Fabian Ware

Major-General Sir Fabian Arthur Goulstone Ware (17 June 186928 April 1949) was a British educator, journalist, and the founder of the Imperial War Graves Commission (IWGC), now the Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC). He also served as Director of Education for the Transvaal Colony and editor of "The Morning Post".
Born in Clifton, Bristol, he graduated from the University of Paris in 1894. After working in various education capacities, he travelled to the Transvaal Colony where, as a member of Milner's Kindergarten, he became Director of Education in 1903. Two years later, Ware became editor of "The Morning Post" and returned to England. While editor, he expanded the paper and reoriented it to focus on colonial affairs. After several controversies, culminating in a failed effort to purchase an airship for the United Kingdom, Ware was forced to retire in 1911.
When the First World War started in August 1914, Ware attempted to join the British Army but was rejected because he was too old. With the assistance of Alfred Milner, he obtained an appointment as the commander of a mobile ambulance unit provided by the British Red Cross Society. In this role he began marking and recording the graves of those killed. The unit soon began to focus exclusively on graves, and the organisation was transferred to the British Army in 1915. The following year the Army Department of Graves Registration and Enquiries was created with Ware at its head. On 21 May 1917 the Imperial War Graves Commission was founded. Ware served as vice-chairman. He ended the war as a major-general, having been mentioned in despatches twice.
Post-war, Ware was heavily involved in the IWGC's function. He frequently led negotiations with foreign nations over cemeteries and memorials, dealt with prominent figures in the commission, and worked to ensure the commission's financial security. Ware also attempted to raise support for his ideal of cooperation between the Dominions. In the lead-up to the Second World War, he attempted to use the IWGC's work as a tool for ensuring peace. When war broke out, he continued to serve as vice-chairman of the IWGC and was re-appointed director-general of Graves Registration and Enquiries. He retired from the Commission in 1948 and died the following year.
Early life.
Ware was born in Clifton, Bristol, on 17 June 1869 to Charles and Amy Carew Ware, Goulstone. He was privately tutored until his father died when he was 18. Ware then taught in private schools to pay for tuition at the University of London. Dissatisfied with his education, Ware left the University and after saving enough money began attending the University of Paris, graduating with a Bachelor of Science in 1894. He worked as an assistant schoolmaster from 1889 to 1899; the last four years at the Bradford Grammar School. While teaching, he was occasionally employed as an examiner for the Civil Service Commission. He married Anna Margaret (1868–1952) on 1 August 1895; they had a daughter and a son.
Transvaal.
Ware began contributing articles to "The Morning Post" in 1899. He served as the representative of the Education Committee of the Royal British Commission at the Exposition Universelle of 1900 in Paris and afterwards worked as an inspector of schools for the Board of Education. In October 1901 Ware was appointed assistant director of education in the Transvaal by Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner, becoming a member of an informal group of young Britons later known as Milner's Kindergarten. He moved to the Transvaal and stopped writing for "The Morning Post". As assistant director Ware chaired two committees in 1902 and 1903 on the topic of technical education in the colony. The Transvaal Technical Institute was created in early 1904 upon their recommendations. Ware served as chairman of the institute's council.
In early 1903 Ware became acting director of education when Edmund Beale Sargantthe director of education for the Transvaal and Orange River Colonyreturned to England in failing health. On 17 June 1903 Ware was made a member of the Transvaal Legislative Council, and in July he became permanent director of education for the Transvaal. Author wrote that as a member of the council Ware was "probably the only South African Superintendent of Education that has represented education "directly" before the legislature". Under Ware, the number of children in education in the Transvaal doubled in less than four years. As director, he advocated the eventual creation of a de-centralised system of education with responsibility largely in the hands of local authorities.
"The Morning Post".
When the editor-in-chief of "The Morning Post", James Nicol Dunn, resigned during the Russo–Japanese War, Ware had written to Oliver Borthwick and asked whether he could work on the paper's staff. Several years later, in April 1905, Lord Glenesk offered the editorship of "The Morning Post" to Ware, in part through Milner's influence. Ware accepted, and moved back to England, taking the position in March. Historian A. J. A. Morris writes that Glenesk intended for Ware to "be the much needed new broom" for the paper. When Ware became editor, "The Morning Post" had no offices. Its staff worked instead in temporary wooden sheds. He began expanding the paper by hiring Richard Jebb as a contributor, who in turn hired many other correspondents. The two began to focus the paper on the British Dominions, a move they presented as a means to increase the paper's circulation; though it allowed for new sources of advertising, the move did not lead to higher circulation. Ware aimed to make the paper "the authority on all colonial questions," and supported social and tariff reform. He invited radicals such as William Beveridge and R. H. Tawney to contribute to the paper. Shortly after beginning work, Ware came into conflict with Glenesk, who thought he should not promote tariff reform, and wrote asking Lord Glenesk's daughter, Lady Bathurst, to intervene and threatening to resign. As a result of his initiatives, Ware was disliked by some members of the paper's staff, particularly Spenser Wilkinson, the paper's leader writer, and E. E. Peacock, the paper's manager. Ware also supported Richard Jebb's campaign against respected conservative Robert Cecil for the Marylebone East Parliament seatwhich cost the paper readership.
After the First Moroccan Crisis in 1905, Ware campaigned heavily against war with Germany. He later said
When Glenesk died in November, Lady Bathurst became owner of the paper. Lady Bathurst and Ware generally got along as they both supported an aggressive far-right political stance. Ware was involved in hiring Robbie Ross as an art editor for the paper in August 1908. After the Bosnian Crisis in 1908, Ware became further convinced that the United Kingdom was falling behind Germany in military strength, a stance Wilkinson did not agree with. In a letter to Wilkinson, Ware wrote that "The Morning Post" "should boldly point to the German danger" and "rub in the immediate necessity of universal military service and the re-organisation of naval matters". He said that if the newspaper did not adopt that stance, "I cannot... continue to accept the responsibility of its editorship." Wilkinson considered the letter "a demand that I should abandon my sincerity as a writer, that is commit suicide". He felt Ware wanted "to hasten a war with Germany while I hope it may be averted by proper attention to navy and army and by sound foreign policy".
In response to the perceived military deficiency of the United Kingdom and Germany's successful test of a Zeppelin, "The Morning Post" announced the creation of a National Airship Fund on 21 June 1909. The aim of the fund was to raise £20,000 through public subscription to purchase the United Kingdom an airship. Lady Bathurst contributed an initial £2,000 to the fund. Ware travelled to Paris in July and signed a contract for Lebaudy Frères to build the Lebaudy Morning Post. In August, it was revealed that the "Daily Mail" had offered to pay for a hangar while an airship from Clément-Bayard was shipped to England. Ware rushed to ensure "The" "Morning Post"s airship arrived first, and by May 1910 he began helping plan the airship's route to England. However, the Clément-Bayard No.2, sponsored by "The" "Daily Mail", arrived in England on 16 October 1910. The War Office purchased the airship and the National Airship Fund was left out of negotiations. The Lebaudy Morning Post was damaged when it arrived in England ten days after the Clément-Bayard No.2 because its hangar was too small, and it crashed on its first test flight. Ware was accused by H. Massac Buist and Lancelot Julian Bathurst, the paper's manager and Lady Bathurst's brother-in-law, of financial mismanagement and poorly managing the paper. After threatening to sue Lancelot Julian Bathurst over libel, Ware was given £3,000 and agreed to retire. His retirement was announced on 14 June 1911.
After leaving "The Morning Post", Ware planned to create a weekly paper independent from political parties, with funding from various British Dominions. The project was unsuccessful. Ware became a special commissioner for Rio Tinto Limited, negotiating with the French government. In 1912 he published "The Worker and His Country", which historians John Lack and Bart Ziino describe as "an alarmist diagnosis of social unrest in France and Britain". In the book, Ware advocated for land redistribution to ease tensions between British social classes.
First World War.
Mobile ambulance unit.
With the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, the Royal Automobile Club began assisting the war effort with the creation of the Royal Automobile Club Volunteer Force. On 12 September 1914 several members of the club volunteered their services to the British Red Cross, which established the Motor Ambulance Department. Warewho was 45 years oldhad been rejected from serving in the British Army because he was too old, and obtained an appointment to command a mobile Red Cross ambulance unit with the assistance of Lord Milner. He arrived in France and took command of the unit on 19 September 1914. One of several Red Cross units in France, Ware's unit operated in northern France as a semi-autonomous command. He had a degree of independence afforded by the Joint Finance Committee of St John Ambulance and the Red Cross, who gave Ware his own operating budget for three-month periods. Ware was struck by the lack of an official mechanism for managing the graves of those killed and following British defeats at Mons and Le Cateau in September, Ware's unit began sharing information with Lord Robert Cecil, the head of the Red Cross's Wounded and Missing Department.
According to an Imperial War Graves Commission (IWGC) report, the original object of the unit was to "search for British wounded and missing in the district which had been overrun by the Germans during the retreat from Mons, and to convey them back to the British lines or to a British base". However, by early October 1914, the unit had begun extensively working with the French and handling their casualties. By mid-October, Ware's unit had added a medical staff and mobile light hospital. That month Ware visited an extension of the Béthune cemetery which had British graves not maintained and some not even recorded. He soon convinced the Red Cross to fund durable grave markers. By December, the unit had dealt with more than four thousand wounded soldiers.
Ware began to focus on searching for dead soldiers on battlefields in northern France. In February 1915 the unit asked Reginald Brade to help ensure the unit's continuing work and Ware unsuccessfully applied for a pass from the provost marshal at St Omer to continue grave work. The unit's usefulness as an ambulance group declined as French capabilities to handle their casualties increased. In early 1915 the commander of the French 10th Army Corps declined an offer of help from the unit. When the unit was disbanded in May 1915, it had dealt with 12,000 casualties and treated 1,000 at its hospital.
Graves Registration Commission.
Ware met with the Adjutant-General to the Forces, Nevil Macready, in mid-February 1915 to discuss the future of his work. With the support of Macready the British Army formally recognised a Grave Registration Commission (GRC) on 2March that was created from Ware's unit. The Commission represented a joint effort between the British Army and the British Red Cross. Ware initially divided the Commission into four regions with six men and four vehicles each, led by a headquarters of forty-four workers. On 22 May he was made a temporary major in the British Army to provide his work added authority. On 9September the promotion was antedated to 22 February 1915.
The GRC's work continued to rapidly expand through 1915: by May 4,300 graves had been registered. That spring Ware began serving as an intermediary between the French and British governments over grave-related matters. The GRC was reorganised in summer 1915 into eight sections and began handling requests at a headquarters in Lillers. The sections worked on grave maintenance. By mid-August, 18,173 graves had been registered. Ware's role in the commission was to serve as "the sole intermediary between the British Army in the Field and the French Military and Civil Authorities in all matters relating to graves". He thus led negotiations between France and Britain beginning in March 1915, particularly with the French Grand Quartier Général, Ministry of War and Ministry of the Interior. These negotiations attempted to resolve areas of disagreement between the two nations, particularly that of land expropriation for the cemeteries. The negotiations resulted in an "expropriation bill" which was presented to the Chamber of Deputies in July. Ware shepherded the bill through its passage, urging prominent British figures such as the adjutant-general and King George V to support it. By May 1916,the GRC had selected 200 sites for cemeteries. The law was passed by the French government on 29 December 1917 after objections in the senate were resolved. It gave Britain the ability to control their war graves in "perpetuity of sepulture" and provided for the establishment of a British authority to manage the cemeteries.
When Will Gladstone, a Member of Parliament and the grandson of former Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone, was killed in action near Laventie on 13 April 1915, his family attempted to have the body exhumed and returned to England. Despite a ban on exhumations established by French General Joseph, his family received special permission to take the body and bury it in Hawarden, Wales. In response, with Ware's influence a ban on future exhumations was established. To facilitate ease of remembrance, Ware hoped burials would be in relatively centralised cemeteries and worked against isolated burials occurring.
On 10 September 1915 he was appointed a chevalier of the French Legion of Honour. The GRC had registered over 31,000 graves by October 1915 and 50,000 by May 1916. As the war continued, Ware and others became concerned about the fate of the graves in the post-war period. Following a suggestion by the British Army, the government created the National Committee for the Care of Soldiers' Graves in January 1916, with Edward, Prince of Wales agreeing to serve as president and Ware as a member. Ware was promoted to temporary lieutenant colonel on 11 February 1916 as a result of his increasing responsibility over grave-related matters as the war expanded to more fronts.
Directorate of Graves Registration and Enquiries.
Ware competed with Sir Alfred Mond, the First Commissioner of Works, for responsibility over the graveyards. The Department of Works had managed war graves during previous British conflicts, and Mond wanted a share in managing graves from the First World War. Ware felt the scale of the war was so unprecedented a new organisation was needed to care for the graves and wanted to keep Mond out of the work. Though the feud continued into the 1930s, Ware's Commission was ensured priority when the GRC was formally integrated into the Army in May 1916 as the Directorate of Graves Registration and Enquiries (DGRE). Representatives from various relevant government departments were included and in September 1916 representatives from the dominions of the British Empire were included. Ware was made director of Graves Registration and Enquiries at the War Office on 15 May 1916, a post he held until the end of the war. That month he began working in London at Winchester House, St James's Square. The move to London was in part because it was easier to develop photographs and women could work as clerks. It also became necessary as the DGRE expanded operations to areas outside of France and Belgium. Only one-fifth of the typists Ware had requested initially arrived, but his staff eventually grew to around 700. The DGRE had expanded to include an Italian and an Eastern section; the latter included Salonika, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. Ware was soon given the nickname 'Lord Wargraves', reflecting his heavy involvement in grave-matters.
As Ware's work with graves continued, discussion about a "double identity disc" (previously there was only one per soldier) began in 1915 and continued into early 1916. Ware wrote Macready on 21 June 1915; in the letter he included a sketch of a pair of discs made of compressed fibreone could be removed and the other left with the corpse. On 24 June his proposal was accepted and four million were ordered. Discs began arriving in large numbers in mid-November. Such discs were issued to soldiers throughout the rest of the First World War and the Second World War despite the fibre decomposing quickly. The British Army stopped using the design in 1960.
While director, Ware was made a temporary brigadier-general on 12 August 1916. The DGRE regulated graves, making every aspect from spacing of graves to marking the graves uniform. He attempted to resolve differences between soldiers of different religious affiliations, decreeing for instance: "On no account should [Egyptian] Mohammedans be buried in Christian consecrated ground [...] Jewish graves were to be marked with a double triangle on a stake [and] under no circumstances should a cross be erected over an Indian Grave."
Efforts to neaten the cemeteries had begun in early 1916 when Ware invited Arthur William Hill, assistant director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, to tour the cemeteries and advise upon further planting efforts. Hill visited 37 cemeteries and wrote a report on how to plant them. Efforts began slowly, but by 1917 the commission had established four nurseries. In the 1917 New Year Honours, Ware was made a companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (CMG). By April 1917 the DGRE had registered over 156,500 graves; at least 150,000 in France and Belgium, 2,500 in Salonika and 4,000 in Egypt.
Imperial War Graves Commission.
By early 1917 several members of the National Committee for the Care of Soldiers' Graves believed a formal imperial organisation would be needed to care for the graves after the war. With the help of the Prince of Wales, Ware submitted a memorandum to the Imperial War Conference in 1917 suggesting that such an organisation be constituted. The suggestion was accepted and on 21 May 1917 the Imperial War Graves Commission was established by royal charter, with the Prince of Wales serving as president and Secretary of State for War Lord Derby as chairman. The IWGC had the responsibility for soldiers of members of the British Empire who died in active service. At its first meeting on 20 November, Ware was appointed vice-chairman. Historian Tim Skelton wrote that he was ""de facto", chief executive" of the commission. The IWGC could purchase land, build memorials, and restrict other memorials in the cemeteries.
In September 1917 Ware was given authority to wear the insignia of a commander of the Belgian Ordre de la Couronne. That month Belgium granted Britain land for cemeteries in perpetuity. Similar agreements were soon negotiated with Egypt, Italy, Serbia, and Greece. Once land for cemeteries and memorials had been guaranteed, the task of recording the details of the dead could fully begin. Around 587,000 graves had been identified and 559,000 soldiers listed as having no known grave by 1918. On 7October 1918 Ware was given the temporary rank of major-general as director-general of the DGRE.
Planning.
In May 1917 architect Edwin Lutyens wrote to Ware, urging "great stone[s] of fine proportion twelve feet long set fair or finely wrought". The proposal, supported by Ware, was criticised by figures such as Randall Davidson, the Archbishop of Canterbury, for its lack of religious motifs. Ware told Lutyens he was "shocked" by the response and was considering giving the Office of Works responsibility for graves. He still felt "the 'stone' will win yet." Lutyens considered Ware "a most excellent fellow and very keen to do the right thing without fear or favour of the present sentiment. With a preference for the most permanent and perfect."
In June 1917 Ware proposed a £10 budget per grave (equivalent to £ in terms), which became the standard sum for the IWGC. On 9July a committee organised by Ware, consisting of the Director of the Tate, Charles Aitken, the author J. M. Barrie, and the architects Lutyens and Herbert Baker, toured the cemeteries in order to form a plan for the post-war activities of the commission. The committee met on 14 July and decided all cemeteries should have a general theme, though one had not yet been decided. They agreed there would be four variations on the theme: monumental, garden or woodland, village, and town cemeteries; and grave markers would be uniform, with no individual crosses or monuments. In August Lutyens suggested there be "one kind of monument throughout [the cemeteries], whether in Europe, Asia, or Africa". He suggested that his Great War Stones be used as the monument.
On 21 September Ware, Hill, Lutyens, and Baker met in London to discuss preliminary plans. No agreement was reached. Lutyens continued to promote his concept of war stones as respectful to all religions, but Aitken and Baker favoured crosses. Both sides attempted to gain Ware's endorsement for their view. Upon Ware's invitation, author Rudyard Kipling was appointed the commission's literary adviser in October 1917. In late 1917 Ware began searching for a replacement to Aitken, who did not fully support Ware's vision for the commission. He also looked into establishing a 'Religious Advisory Committee' to help settle religious questions.
As Aitken's replacement, Frederic G. Kenyon was made artistic director of the Commission on 20 November 1917, largely to serve as a mediator in frequent conflicts between the architects. As part of his job he began to write a report deciding which proposals would be instituted in the IWGC's cemeteries. On 22 November Ware formally announced that there would be no difference "between officers and men lying in the same cemeteries in the form or nature of the memorials". In 1918 Lutyens, Baker, and Reginald Blomfield were appointed the commission's principal architects.
In 1918 Kenyon finished his report, titled "War Graves: How the Cemeteries Abroad Will Be Designed," and presented it to the commission. The report outlined many factors of how the cemeteries would be designed, particularly emphasising equal treatment of all soldiers. It also supported the programme of planting under Arthur Hill. Kenyon proposed having young architects design the cemeteries under the supervision of more experienced and senior architects such as Baker and Lutyens. Kenyon accepted Lutyens proposal and critics were appeased by support for a Cross of Sacrifice designed by Blomfield, and a recommendation that a cross be placed in every cemetery. The war stones became known as the Stones of Remembrance, and more than a thousand were erected. Kipling proposed the inscription "their name liveth for evermore" for the monuments.
For his work during the war, Ware was mentioned in despatches twice, including by Douglas Haig on 10 April 1919. The same year he was made a commander of the Order of the Bath, and in 1920 a knight commander of the Order of the British Empire. He received the Croix de Guerre and was made a commander of the Order of the Crown of Belgium. On 1 March 1921 Ware relinquished his commission, leaving the army, and was granted the rank of honorary major-general. In May 1922 he was made knight commander of the Royal Victorian Order. In 1929 the University of Aberdeen granted him an honorary doctorate.
Post-war.
Upon the end of the First World War, the IWGC could fully begin work. When the war ended, cemeteries were in disarray and many soldiers were still unburied. Though it technically was not responsible for burials and Ware's proposals for a 'burial corps' were rejected, in practice the commission was held responsible for making sure all bodies were buried. Ware continued to work for the commission, undertaking negotiations with foreign nations and hiring further professionals.
Building remembrance.
As people would soon begin visiting, the IWGC rushed to make the cemeteries presentable. The commission began building experimental cemeteries at Le Tréport, Forceville and Louvencourt in 1918. These were complete in early 1920 and were generally positively received, particularly the one at Forceville. Various changes were made based on the experimental cemeteries; notably cutting the cost of building cemeteries. The commission's work continued rapidly; by April 1920, there had been 128,577 re-interments in France and Belgium and the IWGC was managing 788 cemeteries. In March 1920 Ware predicted there would be more than half a million graves in 1,200 cemeteries in France and Belgium. Charles Holden was made a fourth principal architect that year.
Herbert Ellison managed most of the IWGC's business as Ware handled political issues. Ware was considered one of the faces of the commission, and gave annual Remembrance Day addresses to the United Kingdom to urge against future wars. He also had a film made, gave lectures, and organised photographic exhibits about the IWGC's work. At the Imperial War Conference in June 1918 it was agreed to make funding for the commission proportional to the number of soldiers each nation had lost based on figures submitted by Ware. The United Kingdom funded the vast majority of the commission's workaround 80%. His £10 figure had become standard reckoning, and in November 1918 the IWCG created a finance committee. In May and June 1919, Ware argued that the IWGC should be made independent of HM Treasury, which was observing the commission's finances, and this largely occurred after a meeting on 20 June.
Though many nations had given Britain control of their war graves and cemeteries in perpetuity, the Commission continued to seek similar concessions from other nations, including those who had fought against the United Kingdom during the war. One of the most difficult such areas was Gallipoli, which had been the site of the Gallipoli campaign. New Zealand and Australia, whose ANZAC forces had been heavily involved in the fighting, felt strongly that the IWGC should secure land for a cemetery. Charles Bean, the influential journalist and author of Australia's official war history proposed that "the complete Anzac site, including the Turkish trenches on the reverse slope adjoining it, be vested in the Graves Commission".
Ware had unsuccessfully attempted to begin negotiations with Turkey in 1917, separately asking the Red Cross, the Catholic Church, and the United States to serve as intermediaries. At the Paris Peace Conference from 1919 to 1920, the IWGC pushed for the right to land on Gallipoli called the 'ANZAC estate'as soon as possible. Ware was personally involved in these negotiations. The Commission gained such a concession in the Treaty of Sèvres, signed in August 1920. Renegotiation occurred after the Turkish War of Independence, and in the Treaty of Lausanne the IWGC gained the right to land the Allies considered "necessary for the establishment of cemeteries for the regrouping of graves, for ossuaries or memorials". By 1926, the IWGC had built 31 cemeteries and five memorials on the peninsula.
Ware travelled extensively post-war, visiting Canada (1925), Egypt (1929), India and Iraq (1930), and Australia and New Zealand (1934). The Commission faced criticism over not allowing individual memorials for soldiers, and repatriation of bodies of the dead, including in a petition spearheaded by Lady Florence Cecil (wife of William Cecil, the Bishop of Exeter) that was presented to the Prince of Wales in spring 1920 with over eight thousand signatures. Ware worked with William Burdett-Coutts, an MP, to write statements urging Parliament to allow the IWGC to continue its work. The disagreements led to a debate in Parliament over funding of the commission on 4May 1920. Sir James Remnant started the debate, followed by numerous speakers; notably speeches by Burdett-Coutts in favour of the commission's principles and Lord Robert Cecil (Lady Florence Cecil's brother-in-law) supporting those who wanted repatriation and opposed uniformity of grave markers. Winston Churchill closed the debate and asked that the issue not proceed to a vote. Remnant withdrew his motion, allowing the commission to carry out its work assured of support for its principles. In 1921 the commission moved to offices at 82 Baker Street. Most cemeteries were completed by the mid-1920s, at a total cost of £8,150,000 (about £ million in terms), in what was, according to architectural historian Gavin Stamp, "one of the largest schemes of public works ever undertaken".
Monuments.
Following the end of the war, there was an influx of Commonwealth organisations that wanted to construct memorials in France and Belgium. Private divisional monuments and memorials for individual countries were quickly proposed and the National Battlefield Memorial Committee was set up in 1919 to oversee the construction of monuments for the United Kingdom. Ware and the IWGC had the ability to license all such memorials and he began working with the various groups. Although Ware felt the primary focus of the IWGC should be cemeteries, by August 1921 it had gained responsibility for battlefield monuments as the National Battlefield Memorial Committee was dissolved. The Commission planned to build twelve monuments to missing soldiers in France and Belgium, and several others to sailors lost at sea and across Europe.
Discussions on how to commemorate the Ypres Salient, the first monument the IWGC worked on, dated back to 1919, when Winston Churchill said, "I should like us to acquire the whole of the ruins of Ypres as a memorial [...] A more sacred place for the British race does not exist in the world". The Belgian government agreed to give Britain the ruins of the Menin Gate to build a memorial for Commonwealth soldiers whose graves were unknown. Reginald Blomfield was appointed to design the monument. He proposed a triumphal arch and central hall. The IWGC struggled to navigate various commissions when building monuments in the United Kingdom. During planning for the Mercantile Marine Memorial in London, the Royal Fine Arts Commission (RFAC) rejected Lutyens's initial proposal at Temple Gardens on the bank of the River Thames, suggesting Tower Hill instead. Upset, Lutyens and Ware unsuccessfully urged the RFAC to reconsider. To commemorate sailors lost at sea, the IWGC planned three naval memorials of the same design in Chatham, Portsmouth, and Plymouth. They were designed by Sir Robert Lorimer with Henry Poole as a sculptor. Though Ware worked closely with the Admiralty on the monuments, he disliked it, saying the idea of their involvement "fills me with dismay".
When the Menin Gate was completed in 1927, 57,000 names were inscribed on the monument. Ware worked to convince the Dominions to allow their soldiers' names to appear on the Menin Gate, as it was intended to be an imperial monument. They had plans for their own memorials, but eventually all (except New Zealand) allowed some names to be listed. Such vast monuments created some resentment among the French people, whose country could scarcely afford to build large memorials for their soldiers. In 1926, it was concluded that "the French authorities were disquieted by the number and scale of the Memorials which the Commission proposed to erect in France and that some modification of the proposals was necessary". Ware began working to prevent formal opposition to the monuments from manifesting. As a result, the IWGC's proposals were dropped to six monuments, four in France and two in Belgium.
In July 1926, Ware proposed an Anglo-French cemetery at Thiepval. In an effort to gain further French support for the Thiepval Memorial, he proposed placing the inscription (to the French and British armies, from the grateful British Empire) on the monument. In November, Ware and Lutyens met with the French architect Emmanuel Pontremoli and the French general Noël Édouard to discuss Thiepval. After two years of further discussions, approval for the project was granted by the on 12 April 1928, and construction soon began.
Ware attended numerous monument dedications: in 1924 all three naval monuments; in 1927 the Menin Gate, Tyne Cot, and Neuve-Chapelle Indian Memorial; in 1928 the Mercantile Marine Memorial, Nieuport Memorial, Soissons Memorial, and La Ferté-sous-Jouarre memorial; and in 1930 the Le Touret Memorial. In 1931 he spoke at the unveiling of the All India War Memorial in New Delhi. He was present at the unveiling of Theipval on 1 August 1932.
As more monuments approached completion, the commission began searching for ways to ensure it would have the financial capability to independently manage repairs. In June 1926 an endowment fund was created for the commission. The Treasury disliked the fund, but Ware considered it the commission's "only hope of permanency". After the fund was established, the Treasury continued to resist the commission's proposals and suggested suspending the United Kingdom's contributions to the fund for three years in 1931. Ware convinced the influential advisor to the Treasury George May to accept a reduced payment scheme. After the Treasury attempted to propose deferring payments again in August, Ware wrote angrily to Warren Fisher of the Treasury and helped Neville Chamberlain and Stanley Baldwin prepare opposition. Around a month later the Treasury tried again and Ware convinced the prime minister of Canada to tell their high commissioner to the United Kingdom to resist any proposed changes by the Treasury without consulting other Commonwealth nations. The endowment fund was secured by 1932.
As vice-chairman, Ware attempted to ensure uniformity of monuments in keeping with his ideal of cooperation between Britain and the Dominions. He failed in this aspect; monuments such as the Neuve-Chapelle Indian Memorial incorporated unique elements. The Canadian National Vimy Memorial was designed by Walter Allward, an architect not associated with the commission. One of the IWGC's last monuments was the Villers–Bretonneux Australian National Memorial, not dedicated until 1938. Though William Lucas had won a contest to design the memorial in 1925, Ware and General Talbot Hobbs disliked the design, and the project was halted by the Australian government of James Scullin in 1930. Hobbs then approached Lutyens about designing the memorial. Work did not resume on the project until Ware travelled to Australia in 1935 to push for action from the government. In 1936 the commission began struggling financially, as it increased salaries for its employees in the face of the Great Depression. Ware, fearing unwanted reform from a Treasury investigation, arranged for the appointment of an investigative committee. It published a report in July 1938 and the commission began cutting costs.
In 1936 Italy made director of graves, going against their agreement with the British government which had led to grave affairs being managed by an Anglo-Italian Committee. Although Britain was sanctioning the Italian government, Ware travelled to Rome and was able to get the committee reconstituted. Similar committees also existed in Germany, France, Belgium, and other nations. Ware saw them as tools to further the IWGC's work to, as the historian Philip Longworth writes, "bring home to ordinary people of all nations a realisation of the cost of war." A similar practice was adopted in Germany, where an Anglo-French-German committee was established based on a 20 November 1935 agreement. The committee was the first in a former enemy power and Ware saw its work as uniting the nations in "an organised movement of common remembrance of the dead of the Great War." He was convinced that by uniting nations through memorials, another war could be prevented. Longworth writes that Ware intended to use "the Commission as a sort of minor League of Nations to forward the work of international understanding."
Ware published an account of the work of the IWGC in 1937 titled "The Immortal Heritage". He was given the authority to wear the insignia of a commander of the Legion of Honour on 27 December 1933 and the insignia of a grand master on 16 December 1938.
Other work.
In the 1930s Ware moved to Amberley, Gloucestershire. He served as a member of the Imperial Committee on Economic Consultation and Co-operation in 1932. In July 1932 he urged the Canadian prime minister R. B. Bennett to support an 'Imperial Economic Committee' outside the British Treasury's control. Ware was the first to seriously propose something of the kind, submitting a draft charter for the establishment of the 'Imperial Economic Commission', which would function as an economic general staff for the empire. The proposal gained little support.
Ware was an honorary associate at the Royal Institute of British Architects,"" and a director of the journal "Nineteenth Century and After". As a director of the journal, he made the decision to appoint Arnold Wilson as editor and later insisted on his removal for poor coverage of the Spanish Civil War. He was an adviser at the 1937 Imperial Conference. Ware also served the county of Gloucestershire in various capacities,"" including as president of the Gloucestershire Rural Community Council from 1940 to 1948, chairman of the executive committee of the Parents' National Educational Union in 1939, and chairman of the Gloucestershire Branch of the Council for the Preservation of Rural England.
Second World War and death.
Ware travelled to Cologne in October 1936 and attended a conference of the German War Graves Commission (). In his speech he said war cemeteries would promote "a blessed healing of wounds", but at the same time warned "armed conflict [...] between these great nations would result in deeper wounds, wounds so deep that they would defy healing." The speech was well received and republished by the German press. Longworth writes that Germans considered the cemeteries "reminders of German heroism and of a shame that must be avenged". Ware continued his efforts against war even as the "Anschluss" and the Munich Agreement occurred. He spoke at the "Volksbund"'s celebration in 1938, again advocating against war. In 1939 he spoke to Ivan Maisky, the Ambassador of the Soviet Union to the United Kingdom, and worked on negotiations between the USSR and IWGC. That year Ware began preparations for a possible war.
At the outbreak of the Second World War, Ware was recalled to serve as director-general of Graves Registration and Enquiries at the War Office on 30 August 1939. On 3September he was granted an emergency commission with the honorary rank of major-general. He also continued in his role as vice-chairman of the commission and facilitated cooperation between the organisations.
In Autumn 1940 Ware began working on a programme to memorialise civilian dead as a result of the war. He wrote a letter to Winston Churchill saying the IWGC could not "omit to commemorate these [civilian casualties] if the higher purposes inspiring their work" were to continue to be respected, and the IWGC began recording civilian deaths "caused by enemy action" in January 1941. Despite support from the King and Registrar General, the Commission struggled to record all informationparticularly the addresses of next of kin. After Ware toured some of the areas with the most deaths, local authorities were enlisted to help. By releasing various announcements and a radio broadcast by Ware in November, the IWGC had collected information on more than 18,000 people. In January 1942 he proposed listing dead civilians in the Warrior's Chapel in Westminster Abbey on a roll of honour. Though the Dean of Westminster supported the proposal, Herbert Morrison, the minister of home security, argued such a list should be put up after the war. Following discussions, it was agreed the rolls would not be announced until after the war ended.
Ware resigned as director-general of Graves Registration and Enquiries in 1944, leaving the army, to continue his work with the commission. Progress was hampered as the DGRE and IWGC struggled to cooperate. In April 1944 Ware spoke at a conference on war memorials organised by the Royal Society of Arts. He toured cemeteries in France and Belgium in August 1945. He resigned as vice-chairman of the Commission in 1948 due to old age and failing health, particularly his chronic phlebitis. Ware died on 28 April 1949 in Barnwood House Hospital, Gloucester, and was buried in Holy Trinity Churchyard, Amberley on 2May. His grave has an IWGC-style headstone. There are memorial tablets to him in St. George's Chapel at Westminster Abbey and in Gloucester Cathedral. The road Boulevard Fabian Ware in Bayeux, the location of Bayeux War Cemetery, is named in his honour.


William Warren Baldwin

William Warren Baldwin (April 25, 1775 – January 8, 1844) was a doctor, businessman, lawyer, judge, architect and reform politician in Upper Canada. He, and his son Robert Baldwin, are recognized for having introduced the concept of "responsible government", the principle of cabinet rule on which Canadian democracy is based.
Early life.
William Warren Baldwin was born in County Cork, Ireland in 1775 of Robert Baldwin Sr. William graduated from the medical school at the University of Edinburgh in 1797. Faced with the prospect of the uprising of the Society of United Irishmen in 1798, he came to Upper Canada with his father and family, arriving in July 1799. The family moved to Durham County, where he became a lieutenant-colonel in the Durham militia and a justice of the peace in 1800. William found few patients in Durham, so he moved to the town of York (Toronto) and took up other occupations. In 1803, he was admitted to the bar and, in 1809, he became a district court judge. He served several terms as Treasurer of the Law Society of Upper Canada.
William married Phœbe Willcocks, daughter of William Willcocks, in 1803. Phœbe and her unmarried sister inherited the estate of their father in 1813, and their cousin Elizabeth Russell in 1822. William inherited his father Robert Baldwin Sr's 200-acre estate in 1817. With this wealth they built an estate in 1818 on the future site of Spadina House and laid out the grand avenue, Spadina, that was to link it to the city. The house burned down in 1835 and was rebuilt on the same foundations. The current building was built on the original foundations.
Reform politics.
In 1820, he was elected to the 8th Parliament of Upper Canada representing York & Simcoe. In 1829-30 he represented Norfolk County in the 10th Parliament. His record shows he was no foe of aristocracy, and should be considered a whig constitutionalist. Baldwin's status as gentleman added legitimacy to the reform policies on responsible government that he supported. When he was not re-elected in 1831, he bitterly left politics and focused on other causes such as the response to the 1832 Cholera epidemic, the Mechanics Institute and the House of Refuge and Industry. He was appointed director of the Dispensary by John Rolph.
In 1836, he became a member of the Constitutional Reform Society of Upper Canada. Lieutenant Governor Sir Francis Bond Head removed him from his appointments as judge. However, Baldwin, although he supported reform, did not endorse the Upper Canada Rebellion, preferring to work through lawful means.
Having spoken directly with Lord Durham in 1838, and seeing that Durham had incorporated the call for "responsible government" in his official report, Baldwin was emboldened to resume direct political participation once more. He and 222 inhabitants of the Home district petitioned Sheriff William Jarvis to call a public meeting to discuss Durham's recommendation on responsible government in August 1839. Jarvis, however, was swayed by "the influential part of the inhabitants" and refused the reformers. The petitioners decided to call a meeting of the "friends of Responsible Government" for the 15th of October outside the city. When Dr Baldwin called the meeting to order, Jarvis led an Orange Tory mob, which tore a fence apart, and began beating the defenseless crowd. Jarvis led a charge on the wagon on which Baldwin and Francis Hincks were perched, shouting "Down with them! Down with them!" The meeting broke up, but not before a nineteen-year-old member of the Children of Peace, David Leppard, was struck in the temple with a rock with such force that he was knocked from his wagon; he was to die soon after. The death - which was never punished - formed an alliance between the Baldwin family and the Children of Peace.
When Robert Baldwin gave up his seat in the riding of 4th York to take a seat in Hastings, the Children of Peace began a movement to draft Dr. Baldwin to accept the reform nomination to replace him. Dr Baldwin, however, was reticent about accepting. The violence of the Yonge Street Durham meeting had led to strenuous objections from his wife who was "quite terrified" at the thought of his re-entering politics. He ultimately accepted only when Robert quieted his mother's fears in early August. He quickly abandoned the plan when Robert suggested that Louis LaFontaine run in his stead.
In late 1843, Sir Charles Metcalfe, the Governor General, appointed Baldwin to the Legislative Council of the United Canadas. It was an honour he enjoyed for only a few weeks. He died at Toronto January 8, 1844, aged 69.
Charitable work.
Home District Savings Bank.
Banks in this period did not have savings accounts. In order to encourage the working poor of the city to save for periods of unemployment, the Lt. Governor pushed for the establishment of a Home District Savings Bank on June 5, 1830 "for the earnings of Journeymen Tradesmen, Mechanics, Servants, Labourers." Baldwin was one of the 7 directors.
Board of Health.
Baldwin was the president of the York Board of Health established to contain the 1832 Cholera epidemic.
Toronto Mechanics Institute.
Baldwin was elected the vice-president of the newly founded Toronto Mechanics Institute in 1830, and remained in that role until elected president in 1834 until 1837.
Toronto House of Industry.
The day-to-day operations of the House of Industry were left to a three-member "weekly committee" composed of Dr. Baldwin, the Baptist preacher Alexander Stewart, and John Powell, an attorney. Under Baldwin's leadership, the House of Industry applied for, and was granted, 4 acres of land within the city, which it planned to cultivate with the help of its inmates. Although only granted 4 acres, the reformers had sought 50. The intent was clearly to establish an "agricultural colony" for the poor – most of whom were pauper emigrants – in keeping with the 1834 published suggestion of Baldwin's cousin James Buchanan (the British Consul and emigrant agent for Upper Canada in New York) for an "emigrant depot".


Poverty in Sri Lanka

Poverty in Sri Lanka is 4%. Sri Lanka's life expectancy and literacy rate are nearly on par with those of developed countries, and even top the rankings for the South Asia region. While all these indicate that Sri Lanka should be experiencing a high standard of living, until recently it has only ranked in the medium category of the Human Development Index (HDI). This is despite the fact that Sri Lanka has been experiencing moderate growth in its GDP averaging 5.5 per annum between 2006 and 2009. One of the reasons is due to its relatively low GDP per capital;. The Sri Lankan government has been successful in reducing poverty from 15.2% on 2006 to 8.9% in 2010, urban poverty was reduced from 6.7 to 5.3% while rural poverty was reduced from 15.7 to 9.5%, and the nation has made significant progress towards achieving Millennium Development Goals on eradicating extreme poverty and hunger.
Population.
As of 2010, 8.9% of the population lives below the poverty line. This is evidence that while acute poverty is no longer an issue, poverty still remains widespread and continues to be a challenging problem in Sri Lanka. More worryingly however is the fact that 90% of the poor live in rural areas, with over 80% of Sri Lanka's population still living in rural areas. But in 2013 it has showed that the economy is growing more rapidly than any other Asian country.
This highlights a link between isolation from social and economic infrastructure, cities and markets, and higher levels of poverty incidence. One explanation could be that it limits these people from earning income through off-farm activities. In addition, with more than 40 per cent of the rural poor people being small farmers, their production systems may be hampered by the usual suspects of fragmented landholdings, poor economies of scale, low investment levels resulting from poor financial services as well as inappropriate or limited technology.
According to the Asian Development Bank, the population of Sri Lanka was 19.71 million in 2015. In 2014, 6.7% of the country lived below the national poverty line. During the same year, it was also reported that 50.5% of the population aged 15 years and above were employed.
Development.
In 2008, it was reported that tens of thousands of men from impoverished villages were joining the Sri Lanka Armed Forces and Sri Lanka Police Service to escape rural poverty, as the wages offered by the security services significantly raise the standard of living for soldiers and their families.
In order to reduce rural poverty (and thus poverty as a whole), rural development in terms of infrastructure is important. The need for a better road network and transport system to link up the rural areas as well as better credit facilities to aid in the investments of new technology and farming techniques are just a start in ensuring that the rural poor are not left behind.
While it is identified that development in the rural areas is crucial for poverty alleviation, the government cannot possibly channel unlimited funds into development plans without constraints, disregarding potential developments in urban areas, or more importantly, not considering the state of its overall economy. Therefore, the Sri Lankan government faces a dilemma of pursuing growth that is equitable; trying to promote economic growth without leaving the poor in the rural area behind.
Apart from government policies, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)help ease the situation too. One of them is Sarvodaya. Sarvodaya is Sri Lanka's largest NGO, which includes many other divisional units dedicated for different development projects. Sarvodaya Economic Empowerment Development Services (SEEDS) began its operation as a separate division in 1986 and now reaches 18 of Sri Lanka's 25 districts. SEEDS is responsible for building the economic capacity of the poorest groups within the communities. Its aim is to stimulate an attitude of entrepreneurship, innovation, thrift and sustainable development in the rural areas.
Although SEEDS does not directly deal with the lack of physical infrastructure in rural areas, i.e. development plans in building roads, bridges, etc., it has helped people in rural areas to be financially independent and improved livelihood, which in turn helps reduce rural poverty. It hopes that through their aid, villages can become self govern and capable of serving their community's economics and social needs.,
SEEDS provides saving and credit services for starting a small enterprise or to improve livelihood as well as non-financial services such as business counselling, training in technical skills and market information. It uses the village banking microfinance model to help the rural communities. Village banking treats the whole community as one unit, and establishes semi-formal or formal institutions through which micro-finance is dispensed. The banks are run by their own people: they choose their members, elect their own officers, establish their own by-laws, distribute loans to individuals, and collect payments and savings. Their loans are backed, not by goods or property, but by moral collateral: the promise that the group stands behind each individual loan. Therefore, this is a means of ensuring that each individual will be disciplined in saving up to repay their own loans. 86% of SEEDS beneficiaries actually had functioning micro enterprises. Statistics have shown that 51% of SEEDS beneficiaries showed increased revenues while 73% of them showed increased profits.
There are 1,129,344 members in these village banks, out of which 60% of the members are females. This in itself has empowered women as they are no longer dependent on others for their capital needs. They have more bargaining power within the households and thus need not feel as insecure as before. Secondly, they have a guaranteed and sure access to capital thus removing uncertainty and permitting a confident basis to stay in business and even expand. This is a major empowerment both socially and economically of these women, as this micro-finance model not only raise their level of productivity but also allow women to contribute to family income, leading to an overall reduction in poverty levels in the rural areas. Other than financial services, SEEDS has been able to integrate spiritual revival, social change and economic development. It has helped restore a person's sense of pride and self-esteem, as well as that of the village community. The earlier feeling of humiliation and of powerlessness vanishes with the collective sense that is generated.


Attiya Gamri

Attiya Gamri (born 1972, ) is a Dutch-Assyrian member of the province council of Overijssel in The Netherlands. Gamri is originally from Arbo in Tur Abdin, Turkey.


James Gibb Stuart

James Gibb Stuart (30 August 1920 – 23 September 2013) was a financial author, owner of Ossian Publishers, and chairman of the Scottish Pure Water Association. He was known for his outspoken opposition to the European Union, and for publishing a book on monetary reform, "The Money Bomb", in which he advocates a complete overhaul of British currency, the pound sterling.
The Money Bomb.
When "The Money Bomb" was published in 1983, well-documented efforts to quash any publicity clashed with advocacy of its arguments by the Margaret Thatcher government, who were struggling to freeze that country's national debt at twelve billion pounds .


List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP (PPP)

This is a list of Commonwealth of Nations countries by gross domestic product (GDP) at purchasing power parity (PPP). Gross domestic product is the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year. The GDP dollar estimates presented here are calculated at market or government official exchange rates. Values are given in millions of international dollars. Dependent territories are shown in italics and are not ranked, and their flags are shown alongside the country of which they are a territory.
The table below shows the latest PPP and PPP per capita data for Commonwealth countries and territories of the member countries. Most figures (including for the world) are 2019 estimates from the International Monetary Fund. Other figures are estimates from "The World Factbook" of the Central Intelligence Agency (for GDP and GDP per capita), and are noted beside the figures along with the year of estimate.
Click on one of the small triangles in the headings to re-order the list according to that category.
Note: The figures for the dependent territories are slightly outdated (e.g. the GDP per capita figure for the Cayman Islands is from 2004), therefore they may not be easily compared with more recent figures for sovereign states.


Evangeline-Miscouche

Evangeline-Miscouche is a provincial electoral district for the Legislative Assembly of Prince Edward Island, Canada.
Evangeline-Miscouche is a francophone-majority riding.
Members.
The riding has elected the following Members of the Legislative Assembly:


Beslan Khagba

Beslan Badrovich Khagba (; born 23 May 1956) is a former Minister for Internal Affairs of Abkhazia. He was born 23 May 1956 in Gudauta
In May 2015, following two confrontations between police officers and members of the State Security Service, Interior Minister Raul Lolua handed in his resignation. It was accepted by President Khajimba on the evening of 14 May, and he appointed Khagba as his successor. Earlier, Khagba had been Gagra District Prosecutor.
On 9 October, Khagba was dismissed by Khajimba and replaced by Leonid Dzapshba, who had already been Interior Minister from 2010 to 2011.


Operation Boswilger

Operation Boswilger () was a military operation executed by the South West Africa Territorial Force in June 1985 during the South African Border War and Angolan Civil War. The SADF soldiers pursued SWAPO's, PLAN insurgents, who had attacked infrastructure, out of South West Africa/Namibia across the border into Angola.
Background.
On 28 June, PLAN insurgents entered South West Africa damaging a bridge between Epali and Ondangwa, sabotaging twenty telephone poles, mortaring the Eenhana SADF base and a bomb was detonated at the Ongwediva Teachers Training College No one was injured in these attacks.
On 29 June 1985, South West Africa Territory Force (SWATF) mechanised reaction teams set off in a hot pursuit operation following the tracks. Orders had been given by Brigadier Joep Joubert, to follow the insurgents even if they crossed back into Angola. Bases were attacked up to 40 km inside Angola. There was twenty-three contacts in the first day killing forty-three insurgents and thirteen contacts and another fourteen insurgents killed on the second day. The operation lasted two days before the SWATF withdrew back across the border to SWA.
At the end of the operation, 56 PLAN insurgents had been killed with one dead from the SWATF with large amounts of weapons and ammunition captured. Later, South African Foreign Minister Pik Botha would justify the operation to cross the border into Angola as the Angolan's had failed to prevent the incursions of SWAPO's insurgents into South West Africa/Namibian territory, as prescribed by the Lusaka Accords.


Abbotsford West

Abbotsford West is a provincial electoral district in the Canadian province of British Columbia established by the "Electoral Districts Act, 2008". It was first contested in the 2009 British Columbia general election.
Member of Legislative Assembly.
On account of the realignment of electoral boundaries, most incumbents did not represent the entirety of their listed district during the preceding legislative term. Mike de Jong, British Columbia Liberal Party was re-elected in 1996, 2001 and 2005 to the Abbotsford-Mount Lehman riding. He was also elected in this new redistricted riding in the 2009 election.
Electoral history.
!align="left" colspan=3|Total
!align="right"|16,111
!align="right"|100.00%
!align="right"|


Aghasi Khanjian

Aghasi Ghevondi Khanjyan (; , "Agasi Gevondovich Khandzhyan") (January 30, 1901 – July 6, 1936) was First Secretary of the Communist Party of Armenia from May 1930 to July 1936.
Biography.
Khanjyan was born in the city of Van, Ottoman Empire (today eastern Turkey). With the onslaught of the Armenian Genocide, his family emigrated from the city in 1915 and settled in Russian Armenia. In 1917–19, he was one of the organizers of Spartak, the Marxist students' union of Armenia. He later served as the secretary of the Armenian Bolshevik underground committee.
In September 1919, Khanjyan was elected to the Transcaucasian regional committee of Komsomol. He enrolled in Sverdlov University in 1921. After graduating, he worked as a party official in Leningrad, where he supported Joseph Stalin against the city’s party boss, Grigory Zinoviev. He returned to Armenia in April 1928 and served as a secretary of the Armenian Communist Party in 1928-29, first secretary of the Yerevan City Committee of the Communist Party of Armenia, (March 1929-May 1930); and in May 1930, First Secretary of the Armenian Communist Party.
Khanjyan took over the leadership of the Armenian party at a time when the peasants were being forced to give up their land and were being driven onto collective farms, on instructions in Moscow. This provoked widespread resistance. The Soviet press revealed at the time that the communists lost control of parts of Armenia, which were in rebel hands for several weeks in March and April 1920. Under Khanjyan, the process was completed without any reports of armed clashs between rebels and the security services. He proved to be a charismatic Soviet politician and was very popular among the Armenian populace. He was a friend and supporter of many Armenian intellectuals, including Yeghishe Charents (who dedicated a poem to him), Axel Bakunts and Gurgen Mahari. Khanjyan also tried unsuccessfully to have Moscow annex Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia.
Death.
Khanjian was arrested in 1936 and died while being interrogated. Ronald Grigor Suny describes the circumstances of his death as follows:
But by the mid-1930s Khanjyan had come into conflict with the most powerful party leader in Transcaucasia, Lavrenti Beria, a Georgian close to Stalin.
Early in July 1936 Khanjyan was called to Tiflis. Suddenly and unexpectedly it was announced that the Armenian party chief had committed suicide. Though the circumstances of his death are murky, it is believed that Beria had ordered Khanjyan's death to remove a threat to his own monopoly of power.
In December 1936, the USSR's most prominent Armenian politician, Anastas Mikoyan, told the Central Committee that Khanjian had killed himself because "he didn't want to be a witness to his own universal shame". Stalin backed him up, but a "much more plausible story", according to the Russian historian Roy Medvedev, is the one that Alexander Shelepin, Chairman of the KGB, told the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party in 1961 - that Beria shot Khanjian dead, and put two forged suicide notes in his pocket.
Along with an entire generation of intellectual Armenian communist leaders (such as Vagarshak Ter-Vaganyan), Khanjyan was denounced as an enemy of the people during the Great Purge.
Khanjyan was officially rehabilitated after the death of Joseph Stalin.


Gerrit Holdijk

Gerrit Holdijk (17 November 1944 – 30 November 2015) was a Dutch jurist and politician of the Reformed Political Party (SGP).
Holdijk was born in Uddel, a village in the Veluwe region. He studied notary at a post-secondary level, and also law at Utrecht University. Till his retirement at the age of 65 he was performing a judicial practice.
Belonging to the Reformed Association in the Protestant Church in the Netherlands, he was a member of its executive committee since 1983.
On behalf of his party he was a member of the States-Provincial of Gelderland from 1987 to 2011. He was also a member of the Senate from 1986 to 1987 and again from 1991 to 2015. As a senator he was dealing with matters in the field of justice, home affairs and agriculture.
Holdijk was well known for pipe smoking. On 30 November 2015 he died in his hometown of a serious illness at the age of 71.


Squatting in Nigeria

Squatting in Nigeria refers to a person who is not the owner, taking possession of land or an empty house. Squatters migrate from the countryside to informal settlements in cities such as Abuja, Port Harcourt and in particular Lagos. Lagos had a population of over 14 million people in 2019 and many slums, including Makoko.
Overview.
Squatting in Nigeria occurs when people migrate from the countryside to cities such as Abuja, Port Harcourt and in particular Lagos. Other reasons include the lack of low cost housing, unemployment and inability to access loans. Barriers to the construction of low cost housing are corruption, lack of national policy initiatives and bad governance. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria, homelessness in cities was observed to be increasing in 2020.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, there was less squatting in West Africa than in other areas of Africa and also Latin America, because cheaply rented property was available and traditional
tribal structures meant it was easy to find housing. However, the population in urban areas was rising rapidly: Ajegunle, now part of Lagos, went from a population of 12,951 in 1948-1952, to an estimated 120,000 in 1970-1972; Aba went from 57,787 in 1948-1952 to an estimated 300,000 in 1970-1972; Abeokuta went from 84,451 people in 1948-1952 to an estimated 250,000 in 1970-1972; Kakuri now part of Kaduna had
1,000 inhabitants in 1948-1952 and an estimated 30,000 people in 1970-1972. In November 2020, Lagos State issued over 2,500 eviction notices to informal settlements in Fagba a district of Ifako-Ijaiye, stating that the squatters were hoodlums who had been involved in the EndSARS protests.
Lagos.
The capital Lagos is the most populated city in Africa, with over 14 million people in 2019 (Nigeria as a whole had over 200 million people). In 1995, almost 70% of the population of Lagos lived in slums. Makoko is an area composed of six villages, four on water and two on land. The villages on water are made up of wooden shacks built beside the Third Mainland Bridge. There are no official figures and population estimates range from 40,000 up to 300,000 people. An eviction attempt in 2012 by the State Ministry of Waterfront Infrastructure Development stopped when a resident was shot dead. Badia East is a slum beside the railway which has seen large-scale evictions in 1986, 1997, 2003 and 2013.


Lenong Regiment

The Lenong Regiment (formerly Regiment President Kruger) is a reserve motorised infantry regiment of the South African Army
History.
Regiment President Kruger was raised in 1954 as a motorised infantry unit and was initially headquartered in Krugersdorp.
Name change.
By 1960 the unit was renamed Regiment Wes Rand. This was however reverted by 1964.
In August 2019, 52 Reserve Force units had their names changed to reflect the diverse military history of South Africa. Regiment President Kruger became the Lenong Regiment, and have 3 years to design and implement new regimental insignia.
Garrison.
The units HQ moved to Randfontein around 1972, about 20 kilometers away.
Freedom of Entry.
The unit exercised its freedom of entry into Johannesburg on 9 November 2013 as part of the centenary celebrations of the City of Johannesburg with bayonets fixed, colours flying and drums beating.
Regimental colours.
The units eagle symbol depicted the old Transvaal Republican era.
Deployments and training.
The regiment has been deployed as part of the SANDF throughout Africa, Burundi, DRC; in support of United Nations and African Union peacekeeping mandates. All members of the Regiment are volunteers, with employment in the civilian roles, they fulfil their responsibilities and duties on top of their duties and responsibilities to their families and employers.


Caspar Baader

Caspar Baader (born 1 October 1953) is a Swiss politician, attorney and member of the Swiss National Council from the canton of Basel-Country. Elected in 1998, he is a member of the Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC).
Baader is married and a father of three.


Suzanne Simone Baptiste Louverture

Suzanne Simone Baptiste Louverture (around 1742 – May 19, 1816 in Agen, France) was the wife of Toussaint Louverture and the "Dame-Consort" of the French colony of Saint-Domingue.
Family life.
After being a coachman and a driver, Toussaint was freed at the age of thirty-three, and then married Suzanne Simone Baptiste.
Politics.
When in 1801 the constitution appointed Toussaint as governor of Saint-Domingue, she received the title of "Dame-Consort."
Kidnapping.
In 1802, Charles Leclerc's troops captured her along with her husband and the rest of her immediate family. Madame Louverture survived her husband, who died that same year, and her youngest child Saint-Jean, died in 1804 in Agen, France. She died in 1816, in the arms of her sons, Placide and Isaac.


26 Field Artillery

26 Field Artillery Regiment was an artillery regiment of the South African Artillery.
History.
Origins.
This unit was originally formed as the first Field Artillery Regiment for the Northern Transvaal Command on 1 July 1976 and was based in Voortrekkerhoogte, south of Pretoria.
First Personnel.
Its first intake of personnel came from roughly 100 members of 14 Field Artillery Regiment who had served in Operation Savanah as part of Combat Groups Oranje and Zulu that were involved most notably in the battle for Bridge 14.
Headquarters.
By 1981 the regiment’s headquarters was transferred to Group 15 in Hendrik Potgieter Street in the CBD, but later returned to Voortrekkerhoogte.
Command.
The regiment was transferred to the command of Eastern Transvaal Command in 1984 as a conventional field regiment.
The regiment was also affiliated with 8th Armoured Division in the conventional context.
Traditions from the Anglo Boer War.
The regiments two senior batteries were named after two guns used in the Anglo Boer War, namely the Martieni and Ras.
Operations.
Members of the regiment were utilised in the Soutpansberg Military Area on the border area with Zimbabwe.
Traditions.
On the 100th year celebration of the Ras gun, the regiment celebrated with a salute in Bokfontein near Brits in 1981, the hometown of the guns developer.
Insignia.
The regiment's insignia is based on the Ras gun of the Anglo Boer War with the typical artillery colours as background.


The Coming American Fascism


Els Iping

Els Iping (born 15 April 1953, Amsterdam) is a Dutch politician. As of 2007, Eping was chairman of the local council of Amsterdam's central district.


Ernst Rabel

Ernst Rabel (January 28, 1874 – September 7, 1955) was an Austrian-born American scholar of Roman law, German private law, and comparative law, who, as the founding director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Foreign and International Private Law, in Berlin, achieved international recognition in the period between the World Wars, before being forced into retirement under the Nazi regime, and emigrating to the United States, in 1939. In the field of comparative law his methodological perspectives, particularly as articulated and disseminated by his students, including , , and Max Rheinstein, were influential in the development of the "functional" or "function/context" methodology that became standard in Europe, the United States, and elsewhere in the world, in the post-World War II era. His work in Germany in the 1930s in the area of the law of the sale of goods provided a model for later postwar efforts to develop a uniform world-wide sales law.
Biography.
Ernst Rabel was born in Vienna, as the son of Albert Rabel and Bertha Rabel (née Ettinger). His father was a distinguished Austrian attorney in the era of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Rabel studied law at the University of Vienna, and received his Ph.D. there in December 1895. His dissertation, written under , was entitled "Die Übertragbarkeit des Urheberrechts nach dem österreichischen Gesetzes vom 26. December 1895" (The transferability of copyright under the Austrian act of December 26, 1895; published 1899). Rabel initially entered law practice with his father, in Vienna, but when his mentor Mitteis moved to the University of Leipzig in 1899, Rabel followed, and continued his studies there. Upon completion of his Habilitation, in 1902, with his work "Die Haftung des Verkäufers wegen Mangels im Rechte" (The seller's liability for failure to deliver conforming goods), he began teaching law at Leipzig as a junior faculty member (Privatdozent), and in 1904 was appointed professor (extraordinarius) of Roman law and German private law.
In 1906 Rabel took up a post as a full professor (ordinarius) at the University of Basel. After a few years he returned to Germany, joining the law faculty in Kiel in 1910, then Göttingen in 1911. It was at the University of Munich, where he was appointed in 1916, that he shifted his focus from legal history to comparative law. He co-founded, with Karl Neumeyer, Munich's Institute for Comparative Law (Institut für Rechtsvergleichung), which was the first of its kind in Germany and served as a model for similar institutes later founded in Heidelberg, Frankfurt, and Hamburg. Most famously, his expertise in the field of comparative law led to his appointment, in 1926, as director of the newly created Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Foreign and International Private Law (Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für ausländisches und internationales Privatrecht), in Berlin, one of the several independent research institutes founded by the Kaiser Wilhelm Society. In the postwar period it became the Max Planck Institute for Comparative and International Private Law (located in Hamburg beginning in 1956).
Rabel was also called upon to serve as a judge on several international judicial bodies during the interwar period. From 1921 to 1927 he was a judge for the German-Italian Mixed Arbitral Tribunal, which had jurisdiction over reparation claims against the German Empire, as well as controversies among private parties arising from contracts interrupted by wartime conditions; and from 1925 to 1928, he was an ad hoc judge on the Permanent Court of International Justice, serving in the Chorzów cases, among others. Later he served on the Permanent German-Italian (1928-1935) and German-Norwegian (1929-1936) Arbitral Commissions.
As a member of the governing council of the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT), from 1928 to 1933, Rabel initiated discussions concerning unification of rules of law for international sales transactions, which culminated in a report to the League of Nations in 1934. These efforts, as well as his own scholarly work on the law of the sale of goods ("Das Recht des Warenkaufs", 1936), were a precursor to what became the proposed convention relating to a "Uniform Law on International Sales," adopted at a diplomatic conference in The Hague in 1964.
After the Nazis came to power in Germany, Rabel, though a lifelong Catholic, was eventually forced to resign his professorship in Berlin because of his Jewish heritage (his grandparents on both the maternal and paternal side were Jewish; his parents had converted to Catholicism). Having been employed in the German civil service since before the First World War (since his position in Leipzig in 1904), he initially fell under one of the exceptions in the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service of 1933, which forced many other Jews from their positions; however, his resignation was compelled under the terms of the Law of the Reich Citizen (Reichsbürgergesetz), part of the Nuremberg Laws, passed in 1935, which deprived Jews of German citizenship and eliminated once and for all the possibility of Jews serving in public office, or the civil service. In February 1937 he resigned as director of the Institute he had founded. He finally emigrated with his family via Belgium, to the United States, arriving in New York City in September 1939.
In the United States, he continued his work and supported himself through research grants that he received from the American Law Institute (ALI), the University of Michigan Law School, Ann Arbor, and Harvard Law School. In 1942 Rabel and German émigré colleague Karl Loewenstein were among those invited by the ALI to join an international experts' committee charged with preparing a global restatement of 'essential human rights.' The document that the ALI committee formulated later was an important point of reference in the drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the United Nations.
After the war, while resident in the United States, Rabel completed what is considered to be his "magnum opus", "The Conflict of Laws: A Comparative Study", a four-volume work. At some point during this period he became an American citizen. He also spent time in Germany, both in Tübingen (where his old Institute had moved during the war), and in Berlin, where he taught at the Free University (Freie Universität).
While abroad, he died in a hospital in Zurich, Switzerland, on September 7, 1955.
Personal life.
Rabel's father, Albert Rabel, was originally from Austerlitz, Moravia (today, Slavkov u Brna, in the Czech Republic).
In 1912 Ernst Rabel married Anni Weber (1889-1979) in Göttingen. The couple had two children: a son, Friedrich Karl (born 1914), who, like his parents, emigrated to the United States via Belgium in 1939; and a daughter, Elisabeth ("Lilli"; 1913-1985), who followed the rest of the family to the United States in 1940.
Selected works.
In German
In English


Demand-pull inflation

Demand-pull inflation is asserted to arise when aggregate demand in an economy outpaces aggregate supply. It involves inflation rising as real gross domestic product rises and unemployment falls, as the economy moves along the Phillips curve. This is commonly described as ""too much money chasing too few goods." More accurately, it should be described as involving "too much money spent chasing too few goods,"" since only money that is spent on goods and services can cause inflation. This would not be expected to happen, unless the economy is already at a full employment level. It is the opposite of cost-push inflation.
How it happens.
In Keynesian theory, increased employment results in increased aggregate demand (AD), which leads to further hiring by firms to increase output. Due to capacity constraints, this increase in output will eventually become so small that the price of the good will rise.
At first, unemployment will go down, shifting AD1 to AD2, which increases demand (noted as "Y") by (Y2 − Y1). This increase in demand means more workers are needed, and then AD will be shifted from AD2 to AD3, but this time much less is produced than in the previous shift, but the price level has risen from P2 to P3, a much higher increase in price than in the previous shift.
This increase in price is what causes inflation in an overheating economy.
Demand-pull inflation is in contrast with cost-push inflation, when price and wage increases are being transmitted from one sector to another.
However, these can be considered as different aspects of an overall inflationary process: demand-pull inflation explains how price inflation starts, and cost-push inflation demonstrates why inflation once begun is so difficult to stop.


44 Medical Task Group

South Africa's 44 Medical Task Group, part of 7 Medical Battalion Group, is permanently attached to 44 Parachute Brigade. The Task Group consists of parachute qualified Ops Medics, specialist soldiers who perform the recovery, stabilization and evacuation of wounded soldiers from behind enemy lines.
44 Medical Task Group is similar in function to the United States Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) Pararescuemen (also known as PJs), who are tasked with the recovery and medical treatment of personnel in humanitarian and combat environments.
Garrison.
Based at 44 Parachute Regiment, Tempe, Bloemfontein, Free State, South Africa. 44 Medical Task Group, consists of a platoon-sized medical contingent consisting of Operational Medical Support Operators or Ops Medics.
Training Requirements.
Para Ops Medics are trained under two main criteria:
Para Ops Medics are qualified under Basic Life Support III. They are trained to stabilize patients, stop bleeding, maintain airways, suture wounds, administrate drips and perform lifesaving medical procedures while evacuating patients out of a combat area.
All members of 44 Medical Task Group are static line parachute qualified. Selected members are also Freefall, High Altitude Low Opening (HALO)/ High Altitude High Opening (HAHO) and or Tandem parachute qualified, enabling the Medical Task Group to support the Parachute Battalions, Parachute School and Regiment in their full spectrum of requirements.


Commonwealth Wrestling Championship

The Commonwealth Wrestling Championship is a tournament designed for top wrestlers in the Commonwealth of Nations. It is not linked to the Commonwealth Games, nor has any accreditation with any sports body in any country.
Glasgow 1985.
The 1985 Commonwealth Wrestling Championships were held in Glasgow, Scotland.
London 2003.
The 2003 Commonwealth Wrestling Championships were held in London, Ontario, Canada.
Cape Town 2005.
The 2005 Commonwealth Wrestling Championships were held in Cape Town, South Africa, from June 30 to July 2, 2005.
120KG-Greco-Roma
1st Gold Markus Dekker
2nd Silver Palwinder Singh Cheema
3rd Bronze Yuri Reichel
4th Karl Gehringer
London 2007.
The 2007 Commonwealth Wrestling Championships were held in London, Ontario, Canada on June 16–17, 2007. Participating nations included Canada, India, Pakistan, Great Britain, South Africa, and Namibia.
Jalandhar 2009.
The 2009 Commonwealth Wrestling Championships were held in Jalandhar, Punjab, India, between December 18 and December 20, 2009. Originally it was slated to be a test event for the Delhi 2010 commonwealth games in Delhi but the venue was not ready. Wrestlers competed in Freestyle and Greco-Roman wrestling the latter being only for Men.
Melbourne 2011.
The 2011 Commonwealth Wrestling Championships were held in Melbourne, Australia.
Johannesburg 2013.
The 2013 Commonwealth Wrestling Championships were held in Johannesburg, South Africa, on December 5-7, 2013.
Johannesburg 2017.
The 2017 Commonwealth Wrestling Championships were held in Johannesburg, South Africa between December 15 and December 17, 2017.
It was streamed live by DigiComms from Carnival City in Brakpan.


Crown advocate

Crown advocate is a title used in some former British colonies (and until recently in Britain) for a government prosecutor. In former British Colonies and certain British extraterritorial courts the title is (or was) used by the senior government advocate. Until recently, in Britain the title is used for entry level prosecution counsel employed by the Crown Prosecution Service.
Great Britain.
In the United Kingdom, the role of a crown advocate (now called a crown prosecutor) is to analyse, review, prepare and present a wide range of cases in the Crown Court and the Court of Appeal, including as a junior advocate in the more serious and complex cases. Crown advocates will be expected to have an up-to-date knowledge of all criminal offences and will maintain a high volume of casework, which will include the review of more serious and complex cases.
There are also senior and principal crown advocates.
British Supreme Court for China and Japan.
The position of Crown Advocate was created in the British Supreme Court for China and Japan in 1878. The first holder of the position was Nicholas John Hannen. The position was similar to the position of an Attorney General in a colony. The Crown Advocate was not a full-time employee of the Foreign Office but received payment for acting as Crown Advocate. The Crown Advocate was allowed to accept cases from private clients that did not conflict with his role as Crown Advocate.
Malta.
The position of Crown Advocate was created in 1839 to replace the office of Attorney General. The position was abolished in 1922 and taken over by the Treasury Counsel. In 1936, the role of Treasury Counsel was taken over by the newly re-created office of Attorney General.
Australia.
New South Wales.
The Crown Advocate is appointed under the provisions of the Crown Advocate Act, 1979 (Act No.59).
The Crown Advocate advises the Attorney General, particularly on questions arising under the criminal law, and appears for the NSW Government in criminal proceedings of special significance Under the Act the Crown Advocate assists the Solicitor General in respect of the exercise or discharge by the Solicitor General of any powers, authorities, duties or functions delegated by the Attorney General under section 4 of the Solicitor General Act, 1969.
South Australia.
The Crown Advocate is responsible for the conduct of the State’s major civil and commercial litigation, and will act as senior trial counsel in more complex matters.
Tasmania.
From 1973 to 1986 the senior government prosecutor in Tasmania was known as the Crown Advocate. The title was changed to Director of Public Prosecutions in 1986.


Achraf Bouali

Achraf Bouali (born 11 June 1974) is a Dutch politician. Since 2017 he has been an MP for Democrats 66.


Forum for Democracy (Albania)

Forum for Democracy () was an Albanian organisation created in January 1997 near the start of the Albanian Civil War, in support of anti-government protesters and in opposition to President Sali Berisha. At the organisation's head was Daut Gumeni, as recommended by Fatos Lubonja from the Albanian Helsinki Committee and Kurt Kola from the Association of the Formerly Politically Persecuted. The Forum was mainly formed by three opposition parties: the Socialist Party of Albania, the Social Democratic Party of Albania, and the Democratic Alliance Party. The main demands of the Forum were the government's resignation, early elections and full government compensation of the money many Albanians had lost in pyramid schemes. With the start of armed rebellion in early March, the role of the Forum decreased and Salvation Committees were subsequently formed.


Greenhouse Academy

Greenhouse Academy is a tween drama television series released by Netflix. Based on the Israeli television series "The Greenhouse" ("Ha-Hamama"), created by Giora Chamizer, the series was adapted for international audiences by Chamizer and Paula Yoo. The first season of the series was released on Netflix on September 8, 2017. The second season was released on Netflix on February 14, 2018, the third season was released on October 25, 2019, and the fourth season was released on March 20, 2020. In July 2020, it was announced that "Greenhouse Academy" had been canceled after four seasons.
Premise.
Eight months after losing their astronaut mother in a rocket explosion, brother and sister Alex and Hayley Woods enroll at a private boarding school for gifted future leaders. Separately, they join two competing houses within the school and become rivals. Soon, mysterious events draw the students from both houses into a top secret investigation. They uncover a deadly plot to use earthquakes for monetary gain. Only by joining forces and working together will they be able to stop this scheme.
Production and release.
"Greenhouse Academy" is a Netflix original series based on the Israeli tween-drama "The Greenhouse" ("Ha-Hamama"), which ran on Nickelodeon Israel. Both versions were created by Giora Chamizer and produced by Nutz Productions, a subsidiary of Ananey Communications. Two seasons consisting of a total of 24 episodes were produced. The series was filmed in summer 2016 in Tel Aviv and at other locations in Israel. The first season was released on Netflix on September 8, 2017. On January 18, 2018, the official Greenhouse Academy Instagram account announced that season 2 would be released on Netflix on February 14, 2018.
The series was "quietly" renewed for a third season in March 2018. In September 2018, the role of Brooke Osmond was recast with Danika Yarosh, after Grace Van Dien was cast in "The Village" which was picked up to series by NBC for the 2018–19 U.S. television season. Season 3 was released on Netflix on October 25, 2019. Season 4 was released on March 20, 2020.


Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan

Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan, 458 U.S. 718 (1982), was a landmark decision of the US Supreme Court, decided 5-4, which ruled that the single-sex admissions policy of the Mississippi University for Women violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.
Background of the case.
The Mississippi University for Women was established in 1884 in Columbus, Mississippi and originally called the Industrial Institute and College, later changed to Mississippi State College for Women. It was the first state-supported women's college in the United States. In 1971, the School of Nursing was established, initially offering a two-year associate's degree, and later four-year baccalaureate degree and graduate degree programs.
In 1979, Joe Hogan, a registered nurse and nursing supervisor in Columbus who did not have a baccalaureate degree in nursing, applied for admission to the MUW School of Nursing's baccalaureate program. Although he was otherwise qualified, he was denied admission to the School of Nursing. School officials provided the option to audit courses in which he was interested, but he could not enroll for credit because he was male. Hogan could have attended classes and received credit in one of Mississippi's two public, coeducational programs leading to a Bachelor of Science in Nursing, but these were at the University of Southern Mississippi in Hattiesburg (178 miles from Columbus) and the University of Mississippi in Oxford (114 miles from Columbus). Hogan filed an action in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Mississippi, claiming the single-sex admissions policy of MUW's School of Nursing violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, and seeking injunctive and declaratory relief as well as compensatory damages.
Case history.
The District Court ruled in favor of the Mississippi University for Women, concluding that maintenance of MUW as a single-sex school bears a rational relationship to the State's legitimate interest "in providing the greatest practical range of educational opportunities for its female student population." The court held that the admissions policy was not arbitrary: providing single-sex schools is consistent with a respected, though by no means universally accepted, educational theory that single-sex education affords unique benefits to students. Stating that the case presented no issue of fact, the court informed Hogan that it would enter summary judgment dismissing his claim unless he tendered a factual issue. When Hogan offered no further evidence, the District Court entered summary judgment in favor of the State.
The Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit reversed, holding that because the admissions policy discriminated on the basis of sex, a rational relationship test was improper, and the proper test was whether the sex-based admissions policy was substantially related to an important governmental objective. The court, while recognizing that the State has a significant interest in providing educational opportunities for all its citizens, found that the State failed to show that providing a unique educational opportunity for females but not for males had any substantial relationship to that interest.
Opinion of the Court.
The Supreme Court's ruling did not require that the entire university become coeducational; however, the Board of Trustees of Mississippi State Institutions of Higher Learning ordered the university to change its policies to allow the admission of qualified males into all university programs. By the 2020-2021 academic year, one in five students were men.
The Court's ruling also did not require the school to change the name of the school, and as a result the school remains "Mississippi University for Women". Suits have been filed against the university to change the name claiming that its name and mission discourage males from applying for admission. These suits were dismissed as groundless and had no effect on the name.
In 2002, the administration of the university considered changing the name and pursued efforts to do so despite opposition, particularly from alumnae. In her convocation speech on August 11, 2008, President Limbert announced a new proposal to remove "women" from the university's name which was abandoned.


Simeon Cuba Sarabia

Simeón Cuba Sarabia (15 January 1935 – 9 October 1967), also known as Willy, was a member of the Ñancahuazú guerrilla column led by Che Guevara in Bolivia. Born in the Cochabamba region of Bolivia, he became a leader among tin miners in Huanuni and served as the secretary of organization and secretary of militias of the local mine workers' union. He also carried out various social service activities for the benefit of the miners' families. Cuba Sarabia joined the Communist Party of Bolivia (PCB) but resigned from it in 1965 to become a member of the Bolivian Marxist–Leninist Party which favored armed struggle. When he urged that group to put its principles into practice, he was expelled from it along with Moisés Guevara. It was Moisés Guevara who brought him into Che Guevara's Ñancahuazú guerrilla group in March 1967.
Guerrilla Fighter.
Selected to be a member of the "center" unit which was led by Che Guevara himself, Willy came to be known as a disciplined and courageous combatant. Despite this, and perhaps as a result of his extremely reserved nature, Guevara developed suspicions about him and in his monthly summary for September 1967 wrote in his campaign diary that "The morale of the rest of the group has remained quite good, and I only have doubts about Willy, that he may take advantage of some havoc to try to escape by himself ... " His suspicions would soon prove to have been unfounded.
On 8 October 1967 when the guerrillas' final battle commenced in the Yuro Ravine, Willy was leading the "center" group as they tried to find a way to break out of the Army's encirclement. Willy was just at the point of clearing the steep wall of the ravine when Guevara, following some distance behind him, received a sudden blast of machine gun fire that wounded him in the leg. Willy turned around and went back down the cliff to where Guevara lay. He picked him up and carried him to a location out of the direct line of fire. However, the two guerrillas almost immediately found themselves surrounded by another group of rangers who opened fire against them; Guevara and Willy shot back at them until one of their bullets knocked Che's beret off his head and another disabled his M-2 carbine. Willy moved Guevara out of the line of fire again, then placed himself between his wounded leader and the rangers — who were now firing at them from a distance of less than ten yards — and began to return fire. In this exposed position, Willy was struck almost instantaneously by a hail of bullets and incapacitated. A group of rangers rushed forward, demanding their surrender. Seeing the soldiers approach Guevara, Willy confronted them and shouted, "This is "Comandante" Guevara. Show him respect!"
Execution.
The rangers took Guevara and Willy to the nearby village of La Higuera where they were imprisoned overnight in separate rooms of a small adobe schoolhouse. The next day, after the order issued by Bolivian President René Barrientos that they should both be killed had been confirmed, the commanding officer sent an execution squad consisting of three soldiers into the schoolhouse. The soldiers entered the room where Willy was being held first and riddled him with several bursts of machine gun fire. Before dying, Willy managed to cry out, "I am proud to die next to Che!" These were probably the last words Che Guevara heard, because he was executed in similar fashion only a few seconds later.
The Bolivian Armed Forces refused to give information about what had been done with Cuba Sarabia's remains. Almost thirty years after his death, on 28 June 1997, a Cuban forensic team discovered his skeleton in the same burial pit situated on the auxiliary runway of the Vallegrande airport that contained the remains of Che Guevara and five other guerrillas. Willy's remains were transferred to Cuba along with those of Guevara and the five other combatants and, on 17 October 1997, their caskets were laid to rest with full military honors in the Che Guevara Mausoleum in the city of Santa Clara, Cuba.