1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Background
In 1990, following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia, ethnic tensions increased. The Yugoslav People's Army (Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA) confiscated the weapons of Croatia's Territorial Defence (Teritorijalna obrana – TO) to minimize potential resistance. On 17 August, the tensions escalated into an open revolt by Croatian Serbs, centred on the predominantly Serb-populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin, parts of the Lika, Kordun, Banovina regions and eastern Croatia.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Background
In January 1991, Serbia, supported by Montenegro and Serbia's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo, made two unsuccessful attempts to obtain approval from the Yugoslav Presidency to deploy the JNA to disarm Croatian security forces. After a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March, the JNA, supported by Serbia and its allies, asked the federal Presidency to grant it wartime powers and declare a state of emergency. The request was denied on 15 March, and by the summer of 1991, the JNA came under the control of the Serbian President Slobodan Milošević as the Yugoslav federation started to fall apart.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Background
Milošević became de facto commander of the JNA once he secured control over the rump federal presidency and through his influence over the federal defence minister General Veljko Kadijević and JNA chief of staff Blagoje Adžić. Milošević, preferring a campaign aimed at expanding Serbia rather than preserving Yugoslavia, publicly threatened to replace the JNA with a Serbian army and declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the federal presidency. This threat caused the JNA to gradually abandon plans to preserve Yugoslavia in favour of the expansion of Serbia.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Background
By the end of the month, the conflict had escalated and the first fatalities occurred. The JNA then stepped in to support the insurgents and prevent Croatian police from intervening. In early April, leaders of the Serb revolt in Croatia declared their intention to integrate the area under their control with Serbia. The Government of Croatia considered this an act of secession.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Background
At the beginning of 1991, Croatia had no regular army. In an effort to bolster its defence, it doubled police numbers to about 20,000. The most effective part of the force was the 3,000-strong special police deployed in 12 battalions which adopted principles of military organization. In addition, there were 9,000–10,000 regionally-organized reserve police; these were set up in 16 battalions and 10 independent companies, but the units lacked weapons.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Background
In May, in response to the deteriorating situation, the Croatian government established the Croatian National Guard (Zbor narodne garde – ZNG) by amalgamating the special police battalions into four guards brigades. The guards brigades initially comprised about 8,000 troops, and were subordinated to the Ministry of Defence headed by retired JNA General Martin Špegelj. The regional police, by then expanded to 40,000, was also attached to the ZNG and re-organized into 19 brigades and 14 independent battalions.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Background
The guards brigades were the only ZNG units that were fully equipped with small arms, while heavier weapons and an effective command and control structure were lacking throughout the ZNG. At the time, Croatian weapon stocks consisted of 30,000 small arms purchased abroad in addition to 15,000 previously owned by the police. A new 10,000-strong special police was established to replace the personnel transferred to the ZNG guards brigades.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Background
The Croatian view of the JNA role in the Serb revolt gradually evolved between January and September 1991. The initial plan of Croatian President Franjo Tuđman was to win support for Croatia from the European Community (EC) and the United States, and he dismissed advice to seize JNA barracks and storage facilities in the country. Tuđman's stance was motivated by his belief that Croatia could not win a war against the JNA. The ZNG was limited to a defensive role even though the actions of the JNA appeared to be coordinated with Croatian Serb forces.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Background
This impression was reinforced by buffer zones the JNA established after armed conflicts between the Croatian Serb militia and the ZNG—the JNA intervened after the ZNG lost ground, leaving the Croatian Serbs in control of the territory. Furthermore, the JNA provided some weapons to the Croatian Serbs, although the bulk of the weaponry was provided from Serbia's TO and Ministry of Internal Affairs stocks. After the start of the JNA intervention in Slovenia in late June, conscripts began deserting from the JNA and very few were drafted to replace them, except in Serbia.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Prelude
The JNA intervened directly against Croatia in early July in Baranja, north of the city of Osijek. On 1 August, they drove Croatian forces out of Erdut, Aljmaš and Dalj, and out of Baranja around 22 August. During the summer of 1991, the Croatian Serb military consolidated in the territory under its control. In Banovina, Glina was captured from the ZNG on 26 July. That same day, two Croatian police stations near Hrvatska Kostajnica were captured, isolating the town. The attacks, codenamed Operation Stinger, were carried out by the 7th Banija Division, spearheaded by the Knin special police led by Dragan Vasiljković. In the aftermath of capture of the Kozibrod police station, Serb forces committed the first mass killing, involving the deaths of ten captured policemen and seventeen civilians.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Prelude
The ZNG successfully defended Hrvatska Kostajnica until mid-September. In August, Croatian Serbs acting under the operational control of the JNA clashed with the ZNG around Osijek, Vukovar and Vinkovci in eastern Slavonia. Fighting in eastern Slavonia led to ZNG blockades of JNA barracks in those cities and limited fighting against the garrisons there. In western Slavonia, the Croatian Serb militia attempted to advance into Daruvar but were held back by the ZNG in the area around Okučani and south of Pakrac before the JNA formed a buffer zone there.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Prelude
Following this fighting, Croatia was denied use of major transport routes between Zagreb and Slavonia. In northern Dalmatia, the JNA initiated several clashes with the ZNG and coordinated its advances with Croatian Serb forces. These attacks culminated in the capture of Kijevo on 26 August and the Maslenica Bridge on 11 September. The capture of the bridge severed the last remaining road link between Dalmatia and the rest of Croatia. In the summer of 1991, the performance of the ZNG was poor because it lacked manpower and weapons, and exerted inadequate command and control. The professional ZNG troops were better trained than their opponents, with the exception of the Knin special police set up by the Serbian State Security Service.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Prelude
On 1 September 1991, Tuđman accepted an EC-proposed ceasefire and peace conference, despite his ultimatum demanding that the JNA return to its barracks by 31 August. After the Yugoslav Presidency also accepted it, the conference began on 7 September. Four days later, the Croatian member and chair of the federal presidency, Stjepan Mesić, ordered the JNA to return to its barracks within 48 hours. The move was motivated by Tuđman's impression that the conference would have continued endlessly while the ZNG lost ground.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Prelude
The order was disputed by other members of the presidency, but it gave Croatia justification to openly confront the JNA. On 14 September, the ZNG and the Croatian police blockaded and cut utilities to all JNA facilities it had access to, beginning the Battle of the Barracks. The ZNG blockaded 33 large JNA garrisons in Croatia, and numerous smaller facilities including border posts and weapons and ammunition storage depots.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Prelude
The ZNG quickly captured isolated facilities and depots, as well as several major JNA posts, and seized large quantities of weapons—including the capture of entire stocks of the JNA 32nd (Varaždin) Corps and nearly all the weapons confiscated from Croatia's TO. The JNA lost control of eight brigades—including one armoured and two mechanized brigades, and three artillery regiments—while additional forces in the JNA Fifth Military District and its Military-Maritime District remained besieged. The significance of the Battle of the Barracks was reinforced by the introduction of a United Nations (UN) arms embargo on 25 September. In September, Anton Tus was appointed the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Order of battle
In early September 1991, the ZNG had 8,000 full-time and 40,000 reserve troops. The four guards brigades of full-time troops were the only units of the ZNG that were fully equipped with small arms, but even they lacked heavy weapons. A 10,000-strong special police force was established to replace the personnel transferred from the original special police units to the guards brigades. In September, the Croatian small arms stockpile consisted of 30,000 purchased abroad in addition to 15,000 previously owned by the police.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Order of battle
The Battle of the Barracks resulted in a large increase to ZNG weapon holdings—allowing full arming of its existing units, raising of an additional 40–42 brigades and fielding a total of 200,000 troops and 40,000 police by the end of the year. The ZNG captured 250 tanks, 400–500 heavy artillery pieces, 180,000 small arms and 2,000,000 long tons (2,200,000 short tons) of ammunition. In addition, 3,000 officers, mostly Croatian by nationality, changed allegiance and left the JNA to join the ZNG. In 1991, the ZNG was supported by the Croatian Defence Forces (Croatian: Hrvatske obrambene snage, HOS)—a militia raised by the Croatian Party of Rights. The party stated it had as many as 3,000 troops, but the police estimated it at 250 armed militiamen.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Order of battle
The JNA planned a two-stage mobilisation of troops. The first wave of call-ups was performed in July, and was meant to intimidate Croatia without an actual offensive being launched and allow timely deployment of crucial units. After the first stage of the mobilisation failed to deter Croatian forces, the second stage commenced on 15 September; it was met with a large-scale refusal of mobilised personnel to report to their designated units, desertions and an overall lack of enthusiasm for the campaign. This resulted in low troop availability, forcing the JNA to deploy fewer infantry units and to abandon some operations.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Order of battle
Response to the mobilisation was particularly poor in Central Serbia, where only 26% of those called-up reported for service. Nonetheless, in September 1991, the JNA discharged conscripts that had completed their terms of service, and reached 73% of planned troop levels. The mobilisation problems demoralised JNA troops and commanders. A request made by JNA general command to Milošević for general mobilisation to strengthen troop levels was denied because he did not believe the campaign was needed nor feasible. Despite the mobilisation problems, the JNA and the TO forces deployed in support of the campaign consisted of approximately 145,000 troops, 1,100 tanks, 700 other armoured vehicles and 1,980 artillery pieces, supported by the Yugoslav Air Force and the Navy.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline
The JNA developed a plan to defeat Croatia militarily, overthrow its government and create conditions necessary for the continued existence of Yugoslavia. The plan was amended in September 1991 to accommodate the besieging of JNA garrisons by the ZNG, incorporating the lifting of the blockade into the campaign objectives. The plan entailed five corps-level campaigns designed to impose an air and naval blockade of Croatia, capture territory populated by Serbs and relieve barracks under ZNG siege. The axes of attack were specified as Gradiška–Virovitica, Bihać–Karlovac–Zagreb, Knin–Zadar and Mostar–Split.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline
Armoured and mechanized forces were tasked with the capture of eastern Slavonia and advances west towards Zagreb and Varaždin. This was identified as the main effort of the campaign. Finally, a land blockade of Dubrovnik was planned, coupled with an advance west towards the Neretva River to support the drive to Split. The plan may have proposed withdrawal of the JNA to Serb-populated areas of Croatia or from the whole of  Croatia after the objectives were completed, but sources conflict on that issue.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, September offensive
In eastern Slavonia, the JNA responded to the ZNG siege of its garrison in Vukovar, and on 14 September 1991 it deployed troops to relieve the barracks. Independent of that effort, the main thrust of the campaign against Croatia was initially planned to start on 21 September. The southern operational group of the thrust, spearheaded by the 1st Guards Mechanised Division, was expected to lift the ZNG siege of the JNA barracks in Vinkovci, and reach Našice and Slavonski Brod in two to three days.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, September offensive
Over the next four to five days, the group was expected to reach the line Okučani–Suhopolje by advancing via the Đakovo–Požega road and the Zagreb–Belgrade motorway, avoiding major population centres. The northern operational group, subordinated to the 12th (Novi Sad) Corps, was to advance from Osijek to Našice and then further west towards Bjelovar. The two operational groups were assigned approximately 57,000 troops and 5,000 supporting personnel. The 17th (Tuzla) Corps was probably tasked with crossing the Sava River—marking the border of Croatia—at Slavonski Brod and Slavonski Šamac to join the westward drive along the motorway, but the crossing never occurred.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, September offensive
The campaign was brought forward by one day to 20 September. The change of schedule caused the JNA 1st Guards Mechanised Division to commit to battle as it arrived in eastern Slavonia with no reconnaissance or preparation. The resulting traffic jam on the Šid–Tovarnik–Stari Jankovci road prevented bridging units from reaching the Bosut River. That in turn prevented the 1st Guards Division from crossing the river and confined it to the area between the Bosut and the Danube, east of Vinkovci.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, September offensive
Besides the bridging units, the division did not receive the 80th Motorised Brigade—which appears to have disintegrated before reaching the Croatian frontier—and the 2nd Guards Mechanised Brigade—a victim of friendly fire bombardment in the area between Tovarnik and Ilača adjacent to the border. Several units of the Novi Sad Corps also disintegrated when morale declined after a number of friendly fire incidents.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, September offensive
The Banja Luka Corps was tasked with the main axis of advance from Okučani to Daruvar and Virovitica in western Slavonia, and a secondary drive from Okučani towards Kutina. This task was consistent with the line expected to be reached by the main thrust of the JNA advancing from the east in about a week. The Corps had already deployed a battlegroup of the 265th Mechanised Brigade near Okučani to support the advance that started on 21 September, and reached the Papuk Mountains.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, September offensive
The Corps received two motorised brigades and one artillery brigade as reinforcements during the advance, but the problems with morale and desertions experienced in eastern Slavonia were also present in the Banja Luka Corps. In one such instance, the 130th Mechanised Brigade, sent as a reinforcement, had been reduced to a 280-strong battalion by 29 September. The JNA was stopped by the ZNG between Novska, Nova Gradiška and Pakrac, even though some Croatian Serb militia units took positions on the Bilogora and Papuk north of Pakrac near Virovitica, and Slatina, with no JNA support.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, September offensive
The JNA Knin Corps, which had already fully mobilised and deployed, started the campaign in northern Dalmatia and southern Lika on 16 September 1991. It captured Drniš on 18 September, but sustained defeats at Pakovo Selo two days later and near Šibenik on 22 September as it attempted to capture the city. After this defeat, the Corps ceased its attacks, except for those around Gospić in Lika, for the rest of the month. Five days after the JNA and the Serbian Guard paramilitaries lost their positions in the city on 22 September, the Knin Corps captured Lovinac.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, September offensive
JNA troops assembling near the southern tip of Croatia in the Dubrovnik hinterland consisted of elements of the Užice and Titograd Corps. They had not advanced onto Croatian soil by the end of September because of  mobilisation problems in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In Banovina, the JNA captured Petrinja on 21 September, but failed to make further progress. Because of the failure of JNA mobilisation, the planned campaign in Kordun was limited to the consolidation of positions held around Karlovac. On 15 September, the Yugoslav Navy blockaded the Croatian Adriatic ports of Pula, Rijeka, Zadar, Split and Dubrovnik for a week.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, Reduced objectives
On 30 September, the general staff of the JNA reduced the objectives of the campaign because it had not followed the initial plan and had become bogged down. The reduced objectives called for offensive and defensive actions, the inflicting of decisive defeats on Croatian forces in Dalmatia and eastern Slavonia, and strikes against vital infrastructure in Croatia, to obtain an agreement on the evacuation of besieged JNA facilities. While some units on the ground started to implement the new orders the same day, they did not take effect completely before 4 October.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, Reduced objectives
On 3 October, Serbian and Montenegrin representatives in the Yugoslav Presidency declared that they alone had become the acting federal presidency and assumed control of the JNA. Two days later, the JNA requested that the presidency authorize a general mobilization of forces needed for the campaign, but this was refused by Milošević. By 9 October, the JNA effort was considered a failure. Its commanders formally accepted the role forced on the JNA by Milošević and limited its strategic objectives in Croatia to the protection of Serb-populated areas.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, Reduced objectives
The JNA effort to relieve its Vukovar barracks turned into a protracted siege, delaying 36,000 troops and a significant proportion of armoured units slated for the thrust towards Zagreb and Varaždin. Vukovar was captured in mid-November but the victory proved pyrrhic because it completely disrupted the overall campaign. During the Battle of Vukovar, the JNA formally approved the use of paramilitary volunteers to fill its ranks. These included the White Eagles and the Serb Volunteer Guard (SVG), which were trained by the Serbian Ministry of Interior.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, Reduced objectives
On 12 October, the federal presidency authorized the JNA to enlist the volunteers as an estimated 150,000 people had emigrated from Yugoslavia, while others had taken refuge with friends or relatives to avoid the JNA draft. After capturing Vukovar, the JNA 12th Corps and the SVG advanced south-west across the Bosut on 15–16 November, and west between Vinkovci and Osijek, on 20 November, but the Croatian forces—renamed the Croatian Army (Hrvatska vojska – HV) that month—contained their advances. According to General Života Panić, commander of the JNA 1st Military District at the time, the immediate objectives of the advances were Osijek and Županja.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, Reduced objectives
In Banovina, the JNA reached the Kupa River and captured its entire southern bank, except for ZNG bridgeheads in the areas of Nebojan, Sunja and Sisak, on 30 September. No further advances were achieved there. The JNA attempted an additional push towards the Nebojan bridgehead via Novi Farkašić on 17–18 October, and another towards Sunja on 2 November, but both attempts failed. On 4 October, the JNA initiated an attack in Kordun, in the area of Karlovac, pushing the ZNG back in the area of Slunj two days later.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, Reduced objectives
On 8 October, it reached the banks of the Kupa and Korana Rivers and the intensity of fighting died down. The greatest flare-up of hostilities in the area occurred on 4–5 November when a JNA garrison based in a suburb of Karlovac broke through the ZNG siege in the Battle of Logorište and reached JNA-held territory to the east of the city. Further south, the JNA captured Slunj on 17 November and Cetingrad on 29 November, eliminating a ZNG pocket in Kordun. JNA activity in Lika was limited to shelling and air raids on Gospić and Otočac, peaking on 4 October.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, Reduced objectives
On 1 October, the JNA Banja Luka Corps initiated probing attacks in western Slavonia, presaging a major effort employing the bulk of the corps three days later. The advance established defensive positions just outside Novska and Nova Gradiška, and captured Jasenovac on 8 October. Lipik and a part of Pakrac were captured four days later. By that time, the JNA campaign in western Slavonia had lost its momentum.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, Reduced objectives
In northern Dalmatia, the JNA Knin Corps attacked Zadar on 4 October, reaching its outskirts and lifting the ZNG siege of the Šepurine Barracks the next day. The advance was blocked by the ZNG and a truce was agreed on 7 October. Two days later, it was followed by an agreement to evacuate JNA facilities in Zadar, including equipment stored there.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, Reduced objectives
Further south, the JNA Titograd Corps and its Military-Maritime District forces advanced from eastern Herzegovina and the Bay of Kotor, and pushed east and west of Dubrovnik on 1 October, placing besieging the city by the end of the month. The JNA was supported by Montenegro's TO in the area. Even though the Croatian troops defending the city were few, the city held out, sustaining increasingly intensive artillery, naval and air bombardment until a ceasefire was agreed in the area on 7 December. As the siege shaped international opinion on the Croatian War of Independence, it became a major contributor to a shift towards the international diplomatic and economic isolation of Serbia and rump Yugoslavia, and resulted in the creation of a perception of Serbia and rump Yugoslavia as an aggressor state.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, Reduced objectives
The JNA attacks on Dubrovnik and Zadar were supported by the Yugoslav Navy, which blockaded the coast on two more occasions. On 3 October, all shipping off Croatia, except for ferry lines to Pag and islands in the Kvarner Gulf, was halted. The blockade, except for that of Dubrovnik, was lifted on 11 October. The final blockade, restricting access to Rijeka, Zadar, Šibenik and Split in addition to Dubrovnik, started on 8 November. On 15 November, the Yugoslav Navy sustained losses when it unsuccessfully attacked Split and the island of Brač. The Yugoslav blockade in the northern Adriatic ended on 22 November, but in the southern Adriatic—except off Dubrovnik—it was lifted on 3 December.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, Croatian counter-offensive
On 8 October, Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia. Even though the declaration had been preceded the day before by a Yugoslav Air Force attack on the presidential office in Zagreb, the Croatian authorities considered that the war situation was no longer critical. This assessment was followed by an order to prepare plans for a counter-offensive on 12 October, and three more orders to commence offensive operations, which were issued by 20 November.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, Croatian counter-offensive
The plans involved containing the JNA south of Osijek, advancing to the Bosut River south of Vinkovci, recapturing Jasenovac and the Okučani–Lipik road to secure the Papuk and Psunj mountains, advancing towards Petrinja, Glina, Slunj, Korenica and Gračac, recapturing the Maslenica Bridge and the Obrovac–Gračac road, and stopping the JNA advance north-west of Dubrovnik.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, Croatian counter-offensive
The most significant results were produced in western Slavonia, where Croatian forces began pushing the JNA away from Grubišno Polje towards Lipik on 31 October, and away from Nova Gradiška towards Okučani on 12 November. In mid-November, another push along the Novska–Okučani axis recaptured several villages by 9 December, while Lipik was recaptured by the Croatian forces—now renamed the HV—on 7 December. The mountains of Papuk and Bilogora, north of Pakrac where the Croatian Serb militia was not supported by the JNA, were brought under Croatian control in the same period.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, Croatian counter-offensive
A HV offensive to recapture the Okučani area, codenamed Operation Orkan 91, commenced in the final days of December. The area was attacked from the directions of Pakrac, Novska and Nova Gradiška. The effort made no progress except west of Nova Gradiška—but even there it was very limited. Under international pressure, Tuđman called off the offensive on 26 December.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Timeline, Croatian counter-offensive
The second significant HV offensive was Operation Whirlwind, launched across the Kupa River on 11 December. The HV was tasked with advancing towards Glina but the operation failed after a shallow bridgehead was established within two days. In Lika, battles were fought for individual villages but little progress was made by either side. The JNA captured four villages south of Osijek between 21 November and 16 December but the front lines generally became static.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Aftermath
The JNA campaign in Croatia ended in a stalemate, leading both sides to accept an internationally supervised ceasefire. By late November, the JNA was no longer in a position to make substantial advances, while Milošević refused to pursue objectives that he no longer considered achievable. Between September and December 1991, the HV captured many weapons and significantly increased its capabilities. In mid-January 1992, it commanded 155,772 troops and had 216 tanks, 127 other armoured vehicles and 1,108 artillery pieces at its disposal.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Aftermath
Even though JNA positions in western Slavonia were on the brink of military collapse, the HV struggled elsewhere and its munitions stockpiles were depleted, while the UN arms embargo prevented its quick resupply. By the end of 1991, the conflict had killed 6,000 Croatians. Another 23,000 were wounded and 400,000 became internally displaced persons (IDPs). Some sources report that there were as many as 600,000 IDPs. The 6,000 killed include 3,761 soldiers. JNA losses were officially reported at 1,279 killed in action, but the figure may have been considerably higher because casualties were consistently under-reported during the war. The HV counter-offensive in western Slavonia created 20,000 Serb refugees. They fled from the area when the JNA ordered the Croatian Serb forces to withdraw, and were subsequently settled in JNA-held Baranja.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Aftermath
In 1991 and early 1992, approximately 18,000 Croatian citizens were missing or held by the JNA or its allies. Approximately 8,000 of these were imprisoned in internment camps in Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, or in Croatian territory controlled by the JNA. The camps were set up in Begejci, Stajićevo, Sremska Mitrovica, Niš, Aleksinac, Manjača, Banja Luka, Knin, Bučje, Beli Manastir, Negoslavci, Vukovar and Morinj. Approximately 300 prisoners died while detained in the camps. Most of the prisoners had been released by August 1992. As of May 2013  1,703 were people still missing as a result of the 1991 campaign.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Aftermath
Both sides committed numerous atrocities during the conflict. The most significant one committed by Croatian forces was the Gospić massacre. The atrocities committed by Serb forces were far greater in scale. The most significant ones were those committed in Kijevo, the killing of more than 200 prisoners of war in the aftermath of the Battle of Vukovar, and the bombardment of Dubrovnik. Those war crimes were subsequently prosecuted by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, which was set up in 1993 under the terms of UN Security Council Resolution 827.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Aftermath
The atrocities prompted Germany to grant Croatia diplomatic recognition in mid-November. It overcame opposition to the move from the United Kingdom, France and the United States by late December, and formally recognized Croatia on 23 December 1991. The German decision was followed by recognition from other EC member states on 15 January 1992. The Croatian Serbs in turn declared the establishment of the Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK) on 21 December 1991 in JNA-held areas comprising approximately 30% of Croatian territory. The RSK was entirely dependent on Serbia economically and financially.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Aftermath
The battlefield stalemate allowed the implementation of the Vance plan—an outcome of the diplomatic mission to Yugoslavia by the Special Envoy of the Secretary-General of the United Nations Cyrus Vance, aided by United States diplomat Herbert Okun, and Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations for Special Political Affairs Marrack Goulding. It was aimed at producing a negotiated end to hostilities in Croatia. The plan proposed a ceasefire, the protection of civilians in specific areas designated as UN Protected Areas and deployment of UN peacekeepers in Croatia.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Aftermath
The plan was endorsed by Milošević, Kadijević, and Tuđman, and the three signed the Geneva Accord to that effect in Geneva, Switzerland, on 23 November 1991. The accord provided for the end of the Croatian blockade of JNA barracks, the withdrawal of JNA personnel and equipment from Croatia, the implementation of a ceasefire and the facilitation of delivery of humanitarian aid. The parties to the accord also agreed to the deployment of a UN peacekeeping mission in Croatia.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Aftermath
The mission was subsequently authorised through United Nations Security Council Resolution 721 of 27 November, following a formal request for the deployment of UN peacekeepers submitted by the Yugoslav government the previous day. The Implementation Agreement, ensuring the ceasefire required for the deployment of peacekeepers, was signed by Croatian Defence Minister Gojko Šušak and deputy commander of JNA 5th Military District General Andrija Rašeta in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, on 2 January.


1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia, Aftermath
The ceasefire generally held after it took effect on 3 January at 6 pm, except in the Dubrovnik area, where the JNA remained in positions around the town and in Konavle until July 1992. The naval blockade of Dubrovnik was lifted on 26 May 1992. As a consequence of organizational problems and breaches of the ceasefire agreement, the deployment of UN peacekeepers did not start until 8 March. The historian Marko Attila Hoare believes that the Vance plan saved the Croatian Serb rebels from defeat.


1991 Zaire unrest
In September and October 1991, Zaire (modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo) experienced substantial violent unrest, as several Zairian Armed Forces units mutinied and rioted, soon joined by civilian protesters and looters. While the revolting soldiers primarily demanded more reliable and higher wages and it remained unclear whether they had any political motives, many civilians demanded the end of President Mobutu Sese Seko's repressive and corrupt dictatorship. The unrest started in Zaire's capital Kinshasa, and quickly spread to other cities. Large-scale looting caused massive property and economic damage, but the unrest resulted in no clear political changes. Zaire remained locked in a political crisis until 1996–1997, when Mobutu was overthrown during the First Congo War.


1991 Zaire unrest, Background, Decline of Zaire
As a result of the Congo Crisis of 1960–1965, army commander Mobutu Sese Seko seized power in the newly independent Congo, renaming the country to "Zaire" in 1972 and running it as his "poorly managed private estate" for 32 years. The Congolese National Army (Armée Nationale Congolaise) and its successor, the Zairian Armed Forces (Forces Armées Zaïroises, FAZ) were one of his main pillars of support. Mobutu established a totalitarian military dictatorship and initially presided over a period of economic growth.


1991 Zaire unrest, Background, Decline of Zaire
His government portrayed its policies as populist and spent much money on economic as well as food subsidies, earning substantial goodwill by the population. However, his rule ultimately proved to be "one of the most catastrophic examples of dictatorship" in African history. He embezzled billions of US$, spent large sums on idiosyncratic projects and for his lavish lifystyle, while developing a country-wide system of patronage which encouraged extreme corruption and graft. The Zairian security forces violently suppressed any opposition.


1991 Zaire unrest, Background, Decline of Zaire
From 1974, the Zairian economy began to noticeably struggle due to changes in the world economy, misgovernment, and corruption; however, Mobutu was able to keep his government afloat thanks to extensive loans by his international supporters like the United States. The Western world regarded him as a reliable and strategic anti-Communist ally in the Cold War.


1991 Zaire unrest, Background, Decline of Zaire
By the 1980s, Zaire suffered from growing internal strife and economic decline. Many Zairians had become resentful of Mobutu's repressive and corrupt dictatorship, while the FAZ suffered from chronic mismanagement and failures to properly pay the troops. In the early 1980s, the President attempted to improve the training, equipment, and logistics of the FAZ. These initiatives were undermined by tribalism, corruption, and Mobutu's own desire to prevent potential rivals from gaining power.


1991 Zaire unrest, Background, Decline of Zaire
Pay remained so unreliable and poor that most soldiers had to rely on "licensed brigandage" to make a living, and Mobutu accordingly called his own army "The Seventh Scourge". When his initial attempts at military reforms failed, the President just stopped trying and left the situation be for the rest of the 1980s. In addition to these internal developments, Zaire was also one of many Sub-Saharan countries which were forced to reduce military spending in the 1980s, as the Cold War blocs headed by the United States and Soviet Union reduced their financial support for African countries during this decade. This caused dissatisfaction to rise in several African militaries, with many soldiers experiencing delays and reduction in pay as well as worsening living standards. Ultimately this would lead to a greater willingness to mutiny in the militaries across Sub-Saharan Africa.


1991 Zaire unrest, Background, Decline of Zaire
By the late 1980s, the Special Presidential Division (Division Spéciale Présidentielle; DSP) were reportedly the "only operational troops" of the FAZ. Mostly recruited from Mobutu's ethnic group, the Ngbandi, the DSP was generally favored and provided with the best equipment. In 1989, the President ordered all heavy weaponry to be handed over to the DSP. Despite his misgovernment, Mobutu remained firmly in power in the 1980s due to support by the Western world. Accordingly, Zaire only began to unravel with the collapse of the Eastern Bloc, as this removed Mobutu's justification of his dictatorship.


1991 Zaire unrest, Background, Announcement of reforms and the CNS
Mobutu realized that the political situation was changing due to the Cold War's end, an impression furthered by the overthrow and death of his friend Nicolae Ceaușescu, dicator of Romania, in December 1989. Mobutu decided to tour Zaire in January and February 1990. As he had previously surrounded himself with "sycophants", the tour "rude[ly]" exposed him to the consiberable level of popular discontent in the country.


1991 Zaire unrest, Background, Announcement of reforms and the CNS
The country suffered under hyperinflation, mass unemployment, and generally low income; many people in the cities could only buy one meal a day; in many parts of the country, 50% of the population was malnourished. Realizing the need to do something, Mobutu announced the start of political reforms on 24 April 1990. He proclaimed a "Third Republic" with a free press, the end of Authenticité, the introduction of multiparty politics, and the handover of power to a democratically elected government within a year. Long-time opposition leader Étienne Tshisekedi was released from house arrest.


1991 Zaire unrest, Background, Announcement of reforms and the CNS
However, the announcement of reforms caused immediate political agitation of excited Zairians. The opposition organized demonstrations, scaring Mobutu, who had intended to remain in control despite the changes. He ordered a violent crackdown on protests, and when the DSP was sent to suppress unrest at the University of Lubumbashi, the operation resulted in the deaths of dozens of students.


1991 Zaire unrest, Background, Announcement of reforms and the CNS
The action caused international outrage, and even Mobutu's long-time allies such as the United States and Belgium finally pressured him to implement actual change. To appease the demonstrators, the government almost trebled the wages of civil servants in October 1990, even though it could not sustain this move due to the struggling economy. Mobutu also legalized the establishment of new parties in December 1990, while continuing to crack down on ongoing demonstrations. As the chaotic political and security situation made elections difficult to organize, the President organized the Conférence Nationale Souveraine (CNS) on 7 August 1991.


1991 Zaire unrest, Background, Announcement of reforms and the CNS
This conference was supposed to discuss and prepare for political reforms. However, Mobutu continued to undermine the democratization. Most importantly, he invited so many political parties to the conference as to make it unmanageable. Overall, the CNS included 2,800 delegates from across the country. Just before the conference started, a government official handed out money in front of the Palais du Peuple to all delegates who were willing to found a new party on the spot and promise to support Mobutu. The opposition accordingly accused the President of filling the conference with his own followers.


1991 Zaire unrest, Background, Announcement of reforms and the CNS
Mobutu also appointed Kalonji Mutambayi as the CSM's chairman; Mutambayi was elderly, half-deaf, and a government loyalist. Mobutu's plan worked, and the CNS disintegrated. As the conference broke up without having set a date for the promised elections or implementing any actual changes, however, public frustration escalated in Zaire's capital Kinshasa.


1991 Zaire unrest, Crisis, September unrest and French-Belgian interventions
On 22 September or 23 September 1991, about 3,000 paratroopers of the 31st Zairian Parachute Brigade mutinied at their base in Ndjili at Kinshasa's outskirts. They had not been paid for months, and initially demanded their back pay as well as higher wages. It remained unclear whether the mutinying soldiers had any political motives. The paratroopers marched from their base and occupied N'djili Airport where they seized a supply depot and disabled the control tower.


1991 Zaire unrest, Crisis, September unrest and French-Belgian interventions
The mutineers then moved into the capital's center using military vehicles, storming shops, gas stations, department stores, and private homes. They took all moveable items of value, including television sets, refrigerators, and photocopiers. The paratroopers first concentrated on the main street, July 30 Boulevard, and later expanded their looting into the Mbinza and Gombe neighborhoods. Many rioting troops got drunk. Other FAZ soldiers in Kinshasa as well as civilians from the city's southern slums soon joined the "orgy of pillaging", specifically targeting anything representing Mobutism such as government offices, but also foreigner-owned houses and companies.


1991 Zaire unrest, Crisis, September unrest and French-Belgian interventions
Civilians also plundered the supermarkets, and began dismantling entire establishments, taking kitchen sinks, toilets, fabric of buildings, steels girders, and other material, even if they could not realistically use it or sell it. The so-called "Industrial Limete", an area along the Zaire River dominated by factories, was largely destroyed as rioters stole most of the machinery there. At a General Motors plant near the airport, the soldiers stole hundreds of cars, followed by civilian looters taking the machines, walls, floor, roof, and cables in the ground, eventually leaving only a "skeleton of steel girders".


1991 Zaire unrest, Crisis, September unrest and French-Belgian interventions
The 31st Parachute Brigade also started to clash with the unpopular DSP, but the latter also began to loot the city instead of suppressing the mutiny. Historian David Van Reybrouck characterized the extensive looting as reaction to the corruption of the Zairian government; the common people saw themselves as finally able to do what the ruling elite had done in their eyes for decades: steal everything.


1991 Zaire unrest, Crisis, September unrest and French-Belgian interventions
The unrest quickly spread to other FAZ units in other parts of the country such as the 41st Commando Brigade in Kisangani. These troops also began to riot and loot. Mobutu did little to stop the chaos. He moved to his yacht in the Zaire River, and requested support from the French and Belgian governments. The two countries agreed to send aid, officially to help evacuation efforts and to protect embassies. The two countries were also motivated by their wish to maintain some influence in Zaire. The Zairian opposition protested against a foreign intervention, instead proposing a "public salvation government" with Étienne Tshisekedi as Prime Minister of Zaire to bring the situation back under control.


1991 Zaire unrest, Crisis, September unrest and French-Belgian interventions
Mobutu also ordered General Donatien Mahele Lieko Bokungu to restore order, using a contingent of soldiers belonging to the DSP and Zairian Military Intelligence Bureau (Service d'Action et de Renseignement Militaire, SARM). Mahele had been a paratrooper commander until 1990, when Mobutu had transferred him to command of a DSP unit out of fear that he was becoming too popular among his troops. Mahele knew the rioting soldiers, and they still respected him. Accordingly, when Mahele called the mutineers to stop their looting, many heeded his calls. The French ambassador assisted in negotiating with the mutineers. Meanwhile, foreigners fled the country en masse or were evacuated. Even though the rioting soldiers plundered the houses of many expatriates, they generally refrained from physically harming foreign civilians.


1991 Zaire unrest, Crisis, September unrest and French-Belgian interventions
On 23 September, France launched Operation Baumier. The French Air Force sent a first detachment of soldiers who had been stationed in the Central African Republic to Kinshasa, landing at N'djili Airport after it had been secured by SARM troops commanded by Mahele. A detachement of the 2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment which had been stationed in Chad followed suit. The Belgians launched Operation Blue Beam on the next day, landing troops of the Para Commando Regiment in Congo-Brazzaville and ferrying them across the Zaire River to Kinshasa.


1991 Zaire unrest, Crisis, September unrest and French-Belgian interventions
Together with the DSP and SARM, the French and Belgians secured the capital, whereupon Belgium brought in more troops as part of Operation Kir, this time using the N'Dolo Airport. The United States provided logistical support and transport planes. Overall, France and Belgium sent 1,000 and 1,100 soldiers respectively to Zaire. Although denying that they would "prop up" the Zairian government, French and Belgian units proved crucial in restoring order. Mahele also moved against the mutineers who refused to stop pillaging, and even ordered his loyalist forces to open fire on paratroopers who had previously served under him, killing several. On 24 September, Kinshasa Radio claimed that the mutineers had been evicted from the capital.


1991 Zaire unrest, Crisis, September unrest and French-Belgian interventions
By 25 September, Médecins Sans Frontières estimated that 1,250 to 1,750 people had been injured in Kinshasa alone. At this point, looting and rioting had mostly ceased in Kinshasa, with loyalist soldiers having secured the capital. However, riots continued in Likasi, Kamina, Kolwezi, and Kinsangani. On the same day, Portugal sent 25 soldiers to assist in the evacuation efforts of foreigners. On 26 September, FAZ loyalists opened fire on civilian demonstrators in Kinshasa who demanded an end of Mobutu's rule. By the next day, the French soldiers had moved into Kolwezi and Kinsangani, securing them after encountering some light resistance.


1991 Zaire unrest, Crisis, September unrest and French-Belgian interventions
The Belgians used their paratroopers to secure Lubumbashi. Having taken control of all major important airports in Zaire, the French and Belgian forces assisted in evacuating foreigners using planes of the French, Belgian, and Portuguese Air Force. The French and Belgian troops successfully evacuated 2,000 to 10,000 foreign citizens. Many foreigners in Shaba Province fled on their own to Zimbabwe and South Africa. Overall, 20,000 foreigners fled Zaire during the September unrest.


1991 Zaire unrest, Crisis, September unrest and French-Belgian interventions
On 29 September Mobutu and the political opposition reached an agreement, whereby Étienne Tshisekedi was to be appointed Prime Minister, his cabinet would contain five Mobutu supporters and six opposition leaders, and the CNS would be reconvened. Western diplomats argued that this concession by Mobutu was motivated by Belgium and France threatening to withdraw their soldiers from Zaire. The United States also exerted diplomatic pressure on the Zairian government. However, the President did not concede any real power. Following his appointment, Tshisekedi asked France and Belgium on the President's behalf to not withdraw their troops from the country.


1991 Zaire unrest, Crisis, September unrest and French-Belgian interventions
At this point, the main phase of rioting had ended, and became subsequently known as the "pillage". The cities affected by the unrest suffered substantial damage, with much of Zaire's productive sector destroyed. Around 30 to 40% of all companies were plundered, and around 70% of the retail businesses were destroyed. Much infrastructure was badly damaged. At least 200 people were killed, including one French paratrooper. After the looting, the military bases across the country became ad hoc markets for stolen goods, while at least half the companies which had previously operated in  Kinshasa left the city permanently. Many workers in the capital lost their jobs as a result of the riots.


1991 Zaire unrest, Crisis, October unrest
Sporadic unrest and violence continued. Tshisekedi was sworn in as Prime Minister on 16 October, but was fired by Mobutu six days later due to a dispute over the allotting of ministerial portfolios. Overall, his tenure counted just three weeks, the shortest of any Zairian Prime Minister between 1990 and 1997. With the opposition refusing to offer a new candidate, Mobutu appointed Bernardin Mungul Diaka as the new Prime Minister. More civil unrest followed, with protesters burning one of the presidential villas and pillaging Mungul Diaka's house.


1991 Zaire unrest, Crisis, October unrest
Demonstrations occurred in front of the French, Belgian, and U.S. American embassies, demanding a foreign intervention to depose the President. Civil servants went on strike. In Lubumbashi, discontented soldiers went on a looting spree, soon joined by civilians. The looters took everything moveable, including corrugated metal from the houses, while about 700 foreigners sook refuge in a school. Other riots took place at Mbuji-Mayi, Kolwezi, and Likasi. Belgian troops evacuated 300 more foreigners from the country in response to the riots.


1991 Zaire unrest, Crisis, October unrest
On 27 October, Mobutu announced that he would remain President regardless of domestic and international calls for his resignation; parts of the opposition —known as the "Sacred Coalition"— responded by attempting to set up an alternative government. France and Belgium officially terminated their intervention on 31 October and 4 November respectively.


1991 Zaire unrest, Mobutu's role in the unrest
Opposition leaders accused Mobutu of engineering the initial mutiny to provoke a military intervention by his Western allies. According to journalist Hugh Dellios, some analysts theorized that Mobutu had intended to use the riots as part of a "scare tactic". Even one of his loyalists, Kibambi Shintwa, later accused the President of opportunism in regards to the September riots. Shintwa told Van Reybrouck that Mobutu deliberately destroyed Zaire due to him not wanting to leave anything to the opposition, as he knew that his regime would not survive the democratization.


1991 Zaire unrest, Mobutu's role in the unrest
He claimed that Mobutu completely settled in Gbadolite once the CNS began, and did nothing to halt the unrest, as he saw the looting as the just punishment for the people rejecting him in favor of the opposition. Florentin Mokonda Bonza, who worked in Mobutu's office at the time, also accused the President of directly organizing the unrest to showcase the importance of his firm rule. Journalist Paul Kenyon described Mobutu as being "delighted" at the riots, as he saw them as proof that the Zairians needed him as their leader to prevent total anarchy.


1991 Zaire unrest, Aftermath
After the unrest, France, Belgium, Israel, and China decided to completely withdraw their training teams which had previously supported the FAZ. France also terminated all economic assistance. All foreign troops left the country in February 1992, when Mobutu used the DSP to "brutally" suppress peaceful protests demanding the continuation of the CNS. The end of foreign support further reduced the FAZ's ability to function. The 31st Zairian Parachute Brigade, having garnered the reputation of usually siding with protesters—resulting in the nickname "People's Army"—earned Mobutu's disfavor.


1991 Zaire unrest, Aftermath
He ordered paratrooper training to be discontinued, officially due to lack of equipment, but mostly out of fear that the 31st Brigade might attempt an airborne attack on the presidential palace to overthrow him. However, Mobutu refrained of prosecuting or disciplining any soldiers involved in the mutinies and looting of 1991. General Mahele's reputation emerged strengthened as a result of the unrest. Zairian civilians were impressed with his conduct and ability to bring many mutineers back under control; even the soldiers did much resent that he had been responsible for killing some mutineers. As a result, Mobutu made Mahele FAZ chief of staff, but removed him from the post when the general called for the military to remain apolitical and for the soldiers' living conditions to be improved.


1991 Zaire unrest, Aftermath
The CNS reconvened in November 1991, but it remained unable to properly operate. The Zairean government suspended it the following January. Mobutu's constitutional mandate as President of Zaire officially expired on 4 December 1991, but he refused to leave office until elections had been held, although such contests were not scheduled. The international community continued to pressure Mobutu to implement political reforms and introduce multiparty politics. The political crisis continued, reforms stalled, while the security and economic situation deteriorated across the country. The unrest of 1991 had further worsened the country's economic crisis.


1991 Zaire unrest, Aftermath
Rebels began to launch attacks in border areas, and the 41st Commando Brigade again revolted in 1992. Another major FAZ mutiny broke out in 1993, with the soldiers again demanding to be paid their back pay after Mobutu attempted to introduce a 5-million Zaire note. This time, the violence was worse than during the 1991 unrest. The President was only able to bring the situation under control by deploying the DSP and other loyal troops against the mutineers, resulting in up to 2,000 deaths including around 1,000 soldiers.


1991 Zaire unrest, Aftermath
The renewed unrest caused most of the businesses which had remained in Kinshasa up to this point to leave the country. Being no longer paid, civil servants went repeatedly on strike. At this point, Zaire's political system had effectively collapsed, while the economy had plunged into chaos. In 1996, the First Congo War erupted, resulting in Mobutu's violent overthrow. Much of the FAZ proved extremely unreliable during this conflict. Resentful FAZ soldiers argued that Mobutu's favorite unit, the DSP, "should do the fighting" alone. Many troops and even entire units deserted or outright defected to anti-government rebels.


1991 Zaire unrest, Aftermath
The economic damage of the 1991 unrest extended into the 2010s, by which point Kinshasa's industrial sector had still not recovered. Many civilians in the capital recognized the long-term destructive effect of the looting sprees of 1991 and 1993, and consequently refrained from looting during the First Congo War.


1991 Zambian general election
General elections were held in Zambia on 31 October 1991 to elect a President and National Assembly. They were the first multi-party elections since 1968, and only the second multi-party elections since independence in 1964. The United National Independence Party (UNIP), which had led the country since independence (from 1973 to 1990 as the sole legal party), was comprehensively beaten by the Movement for Multi-Party Democracy (MMD). Kenneth Kaunda, who had been president since independence, was defeated in a landslide by MMD challenger Frederick Chiluba in the presidential elections, whilst the MMD won 125 of the 150 elected seats in the expanded National Assembly. Voter turnout was 45%.


1991 Zambian general election, Background
In 1973, Kaunda had declared UNIP the only legally permitted party in Zambia. From then until 1990, the government and UNIP were effectively one. Every five years, Kaunda was automatically elected to a five-year term as president by virtue of being leader of UNIP. Voters also chose between three UNIP candidates for each of the 125 seats in the National Assembly.


1991 Zambian general election, Background
However, by the summer of 1990 discontent had built to a fever pitch. In July, following three days of riots in Lusaka, Kaunda announced a referendum on the single-party system would be held in October. This was not enough to prevent disgruntled army officer Mwamba Luchembe from launching a coup attempt within a few hours of the announcement. However, it was broken after about three to four hours. After the coup attempt, the opposition contended that the original date for the referendum did not allow enough time to register voters. In response, Kaunda delayed the referendum until August 1991.


1991 Zambian general election, Background
Kaunda had vehemently opposed a multiparty system, claiming it would cause violence and inflame tribal divisions. However, in response to demands from the opposition, he cancelled the referendum in September and instead gave his support to constitutional amendments that would end UNIP's monopoly on power. He also announced that the general elections scheduled for 1993 would be brought forward to 1991. Kaunda signed the necessary amendments into law in December. Soon afterward, the Movement for Multi-Party Democracy, a pressure group created earlier in the year under the leadership of Zambia Congress of Trade Unions chairman Chiluba, registered as a political party.


1991 Zambian general election by constituency
The 1991 general election in Zambia saw the Movement for Multiparty Democracy defeat the ruling United National Independence Party in both presidential and National Assembly polls.


1991 anti-Tamil violence in Karnataka
The 1991 Anti- Tamil violence in Karnataka refers to incidents of mob violence targeting Tamils in state of Karnataka in India. The incidents took place in Southern Karnataka on 12–13 December 1991, mainly in the cities of Bangalore and Mysore. The attacks originated in the demonstrations organised against the orders of the Cauvery Water Tribunal appointed by the Government of India. The violence terrified the Tamil populace of Southern Karnataka forcing hundreds of thousands to flee in a matter of weeks. The official statistics given by the Government of Karnataka was that sixteen people had been killed in the police firing during protest but individual sources give higher numbers.


1991 anti-Tamil violence in Karnataka, Background
As of 2001, Tamil-speakers formed 3.82% of the total population of Karnataka. Minority Tamil-speaking people are found in the districts of Bangalore Urban, Bangalore Rural, Ramanagara, Mysore, Kolar, Hassan, few in Mandya and Chamarajanagar in southern Karnataka, and few in Shimoga in central Karnataka


1991 anti-Tamil violence in Karnataka, Background
Until 1991, Tamils formed the single largest ethnic group in Bangalore Urban district. The 1991 census, for the first time, recorded a Kannadiga majority ahead of Tamils in the district. While the Bangalore Cantonment area administered directly by the Government of British India prior to its integration with the then Mysore state, had a sizable Tamil-speaking population, they were also found in significantly large numbers in the "pētē" area of the city which was situated within Mysore proper. The migrants occupied extremely diverse positions in the socioeconomic strata and represented every class, caste and community in Tamil Nadu.


1991 anti-Tamil violence in Karnataka, Background
While there were also many who lived in abject poverty, since the early 19th century, the higher posts in the state administration had been mostly held by Tamil-speakers due to the preferential treatment by the British. Gradually, this demographic and bureaucratic domination began to be resented by Kannada people who felt that the immigrant Tamils were snatching away their rightful jobs.


1991 anti-Tamil violence in Karnataka, Events
On 25 June 1991, the Kaveri Water Tribunal, constituted in 1990, directed the Karnataka state government to release 205 billion ft3 (5.8 km3) of water to Tamil Nadu within a year. Karnataka issued an ordinance to annul the tribunal's award but this was struck down by the Supreme Court of India. The tribunal's award was subsequently gazetted by the Government of India on 11 December 1991.


1991 anti-Tamil violence in Karnataka, Events
The very next day, Kannada chauvinist organisations led by Vatal Nagaraj called for a bandh on 13 December alleging partisan behaviour of the Government of India. Their leaders declared


1991 anti-Tamil violence in Karnataka, Events
Cauvery is the mother of the Kannadigas, so we cannot give the water to anybody else.


1991 anti-Tamil violence in Karnataka, Events
The next day, Kannada chauvinists allegedly roamed the streets of Bangalore carrying sticks, shouting slogans, beating up Tamil laborers. Tamil businesses, movie theatres and even vehicles with Tamil Nadu license plates were targeted. Soon the riots spread to the Mysore district and other parts of southern Karnataka. Tamil-speaking villagers were driven out and their property confiscated. Over thousands of Tamils fled from the state. A curfew of one week was declared under section 144. The violence left more than 17 ethnic Tamils dead.


1991 anti-Tamil violence in Karnataka, Events
The Indian Peoples' Human Rights Tribunal puts the total property losses suffered in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka at ₹ 170 million while the Venkatesh Commission has given estimates varying from ₹ 30 million to ₹ 155 million.


1991 anti-Tamil violence in Karnataka, Aftermath
The situation was soon brought under control and though, there were incidents of violence reported till the end of 1991, the situation had calmed down.


1991 anti-Tamil violence in Karnataka, Aftermath
There have been similar incidents of violence in 1996, 2000, 2004 and 2016.


1991 du Maurier Classic
The 1991 du Maurier Classic was contested from September 12–15 at Vancouver Golf Club. It was the 19th edition of the du Maurier Classic, and the 13th edition as a major championship on the LPGA Tour.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo
The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines' Luzon Volcanic Arc was the second-largest volcanic eruption of the 20th century, behind only the 1912 eruption of Novarupta in Alaska. Eruptive activity began on April 2 as a series of phreatic explosions from a fissure that opened on the north side of Mount Pinatubo. Seismographs were set up and began monitoring the volcano for earthquakes. In late May, the number of seismic events under the volcano fluctuated from day-to-day. Beginning June 6, a swarm of progressively shallower earthquakes accompanied by inflationary tilt on the upper east flank of the mountain, culminated in the extrusion of a small lava dome.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo
On June 12, the volcano’s first spectacular eruption sent an ash column 19 km (12 mi) into the atmosphere. Additional explosions occurred overnight and the morning of June 13. Seismic activity during this period became intense. When even more highly gas-charged magma reached Pinatubo's surface on June 15, the volcano exploded, sending an ash cloud 40 km (25 mi) into the atmosphere. Volcanic ash and pumice blanketed the countryside. Huge pyroclastic flows roared down the flanks of Pinatubo, filling once-deep valleys with fresh volcanic deposits as much as 200 m (660 ft) thick. The eruption removed so much magma and rock from beneath the volcano that the summit collapsed to form a small caldera 2.5 km (1.6 mi) across.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo
Fine ash from the eruption fell as far away as the Indian Ocean and satellites tracked the ash cloud as it traveled several times around the globe. At least 16 commercial jets inadvertently flew through the drifting ash cloud, sustaining about $100 million in damage. With the ashfall came darkness and the sounds of lahars rumbling down the rivers. Several smaller lahars washed through the Clark Air Base, flowing across the base in enormously powerful sheets, slamming into buildings and scattering cars. Nearly every bridge within 30 km (19 mi) of Mount Pinatubo was destroyed. Several lowland towns were flooded or partially buried in mud. More than 840 people were killed from the collapse of roofs under wet heavy ash and several more were injured.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo
Rain continued to create hazards over the next several years, as the volcanic deposits were remobilized into secondary mudflows. Damage to bridges, irrigation-canal systems, roads, cropland, and urban areas occurred in the wake of each significant rainfall. Many more people were affected for much longer by rain-induced lahars than by the eruption itself.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Build-up and evacuations
On July 16, 1990, the major 1990 Luzon earthquake of magnitude 7.7 struck northern Central Luzon and the Cordilleras. This was the largest earthquake recorded in 1990, comparable in size to the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. Its epicenter was in the municipality of Rizal, Nueva Ecija, about 100 km (62 mi) northeast of Pinatubo, and faulted northwest-southeast through three provinces. It also followed the Philippine Fault System west as far as Baguio, which was devastated, and is located about 80 km (50 mi) north-northeast of Pinatubo, leading volcanologists to speculate that it might ultimately have triggered the 1991 eruption, although this is impossible to prove conclusively.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Build-up and evacuations
Two weeks after the earthquake, local residents reported steam coming from the volcano, but scientists who visited there in response found only small rockslides rather than any pre-eruptive activity. On March 15, 1991, a succession of earthquakes were felt by villagers on the northwestern side of the volcano. Further earthquakes of increasing intensity were felt over the next two weeks, and it became clear some kind of volcanic activity was likely.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Build-up and evacuations
On April 2, the volcano awoke, with phreatic eruptions occurring near the summit along a 1.5 km (0.93 mi) long fissure. Over the next few weeks, small eruptions continued, dusting the surrounding areas with volcanic ash. Seismographs recorded hundreds of small earthquakes every day. Scientists immediately installed monitoring equipment and analyzed the volcano for clues as to its previous eruptive history. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal found in old volcanic deposits revealed the last three major explosive eruption periods in recent millennia, about 5500, 3500 and 500 years ago. Geological mapping showed that much of the surrounding plains were formed by lahar flood deposits from previous eruptions.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Build-up and evacuations
Volcanic activity increased throughout May. Measurements of sulfur dioxide emissions showed a rapid increase from 500 t (550 short tons) per day by May 13 to 5,000 t (5,500 short tons) per day by May 28. This implied that there was a rising column of fresh magma beneath the volcano. After May 28, the amount of SO2 being emitted decreased substantially, raising fears that the degassing of the magma had been blocked somehow, leading to a pressure build-up in the magma chamber and a high likelihood of violent explosive eruptions.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Build-up and evacuations
In early June, tiltmeter measurements had shown that the volcano was gradually inflating, evidently due to fast-growing amounts of magma filling the reservoir beneath the summit. At the same time, seismic activity, previously concentrated at a depth of a few kilometers below a point about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) northwest of the summit, shifted to shallow depths just below the summit. Such an event is a precursor of volcano tectonic earthquakes.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Build-up and evacuations
Given all the signs that a very large eruption was imminent, the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology – assisted by the United States Geological Survey – worked to convince local inhabitants of the high severity of the threat. A false warning might have led to cynicism about any later warnings, but delaying a warning until an eruption began might lead to thousands of deaths, so the volcanologists were under some pressure to deliver a timely and accurate assessment of the volcanic risk.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Build-up and evacuations
Three successive evacuation zones were defined, the innermost containing everything within 10 km (6.2 mi) of the volcano's summit, the second extending 10–20 km (6.2–12.4 mi) from the summit, and the third extending from 20–40 km (12–25 mi) from the summit (Clark Air Base and Angeles City were in this zone). The 10 km (6.2 mi) and 10–20 km (6.2–12.4 mi) zones had a total population of about 40,000 inhabitants, while some more 331,000 inhabitants lived in the 20–40 km (12–25 mi) zone.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Build-up and evacuations
Five stages of volcanic alert were defined, from level 1 (low level seismic disturbances) up to level 5 (major eruption in progress). Daily alerts were issued stating the alert level and associated danger area, and the information was announced in major regional and national newspapers, on radio and television stations, by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and directly to the endangered inhabitants.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Build-up and evacuations
Many of the Aetas who lived on the slopes of the volcano left their villages of their own volition when the first blasts began in April, gathering in a village about 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) from the summit. They moved to increasingly distant settlements as the eruptions escalated, some Aetas moving up to nine times in the two months before the colossal eruption. The first formal evacuations were ordered for the 10 km (6.2 mi) zone on April 7. Evacuation of the 10–20 km (6.2–12.4 mi) zone was ordered when a level 4 alert was issued on June 7.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Build-up and evacuations
A level 5 alert triggered evacuation of the 20–40 km (12–25 mi) zone on June 13, and in all some 60,000 people had left the area within 30 kilometres (19 mi) of the volcano before June 15. Most people temporarily relocated to Metro Manila, with some 30,000 using the Amoranto Velodrome in Quezon City as an evacuee camp.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Build-up and evacuations
On June 7, the first magmatic eruptions took place with the formation of a lava dome at the summit of the volcano. The dome grew substantially over the next five days, reaching a maximum diameter of about 200 m (660 ft) and a height of 40 m (130 ft).


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Escalation of eruption
A small blast at 03:41 PST on June 12 marked the beginning of a new, more violent phase of the eruption. A few hours later the same day, massive blasts lasting about half an hour generated big eruption columns, which quickly reached heights of over 19 kilometres (62,000 ft) and which generated large pyroclastic surges extending up to four kilometres (2.5 mi) from the summit in some river valleys. Fourteen hours later, a 15-minute blast hurled volcanic matter to heights of 24 km (15 mi). Friction in the up-rushing ash column generated abundant volcanic lightning.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Escalation of eruption
A third large eruption began at 08:41 on June 13, after an intense swarm of small earthquakes over the previous two hours. It lasted about five minutes, and the eruption column once again reached 24 km (15 mi). After three hours of quiet, seismic activity began, growing more and more intense over the next twenty-four hours, until a three-minute eruptive blast generated a 21 km (13 mi) high eruption column at 13:09 on June 14.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Escalation of eruption
Tephra fall from these four large eruptions was extensive to the southwest of the volcano. Two hours after the last of these four explosions, a series of eruptions began which lasted for the next twenty-four hours, and which saw the production of much larger pyroclastic flows and surges which travelled several kilometres down river valleys on the flanks of the volcano.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Escalation of eruption
Dacite was the dominant igneous rock making up the tephra in these eruptions and in the following climactic event. The most abundant phenocryst minerals were hornblende and plagioclase, but an unusual phenocryst mineral was also present – the calcium sulfate called anhydrite. The dacite magma was more oxidized than most magmas, and the sulfur-rich nature of the eruption was probably causally related to the redox state.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Escalation of eruption
The final, climactic eruption of Mount Pinatubo began at 13:42 PST on June 15. It caused numerous major earthquakes due to the collapse of the summit and the creation of a caldera 2.5 km (1.6 mi) in diameter, reducing the peak from 1,745 m (5,725 ft) to 1,485 m (4,872 ft).


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Escalation of eruption
All the seismographs close to Clark Air Base had been rendered completely inoperative by 14:30, mostly by super-massive pyroclastic surges. Intense atmospheric pressure variation was also recorded.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Escalation of eruption
On the same day, Typhoon Yunya, locally named Diding, struck the island, with its center passing about 75 km (47 mi) north of the volcano. The typhoon rains mostly obscured the eruption, but measurements showed that ash was ejected to a height of 34 km (21 mi) by the most violent phase of the eruption, which lasted about three hours. Pyroclastic surges poured from the summit, reaching as far as 16 km (9.9 mi) away from their origin point. Typhoon rains and flooding mixed with the ash deposits caused a messy rain of mud and massive lahars.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Escalation of eruption
The volcanic column from the crater covered an area of some 125,000 km2 (48,000 sq mi), bringing total darkness to much of Central Luzon for 36 hours. Almost all of the island received some wet ash fall, which formed a heavy, rain-saturated snow-like blanket. Tephra fell over most of the South China Sea and ash falls were recorded as far away as Vietnam, Cambodia, Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Escalation of eruption
Twelve days after the first magmatic eruptions of June 3, on June 15, 1991, by about 22:30, and about nine hours after the onset of the most recent climactic phase, atmospheric pressure waves had decreased to the pre-eruption levels. No seismic records were available at this time, but volcanologists believe 22:30 PST marked the end of the climactic eruption.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Escalation of eruption
Vast quantities of light and heavy metal minerals were brought to the surface. Overall an estimated 800,000 t (880,000 short tons) of zinc-, 600,000 t (660,000 short tons) of copper-, 550,000 t (610,000 short tons) of chromium-, 300,000 t (330,000 short tons) of nickel-, and massive amounts of potentially toxic heavy metal mineral such as 100,000 t (110,000 short tons) of lead-, 10,000 t (11,000 short tons) of arsenic-, 1,000 t (1,100 short tons) of cadmium-, and 800 t (880 short tons) of mercury-minerals comingled with the other magmatic rock, came forth.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Effects on aircraft
At least 16 commercial aircraft had damaging in-flight encounters with the ash cloud ejected by the June 15 eruption, and many grounded aircraft were also significantly damaged. In-flight encounters caused loss of power to one engine on each of the two aircraft. Ten engines were damaged and replaced, including all three engines of one DC-10. Longer-term damage to aircraft and engines was reported, including accumulation of sulfate deposits on engines. The eruption also irreparably damaged the Philippine Air Force's recently retired fleet of Vought F-8s, as these were in open storage at Basa Air Base at the time.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Aftermath, Explosivity of the eruption
The 1991 eruption rated 6 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index and came some 450–500 years after the volcano's last known eruptive activity. The eruption ejected about 10 km3 (2.4 cu mi) of material, making it the largest eruption of the 20th century since that of Novarupta in 1912 and some ten times larger than the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. Ejected material such as tephra fallout and pyroclastic flow deposits are much less dense than magma, and the volume of ejected material was equivalent to about four cubic kilometres (0.96 cu mi) of unerupted material.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Aftermath, Explosivity of the eruption
The former summit of the volcano was obliterated and replaced by a caldera 2.5 km (1.6 mi) wide. The highest point on the caldera rim now stood 1,485 m (4,872 ft) above sea level, some 260 m (850 ft) lower than the pre-eruption summit.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Aftermath, Death toll
A reported 847 people were killed by the eruption, mostly by roofs collapsing under a load of accumulated volcanic matter, a hazard amplified by the simultaneous arrival of Typhoon Yunya.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Aftermath, Death toll
The evacuation in the days before the eruption certainly saved tens of thousands of lives, and has been hailed as a great success for volcanology and eruption prediction.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Aftermath, Death toll
After the eruption, about 500,000 people continue to live within 40 km (25 mi) of the volcano, with population centers including the 150,000 in Angeles City and 30,000 at Clark Freeport Zone.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Aftermath, Effects on agriculture
Many reforestation projects were destroyed in the eruption, with a total area of 150 km2 (58 sq mi; 37,000 acres) valued at 125 million pesos destroyed. Agriculture was heavily disrupted, with 800 km2 (310 sq mi; 200,000 acres) of rice-growing farmland destroyed, and almost 800,000 head of livestock and poultry killed, destroying the livelihoods of thousands of farmers. The cost to agriculture of eruption effects was estimated to be 1.5 billion pesos.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Aftermath, Effects on agriculture
Many farmers near Pinatubo began growing crops such as peanuts, cassava, and sweet potatoes, which are quick-ripening and could be harvested before the threat of lahar floods during the late summer rainy season.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Aftermath, Local economic and social effects
In total, 364 communities and 2.1 million people were affected by the eruption, with livelihoods and houses being damaged and destroyed. More than 8,000 houses were destroyed, and a further 73,000 were damaged. In addition to the severe damage sustained by these communities, roads and communications were damaged or destroyed by pyroclastic surges and lahar floods throughout the areas surrounding the volcano. Total losses in 1991 and 1992 alone were estimated at 10.6 and 1.2 billion pesos respectively, including damage to public infrastructure estimated at 3.8 billion pesos (c. US$92 million, or $175 million today, adjusted for inflation). School classes for thousands of children was temporarily suspended by the destruction of schools in the eruption.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Aftermath, Local economic and social effects
The eruption of Pinatubo severely hampered the economic development of the surrounding areas. The gross regional domestic product of the Pinatubo area accounted for about 10% of the total Philippine gross domestic product. The GRDP had been growing at 5% annually before the eruption but fell by more than 3% from 1990 to 1991. In 1991, damage to crops and property was estimated at $374 million (or $711 million today), to which continuing lahar floods added a further $69 million (or $127 million today) in 1992. In total, 42 percent of the cropland around the volcano was affected by more lahar floods, dealing a severe blow to the agricultural economy in the region.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Aftermath, Lahars
Since the eruption, each heavy rain has brought massive lahars from the volcano, displacing thousands of people and inflicting extensive damage to buildings and infrastructure costing billions to repair. Funds were spent constructing dikes and dams to control post-eruption lahar flows.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Aftermath, Lahars
Several important river systems stem from Mount Pinatubo, the major rivers being the Tarlac, Abacan, Pasig-Potrero, Sta. Lucia, Bucao, Santo Tomas, Maloma, Tanguay, Ashley and Kileng rivers. Before the eruption, these river systems were important ecosystems, but the eruption filled many valleys with deep pyroclastic deposits. Since 1991, the rivers have been clogged with sediment, and the valleys have seen frequent lahars which continued for years after the eruption. Studies show that the river systems will take decades to recover from the June 1991 eruption.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Aftermath, Lahars
On September 3, 1995, a lahar buried San Guillermo Parish Church in Bacolor, Pampanga to half its 12 metres (39 ft) height.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Aftermath, Military impact
The United States Air Force initiated a massive airlift effort to evacuate American service members and their families from the two affected bases during and immediately following the eruption, named Operation Fiery Vigil. Additional maritime evacuations were conducted by the USS Midway, USS Abraham Lincoln, and USS Peleliu. Most personnel were initially relocated to Guam, Okinawa and the U.S. state of Hawaii, although some returned to the continental United States. Clark Air Base was ultimately abandoned by the United States military because of the eruption, and Subic Bay reverted to Philippine control in November 1992 following the breakdown of lease negotiations and the expiration of the Military Bases Agreement of 1947.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Aftermath, Global environmental effects
The powerful eruption of such an enormous volume of lava and ash injected significant quantities of aerosols and dust into the stratosphere. Sulfur dioxide oxidized in the atmosphere to produce a haze of sulfuric acid droplets, which gradually spread throughout the stratosphere over the year following the eruption. The injection of aerosols into the stratosphere is thought to have been the largest since the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883, with a total mass of SO2 of about 17,000,000 t (19,000,000 short tons) being injected – the largest volume ever recorded by modern instruments (see chart and figure).


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Aftermath, Global environmental effects
This very large stratospheric injection resulted in a reduction in the normal amount of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface by roughly 10% (see figure). This led to a decrease in Northern Hemisphere average temperatures of 0.5–0.6 °C (0.9–1.1 °F) and a global fall of about 0.4 °C (0.7 °F). At the same time, the temperature in the stratosphere rose to several degrees higher than normal, due to absorption of radiation by the aerosol. The stratospheric cloud from the eruption persisted in the atmosphere for three years after the eruption. While not directly responsible, the eruption may have played a part in the formation of the 1993 Storm of the Century.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Aftermath, Global environmental effects
The eruption had a significant effect on ozone levels in the atmosphere, causing a large increase in the destruction rate of ozone. Ozone levels at middle latitudes reached their lowest recorded levels, while in the Southern Hemisphere winter of 1992, the ozone hole over Antarctica reached its largest ever size until then, with the fastest recorded ozone depletion rates. The eruption of Mount Hudson in Chile in August 1991 also contributed to southern hemisphere ozone destruction, with measurements showing a sharp decrease in ozone levels at the tropopause when the aerosol clouds from Pinatubo and Hudson arrived.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Aftermath, Global environmental effects
Another noticeable effect of the dust in the atmosphere was the appearance of lunar eclipses. Normally even at mid-eclipse, the moon is still visible although much dimmed, whereas in the year following the Pinatubo eruption, the moon was hardly visible at all during eclipses, due to much greater absorption of sunlight by dust in the atmosphere. It has also been suggested that excess cloud condensation nuclei from the eruption were responsible for the "Great Flood of 1993" in the Midwestern United States.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Aftermath, Aeta people
The Aeta people were the hardest hit by the eruption. After the areas surrounding the volcano were declared safe, many Aetas returned to their old villages only to find them destroyed by pyroclastic and lahar deposits. Some were able to return to their former way of life, but most moved instead to government-organized resettlement areas. Conditions on these were poor, with each family receiving only small plots of land not ideal for growing crops. Many Aeta found casual labor working for lowland farmers, and overall Aeta society became much more fragmented, and reliant on and integrated with lowland culture.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Humanitarian aid
Humanitarian aid received due to the eruption is as follows:


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Humanitarian aid, Local, Government
The government implemented several rehabilitative and reconstructive programs. Projects that will help deal with the aftermath brought about by lahar were also implemented. Among these is the construction of mega dikes. Moreover, to hasten the implementation of the basic services for the afflicted, private sectors, including the NGOs, took part in offering relief. They provided support and coordinated on the services that were deemed lacking from the side of the government.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Humanitarian aid, Local, Government
2. Livelihood programs focused on agriculture and industry (quick-generating income opportunities to affected families)


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Humanitarian aid, Local, Asian Disaster Reduction Center
The Asian Disaster Reduction Center was founded in Kobe, Hyogo prefecture, in 1998, with a mission to improve disaster resilience of its fifty member countries, to build safe communities, and to create a society where there is an achievable sustainable development. The Center works to build and establish networks among countries through many programs such as personnel exchanges in this field.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Humanitarian aid, Local, Asian Disaster Reduction Center
The Center addresses this issue from a global perspective in cooperation with various UN agencies and international organizations including the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR), the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), and the World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific (WHO/WPRO). The Asian Disaster Reduction Center focuses mainly on the following forms of aid:


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Humanitarian aid, Local, Asian Disaster Reduction Center
After the eruption, many of the homes were destroyed and many of the areas affected by lahar were deemed uninhabitable. There was need to resettle the people particularly the Aetas and lowlanders. Resettlement for these two needs to take into consideration the factors of their socio-cultural and socioeconomic differences.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Humanitarian aid, Local, Asian Disaster Reduction Center
Faced with the destruction of many of the farmlands and the displacement of farmers and other workers the government had to search for a long-term solution to address the issue. Agricultural-based industries were also greatly affected. The closure of Clark Air base also raised an issue of finding short-term livelihoods and the need to use the base lands to cushion the repercussions of the worker's displacement.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Humanitarian aid, Local, Asian Disaster Reduction Center
The destruction brought about by the incident pressured social service sectors to continue their efforts in assisting in terms of health, social welfare, and education. The services offered are not limited to the victims within the evacuation centers but also offered to the others affected. While the event happened during the opening of a school year, classes were needed to be pushed back as school facilities were destroyed. Providing resettlement for the evacuees was also a major concern. Social services were also provided in the prospective resettlement areas to prepare the victims when settling down.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Humanitarian aid, Local, Asian Disaster Reduction Center
Destruction of many infrastructures was mostly due to the wet ash after the explosion. The region's roads, bridges, public buildings, facilities, communication, and structures for river and flood control were some of the great concerns of the government. A need to establish measures for the flash floods and the threat caused by lahar also became an imperative demand to the government.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Humanitarian aid, Local, Asian Disaster Reduction Center
The aftereffects of the eruption damaged not only man-made structures but also farmlands, forestlands, and watersheds. River systems and the overall environment of the affected region are also heavily damaged by the heavy lahar flow. To address this careful replanning of the land area region is necessary.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Humanitarian aid, Local, Asian Disaster Reduction Center
This event showed the need to engage in scientific studies to reassess the current policies and knowledge on areas with risk of eruption. Studies should also be allocated on a possible application for the ash fall for industrial and commercial purposes. The significance of this concern affects both the government and private sectors.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Humanitarian aid, International
Even before the Philippine government officially appealed for international assistance, the  Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (USAID/OFDA) shipped  shelter material for victims of the floods and lahars in late July 1992. In the following month, they provided $375 000 to be used for relief and rehabilitation projects. The Department of Social Welfare and Development had claimed during an informal donors’ meeting with representatives from mostly international agencies who compose the donor community that the national government was still well-equipped and had sufficient resources to aid the victims. The UN-Disaster Management Team (DMT) and the United Nations’ Department of Humanitarian Affairs/United Nations Disaster Relief Organization (DHA/UNDRO) continued cooperating with the national government to monitor the situation and formulate ideas for further assistance.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Humanitarian aid, International
It was not until then-President Fidel V. Ramos had declared the affected provinces and areas to be in a state of emergency that the national government officially requested for international assistance and for aid in projects for rehabilitation and relief provisions in the aforementioned areas. In response to this, the DHA/UNDRO reached out to the international community to respond to the appeal, and continued their operations, coordinating with the government.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Humanitarian aid, International
Among the countries that extended humanitarian relief assistance are Australia, Belgium, Canada, China, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Malaysia, Malta, Myanmar, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. International organizations including the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator (UNDRO, predecessor to the current United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs or OCHA), the United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the World Food Programme (WFP), and the World Health Organization (WHO) also offered assistance. Relief assistance from these organizations and countries were in the form of either cash donation or relief items such as food packs, medicines, and shelter materials.


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Humanitarian aid, International, United Nations
Contributions made by the different systems of the United Nations (UN) are as follows:


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Humanitarian aid, International, United Nations
Contributions made by participating countries in the UN are as follows:


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Humanitarian aid, International, United Nations
Cash (AUD 250,000) through Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD)


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Humanitarian aid, International, Others
Some specific projects under the auspices of the DPWH, which were made possible by foreign assistance, included:


1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, In popular culture
The eruption is also mentioned in the disaster film Volcano (1997). The story of  the eruption as shown in the episode of the ABS-CBN educational program Bayani.


1991 in Afghanistan
The following lists events that happened during 1991 in Afghanistan.


1991 in Afghanistan
President Mohammad Najibullah, whom the U.S. government predicted would not last the summer when Soviet troops pulled out of Afghanistan in February 1989, continues to rule his war-wracked nation from a precarious position. A Moscow-brokered plan calls for Najibullah to step aside in favor of Prime Minister Khaliqyar, who would serve as a transitional administrative leader until a new government could be elected. However, on October 13 moderate guerrilla officials in Pakistan highlight the remaining obstacles to peace by withdrawing their support for Khaliqyar. The mujaheddin say his association with Najibullah makes him unacceptable.


1991 in Afghanistan
Afghanistan is like a maimed patient after 13 years of civil war. The streets of Kabul are full of one-legged men, victims of land mines. The government says it has released more than 19,000 prisoners in the past four years and has abolished the special tribunals set up to try those accused of political crimes. Meanwhile, fierce fighting continues between government troops and the Muslim guerrillas.


1991 in Afghanistan
The guerrillas launch their long-planned assault on Najibullah's hometown, the garrison town of Gardez in southeastern Afghanistan, and coordinate a series of attacks aimed at demoralizing the Afghan Army and destabilizing the government, but none of the attacks is decisive. In 1991 the guerrillas control 6 of Afghanistan's 31 provinces. In their only major gain during the year, they overrun a series of government-held garrisons to gain control of strategic areas along the border with the breakaway Soviet republics of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan. They also hold the narrow corridor linking Afghanistan with China.


1991 in Afghanistan, September 1991
Najibullah proposes a five-point peace plan to end the 13-year war that has killed an estimated 1.5 million people and maimed hundreds of thousands of others. The plan calls for an end to weapons shipments to the warring factions, a cease-fire, and an intra-Afghan dialogue leading to the formation of a national unity government mandated to oversee elections. The national unity government would share power with the Pakistan-based government-in-exile, guerrilla commanders, Afghans living in exile, and the deposed king, Zahir Shah.


1991 in Afghanistan, September 1991
Besides organizing elections, it would rewrite Afghanistan's constitution and oversee the return of the more than five million refugees who had fled to Pakistan and Iran. However, the Muslim guerrillas accuse Najibullah of merely repackaging old ideas in order to portray himself as a peacemaker. Most of the guerrillas vow to continue fighting until he is overthrown.


1991 in Afghanistan, September 1991, September
In a surprise move, the government restores the citizenship of Zahir Shah, who has been living in virtual banishment in Italy for 18 years. Nearly 77, Zahir Shah had been overthrown in 1973, and he and his family were stripped of their Afghan citizenship after the Communist revolution of 1978. Zahir Shah is under pressure from the Western countries (including the United States) not to respond to Najibullah's call for National Reconciliation because if Zahir Shah returns to Afghanistan and joins the government, most of the traditionalist mujahideen would quit fighting against the government and would probably join the government.


1991 in Afghanistan, September 1991, September
In mid-September the U.S. and the Soviet Union take the first step toward a negotiated settlement by agreeing to end arms shipments to their respective clients, the rebels and the government in Kabul, as of January 1, 1992.


1991 in Afghanistan, Sports
On March 2, 1991, in San Diego, California, Waheed Karim set an Afghan national record in the 5,000 meters (16:04.7).


1991 in American television
The following is a list of events affecting American television during 1991.


1991 in American television, Programs, Entering syndication this year
A list of programs (current or canceled) that have accumulated enough episodes (between 65 and 100) or seasons (3 or more) to be eligible for off-network syndication and/or basic cable runs.


1991 in American television, Programs, Changes of network affiliation
The following shows aired new episodes on a different network than previous first-run episodes:


1991 in Armenia
The following lists events that happened during 1991 in Armenia.


1991 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1991 in Australia.


1991 in Australian literature
This article presents a list of the historical events and publications of Australian literature during 1991.


1991 in Australian literature, Deaths
A list, ordered by date of death (and, if the date is either unspecified or repeated, ordered alphabetically by surname) of deaths in 1991 of Australian literary figures, authors of written works or literature-related individuals follows, including year of birth.