1960s Berkeley protests, Movements, Women's Rights
As women became more involved in the inner workings of the Berkeley protests, they began to move up in the ranks of the positions as well. However, as time progressed they began to face opposition, even from their peers. An organization based upon promoting the advancement of human rights was now rejecting women the opportunity to lead. This created a new branch of advancement for the Women's Rights Movement.


1960s Berkeley protests, Influences, Antinomianism
Traditionally, antinomianism has been used to refer to the idea that members of a Christian religious group are under no obligation to obey the laws of ethics or morality as presented by religious authorities. However, a few scholars began to use the term in a secular context.


1960s Berkeley protests, Influences, Antinomianism
During this era, many people were influenced by the "antinomian personality", a behavioral style which "places characteristic emphasis on intuition, immediacy, self-actualization, transcendence, and similar themes familiar with Hippie conduct," said Lawrence Chenoweth. He said that those settled into this psychological state embrace the present, while rejecting the past and "fearing" the future. Chenoweth claims that the antinomian takes on a holistic attitude which results from the "confusion as to whether he is an agent or an agent to be acted upon and serves to compensate for the isolation he suffers."


1960s Berkeley protests, Influences, Antinomianism
The antinomian often confronts "forces which make the individual aware of his impotence." Chenoweth says that all of these traits then combine into the stereotypical hippie persona, as the antinomian "treats his mind as if it were completely malleable, devalues reality, rejects reason and understanding, and selects certain experiences to create a fantasied, dogmatic cosmic view of the world." In doing so, says Nathan Adler, "the individual internalizes an objective world which he perceives to be reliable and consistent." As the individual now views the world in this fashion, he or she is easily agitated when the outside world deviates from his or her ideal and seeks to control its movements.


1960s Berkeley protests, Influences, Black Panther Party
The Black Panther Party, founded by Bobby Seale and Huey P. Newton in late 1966, aimed to improve civil rights of African Americans and to rid police brutality against African Americans, especially in the Oakland area. Through their Ten Point Program, the Black Panthers were able to establish a foundation for their organization as a whole. The Black Panther Party used the technique of social agitation, in the form of vigilantism, their survival programs, and more broadly their resistance to accept and conform to influence the Civil Rights Movement.


1960s Berkeley protests, Influences, Black Panther Party
Their organization and establishment inspired the Berkeley students, and led to cohesion between the two groups. The event epitomizing this cohesion was the Sheraton Palace demonstration, in San Francisco, California. The Berkeley Students involved in the various student groups (I.E. SLATE & CORE) and the members of the Black Panther Party united to protest outside the hotel while meetings between the administration board were being conducted inside. The goal of the protest was to advance the job opportunities of African Americans within the hotel through the use of social agitation. The protest proved successful, as the Hotel eventually signed an agreement allowing African Americans opportunities to not only advance but also to be hired into managerial positions.


1960s Berkeley protests, Influences, SNCC
The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was one of the principal organizations of the American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. There is evidence that many of the students involved in the Berkeley protests acquired their spirit of dissent and learned techniques of civil disobedience through prior involvement in civil rights groups.


1960s Berkeley protests, Influences, Music
Many of the musicians during this era contributed widespread influence on the young people. This led to a young counterculture that questioned authority and its ability to set boundaries around them.


1960s Brazilian student movement
In the early 1900s, students enjoyed relative prominence in Brazilian political activities and in 1937 established the National Union of Students (Brazil), known as the UNE. In the late 1950s, the UNE became increasingly leftist as Brazil's political situation became more polarized. The Brazilian military dictatorship that came to power after a coup in 1964 directly challenged students' rights to political activity. The government's anti-democratic policies and attempt to suppress student political activity incited mass student mobilization in protest of the dictatorship. As student demonstration increased, the government escalated its repression of protestors.


1960s Brazilian student movement
Police and students repeatedly engaged in violent clashes. The student movement peaked in 1968 when students engaged in intense national protests, strikes, and occupied universities. The government increasingly arrested and tortured students and professors suspected of being leftist or associated with communist groups. By the end of 1968, the government passed legislation that eliminated the ability of students to contest the government and ended the student movement.


1960s Brazilian student movement, Political background and UNE formation
During the First Brazilian Republic, Brazilian students enjoyed relative political authority within Brazilian society. Because students were primarily male and children of Brazil's economic and political elite, the government viewed their education and political activism as preparation for their future roles as Brazilian leaders.


1960s Brazilian student movement, Political background and UNE formation
Throughout the early 1900s, students had the freedom to participate in political movements specific to student issues, Brazilian politics, and international politics, such as U.S. intervention in Panama. After a military coup in 1930, Getúlio Vargas assumed the presidency,  his policies had an effect on student political mobilization. The Vargas administration began to expand Brazil's university system and mandated the formation of officially recognized student organizations at each university that allowed the students the right to politically organize. Inspired by Vargas policies, students launched an effort to create a student organization that operated nationally.


1960s Brazilian student movement, Political background and UNE formation
In 1937, Brazilian students held a national conference at which they voted to establish the National Union of Students (Brazil), known as the UNE, which was a democratic student organization run by elected representatives from universities throughout Brazil. The formation of the UNE allowed Brazilian students more political mobility than before and gave them political autonomy from their parents and university administration. Throughout the 1900s, the UNE was primarily a leftist organization, but due to its democratic nature, periodically shifted its political alignment depending on its elected leaders and the Brazilian political climate. At times, its policies aligned with socialist agendas but it also experienced a brief conservative shift in the 50s.


1960s Brazilian student movement, Political background and UNE formation
By 1955, however, the UNE was decidedly leftist and organized several national strikes throughout the latter half of the 1950s and early 60s, including a national strike against high trolley fairs, a strike against strict entrance exams to the universities, and a push to democratize university leadership.


1960s Brazilian student movement, Transition to student political repression
In the early sixties, the attitude toward student political mobilization changed. In the wake of the Cuban Revolution, and given the global political climate of the Cold War, conservative political forces began to fear the emergence of revolutionary groups within Brazil. They feared that leftist organizations, including the Brazilian Student Movement, were being infiltrated by communist revolutionaries.


1960s Brazilian student movement, Transition to student political repression
Student political mobilization became viewed as a threat to Brazil's internal national security. At the same time, student organizations were also inspired by the reforms of the Cuban Revolution. Student movements in Brazil became more radical as they pushed for policies modeled after the Cuban example such as agrarian reform and literacy campaigns.


1960s Brazilian student movement, Transition to student political repression
With the radicalization of the student movement came conservative movements aimed at curbing student political power. These conservative organizations promoted the narrative that by being politically active, students were not fulfilling their roles as actual students, and also furthered the narrative that foreign communists infiltrated organizations like the UNE. These organizations coupled their disdain for leftist movements with criticisms of the left-leaning president, João Goulart, who was pushing for liberal reforms and whose liberal policies were blamed for inciting the growing radicalization of youth. In the final months of 1964, tensions within Brazilian society were high as Brazilian society became sharply divided between the right and the left.


1960s Brazilian student movement, Student resistance under the military dictatorship
On March 13, 1964, Goulart passed a law that nationalized Brazilian oil companies and established an agrarian reform initiative. With discontent growing in response to these liberal reforms, the military staged a coup and overthrew Goulart on March 30th with U.S. approval. The military claimed the 1964 Brazilian coup d'état was meant to protect Brazil from destabilization due to perceived communist threats.


1960s Brazilian student movement, Student resistance under the military dictatorship
The initial reactions by Brazilian society and many Brazilian students, save a few extreme leftist members of the UNE, was apathy. The new military government had little tolerance for student dissent. The government quickly acted to limit students ability to be politically active by shutting down all student organization and beginning to arrest students and professors suspected of being communist.


1960s Brazilian student movement, Student resistance under the military dictatorship
In 1964, the government passed an act called Lei Suplicy, which officially dissolved the UNE and replaced it with a non-democratic student organization that was directly under government control. The UNE's physical building was also burned to the ground during the coup as an intimidation tactic. These repressive measures were a significant blow for student organizations, but clandestinely in 1996, the UNE reestablished with an overtly anti-government agenda.


1960s Brazilian student movement, Student resistance under the military dictatorship
In 1966, the clandestine UNE was able to organize an anti-government strike followed by a protest called the "National Day of Protest Against the Dictatorship". This protest was in response to increasingly repressive government measures. Earlier attempts at student mobilization had been met with police violence and student arrests. These protesters demanded the release of student prisoners, a repeal of Lei Suplicy, and the suspension of university professors suspected of being communist. At one protest of this national movement at a medical school in Rio de Janeiro, students were met with police violence.


1960s Brazilian student movement, Notable demonstrations and conflict in 1968
After the coup, the government met increasing student unrest with increasing violence. Students viewed the government as increasingly undemocratic and repressive, so they responded by escalating their resistance.


1960s Brazilian student movement, Notable demonstrations and conflict in 1968
Students were also influenced to mobilize because the dictatorship's policies were directly influencing the quality and accessibility of Brazilian education. In particular, students were angry that there was not enough space in Brazilian schools to accommodate all students that had passed the entrance exam.


1960s Brazilian student movement, Notable demonstrations and conflict in 1968
In 1968, student unrest reached its peak and mass protests struck the nation. The incident that incited the unrest was the murder of a poor student name Edson Luís de Lima Souto during a student protest in Rio. Students in a cafeteria were protesting the poor quality of state-run university cafeterias when police intervened violently, killing the young student.


1960s Brazilian student movement, Notable demonstrations and conflict in 1968
His body was taken to the statehouse in protests and massive demonstrations followed. In particular, University students organized his funeral, which turned into an anti-dictatorship demonstration with over 50,000 attendees.


1960s Brazilian student movement, Notable demonstrations and conflict in 1968
After this incident, student and police clashes became increasingly violent. Students would arm themselves with rocks, Molotov cocktails, and other makeshift weapons and barricade university buildings from police. Police killed more students when repressing increasingly violent protests. Students organized a march with labor parties and civilians that had over 100,000 participants. This demonstration was significant because it included many participants of different political alignments that joined together in protests of the military dictatorship.


1960s Brazilian student movement, End of the student movement
During the latter half of 1968, government repression intensified. The government increasingly arrested and tortured students and professors for any suspected allegiance to leftist organizations.


1960s Brazilian student movement, End of the student movement
In August, the military occupied The University of Brasilia. In October of that year, the police invaded the clandestine UNE conference. Over 700 UNE members and students were arrested, effectively removing most of the student movement's leaders.


1960s Brazilian student movement, End of the student movement
The final blow to the student movement came when the government issued Institutional Act Number Five, which essentially eliminated all civil liberties guaranteed by the Brazilian government and legalized censorship, state surveillance, and cemented the military's uncontested authority.


1960s Brazilian student movement, End of the student movement
This essentially prevented students from continuing to protesting the government through any means. Throughout the 70s, above ground student resistance movements were practically nonexistent.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials
The 1960s Sicilian Mafia trials took place at the end of that decade in response to a rise in organized crime violence around the late 1950s and early 1960s. There were three major trials, each featuring multiple defendants, that saw hundreds of alleged Mafiosi on trial for dozens of crimes. From the authority's point of view, they were a failure; very few defendants were convicted, although later trials as well as information from pentiti confirmed most of those acquitted were Mafiosi members, and were guilty of many crimes including some of those they were acquitted of.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials
Emanuele Notarbartolo was stabbed to death on a train in 1893. A number of suspected Mafiosi were rounded up and tried in 1900 of the murder, and though convicted they were acquitted on appeal due to a minor technicality. In the 1920s, Cesare Mori was sent to Sicily by Benito Mussolini to combat the Mafia, although Mori's crude method of imprisoning thousands of men - many of them innocent - without trial meant the Mafia were able to swiftly reestablish themselves as before once Mori had departed.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials
In the late 1950s, there was an increase in violence around the town of Corleone as rival factions in the local Mafia clan, the group around Michele Navarra and the Corleonesi, battled it out. More significantly there were a wave of murders and car bombings in and around Palermo in the First Mafia War that started in 1962.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials
The event that triggered a major crackdown against the Mafia was the Ciaculli massacre, when seven police officers were killed on 30 June 1963, whilst trying to defuse a car bomb left by one group of mobsters who had actually intended it to kill some rival mobsters. The death of the policemen caused an outcry. In Octopus (see References), author Claire Sterling quotes the regional army commander for Sicily, General Aldo De Marco as ordering his men to: "Get everybody with a criminal record and throw them into jail, on my orders. Torture them and see what they let out, or shoot them on sight. I'll go to prison. But we can't go on like this."


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials
A crackdown – albeit not quite as disregarding of civil liberties as General Aldo De Marco initially requested – did indeed follow, and during the mid-1960s, 1,995 suspected Mafiosi were arrested and charged with hundreds of crimes. It took many trials to process the accused, including three major ones.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, The First Trial
The first trial opened in 1967 and concentrated on the growing involvement of the Sicilian Mafia in the international heroin trade. Specifically, the defendants were all those who had been at a series of meetings in October 1957 between American and Sicilian Mafiosi at the Grand Hotel Des Palmes in Palermo. The meeting was about heroin, with the Americans apparently not keen on getting too involved in drugs due to the lengthy sentences for trafficking, whilst the Sicilians were apparently all for it.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, The First Trial
At the time, authorities did not know of the decision the two organisations came to (which was for the Sicilians to import and distribute heroin into the US, with their American counterparts taking a slice of the profits), but they were aware it concerned trafficking heroin. (The meeting also concluded that, following the American model, the Sicilians should start up their own commission.)


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, The First Trial
Amongst the defendants were Gaetano Badalamenti, Tommaso Buscetta and Giuseppe Genco Russo. They were mostly charged with Organized Delinquency, an old law that was the nearest prosecutors had to a charge of being a Mafiosi (many in authority—whether out of naivety or otherwise—denied the existence of the Mafia in the 1960s, and in fact it was not until 1982 that being a member of the Mafia became a formal crime.)


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, The First Trial
All the Americans at the meeting, including Joseph Bonanno and Carmine Galante, were indicted, but none were extradited because the US had no such criminal charge of Organized Delinquency. Charles "Lucky" Luciano, who was the principal organizer of the meeting, would have stood trial but he had since died of natural causes.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, The First Trial
The prosecutors did not have a great deal of evidence at the trial, principally relying on information from Joseph Valachi, an American Mafiosi who began co-operating with the government in 1962. As a low-level mobster, Valachi was not at the Grand Hotel Des Palmes meeting, but he was aware of the growing heroin trade and the Sicilian Mafia's involvement in it. The police had also put those at the meeting under surveillance at the time and for months afterwards in the hope of collecting evidence that they were dealing in narcotics.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, The First Trial
The evidence was still thin on the ground and at the conclusion of the trial in August 1968 every single defendant was acquitted.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, The Trial of the 114
Overlapping the above trial was the Trial of the 114, so-called because it featured 114 defendants. This trial took place in Catanzaro on the Italian mainland, partly due to there being no facilities for such a large trial in Sicily and also in the hope of minimizing intimidation of witnesses. Anti - Mafia judge Cesare Terranova signed the order to send the men to trial in 1965, ruling that the crimes and those accused of carrying them out were all linked and should be tried as an organized body.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, The Trial of the 114
The defendants were accused of crimes relating to the First Mafia War, the charges including multiple murder, kidnapping, tobacco smuggling, theft, "public massacre" (the Ciaculli bombing) and Organized Delinquency.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, The Trial of the 114
Amongst those on trial were the heads of the opposing factions in the Mafia War, Salvatore Greco and Angelo La Barbera, as well as the man who had actually triggered the war by framing La Barbera, Michele Cavataio. Also there were Giuseppe Calò and Luciano Leggio.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, The Trial of the 114
The trial opened in December 1967 and lasted until 22 December 1968. It resulted in ten convictions, with several of those being just for Organized Delinquency. This only carried a sentence of a few years, and most of those convicted of it were released instantly thanks to time already served.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, The Trial of the 114
The longest sentence was handed to Angelo La Barbera, who was given twenty-two-years for ordering the kidnap and murder of two rival mobsters who had vanished in 1963 after they were seen being bundled off the streets; someone who witnessed the kidnapping testified for the prosecution despite death threats, one of the few witnesses to do so. Tommaso Buscetta was given a thirteen-year sentence for kidnapping the men but his conviction was in absentia because he was not present at the trial. He had fled Sicily after the Ciaculli Massacre to avoid the inevitable crackdown. Buscetta was captured in Brazil in 1973 and sent back to Sicily to serve his sentence. Salvatore Greco was also convicted in absentia. No-one was found guilty of the Ciaculli Massacre.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, The Trial of the 114
Amongst the 104 defendants acquitted was Luciano Leggio. It is not known for certain what role - if any - he played in the First Mafia War, although he spent a lot of time in Palermo in the early 1960s and was apparently friends with Salvatore Greco.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, Corleonesi Trial
Leggio would play a significant role in the third trial which began in February 1969, just two-months after the end of the Trial of the 114. This trial, which took place once again on the Italian mainland, in the town of Bari, had sixty-four defendants, all from the town of Corleone.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, Corleonesi Trial
The charges related to a Mafia War in Corleone that started in 1958 when the local Mafia boss Michele Navarra was gunned down by Leggio and his men and lasted five-years, resulting in over fifty murders, as Leggio and his faction battled it out with Navarra's supporters. Leggio, who was victorious and now the new Corleonesi Boss, was the key defendant, charged with murdering nine people, including Navarra. Amongst his co-defendants was his eventual successor, Salvatore Riina, also accused of Navarra's slaying.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, Corleonesi Trial
Bernardo Provenzano should have stood trial too, having been indicted for triple murder in 1963, but he had somehow escaped the police dragnet, something he managed to do until 2006.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, Corleonesi Trial
The prosecutor was once again Cesare Terranova, who had made it clear that he was intent on putting Leggio away for good.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, Corleonesi Trial
As was the case in all three trials, the defendants pleaded innocent and insisted they were not members of any Mafia, and that they had never heard of such an organization. When Leggio took the stand he made the rather strange claim that he was being framed by a police officer who had "begged me repeatedly to pleasure his wife; and I, for moral reasons, refused...Please don't ask me for names, I am a gentleman." He and some other defendants did, however, admit to the minor crime of dealing on the black market during World War II.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, Corleonesi Trial
There was significant evidence tampering during the trial. For example, fragments of a broken car light found at the Navarra murder scene which had been identified as belonging to an Alfa Romeo car owned by Leggio had, by the time of the trial, been replaced by bits of a broken light from a completely different make of car.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, Corleonesi Trial
As the jury retired in July, they and the judge received an anonymous note that read:


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, Corleonesi Trial
To the President of the Court of Assizes of Bari and members of the Jury:


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, Corleonesi Trial
You people in Bari have not understood, or rather, you don't want to understand, what Corleone means. You are judging honest gentlemen of Corleone, denounced through caprice by the Carabinieri and police.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, Corleonesi Trial
We simply want to warn you that if a single gentleman from Corleone is convicted, you will be blown sky high, you will be wiped out, you will be butchered and so will every member of your family.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, Corleonesi Trial
We think we've been clear. Nobody must be convicted. Otherwise you will condemned to death - you and your families.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, Corleonesi Trial
A Sicilian proverb says: "A man warned is a man saved". It's up to you. Be wise.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, Corleonesi Trial
Cesare Terranova successfully appealed against the acquittal of the "gentlemen from Corleone" so many, including Leggio and Riina, had to go into hiding almost as soon as they were released. Leggio was retried in absentia for the Navarra murder in 1970, and this time found guilty, but it was four years before he could be captured and sent off to serve his life sentence.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, Corleonesi Trial
Salvatore Riina, also convicted in absentia at a second trial for murdering Navarra, remained a fugitive until 1993.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, Aftermath
Many of the prosecutors and judges involved in the trials, including Terranova, complained that the political will from Rome to prosecute the Mafia that followed the after the Ciaculli Massacre had evaporated by the end of the 1960s, leaving prosecutors on their own. Whilst there was undoubtedly witness intimidation and evidence tampering, a lot of the evidence was fairly thin. There were no pentiti at the time and few non-Mafiosi willing to risk death by testifying for the prosecution.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, Aftermath
Cesare Terranova was gunned down in 1979. Leggio was accused of ordering the killing from his prison cell, but acquitted due to insufficient evidence.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, Aftermath
On 10 December 1969, once all the trials were over, Michele Cavataio and three of his men were shot to death in a gun battle that left one of the attackers dead as well. Having drastically reduced its activities during the crackdown following the Ciaculli Massacre, the Mafia was back in business and its first job was to dispose of Cavataio, who they had finally realised had triggered the First Mafia War.


1960s Sicilian Mafia trials, Aftermath
Many of those in the above trials were convicted at a later date. For example, Gaetano Badalamenti would end his days in a US prison after being convicted of doing in the 1970s and 1980s exactly what he had been accused of planning in the 1960s, namely trafficking heroin into America. Tommaso Buscetta would eventually become one of the first Mafia pentiti and revealed a great deal about the Mafia, although he was a little reluctant to implicate himself or his friends too much, his revelations concentrating on his enemies such as Leggio, Riina and Giuseppe Calo.


1960s South Pacific cyclone seasons
The following is a list of all reported tropical cyclones within the South Pacific Ocean to the east of 160°E during the 1960s.


1960s decor
1960s décor refers to a distinct style of interior decoration that became prominent in the 1960s and early 1970s. Green, (such as pea green and drab), yellow, pink, and orange (such as peach and saffron) hues were popular for wallpaper, carpets, curtains, sofas, chair seats, and cushions, often with patterns or bright flowers. English decorator David Hicks was an important influence on interiors in the 1960s, inspired by bright colours associated with India. Hicks popularized use of "psychedelic patterns and acid-edged colors," peaking in the period 1967-1973, a time when there was interest in the  Hippie movement and "flower power." In the same era, Dorothy Draper, one of Manhattan's top interior decorators of the 1960s, used 'dull' white and 'shiny' black as one of her favorite combinations.


1960s decor
The "Retro Modern" style is associated with the decades of the 1950s and 1960s. As a furniture material, polypropylene, which was manufactured in colors that could be matched to paint chips, came into its own. Foam molding, mostly used as upholstery cushions, became a basic structural unit for furniture in the early 1960s. Large areas, such as sofas, beds, carpets, drapes and wallcovers, were covered in vibrant colors and patterns. Employing "psychedelic intensity", the colors and styles were influenced by India, Spain, and the Mediterranean.


1960s decor
In the 1950s and 1960s, specialized patterns in wall painting were developed. Sherwin-Williams  manufactured an Applique system and similar systems were manufactured by Karl Höhn, also Reuss, in Germany.


1960s decor
Many hotels and restaurants retain their décor from the 1960s or specifically employ Sixties-style features to give them a more nostalgic sensibility. Pink or orange paintwork, bedspreads, and curtains, which were fashionable in the 1960s, however, are considered by some to be "hideous" or "painful," today. As Paul Evans put it, "For many the popular image of 1960s home design was of ephemerality and excess, of plastic or paper chairs and lurid carpets and wallpaper."


1960s decor
Television series from the era, such as The Avengers, Batman, The Man from U.N.C.L.E, Bewitched, The Saint, and Randall and Hopkirk (Deceased) provide fine examples of the type of décor popular during this period and are an important aspect of the look of the productions; for the latter, orange hues are included in the title design.


1960s in Angola
The 1960s in Angola were marked by the War of Independence (1961–1975). Portuguese police arrested Agostinho Neto of the MPLA and future President of Angola (1975–1979) in 1960 for the third time. Delegates discussed Cabinda's self-determination in relation to Angola at the 4th Commission of the United Nations on Decolonization in New York in 1962. Cabinda became a member of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) as the 39th colonized country in 1964.


1960s in Angola, Economy
Angola's industries grew by an annual average rate of 17% in the 1960s as ethnic Europeans seized natives' lands and increased mineral production. Mineral exports doubled between 1965 and 1970 to 170 million pounds. In the district of Huambo, between 1968 and 1970 white-owned land more than doubled from 249,039 hectares to 526,270 hectares. Native-owned land decreased by 36.5%. The average African farm's gross income declined between 1964 and 1970 from $98.00 to $35.00 Portuguese petroleum-production began in Congo basin in the 1960s, and in the exclave of Cabinda in 1968. Now the petroleum industry is the engine of the Angolan economy.


1960s in France
France emerged from World War II in the 1960s, rebuilding the country physically and the nation's national identity through the French Fifth Republic. Under the leadership of President Charles de Gaulle (1959–1969), France regained its great power status.


1960s in France, 1958–62: Founding of the Fifth Republic
In the November 1958 elections, de Gaulle and his supporters (initially organised in the Union pour la Nouvelle République-Union Démocratique du Travail, then the Union des Démocrates pour la Vème République, and later still the Union des Démocrates pour la République, UDR) won a comfortable majority. In December, de Gaulle was elected President by the electoral college with 78% of the vote, and inaugurated in January 1959.


1960s in France, 1958–62: Founding of the Fifth Republic
He oversaw tough economic measures to revitalize the country, including the issuing of a new franc (worth 100 old francs). Internationally, he rebuffed both the United States and the Soviet Union, pushing for an independent France with its own nuclear weapons, and strongly encouraged a "Free Europe," believing that a confederation of all European nations would restore the past glories of the great European empires. He set about building Franco-German cooperation as the cornerstone of the European Economic Community (EEC), paying the first state visit to Germany by a French head of state since Napoleon. In 1963, Germany and France signed a treaty of friendship, the Élysée Treaty. France also reduced its dollar reserves, trading them for gold from the U.S. government, thereby reducing America's economic influence abroad.


1960s in France, 1958–62: Founding of the Fifth Republic
On 23 November 1959 in a speech in Strasbourg, de Gaulle announced his vision for Europe:


1960s in France, 1958–62: Founding of the Fifth Republic
Oui, c'est l'Europe, depuis l'Atlantique jusqu'à l'Oural, c'est toute l'Europe, qui décidera du destin du monde.


1960s in France, 1958–62: Founding of the Fifth Republic
("Yes, it is Europe, from the Atlantic to the Urals, it is Europe, it is the whole of Europe, that will decide the destiny of the world.")


1960s in France, 1958–62: Founding of the Fifth Republic
His expression, "Europe, from the Atlantic to the Urals," has often been cited throughout the history of European integration. It became, for the next ten years, de Gaulle's favorite political rallying cry. His vision stood in contrast to the Atlanticism of the United States, Britain and NATO, preferring instead a Europe that would act as a third pole between the United States and the Soviet Union. By including in his ideal of Europe all the territory up to the Urals, de Gaulle was implicitly offering détente to the Soviets, while his phrase was also interpreted as excluding the United Kingdom from a future Europe.


1960s in France, 1958–62: Founding of the Fifth Republic
He vetoed the British application to join the EEC in 1963, because he thought that the United Kingdom lacked the political will to join the community. Many Britons took de Gaulle's "non" as an insult, especially with the role the United Kingdom had played in the Liberation of France only 19 years earlier.


1960s in France, 1958–62: Founding of the Fifth Republic
De Gaulle believed that while the war in Algeria was militarily winnable, it was not defensible internationally, and he became reconciled to the colony's eventual independence. This stance greatly angered the French settlers and their metropolitan supporters, and de Gaulle was forced to suppress two uprisings in Algeria by French settlers and troops, in the second of which (the Generals' Putsch in April 1961) France herself was threatened with invasion by rebel paratroops. De Gaulle's government also covered up the Paris massacre of 1961, issued under the orders of the police prefect Maurice Papon.


1960s in France, 1958–62: Founding of the Fifth Republic
He was also targeted by the settler Organisation armée secrète (OAS) terrorist group and several assassination attempts were made on him; the most famous is that of 22 August 1962, when he and his wife narrowly escaped an assassination attempt when their Citroën DS was targeted by machine gun fire arranged by Jean-Marie Bastien-Thiry in Petit-Clamart. After a referendum on Algerian self-determination carried out in 1961, de Gaulle arranged a cease-fire in Algeria with the March 1962 Évian Accords, legitimated by another referendum a month later. Algeria became independent in July 1962, while an amnesty was later issued covering all crimes committed during the war, including the use of torture. In just a few months in 1962, 900,000 French settlers left the country. The exodus accelerated after the 5th of July 1962 massacre.


1960s in France, 1958–62: Founding of the Fifth Republic
In September 1962, de Gaulle sought a constitutional amendment to allow the president to be directly elected by the people and issued another referendum to this end, approved by more than three-fifths of voters despite a broad "coalition of no" formed by most of the parties, opposed to a presidential regime. After a motion of censure voted by the Parliament on 4 October 1962 de Gaulle dissolved the National Assembly and held new elections.


1960s in France, 1958–62: Founding of the Fifth Republic
Although the left progressed, the Gaullists won an increased majority, despite opposition from the Christian democratic Popular Republican Movement and the National Centre of Independents and Peasants (CNIP) who criticized de Gaulle's euroscepticism and presidentialism. Although the government settled the Algerian issue, Prime Minister Michel Debré resigned over the final settlement and Georges Pompidou replaced him.


1960s in France, 1962–68: Politics of grandeur
With the Algerian conflict behind him, de Gaulle achieved his two main objectives: to reform and develop the French economy, and to promote an independent foreign policy and a strong stance on the international stage. This was, as named by foreign observers, the "politics of grandeur" (politique de grandeur).


1960s in France, "Thirty glorious years"
In the context of a population boom unseen in France since the 18th century, the government under prime minister Georges Pompidou oversaw a rapid transformation and expansion of the French economy. With dirigisme — a combination of capitalism and state-directed economy — the government intervened heavily in the economy, using indicative five-year plans as its main tool.


1960s in France, "Thirty glorious years"
High profile projects, mostly but not always financially successful, were launched: the extension of Marseille harbor (soon ranking third in Europe and first in the Mediterranean); the promotion of the Caravelle passenger jetliner (a predecessor of Airbus); the decision to start building the supersonic Franco-British Concorde airliner in Toulouse; the expansion of the French auto industry with state-owned Renault at its center; and the building of the first motorways between Paris and the provinces.


1960s in France, "Thirty glorious years"
With these projects, the French economy recorded growth rates unrivaled since the 19th century. In 1963, de Gaulle vetoed Britain's entry into the EEC for the first of two times. In 1964, for the first time in 200 years, France's GDP overtook that of the United Kingdom, a position it held until the 1990s. This period is still remembered in France with some nostalgia as the peak of the Trente Glorieuses ("Thirty Glorious Years" of economic growth between 1945 and 1974).


1960s in France, Fourth nuclear power
This strong economic foundation enabled de Gaulle to implement his independent foreign policy. In 1960, France became the fourth state to acquire a nuclear arsenal, detonating an atomic bomb in the Algerian desert (a secret clause of the 1962 Évian Accords with the Algerian National Liberation Front stated that "Algeria concede... to France the use of certain air bases, terrains, sites and military installations which are necessary to it [France]" during five years.) In 1968, at the insistence of de Gaulle, French scientists finally succeeded in detonating a hydrogen bomb without American assistance. In what was regarded as a snub to Britain, de Gaulle declared France to be the third big independent nuclear power, as Britain's nuclear force was closely coordinated with that of the United States.


1960s in France, Fourth nuclear power
While grandeur was surely an essential motive in these nuclear developments, another was the concern that the U.S., involved in an unpopular and costly war in Vietnam, would hesitate to intervene in Europe should the Soviet Union decide to invade. De Gaulle wanted to develop an independent force de frappe. An additional effect was that the French military, which had been demoralized and close to rebellion after the loss of Algeria, was kept busy. In 1965, France launched its first satellite into orbit, being the third country in the world to build a complete delivery system, after the Soviet Union and the United States.


1960s in France, China
De Gaulle was convinced that a strong and independent France could act as a balancing force between the United States and the Soviet Union, a policy seen as little more than posturing and opportunism by his critics, particularly in Britain and the United States, to which France was formally allied. In January 1964, he officially recognized the People's Republic of China, despite the opposition of the U.S. government. Eight years later U.S. President Richard Nixon visited the PRC and began normalizing relations.


1960s in France, China
Nixon's first foreign visit after his election was to France in 1969. He and de Gaulle both shared the same non-Wilsonian approach to world affairs, believing in nations and their relative strengths, rather than in ideologies, international organizations, or multilateral agreements. De Gaulle is famously known for calling the United Nations le Machin ("the thing").


1960s in France, Second round
In December 1965, de Gaulle returned as president for a second seven-year term, but this time he had to go through a second round of voting in which he defeated François Mitterrand. In February 1966, France withdrew from the common NATO military command, but remained within the organization. He also declared that all foreign military forces had to leave French territory, giving them one year to redeploy.


1960s in France, Second round
In September 1966, in a famous speech in Phnom Penh (Cambodia), he expressed France's disapproval of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, calling for a U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam as the only way to ensure peace. As the Vietnam War had its roots in French colonialism in southeast Asia, this speech did little to endear de Gaulle to the Americans, even if they later came to the same conclusion.


1960s in France, Empty Chair Crisis
During the establishment of the European Community, de Gaulle helped precipitate one of the greatest crises in the history of the EC, the Empty Chair Crisis. It involved the financing of the Common Agricultural Policy, but almost more importantly the use of qualified majority voting in the EC (as opposed to unanimity). In June 1965, after France and the other five members could not agree, de Gaulle withdrew France's representatives from the EC. Their absence left the organization essentially unable to run its affairs until the Luxembourg compromise was reached in January 1966. De Gaulle managed to make qualified voting majority (QVM) mechanism essentially meaningless for years to come, and halted more federalist plans for the EC, which he opposed.


1960s in France, Six-Day War
Having vetoed Britain's entry into the EEC a second time, in June 1967, he condemned the Israelis for their occupation of the West Bank and Gaza following the Six-Day War, saying "Israel is organising, on the territories which it has taken, an occupation which cannot work without oppression, repression and expulsions - and if there appears resistance to this, it will in turn be called 'terrorism'." This was a major change in French policy. Until then, France had been a staunch ally, helping Israel militarily and jointly planning the Suez Campaign in 1956.


1960s in France, Six-Day War
Under de Gaulle, following the independence of Algeria, France embarked on foreign policies more favourable to the Arab side, still a distinct aspect of French foreign policy today. Israel's leadership, stung by what it considered its capricious abandonment, turned towards the United States for military support. However, de Gaulle supported the principle of a just settlement for both the Arab and Jewish refugees of the Middle East within the framework of the United Nations. This was stated upon the adoption of UN Resolution 242, in his press conference of 27 November 1967 and contained in his letter to David Ben-Gurion dated 9 January 1968.


1960s in France, Nigerian Civil War
During Nigeria's civil war of 1967-1970, de Gaulle's government supported the Republic of Biafra in its struggle to gain independence from Nigeria. Despite lack of official recognition, de Gaulle provided covert military assistance through France's former African colonies. The United Kingdom opposed de Gaulle's stance, but he viewed the political position of the Igbo in Nigeria as analogous to that of the French Québécois living in Canada.


1960s in France, Vive le Québec libre!
In July 1967, de Gaulle visited Canada, then-celebrating its centennial with a world's fair, Expo 67. On 24 July, speaking to a large crowd from a balcony at Montreal's city hall, de Gaulle uttered Vive le Québec ! (Long live Quebec!) then added, Vive le Québec libre ! (Long live free Quebec!).


1960s in France, Vive le Québec libre!
Canadian media outlets strongly criticized the statement, and the Prime Minister of Canada, Lester B. Pearson, a soldier who had fought in World War I and a Nobel Peace Prize winner, stated that "Canadians do not need to be liberated." De Gaulle left Canada of his own accord the next day without proceeding to Ottawa as scheduled. He never returned to Canada. The speech caused outrage in most of Canada and led to a serious diplomatic rift between the two countries. However, the event was seen as a watershed moment by the Quebec sovereignty movement.


1960s in France, Vive le Québec libre!
In December 1967, claiming continental European solidarity, he again rejected British entry into the European Economic Community. Many have commented that the "policy of grandeur" was probably too ambitious and heavy for the shoulders of France. This policy, it is argued, was only made possible by de Gaulle's resolve, and was not sustainable in the long run. In any case, it is still remembered in France as a defining era of modern French foreign policy, and it still largely inspires policy to this day.


1960s in France, May 1968
De Gaulle's government was criticized within France, particularly for its heavy-handed style. While the written press and elections were free, the state had a monopoly on television and radio broadcasts (though there were private stations broadcasting from abroad; see ORTF) and the executive occasionally told public broadcasters the bias that they desired on news. In many respects, society was traditionalist and repressive. Many factors contributed to a general weariness of sections of the public, particularly the student youth, which led to the events of May 1968.


1960s in France, May 1968
The huge demonstrations and strikes in France in May 1968 severely challenged de Gaulle's legitimacy. He briefly fled to Baden-Baden and met Massu, then French commander in Germany (to discuss possible army intervention against the protesters, according to popular unofficial accounts).


1960s in France, May 1968
In a private meeting discussing the students' and workers' demands for direct participation in business and government he coined the phrase "La réforme oui, la chienlit non," politely translated as 'reform yes, masquerade/chaos no.' It was a vernacular scatological pun meaning 'chie-en-lit, no'. The term is now common parlance in French political commentary, used both critically and ironically referring back to de Gaulle.


1960s in France, May 1968
De Gaulle offered to accept some of the reforms the demonstrators sought. He again considered a referendum to support his moves, but Pompidou persuaded him to dissolve parliament (in which the government had all but lost its majority in the March 1967 elections) and hold new elections instead. The June 1968 elections were a major success for the Gaullists and their allies; when shown the specter of revolution or even civil war, the majority of the country rallied to him. His party won 358 of 487 seats. Maurice Couve de Murville replaced Pompidou in July.


1960s in France, Retirement and death
De Gaulle resigned on 29 April 1969, following the defeat of his referendum to transform the Senate into an advisory body while giving extended powers to regional councils. Some said the referendum was a self-conscious political suicide committed by de Gaulle after the traumatizing events of May 1968.


1960s in Ghana
1960s in Ghana details events of note that happened in Ghana in the years 1960 to 1969.


1960s in Ghana, National holidays
In addition, several other places observe local holidays, such as the foundation of their town. These are also "special days."


1960s in Hong Kong
1960s in Hong Kong continued with the development and expansion of manufacturing that began in the previous decade. The economic progress made in the period would categorise Hong Kong as one of Four Asian Tigers along with Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan.


1960s in Hong Kong, Background
Economically, this era is considered a major stepping stone for Hong Kong. It is considered the first turning point for Hong Kong's economy. The per capita GDP was still relatively low in 1960. It was approximately the same as Peru, South Africa and Greece in the same decade. By comparison, Argentina had two times and Venezuela had three times the GDP of Hong Kong. The living standard was rising steadily, but low wages continued. The number of registered factories increased from 3,000 in 1950s to 10,000 in 1960s. Registered foreign companies increased from 300 to 500. There were demands for labour in every sector of the economy.


1960s in Hong Kong, Background
Politically, however, this era is marked by the political chaos in mainland China.


1960s in Hong Kong, Demographics, Population
Hong Kong's population in the 1960s is estimated at 3 million. Half of the population was under the age of 25 and the group became Hong Kong's baby boom generation. The surge of refugees continued to come in from China.


1960s in Hong Kong, Culture, Lifestyle
The past generations of Chinese families were deeply rooted in family affairs. The long hours in the factories would break apart that traditional structure when most people spend far more time working in factories than at home. But people lived under a strong willingness to bear sufferings. This was slightly compensated by their close relationship within the community, and cheerful talks in their spare times. Work places mainly served as educational hubs or the "second home". Women also joined the work force in larger numbers, becoming working daughters or working mothers.


1960s in Hong Kong, Culture, Education
The government pursued an ambitious public education programme, creating over 300,000 new primary school places between 1954 and 1961. By 1966, 99.8% of school-age children were attending primary school, though the primary schools were not free.


1960s in Hong Kong, Culture, Events
From 6 to 15 December 1969, the first Hong Kong Festival was launched after 7 months of preparation work with HKD $4 million of funding. It originated after the 1967 riots in hopes that people unleash their energy toward a better cause instead of communists' riots. The number of participants reached more than 500,000 including foreign tourists.


1960s in Hong Kong, Culture, Entertainment
The 1960s cinema films were still rooted in a Chinese tradition, though Hong Kong would have one of their first pop culture teen idols, Connie Chan Po-chu. The arrival of broadcast television would become the first format brewed in Hong Kong to be marketed toward the people of Hong Kong directly. TVB station was founded in 1967 and made the first free-over-the-air broadcast.


1960s in Hong Kong, Culture, Law and order
The first disturbance in the 1960s was the Hong Kong 1966 riots over the rising fares of the Star Ferry. A petition was created with 20,000 signatures in protest against any increases in transportation costs. The result led to the arrest of 1,800 people, but the end came swiftly.


1960s in Hong Kong, Culture, Law and order
Other riots include the Hong Kong 1967 riots which began when internal conflict within the Communist party in China resulted in the Cultural Revolution. Pro -communist leftists in Hong Kong challenged British rule. Demonstrations were held, the red guards would take shape in Hong Kong carrying Quotations from Chairman Mao Zedong in their left hands shouting communist slogans. The People's Daily in Beijing ran editorials supporting the leftist struggle. Rumors spread that China was preparing to take over the colony. Political tension soared. The riots only came to an end in December 1967 when Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai ordered the leftist groups in Hong Kong to stop. After the riot, the government made an effort to clean up any existing communist networks. The radio host Lam Bun was also murdered.


1960s in Hong Kong, Culture, Natural disasters, Drought
In 1963 and 1967, serious droughts affected Hong Kong. Water supply was unable to support the needs of the rapid population growth. The government introduced a water restriction policy. There were periods when water supply was restricted to 4 hours per 4 days. People had to save water for 4 days of usage. Water shortages, however, were mainly created by the politics (see resource section).


1960s in Hong Kong, Culture, Natural disasters, Typhoon
In 1960, Typhoon Mary affected Hong Kong, causing 45 deaths and 127 injuries. It also destroyed about 10,000 homes.


1960s in Hong Kong, Culture, Natural disasters, Typhoon
In 1962, Typhoon Wanda affected Hong Kong, causing 130 deaths. 72,000 people left homeless. It was one of the most disastrous typhoons to ever affect Hong Kong.


1960s in Hong Kong, Economy, Construction
The construction business would also continue to increase along with the demand of highways, buildings, tunnels, and reservoirs. In 1962, the director of public works questioned where to go after the development of Kwai Chung and Tsuen Wan. The construction expansion went west to Tuen Mun and north to Sha Tin. The first post-World War II documentation to provide detailed information about the territory came in 1969 in a guide titled the "Colony Outline Plan". It was the first paperwork to outline strategies to house a million people with low-cost public housing, along with defining tight regulations and guidelines on how to construct among the high density population.


1960s in Hong Kong, Economy, Manufacture
While many companies were beginning to diversify in the products it manufactures, the entire success of the Hong Kong colony rested on the textile industry. An estimated 625,000 residents were supported directly or indirectly by this one industry. The government was depending on its Shanghai entrepreneurs and the industry collectively ran in 3 shifts around the clock. It was from this point that the cheap low-grade products became high-quality products with the "Made in Hong Kong" label. By 1968, factories employing fewer than 100 workers accounted for 42 percent of Hong Kong's domestic exports to the UK, amounting to HKD $1.2 billion.


1960s in Hong Kong, Economy, Hospital and hospitality
From 1960 to 1965, the executive council tried to revamp the medical system to provide some form of low cost health care directly or indirectly to large sections of the population. Staff at the medical and health departments were outlining proposals to estimate demands for the next 15 years. The Hong Kong Flu of 1968 would infect 15% of the population.


1960s in Hong Kong, Economy, Hospital and hospitality
During the beginning of the Vietnam War, the U.S. made Hong Kong a frequent stop for resting troops in the Asian region. It was considered one of the neutral zones not affected by the communists despite all the political riots taking place.


1960s in Hong Kong, Economy, Resource
The main source of water in Hong Kong was China. A contract was signed in 1964 when Hong Kong purchased 15,000 gallons of water a day drawn from China's East river. When political turmoil came to Hong Kong, China turned off the supply periodically and caused water shortages. Rationing was imposed by the government.


1960s in Irish television
For articles on Irish television in the 1960s please see:


1960s in LGBT rights
This is a list of notable events in the history of LGBT rights that took place in the 1960s.


1960s in Rhodesia
Iain Peter Butchart, a cricketer, was born in Bulawayo on 9 May 1960. Broadcasting of television started in November. The Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) was formed in 1961 with Joshua Nkomo as leader. The Rhodesian Front won the general elections of 1962 on 14 December. Winston Field then became the Prime Minister of Rhodesia. The Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) was formed in 1963 with Robert Mugabe as Secretary. The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was dissolved on 31 December 1963 as Zambia and Malawi moved towards independence. The government placed Joshua Nkomo, leader and founder of the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union, under restriction on 16 April 1964. Northern Rhodesia gained its independence and Southern Rhodesia became the colony of Rhodesia on 24 October.


1960s in Rhodesia, 1965
Ian Smith unilaterally declared the independence (UDI) of Rhodesia from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. The Rhodesian government then established a new constitution. Harold Wilson, the British Prime Minister, declared the UDI illegal and an act of rebellion on 12 November. The United Nations Security Council declared the UDI illegal on 19 November, calling on Britain to end the rebellion. The British government suspended the Governor and Directors of Reserve Bank of Rhodesia and froze Rhodesian reserves in Britain on 3 December. Britain imposed total economic sanctions against Rhodesia on 12 December. Harold Wilson appealed to the United Nations for support to end the Rhodesian rebellion on 16 December. The British government declared an oil embargo against Rhodesia on 17 December.


1960s in Rhodesia, 1966 to 1967
The United Nations Security Council agreed that the United Kingdom should use force to prevent oil from reaching Rhodesia via Beira, Mozambique on 10 April 1966. Ian Smith, the Rhodesian Prime Minister, and Harold Wilson, the British Prime Minister, met on 2 December 1966 on HMS Tiger to discuss the possibility of a settlement. The United Nations voted for selected mandatory sanctions, including oil, against Rhodesia on 16 December. Zimbabwe African People's Union and the South African African National Congress formed an alliance in January 1967 for armed struggle against Rhodesia and South Africa. Cuthbert Alport, Baron Alport and former High Commissioner to Central African Federation, visited Rhodesia on 14 June to discover whether the stalemate could be broken.


1960s in Rhodesia, 1968 to 1969
In 1968 the YMCA opened and the Gonarezhou National Park was declared. The United Nations Security Council approved comprehensive mandatory sanctions against Rhodesia through Resolution 253 on 29 May. Ian Smith, the Rhodesian Prime Minister, and Harold Wilson, the British Prime Minister, met on HMS Fearless for talks from 10–13 October. George Thomson, the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs and Maurice Foley, British Under-Secretary of State, visited Rhodesia for talks on 2 November. The talks ended in deadlock.


1960s in Rhodesia, 1968 to 1969
George Thomson and Maurice Foley met with detained activists, Joshua Nkomo of the Zimbabwe African People's Union and Ndabaningi Sithole, founder of the Zimbabwe African National Union, on 7 November. Ebrahim Essop-Adam, a cricket player, was born in Salisbury on 16 November. The government held a referendum on a new Constitution and Republican status on 20 June 1969. Humphrey Gibbs resigned as Governor of Rhodesia on 24 June. The British Residual Mission in Salisbury, and Rhodesia House in London, both closed on 14 July.


1960s in comics
See also:1950s in comics,other events of the 1960s,1970s in comics and thelist of years in comics


1960s in fashion
Fashion of the 1960s featured a number of diverse trends. It was a decade that broke many fashion traditions, mirroring social movements during the time. Around the middle of the decade, fashions arising from small pockets of young people in a few urban centers received large amounts of media publicity, and began to heavily influence both the haute couture of elite designers and the mass-market manufacturers. Examples include the mini skirt, culottes, go-go boots, and more experimental fashions, less often seen on the street, such as curved PVC dresses and other PVC clothes.


1960s in fashion
Mary Quant popularized the mini skirt, and Jackie Kennedy introduced the pillbox hat; both became extremely popular. False eyelashes were worn by women throughout the 1960s. Hairstyles were a variety of lengths and styles. Psychedelic prints, neon colors, and mismatched patterns were in style.


1960s in fashion
In the early-to-mid 1960s, London "Modernists" known as Mods influenced male fashion in Britain. Designers were producing clothing more suitable for young adults, which led to an increase in interest and sales. In the late 1960s, the hippie movement also exerted a strong influence on women's clothing styles, including bell-bottom jeans, tie-dye and batik fabrics, as well as paisley prints.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Early 1960s (1960–63), High fashion
American fashions in the early years of the decade reflected the elegance of the First Lady, Jacqueline Kennedy. In addition to tailored skirts, women wore stiletto heel shoes and suits with short boxy jackets, and oversized buttons. Simple, geometric dresses, known as shifts, were also in style. For evening wear, full-skirted evening gowns werern; these often had low necklines and close-fitting waists. For casual wear, capri trousers were the fashion for women and girls.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Early 1960s (1960–63), Bikini
The bikini, named after the nuclear test site on Bikini Atoll, was invented in France in 1946 but struggled to gain acceptance in the mass-market during the 1950s, especially in America. The breakthrough came in 1963, after rather large versions featured in the surprise hit teen film Beach Party, which launched the Beach party film genre.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Early 1960s (1960–63), The rise of trousers for women
The 1960s were an age of fashion innovation for women. The early 1960s gave birth to drainpipe jeans and capri pants, which were worn by Audrey Hepburn. Casual dress became more unisex and often consisted of plaid button down shirts worn with slim blue jeans, comfortable slacks, or skirts. Traditionally, trousers had been viewed by western society as masculine, but by the early 1960s, it had become acceptable for women to wear them everyday. These included Levi Strauss jeans, which had previously been considered blue collar wear, and "stretch" drainpipe jeans with elastane. Women's trousers came in a variety of styles: narrow, wide, below the knee, above the ankle, and eventually mid thigh. Mid -thigh cut trousers, also known as shorts, evolved around 1969. By adapting men's style and wearing trousers, women voiced their equality to men.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Space Age fashions
Space age fashion first appeared in the late 1950s, and developed further in the 1960s. It was heavily influenced by the Space Race of the Cold War, in addition to popular science fiction paperbacks, films and television series such as Star Trek: The Original Series, Dan Dare, or Lost In Space. Designers often emphasized the energy and technology advancements of the Cold War era in their work.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Space Age fashions
The space age look was defined by boxy shapes, thigh length hemlines and bold accessories. Synthetic material was also popular with space age fashion designers. After the Second World War, fabrics like nylon, corfam, orlon, terylene, lurex and spandex were promoted as cheap, easy to dry, and wrinkle-free. The synthetic fabrics of the 1960s allowed space age fashion designers such as the late Pierre Cardin to design garments with bold shapes and a plastic texture. Non -cloth material, such as polyester and PVC, became popular in clothing and accessories as well.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Space Age fashions
For daytime outerwear, short plastic raincoats, colourful swing coats, bubble dresses, helmet-like hats, and dyed fake-furs were popular for young women. In 1966, the Nehru jacket arrived on the fashion scene, and was worn by both sexes. Suits were very diverse in color but were, for the first time ever, fitted and very slim. Waistlines for women were left unmarked and hemlines were getting shorter and shorter.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Space Age fashions
Footwear for women included low-heeled sandals and kitten-heeled pumps, as well as the trendy white go-go boots. Shoes, boots, and handbags were often made of patent leather or vinyl. The Beatles wore elastic-sided boots similar to Winkle-pickers with pointed toes and Cuban heels. These were known as "Beatle boots" and were widely copied by young men in Britain.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Space Age fashions
The French designer André Courrèges was particularly influential in the development of space age fashion. The "space look" he introduced in the spring of 1964 included trouser suits, goggles, box-shaped dresses with high skirts, and go-go boots. Go-go boots eventually became a staple of go-go girl fashion in the 1960s. The boots were defined by their fluorescent colors, shiny material, and sequins.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Space Age fashions
Other influential space age designers include Pierre Cardin and Paco Rabanne. Italian-born Pierre Cardin was best known for his helmets, short tunics, and goggles. Paco Rabanne was known for his 1966 "12 Unwearable Dresses in Contemporary Materials" collection, which made use of chain mail, aluminum, and plastic.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), A timeless fashion piece: miniskirt
Although designer Mary Quant is credited with introducing the miniskirt in 1964, André Courrèges also claimed credit for inventing the miniskirt. The miniskirt changed fashion forever.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), A timeless fashion piece: miniskirt
The definition of a miniskirt is a skirt with a hemline that is generally between 6 and 7 inches above the knees. Early references to the miniskirt from the Wyoming newspaper The Billings Gazette, described the miniskirt as a controversial item that was produced in Mexico City. During the 1950s, the miniskirt began appearing in science fiction films like Flight to Mars and Forbidden Planet


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), A timeless fashion piece: miniskirt
Mary Quant and Andre Courreges both contributed to the invention of the miniskirt during the 1960s. Mary Quant, A British designer, was one of the pioneers of the miniskirt during 1960. She named the skirt after her favorite car, the Mini Cooper. Quant introduced her design in the mid 1960s at her London boutique, Bazaar. She has said: " We wanted to increase the availability of fun for everyone. We felt that expensive things were almost immoral and the New Look was totally irrelevant to us." Miniskirts became popular in London and Paris and the term "Chelsea Look" was coined.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), A timeless fashion piece: miniskirt
Andre Courreges was a French fashion designer who also began experimenting with hemlines in the early 1960s. He started to show space-age dresses that hit above the knee in late 1964. His designs were more structured and sophisticated than Quant's design. This made the miniskirt more acceptable to the French public. His clothes represented a couture version of the "Youthquake" street style and heralded the arrival of the "moon girl" look.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), A timeless fashion piece: miniskirt
As teen culture became stronger, the term "Youthquake" came to mean the power of young people. This was unprecedented before the 1960s. Before World War II, teenagers dressed and acted like their parents. Many settled down and began raising families when they were young, normally right after high school. They were often expected to work and assist their families financially. Therefore, youth culture begins to develop only after World War II, when the advancement of many technologies and stricter child labor laws became mainstream.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), A timeless fashion piece: miniskirt
Teenagers during this period had more time to enjoy their youth, and the freedom to create their own culture separate from their parents. Teens soon began establishing their own identities and communities, with their own views and ideas, breaking away from the traditions of their parents. The fabulous "little girl" look was introduced to USA—styling with Bobbie Brooks, bows, patterned knee socks and mini skirts. The miniskirt and the "little girl" look that accompanied it reflect a revolutionary shift in the way people dress. Instead of younger generations dressing like adults, they became inspired by childlike dress.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), A timeless fashion piece: miniskirt
Second-wave feminism made the miniskirt popular. Women had entered the professional workforce in larger numbers during World War II and many women soon found they craved a career and life outside the home. They wanted the same choices, freedoms, and opportunities that were offered to men.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), A timeless fashion piece: miniskirt
During the mid 1960s, Mod girls wore very very short miniskirts, tall, brightly colored go-go boots, monochromatic geometric print patterns such as houndstooth, and tight fitted, sleeveless tunics. Flared trousers and bell bottoms appeared in 1964 as an alternative to capri pants, and led the way to the hippie period introduced in the 1960s. Bell bottoms were usually worn with chiffon blouses, polo-necked ribbed sweaters or tops that bared the midriff. These were made in a variety of materials including heavy denims, silks, and even elasticated fabrics. Variations of polyester were worn along with acrylics. A popular look for females was the suede mini-skirt worn with a French polo-neck top, square-toed boots, and Newsboy cap or beret. This style was also popular in the early 2000s.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), A timeless fashion piece: miniskirt
Women were inspired by the top models of the day which included Twiggy, Jean Shrimpton, Colleen Corby, Penelope Tree, and Veruschka. Velvet mini dresses with lace-collars and matching cuffs, wide tent dresses and culottes pushed aside the geometric shift. False eyelashes were in vogue, as was pale lipstick. Hemlines kept rising, and by 1968 they had reached well above mid-thigh. These were known as "micro-minis". This was when the "angel dress" first made its appearance on the fashion scene.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), A timeless fashion piece: miniskirt
A micro-mini dress with a flared skirt and long, wide trumpet sleeves, it was usually worn with patterned tights, and was often made of crocheted lace, velvet, chiffon or sometimes cotton with a psychedelic print. The cowled-neck "monk dress" was another religion-inspired alternative; the cowl could be pulled up to be worn over the head. For evening wear, skimpy chiffon baby-doll dresses with spaghetti-straps were popular, as well as the "cocktail dress", which was a close-fitting sheath, usually covered in lace with matching long sleeves. Feather boas were occasionally worn.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), A timeless fashion piece: miniskirt
Famous celebrities associated with marketing the miniskirt included: Twiggy; model Jean Shrimpton, who attended an event in the Melbourne Cup Carnival in Australia wearing a miniskirt in 1965; Goldie Hawn, who appeared on Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In with her mini skirt in 1967;  and Jackie Kennedy, who wore a short white pleated Valentino dress when she married Aristotle Onassis in 1968.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), The Single Girl
Writer, Helen Gurley Brown, wrote Sex and the Single Girl in 1962. This book acted as a guide for women of any marital status to take control of their own lives financially as well as emotionally. This book was revolutionary since it encouraged sex before marriage; something that was historically looked down upon. With the high success of this book, a pathway was set for media to also encourage this behavior. Betty Friedan also wrote The Feminine Mystique the following year, giving insight into the suburban female experience, further igniting women's push for a more independent lifestyle. The second-wave of feminism was getting its start during this period: pushing for a new feminine ideal to be capitalized on.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), The Single Girl
Fashion photography in the 1960s represented a new feminine ideal for women and young girls: the Single Girl. 1960s photography was in sharp contrast to the models of the 1920s, who were carefully posed for the camera and portrayed as immobile. The Single Girl represented 'movement'. She was young, single, active, and economically self-sufficient. To represent this new Single Girl feminine ideal, many 1960s photographers photographed models outside—often having them walk or run in fashion shoots. Models in the 1960s also promoted sports wear, which reflected the modern fascination with speed and the quickening pace of the 1960s urban life. Although the Single Girl was economically, socially and emotionally self-sufficient, the ideal body form was difficult for many to achieve. Therefore, women were constrained by diet restrictions that seemed to contradict the image of the empowered 1960s Single Girl.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), The Single Girl
Fashion photographers also photographed the Single Girl wearing business wear, calling her the Working Girl. The Working Girl motif represented another shift for the modern, fashionable woman. Unlike earlier periods, characterized by formal evening gowns and the European look, the 1960s Working Girl popularized day wear and "working clothing". New ready to wear lines replaced individualized formal couture fashion. The Working Girl created an image of a new, independent woman who has control over her body.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), The Single Girl
There was a new emphasis on ready-to-wear and personal style. As the 1960s was an era of exponential innovation, there was appreciation for something new rather than that of quality. Spending a lot of money on an expensive, designer wardrobe was no longer the ideal and women from various statuses would be found shopping in the same stores.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), The Single Girl
The Single Girl was the true depiction of the societal and commercial obsession with the adolescent look. Particular to the mid-sixties, icons such as Twiggy popularized the shapeless shift dresses emphasizing an image of innocence as they did not fit to any contours of the human body. The female body has forever been a sign of culturally constructed ideals. The long-limbed and pre-pubescent style of the time depicts how women were able to be more independent, yet paradoxically, also were put into a box of conceived ideals.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Dolly Girl
The "Dolly Girl" was another archetype for young females in the 1960s. She emerged in the mid 1960s, and her defining characteristic is the iconic miniskirt. "Dolly Girls" also sported long hair, slightly teased, of course, and childish-looking clothing. Clothes were worn tight fitting, sometimes even purchased from a children's section. Dresses were often embellished with lace, ribbons, and other frills; the look was topped off with light colored tights. Crocheted clothing also took off within this specific style.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Dolly Girl
Corsets, seamed tights, and skirts covering the knees were no longer fashionable. The idea of buying urbanized clothing that could be worn with separate pieces was intriguing to women of this era. In the past, one would only buy specific outfits for certain occasions.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Late 1960s (1967–69), The hippie subculture
Starting in 1967, youth culture began to change musically and Mod culture shifted to a more laid back hippie or Bohemian style. Hosiery manufacturers of the time like Mary Quant (who founded Pamela Mann Legwear) combined the "Flower Power" style of dress and the Pop Art school of design to create fashion tights that would appeal to a female audience that enjoyed psychedelia. Ponchos, moccasins, love beads, peace signs, medallion necklaces, chain belts, polka dot-printed fabrics, and long, puffed "bubble" sleeves were popular fashions in the late 1960s.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Late 1960s (1967–69), The hippie subculture
Both men and women wore frayed bell-bottomed jeans, tie-dyed shirts, work shirts, Jesus sandals, and headbands. Women would often go barefoot and some went braless. The idea of multiculturalism also became very popular; a lot of style inspiration was drawn from traditional clothing in Nepal, India, Bali, Morocco and African countries. Because inspiration was being drawn from all over the world, there was increasing separation of style; clothing pieces often had similar elements and created similar silhouettes, but there was no real "uniform".


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Late 1960s (1967–69), The hippie subculture
Fringed buck-skin vests, flowing caftans, the "lounging" or "hostess" pajamas were also popular. "Hostess" pajamas consisted of a tunic top over floor-length culottes, usually made of polyester or chiffon. Long maxi coats, often belted and lined in sheepskin, appeared at the close of the decade. Animal prints were popular for women in the autumn and winter of 1969. Women's shirts often had transparent sleeves. Psychedelic prints, hemp and the look of "Woodstock" emerged during this era.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Late 1960s (1967–69), Indian fashion
In general, urban Indian men imitated Western fashions such as the business suit. This was adapted to India's hot tropical climate as the Nehru suit, a garment often made from khadi that typically had a mandarin collar and patch pockets. From the early 1950s until the mid 1960s, most Indian women maintained traditional dress such as the gagra choli, sari, and churidar. At the same time as the hippies of the late 1960s were imitating Indian fashions, however, some fashion conscious Indian and Ceylonese women began to incorporate modernist Western trends. One particularly infamous fad combined the miniskirt with the traditional sari, prompting a moral panic where conservatives denounced the so-called "hipster sari" as indecent.


1960s in fashion, Women's fashion, Late 1960s (1967–69), Feminist influences
During the late 1960s, there was a backlash by radical feminists in America against accouterments of what they perceived to be enforced femininity within the fashion industry. Instead, these activists wore androgynous and masculine clothing such as jeans, work boots or berets. Black feminists often wore afros in reaction to the hair straighteners associated with middle class white women. At the 1968 feminist Miss America protest, protestors symbolically threw a number of feminine fashion-related products into a "Freedom Trash Can," including false eyelashes, high-heeled shoes, curlers, hairspray, makeup, girdles, corsets, and bras which they termed "instruments of female torture".


1960s in fashion, Men's fashion, Early 1960s (1960–63), Business wear
During the early 1960s, slim fitting single breasted continental style suits and skinny ties were fashionable in the UK and America. These suits, as worn by Sean Connery as James Bond, the Rat Pack's Frank Sinatra, and the cast of Mad Men, were often made from grey flannel, mohair or sharkskin. Tuxedos were cut in a similar form fitting style, with shawl collars and a single button, and were available either in the traditional black, or in bright colors such as red or sky blue popularized by Frankie Valli of The Four Seasons. Men's hats, including the pork pie hat and Irish hat, had narrower brims than the homburgs and fedoras worn in the 1950s and earlier. During the mid 1960s, hats began to decline after presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson appeared in public without one.


1960s in fashion, Men's fashion, Early 1960s (1960–63), Ivy League
Ivy League fashion, the precursor to the modern preppy look, was desirable casual wear for middle class adults in America during the early to mid 1960s. Typical outfits included polo shirts, harrington jackets, khaki chino pants, striped T-shirts, Argyle socks, seersucker or houndstooth sportcoats, sweater vests, cardigan sweaters, Nantucket Reds, basketweave loafers, Madras plaid shirts, and narrow brimmed Trilbys sometimes made from straw. The style remained fashionable for men over 21 until it was supplanted by more casual everyday clothing influenced by the hippie counterculture during the late 1960s and early 1970s.


1960s in fashion, Men's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Surf fashion
In America and Australia, surf rock went mainstream from 1962 to 1966, resulting in many teenage baby boomers imitating the outfits of groups like The Beach Boys. Pendleton jackets were common due to their cheapness, warmth and durability. Design wise the surf jacket suited popularly with nonchalance, warmth for coastal Californian climate, and utility pockets for surf wax and VW car keys, two surf essentials (Pendleton Woolen Mills).


1960s in fashion, Men's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Surf fashion
The Pendleton Surf Jacket expanded upon Fifties pop-cultural fashions, however new in its relaxed, intangibly cool vibe. The surf jacket split from the tough guy rock 'n' roll teen, and mellowing leather's rock attitudes to woolen plaids. Following Rock n Roll's decline were rebels without causes, "Greasers" and "Beats"; dressed down in inappropriate daywear to denounce conformity, Sixties youth, inventors of Surf Fashion, expressed more nomadic and hedonically in this "dress down" style. Surf styles mainstreamed into fashion when Soul Surfers wanted to make livings in surfing-associated careers. They opened businesses that expanded selling surf products into selling surf clothing.


1960s in fashion, Men's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Surf fashion
These surfer entrepreneurs proliferate surf fashion by mixing their lifestyles into casual wear. As Rock n Roll Beats, and Greaser car clubs used jackets to identify, and as 1950 varsity sports wore lettered cardigans, 1960s Surfies wore surf jackets to identify with surf clubs and as surfers (Retro 1960s Swimwear). Jackets worn as group status identifiers continued in the Sixties, but with focus around beach music and lifestyle.


1960s in fashion, Men's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Surf fashion
As surfers banded over localism, plaid and striped surf jackets gained relevancy. Teens wore them to proclaim surf clubs; what beach they were from, and where they surfed. For a surfer though, it is curious why a woolen plaid jacket paired with UGG boots, and not the board-short or aloha shirt identified the surfer. The Pendleton plaid, originally worn by loggers, hunters and fishermen, was a common item of casual wear for American men of all classes before the British invasion. For the youth of the 60s, however, the plaid Pendleton signified counterculture, and tribal seamen style translated from Welsh folklore, rebellious Scots Highlanders, and rugged American frontiersmen (Bowe).


1960s in fashion, Men's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Surf fashion
The Sixties invented the Californian Cool style, by relaxing style to escape Cold War meltdowns with Polynesian fascinations, bridging the macho 1950s teen towards 1960s Hippie style. The Cold War's tense political context conceived Surf Fashion as a way to relax and escape established violence. California, the birthplace of American Surfing, also produced much of the technology experimentations used in the nuclear space race. Caltech designers in Pasadena were designing nuclear arms for day jobs and were surfing at night. The modern surfboard design itself originates from the military-industrial complex's product development, where the Manhattan Project's Hugh Bradner also designed the modern neoprene wetsuit (Inside the Curl).


1960s in fashion, Men's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Surf fashion
Californian engineers for the Cold War were also surfing and equally engineering that fashion. Just as the Bikini's name comes from a nuclear test site, Surf fashion in this era consistently references the Cold War context. Surfing became an attractive fashion identity in this era because it perpetuates adolescence, and the pursuit of pleasure in times of anxiety and paranoia. In a teenage-driven culture, which aimed to ignore establishment conflicts, surfers mused Hawaii and its associated tiki culture as a place of escape with tropical paradises as the antithesis to modern society.


1960s in fashion, Men's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Surf fashion
This sustained Hawaiian flora and fauna patterns' in fashion its attraction. The Sixties Surfer was not the first to escape violence or revolutionize the pursuit of happiness through Polynesian fascination. Accounts of Thomas Jefferson theorize that his exposure to the surfer image in South Pacific travel journals influenced his imagined Pursuit of Happiness (Martin D. Henry). Similarly, Hawaii's surfer image and Californian translation responds to the decade's violence and further inspired full-on nonviolent revolutionary Hippie fashions.


1960s in fashion, Men's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Surf fashion
Additionally, as Californian water inspired lifestyles influenced fashion, many guys improvised their own faded jeans using chlorine from backyard swimming pools. Sneakers such as Converse All Stars made the transition from sportswear to streetwear, and guys in California and Hawaii began to grow out their hair.


1960s in fashion, Men's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Mod and British Invasion influences
The leaders of mid-1960s style were the British. The Mods (short for Modernists) adopted new fads that would be imitated by many young people. Mods formed their own way of life creating television shows and magazines that focused directly on the lifestyles of Mods. British rock bands such as The Who, The Small Faces, the Beatles, and The Kinks emerged from the Mod subculture. It was not until 1964, when the Modernists were truly recognized by the public, that women really were accepted in the group. Women had short, clean haircuts and often dressed in similar styles to the male Mods.


1960s in fashion, Men's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Mod and British Invasion influences
The Mods' lifestyle and musical tastes were the exact opposite of their rival group, known as the Rockers. The rockers liked 1950s rock-and roll, wore black leather jackets, greased, pompadour hairstyles, and rode motorbikes. The look of the Mods was classy. They mimicked the clothing and hairstyles of high fashion designers in France and Italy, opting for tailored suits that were topped by anoraks. They rode on scooters, usually Vespas or Lambrettas. Mod fashion was often described as the City Gent look. The young men incorporated striped boating blazers and bold prints into their wardrobe. Shirts were slim, with a necessary button down collar accompanied by slim fitted pants. Levi's were the only type of jeans worn by Modernists.


1960s in fashion, Men's fashion, Mid 1960s (1964–66), Mod and British Invasion influences
In the USSR during the mid to late 1960s, Mods and Hippies were nicknamed Hairies for their mop top hair. As with the earlier Stilyagi in the 1950s, young Russian men who dressed this way were ridiculed in the media, and sometimes forced to get their hair cut in police stations.


1960s in fashion, Men's fashion, Late 1960s (1967–69), Folk and counterculture influences
The late 60s to early 70s witnessed the emergence of the hippie counterculture and freak scene in Britain, Australia, New Zealand and America. Middle class youths of both sexes favored a unisex look with long hair, tie dye and flower power motifs, Bob Dylan caps, kurtas, hemp waistcoats, baja jackets, bell bottoms, sheepskin vests, western shirts and ponchos inspired by acid Westerns, sandals, digger hats, and patches featuring flowers or peace symbols. Jimi Hendrix popularized the wearing of old military dress uniforms as a statement that war was obsolete.


1960s in fashion, Men's fashion, Late 1960s (1967–69), Folk and counterculture influences
Early hippies, derisively referred to as freaks by the older generation, also used elements of roleplay such as headbands, cloaks, frock coats, kaftans, corduroy pants, cowboy boots, and vintage clothing from charity shops, suggesting a romantic historical era, a distant region, or a gathering of characters from a fantasy or science fiction novel.


1960s in fashion, Men's fashion, Late 1960s (1967–69), Peacock Revolution
By 1968, the space age mod fashions had been gradually replaced by Victorian, Edwardian and Belle Époque influenced style, with men wearing double-breasted suits of crushed velvet or striped patterns, brocade waistcoats and shirts with frilled collars. Their hair worn below the collar bone. Rolling Stones guitarist Brian Jones epitomised this "dandified" look. Due to the colorful nature of menswear, the time period was described as the Peacock Revolution, and male trendsetters in Britain and America were called "Dandies," "Dudes," or "Peacocks."


1960s in fashion, Men's fashion, Late 1960s (1967–69), Peacock Revolution
From the late 60s until the mid 70s Carnaby Street and Chelsea's Kings Road were virtual fashion parades, as mainstream menswear took on psychedelic influences. Business suits were replaced by Bohemian Carnaby Street creations that included corduroy, velvet or brocade double breasted suits, frilly shirts, cravats, wide ties and trouser straps, leather boots, and even collarless Nehru jackets. The slim neckties of the early 60s were replaced with Kipper ties exceeding five inches in width, and featuring crazy prints, stripes and patterns.


1960s in fashion, Hairstyles of the 1960s, Women's hairstyles
Women's hair styles ranged from beehive hairdos in the early part of the decade to the very short styles popularized by Twiggy and Mia Farrow just five years later to a very long straight style as popularized by the hippies in the late 1960s. Between these extremes, the chin-length contour cut and the pageboy were also popular. The pillbox hat was fashionable, due almost entirely to the influence of Jacqueline Kennedy, who was a style-setter throughout the decade. Her bouffant hairstyle, described as a "grown-up exaggeration of little girls' hair", was created by Kenneth.


1960s in fashion, Hairstyles of the 1960s, Women's hairstyles
During the mid and late 1960s, women's hair styles became very big and used a large quantity of hair spray, as worn in real life by Ronnie Spector and parodied in the musical Hairspray. Wigs became fashionable and were often worn to add style and height. The most important change in hairstyles at this time was that men and women wore androgynous styles that resembled each other. In the UK, it was the new fashion for mod women to cut their hair short and close to their heads. Meanwhile, hippie girls favored long, straight natural hair, kept in place with a bandana.


1960s in fashion, Hairstyles of the 1960s, Men's hairstyles
For professional men born before 1940, the side parted short back and sides was the norm in the UK, Europe and America from the early 60s until the end of the decade. Black men usually buzzed their hair short or wore styles like the conk, artificially straightened with chemicals. Blue collar white men, especially former military personnel, often wore buzzcuts and flat tops during the summer. During the early to mid 60s, rebellious Irish-American, Italian-American and Hispanic teens influenced by the greaser subculture often wore ducktails, pompadours and quiffs.


1960s in fashion, Hairstyles of the 1960s, Men's hairstyles
Due to the influence of mod bands like the Beatles or the Rolling Stones, mop-top hairstyles were most popular for white and Hispanic men during the mid 60s. The mod haircut began as a short version around 1963 through 1964, developed into a longer style worn during 1965–66, and eventually evolved into an unkempt hippie version worn during the 1967–69 period and into the early 1970s. Facial hair, evolving in its extremity from simply having longer sideburns, to mustaches and goatees, to full-grown beards became popular with young men from 1966 onwards.


1960s in fashion, Hairstyles of the 1960s, Men's hairstyles
Head coverings changed dramatically towards the end of the decade as men's hats went out of style, replaced by the bandanna, digger hat, Stetson, or Bob Dylan cap if anything at all. As men let their hair grow long,  the Afro became the hairstyle of choice for African Americans. This afro was not just a fashion statement but also an emblem of racial pride. They started to believe that by allowing their hair to grow in its nature state without chemical treatments, they would be accepting their racial identities.


1960s in fashion, Image gallery
A selection of images representing the fashion trends of the 1960s:


1960s in fashion, Image gallery
First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy wearing a red wool dress with matching jacket. She was a fashion icon in the early 1960s.


1960s in fashion, Image gallery
Singer and actress Barbra Streisand in 1962 wearing a top with a crew-neck. Her hair is teased at the crown.


1960s in fashion, Image gallery
Graciela Borges, Argentine fashion icon of the 1960s, wearing a fur coat, bouffant hair and winged eye liner.


1960s in fashion, Image gallery
Audrey Hepburn in a scene from the comic thriller Charade dressed by Givenchy 1963.


1960s in fashion, Image gallery
Dress worn by Anneke Grönloh for the 1964 Eurovision Song Contest 1964


1960s in fashion, Image gallery
American girl wearing a mini skirt and patterned tights, 1966.


1960s in fashion, Image gallery
Philippine first lady Imelda Marcos with U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson while sporting her iconic beehive hairstyle, 1966.


1960s in fashion, Image gallery
Fashion model from Leipzig, GDR wearing a wool suit trimmed with fur and a matching fur hat, 1966.


1960s in fashion, Image gallery
Young woman wears her hair in a headband with flipped ends, 1967.


1960s in fashion, Image gallery
Woman at a Singapore zoo, 1967. Note her Pucci-style print dress.


1960s in fashion, Image gallery
East German politicians wearing horn rimmed glasses, cat eye glasses, and wire rimmed glasses, late 1960s.


1960s in fashion, Image gallery
In the late 1960s, brides often wore white mini wedding dresses.


1960s in fashion, Image gallery
Singer Maria Muldaur in 1968, wearing a gypsy-style kerchief and hoop earrings.


1960s in film
Beginning in the middle of the decade due to the start of the cultural revolution and the abolition of the Hays Code, films became increasingly experimental and daring and were taking shape of what was to define the 1970s.


1960s in games
This page lists board games, card games, and wargames published in the 1960s.


1960s in jazz
In the late 1960s, Latin jazz, combining rhythms from African and Latin American countries, often played on instruments such as conga, timbale, güiro, and claves, with jazz and classical harmonies played on typical jazz instruments (piano, double bass, etc.) broke through. There are two main varieties: Afro-Cuban jazz was played in the US right after the bebop period, while Brazilian jazz became more popular in the 1960s.


1960s in jazz
Afro-Cuban jazz began as a movement in the mid-1950s as bebop musicians such as Dizzy Gillespie and Billy Taylor started Afro-Cuban bands influenced by such Cuban and Puerto Rican musicians as Xavier Cugat, Tito Puente, and Arturo Sandoval. Brazilian jazz such as bossa nova is derived from samba, with influences from jazz and other 20th-century classical and popular music styles. Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sung in Portuguese or English. The style was pioneered by Brazilians João Gilberto and Antônio Carlos Jobim. The related term jazz-samba describes an adaptation of bossa nova compositions to the jazz idiom by American performers such as Stan Getz and Charlie Byrd.


1960s in jazz
Bossa nova was made popular by Elizete Cardoso's recording of Chega de Saudade on the Canção do Amor Demais LP, composed by Vinícius de Moraes (lyrics) and Antonio Carlos Jobim (music). The initial releases by Gilberto and the 1959 film Black Orpheus brought significant popularity in Brazil and elsewhere in Latin America, which spread to North America via visiting American jazz musicians.


1960s in jazz
The resulting recordings by Charlie Byrd and Stan Getz cemented its popularity and led to a worldwide boom with 1963's Getz/Gilberto, numerous recordings by famous jazz performers such as Ella Fitzgerald (Ella Abraça Jobim) and Frank Sinatra (Francis Albert Sinatra & Antônio Carlos Jobim), and the entrenchment of the bossa nova style as a lasting influence in world music for several decades and even up to the present.


1960s in motorsport
This article documents the events that occurred in motorsports in the 1960s.


1960s in motorsport, Australia
The Australian Touring Car Championship was first awarded in 1960.


1960s in motorsport, Asia
Japanese manufacturer Datsun becomes competitive in motorsport with the Datsun 510 in touring car racing.


1960s in music
This article includes an overview of the events and trends in popular music in the 1960s.