Argentine wine

Argentina is the fifth largest producer of wine in the world. Argentine wine, as with some aspects of Argentine cuisine, has its roots in Spain. During the Spanish colonization of the Americas, vine cuttings were brought to Santiago del Estero in 1557, and the cultivation of the grape and wine production stretched first to neighboring regions, and then to other parts of the country.
Historically, Argentine winemakers were traditionally more interested in quantity than quality with the country consuming 90% of the wine it produces ( per capita according to 2006 figures). Until the early 1990s, Argentina produced more wine than any other country outside Europe, though the majority of it was considered unexportable. However, the desire to increase exports fueled significant advances in quality. Argentine wines started being exported during the 1990s, and are currently growing in popularity, making it now the largest wine exporter in South America. The devaluation of the Argentine peso in 2002 further fueled the industry as production costs decreased and tourism significantly increased, giving way to a whole new concept of enotourism in Argentina.
The most important wine regions of the country are located in the provinces of Mendoza, San Juan and La Rioja. Salta, Catamarca, Río Negro and more recently southern Buenos Aires are also wine producing regions. The Mendoza province produces more than 60% of the Argentine wine and is the source of an even higher percentage of the total exports. Due to the high altitude and low humidity of the main wine producing regions, Argentine vineyards rarely face the problems of insects, fungi, molds and other grape diseases that affect vineyards in other countries. This allows cultivating with little or no pesticides, enabling even organic wines to be easily produced.
There are many different varieties of grapes cultivated in Argentina, reflecting the country's many immigrant groups. The French brought Malbec, which makes most of Argentina's best known wines. The Italians brought vines that they called "Bonarda", although Argentine Bonarda appears to be the Douce noir of Savoie, also known as Charbono in California. It has nothing in common with the light fruity wines made from Bonarda Piemontese in Piedmont. Torrontés is another typically Argentine grape and is mostly found in the provinces of La Rioja, San Juan, and Salta. It is a member of the Malvasia group that makes aromatic white wines. It has recently been grown in Spain. Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Chardonnay and other international varieties are becoming more widely planted, but some varieties are cultivated characteristically in certain areas.
In November 2010, the Argentine government declared wine as Argentina's national liquor.
History.
Viticulture was introduced to Argentina during the Spanish colonization of the Americas and later again by Christian missionaries. In 1556 father Juan Cedrón established the first vineyard in Argentina when cuttings from the Chilean Central Valley were brought to what is now the San Juan and Mendoza wine region, which firmly established viticulture in Argentina. Ampelographers suspect that one of these cuttings brought the ancestor grape of Chile's Pais and California's Mission grape. This grape was the forerunner of the "Criolla Chica" variety that would be the backbone of the Argentine wine industry for the next 300 years.
The first recorded commercial vineyard was established at Santiago del Estero in 1557 by Jesuit missionaries which was followed by expansion of vineyard plantings in Mendoza in the early 1560s and San Juan between 1569 and 1589. During this time the missionaries and settlers in the area began construction of complex irrigation channels and dams that would bring water down from the melting glaciers of the Andes to sustain vineyards and agriculture. A provincial governor, Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, instructed the French agronomist Miguel Aimé Pouget to bring grapevine cuttings from France to Argentina. Of the vines that Pouget brought were the very first Malbec vines to be planted in that country.
As the infantile Argentine wine industry became centralized in the western part of the country among the foothills of the mountains, the population centers of the country developed in the east. Transporting wine by means of a long wagon journey put a crimp in the growth of the wine industry that would not be eased till the 1885 completion of the Argentine railway that connected the city of Mendoza to Buenos Aires. Don Tiburcio Benegas, governor of the province of Mendoza and owner of El Trapiche wine estate, was instrumental in financing and pushing through the construction, convinced that in order for the Argentine wine industry to survive it needed a market. The 19th century also saw the first wave of immigrants from Europe. Many of these immigrants were escaping the scourge of the phylloxera epidemic that ravaged vineyards in their homeland and they brought with them their expertise and winemaking knowledge to their new home.
Economic troubles and growth of export industry.
In the 20th century, the development and fortunes of the Argentine wine industry were deeply influenced by the economic influences of the country. In the 1920s, Argentina was the eighth richest nation in the world with the domestic market feeding a strong wine industry. The ensuing global Great Depression dramatically reduced vital export revenues and foreign investment and led to a decline in the wine industry.
There was a brief revival in the economy during the presidency of Juan Perón but the economy declined soon again under the military dictatorship of the 1960s and 1970s. During this time the wine industry was sustained by the domestic consumption of cheap "vino de mesa". By the early 1970s, per capita consumption was nearly ("i.e." around 120 standard 750 mL wine bottles) per year, significantly more than many other countries including the United Kingdom and United States which averaged around three liters (less than a gallon) per person during the same period.
In the 1980s there was a period of hyperinflation, running at up to 12,000% per year in 1989. Foreign investment was mostly stagnant. Under the presidency of Carlos Menem, the country saw some economic stability. The favorable exchange rate on the Argentine peso during the convertibility period saw an influx of foreign investment. However this period also saw a dramatic drop in domestic consumption.
Following the example of neighboring Chile, the Argentine wine industry started to more aggressively focus on the export market—particularly the lucrative British and American markets. The presence of Flying winemakers from France, California and Australia brought modern technical know-how for viticultural and winemaking techniques such as yield control, temperature control fermentation and the use of new oak barrels. By the end of the 1990s, Argentina was exporting more 3.3 million gallons (12.5 million liters) to the United States with exports to the UK also strong. Wine experts such as Karen MacNeil noted that up to this point the Argentine wine industry was considered a "sleeping giant" which by the end of the 20th century was waking up.
Climate and geography.
The major wine regions of Argentina are located in the western part of the country among the foothills of the Andes Mountains between the Tropic of Capricorn to the north and the 40th parallel south. Most of the regions have a semi-arid desert-like climate with annual rainfall rarely exceeding more than a year. In the warmest regions (such as Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan and the eastern outreaches of Mendoza), summer temperatures during the growing season can be very hot during the day with temperatures upwards of . Nighttime temperatures can drop to creating a wide diurnal temperature variation.
Some regions have more temperate climates such as the Cafayate region of Salta, Río Negro and the western reaches of Mendoza which includes the Luján de Cuyo and Tupungato departments. Wintertime temperatures can drop below but frost is a rare occurrence for most vineyards, except those planted at extremely high altitudes with poor air circulation. Most rainfall occurs during the summer months and in late summer sometimes fall as hail (known as "La Piedra"), posing potential damage to the vines. These warmer regions can see an average of 320 days of sunshine a year.
The northwestern wine regions are particularly prone to the effects of the hurricane force winds known as the "Zonda" which blows from the Andes during the flowering period of early summer. This fierce wind of hot, dry air can disrupt the flowering process and severely reduce potential yields. Most of the growing season is dry with the lack of humidity limiting the risk and hazard from various grape diseases and fungal rot. Many vineyards operate without the need for any chemical spraying, a condition conducive to organic viticulture. The periodic occurrence of the El Niño phenomenon can have a sharp influence on climate condition during a growing season-such as the case during the 1998 vintage when prolong heavy rains brought by El Niño led to widespread rot and fungal disease.
The Andes Mountains are the dominant geographical feature of Argentine wine regions, with the snow-capped mountains often serving as a backdrop view to the vineyards. As the winter snows start to melt in the spring, an intricate irrigation system of dams, canals and channels brings vital water supplies down to the wine regions to sustain viticulture in the dry, arid climates. Most of the wine regions are located within the foothills of the Andes and recent trends have seen a push to plant vineyards on higher elevations closer to the mountains.
The climate in some of this regions can be more continental and less prone to extremes in temperatures. Soils throughout the country are mostly alluvial and sandy with some areas having substrates of clay, gravel and limestone. In the cooler Patagonia region which contains the winemaking provinces of Río Negro and Neuquén, the soil is more chalky.
Viticulture.
The growing season in Argentina usually last from budbreak in October to harvest beginning sometime in February. The "Instituto Nacional de Vitivinicultura" (INV), the main government controlling body for the wine industry, declares the beginning date for harvest in a region with the harvest season sometimes lasting till April depending on the variety and wine region. A sizable population of itinerant laborers provides an abundance of grape pickers at low cost which has slowed the conversion to mechanical harvesting. After harvest, grapes often have to be transported long distances, taking several hours, from the rural vineyards to winemaking facilities located in more urban areas. In the 1970s, yields were reported as surpassing , a sharp contrast to the average yields in premium wine regions such as Bordeaux and Napa Valley of . As the Argentine wine industry continues to grow in the 21st century, several related viticultural trends will involve improvements in irrigation, yield control, canopy management and the construction of more winemaking facilities closer to the vineyards.
Argentina is unique in the wine world for the absence of the phylloxera threat that has devastated vineyards across the globe. The phylloxera louse is present in Argentina but is a particular weak biotype that does not survive long in the soil. When it does attack vines, the damage is not significant enough to kill the vine and the roots eventually grow back.
Because of this most of the vineyards in Argentina are planted on ungrafted rootstock. There are many theories about why phylloxera has not yet reach this part of the world. The centuries-old tradition of flood irrigation where water is allowed to deeply saturate the soil may be one reason, as is the high proportion of sand present in the soil. The relative isolation of Argentina is also cited as a potential benefit against phylloxera with the country's wine regions being bordered by mountains, deserts and oceans that create natural barriers against the spread of the louse. Despite the minimal risk of phylloxera, some producers are switching to grafted rootstock that provide better yield control.
Various methods of vine training were introduced in Argentina by European immigrants in the 19th and 20th century. The "espaldera" system combined the traditional method of using three wires to train the vines close to the ground. In the 1950s a new system known as "parral cuyano" was introduced where vines were trained high off the ground with the clusters allowed to hang down. This style was conducive to the high yielding varieties of Criolla and Cereza that were the backbone of the bulk wine production industry that arose in response to the large domestic market. In the late 20th century, as the market turned to focus more on premium wine production, more producers switched back to the traditional "espaldera" system and began to practice canopy management in order to control yields.
Irrigation.
The intricate irrigation system used to bring water from melted snow caps in the Andes originated in the 16th century (with the Spanish settlers adopting techniques previously used by the Incas) and has been a vital component of agriculture in Argentina. Water flows down from the mountain through a series of ditches and canals where it is stored in reservoirs for use by vineyards which can apply for government-regulated water licenses that grant them access to the water. Newly planted vineyards on land that does not have existing water rights will often use alternative water sources such as drilling deep boreholes to below the surface to retrieve water from underground aquifer. These water wells, though costly to build, can supply a vineyard with as much as of water per hour.
Historically, flood irrigation was the most common method used, whereby large amounts of water are allowed to run across flat vineyard lands. While this method may have been an unwittingly preventive measure against the advance of phylloxera, it does not provide much control for the vineyard manager to limit yields and increase potential quality in the wine grapes. Subsequently, a method of furrow irrigation was developed whereby water is funneled into furrow channels that the vines are planted in. While providing a little more control, this method was still more suited to producing high yields. In the late 1990s, drip irrigation started to become more popular. Though expensive to install, this method provides for the maximum level of control by the vineyard manager to facilitate yield control and increase potential quality in the grape by leveraging water stress on the vine.
Wine regions.
While there is some wine production in the provinces of Buenos Aires, Córdoba and La Pampa, the vast majority of wine production takes place in the far western expanse of Argentina leading up to the foothills of the Andes. The Mendoza region is the largest region and the leading producer, responsible for more than two-thirds of the country's yearly production, followed by the San Juan and La Rioja regions to the north.
In the far northwestern corner of the country are the provinces of Catamarca, Jujuy and Salta which includes some of the world's highest planted vineyards. In the southern region of Patagonia, the Río Negro and Neuquén provinces have traditionally been the fruit producing centers of the country but have recently seen growth in the planting of cool climate varietals (such as Pinot noir and Chardonnay).
Mendoza.
Despite the total area planted declining from between 1980 and 2003, Mendoza is still the leading producer of wine in Argentina. As of the beginning of the 21st century, the vineyard area in Mendoza alone was slightly less than half of the entire planted area in the United States and more than the area of New Zealand and Australia combined.
The majority of the vineyards are found in the Maipú and Luján departments. In 1993, the Mendoza sub region of Luján de Cuyo was the first controlled appellation established in Mendoza. Other notable sub-regions include the Uco Valley and the Tupungato department. Located in the shadow of Mount Aconcagua, the average vineyards in Mendoza are planted at altitudes above sea level. The soil of the region is sandy and alluvial on top of clay substructures and the climate is continental with four distinct seasons that affect the grapevine, including winter dormancy.
Historically, the region has been dominated by production of wine from the high yielding, pink-skinned varieties of Cereza and Criolla Grande but in recent years Malbec has become the regions most popular planting. Cereza and Criolla Grande still account for nearly a quarter of all vineyard plantings in Mendoza but more than half of all plantings are now to premium red varietals which beyond Malbec include Cabernet Sauvignon, Tempranillo and Italian varieties. In the high altitude vineyards of Tupungato, located southwest of the city of Mendoza in the Uco Valley, Chardonnay is increasing in popularity. The cooler climate and lower salinity in the soils of the Maipú region has been receiving attention for the quality of its Cabernet Sauvignon. Wine producers in the region are working with authorities to establish a controlled appellation.
High-altitude plantings.
Argentina’s most highly rated Malbec wines originate from Mendoza’s high altitude wine regions of Luján de Cuyo and the Uco Valley. These Districts are located in the foothills of the Andes mountains between elevation.
Argentine vintner Nicolas Catena Zapata has been widely credited for elevating the status of Argentine Malbec and the Mendoza region through serious experimentation into the effects of high altitude. In 1994, he was the first to plant a Malbec vineyard at almost elevation in the Gualtallary sub-district of Tupungato, the Adrianna Vineyard, and to develop a clonal selection of Argentine Malbec.
High altitude Mendoza has attracted many notable foreign winemakers such as Paul Hobbs, Michel Rolland, Roberto Cipresso and Alberto Antonini
San Juan & La Rioja.
After Mendoza, the San Juan region is the second largest producer of wine with over planted as of 2003. The climate of this region is considerably hotter and drier than Mendoza with rainfall averaging a year and summer time temperatures regularly hitting . Premium wine production is centered on the Calingasta, Ullum and Zonda departments as well as the Tulum Valley. In addition to producing premium red varietals made from Syrah and Douce noir (known locally as Bonarda), the San Juan region has a long history of producing sherry-style wines, brandies and vermouth. The high yielding Cereza vine is also prominent here where it is used for blending and grape concentrate as well as for raisin and table grape consumption.
Recently, the higher-altitude vines planted in the Pedernal valley in Western San Juan, one of the most isolated regions in Argentina, have received significant acclaim for their potential to bring fame to the province's wine industry. The altitude here exceeds that of more southerly Uco Valley in Mendoza, leading to extremely dry conditions with high thermal amplitude and excellent results both for red and white wines.
The La Rioja region was one of the first areas to be planted by Spanish missionaries and has the longest continued history of wine production in Argentina. Though a relatively small region, with only planted as of 2003, the region is known for aromatic Moscatel de Alexandrias and Torrontés made from a local sub-variety known as "Torrontés Riojano". Lack of water has curtailed vineyard expansion here.
Northwestern regions.
The vineyards of the northwestern provinces of Catamarca, Jujuy and Salta are located between the 24th parallel and 26th parallel south. They include some of the highest elevated vineyards in the world, with many planted more than above sea level. Two vineyards planted by "Bodega Colomé" in Salta are at elevations of and . In contrast, most European vineyards are rarely planted above . Wine expert Tom Stevenson notes that the habit of some Argentine producers to tout the altitude of their vineyards in advertisements and on wine labels as if they were grand cru classifications.
The soils and climate of the regions are very similar to Mendoza but the unique mesoclimate and high elevation of the vineyards typically produces grapes with higher levels of total acidity which contribute to the wines balance and depth. Of the three regions, Catamarca is the most widely planted with more than under vine as of 2003. In recent years the Salta region, and particularly its sub-region of Cafayate, have been gaining the most worldwide attention the quality of its full bodied whites made from Torrontés Riojano as well as its fruity reds made from Cabernet Sauvignon and Tannat.
Most of Cafayate region in Salta is located at above sea levels in the river delta between the Rio Calchaqui and the Rio Santa Maria. The climate of the area experiences a foehn effect which traps rain producing cloud cover in the mountains and leaves the area dry and sunny. Despite its high altitude daytime temperatures in the summertime can reach but at night the area experiences a wide diurnal temperature variation with night time temperatures dropping as low as . There is some threat of frost during the winter when temperatures can drop as low as . Despite producing less than 2% of Argentina's yearly wine production, the Cafayate region is increasing gaining in prestige and appearance on wine labels, as well as foreign investment from worldwide wine producers such as enologist Michel Rolland and California wine producer Donald M. Hess.
Patagonia.
The southern Patagonia region includes the fruit producing regions of Río Negro and Neuquén. These have a considerably cooler climate than the major regions to the north, which provides a long, drawn-out growing season in the chalky soils of the area. In the early 20th century, Humberto Canale imported vine cuttings from Bordeaux and established the first commercial winery in the region. While were planted as of 2003, the region is growing as more producers plant cool climate varietals like Chardonnay and Pinot noir as well as Malbec, Semillon and Torrontés Riojano. Many of the grapes for the Argentine sparkling wine industry are sourced from this area. Located more than south of Mendoza, the vineyards of Bodega Weinert are noted as the southernmost planted vineyards in the Americas.
The most significant vineyards are located in the Rio Negro Valley, where some of the most prominent Pinot Noir red wines in Argentina are made, and in the upper Neuquen Valley, especially around the town of San Patricio del Chanar. Additionally, there are promising vineyards located in the La Pampa Province near the Colorado river, near the city of 25 de Mayo. These regions have shorter summers with longer daylight hours, and significantly colder winters than the main wine areas further north.
Besides Pinot Noir, the area is known for producing good Merlot wines as well as white wines (mostly Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc). Recently, however, the area has gained traction because of its promising Cabernet Franc red wines, which have added to the diversity of Argentine wine with their hint of red fruit, elegant tannins and peppery taste.
Further south, the Province of Chubut is a mostly uncharted wine frontier. Traditionally considered too cold for plantings, there are micro-climates (e.g. the irrigated Chubut Valley area near the Atlantic coast, the Trevelin Valley where Pacific winds moderate the climate, and some steppe regions) which are promising for winemaking. Production started in the late 2000s, with a new Wine Route established in 2017. The main plantings have been, so far, Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Gewürztraminer, Merlot, Riesling and Pinot Gris.
New developments.
Argentine winemakers have long held the belief that vines required hot and arid climates with large temperature variations to produce quality wines. This 'winning formula' led to a concentration of wineries in Mendoza, San Juan and La Rioja provinces in the west, as well as higher-altitude vineyards in Salta.
More recently, there has been a shift towards slightly cooler and equally arid climates further south, in Neuquen and Rio Negro. Wineries there still benefit from windy and arid conditions, but with cooler temperatures and a shorter growing season.
However, in the last decade, the potential for 'non-traditional' (or re-discovered) regions has become apparent, concentrated in several areas: (1) the Atlantic coast from Mar del Plata (Buenos Aires) south and including the hills in Southern Buenos Aires, and (2) the mountains in Cordoba Province, which had been significant growers in colonial times, but where winemakers have only recently started experimenting with higher altitudes, (3) Entre Rios, an unlikely location because of its humid, warm climate, which had been famous for its wines more than a century ago, and (4) the Patagonian Plateau, a region of cold, windy and arid climates.
Except for coastal Buenos Aires, where large investments are underway, most developments have consisted of smaller-scale wineries experimenting with new wine varieties and techniques, with the potential to bring about a completely 'new style' of Argentine wines which will be very different from the typical Malbec produced currently.
The climate in Mar del Plata and along the coast of Buenos Aires Province display the same temperature range as Bordeaux with similar (high) precipitation. Further inland, summers gain a few degrees while winter nights become somewhat colder in the flat southern Pampas. Adding to the variety of climates and soils in the area, there are low mountain areas (generally below 1,000 metres or 3,000 ft.), valleys and rivers. Major wineries (like Trapiche) have made investments in the area and production is likely to increase significantly, but most of the potential in this vast area is untapped.
As the coast continues south, the weather becomes drier and windier, with (counter-intuitively) hotter summers. South of the city of Bahia Blanca, the Medanos area is becoming another focal point of the wine industry (see Buenos Aires wines. Weather records suggest that the coast should be adequate for wine making much further south: into Viedma, San Antonio Oeste, Puerto Madryn, Trelew and even Comodoro Rivadavia where cool, windy desert climates are greatly moderated by the Atlantic.
Climate chart for Mar del Plata:
Climate of Bordeaux (for comparison - note the reverted seasons)
Another promising region are the Sierras de Cordoba in the middle of the country. Contrasting with the humid temperate Pampas, mountainous areas have better drainage, cooler nights and sunny weather. Historically, wine was grown in two areas: the Northern part of the province around Colonia Caroya and the extreme Western part, around Villa Dolores. These are the warmest, sunniest parts of the province and, in the past, produced sweet, lower quality wines (although new wineries are creating more interesting varietals).
The Eastern part of the Sierras, from the Villa General Belgrano area to the Punilla Valley, was generally considered to be too cool and humid, following the old Argentine stereotype of hot-desert wine-making. Over the last decade, however, boutique wineries have discovered the potential of the exceptional variety of soils and micro-climates in the area, producing wines that have won significant national awards (some near La Cumbrecita, an alpine town that would have been considered too cool for vines recently). The scale of production remains minimal, but large numbers of new producers are experimenting with grape varieties and techniques to make wines that are significantly different from the stereotypical Mendoza Malbecs, often with great success. The large variation in elevation in the Sierras make them suitable for high-altitude wine experimentation, similar to what producers have done in Mendoza.
The Province of Entre Ríos has a warm, humid climate similar to neighboring Uruguay, where tannat wines are produced. Until the 1930s there were over 60 wineries in the Province, producing more wine than Mendoza and San Juan; these were however forbidden by law in an effort to ensure the settlement of Western Argentina. In recent years, over 60 producers have started replanting wines.
Finally, the steppes of Central Patagonia in Chubut have the southernmost wines in the world. The climate here is markedly colder than any other region, with a threat of summer frost. Much longer summer days with very cold nights and a short growing season have the potential to produce wines that are markedly different from any other wines in Argentina.
Grape varieties and wines.
Under Argentine wine laws, if a grape name appears on the wine label, 100% of the wine must be composed that grape variety. The backbone of the early Argentine wine industry was the high yielding, pink skin grapes Cereza, Criolla Chica and Criolla Grande which still account for nearly 30% of all vines planted in Argentina today. Very vigorous vines, these varieties are able to produce many clusters weighing as much as 9 pounds (4 kg) and tend to produce pink or deeply colored white wines that oxidize easily and often have noticeable sweetness.
These varieties are often used today for bulk jug wine sold in 1 liter cardboard cartons or as grape concentrate which is exported worldwide with Japan being a considerably large market. In the late 20th century, as the Argentine wine industry shifted it focus on premium wine production capable for export, Malbec arose to greater prominence and is today the most widely planted red grape variety followed by Bonarda, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah and Tempranillo. The influence of Italian immigrants has brought a variety of Italian varietals with sizable plantings throughout Argentina-including Barbera, Dolcetto, Freisa, Lambrusco, Nebbiolo, Raboso and Sangiovese.
While the historic birthplace of Malbec is Southwest France, where it is still widely grown in Cahors, and has some presence in Bordeaux, it is in Argentina where the grape receives most of its notoriety. The grape clusters of Argentine Malbec are different from its French relatives; they have smaller berries in tighter, smaller clusters. Malbec wine is characterized by deep color and intense fruity flavors with a velvety texture. As of 2003 there were over of Malbec. The international variety of Cabernet Sauvignon is gaining in popularity and beside being made as a varietal, it used as a blending partner with Malbec, Merlot, Syrah and Pinot noir. Syrah has been steadily increasing in planting going from in 1990 to more than in 2003, with the San Juan region earning particular recognition for the grape. Tempranillo (known locally as "Tempranilla") is often made by carbonic maceration (similar to Beaujolais); though some premium, old vine examples are made in the Uco Valley. Red wine production accounts for nearly 60% of all Argentine wine. The high temperatures of most regions contribute to soft, ripe tannins and high alcohol levels.
The Pedro Giménez grape (a different but perhaps closely related relative of Spain's Pedro Ximénez) is the most widely planted white grape varietal with more than planted primarily in the Mendoza and San Juan region. The grape is known for its fully bodied wines with high alcohol levels and is also used to produce grape concentrate. The next largest plantings are dedicated to the Torrontés Riojano variety followed by Muscat of Alexandria, Chardonnay, Torrontés Sanjuanino (the sub-variety of Torrontés that is believed to have originated in the San Juan province) and Sauvignon blanc. Other white grape varieties found in Argentina include Chenin blanc, Pinot gris, Riesling, Sauvignonasse, Semillon, Ugni blanc and Viognier.
Torrontés produces some of the most distinctive white wines in Argentina, characterized by floral Muscat-like aromas and a spicy note. The grape requires careful handling during the winemaking process with temperature control during fermentation and a sensitivity to certain strains of yeast. The grape is most widely planted in the northern provinces of La Rioja and Salta, particularly the Calchaquí Valleys, but has spread to Mendoza. In response to international demand, plantings of Chardonnay have steadily increased. The University of California, Davis produced a special clone of the variety (known as the "Mendoza clone") that, despite it propensity to develop millerandage, is still widely used in Argentina and Australia. Argentine Chardonnay has shown to thrive in high altitude plantings and is being increasing planted in the Tupungato region on vineyard sites located at altitudes around nearly .
Modern wine industry.
By the turn of the 21st century there were over 1,500 wineries in Argentina. The two largest companies are Bodegas Esmeralda (which owns the widely exported brand Alamos) and Peñaflor (which owns another widely exported brand Bodegas Trapiche). Between the two of them, these companies are responsible for nearly 40% of all the wine made in Argentina. The Argentine wine industry is fifth worldwide in production and eighth in wine consumption.
The continued trend of the industry is to increase quality and control yields. Between the mid-1990s and early 21st century, Argentina had ripped up nearly a third of its vineyards but reduced yearly production only by 10%. This meant there was an increase in yields from 66 hl/ha to 88 hl/ha.


Lorillard Tobacco Company

Lorillard Tobacco Company was an American tobacco company that marketed cigarettes under the brand names Newport, Maverick, Old Gold, Kent, True, Satin, and Max. The company had two operating segments: cigarettes and electronic cigarettes.
The company was purchased by Reynolds American, a company owned by British American Tobacco, in 2014.
History.
The company is named after Pierre Abraham Lorillard, who founded the company in 1760. In 1899, the American Tobacco Company organized a New Jersey corporation, called the Continental Tobacco Company, that took a controlling interest in many small tobacco companies. By 1910, James Buchanan Duke controlled Lorillard and the American Tobacco Company even as it kept its original name. In 1911, the U.S. Court of Appeals found the American Tobacco Company "in restraint of trade," and issued a Dissolution Decree to the American Tobacco Company, which created the opportunity for Lorillard to become an independent company again.
The same year they purchased the Murad brand.
In 1925, Lorillard experienced great transition as Benjamin Lloyd Belt became president. Having been with the company since 1911, Belt made some decisions that made the company profitable. He began to prioritize on promoting the Old Gold brand instead of Beech-Nut chewing tobacco, using such tactics as Old Gold on Broadway and sponsoring "Old Gold Presents Paul Whiteman and His Orchestra" which was a weekly hour-long show on Tuesdays nights over CBS from station WABC in New York. The Whiteman Hour had its first broadcast on February 5, 1929 and continued until May 6, 1930. When the Whiteman band went to Hollywood in mid-1929 to make the film "King of Jazz", Old Gold leased a special eight-coach train to take Whiteman and his entourage to the West Coast. The train stopped at sixteen cities across the nation. Old Gold later sponsored Artie Shaw's Tuesday night "Melody and Madness" program on CBS Radio from November 20, 1938 until November 14, 1939. Belt was still president when he died in 1937.
Lorillard Tobacco Company opened a new cigarette plant on East Market Street in Greensboro, North Carolina in 1956, moving cigarette manufacturing from Jersey City, New Jersey and Richmond, Virginia.
The Lorillard 'Kent Microlite' brand, between 1952-'56, used the crocidolite asbestos filter, made by the Hollingsworth & Vose company, which later resulted in millions of dollars being paid to the relatives of their deceased employees and customers who had died, or who were then dying, of cancer.
Loews Corporation purchased Lorillard in 1968.
Testifying under oath before Congress in 1994, Lorillard's CEO Andrew Tisch said that he did not believe that nicotine is addictive nor that cigarette smoking causes cancer.
In 1997, the firm's headquarters moved to Greensboro from New York City. The firm also manufactured cigarettes in Louisville, Kentucky.
In 1997, Lorillard was one of four entities to initiate negotiations leading to the 1998 Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement between "Big Tobacco" and 46 U.S. states.
Loews created the Carolina Group as a holding company for its tobacco assets in 2002; it proceeded to sell a minority stake in Carolina on the New York Stock Exchange. Carolina was controlled by Loews until May 10, 2006, when Loews Corporation sold 15 million shares of Carolina Group, lowering its holding from a controlling 53.7% to a plurality 46.3%. The sale was valued at approximately $740 million.
In 2006, Lorillard was convicted of racketeering under RICO, along with Philip Morris and R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company. The Supreme Court has upheld the verdict, in which Judge Kessler wrote,
In 2008, Lorillard Tobacco was entered into a separation agreement with its parent company Loews, and became an independent publicly traded company.
In order to comply with FDA regulations, Lorillard had until June 22, 2010, to rebrand tobacco products marketed as "Lights", "Ultra-Lights", "Medium", "Mild", "Full Flavor", or similar designations to belie the false impression that some tobacco products are comparatively safe.
In December 2010, a Boston jury returned a $151 million verdict against Lorillard Tobacco Company for giving out free samples of cigarettes to children in urban housing projects in the 1950s. The plaintiff, Marie Evans, was nine when she first received these samples, according to documents filed by her attorneys. She died of lung cancer before trial.
In April 2012, Lorillard purchased privately held electronic cigarette company, blu eCigs, for $135 million in cash, marking the first foray by the tobacco industry into the electronic cigarette market. The electronic cigarette company had about $30 million in revenue in 2010, with blu eCigs sold in more than 13,000 retail outlets, including Walgreens and Sheetz.
In 2014, after negotiations with People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), Lorillard announced it would no longer test its products on animals. In a statement, the company said they "will use scientifically accepted or validated alternative test methods and technologies that avoid the use of animals. Such methods and tests may include in vitro cell culture tests, advanced chemistry tests and computer modeling programs."
On July 15, 2014, Reynolds American agreed to buy Lorillard, for $27.4 billion, uniting two of the country's largest tobacco producers in a bet that bigger is safer in a declining industry. The deal also included the sale of the Kool, Winston, Maverick, Salem, and blu brands to Imperial Tobacco for $7.1 billion. The deal was finalized on June 12, 2015.
Cigarette Camp.
Camp Old Gold was one of the American Army camps established near Le Havre, France in World War II. As explained in "Introduction: The Cigarette Camps" at the Web site, "The Cigarette Camps: The U.S. Army Camps in the Le Havre Area":
Restatement.
In May 2003, the company restated its financial statements in 2002 to reflect an adjustment to the Company's historical accounting for CNA's investment in life settlement contracts and the related revenue recognition. On May 3, 2005, Loews Corp, the holding company of Carolina Group, announced to restate results for prior years to correct CNA's accounting for several reinsurance contracts.
Electronic cigarettes.
In April 2012, blu eCigs was acquired by Lorillard, Inc. and was the biggest seller in the US.
In October 2013 Lorillard acquired UK e cig company SKYCIG, which it later rebranded to blu ecigs UK.
Purchase by Reynolds.
In July 2014, Reynolds American agreed to buy Lorillard Tobacco Company for $27.4 billion. The deal also included the sale of the Kool, Winston, Salem, and blu brands to Imperial Tobacco for $7.1 billion.


Land Record and Survey Department

Land Record and Survey Department (ভূমি রেকর্ড ও জরিপ অধিদপ্তর) is a government department responsible for surveying and keeping records of land in Bangladesh. It is located in Tejgaon Thana, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
History.
Land Record and Survey Department traces its origins to the Joint Directorate of Land Record and Survey Department which was established in 1885. Land Record Department became an independent department in 1888. The survey department was renamed the Survey of India. The Government of Bangladesh created the Department of Land Records and Surveys in 1975.
In 2009 the Land Record and Survey Department took surveys of rivers in the Bangladesh-India border area with the Indian Land Record and Survey Department. In July 2011, the Government of Bangladesh started the 'Digital Land Management' project to digitize land records in Bangladesh. According to the project a data centre will be built at the Land Record and Survey Department headquarters in Dhaka. By October 2017 650 thousand bhumi khatians (records of land rights) were digitized.


Nockatunga Station

Nockatunga Station most commonly known as Nockatunga is a pastoral lease that operates as a cattle station in South West Queensland, Australia.
Description.
Nockatunga is located about east of Innamincka and south west of Quilpie in Queensland. Situated in the channel country of outback Queensland the property includes frontage to the Wilson River.
Occupying an area of approximately , almost the size as Puerto Rico with an area of , the property is able to carry 27,000 head of cattle on a good season. The station is currently held by the Consolidated Pastoral Company who had acquired it from the Hughes family in 1990 after they had owned it for 120 years. The country is described as open bendee opening onto well grassed downs studded with water worn stones and lightly timbered with stunted gidyah. The open plains contain cotton bush and saltbush.
History.
The traditional owners of the area are the "Kullili" peoples of the Garlali language group, who have inhabited the area for thousands of years. The name of the property is thought to be derived from the Aboriginal words from the Theirila language "Nock" meaning water and "tunga" meaning smell.
The station was established in 1866 when Alexander Munro took up the lease but it soon changed hands and was owned in 1869 by Patrick Drinan.
The property was later put up for auction in 1872 and was advertised widely as a property of the "richest fattening quality", having frontage along the Wilson River, and occupying an area of . A herd of 6,500 cattle including 20 "well bred bulls" was included on the property that also claimed to have permanent waterholes "of sufficient depth to float the largest man'o'war", even during the severest drought.
Herbert Bristow Hughes acquired the station at auction in August 1872 for the sum of £19,655.
Explorers Hume, O'Hea and Thompson left Nockatunga to journey further down Cooper Creek and into the interior to search for the remains of the Leichhardt expedition in December 1874 and quickly ran out of water in the intense heat. Thompson left the other two to find water and help, but when he returned both had died of dehydration.
The property was advertised for auction again in 1875. Nockatunga was now or 1,188,000 acres in size and carrying a herd of about 13,000 cattle and 100 horses. The property had many improvements since being acquired including a stone cottage, stone kitchen, men's hut, grass and mud store, yards, sheds and blacksmith shop with of four wire fencing being installed. The auction was delayed then was unsuccessful as Hughes still owned the property in 1876 and beyond.
Flooding occurred at the station in 1882 following heavy rains for 6 days with falling at nearby properties. The Wilson river rose leaving Nockatunga surrounded by water and parts being swept away. Many outbuildings constructed of mudbrick were washed away. The main buildings had the mortar dislodged from between the stones with flooding reaching a depth of , making the buildings unstable. At the peak of the floods a horse wagon was caulked up and used as a raft to take supplies to higher ground.
Herbert Hughes died in 1892 in Adelaide, where he had long resided. The property was managed by a board of trustees until at least 1904; after that time the property was being run by John Maddock Hughes.
In 1901 drought struck much of south west Queensland with thousands of cattle dying of thirst at many properties. Nockatunga lost an estimated 27,897 cattle from a herd of approximately 30,000. Virtually no grasses remained on the ground as feed for stock. This was followed by a rabbit plague in 1905 when the pest had moved northwards and bred to plague proportions in the channel country reducing available feed for cattle.
By 1910 Nockatunga was the second largest station in Queensland, having an area of . The largest at this time was Sandringham Station in the north Gregory district having an area of .
Following a period of drought, the area experienced heavy rains in 1926 when of rain fell over a few days. The Wilson River was the highest it had been in over 20 years and Cooper Creek was running at over wide.
The dingo population had increased and the property used 400 aborigines to cull the population. At Nockatunga over 713 dingos and their pups were slaughtered in the first six months of 1933.
The manager of the property in 1935 was Lucas Hughes, one of the Hughes family and on the board of trustees of H. B. Hughes. According to him decent rains had not been had at Nockatunga since 1926.
Hughes organised the construction of an airfield at Nockatunga in 1941 using 50 aborigines close to the homestead on a gibber plain. The working party took two days to clear the loose rocks and any brush along the landing strip. The rocks were then placed around the aerodrome and the station was accessible to the Royal Flying Doctor Service.
The station found itself isolated in 1947 following record flooding. Both the station and the township of Noccundra were completely cut off and had no mail from late December 1946 to late February 1947.
An unfortunate stockman, George Dirkensen, fell into an open fire in January 1949 burning his hands, face and arms. He was over the river from the homestead but was unable to cross it and his cries were not noticed until the following morning. He was taken to Broken Hill later that day by the Royal Flying Doctor Service.
The station had record rainfalls in 1949 when in the month of March a total of fell compared to an annual average of .
The record of the most cattle sent to Homebush market by one owner, H.B. Hughes Estate, was set in 1951 when 654 cattle from Nockatunga arrived. The herd had been overlanded to Bourke and then trucked to Flemington.
Noccundra.
The townsite of Noccundra was established in 1882 and is located within the station boundaries, the only part that remains being the Noccundra Hotel. The licence for the hotel was first granted in 1886 and the hotel was built using locally quarried sandstone which was brought to the site by camel train. Besides being used for entertainment and accommodation the building serves as a medical and dental clinic for the Royal Flying Doctor Service as required. The building was heritage listed in 1977.


Dust Bowl Ballads

Dust Bowl Ballads is an album by American folk singer Woody Guthrie. It was released by Victor Records, in 1940. All the songs on the album deal with the Dust Bowl and its effects on the country and its people. It is considered to be one of the first concept albums. It was Guthrie's first commercial recording and the most successful album of his career.
"Dust Bowl Ballads" was originally released as eleven songs on two simultaneously released three-disc set albums of 78 rpm records entitled "Dust Bowl Ballads, Vol. 1" and "Dust Bowl Ballads, Vol. 2". The twelve sides in total had one song each except for the double-sided "Tom Joad" which was too long to be pressed on a single side of a 78. However, two of the thirteen songs recorded on the sessions, "Pretty Boy Floyd" and "Dust Bowl Blues" were left out due to length. All of the tracks were recorded at Victor studios in Camden, New Jersey on April 26, 1940, except "Dust Cain't Kill Me" and "Dust Pneumonia Blues" which were recorded on May 3. In 1964, during the American folk music revival, a reissue was released in LP format by Folkways Records after RCA refused Guthrie's request to re-issue the album. In 2000, it was reissued by Buddha Records including the two previously unreleased tracks. The complete "Dust Bowl Ballads" remains available on compact disc through Smithsonian Folkways.
Like many of Guthrie's later recordings, these songs contain an element of social activism, and would be an important influence on later musicians, including Pete Seeger, Bob Dylan, Bruce Springsteen, Phil Ochs and Joe Strummer.
Background.
As Southern and Great Plains states became unlivable because of drought and the Depression, California came to seem like the land of milk and honey to desperate farmers. Guthrie spent this time hoboing with displaced farmers from Oklahoma to California. Guthrie learned their traditional folk and blues songs and discovered his own version of the blues, one on which he’d play endless variations, earning him the nickname the "Dust Bowl Troubadour"
At the time Victor Records was looking for an answer to rival Columbia Records folk singer Burl Ives, so they signed 27-year-old Guthrie and put him in a recording studio. This would be the only major label for which Guthrie ever recorded. He later went on to record more with Moses Asch of Folkways Records.
On the liner notes for the Folkways Records reissue Woody Guthrie said:
Songs and themes.
"Dust Bowl Ballads" chronicles the 1930s Dust Bowl era during The Great Depression, where farmers were dispossessed of their land by a combination of weather conditions and bank foreclosures. The album is semi-autobiographical, mirroring both Guthrie’s own life and John Steinbeck’s 1939 novel "The Grapes of Wrath", which had just been turned into a movie. The album follows the exodus of Midwesterners headed for California. Hailing from Oklahoma, Guthrie had a detailed knowledge of the Dust Bowl conditions that had led to an exodus of Okies west to California, and witnessed the economic hardships there where they became poor migrant workers in often harsh conditions.
Guthrie alternates between reporting the story, commenting on it humorously, and embodying the characters of the Okies with whom he identifies in songs. The humorous talking blues song "Talkin' Dust Bowl Blues," starts off telling the story in the first person of a family who had an average life of a farmer in Nineteen Twenty-Seven, before the drought started and then have to migrate after losing their farm. “The black ol' dust storm filled the sky and I swapped my farm for a Ford machine” sings Guthrie. Although it is done comically and Guthrie himself chuckles at the absurdity, it does not hide the horrifying circumstances they go through in their travels and arrival. "Blowin' Down This Road" has a more defiant tone with the repetition of the line "I ain't a-gonna be treated this-a-way."
After arrival in California, the Okie migrants realize that California is not so welcoming and a rough place to settle if you do not have money, or "Do Re Mi". This is a cautionary tale to all those others traveling across the country who were dreaming of a promised land or “Garden of Eden” as Guthrie calls it in the song, telling them there’s so many people going to California it might be better to go back east. Guthrie captures the hopelessness of the crop and bank failures, the rigors of the journey west and the crushing disappointment that ensued when California offered a reality nearly as harsh as the land left behind. "Dust Cain't Kill Me" sets a darker tone, where Guthrie acknowledges the destruction wrought by the dust storms, killing his family, but still keeping a determined positive attitude that it would not kill him. The final song on Volume 1, split into two parts, tells the story of “Tom Joad," The character comes from "The Grapes of Wrath". "Wherever people ain’t free/Wherever men are fightin’ for their rights,” he sings, “That’s where I’m a-gonna be.”
Volume 2 starts out with the waltz "The Great Dust Storm", describing the catastrophe when a giant dust storm hits the Great Plains "On the fourteenth day of April of 1935", transforming the landscape and resulting in a diaspora of people heading west where they have been promised there is work aplenty picking fruit in the lush valleys of California. "Dusty Old Dust" follows, telling a similar story in a more humorous manner. The character says his farewell repeating “so long, it's been good to know yuh” in the chorus, which is what the song is now most commonly known as, as he has “got to be driftin' along”.
In "Dust Bowl Refugee", Guthrie tells a first-person story of the struggles and nomadic life of the travel out west. The comedic "Dust Pneumonia Blues" comments on the physical effects many experienced in the Dust Bowl. He notes the song was supposed to have yodeling in it, but he was unable to yodel because of the dust in his lungs. "I Ain't Got No Home in This World Anymore" uses a tune borrowed from the Christian hymn "Heaven Will Be My Home", the spiritual message is amended to one about the plight of the Okies. "Vigilante Man" is an attack on the hired thugs who harassed the Dust Bowl refugees, which contained a verse referring to Preacher Casey, a character in "The Grapes of Wrath".
The 2000 Buddha Records reissue bonus track "Pretty Boy Floyd", tells the story of the famous outlaw Pretty Boy Floyd, an American bank robber who was pursued and killed by a group led by FBI Agent, Melvin Purvis. This song was written in March 1939, five years after Floyd’s death. Guthrie shows Floyd as a misunderstood Robin Hood who was adored by the people. “But a many a starvin' farmer The same old story told How the outlaw paid their mortgage and saved their little homes”
Reissues.
1964 Folkways Records Reissue.
Victor eventually let the original sets go out of print. Guthrie wrote to the label asking for a reissue in LP format and got a negative response. Guthrie then authorized Folkways Records to copy the discs and, in October 1950, put out its own 10" LP version, which was called Talking Dust Bowl. RCA protested, but, in the face of Guthrie's go-ahead, backed off, giving Folkways tacit permission to do a second reissue as a 12" LP. However, in spite of this, RCA did release the album in 1964 in its RCA Victor Vintage Series, on a 12" LP, issue number LPV-502, with the following track listing:
The Folkways reissue re-creates the contents of the two original releases of 78s in the same running order, but combines the two parts of "Tom Joad" into one track.
2000 Buddha Records Reissue.
Sixty years after the recordings were first released, Woody Guthrie's odes to the Dust Bowl were presented in their third different configuration. The running order of the tracks are shuffled and two previously unreleased tracks and an alternate take of "Talking Dust Bowl Blues" were added.


Allwork tractors

Allwork tractors were manufactured by the Electric Wheel Company of Quincy, Illinois.
Electric Wheel Co. was acquired by the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company. The All Work II Model F was a lightweight tractor with a big surplus of power for general farming and orchard work. This tractor was fueled by kerosene.


Mendip Hills Station

Mendip Hills Station is a sheep, cattle, and deer rearing area near Parnassus in North Canterbury, New Zealand. A 2016 earthquake badly damaged buildings in the area including a historic homestead. The National Library of New Zealand has several photos of the area in its collection. The station dates to 1861. Audrey Steele published a book in 1974 about her life at the station after she became a bride in 1924.


Augsburger

The is an endangered German breed of domestic chicken. It originates from the area of the city of Augsburg, in the Swabian region of the state of Bavaria, in southern Germany. It was bred in the nineteenth century, and derives mostly from the French La Flèche breed. It is the only chicken breed of Bavarian origin.
History.
The Augsburger was created by Julius Meyer, of the small town of Haunstetten, now part of the city of Augsburg, in the Swabian region of the state of Bavaria, in southern Germany. In 1870 or 1880, he cross-bred birds of the French La Flèche breed, prized for the quality of its meat, with an Italian breed or type – now extinct – named Lamotta, which was a good layer of eggs. The aim was to create a dual-purpose chicken which would combine both qualities. The first written description of the Augsburger is that of Jean Bungartz in 1885.
The Augsburger became popular, and spread to the area of Stuttgart and as far as the Black Forest. A breeders' association was formed in 1923 at Mühlhausen, in the Ruhr, but did not last long. Under the National Socialist régime the Augsburger was not officially recognised, and could not be exhibited at poultry shows. In 1938 a new breeders' association, the Sonderverein der Züchter des Augsburger Huhnes, was formed. From the 1960s the Augsburger began to suffer from competition from specialised high-productivity breeds, and its popularity waned.
Today the Augsburger is a rare breed. It is listed in category I, "extremely endangered", on the Rote Liste of the Gesellschaft zur Erhaltung alter und gefährdeter Haustierrassen. In 2005, 40 cocks and 164 hens were recorded; in 2009 there were 35 breeders with 64 cocks and 289 hens.
A bantam Augsburger was recognised in 1975.
Characteristics.
The Augsburger is well adapted to the climatic conditions of its area of origin, the Bavarian Plateau. The usual plumage colouring is black, with greenish lights; after the Re-unification of Germany in 1990, a new colour variant, blue-laced, was added to the standard. The Augsburger has an unusual cup-shaped or rose-comb, similar to that of the Siciliana breed of Sicily, and quite unlike the v-shaped comb of the La Flèche breed. The earlobes are white.
Use.
The Augsburger is a dual-purpose breed, with good meat qualities. Hens lay approximately 180 white eggs per year, which average in weight.


Harry Edmonds

Ernest Harry Edmonds (28 August 1883 – 8 April 1962), always referred to as "Harry Edmonds" or E. H. Edmonds, was a politician in South Australia.
History.
Harry Edmonds was born at McLean & Barker's Comongin Station, near Quilpie, Queensland, the only son of John Hinton Edmonds (ca.1846 – 23 January 1889) and Mary Louisa Edmonds née Puplett ( – ), and educated at Pulteney Street School.
He was a share-farmer at Cowell then moved to Pygery 1917 where he was a farmer and grazier.
He was appointed J.P. in 1928, and was a councillor in the LeHunte District Council, and its chairman in 1932. He was Chairman of the Central Eyre Peninsula Hospital board in 1937. In 1944 he was elected to a Northern district seat on the Legislative Council for the Liberal and Country League. He retired from farming to Adelaide, living at 12 Allen Avenue, Brooklyn Park, and held the seat in Parliament until February 1962, when he retired. He died in hospital two months later.
Family.
He married Mabel Jane Haines (ca.1883 – 12 September 1946) daughter of George Haines (ca.1844 – 23 July 1930) on 13 April 1910. They had one daughter and three sons:
He married again, to Ellen "Nell" Baird on 28 March 1950.


Broholmer

The Broholmer, also called the Danish Mastiff, is a large mastiff breed of dog from Denmark, recognized by the Danish Kennel Club and the Fédération Cynologique Internationale. It has been employed as a guard dog in the homes of the wealthy. The breed's numbers dwindled severely during World War II, but the dog made a successful return in the 1970s.
Description.
The Danish Broholmer is a dog that strongly resembles a Mastiff. It is large and powerful, with a loud, impressive bark and dominant walk.
A well trained Broholmer should be calm, good tempered, and friendly, yet watchful towards strangers. Females stand about and weigh in at . Males stand about and weigh in at . The body is built square and rectangular with a large and massive head. The width and length of the skull and the length of the nose should be of equal length. The head is generally not carried very high. The coat is short and harsh, and the color can be light or brownish yellow, or black. Some white markings on the coat are permitted, and a black mask may be found. The average life span is around 7–12 years.
Historical note.
The Broholmer breed was generated from a cross between English Mastiffs and local dogs in Germany, and was named after Sehested of Broholm, a game-keeper who lived in the 18th century. During the Second World War, the Broholmer became a victim of the strife and almost became extinct, but was saved by a group of Danish enthusiasts after isolated members were found in the 1970s. King Frederick VII and his consort, Countess Danner were owners of several Broholmers and one of their portraits depicts them with one of their dogs. The breed was established in the early 19th century and was moderately popular, especially as a guard dog in the homes of wealthy Danes. The Breed was imported to the UK in 2009 with a view to being put on the UK kennel clubs import list.
It was discovered in the recent years (2016) that the Broholmers that were imported into the USA were all afflicted with Degenerative Myelopathy (DM), a spontaneously occurring, adult-onset spinal cord disorder that affects dogs, and is similar to Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) or Lou Gehrig's disease in humans (1). With DM, there is degeneration of the “white matter” of the spinal cord and the peripheral nerves. The white matter tracts of the spinal cord contain fibers that transmit movement commands from the brain to the limbs and sensory information from the limbs to the brain. The first Broholmer ever to be imported into the United States with the intent to breed it, died in 2018 due to DM, and all other dogs imported have DM as well. These dogs were never presented and therefore never accepted by Broholmer Selskabet, the Danish main organization for the protection and the breeding of healthy Broholmers. One completely healthy male Broholmer, Bodholdts Bedste Bergthor, approved for breeding by the Broholmer Selskab, was imported into the US in 2010. He was, however, never bred in the US.


Tradewinds Plantation Berhad

Tradewinds Plantation Berhad is one of the largest oil palm and rubber plantation operators in Malaysia.
Background.
The Group has a landbank of 141,430 hectares, with 77,095 hectares in Sarawak, another 11,302 hectares in Sabah, and the remaining 53,039 hectares in Peninsular Malaysia. Some 95,270 hectares or 67.3% have been developed into oil palm and rubber estates, with another 12,235 hectares or 8.6% under development. As at year end, the Group’s total remaining plantable reserves stood at 24,491 hectares, which will be developed over the next four years.
Merger.
On 25 May 2004, Tradewinds (M) Berhad and Johore Tenggara Oil Palm Berhad announced the proposed merger involving fourteen of Tradewinds (M) Berhad's plantation subsidiary companies with Johore Tenggara Oil Palm Berhad. The merger was completed on 28 February 2006. Pursuant to the merger, the listing status of Johore Tenggara Oil Palm Berhad was transferred to Tradewinds Plantation Berhad which made its debut listing on the Main Board of Bursa Malaysia on 15 March 2006. Tradewinds Plantation Berhad was delisted in 2015 but remains as one of the largest oil palm and rubber plantation companies in Malaysia.


Leicester Longwool

The Leicester Longwool is an English breed of sheep. Alternative names for the breed include: Leicester, Bakewell Leicester, Dishley Leicester, English Leicester, Improved Leicester and New Leicester. It was originally developed by 18th-century breeding innovator Robert Bakewell.
It is now one of Britain's rarest breeds, categorised as "endangered" by the Rare Breeds Survival Trust, since fewer than 500 registered breeding females remain in the United Kingdom.
History.
Leicester Longwool sheep date back to the 1700s, and were found in the Midland counties of England, originally developed in Dishley Grange, Leicestershire by Robert Bakewell. Bakewell was the foremost exponent of modern animal-breeding techniques in the selection of livestock.
The Leicester Longwool in the 1700s was slow-growing and coarsely boned. They now have been developed to gain weight quickly and are fast-growing.
Leicester Longwool was one of the first pure sheep breeds introduced to Australia, having been introduced in 1826.
The Leicester Longwool has been used to improve many sheep breeds because of its meaty carcase (carcass) and heavy fleece.
Characteristics.
The head of an Leicester Longwool should be carried well, not too high and should have no signs of horns on the poll (forehead). The face is generally in a wedge shape, covered in white hairs and can appear to have a blue tinge. The lips and nostrils should be black. Having black specks on the face and ears is not objectionable. The neck should be of medium length. The shoulders should be strong and level with the back, which should be flat. The legs should be straight and wide apart and the hooves should be black.
The fleece should be dense (having thick and blocky clumps of wool also known as the staple). It should be lustrous, indicating the shine on the wool, and should have a well-defined crimp or wave from skin to tip. The common fibre diameter for an Leicester Longwool is 32 to 38 micrometres (microns).
The Leicester Longwool should be free, active and well balanced while in movement. It should appear to be alert and robust, showing style and character.
Other information.
Leicester Longwool sheep are currently found in Australia, New Zealand, Great Britain, Sweden and the United States. They are sound-footed, which means they are acceptable on flat, hilly or more especially marginal country.
They are large-framed with wide, even toplines (backs), strong constitutions and good temperaments.


Hans Conrad Schellenberg

Hans Conrad Schellenberg (28 April 1872 – 27 October 1923) was a Swiss botanist and agronomist.
Schellenberg was born in Hottingen. He studied at the Eidgenössisches Polytechnikum Zürich (1890–93) and the University of Berlin (1893–95), where he was a student of botanist Simon Schwendener. Afterwards he worked as an assistant at the seed control station in Zürich (1895–97) and as a teacher at the Agricultural School-Strickhof in Oberstrass (1897–1902). He obtained his habilitation for botany at the Polytechnic in Zürich, where from 1908 to 1923, he served as a professor of agronomy.
His primary focus was in the areas of plant pathology and agricultural botany, being credited with furthering the development of grain farming in Switzerland. He was the author of significant works on fungal plant diseases. He died in Zürich, aged 51.


Rancho Del Paso

Rancho Del Paso was a Mexican land grant in present-day Sacramento County, California, In 1844 by Governor Manuel Micheltorena, Captain John Sutter’s old friend, gave 44,000 acres to Elijah Grimes. Grimes called it the Rancho del Paso because it was on the road to the pass of the American River through the Sierra.  . The grant extended along the north bank of the American River and was bounded roughly by today’s Northgate Boulevard, Manzanita Avenue, and Elkhorn Boulevard. The grant encompassed present-day North Sacramento, Del Paso Heights, Rio Linda, Arden-Arcade, and a portion of Carmichael.
History.
John Sutter gave the land north of the American River to Eliab Grimes, Hiram Grimes, and John Sinclair. Captain Eliab Grimes (1780–1848), a native of Massachusetts, was a Honolulu merchant of many years and operated with his nephew, Hiram, as the firm E & H Grimes. Hiram Grimes would later own Rancho San Juan and Rancho Pescadero. Eliab Grimes persuaded Sinclair to occupy the Rancho Del Paso, until such time as he (Grimes) could take legal title to it. In 1843, John Sinclair, who had gone to work for Sutter in 1840, and his wife Mary Sinclair occupied the Rancho. In 1844, Eliab Grimes received the official ten square league land grant. Over the next four years, Grimes and Sinclair raised cattle and harvested wheat on the property.
Grimes, who subsequently became an important trader and political figure in San Francisco, died in 1848, leaving his share of the rancho to his nephew, Hiram Grimes. Three months later, in 1849, John Sinclair sold his share of the property to Hiram Grimes. Hiram Grimes later owned Rancho San Juan and Rancho Pescadero. In 1852, Grimes sold the entire Rancho Del Paso to San Francisco trader Samuel Norris. Originally named Gotthilf Wilhelm Becher Christensen, Norris was an immigrant from Denmark who came to California in 1839 and renamed himself.
With the cession of California to the United States following the Mexican-American War, the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided that the land grants would be honored. As required by the Land Act of 1851, a claim for Rancho Del Paso was filed with the Public Land Commission in 1852, and the grant was patented to Samuel Norris in 1858.
During the 1850s, Norris remained embroiled in a legal battle with the descendants of Eliab Grimes, who contested Eliab Grimes' will, and hence Norris' claim to the rancho. In 1860, the United States Supreme Court sided with Norris.
Norris emerged deep in debt to his lawyers James Ben Ali Haggin (1822–1914) and Lloyd Tevis (1824–1899); and in 1862, Norris sold Rancho del Paso to them. Norris later unsuccessfully sued Haggin and Tevis, claiming fraud.
The Haggin Years.
Rancho Del Paso became nationally prominent during the 1880s for its extensive horse breeding facilities. Haggin stopped using the ranch as a horse breeding operation in 1905, and concentrated his breeding efforts at his Elmendorf Farm in Lexington, Kentucky.
With the rapid growth of the Sacramento Valley, the Rancho Del Paso Land Company was incorporated in 1891, and sold to the Sacramento Valley Colonization Company in 1910.


Girolamo Caruso

Girolamo Caruso (September 18, 1842, Alcamo, province of Trapani – January 2, 1923, Pisa), was an Italian agronomist and university teacher.
Biography.
He was born in Alcamo and graduated in Agriculture at the university of Naples in 1861. After spending some years in the army, first as a volunteer and later as commissioner of Military engineering, in 1864 he was appointed as teacher of agriculture at the agrarian provincial school of Corleone (Palermo), and its director until 1867, when he moved to Messina to teach at the Technical Institute.
Nel 1862, aged only 20, Caruso started to deal with crop rotation, nearly unknown in that period and, the following year, with reforestation of slopes and the creation of drainage basins to collect the waters to be used as power to irrigate the fields.
In those years he devoted himself to some researches on the agriculture in Sicily (on the "gommosis of citrus trees", on viticulture and vinification, on olive growing) and got a great success with his work "L'industria dei cereali in Sicilia e le popolazioni che la esercitano" (Palermo 1870); in this book, besides describing the agrarian techniques and machines, there were useful suggestions.
Caruso recommended the system "a quinqueria" for the crop rotation (as in Sicilian manor farms), and indicated the agricultural tools available on the market.
In 1871, after winning a competitive examination for a professorship, he obtained the post as agronomy teacher (following Pietro Cuppari) and director of the Agrarian Institute at the University of Pisa, where he settled definitively; he had then different and important offices, above all by the Government.
Thanks to his skillful guide, the Scuola Superiore di Agraria of Pisa became one of the most important institute in its field and a pole of reference for Italian agriculture: the pupils coming out from it, could apply, continue and extend, in Italy and abroad, the knowledges acquired and Caruso's works.
In 1872 he founded the Agrarian Comitium of Pisa which he presided until 1919; Caruso used the work in the Comitium in close relationship with that of university, promoting initiatives and debates in order to urge the competent authorities to improve the legislation for the agricultural field, or agrarian updating courses, exhibitions and meetings in order to stimulate the application of modern techniques.
In 1873 he presented an important introductory report about "I sistemi di amministrazione rurale e la questione sociale"; in 1875 he founded the magazine "L'agricoltura italiana", which he ran until 1922 and had the purpose of divulging the innovation in the agricultural field and forming modern agronomists. The same year he took part in the fourth general congress of Italian farmers in Ferrara, where he presented the report: "Sull'ordinamento dell'istruzione agraria".
Caruso's thought is particularly evident in the introduction to his famous manual "Agronomy", published in 1898 and used for many years in Italian universities, in which he affirmed: "Italian agriculture is an art that you can practise empirically or according to the rules given by science; so there is an empirical agriculture and a rational one".
In the book he treated important subjects: irrigation, land development, soil management, the study of tillage tools; inside it there are also 263 printmakings depicting all the aspects of the agricultural environment and of cultivations.
The schemes of the hydraulic-agrarian managements, published in Caruso's book, are in all the university texts of Agronomy which have been edited until now; besides the nitrogen fertilization and irrigation are examined by linking theory to methods of calculation in a very modern way.
Superannuated from teaching in 1917, Girolamo Caruso died in Pisa on 2 January 1923.
On 12 November 1925, in the lecture room of Agronomy of "Istituto superiore agrario of Pisa", they placed a marble bust of Girolamo Caruso, carved by Giuseppe Michelotti, similar to those of Cosimo Ridolfi and Pietro Cuppari, wanted by Caruso himself.
Alcamo, his native town, has remembered him by entitling him a street and the homonymous Technical Institute (now ITET).
The problem of the "mezzadria" system in Italy.
In 1873, in one of his introductory reports, Caruso put in evidence the social, economic, and productive implications of the "mezzadria" (called metayage in English): first of all it had to exist, from the economic point of view, for the relationship that created between the farmer family and the land, that made possible the increase and sorting of the rural population even in far and less accessible areas, in addition to the growth of the quantity of work.
According to him, however, the main reason for the convenience of this system, was not the economic one, but the social one: connecting with the theory dear to , Gino Capponi, and Bettino Ricasoli, he remarked the clear juxtaposition between the peaceful sharecroppers, "who loved order, property, family, laws", and the social dangerousness of day labourers.
Research.
When he started his university teaching, the modern mechanic tools for employment in the fields started to proliferate; besides getting interested in the study of all the main types existing at that time, Caruso also examined the economic results.
His interest was also for the problems of a company structure and management, (with his "Ricerche sull'ordinamento dell'azienda rurale", edited in Florence in 1894), and with the essay "Sulla convenienza e sull'attuabilità del disegno di riforma agraria" (in Atti della Accademia dei Georgofili, s. 4, Disp. 1, XXIII [1900], pp. 69–95).
He made memorable experiments on the mechanic threshing, on the new steam-powered oil mills, on the reaper-binder Aultmann, on the mowers Johnson e Aultmann, on the seed drill Cosimini, on the shelling machine Navacchi and machine press Blunt for conservation of forage into silos.
As regards tillage work he experienced the new types of plough Sack and Oliver, and the new systems of steam-powered ploughing, evaluating the working depth, the strength of mechanical traction and the methods of execution on level and slope.
Girolamo Caruso was one of the first person to experience the chemical fertilization, first of all on wheat, and to appraise its efficacy; the first part of these experiences was published in 1888.
In 1890 he determined the method for the calculation of the quantity of manure to be supplied, by using that method (today called method of weighing) and affirming the necessity of the anticipation of the fertilizing elements, which was a complete innovation at that time.
His constant activity of research is testified by his several notes presented at Accademia dei Georgofili and the essays published on "l'Agricoltura italiana" about viticulture and vinification (in 1878, 1892 and 1898); forages (1891); manures (1889, 1890, 1906, 1909); parasites of plants (1888–90, 1894–1897, 1902, 1915); olive growing; mechanised agriculture (1876, 1883, 1897)
Besides, as he had known intuitively the importance of the type of manure used for soil, he studied and described, in detail, all the new fertilizers being produced, by putting them in comparison with those which were in use.
In 1878 Caruso, being sure that the climatic conditions were responsible for the result of cultivations, set up a little weather station and since 1886 he daily published the detected meteorological data on the magazine "L'Agricoltura Italiana".
His scientific activity is documented by more than a hundred important publications; most of them are included in "Atti della Regia Accademia dei Georgofili", and, more specifically, in the valuable magazine "L'Agricoltura italiana", founded by him in 1875 and directed for the rest of his life.
Girolamo Caruso was interested, above all, in the cultivation of wheat: he examined harvesting and sowing methods, fertilizing, pest management and cost of production. Under his guide the Institute got a high experience in this field, so that in 1925 they founded the Regional Institute for Cereal Growing, within the Agrarian High Institute (that is Istituto superiore agrario) of Pisa.
It must be noted, moreover, that in 1891 Nazareno Strampelli, the most important genetistic agronomist of the first half of the 20th century who produced new varieties of wheat, got his degree at the University of Pisa. He has the merit of having made possible the first green revolution, that is an improvement of the production capacity that made Italian population self-sufficient.
Caruso also dedicated his studies to the cultivation of grapevine, and above all, to some kinds in the country Pisan, to green pruning, to the cultivation of vine without support, and to graftings on American cuttings to fight phylloxera.
Many of his studies included the fight to parasites, above all those of the vine and olive; until the first half of the 19th century Italian vines were unaffected by parasites, but in 1851 powdery mildew arrived, in 1878 Phylloxera and in 1879 downy mildew.
Girolamo Caruso made some experiments on all systems of fight against these parasites and engaged for their application in Tuscany and in Italy; besides, he carried forward different experiences on the methods of fight against click beetles of cereals, the grapevine moth, the olive fruit fly, la tingidae of pears, the insects harmful for the seeds in the granaries, the smallpox olive and morus-mildew.
Besides his studies of agronomy, he was rather interested in rural economy: on the production costs in the area of Pisa, in the usefulness of the manuring of olives with pomace, in the tests of manuring and cultural operations of wheat, the set of rules about farms, convenience and feasibility of the bill of land reform proposed by Maggiorino Ferraris and the legislation about the credit for land improvements and agrarian progress in general.
Activities.
1864 Professor of di agriculture at the provincial agrarian school of Corleone (Palermo)
1867 Teacher of rural economy and agricultural evaluations at the Technical Institute of Messina
1871 Chair of agronomy, agriculture and rural economy at the university of Pisa
1872 Appointment of Director of the Agrarian School and the Agrarian Institute of Pisa, he founds the agrarian Comitium of Pisa
1873 Presents the report "I sistemi di amministrazione rurale e la questione sociale" (Pisa 1874)
1874 Founds the magazine "L'agricoltura italiana"
1875 Takes part in the Fourth General Congress of Italian farmers at Ferrara, doing a report on the organization of agricultural instruction
1878 Sets up three schools of Oenology in Piedmont, at Avellino and Catania, realizing the program of Vocational Training that the Ministry of Public Education had promoted
1890 Gives a contribution to the foundation of a cooperative trade union in Pisa
1880–1990 Does his best for the reorganization of the Scuola superiore and the Agrarian Institute
1894 Member emeritus of Accademia dei Georgofili of Florence, Caruso is associated to other various academies
1894 Member of the Committee promoting the Society of Italian farmers, later founded in Rome in 1895, and elected Councilor
1907 The agrarian Comitium of Pisa makes a special foundation entitled to Caruso for the actions intended to the progress of agriculture Pisan.
1914 Presides over the commission for the referendum of the agrarian Comitoums on their reorganization
It is also noteworthy his precious activity for the ordering of secondary schools, technical institutes, agrarian special and practical schools, etc.,


Jimmy Hunter

James Hunter (6 March 1879 – 4 December 1962) was a rugby union footballer who played for New Zealand's national team, the All Blacks. He played mainly at second five-eighth, although he could play any position in the backline. He played for Hawera Club before being selected for Taranaki in 1898 and the North Island in 1904 before his first All Blacks selection in 1905. He toured with the 1905 All Blacks that travelled to Great Britain, France and North America. After returning he continued to be selected for the All Blacks until retiring after the 1908 season.
Playing career.
Hunter was from a farming family in Taranaki, and attended Wanganui Collegiate. He then joined the Hawera Rugby Club and was selected to play for Taranaki in 1898 at the age of 18. He played in almost every position in the Taranaki backline before settling on second five-eighth. He continued to play for Taranaki and played for them against the touring Great Britain team that toured New Zealand in 1904. He was also selected to play for the All Blacks to play the one Test match against Great Britain, but after an injuring himself the day before the match, he was replaced. He was first selected for the North Island team in the annual inter-island match that year as well. In 1905 he captained the North Island to a 26–0 victory over the South Island; the match was also used as a trial for the All Blacks team to tour the British Isles that year.
He was selected for the New Zealand team that toured the New Zealand and Australia that July. This was a preliminary tour and Hunter was appointed captain. Although there were seven matches, Hunter only played in three. He was selected for the final squad the tour the Northern Hemisphere, but was replaced by Dave Gallaher as captain and Billy Stead as vice-captain. The team became famously known as The Original All Blacks, and played a total of 35 matches.
The first of Hunter's 24 matches on tour was the match against Devon in Exeter. He scored eight tries in his first four games on tour, and after nine games had scored 23. He twice scored five tries in a single match on the tour, the first of which was against Northumberland. The second was when they played Oxford University, and the "Morning Leader" wrote "Hunter was the most destructive medium on attack and his personal tally was five tries. One half of this little wonder's tricks have not been told yet and the Oxford men were simply paralysed by his tenacity." His next match was against Richmond. Hunter played at half-back for that match, and the "Athletic News" wrote of his performance "it could only be a player like Hunter who, by the way, was brought to halfback, who could have got through the stonewall arrangements by which Richmond defied the New Zealanders for 30 minutes."
Hunter did play in the All Blacks all five Tests on the tour, including the 3–0 loss to Wales. His first ever Test was the 12–7 victory over Scotland, and his first ever Test try was scored against France when he scored two in the All Blacks 38–8 victory. Hunter finished the tour with 44 tries which is described by writer Paul Verdon as "a sensational feat that has never been approached in the near-century of New Zealand tours and is most unlikely ever to be."
He continued to play for Taranaki, the North Island and the All Blacks following the tour, and captained the All Blacks in their 1907 tour of Australia. He captained all three Tests against Australia; the first two won 26–6 and then 14–5 and the third drawn 5–5. Hunter then played in all three Tests against the Anglo-Welsh team that toured New Zealand in 1908, and captained the second. Following the 1908 season he retired from active play. After his retirement he farmed at Mangamahu. His homestead was called Oeta and is still in existence.


George Wall (botanist)

George Wall (22 December 1821 – 18 December 1894) was a merchant, coffee planter, politician, amateur astronomer, botanist and humanitarian in Ceylon (Sri Lanka).
Early life and education.
George Wall, was born on 22 December 1820 in North Shields, Northumberland, England, the second son of George Wall (1773–1852), a Methodist Minister, and Ann née Lytham. He attended Harrow School. Wall began his career in the engineering firm of Sir Joseph Whitworth. Suffering ill health, in September 1846 he moved to Ceylon to take advantage of the climate, and was made acting manager of the Ceylon Plantation Company in Kandy. He remained with the company until 1854, when he established his own business, George Wall and Company, Coffee Merchants and Estate Agents.
Coffee and other trade.
Wall opened an office in Colombo and the business soon grew into an important concern, with Wall rising to prominence, accordingly. He became the first Englishman to chair the Planters' Association of Ceylon (1856–1857) and was re-elected Chairman nine times. From 1858 Wall sat on the Legislative Council of Ceylon as an unofficial member, supporting the case against the Paddy Tax. On 15 November 1864, Wall along with James De Alwis, Charles Lorenz, W. Thompson, John Capper and John Eaton resigned from the Council on a point of principle regarding the fiscal policy of the Government and its strict disregard to respect the procedures of the Legislative Council.
Wall returned to England in 1859 and spent the next four years in Manchester, where he served as a partner with his former employer, Sir Joseph Whitworth & Co., enjoying success in small arms manufacturing. Upon his return to Ceylon, he was elected chair of the Ceylon Chamber of Commerce in 1866.He was made a fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society in February 1872 and the Linnean Society of London. Wall's business eventually suspended operations in August 1879 following a devastating outbreak of coffee blight. George Wall and Company was subsequently taken over by Bosanquet and Company.
Botany and later life.
Alongside his business activities, Wall was a keen botanist and amateur astronomer. He was especially interested in ferns and built up a significant herbarium of plants from Ceylon. In 1889 he became the editor of the "Ceylon Independent" newspaper, a position he retained for six years. In 1892 Wall received the Gold Medal from the Cobden Club for his efforts in abolishing the Ceylon Grain tax. After falling ill in 1894 he returned to England for treatment at St. Thomas' Hospital, where he died in December that year. He was married twice (Alice née Makinson (1822–1854), the cousin of Edward Watkin and Mary Anne née Dixon, and had thirteen children. One of his sons, Arnold (1869–1966), went on to become a professor of botany in New Zealand and another, Frank, also became a naturalist. His daughter Rowena married Edward Seymour, 16th Duke of Somerset in 1881. He died on 18 December 1894.
Legacy.
Wall Street in Kotahena, Sri Lanka, is named in honour of George Wall. A Hindu-Saracenic fountain at the Lipton Circus junction in Cinnamon Gardens, Colombo was erected in memory of Wall.


James Uriah Adams

James Uriah Adams (February 12, 1812 – March 7, 1871) was a planter and politician from lower Richland County, South Carolina.
James Uriah was the son of James Adams and Sylvia Poythress Goodwyn, and the grandson of Joel Adams. He graduated from Yale University in 1831, and married Sarah Hopkins Adams and had twelve children. He served in the South Carolina House of Representatives in 1864, but with the end of the Civil War in 1865, and federal forces occupying South Carolina, it was ordered that the existing Legislature be disbanded and new elections be held. Adams therefore lost his seat in the House of Representatives.
Several of Adams's family members also served in the South Carolina House of Representatives: his grandfather Joel Adams, his son Henry Walker Adams, grandson Edward Clarkson Leverett Adams, uncle Joel Adams II, uncle William Weston Adams, and first cousin James Pickett Adams. His first cousin James Hopkins Adams was the 66th Governor of South Carolina from 1854 to 1857.


Wild Farm Alliance

The Wild Farm Alliance (WFA) is a non-profit organization dedicated to increasing biodiversity by expanding the idea and practice of wild farming.
Rooted in Watsonville, the heart of central California's agricultural lands, the WFA was founded in 2000, and was a participant in the sustainable agriculture movement. With twelve board members and a panel of advisors, including notorious agrarian Wendell Berry (Wild Farm Alliance-2006) the Wild Farm Alliance is composed of agricultural intellects from across the country. Furthermore, this panel of agricultural experts participates in educational meetings and conferences that encourage conservation and sustainable agriculture, as well as shape and implement the practices and beliefs of the WFA. The Wild Farm Alliance is also responsible for promoting private and public conservation incentives that compensate farmers for their stewardship efforts. Advocates of organic agriculture the WFA claims that organic farming (when done right) is a great model for farmers, but organic farming should also include the expansion and conservation of Nature on the farm (Sullivan-2006.) Since 37% of the Earth's land is dedicated to agriculture, the WFA believes that farmlands should be the first focus area for wildlife conservation (International Federation of Organic Movements-2002.)
As eco-crates and part of the stewardship school, the WFA's mission is to "promote agriculture that helps to protect and restore wild Nature" (Wild Farm Alliance-2006.) Furthermore, they envision a "world in which community-based, ecologically managed farms and ranches seamlessly integrate into landscapes that accommodate the full range of native species and ecological processes" (Wild Farm Alliance-2006.) Reiterating these ideas, the WFA defines sustainable agriculture as biological conservation, as well as, the interconnection between nature, the community, and the farm.
WFA Platform.
Recognizing that:
Believe that:
Methods and practices.
Combining an array of different ecological restoration and conservation strategies the Wild Farm Alliance calls their ideal sustainable model a "wildfarm." Wild farms come in many shapes and sizes, ranging from minimal wildness to those that are "seamlessly integrated into the larger landscape. The most common element is their ability to accommodate wild Nature" (Wild Farm Alliance-2006.) In order to increase wilderness on the farm, farmers apply biologically stimulating practices such as the use of hedgerows, riparian restoration, watershed conservation, incorporation of native flora and fauna, control of invasive species, as well as many others.
Hedgerows:
A hedgerow is defined as a fence or barrier formed by a dense row of shrubs or low trees, which provides protection against erosion, and acts as a barricade confining livestock. Using hedgerows to outline agricultural fields, farmers can benefit from the shrubs promotion of native pollinators and predatory insects which reduce pest outbreaks, thus reducing the financial burden of purchasing expensive pesticides. Attracting native pollinators like sweat bees also aid the farmer financially because bees contribute to an estimated $40 billion in orchard, row, and pasture business (Shepherd et al.-2003.) Hedgerows are also valuable as wildlife movement corridors, which allow insects and animals to move or migrate easier across farmlands. They do this by connecting wildernesses and farmlands together, thus expanding the wild landscape and habitat region of local native species.
Riparian Restoration:
Riparian zones and the watershed are valuable and sensitive components of the farm ecosystem, that should be protected from erosion, water contamination, and other ecologically devastating processes. Some methods for protecting these areas include restoration of native plants to prevent erosion and promote biodiversity, as well as, fencing off fragile riparian environments from livestock to reduce erosion and trampling of native plants. By protecting these areas from erosion, cattle disturbance, and water contamination, farmers can benefit from an increase in biodiversity and from a variety of nature's services: "nutrient cycling, erosion control, water purification, and flood protection" (Organic Certifier's Guide-2005.)


John Dryden (Ontario politician)

John Dryden (June 5, 1840 – July 29, 1909) was a farmer and politician in Ontario, Canada.
Early life.
Dryden was the son of James Dryden (1820–1881), a farmer, businessman and politician. The senior Dryden owned a successful farm near Winchester (later Brooklin), was a Reeve of Whitby Township, President of the Port Whitby and Port Perry Railway and a director of the Ontario Bank. Educated in nearby Whitby, John Dryden became the manager of his father's farm, doubling its size. He also became an expert breeder of sheep, horses, and cattle, and served in a leadership role in many agricultural and animal husbandry organizations.
Dryden married Mary Lydia Holman in 1867. They had three sons (two of whom died in infancy) and five daughters.
Political career.
Dryden's political career began in the local arena; in 1863, he was elected to the Whitby Township council, becoming Reeve in 1869 and 1870. In 1879, he was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Ontario as the Liberal member for the provincial Ontario South riding. He served in this capacity until 1905.
In 1890, Premier Oliver Mowat appointed Dryden Minister of Agriculture. As Minister, he oversaw reforms at the Ontario Agricultural College and was a strong supporter of agricultural training and instruction. He implemented a program of 'travelling dairies' whereby a portable horse-drawn dairy toured rural Ontario providing instruction to farmers. He also established dairy schools at Strathroy and Kingston. These measures were designed to improve the quality of dairy products produced in Ontario in an environment characterised by American tariffs and export challenges. Dryden remained minister through the governments of Mowat, Arthur Sturgis Hardy and George William Ross.
In 1895, Dryden set up an experimental farm near Wabigoon Lake in northwestern Ontario to test the agricultural potential of the area. The farm was closed by the incoming Conservative government after the 1905 election, but a village in the vicinity of the farm was named after Dryden. Dryden was incorporated as a Town in 1910. Dryden Township (now part of Greater Sudbury) is also named for the Minister.
Dryden was involved in a number of scandals during his time in office. In 1897, he appointed his brother George W. Dryden as the Registrar of Ontario County, causing dissension among fellow Liberals also interested in the job. The Conservatives also charged that Dryden had promised the position to several people in return for monetary compensation, and Dryden sued Conservative candidate William Smith for damages. Smith was unable to prove the allegations and was forced to withdraw the charges. Politically damaged, Dryden lost his seat in the 1898 Election. However, he refused to resign, challenged opponent Charles Calder in the courts and won the resulting by-election. Calder protested, necessitating another by-election, with Dryden emerging again as the victor. Rumours to the effect that Dryden bribed Calder to withdraw his protest persisted and hurt him politically. He was re-elected again in the 1902 Election but lost his seat in 1905.
Baptist church.
Dryden was an ardent Baptist, and served as a director of the Home Mission Society and a board member of the Baptist Convention of Ontario and Quebec. He was also a member of the Board of Trustees of Toronto Baptist College and continued to serve on the board of governors after the College became McMaster University.
Later life.
After his defeat, Dryden moved to Toronto and remained active. He continued his affiliation with McMaster, served as president of a number of insurance and savings companies and was appointed to an Imperial Royal Commission on agricultural conditions in Ireland. Dryden died in 1909 and was buried in a Baptist cemetery near Brooklin.


Allangrange Mains

Allangrange Mains (Scottish Gaelic: ) is a farm in Munlochy, Ross-shire, and is a few miles north of the Beauly Firth, and is within the council of Highland, Scotland.