations and clean-up the site. During the legal appeals to this order the site was inoperative and virtually abandoned.
1978 Fire.
In February 1978, an intense fire at the site destroyed one building and damaged two others where drums of waste were stored. The burning chemicals produced multi-colored smoke and noxious fumes. The Chester Fire Department mounted an aggressive attack but were driven back by exploding 55-gallon drums and disabling smoke. The fire was extinguished after 20 hours but rekindled twice in the ensuing days. The Commodore Barry Bridge was closed for the duration of the fire.
Local hospitals treated 43 firefighters for injuries sustained during the fire. The immediate effects of exposure to the toxic fumes included raw, burning throats; vomiting; a quickly forming red, itchy rash; and seared eyes and nasal passages. Over 200 first responders including firemen, police and paramedics were exposed to the toxic fumes. First responders to the fire experienced many health problems in subsequent years including several deaths from rare cancers. Cancer rates of firemen at the fire or cleanup were five to six times the norm.
In 1980, Melvin Wade was convicted of risking a catastrophe, failing to prevent a catastrophe and violating the Clean Water Act by polluting the Delaware River. He was sentenced to one to two years in prison and fined $30,000.
Cleanup.
In late 1981 and early 1982, the EPA conducted two emergency cleanups in which workers removed an estimated 5,000 gallons of PCB-contaminated waste, 10,000 gallons of other hazardous wastes for incineration and 155 tons of contaminated solids.
In 1984, the EPA issued a Record of Decision (ROD) which outlined a long-term plan for the site cleanup which was managed by the PADEP. The work took place in 1987. Tires, tankers, debris piles, and buildings were removed, decontaminated, and disposed of. Contaminated soil was removed to depths with acceptable levels of contamination or to the level of the water table. The site was leveled, filled and graded, then covered with topsoil and seeded to minimize erosion. Thirteen separate monitoring wells were installed in order to collect groundwater sampling and conduct testing for contaminants. The EPA, in conjunction with the state, removed the site from the National Priorities List in 1989.
Current status.
In 2004, with EPA and state approval, the site was given drainpipes to clear stormwater and paved with asphalt to create a parking lot for the city's Barry Bridge Park.
In 2008, the Barry Bridge Park site adjacent to Wade Dump was selected as the site of Subaru Park, home of the Philadelphia Union Major League Soccer franchise.
In 2018, a five-year review of the site concluded that the site continues to be protective of human health and the environment. The EPA approved a request from the PADEP to discontinue groundwater monitoring at the site after nearly three decades of sampling data showed that groundwater beneath the site had reached acceptable levels of contamination. The remaining wells on the site were decommissioned. Periodic inspections are ongoing to ensure proper maintenance of the site.


General Pipe and Foundry Company

The General Pipe and Foundry Company foundry and machine shop was located on the north side of Highland Avenue between Elizabeth Street and the BeltLine in Inman Park, Atlanta, Georgia. Coca-Cola executive Robert W. Woodruff worked here when he was 19 years old.
The land on which the complex once sat is now the N. Highland Steel apartment and retail complex. The only original building remaining is the pattern shop which now houses Parish restaurant.


Heladhanavi Power Station

The Heladhanavi Power Station was a thermal power station in Puttalam, Sri Lanka. The fuel oil-run power station was commissioned in August 2004, and was operated by , a subsidiary of Hemas Holdings. It was decommissioned in 2015 by request from the Ministry of Power and Energy. The power station consisted of six generation units of each.


Foss Island Power Station

Foss Island Power Station, also known as York Power Station, was a small 40 MW coal-fired power station serving the city of York.
It was located in the Layerthorpe area of the city, to the east of the city centre.
It was built by York Corporation in the 1890s, opened in February 1900 and closed on 25 October 1976.
History.
In 1923 the station was supplying 3-phase AC at 400 and 230 V; DC at 460 and 230 V; and DC for traction at 500 V. The steam turbine driven AC generators comprised two 1,250 kW and two 3,500 kW machines. DC current was produced by two 500 kW oil-driven machines. Electricity supplies were supplemented by a water powered generating station near Linton-on-Ouse (Linton Lock Hydro), which was commissioned in 1923 and comprised a 250 kW and a 500 kW generator. In 1923 the facilities at York generated 15.128 GWh of electricity. The sales of electricity produced a surplus of revenue over expenses of £26,938 for the Corporation.
The steam plant at Foss Island were chain grate stoker boilers capable of delivering 400,000 lb/h (50.4 kg/s) of steam at 400 psi (27.6 bar) and 399/427°C. The generating capacity of the station was 40 MW. Steam condensing and cooling was by river water and a single concrete cooling tower. In the year ending 31 March 1972 the station delivered 54.772 GWh of electricity, its load factor (the average load as a percent of maximum output capacity) was 16.4 percent.
The electricity output from the station, in GWh, was as follows.<graph>{
 "version": 2,
 "width": 400,
 "height": 200,
 "data": [
 "name": "table",
 "values": [
 "x": 1954,
 "y": 45
 {
 "x": 1955,
 "y": 45
 {
 "x": 1956,
 "y": 59
 {
 "x": 1957,
 "y": 35
 {
 "x": 1958,
 "y": 49
 {
 "x": 1961,
 "y": 55
 {
 "x": 1962,
 "y": 71
 {
 "x": 1963,
 "y": 78
 {
 "x": 1972,
 "y": 55
 {
 "x": 1946,
 "y": 28
 {
 "x": 1967,
 "y": 70
 ]
 ],
 "scales": [
 "name": "x",
 "type": "ordinal",
 "range": "width",
 "zero": false,
 "domain": {
 "data": "table",
 "field": "x"
 },
 "name": "y",
 "type": "linear",
 "range": "height",
 "nice": true,
 "domain": {
 "data": "table",
 "field": "y"
 "axes": [
 "type": "x",
 "scale": "x"
 {
 "type": "y",
 "scale": "y"
 ],
 "marks": [
 "type": "rect",
 "from": {
 "data": "table"
 "properties": {
 "enter": {
 "x": {
 "scale": "x",
 "field": "x"
 "y": {
 "scale": "y",
 "field": "y"
 "y2": {
 "scale": "y",
 "value": 0
 "fill": {
 "value": "steelblue"
 "width": {
 "scale": "x",
 "band": "true",
 "offset": -1
}</graph>
In 1958 the York electricity district supplied an area of 166,179 acres and a population of 152,269. The amount of electricity sold and the number and types of consumers was as follows:
In 1958 the above totals were made up of the following:
The buildings were demolished around 1980 and the transmission line which ran from the power station to a substation at Tang Hall Lane was dismantled at around the same time.


DI Corporation

DI Corporation is a South Korean company involved in the manufacture and supply of semiconductors test equipments and computer chips. DI stands for Dongil.
Ownership.
Its executive chairman is Park Won-ho, father of the K-Pop artist PSY, who released the song "Gangnam Style" in July 2012.
PSY, together with his father, uncle and grandmother own a combined 30 percent of the company. The company's headquarters are located in Gangnam District, Seoul.
History.
The company was established on June 10, 1955.
It was listed on the Korea Stock Exchange in 1996.
In 2003, it expanded and began operations overseas with the establishment of DI Japan Corp.
Meteoric rise of share prices.
According to Reuters, the company's market capitalization doubled in value after the release of "Gangnam Style", surging to 113.5 billion won ($101.29 million) in late September, 2012.
In October 2012, Bloomberg L.P. reported that the "father-son connection" to the "Gangnam Style" music video has triggered an almost 500 percent rally in shares of DI Corporation. The Economist compared its remarkable surge in share prices with stock market bubbles such as the 17th century Tulip mania.
By the end of 2012, shares of DI corporation have surged eightfold since the release of the song.


Cowper Phipps Coles

Captain Cowper Phipps Coles, C.B., R.N. (1819 – 7 September 1870), was an English naval captain with the Royal Navy. Coles was also an inventor; in 1859, he was the first to patent a design for a revolving gun turret. Upon appealing for public support, his turrets were installed on HMS "Prince Albert" & HMS "Royal Sovereign". Coles died in a maritime accident in 1870 when , an experimental warship built to his designs, capsized and sank with him on board.
Naval career.
The son of the Reverend John Coles and his wife Mary Ann Goodhew Rogers, he entered the Royal Navy at the age of eleven. On 9 January 1846, he was promoted to lieutenant and on 5 December 1849 posted to "Phaeton" commanded by George Augustus Elliot. On 24 October 1853, he was posted to "Agamemnon" as flag lieutenant for his uncle, Rear Admiral Sir Edmund Lyons. He distinguished himself at the siege of Sevastopol during the Crimean War against the Russian Empire. On 13 November 1854 promoted to commander and on 2 August 1856 was commanding officer of the paddle boat in the Black Sea.
It was during the Siege of Taganrog that he and other British naval officers and sailors constructed a raft named "Lady Nancy" from twenty-nine casks lashed together with spars. The raft supported a long 32-pounder gun and because of its small draft could be moved into shallow water from where it was used to attack Russian government stores in Taganrog. Coles became a hero for this action, when the press correspondent on board "Stromboli" reported his daring deeds. Coles expanded the idea by drawing up plans for a better raft, mounting a gun enclosed within a hemispherical shield. Admiral Lyons was impressed with the ideas and Coles was sent to London to present his ideas to the Admiralty. Plans were prepared for rafts with a draught of which would be used to attack the Kronstadt forts. The rafts would be able to approach through shallow waters not protected by the fort guns. Unfortunately for Coles, the war ended before the raft could be built.
Turret ship designer.
On 27 February 1856, Coles was made captain. He was placed on half pay after the war ended and spent his time creating designs for turret ships. Up to this time the principal armament of warships had been batteries of guns firing from fixed ports in the sides of the ship. On 10 March 1859 he filed a patent for a revolving turret, although it is not clear how he came by the idea. The American , constructed by John Ericsson in 1861, incorporated a revolving turret and Ericsson claimed the idea of a revolving protected gun was an old one. "The Times" suggested that Marc Brunel had given Coles the idea. Coles' design aim was to create a ship with the greatest possible all round arc of fire, as low in the water as possible to minimise the target. This proved to be a weakness in designs he created, because he was unwilling to compromise these aims for the practical necessities of sailing ships' rigging, decks sufficiently high to be clear of heavy seas and other necessary superstructures which restricted the guns' rotation.
The Admiralty accepted the principle of the turret gun as a useful innovation, and incorporated it into other new designs. However, they could not accept his other ideas on ship design. Coles submitted a design for a ship having ten domed turrets each housing two large guns. The design was rejected as impractical, although the Admiralty remained interested in turret ships and instructed its own designers to create better designs. Coles submitted his plans to anyone who might be interested and succeeded in enlisting a number of supporters, including Prince Albert, who wrote to the first Lord of the Admiralty, the Duke of Somerset, supporting the construction of a turret ship. In January 1862, the Admiralty agreed to construct a ship, , which had four turrets and a low freeboard, intended only for coastal defence. Coles was allowed to design the turrets, but the ship was the responsibility of the chief Constructor Isaac Watts.
Coles had another proposal, to take an existing timber ship, remove its upper decks and existing broadside guns and replace them with four turrets on a flat deck. The ship was also to be fitted with of armour in a belt around the waterline. was completed in August 1864, ahead of "Prince Albert". Like "Prince Albert" it had only minimal sails intended to steady the ship rather than drive it along at any speed. The low freeboard was countered by hinged sections increasing the height of the sides above the deck; these were dropped down to allow the guns to fire. Coles later took command of "Royal Sovereign" for the July 1867 Naval Review.
While these ships were building, Coles made further proposals which the Admiralty resisted pending completion of the trial ships already under construction. However, once "Royal Sovereign" was completed and had received favourable reports, he requested Admiralty assistance in creating a new design. This was to be based upon the existing designed by the new Chief Constructor, Edward Reed. The Admiralty provided the original plans of the ship plus Joseph Scullard, constructor at Portsmouth dockyard, to assist. The resulting single turret design was rejected, but the Admiralty instructed Reed to create a larger version with two turrets which became , laid down in 1866 and completed in June 1869. Coles complained at the inclusion of a forecastle and poop which prevented the guns firing fore and aft, and the high position of the guns above water level, but his objections were dismissed. Reed maintained the features were all intended to improve seaworthiness.
HMS "Captain".
Coles once again resorted to appealing to public opinion to obtain support for a ship more closely in accord with his design ideas. The civilian First Lord remained agreeable to his plans, although the Board of Admiralty was split. Eventually the Board agreed to pay for the construction of a ship, although this was to be supervised by Coles himself in an Admiralty-approved yard; Laird Brothers agreed to build her. Plans for were submitted to the Admiralty as would be normal, but Reed declined to 'approve' them, instead marking all drawings 'not objected to'. He eventually resigned over the affair in July 1870, two months before the disaster. Construction commenced in January 1867.
"Captain" was designed to have a freeboard of only , but owing to mistakes in construction leading to increased weight, the ship eventually floated lower in the water. She had a full set of sails and the highest masts in the navy. She was completed in January 1870, and initial trials were successful. In May, she accompanied the Channel fleet and successfully weathered a gale. Vice-Admiral Sir Thomas Symmonds commanding commented favorably on both "Captain" and "Monarch". "Captain" achieved , compared to "Monarch"s under steam, but with smaller engines. Under sail, "Captain" was faster. All in all, she was hailed as a vindication of Coles' ideas.
In August, the ship sailed again with Coles on board. The weather deteriorated, and again she had to face a gale. This time, however, the wind was gusting and unpredictable. Extensive rigging had been necessary to make the ship oceangoing. This forced the creation of a "hurricane deck" above the turrets, which increasingly caught the wind as she heeled over. This may have been instrumental in "Captain"s tragic capsize. Coles perished in the disaster after midnight on the night of 6 September.
It emerged that the ship had a maximum righting moment at an angle of heel around 18 degrees. If she was pushed over beyond this angle, the moment declined. By contrast, "Monarch" had a maximum restoring force at an angle of 40 degrees, so that any heel up to this limit would always meet increasing resistance.
Family.
In 1856, Coles married Emily Pearson, niece of Admiral Lord Lyons. Coles was himself a nephew, by marriage, of Admiral Lord Lyons, his mother being the sister of Augusta, Lyons' wife.
Artist.
Coles was also an artist. The National Maritime Museum has a number of his watercolours, and sell prints of some of them.


Body of water

A body of water or waterbody (often spelled water body) is any significant accumulation of water, generally on a planet's surface. The term most often refers to oceans, seas, and lakes, but it includes smaller pools of water such as ponds, wetlands, or more rarely, puddles. A body of water does not have to be still or contained; rivers, streams, canals, and other geographical features where water moves from one place to another are also considered bodies of water.
Most are naturally occurring geographical features, but some are artificial. There are types that can be either. For example, most reservoirs are created by engineering dams, but some natural lakes are used as reservoirs. Similarly, most harbors are naturally occurring bays, but some harbors have been created through construction.
Bodies of water that are navigable are known as waterways. Some bodies of water collect and move water, such as rivers and streams, and others primarily hold water, such as lakes and oceans.
The term "body of water" can also refer to a reservoir of water held by a plant, technically known as a phytotelma.
Bodies of water are affected by gravity which is what creates the tidal effects on Earth.
Types.
Note that there are some geographical features involving water that are not bodies of water, for example waterfalls, geysers and rapids.


Dresden Plant

The Dresden Plant is a 580 megawatt (MW), natural gas power plant located south of Dresden, Ohio in Muskingum County, Ohio. The plant began operations in 2012 and is currently owned by American Electric Power (AEP).
History.
The Dresden Plant was first conceived in 2000 when Dresden Energy, LLC, a subsidiary of Dominion Energy, proposed the construction of a combined cycle power plant utilizing natural gas as its energy source. Construction began in 2001, but numerous delays and rising natural gas prices made the plant uneconomical at that time. In 2007, AEP would purchase the partially built Dresden Plant from a subsidiary of Dominion for $85 million. The Dresden Plant would remain in an idle state with a skeleton crew until 2011 when AEP recommenced construction at the site. Commercial operations began on February 1, 2012. The total cost for the construction of the plant was $366 million.
Equipment.
The Dresden Plant features three units. There are two, General Electric, 7FA gas turbines which are fed into heat recovery steam generators designed by Vogt-NEM and a single, General Electric, D11 steam turbine generator. All three turbines are equipped with LO-NOx burners and selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems to reduce nitrogen oxide () emissions.


Hammermill

A hammer mill is a mill whose purpose is to shred or crush aggregate material into smaller pieces by the repeated blows of little hammers. These machines have numerous industrial applications, including:
Operation.
The basic principle is straightforward. A hammer mill is essentially a steel drum containing a vertical or horizontal rotating shaft or drum on which hammers are mounted. The hammers are free to swing on the ends of the cross, or fixed to the central rotor. The rotor is spun at a high speed inside the drum while material is fed into a feed hopper. The material is impacted by the hammer bars and is thereby shredded and expelled through screens in the drum of a selected size.
The hammermill can be used as a primary, secondary, or tertiary crusher.
Small grain hammermills can be operated on household current. Large hammer mills used in automobile shredders may be driven by diesel or electric motors ranging from 2000 to over 5000 horsepower (1.5 - 3.7MW).
The screenless hammer mill uses air flow to separate small particles from larger ones. It is designed to be more reliable, and is also claimed to be much cheaper and more energy efficient than regular hammermills.
The design & structure of the hammermill is always determined by the end use.
History.
Water powered trip hammer mills were created in 488 AD by the medieval Chinese mathematician and engineer Zu Chongzhi which was inspected by Emperor Wu of Southern Qi (r. 482–493 AD). The water powered trip hammer mills were powered by minor hill flowing stream that was connected to a large river beneath the high banks.
Types of Hammer Mill Crushers.
Types of Hammer Mill Crushers can include "up running" and "down running" hammer mills -
Based on the director of the motor the hammer mills are classified into the following types:
Although the mills are classified into the above two different types their working and grinding actions of both these types of mill are almost similar. However, their construction differs in various respects.


Hans Spekman

Johannes Leonardus "Hans" Spekman (; born 6 April 1966) is a Dutch politician of the Labour Party. He was a local politician in Utrecht from 1994 to 2006 and a member of the House of Representatives from 2006 to 2012. He was the party chair of the Labour Party between 2012 and 2017.
Early life and career.
Johannes Leonardus Spekman was born on 6 April 1966 in Zevenhuizen in South Holland in the Netherlands.
He worked as a welder, mover, and environmental bookseller.
Politics.
Spekman has been a member of the Labour Party since 1986.
He was a member of the municipal council of Utrecht from 1 April 1994 to 1 January 2001 and an alderman of Utrecht from 1 January 2001 to 1 May 2006.
Spekman was a member of the House of Representatives from 30 November 2006 to 24 January 2012. He focused on matters of alien and asylum policy, employment and social assistance policy, as well as poverty and benefit fraud control.
Spekman has been chairman of the Labour Party since 2 January 2012, when he succeeded Lilianne Ploumen.
In 2016 he organized a battle for the leadership of the Labour Party between the then–party leader Diederik Samsom and deputy prime minister Lodewijk Asscher. The battle had a disastrous effect on the unity within the party and led to the end of the political career of Samsom. In 2017 Spekman led the campaign of his party in the parliamentary elections for the House of Representatives. On March 15 the Labour Party suffered a historical defeat of 29 seats in the House. The party ended up with nine seats. After the defeat members of the Labour party called for the resignation as party chairman of Hans Spekman. On March 17 he announced that he would step down in the fall of 2017.
Personal life.
Spekman lives in the city of Utrecht.


Moss Tobacco Factory

Moss Tobacco Factory was a historic tobacco factory located at Clarksville, Mecklenburg County, Virginia. It was built about 1855, and was a 3 1/2-story, brick building with a gable roof erected in two sections. The Moss Tobacco Factory operated until 1862. It later housed an exchange or auction house for the sale of tobacco and as a tobacco warehouse. It was demolished in February 1980.
It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979, and delisted in 2001.


Waupaca Foundry

Waupaca Foundry, Inc., formerly known as ThyssenKrupp Waupaca, is among the world's largest independent iron foundries. The company produces gray, ductile, and compacted graphite iron castings. Global markets served include automotive and light truck, commercial vehicle, agriculture, construction, material handling, and other industrial sectors. With headquarters and three plants in Waupaca, Wisconsin as well as plants in Marinette, Wisconsin, Tell City, Indiana, Etowah, Tennessee, Effingham, Illinois, Lawrenceville, Pennsylvania, and Ironwood, Michigan, the foundry employs about 4,500 people.
Previously owned by ThyssenKrupp, ThyssenKrupp Waupaca was purchased by New York-based private equity firm KPS Capital Partners. The company has been officially renamed Waupaca Foundry, Inc. In 2014, Waupaca Foundry was acquired by Hitachi Metals, becoming part of Hitachi Metals’ high-grade Functional Components Company.


Alfred Simpson (ironmaster)

Alfred Simpson (1805 – 23 September 1891) was an English iron worker who emigrated to South Australia and founded A. Simpson & Son, a major manufacturing business.
History.
Alfred Simpson was born on 29 August 1805 at 139 Leadenhall Street, London, a son of John Simpson and his wife Anne, née Salter, daughter of a Boston sea-captain. The second youngest of their twelve children, he was at 15 apprenticed to Amos Burkitt as a tinplate worker, and in his spare time learned all he could of science and engineering. At the end of his indentures he was admitted to the Worshipful Company of Tinplate Workers and in May 1829 became a Freeman of the City of London.
There being little work for an ironworker at the time, he joined his brother Tom in the tailoring firm of Paine & Simpson as a traveller. Silk hats had just become fashionable, and Alfred was sent to Paris to learn as much as he could about their fabrication. He made some improvements, took out a patent, and soon their company was one of the six largest hat makers in London, employing some 200 men.
The prosperity of Simpson's business was checked by a fire (the factory at Southwark was not insured) and it took seven years of hard work before he was sufficiently affluent to marry.
This was the period of the great railway boom, and in the depression following its collapse the demand for silk hats evaporated. Alfred suffered rheumatism, which was exacerbated by England's cold winters, and he decided to emigrate to South Australia where, it was said, the sun always shone and an bright energetic man could make a fortune. Another attraction may have been South Australia's reputation for religious tolerance (Alfred was a Unitarian). He paid off all his creditors and left for Adelaide with his family aboard the "John Woodhall", arriving in January 1849.
Alfred had several unsuccessful business ventures and twice visited the goldfields while Sarah gave piano lessons. He must have been moderately successful, as he sent Sarah 20 oz of gold in March 1852.
In 1853 he turned to tinsmithing, making pots and pans and supplying cans for the Glen Ewin jam factory. In 1862 he leased premises in on the south-west corner of Pirie Street and Gawler Place, Adelaide, which were later rebuilt.
Simpson was an innovator and introduced labour-saving machinery and new products such as fire-proof safes, bedsteads, japanned ware, colonial ovens and gas stoves. He was one of the first members of the South Australian Chamber of Manufactures. Of a retiring disposition, he was esteemed for his commercial ability and consideration to employees.
He died on 23 September 1891 and was buried in the West Terrace Cemetery.
Family.
Alfred Simpson (29 August 1805 – 23 September 1891) married Sarah Neighbour ( – 30 December 1874) on 21 June 1838, lived in Kent Town, then Upper Kensington from c.1880. Their family included:
His only sister Caroline Simpson ( – 27 October 1873) married Thomas Neighbour, lived in Middlesex