19th Visual Effects Society Awards, Nominees, Television
Burberry – Singin' In the Rain – Alex Lovejoy, Mithun Alex, David Filipe, Amresh Kumar


19th Visual Effects Society Awards, Nominees, Other categories
Ghost of Tsushima – Jason Connell, Matt Vainio, Jasmin Patry, Joanna Wang


19th Visual Effects Society Awards, Nominees, Other categories
The Bourne Stuntacular – Salvador Zalvidea, Tracey Gibbons, George Allan, Matthías Bjarnason, Scott Smith


19th Visual Effects Society Awards, Nominees, Other categories
Migrants – Antoine Dupriez, Hugo Caby, Lucas Lermytte, Zoé Devise


19th Volhynian Uhlan Regiment
19th Volhynian Uhlan Regiment (Polish language: 19. Pułk Ułanów Wołyńskich, 19 puł) was a cavalry unit and brigade from the Polish Army in the Second Polish Republic. Formed in 1917, it fought in the Polish–Soviet War and the Invasion of Poland. In the interbellum period, the regiment was garrisoned in Ostrog, Volhynia.


19th Volhynian Uhlan Regiment
The origins of the regiment date back to April 1917, when Polish Assault Hussar Squadron was formed in the Ukraine, by Colonel Feliks Jaworski. This unit was part of Polish Rifle Division, Imperial Russian Army. In early June 1917, the squadron was transported to Eastern Galicia, where it fought against German and Austro-Hungarian forces. After the October Revolution, it was transferred to Ploskirow, where it fought against Bolshevik units and demoralized soldiers of the Russian Army. On December 24, it was merged into Polish Army in Ukraine, and in January 1918, the 2nd Uhlan Regiment was formed, based on Polish Assault Hussar Squadron. On February 22, 1918, the regiment was annexed into III Polish Corps in Russia, as part of Light Brigade of Colonel Juliusz Rómmel.


19th Volhynian Uhlan Regiment
By June 1918, the regiment had 26 officers and 684 soldiers.


19th Volhynian Uhlan Regiment
During the 1939 Invasion of Poland, the regiment, as part of Volhynian Cavalry Brigade, fought in the Battle of Mokra, Battle of Wola Cyrusowa and other battles. By mid-September 1939, it ceased to exist, and its elements, after crossing the Wieprz river, joined Kresowa Cavalry Brigade, to surrender to the Red Army in late September.


19th Volhynian Uhlan Regiment
The 19th Volhynian Uhlan Regiment was recreated in early 1944, as part of 27th Home Army Infantry Division.


19th Volhynian Uhlan Regiment, Symbols and Traditions
Regimental flag, funded by the residents of Volhynia, was handed to the unit by Marshal Józef Piłsudski, on August 6, 1924, in Ostrog. The regimental badge featured the coat of arms of Volhynian Voivodeship. The regiment also had its own zurawiejka.


19th Volhynian Uhlan Regiment, Symbols and Traditions
The 204th Elementary School in Warsaw was in 1993 named after the regiment. There are two organizations dealing with the history of the regiment : Rodzina 19 Pułku Ułanów Wołyńskich w Warszawie /Family of the 19 Regiment of Volhynian Uhlans in Warsaw/ and Stowarzyszenie Pamięci 19 Pułku Ułanów Wołyńskich w Opolu /Association for the Memory of the 19 Regiment of Vohlynian Uhlans in Opole/.


19th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (2nd Latvian)
The 19th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (2nd Latvian) (German: 19. Waffen-Grenadier-Division der SS (lettische Nr. 2)), Latvian: 19. ieroču SS grenadieru divīzija (latviešu Nr. 2)) was an infantry division of the Waffen-SS during World War II. It was the second Latvian division formed in January 1944, after its sister unit, the 15th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Latvian) with which it formed the Latvian Legion. It was surrounded in the Courland Pocket at the end of the war where it surrendered to the Red Army.


19th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (2nd Latvian)
The division was formed in January 1944, from 2 SS Infantry Brigades with the addition of a newly raised third regiment, Waffen Grenadier Regiment 46 (Latvian No. 6). Simultaneously, the designations of the two other grenadier regiments were changed from 39 and 40 to 42 and 43 respectively. The commander of the SS brigade, SS-Oberführer Hinrich Schuldt became the first commander of the division. After Schuldt was killed in action on 15 March 1944, SS-Standartenführer Friedrich-Wilhelm Bock temporarily took command, being replaced on April 13 by SS-Oberführer Bruno Streckenbach, who led the division until the end of war.


19th Ward Meetinghouse and Relief Society Hall
The 19th Ward Meetinghouse and Relief Society Hall, at 168 W. 500 North, Salt Lake City, Utah, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976.


19th Ward Meetinghouse and Relief Society Hall
It was built in 1896. Its architecture is significant in American history as reflecting changes imposed upon The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) by outside influences. Pressure included various Federal enforcement efforts following upon the Edmunds–Tucker Act of 1877, which outlawed polygamy. In effect, the LDS Church capitulated, and sought to adopt different values in conformity with worldwide ones. The meetinghouse was designed by architect Robert Bowman and represented a "totally out of character" change in style; it includes an "oriental, Byzantine, or German Renaissance-inspired onion dome". It was no longer a church when listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976.


19th Weapons Squadron
The 19th Weapons Squadron is a United States Air Force unit assigned to the USAF Weapons School at Nellis AFB, Nevada.


19th Weapons Squadron
The squadron was first activated as the 19th Observation Squadron in March 1942. The 19th originally flew antisubmarine missions during World War II, then moved to China in 1944 to begin observation missions in support of Chinese ground forces. It later flew resupply missions to resistance forces operating behind enemy lines in French Indochina.


19th Weapons Squadron
The squadron was redesignated the 19th Tactical Air Support Squadron, then organized in July 1963. From 1963 through 1968 the 19th Tactical Air Support Squadron flew forward air support and observation missions over Vietnam until its mission was transferred to Osan AB, South Korea in 1972, where it provided Eighth US Army and Republic of Korea ground forces with aerial reconnaissance and close air support.


19th Weapons Squadron, Overview
The squadron has three syllabi, the Advanced Enlisted Mission Planning Course, the Intelligence Weapons Instructor Course and the Intelligence Sensor Weapons Instructor Course, and a flight that supports mission planning for 17,000 sorties annually.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, World War II
Activated as the 19th Observation Squadron (Light) on 5 February 1942. The squadron activated on 2 March 1942 at Miami Municipal Airport as part of the Air Force Combat Command. Five days later, it moved to Jacksonville Municipal Airport, Florida. Two days after that, it became part of Army Air Forces. On the 29th, it became part of the 66th Observation Group.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, World War II
It moved to Pope Army Airfield, North Carolina on 11 May 1942. While there, it was redesignated as the 19th Observation Squadron. On 19 October 1942, it moved to Morris Field, North Carolina. On 2 April 1943, it changed name once again, to 19th Liaison Squadron. The following day, it transferred bases to Camp Campbell, Kentucky. On 22 June 1943, it changed airfields once more, to Aiken Army Airfield, South Carolina. On 11 August 1943, it was assigned to I Air Support Command.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, World War II
It flew anti-submarine missions using A-20 Havocs, B-25 Mitchells, and O-52 Owls, while undergoing observation training at these various bases in the southeastern states. They used L-1 Vigilants, L-2 Grasshoppers, Aeronca L-3s, L-4 Grasshoppers, L-5 Sentinels, L-6 Grasshoppers, and Douglas O-46s for observation sorties. P-39 Airacobras, P-43 Lancers, and P-51 Mustangs were also in the squadron aircraft inventory.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, World War II
From Aiken, the squadron shipped cross-country to Camp Anza, California, arriving on 28 March 1944. This was a transit base for the squadron, as it shipped out to Bombay (now Mumbai), India. It arrived in India on 9 April, and was attached to U.S. Army Forces, China-India-Burma. It spent an itinerant few weeks further training in India, moving through Kanchrapara and Ondal, to land in Chabua on 17 May.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, World War II
It then moved onward to Kunming, China arriving on 29 May 1944. They were attached to Y Force, to begin observation missions in support of Chinese Nationalist ground forces. They supported Y Force until 8 August. Their American parent unit would be variously Fourteenth Air Force and the 69th Composite Wing.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, World War II
At various times, the 19th operated detachments from Kunming, Poashan, Wenshan, Yunnanyi, Chihkiang, Kweiyang, and Liuchow. It moved bases to Chengkung on 28 March 1945. After March 1945, the squadron carried mail and passengers to American liaison personnel in South China, and the 19th flew re-supply missions to resistance forces operating behind enemy lines in French Indochina.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, World War II
On 1 August, the 19th was placed under operational control of Tenth Air Force. Shortly after the Japanese surrendered, on 18 August 1945, the 19th moved to Nanning, China. From there it returned via Calcutta, India to the U.S., where it inactivated on 1 December 1945 at Fort Lewis, Washington.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, Vietnam War
The 19th TASS was the first Forward Air Control squadron assigned to the Vietnam War. It was activated on 19 June 1963 at Bien Hoa Air Base, with the aim of training Vietnamese Air Force (VNAF) pilots and observers as forward air controllers. However, the squadron would not be fully operational until 15 September 1963. The new unit faced formidable shortages in equipment. The only suitable aircraft, the Cessna O-1 Bird Dog, was no longer being manufactured; the U.S. Army held the scanty inventory of existing 0-1s. They had to be refitted before being turned over.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, Vietnam War
Ground transportation was also at a premium. Jeeps were not only in short supply, but radio jeeps were driven the minimum possible for fear jarring would damage the radios. Minimal mechanical maintenance was available, and replacement parts were no longer made for the Bird Dog. Radio equipment in general was outdated and inadequate.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, Vietnam War
One of the squadron's added missions was flying support and forward air control for Project DELTA in their covert insertions into Laos. They began this secretive mission in July 1963, and carried it out until the 21st Tactical Air Support Squadron later took over the role. 19th TASS was also tasked with visual reconnaissance missions, psychological warfare, and logistics escort duties. While the 19th TASS's pilots could fly forward air control missions, a Vietnamese national had to approve any air strikes. With 44 pilots and 22 Cessna O-1 Bird Dogs, the TASS never had more than 11 Vietnamese observers posted to it.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, Vietnam War
On 2 January 1964, 19th TASS began actual training of VNAF pilots and observers. Observer training was lengthened from 14 hours to 17 weeks of instruction. By 30 June 91 Vietnamese FACs were available. On 1 July, the VNAF was supposed to assume the FAC training duty. However, U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara noted that the VNAF seemed to have made no improvement within the past year. He emphasized that the Americans should be training the Vietnamese so the latter could fight. However, the squadron's stand-down was postponed because of Vietnamese unreadiness. The Vietnamese were often overwhelmed by American technology. They slacked off, and allowed the Americans to fly the close air support missions instead. VNAF's policies did not help the situation. Trained VNAF FAC pilots were returned to flying liaison sorties instead of FAC missions.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, Vietnam War
The squadron was inactivated on 8 August 1964, with its assets turned over to the Vietnamese. When the VNAF proved unequal to taking over the disbanded squadron's responsibilities, the 19th TASS was reactivated on 21 October 1964. Not until January 1965 did six U.S. fighter pilot FACs return to resume the training. In this incarnation, the squadron's principal mission was visual reconnaissance and forward air control of fighter-bombers, although it continued to train Vietnamese pilots and observers. It was shifted to the 6251st Tactical Fighter Wing on 8 July 1965.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, Vietnam War
Shortly thereafter, on 8 November 1965, it was transferred to the 505th Tactical Air Support Group. The 19th TASS began flying actual forward air control sorties out of Bien Hoa on 11 November 1965, using the call sign Sidewinder. By July 1966, the 19th was parceled out among numerous forward operating locations in III Corps and II Corps. While serving as Forward Air Controllers and/or Air Liaison Officers, they used the radio net under various call signs, most of which were names of serpents.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, Vietnam War
Beginning in 1968, the 19th TASS extended its squadron inventory to include O-2 Skymasters and OV-10 Broncos. On 15 January 1971, 19th TASS absorbed the 22nd Tactical Air Support Squadron, leaving the 22nd an unmanned unequipped paper unit. Representative of this change, the FACs supporting the 199th Light Infantry Brigade upgraded from O-1s to OV-10s at this time.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, Vietnam War
On 15 January 1971, it absorbed the 22nd Tactical Air Support Squadron, leaving the 22nd an unmanned unequipped paper unit. The unit transferred to Phan Rang Air Base, Vietnam on 1 August 1971. On 30 September 1971, another unit acquired the 19th's inventory. The 19th then remained a paper squadron until 15 January 1972, when it transferred to the inactive theater of South Korea, to Osan AB.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, Vietnam War
By the time the 19th TASS left Vietnam, it had won three Presidential Unit Citations, four Air Force Outstanding Unit Awards with Combat V, the Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross with Palm, and numerous campaign honors for its Vietnam wartime service.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, Vietnam War
During its Vietnam service, the 19 TASS had suffered 37 USAF air crew killed in action, with another two killed in a flying accident. There were also a number of casualties among non-USAF aerial observers. Its aircraft losses over the course of the war amounted to 53 O-1 Bird Dogs, 12 O-2 Skymasters and 16 OV10 Broncos.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, Korean Service
Transferred to Osan AB, South Korea, on 15 January 1972. It became part of the 314th Air Division; Colonel William Peters was placed in command. It was then reconstituted and took over the O-2 aircraft of another squadron. Its new role was support of the Eighth U.S. Army and Republic of Korea ground forces, providing close air and aerial reconnaissance support. In 1973, the 19th trained the Republic of Korea Air Force to operate a Direct Air Support Center.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, Korean Service
On 30 September 1974, the Squadron was transferred to the 51st Composite Wing (Tactical). In 1975, the squadron converted to the OV-10A Bronco. From 1975 until 1980, 19th TASS operated the forward air control mission within the Korean tactical air control system. On 15 April 1976, Detachment 1 of the 19th was assigned to Camp Casey, South Korea, remaining there until 8 January 1980.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, Korean Service
On 8 January 1980, the 19th TASS was forwarded to the 5th Tactical Air Control Group. In 1983, the squadron converted to the OA-37B Dragonfly twin-jet aircraft. In 1985, the 19th switched back to the OV-10. On 1 August 1989, the 19 TASS transferred to Suwon Air Base, South Korea and converted to the OA-10A aircraft. The OV-10s were either retired or transferred to the USMC.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, Korean Service
During its time in the Republic of Korea, the 19 TASS used the call sign 'Bronco' while flying the OV-10, and 'Misty' after changing to the OA-37 and OA-10. The 19th TASS remained an active combat-ready unit flying the OA-10A aircraft until the Persian Gulf War in 1991.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, Korean Service
The squadron was inactivated on 1 October 1993, without seeing further combat action.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, Modern era
USAF Weapons School Intelligence Division was activated in 1989. Its personnel and equipment were the en cadre for the formation of the 19th Weapons Squadron on 3 February 2003.


19th Weapons Squadron, History, Modern era
In 2019, the 19th added two Weapons Instructor Courses for U-2 and RQ-4 pilots.


19th Weapons Squadron, References, Bibliography
This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website .


19th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment
The 19th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment was an infantry regiment that served in the Union Army during the American Civil War.


19th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment, Service
The 19th Wisconsin was organized at Madison, Wisconsin and mustered into Federal service April 30, 1862.


19th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment, Service
The regiment was mustered out on August 9, 1865, at Richmond, Virginia.


19th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment, Casualties
The 19th Wisconsin  suffered 2 officers and 41 enlisted men killed in action or who later died of their wounds, plus another 3 officers and 115 enlisted men who died of disease, for a total of 161 fatalities.


19th Wisconsin Legislature
The Nineteenth Wisconsin Legislature convened from January 10, 1866, to April 12, 1866, in regular session.


19th Wisconsin Legislature
Senators representing even-numbered districts were newly elected for this session and were serving the first year of a two-year term. Assembly members were elected to a one-year term. Assembly members and even-numbered senators were elected in the general election of November 7, 1865. Senators representing odd-numbered districts were serving the second year of their two-year term, having been elected in the general election held on November 8, 1864.


19th Wisconsin Legislature, Members, Members of the Senate
Members of the Wisconsin Senate for the Nineteenth Wisconsin Legislature:


19th World Festival of Youth and Students
The 19th World Festival of Youth and Students (WFYS) was opened on October 14, 2017 in Sochi, Russia. The festival attracted 20,000 people from 180 countries. The opening ceremony of the Festival was held in the arena of the Bolshoy Ice Dome in Sochi. The official slogan of the festival is "For peace, solidarity and social justice, we are fighting against imperialism - respecting our past, we are building our future!". This was the 3rd World Festival of Youth and Students on Russian territory, with the 6th and 12th festivals being held in Moscow in 1957, and 1985.


19th World Festival of Youth and Students
Russian President Vladimir Putin attended the All-Russian Youth Educational Forum criticizing the coverage of the festival saying that "it is necessary to avoid politicizing the festival and devote it to young people".


19th World Science Fiction Convention
The 19th World Science Fiction Convention (Worldcon), also known as Seacon, was held September 2–4, 1961, at the Hyatt House Hotel in Seattle, Washington, United States. The convention chair was Wally Weber.


19th World Science Fiction Convention
The guest of honor at the 19th Worldcon was Robert A. Heinlein, who gave a speech titled "The Future Revisited". He was previously the guest of honor at the 3rd Worldcon and would again be the guest of honor at the 34th Worldcon. The Toastmaster was Harlan Ellison.


19th World Science Fiction Convention, Awards
The Hugo Awards, named after Hugo Gernsback, are presented every year for the best science fiction or fantasy works and achievements of the previous year. The results are based on the ballots submitted by members of the World Science Fiction Society. Other awards, including the Astounding Award for Best New Writer (since 1973; named "John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer" until 2019), are also presented at each year's Worldcon.


19th World Scout Jamboree
The 19th World Jamboree (Spanish: 19º Jamboree Scout Mundial) in Chile, the first ever in South America, took place at a 7,400-acre (30 km2) site (Hacienda Picarquín) in the foothills of the Andes, some 38 miles (61 km) south of the capital city of Santiago. For 11 days, from 27 December 1998, to 6 January 1999, approximately 30,519 Scouts and leaders from nearly every Scout association in the world assembled for this 4-yearly event.


19th World Scout Jamboree
The Jamboree started with a drought, prompting water to be diverted from the City of Rancagua, with sailing activities proving difficult owing to the lack of proper water bodies on Picarquín. The Jamboree sported the third Global Development Village program, and was opened by Chilean president Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle.


19th World Scout Jamboree, Theme
The jamboree theme was "Building Peace Together". The program included full days of patrol activities. These included:


19th Writers Guild of America Awards
The 19th Writers Guild of America Awards honored the best film writers and television writers of 1966. Winners were announced in 1967.


19th Yokohama Film Festival
The 19th Yokohama Film Festival (第19回ヨコハマ映画祭) was held on 8 February 1998 in Kannai Hall, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan.


19th Youth in Film Awards
The 19th Youth in Film Awards ceremony (now known as the Young Artist Awards), presented by the Youth in Film Association, honored outstanding youth performers under the age of 21 in the fields of film, television and theatre for the 1996-1997 season, and took place on March 14, 1998, in Hollywood, California.


19th Youth in Film Awards
Established in 1978 by long-standing Hollywood Foreign Press Association member, Maureen Dragone, the Youth in Film Association was the first organization to establish an awards ceremony specifically set to recognize and award the contributions of performers under the age of 21 in the fields of film, television, theatre and music.


19th Youth in Film Awards, Best Young Performer in a Feature Film, Best Performance in a Feature Film: Leading Young Actor
★  (tie) Blake Heron - Shiloh★  (tie) Kevin Zegers - Air Bud


19th Youth in Film Awards, Best Young Performer in a TV Movie, Pilot or Mini-Series, Best Performance in a TV Movie / Pilot / Mini-Series: Leading Young Actor
★ Gregory Smith - Shadow Zone: My Teacher Ate My Homework


19th Youth in Film Awards, Best Young Performer in a TV Movie, Pilot or Mini-Series, Best Performance in a TV Movie / Pilot / Mini-Series: Supporting Young Actor
★ Edwin Hodge - Shadow Zone: My Teacher Ate My Homework


19th Youth in Film Awards, Best Young Performer in a TV Drama Series, Best Performance in a TV Drama Series: Leading Young Actor
★  (tie) Austin O'Brien - Promised Land★  (tie) Michael Yarmush - My Life as a Dog


19th Youth in Film Awards, Best Young Performer in a TV Drama Series, Best Performance in a TV Drama Series: Leading Young Actress
★  (tie) Beverley Mitchell - 7th Heaven★  (tie) Sarah Schaub - Promised Land


19th Youth in Film Awards, Best Young Performer in a TV Daytime Drama, Best Performance in a Daytime Drama: Young Performers (Male & Female)
★ Lamont Bentley (Male) - Moesha★ Brandy (Female) - Moesha


19th Youth in Film Awards, Best Family Entertainment, Best Educational TV Show
★ Bear in the Big Blue House - Disney Channel


19th Youth in Film Awards, Best Family Entertainment, Best Family TV Drama Series
★  (tie) Promised Land - CBS★  (tie) 7th Heaven - WB


19th Youth in Film Awards, Youth In Film's Special Awards, Best Family Feature Films
★ Animation: Anastasia - 20th Century Fox★ Comedy: Air Bud - Disney


19th Youth in Film Awards, Youth In Film's Special Awards, Best Young Performers in a Foreign Film
★ Victoire Thivisol - Ponette (France)★  - The Thief (Russia)


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment
The 19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment (1863–1865) was a Confederate Army infantry regiment during the American Civil War. The unit was assembled from the portions of Dawson's 19th Arkansas Infantry Regiment and the 24th Arkansas Infantry Regiment, that were not present when the garrison of Arkansas Post surrendered. The unit is most often referred to as Hardy's Arkansas Infantry Regiment, but by the late stages of the war, the unit was simply referred to simply as Hardy's 19th Arkansas Infantry Regiment.


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment
The portions of the 19th Arkansas and the 24th Arkansas which did surrender with the garrison of Arkansas Post were ultimately released east of the Mississippi River and were also briefly designated as the 19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, in Govan's Brigade of the Army of Tennessee, but that consolidation ended after the Battle of Chickamauga. The 19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment served in the Department of the Trans-Mississippi from its formation in February 1863 until the close of the war.


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Organization
Hardy's Regiment was organized around February 1863 by consolidating the portions of the 19th (Dawson's) and 24th Arkansas and Crawford's Arkansas Infantry Battalion that were not captured at the Battle of Arkansas Post on January 11, 1863. Detachments from these organizations were on duty at other locations the time Union force began the attack on Fort Hindman at Arkansas Post.


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Organization
It would seem at the time of the attack on Arkansas Post the 24th Arkansas Infantry Regiment and Crawford's Arkansas Infantry Battalion were stationed at St. Charles preparing to place two 8inch 32 pounder smooth bore columbiad guns from the CSS Ponchartrain in battery there. When the news of the battle at Arkansas Post reached them, Colonel Portlock and approximately 147 men from the two units made a forced march from St. Charles to Arkansas Post but arrived just in time to be surrendered with the garrison.


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Organization
Those left at St. Charles, about 200 men from the 24th and Crawford's Battalion loaded the two 8inch columbiads onto the steamboat Bluewing, moved them up the White River to DeVal's Bluff and loaded them onto railroad flatcars to be shipped back to Little Rock. However, the Federal Gunboats arrived before the train could leave and the guns were captured. The men had made their escape into the woods except for those who were in the hospital at DeVal's Bluff, who were paroled.


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Organization
This detachment of approximately 200 men from the 24th Arkansas and Crawford's Battalion returned to Camp White Sulphur Springs, near Pine Bluff, where they and other members of the 24th, Dawson's 19th (including Colonel Dawson himself) and Crawford's battalion, who happened to be in the hospitals at Sulphur Springs, St Charles and Deval's Bluff at the time of the Battle of Arkansas Post, were organized into a "holding regiment" under Colonel Charles Dawson's command.


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Organization
The original thought was that the men would remain in this holding regiment until the captured portions of these commands were exchanged and returned to Arkansas to reform these regiments. General U. S. Grant however didn't want those men captured at Arkansas Post to be exchanged back in the Mississippi River theater of operations to oppose his operations against Vicksburg, Hence they were exchanged at City Point, Virginia instead of the normal exchange point for Trans-Mississippi prisoners at Vicksburg. This left portions of the regiments in Arkansas, and portions in Virginia.


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Organization
Those elements of the 19th, 24th and Crawford's Arkansas Infantry Battalion which not present to surrender with the garrison of Arkansas Post, were eventually consolidated in a regiment under command of Colonel Charles L. Dawson, originally from the 19th Arkansas, and assisted by Lieutenant Colonel William R. Hardy and Major Francis H. Wood of the 24th Arkansas Infantry Regiment. The companies of the regiment were reorganized from the remnants of the 19th and 24th Arkansas Infantry Regiments and Crawford's Battalion in the following manner:


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Service, Little Rock Campaign
The Consolidated Regiment remained at White Sulphur Springs until late July 1863 training and as part of the lower Arkansas River Valley defenses. Initially assigned in an unattached status to Frost's Brigade in southeastern Arkansas in May and June 1863. Daniel Frost took command of the "defenses of the Lower Arkansas River" with the departure of Major General John Walkers Division to Louisiana in late April 1863. Colonel John Clark assumed command of Frost's old brigade and Fort Pleasant. The 19th/24th


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Service, Little Rock Campaign
Consolidated moved with Colonel John Clark's Missouri Brigade of Frost's Missouri Division from Fort Pleasant to the defenses of Little Rock in August 1863. On August 15, 1865, the unit was marched through Little Rock, and entrenched on the north side of the Arkansas River. The unit retreated from Little Rock without becoming engaged in the Battle of Bayou Fourche.


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Service, Red River Campaign
During the winter of 1863-64, the regiment was reassigned to Tappan's Brigade. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Hardy, the regiment participated in the Red River Campaign with Tappan's Brigade.


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Service, Red River Campaign
In the Spring of 1864, the Churchill's Division, with Tappan's Brigade moved south to oppose Union General Nathaniel Banks' Red River Campaign in north-central Louisiana in March and early April 1864. The division arrived during the Battle of Mansfield on April 8, 1864, but was not committed to the battle and occupied a position on the flank of General Taylor's division. Brigadier General Churchill was placed in command of both his own division and Brigadier General Parson's Division during the pursuit of the enemy from Mansfield to Pleasant Hill, Louisiana so Brigadier General Tappan assumed command of Churchill's Division. While Tappan commanded the Division, Colonel Grinstead of the 33rd Arkansas assumed command of Tappan's Brigade and led it through the fight at Pleasant Hill, on April 9, 1864. General Tappan described the action at Pleasant Hill as follows:


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Service, Red River Campaign
My line was formed at about 4:30 o'clock. . . . I threw out three companies of skirmishers under Major Steele of Grinsted's regiment, and immediately ordered my line to advance rapidly as directed. . . . For an hour and a half we were as warmly engaged with the enemy as it has ever been my experience to witness on any battlefield. My division, however, never faltered, but moved steadily forward, with the valor of men determined to succeed or fall in the attempt. . . .


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Service, Red River Campaign
At this juncture, learning that the division on the right had been outflanked and was falling back , I immediately directed my attention in that direction and saw that such was the case. When said division had swept entirely past mine, and my command became exposed to a heavy and murderous fire from the flank as well as from the front, I ordered the brigade commanders to fall back with a view of forming a line in a more advantageous position. . . .


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Service, Red River Campaign
The exhausted condition of the men, the lateness of the hour (it being near dark), and the denseness of the thicket made it extremely difficult to rally the men. While the battle lasted no men ever fought more gallantly. This is evidenced by the fact that the enemy made little or no attempt to pursue our line; on the contrary, he fled toward Red river as soon as night came, leaving his dead to be buried and his wounded to be cared by us. The loss of the division in the engagement was as follows: Killed, 26; wounded, 112; missing, 63.


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Service, Red River Campaign
Churchill's Division marched back north into Arkansas to deal with the other part of the Federal advance, General Frederick Steele's Camden Expedition. The division arrived after a long forced march at Woodlawn, Arkansas on April 26, where they rested overnight, then joined the pursuit of Steele's retreating army, catching it trying to cross the Saline River near Jenkins' Ferry on April 30, 1864. The 19th/24th suffered a total of 8 killed and 18 wounded in the Battle of Jenkins' Ferry.


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Service, Final Year of the war
On 1 September 1864, Brigadier General James C. Tappan reported that Colonel Hardy's regiment was assigned to Tappan's Brigade. On the same day Brigadier General Tappan reported that the assigned strength of Hardy's Regiment 19th Arkansas Infantry Regiment (Hardy's) and Thompson's Regiment was 787 men, of which only 373 were armed.


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Service, Final Year of the war
On 30 September 1864, General Kirby Smith's report on the organization of the Army of the Trans-Mississippi lists the 19th Arkansas, under the command of Colonel Hardy in Brigadier General James C. Tappan's, 3rd Brigade of Acting Major General Thomas J. Churchill's 1st Arkansas Infantry Division of Major General John B. Magruder's 2nd Army Corps. On 17 November 1864, a union spy reported that the Tampan's Brigade and Churchill's Division was in the vicinity of Camden, in Ouachita County, Arkansas.


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Service, Final Year of the war
On 31 December 1864, General Kirby Smith's report on the organization of his forces lists the 19th Arkansas, under the command of Colonel Hardy as belonging to Brigadier General James C. Tappan's, 3rd Brigade of Acting Major General Thomas J. Churchill's 1st Arkansas Infantry Division of Major General John B. Magruder's 2nd Army Corps, Confederate Army of the Trans-Mississippi.


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Service, Final Year of the war
On 22 January 1865, Major General Churchill was ordered to move his division to Minden, Louisiana, and occupy winter quarters. Union commanders in the Department of the Gulf reported on March 20, 1865 that General Tappan's brigade minus Shaver's regiment, was located a Minden, Louisiana, with the rest of Churchill's Division. In early April 1865, the division concentrated near Shreaveport Louisiana, and then moved to Marshall Texas by mid April 1865.


19th and 24th Consolidated Arkansas Infantry Regiment, Surrender
This regiment was surrendered with the Department of the Trans-Mississippi, General Kirby Smith commanding, May 26, 1865. When the Trans-Mississippi Department surrendered, all of the Arkansas infantry regiments were encamped in and around Marshall, Texas (war-ravaged Arkansas no longer able to subsist the army). The regiments were ordered to report to Shreveport, Louisiana, to be paroled. None of them did so. Some soldiers went to Shreveport on their own to be paroled, but the regiments simply disbanded without formally surrendering. A company or two managed to keep together until they got home, but for the most part, the men simply went home.


19th arrondissement
The 19th arrondissement of Paris (XIXe arrondissement) is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. In spoken French, this arrondissement is referred to as dix-neuvième.


19th arrondissement
The arrondissement, known as Butte-Chaumont, is situated on the right bank of the River Seine. It is crossed by two canals, the Canal Saint-Denis and the Canal de l'Ourcq, which meet near the Parc de la Villette.


19th arrondissement
The 19th arrondissement, mixing the Old French bohemianism and also the Parisian cosmopolitanism, includes two public parks: the Parc des Buttes Chaumont, located on a hill, and the Parc de la Villette, which is home to the Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie, a museum and exhibition centre, the Conservatoire de Paris, one of the most renowned music schools in Europe, the Cabaret Sauvage, the Zénith de Paris and the Philharmonie de Paris, both part of the Cité de la Musique.


19th arrondissement, Geography
The land area of the arrondissement is 6.786 km2 (2.62 sq. miles).


19th arrondissement, Demographics
The population of the 19th arrondissement has been constantly increasing since 1975. At the last census, in 2009, the population was 184,787 inhabitants. 68,101 people worked in the arrondissement in 1999.


19th arrondissement, Demographics
This sector has become the home for many immigrants to France, particularly from North Africa.


19th century
The 19th (nineteenth) century began on 1 January 1801 (MDCCCI), and ended on 31 December 1900 (MCM). The 19th century was the ninth century of the 2nd millennium.


19th century
The 19th century saw much social change; slavery was abolished, and the First and Second Industrial Revolutions (which also overlap with the 18th and 20th centuries, respectively) led to massive urbanisation and much higher levels of productivity, profit and prosperity. The Islamic gunpowder empires were formally dissolved and European imperialism brought much of South Asia, Southeast Asia and almost all of Africa under colonial rule.


19th century
It was marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Zulu Kingdom, First French, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. This paved the way for the growing influence of the British Empire, the Russian Empire, the United States, the German Empire (essentially replacing the Holy Roman Empire), the Second French Empire, the Kingdom of Italy and Meiji Japan, with the British boasting unchallenged dominance after 1815. After the defeat of the French Empire, and its Indian allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the British and Russian empires expanded greatly, becoming the world's leading powers.


19th century
The Russian Empire expanded in the Caucasus, central and far eastern Asia. The Ottoman Empire went through a period of westernisation and reform known as the Tanzimat, vastly increasing their control over their core territories in Anatolia and the Near East. Despite this, the sick man of Europe remained in a period of decline, losing territory in the Balkans, Egypt, and North Africa.


19th century
The remaining powers in the Indian subcontinent such as the Kingdom of Mysore and its French allies, Nawabs of Bengal, Maratha Empire, Sikh Empire and the princely states of the Nizam of Hyderabad, suffered a massive decline, and their dissatisfaction with British East India Company's rule led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, marking its dissolution, however, it was later ruled directly by the British Crown through the establishment of the British Raj.


19th century
The British Empire grew rapidly in the first half of the century, especially with the expansion of vast territories in Canada, Australia, South Africa and heavily populated India, and in the last two decades of the century in Africa. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the world's land and one-quarter of the world's population. During the post-Napoleonic era, it enforced what became known as the Pax Britannica, which had ushered in unprecedented globalization and economic integration on a massive scale.


19th century, Overview
The first electronics appeared in the 19th century, with the introduction of the electric relay in 1835, the telegraph and its Morse code protocol in 1837, the first telephone call in 1876, and the first functional light bulb in 1878.


19th century, Overview
The 19th century was an era of rapidly accelerating scientific discovery and invention, with significant developments in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, electricity, and metallurgy that laid the groundwork for the technological advances of the 20th century. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty and gender roles.


19th century, Overview
Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, in the First Sino-Japanese War. Advances in medicine and the understanding of human anatomy and disease prevention took place in the 19th century, and were partly responsible for rapidly accelerating population growth in the western world. Europe's population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million.


19th century, Overview
The introduction of railroads provided the first major advancement in land transportation for centuries, changing the way people lived and obtained goods, and fuelling major urbanization movements in countries across the globe. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century. London became the world's largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later.


19th century, Overview
The last remaining undiscovered landmasses of Earth, including vast expanses of interior Africa and Asia, were explored during this century, and with the exception of the extreme zones of the Arctic and Antarctic, accurate and detailed maps of the globe were available by the 1890s. Liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe.


19th century, Overview
Slavery was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UK's Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the global slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, who did so in 1834. America's 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888 (see Abolitionism). Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia in 1861.


19th century, Overview
The 19th century was remarkable in the widespread formation of new settlement foundations which were particularly prevalent across North America and Australia, with a significant proportion of the two continents' largest cities being founded at some point in the century. Chicago in the United States and Melbourne in Australia were non-existent in the earliest decades but grew to become the 2nd largest cities in the United States and British Empire respectively by the end of the century. In the 19th century, approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States.


19th century, Overview
The 19th century also saw the rapid creation, development, and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain and the United States. Association football, rugby union, baseball and many other sports were developed during the 19th century, while the British Empire facilitated the rapid spread of sports such as cricket to many different parts of the world. Also, women's fashion was a very sensitive topic during this time, as women showing their ankles was viewed to be scandalous.


19th century, Overview
It also marks the fall of the Ottoman rule of the Balkans which led to the creation of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Romania as a result of the second Russo-Turkish War, which in itself followed the great Crimean War.


19th century, Wars, Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1803 to 1815 pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European powers formed into various coalitions, financed and usually led by the United Kingdom. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and its resultant conflict.


19th century, Wars, Napoleonic Wars
In the aftermath of the French Revolution, Napoleon Bonaparte gained power in France in 1799. In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor of the French.


19th century, Wars, Napoleonic Wars
In 1805, the French victory over an Austrian-Russian army at the Battle of Austerlitz ended the War of the Third Coalition. As a result of the Treaty of Pressburg, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved.


19th century, Wars, Napoleonic Wars
Later efforts were less successful. In the Peninsular War, France unsuccessfully attempted to establish Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain. In 1812, the French invasion of Russia had massive French casualties, and was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars.


19th century, Wars, Napoleonic Wars
In 1814, after defeat in the War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to Elba. Later that year, he escaped exile and began the Hundred Days before finally being defeated at the Battle of Waterloo and exiled to Saint Helena, an island in the South Atlantic Ocean.


19th century, Wars, Napoleonic Wars
After Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna was held to determine new national borders. The Concert of Europe attempted to preserve this settlement was established to preserve these borders, with limited impact.


19th century, Wars, Latin American independence
Mexico and the majority of the countries in Central America and South America obtained independence from colonial overlords during the 19th century. In 1804, Haiti gained independence from France. In Mexico, the Mexican War of Independence was a decade-long conflict that ended in Mexican independence in 1821.


19th century, Wars, Latin American independence
Due to the Napoleonic Wars, the royal family of Portugal relocated to Brazil from 1808 to 1821, leading to Brazil having a separate monarchy from Portugal.


19th century, Wars, Latin American independence
The Federal Republic of Central America gained independence from Spain in 1821 and from Mexico in 1823. After several rebellions, by 1841 the federation had dissolved into the independent countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.


19th century, Wars, Latin American independence
In 1830, the post-colonial nation of Gran Colombia dissolved and the nations of Colombia (including modern-day Panama), Ecuador, and Venezuela took its place.


19th century, Wars, Revolutions of 1848
The Revolutions of 1848 were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. The revolutions were essentially democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent nation states.


19th century, Wars, Revolutions of 1848
The first revolution began in January in Sicily. Revolutions then spread across Europe after a separate revolution began in France in February. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries.


19th century, Wars, Revolutions of 1848
According to Evans and von Strandmann (2000), some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces.


19th century, Wars, Abolition and the American Civil War
The abolitionism movement achieved success in the 19th century. The Atlantic slave trade was abolished in 1808, and by the end of the century, almost every government had banned slavery. The Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 banned slavery throughout the British Empire, and the Lei Áurea abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888.


19th century, Wars, Abolition and the American Civil War
Abolitionism in the United States continued until the end of the American Civil War. Among others Frederick Douglass, and Harriet Tubman, were two of many American Abolitionists who helped win the fight against slavery. Douglass was an articulate orator and incisive antislavery writer; while Tubman's efforts was by using a network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the Underground Railroad.


19th century, Wars, Abolition and the American Civil War
The American Civil War took place from 1861 to 1865. Eleven southern states seceded from the United States, largely over concerns related to slavery. In 1863, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln issued a preliminary on September 22, 1862 warning that in all states still in rebellion (Confederacy) on January 1, 1863, he would declare their slaves "then, thenceforward, and forever free." The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the entire country.


19th century, Wars, Abolition and the American Civil War
Five days after Robert E. Lee surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia, Lincoln was assassinated by actor and Confederate sympathiser John Wilkes Booth.


19th century, Wars, Decline of the Ottoman Empire
In 1830, Greece became the first country to break away from the Ottoman Empire after the Greek War of Independence. In 1831, the Great Bosnian uprising against Ottoman rule occurred. In 1817, the Principality of Serbia became suzerain from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1867, it passed a Constitution which defined its independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1876, Bulgarians instigate the April Uprising against Ottoman rule. Following the Russo-Turkish War, the Treaty of Berlin recognized the formal independence of the Principality of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania. Bulgaria becomes autonomous.


19th century, Wars, China: Taiping Rebellion
The Taiping Rebellion was the bloodiest conflict of the 19th century, leading to the deaths of around 20-30 million people. Its leader, Hong Xiuquan, declared himself the younger brother of Jesus Christ and developed a new Chinese religion known as the God Worshipping Society. After proclaiming the establishment of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in 1851, the Taiping army conquered a large part of China, capturing Nanjing in 1853. In 1864, after the death of Hong Xiuquan, Qing forces recaptured Nanjing and ended the rebellion.


19th century, Wars, Japan: Meiji Restoration
During the Edo period, Japan largely pursued an isolationist foreign policy. In 1853, United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry threatened the Japanese capital Edo with gunships, demanding that they agree to open trade. This led to the opening of trade relations between Japan and foreign countries, with the policy of Sakoku formally ended in 1854.


19th century, Wars, Japan: Meiji Restoration
By 1872, the Japanese government under Emperor Meiji had eliminated the daimyō system and established a strong central government. Further reforms included the abolishment of the samurai class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models.


19th century, Wars, Colonialism, Africa
In Africa, European exploration and technology led to the colonization of almost the entire continent by 1898. New medicines such as quinine and more advanced firearms allowed European nations to conquer native populations.


19th century, Wars, Colonialism, Africa
Motivations for the Scramble for Africa included national pride, desire for raw materials, and Christian missionary activity. Britain seized control of Egypt to ensure control of the Suez Canal, but Ethiopia defeated Italy in the First Italo–Ethiopian War at the Battle of Adwa. France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany also had substantial colonies. The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 attempted to reach agreement on colonial borders in Africa, but disputes continued, both amongst European powers and in resistance by the native populations.


19th century, Wars, Colonialism, Africa
In 1867, diamonds were discovered in the Kimberley region of South Africa. In 1886, gold was discovered in Transvaal. This led to colonization in Southern Africa by the British and business interests, led by Cecil Rhodes.


19th century, Science and technology
The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term scientist was coined in 1833 by William Whewell, which soon replaced the older term of (natural) philosopher. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of Charles Darwin (alongside the independent researches of Alfred Russel Wallace), who in 1859 published the book The Origin of Species, which introduced the idea of evolution by natural selection. Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the germ theory of disease.


19th century, Science and technology
Following this, Louis Pasteur made the first vaccine against rabies, and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the asymmetry of crystals. In chemistry, Dmitri Mendeleev, following the atomic theory of John Dalton, created the first periodic table of elements. In physics, the experiments, theories and discoveries of Michael Faraday, André-Marie Ampère, James Clerk Maxwell, and their contemporaries led to the creation of electromagnetism as a new branch of science. Thermodynamics led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy was defined.


19th century, Science and technology
Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of hypercomplex numbers. Karl Weierstrass and others carried out the arithmetization of analysis for functions of real and complex variables. It also saw rise to new progress in geometry beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years.


19th century, Science and technology
The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about including a rapid spread in the use of electric illumination and power in the last two decades of the century and radio wave communication at the end of the 1890s.


19th century, Culture, Literature
On the literary front the new century opens with romanticism, a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, and it develops more or less along the lines of the Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against the dramatic changes wrought on nature by the steam engine and the railway. William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge are considered the initiators of the new school in England, while in the continent the German Sturm und Drang spreads its influence as far as Italy and Spain. French arts had been hampered by the Napoleonic Wars but subsequently developed rapidly. Modernism began.


19th century, Culture, Literature
The Goncourts and Émile Zola in France and Giovanni Verga in Italy produce some of the finest naturalist novels. Italian naturalist novels are especially important in that they give a social map of the new unified Italy to a people that until then had been scarcely aware of its ethnic and cultural diversity. There was a huge literary output during the 19th century.


19th century, Culture, Literature
Some of the most famous writers included the Russians Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol, Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov and Fyodor Dostoyevsky; the English Charles Dickens, John Keats, Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Jane Austen; the Scottish Sir Walter Scott and Arthur Conan Doyle (creator of the character Sherlock Holmes); the Irish Oscar Wilde; the Americans Edgar Allan Poe, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Mark Twain; and the French Victor Hugo, Honoré de Balzac, Jules Verne, Alexandre Dumas and Charles Baudelaire.


19th century, Culture, Literature
Some American literary writers, poets and novelists were: Walt Whitman, Mark Twain, Harriet Ann Jacobs, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Herman Melville, Frederick Douglass, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Joel Chandler Harris, and Emily Dickinson to name a few.


19th century, Culture, Visual artists, painters, sculptors
The Realism and Romanticism of the early 19th century gave way to Impressionism and Post-Impressionism in the later half of the century, with Paris being the dominant art capital of the world. In the United States the Hudson River School was prominent. 19th-century painters included:


19th century, Culture, Music
Sonata form matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout the 19th century. Much of the music from the 19th century was referred to as being in the Romantic style. Many great composers lived through this era such as Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Liszt, Frédéric Chopin, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and Richard Wagner. The list includes:


19th century, Supplementary portrait gallery
William Bonney aka Henry McCarty aka Billy the Kid, c. late 1870s


19th century, Supplementary portrait gallery
Deputies Bat Masterson and Wyatt Earp in Dodge City, 1876


19th century, Supplementary portrait gallery
Thomas Nast, c. 1860–1875, photo by Mathew Brady or Levin Handy


19th century, Supplementary portrait gallery
Claude Monet's Impression, Sunrise, 1872, gave the name to Impressionism


19th century BC
The 19th century BC was the century which lasted from 1900 BC to 1801 BC.


19th century in fashion
The nineteenth century marks the period beginning January 1, 1801 and ends December 31, 1900.


19th century in fashion
It was a period of dramatic change and rapid socio-cultural advancement, where society and culture are constantly changing with advancement of time.


19th century in fashion
The Fashion of the 19th Century strongly reflected the technology, art, politics and culture of the time of which were highly influential to the styles and silhouettes.


19th century in fashion
For women, fashion was an extravagant and extroverted display of the female silhouette with corset pinched waistlines, bustling full-skirts that flowed in and out of trend and decoratively embellished gowns. For men, three piece suits were tailored for usefulness in business as well as sporting activity.


19th century in fashion
The fashion in this article includes styles from the 19th Century through a Western context - namely Europe and North America.


19th century in fashion, Historical overview and fashions, Early 1800s (1800-1829), Technological innovations
At the turn of the 18th century, the Western world – namely Europe and the United States – were revelling in the prosperity of the rapid progress that came with the rise of the Industrial Revolution. The period from approximately 1760 to between 1820 and 1840 saw the transition to new manufacturing processes from traditional hand production methods to new machine production methods.


19th century in fashion, Historical overview and fashions, Early 1800s (1800-1829), Technological innovations
The textile industry was the first to use modern production techniques, namely mechanised cotton spinning with automatic machine looms. With the arrival of automated methods, through industrialisation came too the creation of factories which maximised productivity and enhanced efficient production. The unprecedented rapid and sustained economic growth demonstrated by the textile industry – through employment and value output – saw huge changes in the affordability of clothes and materials as prices fell.


19th century in fashion, Historical overview and fashions, Early 1800s (1800-1829), Art, culture and politics
The early 19th century saw a shift from 18th century Enlightenment ideologies of order, reason and rationalism to new values of imagination and emotion with the emergence of Romanticism. The period of Romanticism from around 1800-1840 emphasised an opposition to stability, celebrating an appreciation of the chaotic which admires creativity, individuality, subjectivity, spontaneity, the sensory and the transcendental.


19th century in fashion, Historical overview and fashions, Early 1800s (1800-1829), Art, culture and politics
In England, this period is also known as the Georgian [or Regency] Era which saw great change with rapid urbanisation as cities grew, trade expanded, and a capitalist-driven consumer culture emerged.


19th century in fashion, Historical overview and fashions, Early 1800s (1800-1829), Art, culture and politics
The fashion of the time reflects this transitional period as it gradually moves away from the Empire silhouette and Neoclassical influences of Enlightenment which take inspiration from 'classical antiquity'. The shift towards a new Romantic style inspired by creativity and imagination, is defined by more theatrical and dramatic designs which are inspired by a blend of the mysterious medieval past with lavish and dramatic Gothic decoration. The extravagance of these displays reaches its peak nearing the end of Romanticism as 'exuberance becomes sentimentality'. For both men and women, silhouettes were increasingly exaggerated with the establishment of curvaceous shapes pointing to an obvious rejection of previous Neoclassical geometric style. Layers of colour and pattern added to the dramatic and expressive display which became characteristic of Romanticism and again contrasted the 18th century monochromatic palette.


19th century in fashion, Historical overview and fashions, Mid 1800s (1830-1869), Technological innovations
By mid-nineteenth century people were settling into the normal routine of life as shaped by the changes and innovations that came with the First Industrial Revolution. Further discoveries in mathematics, science and engineering saw advancements in medicine as well as huge progress for communication and transportation. The introduction of telegraphy and the opening of major railways connected people in major industrial cities to one another. Emerging globalisation and world-wide economic integration saw new trade routes and brought wealth to the capitalist powers of the Western world. As standards of living slowly improved and income per capita was on the rise, the middle-class were beginning to spend more on indulgent rather than solely necessary goods.


19th century in fashion, Historical overview and fashions, Mid 1800s (1830-1869), Technological innovations
The modernisation of communication and transportation technologies saw a shift in the traditional consumption patterns of retail consumers. The invention of mail order business by Pryce Pryce-Jones in 1861 revolutionised shopping patterns and enabled people to order clothing and accessories [via telegram] from other parts of the world [to then be delivered via train] a much similar concept to contemporary online shopping habits.


19th century in fashion, Historical overview and fashions, Mid 1800s (1830-1869), Art, culture and politics
The mid-19th century again shifts from Romanticism to Realism, sometimes called Naturalism. This ideological art movement 'sought to convey a truthful and objective vision of contemporary life'.


19th century in fashion, Historical overview and fashions, Mid 1800s (1830-1869), Art, culture and politics
1837 marked the beginning of the Victorian Era, a time that saw tremendous progress, change and power for the British Empire and one that characterises an entire genre of fashion history.


19th century in fashion, Historical overview and fashions, Mid 1800s (1830-1869), Art, culture and politics
Women's fashion at the beginning of Queen Victoria's reign became more modest – constraining corsets were paired with swelled skirts to depict the female figure as weak and submissive which aligned with early Victorian ideals of the modest domestic lady stereotype. Layered petticoats with crinoline and steel-hoop structures weighed women down making them physically rigid, symbolically representing a restricted participation in society and an imposed passivity. Menswear of the early Victorian Era was understated with the rise of the respectable male bourgeois gentleman.


19th century in fashion, Historical overview and fashions, Mid 1800s (1830-1869), Art, culture and politics
However, soon after both men's and women's fashion became more colourful and relaxed with more exuberant styles and new techniques including passementerie trims thanks to increasing availability of the sewing machine. By the latter half of mid-nineteenth century it becomes clear that fashion technologies revolutionised the designs of particularly womenswear fashion with cage crinoline enabling a larger but more lightweight hoop skirt. In align with the trend of offering greater comfort, menswear 'relaxed into wide, easy cuts'.


19th century in fashion, Historical overview and fashions, Late 1800s (1870-1900), Technological innovations
The late-19th century constituted further industrialization with the Second Industrial Revolution, also known as the Technological Revolution, which was responsible for illustrious innovations. The modern social and economic infrastructure continued to revolutionise consumption patterns as the prices of consumer goods decreased dramatically with the increase in productivity. The growth of urban centres and 'new technologies, such as the introduction of electricity into clothing manufacturing, produced a boom in the ready-to-wear market'.


19th century in fashion, Historical overview and fashions, Late 1800s (1870-1900), Technological innovations
Progress in communications and the media meant that fashionable styles and silhouettes were widespread globally and accessible to the everyday person. With the rise of publications, magazines aimed especially at women depicted the styles in vogue at the time and began to introduce paper patterns. The popularity of these patterns paired with machine innovation and ease-of-use saw a rise in the popularity of at home dressmaking.


19th century in fashion, Historical overview and fashions, Late 1800s (1870-1900), Art, culture and politics
Late 19th century movements in art and culture include Impressionism and Post-Impressionism which are characterised by their rebellion against classical subject matter and that which embraces depictions of modern life including new technology and ideas – 'concentrating on themes of deeper symbolism to express emotions, rather than simply optical impressions'.


19th century in fashion, Historical overview and fashions, Late 1800s (1870-1900), Art, culture and politics
The women's rights and suffragette movement towards the turn of the 20th century also saw a shift in gender roles and new empowerment for females. As the 19th century neared its end, the world began to transition away from stiff Victorian fashions with the rise of the Edwardian era to new freedoms of healthier and more simplistic dress structures and silhouettes. As women were enjoying new levels of independence, with female employment outside the home nearly doubling, the 'New Woman' of the era was young and intellectual, able to participate in traditionally male-exclusive activities such as work and sport.


19th century in fashion, Historical overview and fashions, Late 1800s (1870-1900), Art, culture and politics
Women's fashion of the late 19th century saw an introduction of styles with a long, slim, body-hugging silhouette that revealed the natural figure, including the popular 'princess line' and later 'artistic' style dresses. These styles featured seamless waists, streamlined skirts and a slow move away from restrictive corsetry, much more practical than the conventional attire. These 'slender and angular' styles, had excessive decoration which compensated for the rebellion against heavy, ultra-restrictive trends. Dress embellishments included bows, emphasised ruching, thick rich fabrics and trims.


19th century in fashion, Historical overview and fashions, Late 1800s (1870-1900), Art, culture and politics
Menswear began to have a significant influence on women's clothing with masculine styles and tailoring becoming increasingly popular, women sometimes wore a shirt collar and tie, particularly when exercising. For men, lounge suits were becoming increasingly popular and were often quite slim, maintaining an overall narrow silhouette. A three-piece suit was a more casual attire regularly worn by businessmen, with jackets open or partially undone with a waistcoat underneath. Heavily starched collars on shirts were worn high and stiff-standing, with turned down wingtips.


19th century in fashion, Women's Fashion, Gloves
Ladies' long gloves were first widely popular during the Regency/Napoleonic period (circa 1800–1825), and after that fashionable off and on throughout the Victorian era. In the Victorian fashion, wearing gloves in public was seen as being as mandatory as wearing shoes, and different gloves were available for casual and formal settings. The standard glove during the Victorian era was the “kid” glove, with “kid” being the type of leather used. Says the 1860s Lady's Book of Etiquette:


19th century in fashion, Women's Fashion, Gloves
"Never go out without gloves; put them on before you leave the house. You should no more be seen puling on your gloves in the street than tying the strings of your bonnet. Your gloves should always be of kid: silk or cotton gloves are very vulgar." "With regard to dress itself, the first things a lady ought to think about are her gloves and shoes; for spoiled or ripped gloves, or shabby boots, will destroy the effect of the most elegant gown ever worn…


19th century in fashion, Women's Fashion, Gloves
The gloves should in a degree match, or at least harmonize, with the dress; and if a young lady’s allowance does not permit her to have a large stock of different colours, she will do her well to select those soft neutral tints which will suit any dress: the delicate greys, and fawn or dove-colours for summer; the soft brown or invisible green for winter wear." (Lady’s Book of Etiquette, 1860)


19th century in fashion, Women's Fashion, Gloves
In the last two decades of the 19th century and the years of the 20th century prior to the start of World War I, during that period, they were standard for both daytime and evening wear; even some swimming costumes were accessorized with opera gloves. Etiquette considered gloves to be mandatory accessories for both men and women of the upper classes, so it was uncommon to see a well-dressed woman at a public occasion who was not wearing gloves of some sort.


19th century in fashion, Children's Fashion
For most of the 19th century babies wore 'long, white dresses with short sleeves' whilst toddlers and young children wore 'short dresses with frilled drawers peeking out underneath'.


19th century in fashion, Children's Fashion
As children grew into young adults the dress styles mimicked that of the elder generation, with the only difference being more simplistic styles and shorter lengths.


19th century in ichnology
The 19th century in ichnology refers to advances made between the years 1800 and 1899 in the scientific study of trace fossils, the preserved record of the behavior and physiological processes of ancient life forms, especially fossil footprints. The 19th century was notably the first century in which fossil footprints received scholarly attention. British paleontologist William Buckland performed the first true scientific research on the subject during the early 1830s.


19th century in ichnology
A slab of Permian-aged sandstone had been discovered in Scotland which preserved a series of unusual footprints. After acquiring the specimen, Buckland experimented with modern animals to ascertain the trackmaker and concluded that the Scottish footprints were made by tortoises. Later in the century famed advocate of evolution Thomas Henry Huxley would refute this attribution and these footprints, called Chelichnus, would remain without an identified trackmaker until scientists recognized that they were actually made by an evolutionary precursor to mammals.


19th century in ichnology
The 1830s also saw the discovery and investigation of unusual hand-shaped footprints from Triassic rocks in Germany that were later named Chirotherium. The identification of the Chirotherium trackmaker proved elusive and suggestions from researchers included everything from monkeys to giant toads and kangaroos. Chirotherium proved to be an enduring ichnological mystery that would not be solved until long into the 20th century.


19th century in ichnology
Some of the most important ichnological research of the 19th century occurred across the Atlantic in the United States. Dinosaur footprints were first discovered there in 1802 when a Massachusetts farm boy stumbled upon bird-like footprints in sandstone  that the local clergy mistakenly attributed to the raven that Noah released from his ark during the Biblical Flood. The region's footprints came to the attention of scholars during the mid 1830s when further bird-like dinosaur tracks were discovered elsewhere in the state. These became the lifelong preoccupation of prominent ichnologist Edward Hitchcock. Hitchcock thought the tracks were made by giant flightless birds.


19th century in ichnology
Late in the 19th century prisoners in Nevada discovered a major Ice Age track site at what was once an ancient lake shore. Many of the trackmakers were familiar animals like mammoths or even more modern animals like deer and wolves, but this track site also seemed to preserve the tracks of a sandal-wearing giant. The tracks received significant scholarly and popular attention like satire by Mark Twain who attributed the giant tracks to primitive Nevadan legislators. However, the true identity of the "giant" trackmaker was recognized by paleontologists Joseph Le Conte and Othniel Charles Marsh as a giant ground sloth, possibly of the genus Mylodon.


19th century in literature
Literature of the 19th century refers to world literature produced during the 19th century. The range of years is, for the purpose of this article, literature written from (roughly) 1799 to 1900. Many of the developments in literature in this period parallel changes in the visual arts and other aspects of 19th-century culture.


19th century in literature, Literary realism
Literary realism is the trend, beginning with mid nineteenth-century French literature and extending to late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century authors, toward depictions of contemporary life and society as it was, or is. In the spirit of general "realism," realist authors opted for depictions of everyday and banal activities and experiences, instead of a romanticized or similarly stylized presentation.


19th century in literature, Literary realism, Anglophones
George Eliot's novel Middlemarch stands as a great milestone in the realist tradition. It is a primary example of nineteenth-century realism's role in the naturalization of the burgeoning capitalist marketplace.


19th century in literature, Literary realism, Anglophones
William Dean Howells was the first American author to bring a realist aesthetic to the literature of the United States. His stories of 1850s Boston upper-crust life are highly regarded among scholars of American fiction. His most popular novel, The Rise of Silas Lapham, depicts a man who falls from materialistic fortune by his own mistakes. Stephen Crane has also been recognized as illustrating important aspects of realism to American fiction in the stories Maggie: A Girl of the Streets and The Open Boat.


19th century in literature, Literary realism, Latin American Literature
Adventure novels about the gold rush in Chile in the 1850s, such as Martin Rivas by Alberto Blest Gana, and the gaucho epic poem Martin Fierro by Argentine José Hernández are among the iconic and populist 19th century literary works written in Spanish, published in Latin America.


19th century in literature, Literary realism, Zenith
Honoré de Balzac is often credited with pioneering a systematic realism in French literature, through the inclusion of specific detail and recurring characters. Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Gustave Flaubert, and Ivan Turgenev are regarded by many critics as representing the zenith of the realist style with their unadorned prose and attention to the details of everyday life. In German literature, 19th-century realism developed under the name of "Poetic Realism" or "Bourgeois Realism," and major figures include Theodor Fontane, Gustav Freytag, Gottfried Keller, Wilhelm Raabe, Adalbert Stifter, and Theodor Storm. Later "realist" writers included Benito Pérez Galdós, Nikolai Leskov, Guy de Maupassant, Anton Chekhov, José Maria de Eça de Queiroz, Machado de Assis, Bolesław Prus and, in a sense, Émile Zola, whose naturalism is often regarded as an offshoot of realism.


19th century in literature, By year
1800s – 1810s – 1820s – 1830s – 1840s – 1850s – 1860s – 1870s – 1880s – 1890s – 1900s


19th century in science
The 19th century in science saw the birth of science as a profession; the term scientist was coined in 1833 by William Whewell, which soon replaced the older term of (natural) philosopher.


19th century in science
Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of Charles Darwin (alongside the independent researches of Alfred Russel Wallace), who in 1859 published the book On the Origin of Species, which introduced the idea of evolution by natural selection. Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the germ theory of disease. Following this, Louis Pasteur made the first vaccine against rabies, and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the asymmetry of crystals.


19th century in science
In chemistry, Dmitri Mendeleev, following the atomic theory of John Dalton, created the first periodic table of elements. In physics, the experiments, theories and discoveries of Michael Faraday, Andre-Marie Ampere, James Clerk Maxwell, and their contemporaries led to the creation of electromagnetism as a new branch of science. Thermodynamics led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy was defined.


19th century in science
Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of hypercomplex numbers. Karl Weierstrass and others carried out the arithmetization of analysis for functions of real and complex variables. It also saw rise to new progress in geometry beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years.


19th century in science
The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about such as electric power, electrical telegraphy, the telephone, and radio.


19th century in science, Mathematics
Throughout the 19th century mathematics became increasingly abstract. Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) epitomizes this trend. He did revolutionary work on functions of complex variables, in geometry, and on the convergence of series, leaving aside his many contributions to science. He also gave the first satisfactory proofs of the fundamental theorem of algebra and of the quadratic reciprocity law. His 1801 volume Disquisitiones Arithmeticae laid the foundations of modern number theory.


19th century in science, Mathematics
This century saw the development of the two forms of non-Euclidean geometry, where the parallel postulate of Euclidean geometry no longer holds. The Russian mathematician Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky and his rival, the Hungarian mathematician János Bolyai, independently defined and studied hyperbolic geometry, where uniqueness of parallels no longer holds. In this geometry the sum of angles in a triangle add up to less than 180°. Elliptic geometry was developed later in the 19th century by the German mathematician Bernhard Riemann; here no parallel can be found and the angles in a triangle add up to more than 180°. Riemann also developed Riemannian geometry, which unifies and vastly generalizes the three types of geometry.


19th century in science, Mathematics
The 19th century saw the beginning of a great deal of abstract algebra. Hermann Grassmann in Germany gave a first version of vector spaces, William Rowan Hamilton in Ireland developed noncommutative algebra. The British mathematician George Boole devised an algebra that soon evolved into what is now called Boolean algebra, in which the only numbers were 0 and 1. Boolean algebra is the starting point of mathematical logic and has important applications in computer science.


19th century in science, Mathematics
Augustin-Louis Cauchy, Bernhard Riemann, and Karl Weierstrass reformulated the calculus in a more rigorous fashion.


19th century in science, Mathematics
Also, for the first time, the limits of mathematics were explored. Niels Henrik Abel, a Norwegian, and Évariste Galois, a Frenchman, proved that there is no general algebraic method for solving polynomial equations of degree greater than four (Abel–Ruffini theorem). Other 19th-century mathematicians utilized this in their proofs that straightedge and compass alone are not sufficient to trisect an arbitrary angle, to construct the side of a cube twice the volume of a given cube, nor to construct a square equal in area to a given circle. Mathematicians had vainly attempted to solve all of these problems since the time of the ancient Greeks. On the other hand, the limitation of three dimensions in geometry was surpassed in the 19th century through considerations of parameter space and hypercomplex numbers.


19th century in science, Mathematics
In the later 19th century, Georg Cantor established the first foundations of set theory, which enabled the rigorous treatment of the notion of infinity and has become the common language of nearly all mathematics. Cantor's set theory, and the rise of mathematical logic in the hands of Peano, L. E. J. Brouwer, David Hilbert, Bertrand Russell, and A.N. Whitehead, initiated a long running debate on the foundations of mathematics.


19th century in science, Mathematics
The 19th century saw the founding of a number of national mathematical societies: the London Mathematical Society in 1865, the Société Mathématique de France in 1872, the Edinburgh Mathematical Society in 1883, the Circolo Matematico di Palermo in 1884, and the American Mathematical Society in 1888. The first international, special-interest society, the Quaternion Society, was formed in 1899, in the context of a vector controversy.


19th century in science, Physics
In 1800, Alessandro Volta invented the electric battery (known of the voltaic pile) and thus improved the way electric currents could also be studied. A year later, Thomas Young demonstrated the wave nature of light—which received strong experimental support from the work of Augustin-Jean Fresnel—and the principle of interference. In 1813, Peter Ewart supported the idea of the conservation of energy in his paper On the measure of moving force.


19th century in science, Physics
In 1820, Hans Christian Ørsted found that a current-carrying conductor gives rise to a magnetic force surrounding it, and within a week after Ørsted's discovery reached France, André-Marie Ampère discovered that two parallel electric currents will exert forces on each other. In 1821, William Hamilton began his analysis of Hamilton's characteristic function. In 1821, Michael Faraday built an electricity-powered motor, while Georg Ohm stated his law of electrical resistance in 1826, expressing the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in an electric circuit. A year later, botanist Robert Brown discovered Brownian motion: pollen grains in water undergoing movement resulting from their bombardment by the fast-moving atoms or molecules in the liquid. In 1829, Gaspard Coriolis introduced the terms of work (force times distance) and kinetic energy with the meanings they have today.


19th century in science, Physics
In 1831, Faraday (and independently Joseph Henry) discovered the reverse effect, the production of an electric potential or current through magnetism – known as electromagnetic induction; these two discoveries are the basis of the electric motor and the electric generator, respectively. In 1834, Carl Jacobi discovered his uniformly rotating self-gravitating ellipsoids (the Jacobi ellipsoid). In 1834, John Russell observed a nondecaying solitary water wave (soliton) in the Union Canal near Edinburgh and used a water tank to study the dependence of solitary water wave velocities on wave amplitude and water depth.


19th century in science, Physics
In 1835, William Hamilton stated Hamilton's canonical equations of motion. In the same year, Gaspard Coriolis examined theoretically the mechanical efficiency of waterwheels, and deduced the Coriolis effect. In 1841, Julius Robert von Mayer, an amateur scientist, wrote a paper on the conservation of energy but his lack of academic training led to its rejection. In 1842, Christian Doppler proposed the Doppler effect. In 1847, Hermann von Helmholtz formally stated the law of conservation of energy. In 1851, Léon Foucault showed the Earth's rotation with a huge pendulum (Foucault pendulum).


19th century in science, Physics
There were important advances in continuum mechanics in the first half of the century, namely formulation of laws of elasticity for solids and discovery of Navier–Stokes equations for fluids.


19th century in science, Physics, Laws of thermodynamics
In the 19th century, the connection between heat and mechanical energy was established quantitatively by Julius Robert von Mayer and James Prescott Joule, who measured the mechanical equivalent of heat in the 1840s. In 1849, Joule published results from his series of experiments (including the paddlewheel experiment) which show that heat is a form of energy, a fact that was accepted in the 1850s. The relation between heat and energy was important for the development of steam engines, and in 1824 the experimental and theoretical work of Sadi Carnot was published.


19th century in science, Physics, Laws of thermodynamics
Carnot captured some of the ideas of thermodynamics in his discussion of the efficiency of an idealized engine. Sadi Carnot's work provided a basis for the formulation of the first law of thermodynamics—a restatement of the law of conservation of energy—which was stated around 1850 by William Thomson, later known as Lord Kelvin, and Rudolf Clausius.


19th century in science, Physics, Laws of thermodynamics
Lord Kelvin, who had extended the concept of absolute zero from gases to all substances in 1848, drew upon the engineering theory of Lazare Carnot, Sadi Carnot, and Émile Clapeyron–as well as the experimentation of James Prescott Joule on the interchangeability of mechanical, chemical, thermal, and electrical forms of work—to formulate the first law.


19th century in science, Physics, Laws of thermodynamics
Kelvin and Clausius also stated the second law of thermodynamics, which was originally formulated in terms of the fact that heat does not spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter. Other formulations followed quickly (for example, the second law was expounded in Thomson and Peter Guthrie Tait's influential work Treatise on Natural Philosophy) and Kelvin in particular understood some of the law's general implications.


19th century in science, Physics, Laws of thermodynamics
The second Law was the idea that gases consist of molecules in motion had been discussed in some detail by Daniel Bernoulli in 1738, but had fallen out of favor, and was revived by Clausius in 1857. In 1850, Hippolyte Fizeau and Léon Foucault measured the speed of light in water and find that it is slower than in air, in support of the wave model of light. In 1852, Joule and Thomson demonstrated that a rapidly expanding gas cools, later named the Joule–Thomson effect or Joule–Kelvin effect. Hermann von Helmholtz puts forward the idea of the heat death of the universe in 1854, the same year that Clausius established the importance of dQ/T (Clausius's theorem) (though he did not yet name the quantity).


19th century in science, Physics, James Clerk Maxwell
In 1859, James Clerk Maxwell discovered the distribution law of molecular velocities. Maxwell showed that electric and magnetic fields are propagated outward from their source at a speed equal to that of light and that light is one of several kinds of electromagnetic radiation, differing only in frequency and wavelength from the others. In 1859, Maxwell worked out the mathematics of the distribution of velocities of the molecules of a gas.


19th century in science, Physics, James Clerk Maxwell
The wave theory of light was widely accepted by the time of Maxwell's work on the electromagnetic field, and afterward the study of light and that of electricity and magnetism were closely related. In 1864 James Maxwell published his papers on a dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field, and stated that light is an electromagnetic phenomenon in the 1873 publication of Maxwell's Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. This work drew upon theoretical work by German theoreticians such as Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber. The encapsulation of heat in particulate motion, and the addition of electromagnetic forces to Newtonian dynamics established an enormously robust theoretical underpinning to physical observations.


19th century in science, Physics, James Clerk Maxwell
The prediction that light represented a transmission of energy in wave form through a "luminiferous ether", and the seeming confirmation of that prediction with Helmholtz student Heinrich Hertz's 1888 detection of electromagnetic radiation, was a major triumph for physical theory and raised the possibility that even more fundamental theories based on the field could soon be developed. Experimental confirmation of Maxwell's theory was provided by Hertz, who generated and detected electric waves in 1886 and verified their properties, at the same time foreshadowing their application in radio, television, and other devices. In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect. Research on the electromagnetic waves began soon after, with many scientists and inventors conducting experiments on their properties. In the mid to late 1890s Guglielmo Marconi developed a radio wave based wireless telegraphy system (see invention of radio).


19th century in science, Physics, James Clerk Maxwell
The atomic theory of matter had been proposed again in the early 19th century by the chemist John Dalton and became one of the hypotheses of the kinetic-molecular theory of gases developed by Clausius and James Clerk Maxwell to explain the laws of thermodynamics. The kinetic theory in turn led to the statistical mechanics of Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906) and Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839–1903), which held that energy (including heat) was a measure of the speed of particles.


19th century in science, Physics, James Clerk Maxwell
Interrelating the statistical likelihood of certain states of organization of these particles with the energy of those states, Clausius reinterpreted the dissipation of energy to be the statistical tendency of molecular configurations to pass toward increasingly likely, increasingly disorganized states (coining the term "entropy" to describe the disorganization of a state).


19th century in science, Physics, James Clerk Maxwell
The statistical versus absolute interpretations of the second law of thermodynamics set up a dispute that would last for several decades (producing arguments such as "Maxwell's demon"), and that would not be held to be definitively resolved until the behavior of atoms was firmly established in the early 20th century. In 1902, James Jeans found the length scale required for gravitational perturbations to grow in a static nearly homogeneous medium.


19th century in science, Chemistry
In chemistry, Dmitri Mendeleev, following the atomic theory of John Dalton, created the first periodic table of elements.


19th century in science, Biology and medicine
In 1859, Charles Darwin published the book The Origin of Species, which introduced the idea of evolution by natural selection. Oscar Hertwig publishes his findings in reproductive and developmental biology. In 1875 he published his first work, being the first to correctly describe animal conception. In his work later work in 1885, he described that the nucleus contained nuclein (now called nucleic acid) and that these nuclein were responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics.


19th century in the United States
The 19th century in the United States refers to the period in the United States from 1801 through 1900 in the Gregorian calendar. For information on this period, see:


19th government of Turkey
The 19th government of Turkey (22 May 1950 – 9 March 1951) was a government in the history of Turkey. It is also called the first Menderes government.


19th government of Turkey, Background
Democrat Party (DP) won the elections held on 14 May 1950. This was the first election that was won by a party other than the Republican People's Party (CHP). Adnan Menderes of the Democrat Party became the prime minister.


19th government of Turkey, The government
In the list below, the  cabinet members who served only a part of the cabinet's lifespan are shown in the column "Notes".


19th government of Turkey, Aftermath
The government had the majority in the parliament, but Menderes resigned on 8 March 1951. According to journalist Metin Toker, Adnan Menderes asked one of his colleagues in the cabinet to resign, but the minister refused to resign. Legally, Menderes had no authority to force any minister to resign, and thus, Menderes preferred to end the entire government instead. But the president Celal Bayar appointed him to form the next government also.


19th meridian east
The meridian 19° east of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean, Europe, Africa, the Atlantic Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and Antarctica to the South Pole.


19th meridian east
The 19th meridian east forms a great circle with the 161st meridian west.


19th meridian east, From Pole to Pole
Starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the 19th meridian east passes through:


19th meridian west
The meridian 19° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean, Greenland, Iceland, the Atlantic Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and Antarctica to the South Pole.


19th meridian west
The 19th meridian west forms a great circle with the 161st meridian east.


19th meridian west, From Pole to Pole
Starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the 19th meridian west passes through:


19th of April Movement
The 19th of April Movement (in Spanish: Movimiento 19 de Abril), or M-19, was a Colombian guerrilla organisation movement. After its demobilization it became a political party, the M-19 Democratic Alliance (Alianza Democrática M-19), or AD/M-19.


19th of April Movement
The M-19 traced its origins to the allegedly fraudulent presidential elections of 19 April 1970. In those elections, the National Popular Alliance (ANAPO) of former military dictator Gustavo Rojas Pinilla was denied an electoral victory.


19th of April Movement
The ideology of the M-19 was nationalism, but its main aim was to open up democracy in Colombia. It was inspired by other South American urban guerrilla groups, such as the Tupamaros in Uruguay and the Montoneros in Argentina.


19th of April Movement
By mid-1985, when the number of active members was estimated at between 1,500 and 2,000 (including a more noticeable urban presence), the M-19 was the second largest guerrilla group in Colombia after the FARC. On 27 June 2017, FARC ceased to be an armed group, disarming itself and handing over its weapons to the United Nations.


19th of April Movement, Armed activity
The M-19's history may be divided into two parts: the first was a failed armed revolutionary struggle during the early to mid-1980s, while the second was a relatively constructive reincorporation into civil society and political life during the late 1980s and early 1990s.


19th of April Movement, Armed activity, Theft of Bolívar's sword
Among the actions performed by the M-19, some significant events stand out. In a highly symbolic action, the M-19 stole one of Simón Bolívar's swords from a museum in 1974, an event which was used by the group to symbolize what they called a civilian uprising against a regime perceived as unjust.


19th of April Movement, Armed activity, Kidnapping and murder of José Raquel Mercado
In February 1976, the M-19 kidnapped the union leader Jose Raquel Mercado, who was the president of Confederation of Workers of Colombia (CTC), and on 19 April 1976, executed him. The event shocked the country. The group accused Mercado of taking bribes and collaborating with the CIA.


19th of April Movement, Armed activity, Theft of arms from the north canton
On New Year's Eve 1979, the group dug a tunnel into a Colombian Army weapons depot, taking over 5000 weapons. It was considered one of the first signs of the group's true potential for armed action.