Taxation in Algeria

In Algeria, the most important sources of government revenue have been oil and gas royalties.
Taxation.
The current Algerian tax system consists of 2 regimes the real fixed regime.This distinction issued from the reform implemented in 2007 when the taxation was revised. The main incentive to review the taxes was that after the 2000s energy crisis, taxes became the main resource of national income. That is why the incentive to work on its effectivity and to optimize it appeared in government.
The fixed regime relies on the single fixed tax (the main change and innovation made by this reform) and the real regime consist of different taxes levied on taxpayer.
History.
From the historical point of view the Algerian tax system seems to be inspired by its former coloniser- France. Actually as a whole system it looks to be the reproduction of the French base by implementing different modalities of taxation (imposition).
There are different taxes levied:
Tax system.
The current tax system was changed and reformed several time. The very important, radical and innovative change happened in 2007 when the tax system was significantly reformed. The main fruit of this reform is the Single fixed tax.
This new notion appears and was introduced as the simplification of the system with hope that it improves the fiscal situation and makes the system working more effectively. This fixed tax was established as the one single tax instead of 3 different taxes levied on every institution. The government's target is to improve the transparency, accessibility and justice in taxes.
Single Fixed Tax.
This single fixed tax covers: Value added tax, professional activity tax, global income tax. The single fixed tax was established for the most numerous group of taxpayers at the level of 5% for production and sale and 12% for any other activities. This reform covers people, network service providers, retailers, merchants, societies, enterprises, investors and all taxpayers with the turnover up to 30,000,000 DZD (US$263,400). This taxes is levied over the biennial period (lasting 2 years)
Grouping of these different taxes makes the mechanism easier. It is easier for tax authorities to control and levy the taxes on this group of taxpayers.
Taxpayers have to present in the period of 1 to 30 June every year the backward-looking sales/income report. Tax can be paid in whole amount or in 3 payments. The 1st payment in the beginning and then 25% in the period of the 1st till 15 September and the 25% left from 1 to 15 December.
Real Regime.
The real regim consists of different taxes levied:
Income tax.
Income tax is "progressive" and "categorical".
Progressive scale goes from 0% to 35% according to the amount of income.
It does not cover incomes below 120,000 DZD (US$1053); above this threshold and up to 360,000 DZD (US$3160) it represents 20% above it and up to 1,440,000 DZD (US$12,643) it is 30% and more than 1,440,000 DZD (US$12,643) it is 35%.
Then there are categorical withholding tax rates at source. This one changes in function of the category the income belongs to. There is different classes with own scale within every classes so the tax varies between classes and within them at the same time.
We have following categories of income: investment income (tax from 1% to 20%); salary, wages and other remuneration (classical monthly remuneration of employees is included in progressive scale mentioned above; for any other primes, amount paid or other type of income than monthly gained from the person's main activity exceeding 2,000,000 DZD (US$17,560) it represents 15%; or 10% for any other than monthly paid income paid by employer.) rental income (7%-15%; with exemption on the income issuing from the rent of apartments/houses up to 80 m2), capital gains arising from the transfer for consideration of real property (built or unbuilt) (5%).
Corporate tax.
Exemption: collective investment in transferable securities and companies, cooperations that are submitted to single fixed taxation
19% on production activities
23% building, public work, tourism (exemption on travel agencies)
26% any other activities
If there is an multiple activity, the tax imposition has to be declared separately.
There are also categorical withholdings tax rates from 10% up to 50% for anonymous cash certificates.
Business activity tax.
This tax relies on the turnover of taxpayers doing a profit making activity not covered by the income tax.
The exemption stands for any income of natural or legal persons issued from the companies or other legal persons if these ones are already taxed.
This tax levies 2%
3% is for turnover of activities of pipelines for the transportation of hydrocarbons.
1% in production activities
2% in public works and hydraulic infrastructure
Real estate tax.
For real estate tax we differentiate "built" and "unbuilt property".
The government levy 3% on "built properties" in the strict sens; 10% on the built properties with the status of residence (of any reason or use :personal, familial, renting ...);
Between built and unbuilt properties there are "lands with built objects" (builts properties on them); there we levy tax of 5% on lands up to 500m2; 7% on lands of 500 m2-1000m2 ; 10% on lands with over 1000 m2
In cases of "unbuilt properties" we levy 5% on unbuilt properties situated in non-urbanized area. If the land is urbanized we levy up to 500 m2 5%; between 500 m2 and 1000m2 7% and 10% for urbanized lands with more than 1000 m2. There is special 3% tax on the farmland
Personal property tax.
This tax covers all the persons (inhabitants or not of Algeria) having any personal or real property in Algeria. It covers all real property and personal property of any value exceeding 500,000 DZD (US$4392)
This tax is levy only on natural persons if their taxable property exceeds the value of 100,000,000 DZD (US$878,500)
The exemption is accorded on the capitalization value of the life annuities, on pensions and allowances received for recovering material damages as well as the work-related assets.
There is the progressive scale in function of the net taxable value which determines the amount levied by this tax. There is no tax if the net taxable value of property doesn't exceeds of 100,000,000 DZD (US$878,500); 0,5% if this value is between 100,000,000 DZD and 150,000,000 DZD (US$1,317,750); 0.75% for the property of the value up to 250,000,000 DZD (US$2,196,250); 1% for the property of the next taxable higher than 250,000,000 DZD but lower than 350,000,000 DZD (US$3,074,750); 1.25% on the property what net taxable value does not exceed 450,000,000 DZD (US$3,953,250); 1.75% is levied on the properties what next taxable value exceeds 450,000,000 DZD (US$3,953,250)
Value-added tax.
VAT represents 19% in Algeria (or 9% is the reduced tax for any staple foodstuff and pharmaceutics).
Obligatory taxable operations: industrial/commercial/workmanship activity, operations of banks and insurance companies, activities of liberal professions, lease transactions, service provision, organizations of events, studies and research ... People subjects to VAT are all producers, wholesalers, importers and retailors.
Interior consumption tax.
Taxpayers of this tax are all the consumers in Algeria. This tax is levied on beers, cigars, tobacco, cigarettes, matches and lighters or also on some luxurious products such as salmon, coffee, caviar, fresh bananas kiwis or pineapples, ice cream, worn clothing, camping cars. The taxable base consists of fixed part and proportional part. The fixed part is defined in function of the volume of taxed object. The proportional part depends on the pre-tax price of the product.
The amount of the tax is between 10% and 30%
3,971 DZD / HL of beer (US$34/ HL of beer)
10% is levied on cigarettes, cigars, tobacco, coffee (also decaffeinated) ; 20% on matches and lighters; and 30% on every other object to this tax.
Petroleum products tax.
Fuel normal : 800 DZD/HL (US$7,032 / HL)
Fuel super: 900 DZD/HL (US$7,911/ HL)
Unleaded: 900 DZD/HL (US$7,911/HL)
Diesel: 1 DZD/HL (US$0,00879/HL)


Norodom Arunrasmy

Norodom Arunrasmy (; born 2 October 1955) is a Cambodian princess, politician, and diplomat. She is the youngest daughter of HM King Father Norodom Sihanouk and stepdaughter of Queen Mother Norodom Monineath. Her birth mother is Mam Manivan Phanivong, a Lao woman who was born in Vientiane, Laos and married King Sihanouk in 1949.
Life and career.
Arunrasmy attended primary school at the Petit Lycée Descartes in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, and attended secondary school at a Roman Catholic boarding school called Mater Dei in Kep province. In the 1980s she began her professional career in banking, working at the Bank of California in Long Beach, and later Siam Commercial Bank in New York. After the Paris Peace Accords, Arunrasmay became deputy director and then director of Cambodian Agricultural Bank from 1992–1997. She was also a member of the Cambodian Red Cross Committee and member of the ASEAN Women's Association (ASEAN Ladies Circle).
She was selected as the Funcinpec party candidate for the 2008 Cambodian parliamentary elections, she was the Cambodian Ambassador to Malaysia from 2005 to 2018 before being nominated to the Senate by King Norodom Sihamoni.
She is fluent in Khmer, Lao, Thai, French, and English.
Family.
Arunrasmy married Major Prince Sisowath Sirirath in 1970, with whom she had three children: Sisowath Nakia, Sisowath Nando and Sisowath Sirikith Nathalie. They divorced in 1991, and she then married Keo Puth Rasmey, with whom she had two children: Norodom Keo Ponita Rasmey and Norodom Keo Khemoni Rasmey.
Official Titles and Awards.
On February 21, 1994, King Norodom Sihanouk elevated the princess to the rank of "Preah Ang Machas Reach Botrei Preah Anoch". She was elevated again by King Sihanouk to the rank of "Samdach Reach Botrei Preah Anoch" on 31 August 2004. The princess has received many awards. She is an officer of the Royal Order of Her Majesty the Queen, Preah Moha Ksatriyani Preah Sisowath Kossamak Nearyrath, Commander of the Royal Order of Monisaraphon, and more.


United States v. Butler

United States v. Butler, 297 U.S. 1 (1936), is a U.S. Supreme Court case that held that the U.S. Congress has not only the power to lay taxes to the level necessary to carry out its other powers enumerated in Article I of the U.S. Constitution but also a broad authority to tax and spend for the "general welfare" of the United States. The decision itself concerned whether the processing taxes instituted by the 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act were constitutional.
Tax for impermissible regulatory purpose.
The main issue of the case was whether certain provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 conflicted with the U.S. Constitution. The Act imposed a tax on processors of farm products, the proceeds of which to be paid to farmers who would reduce their area under cultivation and consequently their crops yields. The Act was intended was to increase the prices of certain farm products by decreasing the supply of quantities produced.
The Court held that the so-called tax was not a true tax since the payments to farmers were coupled with unlawful and oppressively-coercive contracts, and the proceeds were earmarked for the benefit of farmers complying with the prescribed conditions. The Court also held that making the payment of a government subsidy to a farmer conditional on the reduction of the planned crops went beyond the powers of the national government.
Specifically, Justice Roberts said:
The act invades the reserved rights of the states. It is a statutory plan to regulate and control agricultural production, a matter beyond the powers delegated to the federal government. The tax, the appropriation of the funds raised, and the direction for their disbursement, are but parts of the plan. They are but means to an unconstitutional end.
Taxing and spending for general welfare.
The Court struck down the Act but dealt positively with taxation and the expenditure of funds to advance the general welfare as specified in Article 1, Section 8, of the Constitution. The Court stated that the issue "presents the great and the controlling question in the case." After comparing expansive and restrictive interpretations of the Spending Clause, the Court adopted this philosophy:
The clause confers a power separate and distinct from those later enumerated[,] is not restricted in meaning by the grant of them, and Congress consequently has a substantive power to tax and to appropriate, limited only by the requirement that it shall be exercised to provide for the general welfare of the United States... It results that the power of Congress to authorize expenditure of public moneys for public purposes is not limited by the direct grants of legislative power found in the Constitution.
The fact that the Court struck down the Act despite an expansive interpretation of the Spending Clause reflected the turmoil in the Court at the critical time. It was accepted that Chief Justice Hughes did not agree with the majority opinion's argument that the law's government subsidy regulations went beyond the powers of national government and was about to write a separate opinion to uphold the Act's subsidy provision and to strike down the Act's tax provision on the grounds that it was a coercive regulation, rather than a tax measure, until Roberts convinced Hughes that he would side with him and the court's three liberal justices in future cases on agriculture that involved the Constitution's General Welfare Clause if he agreed to join his opinion.
An indication that turmoil and the fact that "Butler" was a turning point in the Court's thinking is that in later jurisprudence, the case has been referenced to support expansion of authority under the Spending Clause (such as "Steward Machine Company v. Davis", , and "Helvering v. Davis" ) and to dissent from such expansion (such as in "South Dakota v. Dole", ), O’Connor dissenting. In her dissent, Justice O’Connor noted that "Butler" had been the last case in which the Supreme Court struck down an Act of Congress as an overextension of its spending power. That was part of a series of cases decided by the conservative Supreme Court of the time, which struck down as unconstitutional parts of U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal legislation.


Euro-Skulptur

The Euro-Skulptur (German for "Euro sculpture") by Ottmar Hörl set up at Willy-Brandt-Platz at Frankfurt am Main, Germany, is one of two copies of the work that have been put on public display. It basically is a 14 metres tall electronic signage that shows a Euro sign and twelve stars around, weighing 50 tonnes.
History.
Ottmar Hörl designed the "Euro-Skulptur" towards the end of the 1990s, creating two copies. While one of these was set up at Frankfurt Airport, he gave away the other version to the private corporation Frankfurter Kultur Komitee which decided to put it on display at Willy-Brandt-Platz in front of the then seat of the European Central Bank, or ECB which was then at the Eurotower. The sculpture replaced the Euro clock that had been installed there before. Its lights were switched on for the first time at New Year 2001/2002 when the Euro was introduced. The Euro-Skulptur is among the objects most often photographed in Frankfurt's inner city. It is frequently used to illustrate reports on the Euro.
When the ECB moved from its office at Willy-Brandt-Platz to its new building in Frankfurt's east end in 2014, discussions took place whether to also relocate the sculpture to the new site, or move it to a museum. The Frankfurter Kultur Komitee was also asked to perhaps move the sculpture to a central location in Paris. So far, it remained at its first location. In 2015, a major technical update took place when the sculpture's light-emitting elements were replaced by LED.


Al-Mamun of Toledo

Yahya ibn Ismail al-Mamun (died 1075) was the second ruler of the Berber Hawwara Dhulnunid dynasty who was king of the Taifa of Toledo between 1043 and 1075.
Biography.
Yahya ibn Ismail succeeded his father Ismaïl ibn Dhi 'l-Nun in 1043. In 1062, he promised his allegiance to king Ferdinand I of León and Castile, a fact that did not prevent him from giving military support to his son-in-law Abd al-Aziz ibn Amir, king of the Taifa of Valencia, when the Castilian king laid siege to the city. When Ferdinand I saw himself forced to end the siege and remove his army, Al-Mamun agreed to a union with the Taifa of Valencia which was to form a part of the Toledo taifa until 1092. He died at Córdoba in 1075.


Insurance Development and Regulatory Authority of Bangladesh

Insurance Development and Regulatory Authority of Bangladesh (IDRA) is the only government body for regulating and developing the insurance sector of Bangladesh since 2010.
History.
The Parliament of Bangladesh on 3 March 2010 has passed two insurance laws in a bid to further strengthen the regulatory framework for the insurance industry. The new laws came into effect on 18 March 2010, are the Insurance Act 2010 and IDRA Act 2010.
A total of 78 insurance companies have been operating in the country. The companies are to be regulated under comprehensive laws and guidelines and to be supervised by IDRA. The IDRA Act 2010 has paved the way for better regulation of the sector by reducing business risks, and by harmonizing local and international insurance laws for the Economy of Bangladesh. IDRA attempts to protect the interest of insurance policyholders, beneficiaries and ensuring stability of the insurance sector. Two state-owned insurers -Sadharan Bima Corporation (SBC) and Jiban Bima Corporation (JBC) are also regulated by IDRA.


James A. Wendell

James Augustus Wendell (January 1, 1869 in Fort Plain, Montgomery County, New York – May 10, 1922 in Albany, Albany County, New York) was an American politician.
Life.
He studied law for a time, but did not finish. Instead, he worked as a clerk at the Fort Plain National Bank. In 1894 he entered the Comptroller's department and remained there for the rest of his life. For ten years he was Deputy Comptroller and in 1920 was elected New York State Comptroller on the Republican ticket. At the time, he was the first state cabinet officer who had been a career employee of his department.
In 1920, his predecessor Eugene M. Travis, Wendell and bond broker Albert L. Judson were indicted on charges of grand larceny. It was charged that Travis as Comptroller and Wendell as Deputy Comptroller had bought from Judson bonds at prices above the market for the State Sinking Fund, and so caused the loss of $230,000 for the State. The charges were dismissed in October 1921 because of lack of evidence to show criminal intent.
He died of apoplexy.


Pedro de Olivera y Fullana

Pedro de Olivera y Fullana, was the governor and captain general of Spanish Florida from July 13 to October 30, 1716. He died at the provincial capital, St. Augustine, just over three months into his term of office.
Biography.
In 1716, Chislacaliche, a "mico", or chief, of the Lower Creek peoples, asked Olivera to send a Spanish envoy to the Creek territory to restore friendly relations and distribute gifts, as was customary among the Indians. Olivera, wanting to persuade the other Creeks to follow Chilacaliche and return to Apalachee Province in Florida, sent the retired lieutenant Diego Peña and four soldiers to their rebuilt towns on the Chattahoochee River. Peña departed St. Augustine on August 4 of that year, and on September 28 arrived at Apalachicola, where he summoned the chiefs of the province to distribute their expected gifts and beseech them to relocate to the "old fields" of Apalachee. He distributed firearms and ammunition to the chieftains, who in their turn gained stature among their own people by redistributing them to their warriors.
Olivera died in Saint Augustine on October 30, 1716, just over three months into his term of office, and was succeeded by interim governor Juan de Ayala y Escobar.


Terna Group

Terna S.p.A. is a transmission system operator (TSO) based in Rome, Italy. It operates through "Terna Rete Italia", that manages the Italian transmission grid and "Terna Plus" which is in charge of new business opportunities and non-traditional activities in Brazil, Uruguay, Peru and Chile. With of power lines or around 98% of the Italian high-voltage power transmission grid, Terna is the first independent electricity transmission grid operator in Europe and the sixth in the world based on the size of its electrical grid. Terna is listed on the Borsa Italiana and is a constituent of the FTSE MIB index.
History.
On 31 May 1999, Terna was established within the Enel Group, by way of implementation of Italian Legislative Decree No. 79/99 which within the context of the process for the deregulation of the Italian electricity sector, sanctioned the separation between ownership and management of the national transmission grid.
On 23 June 2004, following the Prime Minister's Decree issued on 11 May of the same year, Terna was put on sale with an IPO on Borsa Italiana.
In 2010 Terna joined Desertec, a project aimed at producing and transmitting renewable energy in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) to meet local needs and be assigned in part to the European interconnected grid.
In 2011, Terna Group adopted a new organizational structure. Through Terna Rete Italia safely manages the Italian electricity system with more than 63,500 kilometers of high voltage lines. Through Terna Plus manages new business opportunities and non-traditional activities, in Italy and abroad.
2011 was the 7th consecutive year of growth for the Group. A dividend of €21 was paid per share.
The 2011 results were submitted by the CEO Flavio Cattaneo during the Terna Board of Administration meeting held to approve the Strategic Plan 2012-2016.
In 2012, Terna consolidated Revenues stood at 1,806 million euros, +10.4% compared to 2011, mainly due to the Grid Transmission Fee and to the results from Non Traditional Activities carried out by the Group.
On 31 January 2012, Terna presented the Development Plan of the National Electricity Transmission Grid for the decade 2012-2021. The plan is drafted and updated every year and, in 2012, it included investments for over 7 billion euro aimed at increasing efficiency for the electricity system, including the reduction of energy losses and the reduction of CO2 emissions.
In 2013, Terna consolidated Revenues stood at 1,896 million euros, with an increase of 90.5 million euros (+5%) compared to 2012. Ebitda stood at 1,281 million euros (+6,5%), Group Net income at 514 million euro (+10,8%).
Operations.
Terna is responsible for national electricity transmission management and development in Italy.
Terna's assets include:
To safeguard its assets, Terna has created an organization capable of protecting the company’s physical and technological infrastructures, also through the prevention and management of episodes of corporate fraud. In this framework, in order to guarantee the maximum safeguarding of said infrastructures and investments, it has signed memoranda of understanding, first of its kind and type with the Ministry of the Interior, Carabinieri and Guardia di Finanza.
In 2010 the company invested €1.06 billion that financed the construction of 1000 km of new electrical lines and 48 new stations.
Terna's transmission lines carried 326.16 billion kWh in 2010, of which:
In turn, 286.53 billion kWh were generated by:
Board of directors.
Board members:
Shareholders.
Terna has been listed in the Italian Stock Exchange since 2004. Its major shareholder was Cassa Depositi e Prestiti, with 29.85% of shares. The remaining nearly 70% is held by other institutional and retail investors.
Among the principal shareholders of the company: Romano Minozzi with 5.6%, Blackrock Inc. with 2.4% and Assicurazioni Generali with 2.0%.
Awards.
According to the Edison Electric Institute, Terna is the best European company among utilities by total return of shares in 2010–2012. In these three years Terna's return stood at 24%, compared to average returns in the sector (DJ Stoxx-10%, Ftse Mib-21%). In 2010 Terna did receive the same recognition for the 2007-2009, as Terna's share return stood at +40%, achieving a net overperfomance (nearly 55%) compared to the European sector that registered -15%.


Dominic Mulaisho

Dominic Mulaisho (born 15 August 1933 in Feira, Zambia - died Lusaka, Zambia 1 July 2013) was a Zambian novelist and civil servant. He was the Bank of Zambia Governor from 1992-1995. He is also known for his two novels "The Tongue of the Dumb" (1973) and "The Smoke that Thunders" (1979).
He was educated at University College of Rhodesia.


Abdul Jalil Shah III of Johor

Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah III ibni Almarhum Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah III was the Sultan of Johor who reigned from 1623 to 1677. Known as "Raja Bujang" before his accession, he was a son of the 5th Sultan, Alauddin Riayat Shah III and a nephew of the 6th Sultan, Abdullah Ma'ayat Shah.
Ruler of Pahang and Sultan of Johor-Pahang.
In 1615, Alauddin Riayat Shah III signed a peace treaty with the Portuguese Malacca, and as a sign of gratitude, the Portuguese recognised Raja Bujang as the ruler of Pahang, replacing Alauddin Riayat Shah who was deposed earlier in 1615 by the Acehnese. However, the appointment was not recognised by Sultan Iskandar Muda of Acheh, which later invaded Pahang and forced Raja Bujang to flee to the islands of Lingga. At the same time, the Achehnese waged war with the new Sultan of Johor, Abdullah Ma'ayat Shah who was also forced to flee to Lingga. As the Achehnese attacks continued, Raja Bujang and Sultan Abdullah fled once again to Tambelan archipelago. When Sultan Abdullah died in 1623, Acheh reconciled with Raja Bujang and appointed him as the new Sultan of Johor and Pahang.
Invasion of Malacca.
The strength of Acheh was brought to an end with a disastrous campaign against Malacca in 1629, when the combined Portuguese and Johor forces managed to destroy the fleet and 19,000 Achehnese troops according to Portuguese account. Johor later grew stronger and formed an alliance with the Dutch to attack the Portuguese Malacca and conquered it on January 14, 1641, ending the triangular war. Subsequently in the following month, Iskandar Thani of Acheh died and was succeeded by Queen Taj ul-Alam. Her reign marks the beginning of decline of Acheh position as a regional power.
In 1641, Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah III moved to the mainland Johor and established his new capital in Makam Tauhid. He spent two years of his reign in Makam Tauhid before he crossed the Damar river to establish his new capital in Pasir Raja (also known as Batu Sawar) in October 1642.
Jambi emerged as a regional economic and political power in the early 17th century. Initially there was an attempt of an alliance between Johor and Jambi with a promised marriage between the heir Raja Muda and daughter of the "Pengeran" of Jambi. However, the Raja Muda married instead the daughter of the Laksamana, who was concerned about the dilution of power from such an alliance and so offered his own daughter for marriage. The alliance broke down, and between 1666-1679, a long war erupted and Jambi successfully sacked the Johor capital in Batu Sawar in 1673. Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah III fled to Pahang and made it as his administration centre for four years before he died in Kuala Pahang in 1677.
References.
Notes
Sources


David Amaglobeli

David Amaglobeli (georg. დავით ამაღლობელი) is a Georgian economist who was acting president of the National Bank of Georgia (NBG) between October 2007 and February 2009.
Biography.
Amaglobeli was born on August 8, 1976 in Tbilisi, Georgia. In 1998 he graduated with a diploma in economics from Tbilisi State University and in 2001 he received the degree of Master of Science in Economics from Oregon State University.
In 1998-1999 David Amaglobeli worked as an economist at the committee of economic policy and reforms at the Parliament of Georgia and in 1999-2001, in parallel to his graduate studies, he worked as a research/teaching assistant.
In 2001-02 David Amaglobeli worked as the department head at the ministry of tax revenues of Georgia and in 2002-03 as a consultant to the government of Georgia on fiscal and monetary policy issues for the state commission responsible for the development of poverty reduction and growth program.
From January 2004 David Amaglobeli worked as a fiscal economist at the International Monetary Fund local office in Tbilisi and the same year he was appointed as a deputy minister of finance. From March 2005 till October 2009 David Amaglobeli served as a deputy governor and from October 2007 till February 2009 as acting governor of the NBG.
In his capacity of the governor of the NBG, David Amaglobeli initiated various legislative and institutional reforms. In particular, inflation targeting was adopted as the monetary policy regime, monetary policy committee and main policy interest rate were introduced, a transparent foreign currency auction system was adopted as the main instrument for market interventions. As a result of institutional reforms the size of staff was significantly reduced, and payment systems (cash and cash free) and reserve management reform projects were initiated.
During David Amaglobeli’s tenure at the NBG, the country experienced severe exogenous shocks. Despite the severe consequences from war with Russia in August 2008 and from the deepening of the global financial crisis in September 2008, the country maintained macroeconomic and banking sector stability.


British Overseas citizen

A British Overseas citizen (BOC) is a member of a class of British nationality largely granted under limited circumstances to people connected with former British colonies who do not have close ties to the United Kingdom or its remaining overseas territories. Individuals with this nationality are British nationals and Commonwealth citizens, but not British citizens. Nationals of this class are subject to immigration controls when entering the United Kingdom and do not have the automatic right of abode there or any other country.
This nationality gives its holders favoured status when they are resident in the United Kingdom, conferring eligibility to vote, obtain citizenship under a simplified process, and serve in public office or non-reserved government positions. About 10,000 British Overseas citizens currently hold active British passports with this status and enjoy consular protection when travelling abroad. However, individuals who only hold BOC nationality are effectively stateless as they are not guaranteed the right to enter the country in which they are nationals.
Background.
From 1949 to 1983, all citizens of the British Empire held a common nationality. Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKCs) initially held an automatic right to enter and live in the UK. This entitlement was given to all British subjects, which included CUKCs and citizens of independent countries in the Commonwealth of Nations, as part of a wider initiative to preserve close relationships with white-majority Dominions and colonies (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and Southern Rhodesia) and moderate nationalist attitudes within the Commonwealth. Non-white immigrants were systemically discouraged from entering the UK, though there was no legal limitation to their migration. The Colonial Office ordered colonial governments to hinder prospective migrants of colour by informing them of the difficulties they would face in finding housing accommodation and employment in Britain, as well as confiscating passports from those who were deemed to have insufficient funds or determined to be unemployable. Nevertheless, 500,000 of these new immigrants had settled in the UK by 1962.
Immigration from the colonies and other Commonwealth countries was formally restricted by Parliament from 1962 to 1971, when British subjects originating from outside of the British Islands first had immigration controls officially imposed on them when entering the United Kingdom. As Britain withdrew from most of its remaining overseas possessions as part of decolonisation, some former colonial subjects remained CUKCs despite the independence of their colonies. After passage of the British Nationality Act 1981, CUKCs were reclassified in 1983 into different nationality groups based on their ancestry, birthplace, and immigration status: CUKCs who had right of abode in the United Kingdom became British citizens while those connected with a remaining colony became British Dependent Territories citizens (BDTCs). Remaining CUKCs who were no longer associated with a British territory became British Overseas citizens. An estimated 1.5 million people were reclassified as BOCs in 1983, 1.3 million of whom also held another nationality.
Debate over full citizenship rights.
The creation of different British nationality classes with disparities in United Kingdom residency rights drew criticism for creating what was seen as a two-tier system. The vast majority of people who were classified as British citizens in 1983 were white, while those assigned BDTC or BOC status were predominately Asian. The deprivation of full nationality rights was particularly distressful for the Indian diaspora in Southeast Africa, many of whom migrated to Africa during colonial rule while working in the civil service. As former East African colonies gained independence, aggressive Africanisation policies and an increasingly discriminatory environment in the post-colonial countries against the Asian population caused many among them to seek migration to Britain. While CUKCs without strong ties to the British Islands were already subject to immigration controls starting in 1962, the subdivision of nationality reinforced the idea that British identity depended on race.
A "special quota voucher scheme" was introduced in 1968 to annually admit a small number of CUKCs (and later BOCs), along with their dependents, who held no other nationality and who were pressured to leave their countries of residence. Waiting times under the quota system were extremely long, with applicants waiting in excess of five years to receive a voucher to enter the UK. The system was abolished in 2002, when Parliament granted remaining BOCs who held no other nationality the right to register as full British citizens. About 35,000 BOCs were estimated to have benefited from this provision at the time of the law's passage.
Prior to 2002, British Overseas citizens from Malaysia had been able to petition for British citizenship after renouncing Malaysian citizenship. After passage of the British Overseas Territories Act 2002 and the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002, these requests were no longer considered. However, a number of Malaysian BOCs continued their applications after this change in immigration policy and renounced their Malaysian citizenship after being given incorrect legal advice. Due to differences in how the governments recognise nationality renunciation, both the British and Malaysian governments consider this group of individuals nationals of the other country and refuse to give them any form of permanent status. Debate over ultimate responsibility for this group of BOCs (estimated to be 1,000–2,000 people) continues while they remain stateless without a territory that they have a guaranteed right to remain in.
Acquisition and loss.
Becoming a British Overseas citizen is generally not possible. The status cannot be acquired by naturalisation and can only be transferred by descent if an individual born to a BOC parent would otherwise be stateless. It is expected that BOCs will obtain citizenship in the country they reside in and that the number of active status holders will eventually dwindle until there are none. Almost all individuals with this status obtained it in 1983, when Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies without right of abode in the United Kingdom were reclassified as British Overseas citizens. Due to the broad nature of the governing Acts that determine CUKC and BOC eligibility, there are a variety of circumstances in which an individual could have acquired BOC status. These include:
Several early independence acts did not remove CUKC status from certain citizens of newly independent states. In the former Straits Settlements of Penang and Malacca, around one million Straits Chinese were allowed to continue as CUKCs with Malayan citizenship when the Federation of Malaya became independent in 1957. Consequently, when Malaya merged with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore to form Malaysia in 1963, CUKC status was not rescinded from individuals already holding Malayan citizenship. Similarly, when Cyprus became independent in 1960, Cypriots who were not resident in Cyprus for the five years leading up to independence and were also living in another Commonwealth country would not have lost CUKC status.
In some cases, a former colony's new government only granted citizenship to members of the majority ethnic group. When Aden became part of the newly independent South Yemen in 1967, individuals who were not of Arab ancestry did not acquire Yemeni citizenship and remained CUKCs. Likewise, Hong Kong residents lost BDTC status when that territory was transferred to China in 1997. Residents choosing to retain British nationality were able to voluntarily register for British National (Overseas) status before the handover. Individuals who were not ethnically Chinese did not acquire Chinese nationality on that date and automatically became BOCs if they would have been made stateless.
Sophia of Hanover was placed in the English line of succession in 1705 to avoid a reigning Catholic monarch. Because she was German, Parliament passed an Act to naturalise the Electress as an English subject, along with all of her lineal descendants. Although the British Nationality Act 1948 ended the naturalisation of further direct descendants, eligible non-Catholic persons born before 1949 would have already become British subjects. Those individuals would also be able to transmit British nationality to at least one further generation. Because such persons would not automatically have the right of abode in the United Kingdom, some current claimants to British nationality through the Sophia Naturalization Act 1705 could receive British Overseas citizenship.
British Overseas citizenship can be relinquished by a declaration made to the Home Secretary, provided that an individual already possesses or intends to acquire another nationality. BOC status may also be deprived if it was fraudulently acquired. There is no path to restore BOC status once lost.
Rights and privileges.
British Overseas citizens are exempted from obtaining a visa or entry certificate when visiting the United Kingdom for less than six months. They are eligible to apply for two-year working holiday visas and do not face annual quotas or sponsorship requirements. When travelling in other countries, they may seek British consular protection. BOCs are not considered foreign nationals when residing in the UK and are entitled to certain rights as Commonwealth citizens. These include exemption from registration with local police, voting eligibility in UK elections, and the ability to enlist in the British Armed Forces. British Overseas citizens are also eligible to serve in non-reserved Civil Service posts, be granted British honours, receive peerages, and sit in the House of Lords. If given indefinite leave to remain (ILR), they are eligible to stand for election to the House of Commons and local government. ILR status usually expires if an individual leaves the UK and remains abroad for over two years, but this limitation does not apply to BOCs. Prior to 2002, BOCs who entered the UK on a work permit were automatically given indefinite leave to remain.
BOCs may become British citizens by registration, rather than naturalisation, after residing in the United Kingdom for more than five years and possessing ILR for more than one year. Registration confers citizenship "otherwise than by descent", meaning that children born outside of the UK to those successfully registered will be British citizens "by descent". Becoming a British citizen has no effect on BOC status; BOCs may also simultaneously be British citizens. BOCs who were Hong Kong residents and had no other nationality on 3 February 1997 may also register for citizenship without UK residence requirements. Applicants who successfully register in this way become British citizens "by descent" and cannot pass citizenship to their children born outside of the UK. Remaining BOCs who do not hold and have not lost any other nationality on or after 4 July 2002 are entitled to register as British citizens. There are about 12,000 people who continue to be BOCs and hold active British passports with the status.
Restrictions.
BOCs who hold no other nationality are "de facto" stateless because they are deprived of entering the country that claims them as nationals. The Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 allowed these individuals to register as British citizens, after which statelessness was generally resolved for people who were solely BOCs. However, there remain circumstances in which BOCs are effectively stateless after 4 July 2002, including:
United Kingdom.
British Overseas citizens are subject to immigration controls and have neither the right of abode or the right to work in the United Kingdom. BOCs are required to pay an immigration health surcharge to access National Health Service benefits when residing in the UK for longer than six months.
European Union.
Before the United Kingdom withdrew from the European Union on 31 January 2020, full British citizens were European Union citizens.<ref name="EU2019/592">.</ref> British Overseas citizens have never been EU citizens and did not enjoy freedom of movement in other EU countries. They were, and continue to be, exempted from obtaining visas when visiting the Schengen Area.


R. J. Corman Railroad/Pennsylvania Lines


Edward Seymour, Lord Beauchamp

Edward Seymour, Lord Beauchamp of Hache (21 September 1561 – 21 July 1612) was an English nobleman who had a theoretically strong claim to the throne of England through his mother, Lady Katherine Grey, but his legitimacy was questioned. He was an ancestor of the Dukes of Somerset.
Origins.
He was the son of Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford (1539–1621), by his wife Lady Katherine Grey (died 1568), a younger sister of Lady Jane Grey, "The Nine Day Queen". His grandfather was Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset (executed 1552), all of whose titles became forfeit on his attainder by the Parliament of England, during the reign of his nephew King Edward VI (reigned 1547–1553). His father was however re-elevated to the peerage in 1559 by Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603), as Baron Beauchamp of Hache and Earl of Hertford. During the lifetime of his father, whom he predeceased, he was known by the courtesy title (his father's lesser title) "Lord Beauchamp".
He was born in the Tower of London, where his mother had been imprisoned for secretly marrying his father, against the wishes of Queen Elizabeth I. For many years, Edward was regarded as illegitimate because no proof could be produced of his parents' legal marriage.
Claimant to throne.
By 1603 Edward was the senior qualified heir under the will of King Henry VIII, which stipulated that the elder line of the Stuart dynasty, descended from Margaret Tudor, should be passed-over in favour of the younger line, descended from Mary Tudor, the king's younger and favourite sister. Edward's only possible rival under the will was Anne Stanley, Countess of Castlehaven, who would have been heir had Edward been considered illegitimate. Regardless of Henry VIII's wishes, the succession progressed in favour of the elder line, which resulted in King James VI of Scotland ascending the English throne. Had the stipulations of the King's will been carried out, Edward would have become "King Edward VII" and England and Scotland would not have been placed under a personal union. Queen Elizabeth I never officially dismissed her father's will, but James succeeded through the support of the English Parliament.
Marriage and children.
Edward married Honora Rogers, daughter of Sir Richard Rogers (c. 1527–1605) of Bryanston, Dorset, MP for Dorset in 1572, by his wife Cecilia Luttrell, daughter of Sir Andrew Luttrell (1484–1538), feudal baron of Dunster of Dunster Castle in Somerset. Honora was the sister of Andrew Rogers (d. circa 1599), MP, of Bryanstone, who earlier had married (as his second wife) Lord Beauchamp's aunt Lady Mary Seymour (born 1552). Beauchamp's father the Earl was strongly opposed to the marriage and sent a certain George Ludlow to discuss the position with the Rogers family. Ludlow reported back that Honora was "a baggage" and her father Sir Richard Rogers "a fool" and that Lord Beauchamp had originally intended to have "but a night’s lodging with her". The Earl believed that Sir Richard had encouraged the marriage and that "though outwardly he did nothing" to oppose or promote the marriage, nevertheless his daughter had "inwardly his goodwill". By his wife Honora he had three sons and three daughters:
Death and succession.
He predeceased his father the 1st Earl of Hertford, and was succeeded in the courtesy title by his eldest son Edward Seymour, Lord Beauchamp (1586–1618), who also predeceased the 1st Earl, and it was thus his second son William Seymour, who in 1621 succeeded his grandfather as 2nd Earl of Hertford and in 1660 was restored as 2nd Duke of Somerset. His monumental brass inscription survives in Great Bedwyn Church (the parish church of Wulfhall and Tottenham Lodge), inscribed in Latin as follows:


Arturo Macapagal

Arturo de la Rosa Macapagal (14 September 1942 – 11 August 2015) was the son of Philippine President Diosdado Macapagal. He was a Filipino shooter who competed at the 1972 and 1976 Summer Olympics at the free pistol event.
Early life.
Macapagal was the son of President Diosdado Macapagal and Purita de la Rosa, sister of Rogelio and Jaime. Purita was Diosdado Macapagal's first wife. Arturo was the second child and eldest son among the Macapagal family. Cielo was his elder sister. His mother died when he was just 1 year old and his father married Evangeline Macaraeg Macapagal when he was five years old. His father had two children with Evangeline, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo and Diosdado Macapagal Jr.
Education.
Macapagal entered San Beda College for a bachelor's degree in business management and graduated from the institution as a cum laude in 1968. During his last year at San Beda, he was president of the student council. He later entered the Asian Institute of Management (AIM) and attained his master's degree in business management in 1971 from the institution. He became the first president of AIM's student association and the first chairman of its alumni association.
Sporting career.
As a shooter.
Macapagal represented the Philippines in shooting on several competitions including at the 1972 and 1976 Summer Olympics where he participated at the free pistol event. During his 1972 Olympic stint he established a national record for free pistol, a record which would not be broken for 21 years, the longest in the country's shooting history. He was chosen as the "Most Outstanding Shooter of the Decade" by the Philippine Olympic Committee in 1980. In 1973 and 1974, he was named the All-around Filipino Sports Awardee by the Philippine Sportswriters Association.
As an official.
Macapagal also led the Philippine National Shooting Association for many years and also served the Philippine Olympians Association as president. In 2008 he ran for the position of president at the Philippine Olympic Committee, challenging incumbent Jose Cojuangco who has been President of the Association since 2004 and was seeking a second term. Macapagal lost to Cojuangco by 2 votes with Macapagal receiving 19 votes and Cojuangco receiving 21 out of 40 votes cast. Cojuangco managed to win a third term in 2012.
Business career.
Macapagal became the president and CEO of Toyota Pasong Tamo, one of Toyota's largest dealers and also became the chair of Majal Properties Inc. and Melandrex Holdings Inc. He was also an active member of several business organizations such as the Financial Executives Institute and the Management Association of the Philippines.
He was also given awards by the alumni association of his former colleges. In 1979, the AIM Alumni Association gave Macapagal the triple-award for Outstanding Achievements in Management and in 1995 he was given the Centennial Award for Outstanding Achievement in Business and Management by the San Beda Alumni Association, on the occasion of the Centennial of the Benedictine Monks in the Philippines.
Politics.
Macapagal received many offers to enter politics. In 1971, Governor Jose Lingad asked for Macapagal to run as governor of Pampanga, in 1987; by Governor Bren Guiao to run a congressman and in 1992 as Guiao's vice governor. He declined to enter politics.
Social involvement.
In 1963, Macapagal and some of his friends established the Scholarship Foundation of the Filipino Youth and served as its chairman. The scholarship foundation grants college scholarship to high school students with financial difficulties that it deems as talented. He is also a trustee of the St. Anthony College of Technology in Mabalacat, Pampanga and a member of Habitat Philippines, with the later being an organization that provides housing for the poor.
Personal life.
Macapagal was married to Maria Therese Jalandoni who came from Iloilo whom he had three children.
Death.
Macapagal died on 11 August 2015 at age 72. He was hospitalized at the Makati Medical Center for prostate cancer.


List of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of Colombia

The following is a list of the people who have served as head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Colombia. Until 1886, the Ministries were named Secretariats, thus the head of the Secretariat of Foreign Affairs was titled Secretary of Foreign Affairs.


Cow Springs Ranch

Cow Springs Ranch is a locale, located in Luna County, New Mexico. The ranch headquarters is located at Cow Springs, originally Ojo de Vaca.
History.
Ojo de Vaca was a watering place on the old trail between Janos, Chihuahua, Mexico to the Santa Rita copper mines. When Cooke's Mormon Battalion was searching for a wagon route between the Rio Grande and California, they intercepted the old Mexican road at this spring. From there they followed a course southwestward to Guadalupe Pass and the Janos - Fronteras Road they followed west to the San Pedro River, following it northward before turning west to Mescal Spring and Tucson, pioneering the route known as Cooke's Wagon Road. By 1849, Cooke's road became the major southern route of the forty-niners during the California Gold Rush and Ojo de Vaca spring was one of the reliable watering places on what became the Southern Emigrant Trail. Later Ojo de Vaca was a watering place on the San Antonio-San Diego Mail Line. Subsequently, the Butterfield Overland Mail built Ojo de Vaca Station as a stagecoach station at Ojo de Vaca, in New Mexico Territory. It was located 14 miles northeast of Soldiers Farewell Station and 16 miles southwest of Miembre's River Station, later Mowry City, New Mexico. It remained an important stop on this route until the long distance stagecoach lines ended in the late 19th century.


Thomas DiNapoli

Thomas Peter DiNapoli II (born February 10, 1954) is an American politician serving as the 54th and current New York State Comptroller since 2007. A member of the Democratic Party, he was previously the New York State Assemblyman for the 16th district, first elected in 1986.
DiNapoli was elected by the New York State Legislature as New York State Comptroller on February 7, 2007; he was formerly the Chairman of the Assembly Environmental Conservation Committee. He is a resident of the village of Great Neck Plaza on Long Island. In November 2014, he won reelection, leading the statewide ticket with the most votes. He was easily reelected to a fourth term in November 2018, receiving 64.9% of the vote.
Entry career and education.
Thomas Peter DiNapoli II was born to Nicholas Peter DiNapoli and Adeline Abbondandelo, named after his paternal grandfather Thomas Peter DiNapoli. DiNapoli has been active in politics since he was a teenager, when he ran for and won a position as a trustee on the Mineola Board of Education. At the age of 18 in 1972, he was the youngest person in New York State history elected to public office. He served on the school board for 10 years.
In 1976, DiNapoli graduated magna cum laude from Hofstra University with a bachelor's degree in history. After college he worked for New York Telephone and AT&T.
In 1988, he received a master's degree in human resources management from The New School University's Graduate School of Management and Urban Professions.
New York Assembly and politics.
DiNapoli worked as an aide for Assemblyman Angelo F. Orazio. He also served as a District Representative for Congressman Robert J. Mrazek. DiNapoli was a member of the New York State Assembly from 1987 to 2007, sitting in the 187th, 188th, 189th, 190th, 191st, 192nd, 193rd, 194th, 195th, 196th and 197th New York State Legislatures. He represented the 16th District, located in Northwest Nassau County. DiNapoli was later also elected as Chairman of the Nassau County Democratic Committee. In 2001, he lost the Democratic nomination for Nassau County Executive to Thomas Suozzi, who later won the election. In 2006, DiNapoli was a candidate for lieutenant governor, but dropped out of the race after Attorney General Eliot Spitzer, the party's frontrunner for governor, chose Senate Minority Leader David Paterson as his running mate.
State Comptroller.
Election.
DiNapoli applied to be State Comptroller to replace Alan Hevesi, who resigned in December 2006. He was interviewed by a panel of two former State Comptrollers, a former New York City Comptroller and a group of legislators on January 24, 2007. DiNapoli was not amongst the three finalists recommended by the review panel. On February 7, 2007, in a joint session of the New York State Legislature, DiNapoli was elected as New York State Comptroller, succeeding Alan Hevesi by a vote of 150 to 56.
Service as Comptroller.
In lieu of a transition committee, DiNapoli established a commission to review the Comptroller's office. The commission was headed by former Mayor of New York Ed Koch and financial expert Frank Zarb. Also included in this commission were Nassau County Executive Tom Suozzi, Chancellor of Syracuse University Nancy Cantor, and New York City Comptroller William Thompson.
In March 2007, as one of DiNapoli's first public statements as Comptroller, he criticized Governor Eliot Spitzer's proposed budget, stating that the levels of spending were at an "unsustainable rate". DiNapoli stated that, at the rate proposed by Spitzer's budget, there would be a $13 billion deficit in three years' time.
As Comptroller, DiNapoli makes periodic, public reports on a variety of issues affecting state, local, and charitable agencies. In March 2010, he reported that non-profits have been hurt by the recession as well as by delays in state contracts.
By April 2010, DiNapoli gained a reputation as a critic of the State's budget deficit. He "has proposed major reforms in the state budget process". He unveiled a package of proposed reforms to the budget process in March 2010. Key parts of his plans are for "governors to identify plans to erase budget deficits in future years", to cap state debt, and to require excess surplusses to be deposited into the "rainy day fund".
2010 election.
DiNapoli ran for election in November 2010. On May 1, 2010, he won the Democratic Rural Conference's Straw Poll by acclamation. On May 26, 2010, DiNapoli received the designation of the New York Democratic Party. "I'm grateful for your support and I salute your commitment to moving our great state forward. It's a commitment I share with each of you," said DiNapoli on the occasion. He received the nomination of the Working Families Party for comptroller.
In November 2010, he narrowly won reelection. DiNapoli claimed victory early the morning of November 3, and Harry Wilson conceded later in the morning.
2014 election.
DiNapoli ran for reelection in November 2014. On May 21, 2014, he received the nomination of the New York Democratic Party. "This office has an important compelling and independent role to play in moving our state forward. As New York State Comptroller, I'll continue to go to work every day striving to do right by New Yorkers," said DiNapoli at the Democratic Convention. He also received the nomination of the Independence, Working Families and Women's Equality parties for State Comptroller.
In November 2014, he won reelection, defeating Republican candidate Bob Antonacci. DiNapoli received the most votes of any statewide candidate with 2,077,293 votes.
2018 election.
DiNapoli Ran for reelection for a third full term. On May 23, 2018, he received the nomination of the New York Democratic Party. "This office has a lot more work to do for a safer, fairer New York . As New York State Comptroller, I'll continue to go to work every day striving to do right by New Yorkers," said DiNapoli at the Democratic Convention. He also received the nomination of the Independence, Working Families and Women's Equality and Reform parties for State Comptroller.
In November 2018, he won reelection, defeating Republican candidate Jonathan Trichter, a former Democrat who switched to the GOP. DiNapoli once again received the most votes of any statewide candidate with 4,027,886 votes.
Personal.
DiNapoli is single and has no children. Both of his parents are the children of immigrants. His father, Nick, served in World War II, and after the war worked as a cable splicer for New York Telephone. For a time he was a shop steward for his union, the Communications Workers of America. DiNapoli's mother, Adeline, was a records clerk for the county police department. On September 1, 2013, he received the honorary citizenship in the small town of Paduli, in the province of Benevento - Italy, the birthplace of his paternal grandfather.


Indiana Adjutant General

The Adjutant General of Indiana is the commander of the Indiana National Guard, the Indiana Guard Reserve, and, when active, the Indiana Naval Militia. The Adjutant General (or 'TAG') is responsible for all state, non-federalized military and reports directly to the Governor of Indiana. Indiana's TAG is appointed by the governor and serves a term concurrent with the governor. The Adjutant General must hold a rank of Brigadier General (BG) or higher.
There have been 56 men who served as Adjutant General in Indiana; 3 have served nonconsecutive terms, bringing the total number of terms to 59.
List of Adjutants General of Indiana.
The following have served as Adjutants General in Indiana:
The following Adjutants General served in Indiana Territory:


Chris Lightfoot

Chris Lightfoot (4 August 1978 – 11 February 2007) was an English scientist and political activist. He was the first developer, with Tom Steinberg, at e-democracy charity mySociety.
Family and early life.
He was born in Dulwich, England, in 1978. His mother, Prue, was a journalist and his father, Robert, was a patent agent. His older sister Steph taught him how to program the family's BBC Micro. He used this knowledge of programming to produce a crater investigation model in the physics department at Westminster which was of an extremely high standard. This was part of a physics project in which he was awarded a 15 Merit — an outstanding and very rare full mark.
He attended Westminster School, where he was part of the team representing the school in the British Informatics Olympiad. He began his undergraduate studies at Clare College, Cambridge focusing on Physics while studying a Natural Science Tripos. He graduated with a Master's degree in 2000.
Chris was one of the founders of Mythic Beasts, an ISP.
Death.
He had suffered from depression throughout his adult life. Lightfoot committed suicide on 11 February 2007.
Contributions to Internet.
He played an important role in the development of:


Sergey Botkin

Sergey Petrovich Botkin (; 5 September 1832 – 12 December 1889) was a famous Russian clinician, therapist, and activist, one of the founders of modern Russian medical science and education. He introduced triage, pathological anatomy, and post mortem diagnostics into Russian medical practice.
Life and career.
Botkin was born on 5 September 1832, in Moscow to a family of famous Russian tea tradesmen, and the son of Anna Ivanovna (Postnikova) and Petr Kononovich Botkin. He made his first steps towards education in the private school of Ennes. In 1850 Botkin was admitted to Moscow State University. In 1855 Sergey Botkin graduated from the university with honors and received a Doctor of Medicine degree. Shortly afterwards however he was mobilized as a conscript, designated to serve as military surgeon and sent straight to Sevastopol, where the Crimean War was in full swing. There Botkin worked under the guidance of Nikolay Pirogov, widely recognized as a pioneer of field surgery (i.e. the treatment of wounded combatants on the spot and in spite of ongoing hostilities as the situation may warrant). Pirogov is known for performing the first operation under anesthesia on the battlefield at the time. Upon the end of his military service, Botkin received a flattering review from his supervisor.
He subsequently went abroad, seeking to improve his skills and was able to gain valuable professional experience working at some of the most prestigious institutions on the continent. Upon his return to Russia, Botkin was invited to work with professor Shipulinsky in the Academy of Medicine and Surgery, and the following year Botkin took Shipulinsky’s position at the age of 29.
In 1860–1861, Sergey Botkin opened a clinical and research laboratory and in the course of his research organized systematic studies in clinical pharmacology and experimental therapy, both novelties in Russian research at the time. He was the first to suggest that catarrhal jaundice (hepatitis) was caused by an infection. In early 1860s, Botkin was assigned as an advising member of the medical board of the Imperial Ministry of Internal Affairs. In 1873 he was also made Head Surgeon to the Emperor, having been among the court physicians for both Tsar Alexander II and Tsar Alexander III. Furthermore, the same year he was elected president of the Medical Association of St. Petersburg. In 1886, Botkin headed the National Public Health Commission, created to investigate the unusually high mortality rates prevalent in Russia, both in times of peace and war. Botkin Hospital is named after him.
Family
Botkin was married to A.A. Krylova, relative of Alexey Krylov. His brother Vasily was a prominent writer and his brother Mikhail was a painter and well-known art collector. His son, Dr. Eugene Botkin, was murdered with Nicholas II and the Tsar's family July 16/17, 1918 by the Bolsheviks.
Sergey Petrovich Botkin died on 12 December 1889, in Menton, France, from liver disease, which was complicated by a heart ailment.


Angus McPhail (cricketer)

Angus William McPhail (born 25 May 1956) is an English former first-class cricketer and educator.
McPhail was born at Ipswich in May 1956. He was educated at Abingdon School where he was a member of the first XI and was awarded the annual cricket prize. After Abingdon he went to University College, Oxford. While studying at Oxford, he played first-class cricket for Oxford University in 1977, making four appearances. Playing as wicket-keeper, he scored 63 runs in his four matches, with a high score of 37. Behind the stumps he took six catches.
After graduating from Oxford, McPhail worked for the Bank of England overseas department, before changing careers to become a schoolteacher. He began his teaching career at Glenalmond College, before becoming head of economics at Sedbergh School. He was appointed headmaster of Strathallan School in 1993, a position he held until 2000. He became warden of Radley College in 2000, where he remained until his retirement in 2014. After his retirement, McPhail studied for his Master of Letters degree in modern history at the University of St Andrews. He qualified as a mediator with the London School of Mediation in 2016.


Skulen (Hasidic dynasty)

Skulen () Hasidic dynasty was founded by Rav Eliezer Zusia Portugal. It was headed by his son, Rav Yisroel Avrohom Portugal until his death on April 1 2019. Its name is originated from Sculeni (Yiddish: סקולען Skulen), a town in Bessarabia where Rabbi Eliezer Zusia was born and served as rabbi.
Biography.
Rabbi Eliezer Zusia Portugal succeeded his father as rabbi of Skulen at the age of 17 upon his father's death in 1915. Thereupon he became a disciple of the rebbe of Bohush (Buhuși, Romania), a scion of the Ruzhiner dynasty. Before the outbreak of World War II, Zusia moved to Chernovitz. He survived the war and moved to Bucharest, the capital of Romania, where he opened an orphanage for the orphans left after the Holocaust. When the Communists took over Romania, it became dangerous for him to continue to educate the children in the ways of Judaism, yet Zusia continued. In 1959, the Communists arrested Zusia and his son, Yisroel Avrohom Portugal, for teaching religion and for supporting and educating orphans. The Rebbes of Sadigura, Kopishnietz and Boyan led an international effort to free the Skulener Rebbe and his son, and eventually, at the request of the Lubavitcher Rebbe via his connections in Washington, Rabbi Eliezer Silver along with his son in 1960. Both immediately immigrated to the United States. Upon moving to America, Zusia continued his works helping the underprivileged and began an international charity organization known as "Chesed L'Avraham". He authored "Noam Eliezer" and "Kedushas Eliezer", and composed many popular Hasidic melodies. He died in 1982 and was buried in the Viznitzer Cemetery in Monsey, New York.
Reb Eliezer Zusia was succeeded by his son, Rebbe Yisroel Avrohom Portugal who continued his father's work by running the "Chesed L'Avraham" organization to help the needy in Israel and around the world, and also wrote many Hasidic melodies. Portugal died on April 1, 2019.
Reb Yisroel Avrohom was succeeded by his 5 sons, the oldest son Rebbe Yeshaya Yakov Portugal, was crowned as the Skulener Rebbe. In Williamsburg, his son Rebbe Meir Portugal was crowned as Skulen Rebbe, In Monsey, his son Rebbe Efraim Yehuda Portugal who was previously the head of the Monsey community, was crowned as Skulen Rebbe, in Lakewood NJ. Rebbe Zvi Noach Portugal, who was previously the head of the Lakewood community, was crowned as Skulen Rebbe. In Yerushalayim his son Rebbe Shmiel Mordche Portugal, who was previously the "Rav" of the Boro Park community was crowned as Skulen Rebbe in jerusalem,
The central Skulener synagogue is located on 54th street in the Boro Park section of Brooklyn, New York, near 13th avenue.


Alan Bollard

Dr Alan Esmond Bollard (born 5 June 1951) is a New Zealand economist. He currently serves as the as chair of the New Zealand Infrastructure Commission. He previously served as the Executive Director of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Secretariat for the period of 2013–2018, and as the Governor of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand for the period of 2002–2012.
Early life.
Bollard was born in Auckland on 5 June 1951. His parents were Constance Mary () and Ted Bollard. He attended Owairaka Primary School, Wesley Intermediate School, and Mount Albert Grammar School. He gained a PhD in economics from the University of Auckland in 1977, and was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws (LLD) by the same university in 2007.
Career.
Bollard headed the New Zealand Institute of Economic Research from 1987–1994 and the Commerce Commission from 1994–1998. He subsequently spent four years as secretary to the Treasury, from 1998–2002.
In August 2019, the Minister for Infrastructure, Shane Jones announced the appointment of Dr Alan Bollard as chair of the new Infrastructure Commission, Te Waihanga.
He subsequently served as the Governor of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand from 2002–2012, and as the Executive Director of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Secretariat for the period of 2013–2018.
He has edited or written three books on the topic of economic reform in New Zealand.
Recognition.
In 1998, Bollard was elected fellow of the Royal Society Te Apārangi. In the 2013 New Year Honours, Bollard was appointed a Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit for services to the State.
Personal life.
He is married to venture capitalist Jenny Morel. They married in 1977 and have two sons.


Hammir Singh

Rana Hammir (1314–78), or Hammir, was a 14th-century ruler of Mewar in present-day Rajasthan, India. Following an invasion by the Delhi sultanate at the turn of the 13th century, the ruling Guhila dynasty had been displaced from Mewar. Hammir Singh, who was a scion of the cadet branch of the Guhila dynasty, regained control of the region, re-established the dynasty after defeating the Tughlaq dynasty, and became the first of his dynasty to use the royal title 'Rana' instead of 'Rawal'. Hammir also became the progenitor of the Sisodia clan, a branch of the Guhila dynasty, to which every succeeding Maharana of Mewar has belonged. Mewar during Rana Hammirs reign, was one of the few ethnic Indian states that had withstood the Turkic invasions. According to John Darwin "Only in Mewar and in Vijaynagar had Hindu states withstood the deluge".
He built the Annapoorna Mata temple located in the Chittor Fort in Chittorgarh, Rajasthan.
Legendary account in bardic chronicles.
Rana Hammir (not to be confused with Hammir of Ranthambore), the 14th century ruler of Mewar in present-day Rajasthan, was the first ruler using the title "Rana" before his name. He belonged to the Guhilot dynasty. After an invasion by the Delhi sultanate at the turn of the 13th century, the ruling Guhilot dynasty had been removed from Mewar. Rana Hammir belonged to a cadet branch of that clan; however regained control of the region, re-established the dynasty and also became the propounder of the Sisodia clan, a branch of the Guhila dynasty, to which every succeeding Maharana of Mewar belonged.
A distant kinsman of Rawal Ratan Singh, by name "Laksha" or Lakshman Singh, joined Rawal Ratan Singh against invasion of Delhi Sultan Alauddin Khilji. He died along with his seven sons performed "saka" (fighting to death), while their women committed jauhar (self-immolation in preference to becoming enemy captives). Laksha was descended in direct patrician lineage from Bappa Rawal and hence belonged to the Gehlot (Guhilot) clan. Laksha came from the village of Sisoda near the town of Nathdwara and thus his children came to be known as "Sisodia". Laksha had nine (or eight) sons, of whom the eldest, Ari, married Urmila, a pretty lady from the nearby village of Unnava, who belonged to a poor Rajput family of the Chandana clan. Rana Hammir was the only child of this couple.
Both Laksha and Ari died while defending Chittor under leadership of Rawal Ratan Singh and left behind young Hammir. He was almost an infant, however grew up under the guidance of his uncle Ajay (who himself fought in the same war), the second son of Laksha. Rana Hammir gave his uncle an initial proof of his bravery when, at a young age, he killed a treacherous King of Kantaliya named Munja Balecha (Chauhan of Bali State) who was causing chaos in the nearby area. It is said that this event impressed his uncle that he immediately bestowed on Hammir with the claims of rulership.
The Khaljis had allocated their newly acquired territories to the administration of Maldev, ruler of the nearby state of Jalore, who had associated with them during the war years. In a requirement to settle and co-opt the citizens of the land to his rule, Maldev arranged for the marriage of his widowed daughter Songari with Rana Hammir, the scion of an impoverished cadet branch of the erstwhile ruling dynasty. Rana Hammir Singh thus re-established the state of Mewar in 1326 and engineered a coup d'état against his father-in-law. The dynasty thus founded by Hammir came to be known as Sisodia after the mountain village where Rana Hammir belonged.
Conflict against the Tughluq dynasty.
The Rajput bardic chroniclers such as Nainsi (17th century) claim that amid the turmoil caused by the end of the Khalji dynasty in Delhi, Hammir Singh gained control of Mewar. He evicted Maldev's son Jaiza, the Chauhan vassal of the Delhi Sultantate, from Mewar. Jaiza fled to Delhi, prompting the Delhi Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq to march against Hammir Singh. According to Muhnot Nainsi, Hammir Singh defeated Tughluq near the Singoli village, in the Battle of Singoli and imprisoned the Sultan. He then released the Sultan three months later, after the Sultanate ceded to him Ajmer, Ranthambor, Nagaur and Sooespur; and paid 50 million rupees and 1000 elephants as ransom.
A 1438 Jain temple inscription attests that Rana Hammir Singh forces defeated a Muslim army; this army may have been led by a general of Muhammad bin Tughluq. It is possible that subsequently, Muhammad bin Tughluq and his successors did not assert their authority in the present-day Rajasthan, and Hammir Singh's authority was recognized by other Rajput chiefs, making Mewar practically independent of the Delhi Sultanate till Pashah Jehangir and Rana Amar Singh,son of Maharana Pratap came to terms in 1615.
In popular culture.
"Rana Hamir" is a 1925 Indian silent film about the monarch by Baburao Painter.