1956 Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football team
Georgia Tech was the preseason favorite to win the Southeastern Conference, but their hopes of reaching the Sugar Bowl were crushed when the Johnny Majors-led Tennessee Volunteers beat the Yellow Jackets in Atlanta, 0–6. Georgia Tech cruised through the rest of their schedule and finished the regular season with the Tennessee game as their only blemish, finishing second in the SEC and ranked number 4 in the country in the final AP Poll. They accepted an invitation to the 1956 Gator Bowl, where they beat Pittsburgh, in a rematch of the 1956 Sugar Bowl, 21–14. This was the sixth straight season for Georgia Tech that ended with a bowl victory. The team was selected national champion by both Berryman and Sagarin (ELO-Chess).


1956 Georgian demonstrations
The March 1956 demonstrations (also known as the 1956 Tbilisi riots or 9 March massacre) in the Georgian SSR were a series of protests against Nikita Khrushchev's de-Stalinization policy, which shocked Georgian supporters of Marxist–Leninist ideology. The center of the protests was the republic's capital, Tbilisi, where spontaneous rallies to mark the third anniversary of Stalin's death and to protest Khrushchev's denunciation of Stalin quickly evolved into an uncontrollable mass demonstration and rioting which paralyzed the city. Soon, political demands such as the change of the central government in Moscow and calls for the independence of Georgia from the Soviet Union appeared.


1956 Georgian demonstrations
The local Georgian authorities, confused and demoralized, passed on the responsibility to the Soviet military. Later on 9 March the troops deployed in the city opened fire upon the students picketing the government buildings in what the official Soviet version held was "an act of self-defense". The agitated crowds continued resistance on 10 March but were eventually dispersed by tanks. Estimates of the number of casualties range from several dozens to several hundred.


1956 Georgian demonstrations
In spite of prompt pacification, the 1956 events marked a turning point after which Georgian loyalty to the Soviet Union was gravely compromised and the nation's consolidation intensified. In the view of the historian Ronald Grigor Suny, "the swift and brutal response from the Soviet government illustrated starkly its inability to resolve the dilemma of how much of the Soviet system to change and how much of Stalin's authoritarianism to preserve. The government’s confusion in Tbilisi was a bloody sign that reform was to be limited by the party's determination to preserve its essential monopoly of power."


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Background, Khrushchev's speech
On 25 February 1956, at a closed session of the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev delivered a "secret speech" in which he criticized actions taken by the Stalin regime, particularly the purges of the military and the upper Party echelons, and the development of Stalin's cult of personality, while maintaining support for other ideals of Communism by invoking Vladimir Lenin.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Background, Khrushchev's speech
Rumors that "Vozhd" (the Leader) and "the Father of the Nations", who had been established as the principal symbol in early Soviet communism, had been denounced by his successor quickly spread throughout the Soviet Union. Although the details were unknown, it came as a real shock to the Soviet society.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Background, Reaction in Georgia
In spite of party's restriction of Georgian nationalism, Khrushchev's policy of de-Stalinization was, paradoxically, a blow to Georgian national pride. The younger generation of the Georgians, not fully acquainted with the darker side of Stalin's rule and bred on the panegyrics and permanent praise of the "genius" of Stalin, was proud to consider him being a Georgian that ruled over great Russia, and, as believed widely, dominated the world. Now, Stalin's denigration was seen as a symbol for the mistreatment of Georgian national consciousness at the hands of the Russian/Soviet rulers.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Background, Reaction in Georgia
Patriotic sentiment mixed with political protest was further inflamed by the sarcastic and bitter manner in which Khrushchev ascribed all horrors of the era to the "genial" leader Stalin, whom, as he ironically put it, the Georgians so much enjoyed calling "the great son of the Georgian nation". Eduard Shevardnadze, then a Komsomol leader in Kutaisi and eventually to become President of post-Soviet Georgia, later recalled that Khrushchev's ironic remark on Georgians at the end of his speech was particularly hurtful to the pride of Georgian youth.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Background, Reaction in Georgia
The painful reaction caused by de-Stalinization in Georgia has been variously interpreted. It has been seen by many as a revival of Stalinism and by others as the first open expression of Georgian nationalism since the abortive revolt in 1924. Sergei Arutiunov of the Russian Academy of Sciences relates:


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Background, Reaction in Georgia
The shift of loyalty demanded of them at that moment was too enormous to execute easily. For people with a Transcaucasian background, Khrushchev’s speech was by no means a revelation. But many Georgians reacted in a rather peculiar way. Consider the peasants in Kardenakhi, the native village of my grandfather, and in many other villages from whom I had learnt the truth about the GULAGs already in the early 1940s. These people never referred to Stalin in other terms than as the "moustached one", or more explicitly, "that moustached beast" (es ulvashiani mkhetsi) even in a circle of trusted people.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Background, Reaction in Georgia
Now, they promptly displayed portraits of Stalin on the windshields of their tractors and lorries… This was a surprising diametrical shift. However, while among Russians, it was a shift from one sort of conformity to another conformity, in Georgia the shift was from one non-conformist behavior to another kind of non-conformist behavior".


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Background, Reaction in Georgia
The events in Georgia passed largely unreported in the Soviet press and became a taboo theme for several decades to come. What happened can be reconstructed on the analysis of several, though frequently conflicting, contemporary reports, eyewitnesses' accounts and a few surviving secret Soviet documents.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Demonstrations
According to the special report of Vladimir Janjgava, Georgian SSR Minister of Internal Affairs, the unrest began on 4 March 1956, when groups of students gathered to mark the third anniversary of Stalin's death at the Stalin monument at the Kura embankment in downtown Tbilisi. Indignant at Khrushchev's speech, they were aggressive towards the policemen who had thrown a cordon around the area. Georgian communist Parastishvili climbed the Stalin monument, drank some wine from a bottle, smashed the bottle and said: "Let Stalin's enemies die, like this bottle! ".


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Demonstrations
The demonstration gradually grew large, attracting more and more people, who were bringing memorial wreaths to the Stalin monument. The confused local authorities did not actively oppose these activities. The demonstrations in the capital triggered similar protests in other parts of the republic such as Gori, Kutaisi, Rustavi, Sukhumi, and Batumi.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Demonstrations
By 6 March the demonstrations in Tbilisi had become more organized and more numerous. That day a closed letter of the CPSU Central Committee, "On the Cult of Personality", a summary of the speech that the General Secretary read on the final day of the Party Congress held last February, was read loud at a special session attended by the Georgian ministers and the local media. News about the surprise session of the Georgian SSR's Ministers Council quickly spread throughout Tbilisi and the situation escalated.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Demonstrations
Early on 7 March the students of Tbilisi State University went out onto the streets instead of attending classes, where they were joined by students from other institutes and schoolchildren. The demonstrators went down the main Tbilisi thoroughfare, Rustaveli Avenue, to Lenin Square, stopping at the House of Government and then at the City Hall, chanting the slogan "Long Live Great Stalin! Long Live the Party of Lenin and Stalin! Long Live Soviet Georgia! ", accompanied by the cacophony of car sirens and horns. Having overcome the police resistance, the protesters gathered anew at the Stalin monument.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Demonstrations
Protesters worked out their demands to authorities: an official holiday day on 18 December (Stalin's birthday), publishing of articles devoted to Stalin's life in all local newspapers, showing of films The Fall of Berlin and The Unforgettable Year 1919 by Mikheil Chiaureli (both films were typical cinematic pieces of Stalin's cult of personality) in cinemas and invitation of the Chinese marshal Zhu De, who was at that time visiting Georgia, to the meeting. By the end of day, the number of demonstrators reached 70,000. The central Soviet Ministry of Internal Affairs initially underestimated the scale of the protests, and the information based on the minister Janjghava reached the Central Committee later on 8 March.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Demonstrations
By that time, the city had become paralyzed. The meetings were simultaneously held in several places, especially in Lenin Square and at the wreath-covered Stalin monument. The central streets were full of the demonstrators who loudly denounced Khrushchev, demanded that Stalin be rehabilitated and that his anniversary be allowed, and specifically asked Vyacheslav Molotov to defend Stalin's name. Barricades were raised, buses and cars overturned. The crowd directed traffic and in several cases even stopped it. Several clashes broke out with the drivers who resisted and with the police. When several activists were arrested, the demonstrations grew even more massive and the crowd became more aggressive. The Georgian first secretary, Vasil Mzhavanadze, addressed the protesters and the visiting Chinese marshal Zhu De greeted the crowd, but he refused to visit the Stalin monument and the demonstrations did not disperse.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Demonstrations
As the demonstrations continued, the local government began to lose control over the situation. Paralyzed by the scale of the protests and the demonstrators' appeal to Georgian patriotism and manifested communist loyalties, the police reacted more and more sluggishly. Early on 9 March the authorities tried to defuse the tensions and allowed the celebration of the anniversary to be held. But the belated attempts at concession did not yield any result. Later that day, at the meeting near the Stalin monument, political demands were read aloud in the presence of several party officials.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Demonstrations
According to the controversial testimony of Ruben Kipiani, later tried as an author of this petition, the demands were: first, return of the "closed letter" on Stalin to the CPSU Central Committee; second, removal of Anastas Mikoyan, Nikolai Bulganin, and Nikita Khrushchev from both party and government positions; third, creation of a new government; fourth, release of the Azerbaijan SSR first secretary Mir Jafar Baghirov from prison; fifth, promotion of the Soviet Georgian officials Akaki Mgeladze and Mzhavandze to the Central Committee Presidium; sixth, appointment of Stalin's son Vasily to the Central Committee; seven, institution of an amnesty. It was decided to send approximately ten persons to the nearby Communications Building in Rustaveli Avenue in order to send a telegram to Moscow.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Demonstrations
A parallel rally at Kolmeurneobis Square grew increasingly anti-Soviet. People were singing the long-suppressed anthem "Dideba" and waving flags of pre-Soviet Georgia. When some persons in civilian dress interfered, fighting broke out. Leaflets appeared next. According to the eyewitness and Georgian-Jewish author Faina Baazova (daughter of David Baazov), the leaflets called for the secession of Georgia from the Soviet Union, a demand not heard previously.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Demonstrations
The events that followed are less clear. Later that day, the decision to bring troops of the Transcaucasian Military District, then commanded by Col. Gen. Ivan Fedyuninsky, into the matter was made in Moscow. The predominantly Georgian units stationed in the area were not deployed because of suspected unreliability, however. The Soviet Interior Ministry officials reported that Tbilisi had gone out of control. They claimed that the demonstrators, many of whom were allegedly drunk and armed, were pillaging the city, contemplated the pogroms of ethnic Russians and Armenians, and planned to seize the government buildings.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Demonstrations
The same evening, the authorities broadcast though radio an appeal calling the rallies to cease and announced that the commander of Tbilisi garrison, Major General Gladkov, was introducing a curfew beginning at midnight on 10 March. Many protesters sensed an approaching threat and began to leave the city center. Close to midnight, however, people learned that the delegation sent into the Communications Building had been detained, ostensibly for verification of identity. The crowd rushed to rescue the delegates and a clash with the soldiers guarding the building ensued.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Demonstrations
The troops started firing into the crowd to prevent the protesters from storming the building. Simultaneously, tanks moved to oust the demonstrators from Lenin Square and at the Stalin monument. The protesters tried to resume rallies on 10 March, but they were again dispersed by the troops. Several dozens, if not hundreds, died in this crackdown. As no official report exists, various estimates put the number of casualties from 106 to 800. Hundreds were wounded and injured. Over 200 were arrested in the ensuing reprisals and many were subsequently deported to labor camps in Siberia.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Consequences
The March 1956 rallies widened rifts within the Georgian Communist Party, as several officials expressed solidarity with the people. In July 1956, the Central Committee in Moscow issued a resolution critical of the Georgian Communist leadership, and in August the second secretary in Tbilisi was replaced by a Russian. Yet, Mzhavanadze was successful in pacifying Georgians by minimizing the number of victims in his interviews and sponsoring a program of lectures to spread the party's new views. For his success, Mzhavanadze was raised to candidate membership in the Central Committee Presidium in June 1957.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Consequences
Although no apparent attempts at defying the Soviet rule in Georgia were to be made until April 1978, the grudges against the central government in Moscow continued to be held. Many in Georgia held Khrushchev personally responsible for ordering the army to fire on the protesters. The Tbilisi events made Georgia's deviance from the rest of the Soviet Union, with the possible exception of the Baltics, apparent. The loyalty to the Union was gravely compromised and an anti-Soviet sentiment became an essential feature of the reemerging Georgian nationalism.


1956 Georgian demonstrations, Consequences
It was in the immediate aftermath of the 1956 event that the first Georgian underground groups calling for an outright secession from the Soviet Union appeared. They were typically small and weak and the Soviet authorities were able to quickly neutralize them. However, they gave origin to a new generation of dissidents, such as Merab Kostava and Zviad Gamsakhurdia, both teenage participants of the March 1956 rally, who would lead Georgia into its struggle for independence in the 1980s.


1956 German Grand Prix
The 1956 German Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 5 August 1956 at Nürburgring. It was race 7 of 8 in the 1956 World Championship of Drivers.


1956 German Grand Prix, Winner
Forty-five-year-old Argentine Juan Manuel Fangio won the race for Ferrari, and broke Hermann Lang's 17-year-old lap record, set in a Mercedes.


1956 German Grand Prix, Attendees
Present at the event was 18-year old Juan Carlos, later King of Spain, in support of his relative Alfonso de Portago.


1956 German football championship
The 1956 German football championship was the culmination of the football season in West Germany in 1955-56. Borussia Dortmund were crowned champions for the first time in their second final appearance, having previously lost the 1949 German football championship final to VfR Mannheim.


1956 German football championship
On the strength of this title, the club participated in the 1956–57 European Cup, where it went out to Manchester United 3–2 on aggregate in the quarter-finals.


1956 German football championship, Competition, First qualifying round
The four qualified runners-up played two qualifying rounds to determine the three clubs which advanced to the group stage. The deciding game for the third qualified team had to be replayed after a three-all draw after extra time in the first match.


1956 German motorcycle Grand Prix
The 1956 German motorcycle Grand Prix was the fourth round of the 1956 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season. It took place on 21–22 July 1956 at the Solitude circuit.


1956 Gibraltar general election
General elections were held in Gibraltar on 21 September 1956. The Association for the Advancement of Civil Rights remained the largest party in the legislature, winning four of the seven elected seats.


1956 Giro d'Italia
The 1956 Giro d'Italia was the 39th edition of the Giro d'Italia, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Giro started off in Milan on 19 May with a 210 km (130.5 mi) flat stage and concluded back in Milan with a 113 km (70.2 mi) relatively flat mass-start stage on 10 June. Sixteen teams entered the race, which was won by Luxembourgian Charly Gaul of the Faema team. Second and third respectively were Italian riders Fiorenzo Magni and Agostino Coletto.


1956 Giro d'Italia
Gaul took the lead in the legendary stage up Monte Bondone, where under a snow storm he won with an 8-minute margin over runner up Alessandro Fantini. This edition is unique since there were two Mountains Classification winners. There were two awards for the Dolomites and the Apennine mountains, the winners were Charly Gaul and Federico Bahamontes respectively.


1956 Giro d'Italia, Teams
Fifteen teams were invited by the race organizers to participate in the 1957 edition of the Giro d'Italia. Each team sent a squad of seven riders, which meant that the race started with a peloton of 105 cyclists. From the riders that began the race, 43 made it to the finish in Milan.


1956 Giro d'Italia, Pre-race favorites
The race was thought to be more open in previous years due to notable absences of top riders like Louison Bobet due to sickness, 1950 winner Hugo Koblet as he was recovering from a back injury and desired to focus on the Tour de France, Stan Ockers, Ferdinand Kübler, and Raphaël Géminiani, along with the innovations regarding the race route. A Feuille d'Avis de Neuchatel writer felt that the race would offer a great opportunity for the younger riders to succeed as the previous great riders like Coppi are getting too old.


1956 Giro d'Italia, Pre-race favorites
Previous year's winner Fiorenzo Magni (Nivea-Fuchs) was one of the older generation of riders to enter the race in great form, coming off of a win at the Tour of Piedmont. In addition, Magni had announced that this would be his last Giro as he would retire as the season's end. The writer continued naming young Italians with potential to contend like Gastone Nencini (Leo–Chlorodont), following his performance in last Giro, amateur road race champion Sante Ranucci (Legnano), and Aldo Moser (Torpado).


1956 Giro d'Italia, Pre-race favorites
Jean Brankart lead the primarily Belgian Eldorado team and was viewed as a rider who would win a Tour de France. Some viewed Charly Gaul (Faema) as a favorite to contend for the overall. Spanish contenders were thought to be climber Federico Bahamontes (Girardengo), while sprinter Miguel Poblet (Faema) was thought to be a favorite for the flatter stages.


1956 Giro d'Italia, Route and stages
The route was revealed on 24 February 1956. The race contained eight stages with mountains, which contained sixteen categorized climbs. The race route all together contained 3 rest days and 23 stages across 25 days of racing, of which 18 were mass-start stages, two individual time trials, one team time trial event, and one individual time trial run as a relay. The relay event took place in San Marino.


1956 Giro d'Italia, Route and stages
The second day of racing featured a split stage where the second half was a team time trial that was contested at night to not interfere with a local football match that was happening in the afternoon. The planned tenth stage from Salerno to Frascati was deemed an "electoral stage" at the route's announcement and was chosen to be removed because it fell on the day of Italian municipal elections. Three new Dolomite mountains were climbed during this edition of the race: Monte Bondone (1,300 m (4,265 ft)), San-Pellegrino (1,918 m (6,293 ft)), and Vallès (2,033 m (6,670 ft) meters). Eleven categorized climbs from the Apennines were included in the race route, with the Pian di Creto (605 m (1,985 ft)) being utilized in the second stage. For the first time in race history, the cities of Lecco, Rapallo, Salice Terme were stops for the Giro.


1956 Giro d'Italia, Route and stages
When interviewed about the route several current and former riders said. The route was thought to be difficult.


1956 Giro d'Italia, Classification leadership
One jersey was worn during the 1956 Giro d'Italia. The leader of the general classification – calculated by adding the stage finish times of each rider – wore a pink jersey. This classification is the most important of the race, and its winner is considered as the winner of the Giro.


1956 Giro d'Italia, Classification leadership
There were three mountains classifications in the 1956 Giro d'Italia, one for the Dolomites, Apennines, and one for the highest mountain in the race, the Passo dello Stelvio. The rider that was the first over the Stelvio was Ignis' Aurelio Del Rio. Although no jersey was awarded, there was also one classification for the teams, in which the teams were awarded points for their rider's performance during the stages.


1956 Giro di Lombardia
The 1956 Giro di Lombardia was the 50th edition of the Giro di Lombardia cycle race and was held on 21 October 1956. The race started and finished in Milan. The race was won by André Darrigade of the Bianchi team.


1956 Glover Trophy
The 1956 Glover Trophy was a non-championship Formula One race, held on 2 April 1956 at Goodwood Circuit, England. The race was won by Stirling Moss after a set distance of 32 laps.


1956 Gold Coast general election
General elections were held in the Gold Coast (soon to become Ghana) on 17 July 1956. The result was a victory for Kwame Nkrumah's Convention People's Party, which won 71 of the 104 seats.


1956 Gold Coast general election
A new constitution, approved on 29 April 1954, established a cabinet composed of African ministers drawn from an all-African legislature chosen by direct election. In the elections that followed, the Convention People's Party won the majority of seats in the new Legislative Assembly.


1956 Gold Coast general election, Background
A new constitution, approved on 29 April 1954, established a cabinet composed of African ministers drawn from an all-African legislature chosen by direct election. In the elections that followed, the Convention People's Party won the majority of seats in the new Legislative Assembly. In May 1956, Prime Minister Nkrumah's government issued a white paper containing proposals for Gold Coast independence. The British Government stated it would agree to a firm date for independence if a reasonable majority for such a step were obtained in the Gold Coast Legislative Assembly after a general election.


1956 Gold Coast general election, Aftermath
After pro-independence parties won a convincing majority, the British government agreed to grant the colony independence. This happened on 6 March 1957, with the country renamed Ghana. Initially a constitutional monarchy with Elizabeth II as head of State, the country's democratic credentials were hampered by the Preventive Detention Act (1958). In 1960 a referendum resulted in the country becoming a republic with a presidential form of government, and in 1964 it became a one-party state. Nkrumah was eventually overthrown in 1966.


1956 Governor General's Awards
In Canada, the 1956 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit were the twentieth such awards. The awards in this period had no monetary prize but were an honour for the authors.


1956 Governor General's Awards, Winners
This article about a literary award is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1956 Governor General's Awards, Winners
This article about Canadian literature is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision
The Grand Canyon mid-air collision occurred in the western United States on Saturday, June 30, 1956, when a United Airlines Douglas DC-7 struck a Trans World Airlines Lockheed L-1049 Super Constellation over Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona. All 128 on board both flights perished, making it the first commercial airline incident to exceed one hundred fatalities. The flights had departed Los Angeles International Airport minutes apart for Chicago and Kansas City, respectively.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision
The collision took place in uncontrolled airspace, where it was the pilots' own responsibility to maintain separation ("see and be seen"). This highlighted the antiquated state of air traffic control, which became the focus of major aviation reforms.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Flight history
Trans World Airlines Flight 2, a Lockheed L-1049 Super Constellation named Star of the Seine, with Captain Jack Gandy (age 41), First Officer James Ritner (31), and Flight Engineer Forrest Breyfogle (37), departed Los Angeles on Saturday, June 30, 1956, at 9:01 am PDT with 64 passengers (including 11 TWA off-duty employees on free tickets) and six crew members (including two flight attendants and an off-duty flight engineer), and headed to Kansas City Downtown Airport, 31 minutes behind schedule.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Flight history
Flight 2, initially flying under instrument flight rules (IFR), climbed to an authorized altitude of 19,000 feet (5,800 m) and stayed in controlled airspace as far as Daggett, California. At Daggett, Captain Gandy turned right to a heading of 059 degrees magnetic, toward the radio range near Trinidad, Colorado. The Constellation was now "off airways", otherwise known as flying in uncontrolled airspace.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Flight history
United Airlines Flight 718, a Douglas DC-7 named Mainliner Vancouver, and flown by Captain Robert Shirley (age 48), First Officer Robert Harms (36), and Flight Engineer Gerard Fiore (39), departed Los Angeles at 9:04 am PDT with 53 passengers and five crew members aboard (including two flight attendants), bound for Chicago's Midway Airport.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Flight history
Climbing to an authorized altitude of 21,000 feet (6,400 m), Captain Shirley flew under IFR in controlled airspace to a point northeast of Palm Springs, California, where he turned left toward a radio beacon near Needles, California, after which his flight plan was direct to Durango in southwestern Colorado. The DC-7, though still under IFR jurisdiction, was now, just like the Constellation, flying in uncontrolled airspace.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Flight history
Shortly after takeoff, TWA's Captain Gandy requested permission to climb to 21,000 feet to avoid thunderheads that were forming near his flight path. As was the practice at the time, his request had to be relayed by a TWA dispatcher to air traffic control (ATC), as neither crew was in direct contact with ATC after departure. ATC denied the request; the two airliners would soon be reentering controlled airspace (the Red 15 airway running southeast from Las Vegas) and ATC had no way to provide the horizontal separation required between two aircraft at the same altitude.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Flight history
Captain Gandy requested "1,000 on top" clearance (flying 1000 feet [300 m] above the clouds), which was still under IFR, not VFR (visual flight rules), which was approved by ATC. The provision to operate 1000'-on-top exists so that separation restrictions normally applied by ATC can be temporarily suspended. An aircraft cleared to operate 1000'-on-top is responsible for maintaining separation from other IFR aircraft – especially useful when two aircraft are transitioning to or from an approach when VFR conditions exist above cloud layers.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Flight history
Flying under VFR placed the responsibility for maintaining safe separation from other aircraft upon Gandy and Ritner, a procedure referred to as "see and be seen," since changed to "see and avoid." Upon receiving "1,000 on top" clearance, Captain Gandy increased his altitude to 21,000 feet.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Flight history
Both crews had estimated that they would arrive somewhere along the Painted Desert line at about 10:31 am Pacific time. The Painted Desert line was about two hundred miles (320 km) in length, running between the VORs at Bryce Canyon, Utah, and Winslow, Arizona, at an angle of 335 degrees relative to true north – wholly outside of controlled air space. Owing to the different headings taken by the two planes, TWA's crossing of the Painted Desert line, assuming no further course changes, would be at a 13-degree angle relative to that of the United flight, with the Constellation to the left of the DC-7.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Flight history
As the two aircraft approached the Grand Canyon, now at the same altitude and nearly the same speed, the pilots were likely maneuvering around towering cumulus clouds, though flying VFR required the TWA flight to stay in clear air. As they were maneuvering near the canyon, it is believed the planes passed the same cloud on opposite sides.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Collision
At about 10:30 a.m. the two aircraft collided over the canyon at an angle of about 25 degrees. Post-crash analysis determined that the United DC-7 was banking to the right and pitching down at the time of the collision, suggesting that one or possibly both of the United pilots spotted the TWA Constellation and attempted evasive action.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Collision
The DC-7's upraised left wing clipped the top of the Constellation's vertical stabilizer and struck the fuselage immediately ahead of the stabilizer's base, causing the tail assembly to break away from the rest of the airframe. The propeller on the DC-7's left outboard, or number one engine, concurrently chopped a series of gashes into the bottom of the Constellation's fuselage. Explosive decompression would have instantaneously occurred from the damage, a theory substantiated by light debris, such as cabin furnishings and personal effects, being scattered over a large area.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Collision
The separation of the tail assembly from the Constellation resulted in immediate loss of control, causing the aircraft to enter a near-vertical, terminal velocity dive. Plunging into the Grand Canyon at an estimated speed of more than seven hundred feet per second (480 mph; 770 km/h), the Constellation slammed into the north slope of a ravine on the northeast slope of Temple Butte and disintegrated on impact, instantly killing all aboard. An intense fire, fueled by aviation gasoline, ensued. The severed tail assembly, badly battered but still somewhat recognizable, came to rest nearby.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Collision
The DC-7's left wing to the left of the number one engine was mangled by the impact and was no longer capable of producing substantial lift. The engine had been severely damaged as well, and the combined loss of lift and propulsion left the crippled airliner in a rapidly descending left spiral from which recovery was impossible. The Mainliner collided with the south side cliff of Chuar Butte and disintegrated, instantly killing all aboard.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Search and recovery
The airspace over the canyon was not under any type of radar contact and there were neither homing beacons nor "black boxes" (cockpit voice and flight data recorders) aboard either aircraft. The last position reports received from the flights did not reflect their locations at the time of impact. Also, there were no credible witnesses to the collision itself or the subsequent crashes. The only immediate indication of trouble was when United company radio operators in Salt Lake City and San Francisco heard a garbled transmission from Flight 718, the last from either aircraft.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Search and recovery
Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) accident investigation engineers later deciphered the transmission – which had been preserved on magnetic tape – as the voice of co-pilot Robert Harms declaring, "Salt Lake, [ah], 718 ... we are going in!" The shrill voice of Captain Shirley was heard in the background as presumably futilely struggling with the controls, he implored the airplane to "[Pull] up! [ Pull] up!" (bracketed words were inferred by investigators from the context and circumstances in which they were uttered).


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Search and recovery
After neither flight reported their current position for some time, the two aircraft were declared to be missing, and search and rescue procedures started. The wreckage was first seen late in the day near the confluence of the Colorado and Little Colorado Rivers by Henry and Palen Hudgin, two brothers who operated Grand Canyon Airlines, a small air taxi service. During a trip earlier in the day, Palen had noted dense black smoke rising near Temple Butte, the crash site of the Constellation, but had dismissed it as the brush set ablaze by lightning.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Search and recovery
However, upon hearing of the missing airliners, Palen decided that what he had seen might have been smoking from a post-crash fire. He and his brother flew a light aircraft (a Piper Tri-Pacer) deep into the canyon and searched near the location of the smoke. The Constellation's empennage was found, and the brothers reported their findings to authorities. The following day, the two men pinpointed the wreckage of the DC-7. Numerous helicopter missions were subsequently flown down to the crash sites to find and attempt to identify victims, as well as recover wreckage for accident analysis, a difficult and dangerous process due to the rugged terrain and unpredictable air currents.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Search and recovery
The airlines hired the Swiss Air-Rescue and some Swiss mountain climbers to go to the scene where the aircraft fuselages had crashed. They were to gather the remains of the passengers and other items. This was given considerable publicity in U.S. news releases at the time because of the severity of the terrain where the fuselages came to rest. Owing to the exceptional severity of the ground impacts, no bodies were recovered intact, and positive identification of most of the remains was not possible. On July 9, 1956, a mass funeral for the victims of TWA Flight 2 was held at the canyon's south rim.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Search and recovery
Twenty-nine unidentified victims of the United flight were interred in four coffins at the Grand Canyon Pioneer Cemetery. Sixty-six of the seventy TWA passengers and crew are interred in a mass grave at Citizens Cemetery in Flagstaff, Arizona. A number of years elapsed following this accident before most of the wreckage was removed from the canyon. Some pieces of the aircraft remain at the crash sites.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Investigation
The investigation of this accident was particularly challenging due to the remoteness and topography of the crash sites, as well as the extent of the destruction of the two airliners and the lack of real-time flight data as might be derived from a modern flight data recorder. Despite the considerable difficulties, CAB experts were able to determine with a remarkable degree of certainty what had transpired and, in their report, issued the following statement as probable cause for the accident:


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Investigation
The Board determines that the probable cause of this mid-air collision was that the pilots did not see each other in time to avoid the collision.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Investigation
It is not possible to determine why the pilots did not see each other, but the evidence suggests that it resulted from any one or a combination of the following factors: Intervening clouds reducing time for visual separation, visual limitations due to cockpit visibility, and preoccupation with normal cockpit duties, preoccupation with matters unrelated to cockpit duties such as attempting to provide the passengers with a more scenic view of the Grand Canyon area, physiological limits to human vision reducing the time opportunity to see and avoid the other aircraft, or insufficiency of en route air traffic advisory information due to inadequacy of facilities and lack of personnel in air traffic control.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Investigation
In the report, weather and the airworthiness of the two planes were thought to have played no role in the accident. Lacking credible eyewitnesses and with some uncertainty regarding high altitude visibility at the time of the collision, it was not possible to determine conclusively how much opportunity was available for the TWA and United pilots to see and avoid each other.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Investigation
Neither flight crew was specifically implicated in the CAB's finding of probable cause, although the decision by TWA's Captain Gandy to cancel his IFR flight plan and fly "1,000 on top" was the likely catalyst for the accident. Also worth noting was that the investigation itself was thorough in all respects, but the final report focused on technical issues and largely ignored contributory human factors, such as why the airlines permitted their pilots to execute maneuvers solely intended to improve the passengers' view of the canyon. It would not be until the late 1970s that human factors would be as thoroughly investigated as technical matters following aerial mishaps.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Investigation
During the investigation, Milford "Mel" Hunter, a scientific and technical illustrator with Life magazine, was given early and unrestricted access to the CAB's data and preliminary findings, enabling him to produce an illustration of what likely occurred at the moment of the collision. Hunter's finely detailed gouache painting first appeared in Life's April 29, 1957, issue and was subsequently included in David Gero's 1996 edition of Aviation Disasters II.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Investigation
I was able to plot the two intersecting flight paths and the fact that both planes were in each other's blind spot. I remember showing that the descending aircraft's propellers chewed a series of gashes along the fuselage top of the ascending aircraft. I did a lot of this type of factual re-creation for Life. They were always extremely tough to piece together to the satisfaction of all the editors, art directors and assorted researchers who were assigned to such projects. But, it was extremely interesting work.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Investigation
Hunter's recollection of his illustration was not completely accurate. The painting showed the DC-7 below the Constellation, with the former's number one engine beneath the latter's fuselage, which agreed with the CAB technical findings.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Catalyst for change
At 128 fatalities, the Grand Canyon collision became the deadliest U.S. commercial airline disaster and deadliest air crash on U.S. soil of any kind, surpassing United Airlines Flight 409 the year before. It was surpassed in both respects on December 16, 1960, by the 1960 New York mid-air collision (also involving United and TWA aircraft).


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Catalyst for change
The accident was covered by the press worldwide, and as the story unfolded, the public learned of the primitive nature of air traffic control (ATC) and how little was being done to modernize it. The air traffic controller who had cleared TWA to "1,000 on top" was severely criticized as he had not advised Captains Gandy and Shirley about the potential for a traffic conflict following the clearance, even though he must have known of the possibility.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Catalyst for change
The controller was publicly blamed for the accident by both airlines and was vilified in the press, but he was cleared of any wrongdoing. As Charles Carmody (the then-assistant ATC director) testified during the investigation, neither flight was legally under the control of ATC when they collided, as both were "off airways." The controller was not required to issue a traffic conflict advisory to either pilot.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Catalyst for change
According to the CAB accident investigation final report, page 8, the en-route controller relayed a traffic advisory regarding United 718 to TWA's ground radio operator: "ATC clears TWA 2, maintain at least 1,000 on top. Advise TWA 2 his traffic is United 718, direct Durango, estimating Needles at 0957." The TWA operator testified that Captain Gandy acknowledged the information on the United flight as "traffic received."


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Catalyst for change
The accident was particularly alarming in that public confidence in air travel had increased during the 1950s with the introduction of new airliners like the Super Constellation, Douglas DC-7, and Boeing Stratocruiser. Travel by air had become routine for large corporations and vacationers often considered flying instead of traveling by train. At the time, a congressional committee was reviewing domestic air travel, as there was growing concern over the number of accidents. However, little progress was being made and the state of ATC at the time of the Grand Canyon accident reflected the methods of the 1930s.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Catalyst for change
As near-misses and mid-air collisions continued, the public demanded action. Often-contentious congressional hearings followed, and in 1957, increased funding was allocated to modernize ATC, hire and train more air traffic controllers, and procure much-needed radar – initially military surplus equipment.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Catalyst for change
However, control of American airspace continued to be split between the military and the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA, the federal agency in charge of air traffic control at the time). The CAA had no authority over military flights, which could enter controlled airspace with no warning to other traffic. The result was a series of near-misses and collisions involving civil and military aircraft, the latter often flying at much higher speeds than the former. For example, in 1958, the collision of United Airlines Flight 736 flying "on-airways" and an F-100 Super Sabre fighter jet near Las Vegas, Nevada, resulted in 49 fatalities.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, Catalyst for change
Again, action was demanded. After more hearings, the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 was passed, dissolving the CAA and creating the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA, later renamed the Federal Aviation Administration in 1966). The FAA was given total authority over American airspace, including military activity, and as procedures and ATC facilities were modernized, mid-air collisions gradually became less frequent.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Aftermath, National Historic Landmark
On April 22, 2014, the site of the crash was declared a National Historic Landmark, making it the first landmark for an event that happened in the air. The location, in a remote portion of the canyon only accessible to hikers, has been closed to the public since the 1950s.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Dramatizations
In 2006, the story of this disaster was covered in the third season of the History Channel program UFO Files. The episode, entitled "Black Box UFO Secrets", contained the Universal Newsreel footage of the accident narrated by Ed Herlihy.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Dramatizations
In 2010, the story of the disaster, along with other mid-air collisions, was featured on the eighth season of the National Geographic Channel show Mayday (also known as Air Emergency and Air Crash Investigation). The special episode is entitled "System Breakdown". In 2013, an episode from the twelfth season, entitled "Grand Canyon Disaster", also featured this accident.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Dramatizations
In 2015, the first season of Mysteries at the National Parks on the Travel Channel,  in the series' seventh episode entitled, "Portal To The Underworld" the crash was also featured and was mentioned as being a "supernatural event."


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Literary reference
In his novel Skeleton Man (2004), Tony Hillerman uses this event as the backdrop to his story.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Literary reference
In the Arthur Hailey novel Airport, Mel thinks that another big disaster like this incident would arouse public awareness about the airport's deficiencies.


1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, Literary reference
In Colin Fletcher's 1963 account of walking Grand Canyon National Park end-to-end, "The Man Who Walked Through Time", he gives an account of somberly hiking by the wreckage of the aircraft the day after the collision.


1956 Grand National
The 1956 Grand National was the 110th renewal of the world-famous Grand National horse race that took place at Aintree Racecourse near Liverpool, England, on 24 March 1956.


1956 Grand National
It is probably best remembered for Devon Loch's sudden and inexplicable fall on the final straight, just 40 yards from a certain victory. The incident is almost always replayed during television build-up coverage on Grand National day.


1956 Grand National
Owned by Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother and ridden by Dick Francis, the well-fancied Devon Loch held a five-length lead over his nearest challenger, E.S.B., on the run-in to the finishing post, when he suddenly half-jumped into the air and landed in a bellyflop on his stomach, allowing E.S.B. to overtake and win. Although Francis tried to cajole the horse, it was unable to continue.


1956 Grand National, Media Coverage and Aftermath
Aintree maintained a refusal to allow the race to be broadcast either live or delayed by any Television company, the BBC having submitted a request every year since 1946. However, The BBC's rights to broadcast the race live on radio remained in place, making this the twenty-fifth consecutive live coverage of the race since 1927. The race was broadcast live on the BBC Light Programme from 3pm with Raymond Glendenning calling in the winner while Michael O'Hehir and Peter O'Sullevan called the action out in the country. Claude Harrison, Bob Haynes, and Aubrey Renwick assisted by calling competitors that dropped out of the race. As per all previous years, part of the agreement to broadcast was that the copyright for the recording would be held by Tophams and not the BBC.


1956 Grand National, Media Coverage and Aftermath
E.S.B. 's jockey Dave Dick said of his unexpected win: "Devon Loch had me stone cold. I was a terribly lucky winner." Devon Loch's owner Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother famously said of the incident: "Oh, that's racing!" For jockey Dick Francis, his mount's bizarre collapse on the run-in to victory in the world's most famous steeplechase remained a "terrible memory, even after all these years." Devon Loch's was not the first time a horse had seemed to jump some form of ghost fence on the run in of the National. In 1901, Arthur Nightingall's race was well won on board Grudon when his mount also made to jump a fence that wasn't there. On that occasion the pair recovered and had sufficient time to continue and win the race.


1956 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season
The 1956 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season was the eighth F.I.M. Road Racing World Championship Grand Prix season. The season consisted of six Grand Prix races in five classes: 500cc, 350cc, 250cc, 125cc and Sidecars 500cc. It began on 8 June, with Isle of Man TT and ended with Nations Grand Prix in Italy on 9 September.


1956 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season, Standings, Scoring system
Points were awarded to the top six finishers in each race. Only the four best races were counted in all five classes: the Sidecars, 125cc, 250cc,  350cc and 500cc championships.


1956 Greek legislative election
Parliamentary elections were held in Greece on 19 February 1956. The result was a victory for Constantine Karamanlis and his National Radical Union party by securing the electoral vote despite trailing in the popular vote. It was the first general election in Greece in which women had the right to vote, although women had first voted in a by-election in Thessaloniki Prefecture in 1953 in which the first female MP was elected.


1956 Greek legislative election
Although the Democratic Union, a coalition of centrist parties, received a slim plurality of votes, the conservative governing party, the National Radical Union, won the most seats due to a complex and controversial electoral system enacted by Karamanlis. A "first past the post" system was applied in the rural constituencies where the ERE was expected to gain a plurality, while proportional representation was reserved for the urban constituencies, where the Democratic Union was expected to lead. As a result, the Democratic Union came up 19 seats short of a majority.


1956 Greek legislative election
The Democratic Union included centrist parties, as the Liberal Democratic Union led by Sophoklis Venizelos and the Liberal Party of Georgios Papandreou, as well as the left-wing EDA, led by Ioannis Passalidis. A few years later, Sophoklis Venizelos and Georgios Papandreou renounced their alliance with EDA, breaking up the Democratic Union.


1956 Greek legislative election, Background
In 1955, Karamanlis was chosen by the King Paul I as successor of prime minister General Alexandros Papagos, who had just died. The decision was  controversial, as Karamanlis was not a leading member of Papagos' party, and  caused the vehement reactions of the party's two most prominent members, Stefanos Stefanopoulos and Panagiotis Kanellopoulos.


1956 Greek legislative election, Background
Nevertheless, Karamanlis, thanks to the support of the royal family and his own dextrous handlings, managed to establish himself as a strong leader. After stabilizing his leadership, he dissolved the Greek Rally party and created his own conservative right-wing party, the National Radical Union, which also comprised some prominent centrists (Evangelos Averoff, Panagiotis Kanellopoulos, Konstantinos Tsatsos) and went on to dominate the Greek political scene for the next 8 years.


1956 Green Bay Packers season
The 1956 Green Bay Packers season was their 38th season overall and their 36th in the National Football League. The team finished with a 4–8 record under coach Lisle Blackbourn, earning them a fifth-place finish in the Western Conference.


1956 Green Bay Packers season, Regular season, Standings
Note: Tie games were not officially counted in the standings until 1972.


1956 Guamanian legislative election
Parliamentary elections were held in Guam in 1956. The Popular Party won all 21 seats, in what became known as a "blackjack victory".


1956 Guamanian legislative election, Background
Following the 1954 elections the Popular Party had split after disagreements over the election of the Speaker. Eight former Popular Party MPs formed the Territorial Party shortly before the 1956 elections.


1956 Guamanian legislative election, Electoral system
The 21 members of the Legislature were elected from a single district, with the candidates receiving the most votes being elected. Candidates were required to be at least 25 years old and have lived in Guam for at least five years before the election.


1956 Guamanian legislative election, Campaign
The Popular Party campaign included referring to the Territorial Party as the "party of the rich", and opposition to the "familia system". Nightly Popular Party rallies known as "gupot" were attended by up to 5,000 people, with James T. Sablan attacking the Territorial Party. In contrast, Territorial Party rallies attracted only 200 at most, and the Guam Party attracted little attention.


1956 Guild of Television Producers and Directors Awards
The 1956 Guild of Television Producers and Directors Awards were the second annual giving of the awards which later became known as the British Academy Television Awards.


1956 Hardin–Simmons Cowboys football team
The 1956 Hardin–Simmons Cowboys football team was an American football team that represented Hardin–Simmons University in the Border Conference during the 1956 NCAA University Division football season. In its second season under head coach Sammy Baugh, the team compiled a 4–6 record (1–3 against conference opponents), finished in fifth place in the conference, and was outscored by a total of 217 to 164. The team played its home games at Parramore Stadium, also known as Parramore Field, in Abilene, Texas.


1956 Hardin–Simmons Cowboys football team
No Hardin-Simmons players were named to the 1956 All-Border Conference football team.


1956 Harvard Crimson football team
The 1956 Harvard Crimson football team represented Harvard University as a member of the Ivy League. The Crimson were led by seventh-year head coach Lloyd Jordan and played their home games at Harvard Stadium in the Allston neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts.


1956 Hawaii Rainbows football team
The 1956 Hawaii Rainbows football team represented the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa as an independent during the 1956 NCAA College Division football season. In their fifth season under head coach Hank Vasconcellos, the Rainbows compiled a 7–3 record.


1956 Hawker Hunter multiple aircraft accident
On 8 February 1956 the Royal Air Force lost six Hawker Hunter jet fighters in a multiple aircraft accident. Eight aircraft from RAF West Raynham had been carrying out a 4x4 dogfight exercise at 45,000 feet (14,000 m). Upon completion of the exercise the eight Hunters diverted to RAF Marham but due to bad weather six of the aircraft were lost including one fatality.


1956 Hawker Hunter multiple aircraft accident, Accident
The eight Hunter F1s from the Day Fighter Leader Squadron of the Central Fighter Establishment departed RAF West Raynham, Norfolk, England at 10:50 to carry out the exercise at 45,000 feet (14,000 m) in the local area. Due to the expected bad weather later in the day the aircraft were scheduled to return to West Raynham overhead by 11:15. By 11:00 the weather at West Raynham had deteriorated with poor visibility and the aircraft were told to divert to nearby RAF Marham for a visual approach.


1956 Hawker Hunter multiple aircraft accident, Accident
The visibility suddenly reduced but due to the close proximity of the aircraft to each other it was not possible to complete ground controlled approaches. In the following confusion and with only 10 minutes of fuel remaining, only two aircraft landed successfully.


1956 Hawker Hunter multiple aircraft accident, Aftermath
Questions were asked in Parliament about the loss of six aircraft worth £750,000  and the suspicion that the Mark 1 and 2 Hunters "are liable to be deficient in fuel if a crisis arises". Concern was also raised about the carrying out the exercise in the expected weather conditions.


1956 Hawker Hunter multiple aircraft accident, Investigation
The Board of Inquiry (BoI) reported that the primary cause of the accident was the sudden deterioration in the weather. The board also said it was an error of judgement to divert the aircraft to Marham on the assumption that they could do a visual landing.


1956 Hawker Hunter multiple aircraft accident, Investigation
The BoI stated that the decision to fly in the weather conditions was proper and reasonable, the pilots were all competent, the aircraft were serviceable and had adequate fuel and endurance for the planned mission.


1956 Hawker Hunter multiple aircraft accident, Investigation
The Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief Fighter Command decided that disciplinary action should be taken against officers in charge of flying operations at West Raynham. One officer was reproved and removed from his job and three other officers were reproved.


1956 Hawthorn Football Club season
The 1956 season was the Hawthorn Football Club's 32nd season in the Victorian Football League and 55th overall.


1956 Hawthorn Football Club season, Fixture, Night Series Cup
The night series cup was a knockout tournament contested by the teams who didn't qualify for the finals.


1956 Hereford by-election
The Hereford by-election of 14 February 1956 was held after the resignation of Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) Jim Thomas.


1956 Hereford by-election
The seat was safe, having been won by Thomas at the 1955 United Kingdom general election albeit with a reduced majority of over 2,000 votes. The Liberals, who had already polled nearly one-quarter of the vote in 1955, increased their share to 36.4%.


1956 Holy Cross Crusaders football team
The 1956 Holy Cross Crusaders football team was an American football team that represented the College of the Holy Cross as an independent during the 1956 NCAA University Division football season. In its 13th year under head coach Eddie Anderson, the team compiled a 5–3–1 record. The team played its home games at Fitton Field on the college's campus in Worcester, Massachusetts.


1956 Honduran Constituent Assembly election
Constituent Assembly elections were held in Honduras on 7 October 1956. Prior to the elections, President Julio Lozano Díaz established his own party, the Party of National Unity. The elections were heavily rigged and the PUN won all 58 seats.


1956 Honduran Constituent Assembly election, Conduct
A group of protesting Liberals were fired on by police in Tegucigalpa.


1956 Honduran Constituent Assembly election, Aftermath
Following the elections, a military coup took place on 21 October. The top conspirators included Colonel Héctor Caraccioli, head of the air force, Major Roberto Gálvez Barnes, Minister of Development and General Roque J. Rodríguez, director of the military academy in Tegucigalpa. They organized a military government with Rodríguez as its apparent leader, primarily because of his seniority. Lozano was exiled and Fresh elections were held in September 1957.


1956 Hong Kong municipal election
The 1956 Urban Council election was held on 7 March 1956. The elected seats were extended from 4 to 8 seats and the election was for the 6 of the 8 elected seats of the Urban Council of Hong Kong. 6,040 of the 14,682, about 41% of the eligible voters cast their ballots in this election, highest turnout rate in the history of the Urban Council elections.


1956 Hong Kong municipal election
The newly established political group Hong Kong Civic Association won 2 of the 6 seats while the rest were won by the Reform Club of Hong Kong. The China Mail commented the election as "the first of a genuine 'political contest'" between two parties. Alison Bell, a Scottish-born Hong Kong doctor ran as the candidate for the Reform Club became the first woman to be elected to the council. The four candidates who gained the highest votes would have a three-year term and the other two would have only a one-year term.


1956 Hong Kong municipal election, Overview
The election was noted by its high turnout and the competition between two political groups for the first time. 6,048 of the 14,682 eligible voters cast their ballots, which consisted of 41.2 per cent of the electorate, which was the highest turnout rate in the history of the Urban Council elections. Many of the voters were Chinese.


1956 Hong Kong municipal election, Overview
The Reform Club of Hong Kong had a decisive victory over the newly established Hong Kong Civic Association which founded two years ago in 1954 by getting all four candidates of its ticket elected, winning four of the six seats. Alison Bell, a Scottish-born Hong Kong doctor ran as the candidate for the Reform Club became the first woman to be elected to the council. Another Club's newcomer was Chan Shu-woon, son of the former Guangdong warlord Chen Jitang.


1956 Hong Kong municipal election, Overview
Only Li Yiu-bor and Dr. Woo Pak-foo on the Association's six-candidate ticket were elected, while Oswald Cheung and Hilton Cheong-Leen failed to get elected. It was regarded as "the first time in the Colony's history the election was a 'political' contest between two parties". The Reform Club supporters who favoured block vote, in which over 4,000 out of at least 4,465 voted according to the Club's ticket, contributed to its victory, while the Civic Association lacked the organisational ability of the Reform Club electorate.


1956 Hong Kong riots
The Hong Kong 1956 protests, also known as Double Ten riots, were the result of escalating provocations between the pro-ROC camp and local communists in Hong Kong during Double Ten Day, 10 October 1956.


1956 Hong Kong riots
Most violence took place in the town of Tsuen Wan, five miles from central Kowloon. A mob stormed and ransacked a clinic and welfare centre, killing four people.


1956 Hong Kong riots
The protests spread to other parts of Kowloon including along Nathan Road. By 11 October, some of the mob began targeting foreigners. Protesters in Kowloon turned over a taxi carrying the Swiss Vice Consul Fritz Ernst and his wife on Nathan Road. The protesters doused the cab in gasoline and lit it on fire resulting in the death of the driver and Mrs. Ernst who succumbed to her injuries two days later.


1956 Hong Kong riots
To quell the protesting, Colonial Secretary Edgeworth B. David ordered extra manpower from the British Forces Hong Kong, including armoured troops of  7th Hussars, to reinforce the Hong Kong Police and disperse the rioters. In total, there were 59 deaths and approximately 500 injuries. Property damage was estimated at US$1,000,000.


1956 Houston Cougars football team
The 1956 Houston Cougars football team was an American football team that represented the University of Houston in the Missouri Valley Conference (MVC) during the 1956 NCAA University Division football season. In its second and final season under head coach Bill Meek, the team compiled a 7–2–1 record (4–0 against conference opponents) and won the MVC championship. Don Flynn and Ken Wind were the team captains. The team played its home games at Rice Stadium in Houston.


1956 Humboldt State Lumberjacks football team
The 1956 Humboldt State Lumberjacks football team represented Humboldt State College during the 1956 NCAA College Division football season. Humboldt State competed in the Far Western Conference (FWC).


1956 Humboldt State Lumberjacks football team
The 1956 Lumberjacks were led by sixth-year head coach Phil Sarboe. They played home games at the Redwood Bowl in Arcata, California. Humboldt State finished in a three-way tie for the conference championship, with a record of nine wins and two losses (9–2, 4–1 FWC). The Lumberjacks outscored their opponents 269–149 for the season.


1956 Humboldt State Lumberjacks football team, Team players in the NFL
No Humboldt State players were selected in the 1957 NFL Draft.


1956 Icelandic parliamentary election
Parliamentary elections were held in Iceland on 24 June 1956. The Independence Party remained the largest party in the Lower House of the Althing, winning 13 of the 35 seats.


1956 Icelandic parliamentary election, Electoral system
The elections were conducted under two electoral systems. Twenty-one members were elected in single-member constituencies via first-past-the-post voting, while the remainder were elected using D'Hondt method proportional representation: twelve members in two-member constituencies, eight members in Reykjavík, and eleven from a single national compensatory list. To earn national list seats, a party had to win at least one constituency seat. In constituencies electing two or more members, within the party list, voters had the option to re-rank the candidates and could also strike a candidate out. Allocation of seats to candidates was done using a system based on the Borda count.


1956 Icelandic presidential election
Presidential elections were scheduled to be held in Iceland in 1956. However, incumbent President Ásgeir Ásgeirsson was the only candidate, and the election was uncontested.


1956 Idaho Vandals football team
The 1956 Idaho Vandals football team represented the University of Idaho in the 1956 NCAA University Division football season. The Vandals were led by third-year head coach Skip Stahley and were members of the Pacific Coast Conference. Home games were played on campus at Neale Stadium in Moscow, with one home game in Boise at old Bronco Stadium at Boise Junior College. Idaho compiled a 4–5 overall record but were 0–4 in the PCC. After four losses to open, the Vandals won three straight, then split the final two games.


1956 Idaho Vandals football team
After road losses to Washington and Oregon, the Vandals suffered a second straight loss in the Battle of the Palouse with neighbor Washington State, falling 19–33 at home on October 6. Following the game, skirmishes between student factions provoked the Moscow city police to use tear gas to control the situation. The following week, Idaho was depleted by injuries and came out on the short end of a 41-point homecoming shutout by Arizona State.


1956 Idaho Vandals football team
The most recent winning season for Idaho football was 18 years earlier in 1938, and the Vandals were a win shy in 1956. The streak was broken seven years later in 1963.


1956 Idaho Vandals football team, Notable players
This Vandal team had several players who went on to extended careers in professional football. Jerry Kramer of Sandpoint played eleven seasons at right guard with the Green Bay Packers and won five NFL titles (and the first two Super Bowls) under head coach Vince Lombardi. He was an All-Pro five times and was the lead blocker on the famous Packers sweep. Kramer made the NFL's all-decade team for the 1960s and was the last member of the NFL's 50th anniversary team to be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame, at age 82 in 2018.


1956 Idaho Vandals football team, Notable players
Wayne Walker of Boise played fifteen seasons with the Detroit Lions as an outside linebacker and was named All-Pro three times. Both were juniors in 1956 and were selected in the fourth round of the 1958 NFL Draft; Kramer was 39th overall and Walker 45th, and both were periodic placekickers as pros. (As Vandals, Kramer was the kicker and Walker was the long snapper.)


1956 Idaho Vandals football team, Notable players
Jim Prestel of Indianapolis was a defensive tackle for eight seasons in the NFL, primarily with the expansion Minnesota Vikings. A sophomore in 1956, he missed most of the following season due to his mother's terminal illness. Selected in the sixth round of the 1959 NFL Draft, 70th overall, he was granted another year of eligibility and played for Idaho in 1959 and began his pro career with the Cleveland Browns in 1960. Prestel was also a standout player on the Vandal basketball team. He played in his final game at Idaho in the Battle of the Palouse in late October with a broken foot, then was sidelined and missed the basketball season.


1956 Idaho Vandals football team, All-conference
No Vandals were on the All-PCC team or the second team. Honorable mention were quarterback Gary Johnson, tackle Dick Foster, guard Jerry Kramer, and center Wayne Walker.


1956 Idaho Vandals football team, NFL Draft
^ Prestel was granted another year of eligibility and played for Idaho in 1959.


1956 Illinois Fighting Illini football team
The 1956 Illinois Fighting Illini football team was an American football team that represented the University of Illinois during the 1956 Big Ten Conference football season. In their 15th year under head coach Ray Eliot, the Illini compiled a 2–5–2 record and finished in a tie for seventh place in the Big Ten Conference.


1956 Illinois Fighting Illini football team, Game summaries
On September 29, 1956, Illinois defeated California, 32–20, before a crowd of 54,833 at Memorial Stadium in Champaign, Illinois. The attendance was a Memorial Stadium record for an opening game. California took a 20–0 lead, but Illinois scored four touchdowns in the third quarter over a span of six minutes and 36 seconds. Abe Woodson recovered Ray Nitschke's fumble for Illinois' first touchdown.


1956 Illinois Fighting Illini football team, Game summaries
On October 6, Washington defeated Illinois, 28–13, before a crowd of 36,261 at Husky Stadium in Seattle. On the opening series of the game, Illinois drove to Washington's two yard line but quarterback Hiles Stout fumbled. Washington recovered the ball, and Dean Derby ran 92 yards for a touchdown.


1956 Illinois Fighting Illini football team, Game summaries
On October 13, Ohio State (ranked No. 5 at the AP Poll) defeated Illinois, 26–6, before a crowd of 58,247 at Memorial Stadium in Champaign. Ohio State rushed for 307 yards, aided by the blocking of guard Jim Parker who was selected as the team's most valuable player for the 1956 season. Parker also played on defense and recovered a fumble at the Illinois 10-yard line to set up a touchdown. Quarterback Frank Ellwood rushed for two touchdowns and threw a touchdown pass to Jim Roseboro.


1956 Illinois Fighting Illini football team, Game summaries
It was on the opening kickoff of this game that Illinois linebacker/backup quarterback (and future Green Bay Packers star) Ray Nitschke developed his famous toothless grin when he took a Buckeye helmet in the mouth. Nitschke, who never wore a face guard on his helmet in college, lost his four top front teeth as a result of the play.


1956 Illinois Fighting Illini football team, Game summaries
On October 20, Minnesota defeated Illinois, 16–13, before a crowd of 63,037 at Memorial Stadium in Minneapolis. Dick Borstad kicked a field goal with two minutes remaining to put the Golden Gophers in the lead.


1956 Illinois Fighting Illini football team, Game summaries
On October 27, Illinois upset Michigan State, 20–13, before a homecoming crowd of 71,119 at Memorial Stadium in Champaign. Michigan State was ranked No. 1 before the game and had its national championship hopes, and a 12-game winning streak, dashed by the defeat. The Spartans led, 13–0, at halftime, but Abe Woodson, the Big Ten's indoor sprint champion, led the Illini to 20 unanswered points in the second half. Woodson scored all three Illinois touchdowns: a 70-yard touchdown run, an 82-touchdown reception, and a short touchdown run. Woodson had 116 rushing yards and total gains of 198 yards.


1956 Illinois Fighting Illini football team, Game summaries
On November 3, Illinois and Purdue played to a 7–7 tie before a homecoming crowd of 46,166 at Ross–Ade Stadium in West Lafayette.


1956 Illinois Fighting Illini football team, Game summaries
On November 10, Michigan (ranked No. 10 in the AP Poll) defeated Illinois, 17–7, before a crowd of 75,470 at Michigan Stadium. Illinois scored a touchdown on its first possession but was held scoreless for the remainder of the game. Michigan came back with rushing touchdowns by Jim Pace and Jim Byers and a field goal by Ron Kramer. Michigan rushed for 328 yards, including 120 yards by Jim Pace.


1956 Illinois Fighting Illini football team, Game summaries
On November 17, Illinois and Wisconsin played to a 13–13 tie before a crowd of 52,858 at Memorial Stadium in Champaign. Illinois led 13–6 at halftime. With slightly more than three minutes left in the game, Wisconsin end Sidney Williams threw a 34-yard pass to Danny Lewis on the nine-yard line, setting up a touchdown run on the next play. Williams' pass was his first of the season.


1956 Illinois Fighting Illini football team, Game summaries
On November 24, in the annual Illinois–Northwestern football rivalry game, Northwestern defeated Illinois, 14–13, before a crowd of 40,000 at Dyche Stadium in Evanston. Bob McKelver kicked two extra points for Northwestern, which proved to be the difference in a game in which each team scored two touchdowns.


1956 Illinois Fighting Illini football team, Awards and statistics
Halfback Abe Woodson was selected as a first-team All-Big Ten player by both the Associated Press and United Press. Woodson was drafted in the second round, 15th overall pick, of the 1957 NFL Draft.


1956 Illinois Fighting Illini football team, Awards and statistics
Guard Dave Walker was selected as the team's most valuable player.


1956 Illinois Fighting Illini football team, Awards and statistics
Illinois' statistical leaders in 1956 included Hiles Stout with 278 passing yards, Abe Woodson with 599 rushing yards, and Woodson with 257 receiving yards.


1956 Illinois elections
Elections were held in Illinois on Tuesday, November 6, 1956.


1956 Illinois elections
The results strongly favored the Republican Party, which retained control both chambers of the Illinois General Assembly as well as all statewide elected executive offices. They also won the state in the presidential election, retained the U.S. Senate seat up for election, and flipped a single U.S. House seat.


1956 Illinois elections, Election information, Turnout
In the primary election turnout was 36.96%, with a total of 1,839,577 ballots cast (961,999 Democratic and 877,578 Republican).


1956 Illinois elections, Election information, Turnout
In the general election turnout was 85.95%, with a total of 4,484,956 ballots cast.


1956 Illinois elections, Federal elections, United States President
Illinois voted for the Republican ticket of Dwight D. Eisenhower and Richard Nixon. For the second consecutive election, Illinois' vote for the Republican Eisenhower-Nixon ticket came despite the fact that former Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson II was the Democratic presidential nominee.


1956 Illinois elections, Federal elections, United States Senate
Republican Senator Everett Dirksen was reelected to a second term.


1956 Illinois elections, Federal elections, United States House
All 25 Illinois seats in the United States House of Representatives were up for election in 1956.


1956 Illinois elections, Federal elections, United States House
The Republicans flipped one Democratic-held seat, leaving the composition of Illinois' House delegation to consist of 14 Republicans and 11 Democrats.


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, Governor
Incumbent Governor William Stratton, a Republican, narrowly won reelection to a second term.


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, Governor, General election
Herbert C. Paschen was replaced by Richard B. Austin as Democratic nominee.


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, Lieutenant Governor
Incumbent Lieutenant Governor John William Chapman, a Republican, won reelection to a second term.


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, Attorney General
Incumbent Attorney General Latham Castle, a Republican, was elected to a second term.


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, Secretary of State
Incumbent Secretary of State Charles F. Carpentier, a Republican, was reelected to a second term.


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, Auditor of Public Accounts
Auditor of Public Accounts Orville Hodge, who had been elected in 1952, was seeking re-election and had won the Republican primary before being charged with 54 counts of bank fraud, embezzlement and forgery relating to a $6.15 million fraud he committed against the state; Hodge was removed from office, pleaded guilty and was sentenced to 12 to 15 years in prison.


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, Auditor of Public Accounts
Lloyd Morey was appointed in 1957 to replace Hodge, but decided  not to seek reelection. Republican Elbert S. Smith was elected to succeed Morey.


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, Treasurer
Incumbent Treasurer Warren Wright, a Republican, did not seek reelection to a second-consecutive (third overall) term, instead opting to run (ultimately unsuccessfully) for the Republican nomination for governor. Republican Elmer J. Hoffman was elected to succeed him in office, earning Hoffman a second non-consecutive term as Treasurer.


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, Treasurer
This was the first Illinois Treasurer election to a four-year term, as voters approved a constitutional amendment in 1954 which extended term length from two to four-years beginning in 1956.


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, Clerk of the Supreme Court
Incumbent Clerk of the Supreme Court Fae Searcy, a Republican appointed after the death in office of her husband Earle Benjamin Searcy, won reelection to a first full term.


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, Clerk of the Supreme Court
Instead of being listed by her own name, Searcy opted to be listed on the ballot in both the primary and general election as "Ms. Earle Benjamin Searcy".


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, State Senate
Seats of the Illinois Senate were up for election in 1960. Republicans retained control of the chamber.


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, State House of Representatives
Seats in the Illinois House of Representatives were up for election in 1956. Republicans retained control of the chamber.


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, Trustees of University of Illinois
An election using cumulative voting was held for three of the nine seats for Trustees of University of Illinois. All three Republican nominees won. The election was for 6-year terms.


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, Trustees of University of Illinois
Incumbent Republican Wayne A. Johnston  won a second term. Incumbent Republican Timothy W. Swain, appointed in 1955 after the resignation of Red Grange, won election to his first full term. Also, joining them in winning election, was Republican Earl M. Hughes. Incumbent first-term Republican Herbert B. Megran had not been nominated for reelection.


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, Judicial elections
On April 10, special elections were held for vacancies on the Third and Sixteenth Judicial Circuit Districts. On November 2, special elections were held for three vacancies on the Superior Court of Cook County.


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, Ballot measures
Two ballot measures, were put before Illinois voters in 1956.


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, Ballot measures, General Banking Law Amendment
Voters approved the General Banking Law Amendment a legislatively referred state statute which modified the state's banking law.


1956 Illinois elections, State elections, Ballot measures, Revenue Amendment
The Revenue Amendment, a legislatively referred constitutional amendment which would have amended Article IX Sections 1, 2, 3, 9 and 10 and repeal Article IX Section 13 of the 1870 Constitution of Illinois to give more leeway to the legislature in creating tax policy, while specifically forbidding the authorization of a graduated income tax, failed to meet either threshold for adoption. In order for constitutional amendments to pass, they required either two-thirds support among those specifically voting on the measure or 50% support among all ballots cast in the elections.


1956 Illinois gubernatorial election
The 1956 Illinois gubernatorial election was held in Illinois on November 6, 1956. Incumbent Governor William Stratton, a Republican, narrowly won reelection to a second term. Stratton's narrow victory came despite the fact that the Republican ticket of Dwight D. Eisenhower and Richard Nixon carried the state of Illinois in a landslide in the presidential election.


1956 Illinois gubernatorial election, Election information
The primaries and general election both coincided with those for federal offices (United States President, House, and United States Senate) and those for other state offices. The election was part of the 1956 Illinois elections.


1956 Illinois gubernatorial election, Election information, Turnout
In the primaries, turnout was 32.56%, with a total of 1,620,871 votes cast.


1956 Illinois gubernatorial election, Election information, Turnout
In the general election, turnout was 82.69%, with a total of 4,314,611 ballots cast.


1956 Illinois gubernatorial election, Primaries, Democratic primary
Cook County Treasurer Herbert C. Paschen won the Democratic primary.


1956 Illinois gubernatorial election, General election
Democratic nominee Herbert C. Paschen became embroiled in scandal related to his tenure as Cook County Treasurer. Paschen withdrew as the nominee. Paschen was replaced by Richard B. Austin as Democratic nominee.


1956 Indian Rajya Sabha elections
Rajya Sabha elections were held in 1956, to elect members of the Rajya Sabha, Indian Parliament's upper chamber.


1956 Indian Rajya Sabha elections, Elections
Elections were held in 1956 to elect members from various states. The list is incomplete.


1956 Indian Rajya Sabha elections, Elections, Members elected
The following members are elected in the elections held in 1956. They are members for the term 1956-62 and retire in year 1962, except in case of the resignation or death before the term.


1956 Indian Rajya Sabha elections, Bye-elections
The following bye elections were held in the year 1956.


1956 Indiana Hoosiers football team
The 1956 Indiana Hoosiers football team was an American football team that represented the Indiana Hoosiers in the 1956 Big Ten Conference football season. The Hoosiers played their home games at Memorial Stadium in Bloomington, Indiana. The team was coached by Bernie Crimmins, in his fifth and final year as head coach of the Hoosiers. On November 28, 1956, Crimmins, at age 37, resigned as Indiana's head football coach. He had compiled a 13–32 record and was unable to produce a winning team in five years in the position.


1956 Indiana Hoosiers football team
The team's statistical leaders included Steve Filipowski with 391 passing yards, Bob Fee with 621 rushing yards, and Brad Bomba with 407 receiving yards. Bomba's receiving yardage also led the Big Ten.


1956 Indiana Hoosiers football team, Game summaries
On September 29, 1956, Iowa defeated Indiana, 27–0, before a crowd of 25,000 at Memorial Stadium in Bloomington, Indiana, for the first conference game of the 1956 season. Iowa scored two touchdowns in the first quarter off an Indiana fumble and an interception. Iowa rushed for 242 yards to 76 yards for Indiana.


1956 Indiana Hoosiers football team, Game summaries
On October 6, Notre Dame (ranked No. 17 in the AP Poll) defeated Indiana, 20–6, before a crowd of 58,372 at Notre Dame Stadium in South Bend, Indiana.


1956 Indiana Hoosiers football team, Game summaries
On October 13, Michigan State (ranked No. 2 in the AP Poll) defeated Indiana, 53–6, before a crowd of 58,858 at Macklin Stadium in East Lansing, Michigan. The Spartans gained 264 rushing yards and 204 passing yards. Clarence Peaks also returned a punt 63 yards for a touchdown. Michigan State played backups for much of the second half with a total of 50 Spartans seeing game action. The outcome was Indiana's worst defeat since 1948.


1956 Indiana Hoosiers football team, Game summaries
On October 20, Indiana defeated Nebraska, 19–14, before a crowd of 38,000 at Memorial Stadium in Lincoln, Nebraska. Nebraska led, 14–0, at halftime, but Indiana rallied for two touchdowns in the fourth quarter. The result was Indiana's first win of the season. Brad Bomba caught six passes in the game.


1956 Indiana Hoosiers football team, Game summaries
On October 27, Indiana defeated Northwestern, 19–13, before a homecoming crowd of 23,000 at Memorial Stadium in Bloomington. The game was tied, 13–13, at halftime. Indiana intercepted a Northwestern pass with four minutes remaining to set up the winning touchdown.


1956 Indiana Hoosiers football team, Game summaries
On November 3, Indiana defeated Marquette, 19–13, before a crowd of approximately 21,000 at Memorial Stadium in Bloomington. In the fourth quarter, Indiana's Arnold Steeves recovered a fumble at Marquette's 43-yard line to set up the winning touchdown.


1956 Indiana Hoosiers football team, Game summaries
On November 10, Ohio State (ranked No. 7 in the AP Poll) defeated Indiana, 35–14, before a crowd of 82,073 at Ohio Stadium in Columbus. The victory was Ohio State's 17th in a row against conference opponents, setting a new conference record. The Buckeyes also broke the Big Ten single-game record with 465 rushing yards against the Hoosiers.


1956 Indiana Hoosiers football team, Game summaries
On November 17, Michigan defeated Indiana, 49–26, before a crowd of 58,515 at Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor. Michigan led, 35–0, at halftime and gained for 427 yards (275 rushing, 142 passing) in the game. Michigan's Terry Barr scored three touchdowns in the game.


1956 Indiana Hoosiers football team, Game summaries
On November 24, in the annual battle for the Old Oaken Bucket, Purdue defeated Indiana, 39–20, at Ross–Ade Stadium in Lafayette, Indiana. In his final college game, Purdue quarterback Len Dawson threw two touchdown passes, both caught by end Lamar Lundy. Mel Dillard rushed for 130 yards and three touchdowns in the game and a conference high 873 yards for the season. The game proved to be a battle for last place in the conference, with Purdue finishing in ninth place and Indiana in tenth and last place.


1956 Indiana gubernatorial election
The 1956 Indiana gubernatorial election was held on November 6, 1956. Republican nominee Harold W. Handley defeated Democratic nominee Ralph Tucker with 55.61% of the vote.


1956 Indianapolis 500
The 40th International 500-Mile Sweepstakes was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway on Wednesday, May 30, 1956. The event was part of the 1956 USAC National Championship Trail and was also race 3 of  8 in the 1956 World Championship of Drivers.


1956 Indianapolis 500
The 1956 race was the first to be governed by the United States Automobile Club. AAA withdrew from auto racing the previous August. Another change would have a more immediate effect on the current race. The track had been paved over with asphalt with only about 600 yards of the main stretch still remaining brick.


1956 Indianapolis 500
The 1956 race is also known in Indy 500 lore as "Cagle's Miracle." Torrential rains pummeled the Speedway in the days leading up to the race. The track was full of standing water, access tunnels were completely flooded, and the infield was a muddy quagmire. The conditions threatened to postpone or outright cancel the race. Speedway superintendent Clarence Cagle supervised a massive cleanup effort, in which hundreds of thousands of gallons of water were pumped out of the tunnels and the infield. Cagle and his crew worked non-stop for 48 hours straight, some without sleep, and had the track ready just in time for race morning.


1956 Indianapolis 500, Time trials
Time trials was scheduled for four days, but the third day was rained out. With the new surface, a new track record was expected. Pat Flaherty did not disappoint with a pole speed of 145.596 mph (234.314 km/h), over 4.5 mph (7.2 km/h) faster than the 1954 record. 29 drivers qualified opening weekend. The second weekend saw heavy rain that completely canceled Saturday and left only a small window on Sunday for 4 drivers to fill the field. Nino Farina was one of the drivers left out when he didn't get a chance to qualify his Bardahl-Ferrari.


1956 Indianapolis 500, Race summary
The early part of the race turned into a three-man duel between Russo, O'Connor, and Flaherty. Russo was the first to retire when his tire failed and his car crashed and caught fire. At quarter distance due to yellows and the pit stops, Parsons took the lead followed by Freeland. By the 200-mile (320 km) mark Flaherty took over the lead followed by Freeland, Sweikert, and Parsons but Hanks was working his way through the fields after sustaining some damage in the Russo crash, eventually taking second.


1956 Indianapolis 500, Race summary
Flaherty had built up such a lead that he was able to make his last pit stop and remain in front. He crossed the finish line with Hanks the only other car on the lead lap. The only real change in the top cars toward the end was both O'Connor and Jim Rathmann having to drop back with mechanical problems while both drivers were in the top 5.


1956 Indianapolis 500, Broadcasting, Radio
The race was carried live on the IMS Radio Network. Sid Collins served as chief announcer. The broadcast was carried by over 280 affiliates, as well as Armed Forces Radio. The broadcast came on-air at 10:45 a.m. local time, fifteen minutes prior to the start of the race. This was the final broadcast based out of the old wooden Pagoda, which was demolished after the race.


1956 Indianapolis 500, Broadcasting, Radio
This was also the final year to have only two turn reporters ("south turns" and "north turns"). Beginning in 1957, the crew would be expanded to have one reporter in each of the four turns.


1956 Individual Speedway World Championship
The 1956 Individual Speedway World Championship was the 11th edition of the official World Championship to determine the world champion rider.


1956 Individual Speedway World Championship
The World final was sponsored by the Sunday Dispatch and was televised live. Despite being televised a crowd of 65,000 saw the first Scandinavian winner in 23 year old Ove Fundin from Sweden.


1956 Individual Speedway World Championship, Continental Final
Fritz Dirtl was tragically killed competing in the Continental final. He was involved in a crash with fellow Austrian rider Josef Kamper and the fell into the path of Mieczysław Połukard.


1956 Individual Speedway World Championship, World final, Classification
m - exclusion for exceeding two minute time allowance •  t - exclusion for touching the tapes •  x - other exclusion •  e - retired or mechanical failure •  f - fell •  ns - non-starter •  nc - non-classify


1956 International Cross Country Championships
The 1956 International Cross Country Championships was held in Belfast, Northern Ireland, at the Royal Ulster Showground on 17 March 1956. In addition, an unofficial women's championship was held the same day at Upminster, England on 17 March 1956. A report on the men's event as well as the women's event was given in the Glasgow Herald.


1956 International Cross Country Championships
Complete results for men, and for women (unofficial), medallists,  and the results of British athletes were published.


1956 International Cross Country Championships, Participation, Men's
An unofficial count yields the participation of 70 male athletes from 8 countries.


1956 International Cross Country Championships, Participation, Women's
An unofficial count yields the participation of 12 female athletes from 2 countries.


1956 Iowa Hawkeyes football team
The 1956 Iowa Hawkeyes football team was an American football team that represented the University of Iowa in the 1956 Big Ten Conference football season. The Hawkeyes were champions of the Big Ten Conference and beat the Oregon State Beavers in the 1957 Rose Bowl, a rematch of a regular season game.


1956 Iowa Hawkeyes football team
The team's statistical leaders included quarterback Ken Ploen with 386 passing yards, Ploen with 487 rushing yards, Ploen with 873 total yards, and Jim Gibbons with 255 receiving yards. Tackle Alex Karras was selected as a first-team All-American.


1956 Iowa Hawkeyes football team, Game summaries, Indiana
On September 29, 1956, Iowa defeated Indiana, 27–0, before a crowd of 25,000 at Memorial Stadium in Bloomington, Indiana. Iowa scored two touchdowns in the first quarter off an Indiana fumble and an interception. Iowa rushed for 242 yards to 76 yards for Indiana.


1956 Iowa Hawkeyes football team, Game summaries, Oregon State
On October 6, Iowa (ranked No. 20 in the AP Poll) defeated Oregon State, 14–13, before a crowd of 41,027 at Iowa Stadium in Iowa City. The game matched the same teams that met again in the 1957 Rose Bowl. Oregon State scored on its second play from scrimmage on a 30-yard pass, but the extra point attempt was blocked. Oregon State scored again in the third quarter on a 49-yard run by Paul Lowe and led, 13–0, at the start of the fourth quarter. Iowa threw two touchdown passes in a span of six minutes in the fourth quarter to secure the victory.


1956 Iowa Hawkeyes football team, Game summaries, Wisconsin
On October 13, Iowa defeated Wisconsin, 13–7, before a crowd of 53,273 at Iowa Stadium. With only a minute remaining in the first half, Iowa drove 84 yards, running eight plays in 59 seconds and scoring on a pitchout from Ken Ploen to Mike Hagler. Iowa scored again on the first drive of the second half on a short run by Ploen, taking a 13–0 lead.


1956 Iowa Hawkeyes football team, Game summaries, Hawaii
On October 20, Iowa defeated Hawaii, 34–0, at Iowa Stadium in Iowa City. Iowa led, 14–0, at halftime and played second, third and fourth-string players in the second half, with a total of 42 Hawkeyes seeing game action. Iowa rushed for 266 yards and held Hawaii to 67 rushing yards.


1956 Iowa Hawkeyes football team, Game summaries, Purdue
On October 27, Iowa (ranked No. 12 in the AP Poll) defeated Purdue, 21–20, before a crowd of 41,415 at Ross–Ade Stadium in West Lafayette. Purdue quarterback Len Dawson threw two touchdown passes, and Mel Dillard ran for a third. Iowa also scored three touchdowns, with the difference being a missed extra point. Purdue drove into Iowa territory late in the game, but Purdue fumbled at the 25-yard line with a minute and a half remaining in the game.


1956 Iowa Hawkeyes football team, Game summaries, Michigan
On November 3, Michigan (ranked No. 17 in the AP Poll) defeated Iowa (ranked No. 7 in the AP Poll) by a 17–14 score before a crowd of 58,137 at Iowa Stadium in Iowa City. The loss was the only one of the year for Iowa. Iowa had not beaten Michigan since 1924. Michigan took a 3–0 lead in the first quarter on a field goal by Ron Kramer. Iowa then scored two touchdowns and led, 14–3, at halftime.


1956 Iowa Hawkeyes football team, Game summaries, Michigan
One of the Iowa touchdowns was set up when Michigan's quarterback was sacked and fumbled with Alex Karras recovering the ball for Iowa. Michigan's third-string halfback, Mike Shatusky, scored two touchdowns in the second half, a three-yard run in the third quarter and a two-yard plunge with one minute and six seconds remaining in the game.


1956 Iowa Hawkeyes football team, Game summaries, Minnesota
On November 10, Iowa (ranked No. 15 in the AP Poll) defeated Minnesota (ranked No. 6), 7–0, before a crowd of 64,235 at Memorial Stadium in Minneapolis. Iowa coach implemented a 6-3-2 defense to contain Minnesota's speedy Bobby Cox. After the game, Cox noted: "I couldn't go outside. They forced me to go inside and then some linebacker would nail me." The outcome put Iowa into the lead in the race for the conference's Rose Bowl bid. After the game, Iowa's players carried coach Evashevski off the field on their shoulders.


1956 Iowa Hawkeyes football team, Game summaries, Ohio State
On November 17, Iowa (ranked No. 7 in the AP Poll) defeated Ohio State (ranked No. 6), 6–0, before a crowd of 57,732 at Iowa Stadium. Ohio State went into the game with the second best rushing attack in the country but were held to 147 rushing yards, their lowest rushing yardage total in two years. The result broke Ohio State's winning streak of 17 games against conference opponents and clinched for Iowa the conference championship and a berth in the Rose Bowl. After time expired, Iowa fans hauled down the goal posts and paraded through Iowa City.


1956 Iowa Hawkeyes football team, Game summaries, Notre Dame
On November 24, Iowa (ranked No. 3) defeated Notre Dame, 48–8, before a crowd of 56,632 at Iowa Stadium. The victory, combined with Ohio State's loss, gave Iowa its first undisputed Big Ten championship since 1922. Iowa's 48 points was the fourth highest total allowed by a Notre Dame football team to that point in the program's history. Paul Hornung sprained a thumb 10 minutes into the game and did not return. Iowa rushed for 409 yards and scored on runs of 10 and 41 yards by Ken Ploen, 23 and 61 yards by Fred Harris, and 54 yards by Mike Hagler.


1956 Iowa Hawkeyes football team, Game summaries, Rose Bowl
On January 1, 1957, Iowa defeated Oregon State, 35–19, in the 1957 Rose Bowl. Iowa scored five touchdowns, including a 49-yard touchdown run by Ken Ploen and a 66-yard touchdown run by Collins Hagler.


1956 Iowa Hawkeyes football team, Postseason awards
Three Iowa players were picked by the Associated Press (AP) and/or the United Press (UP) as first-team players on the 1956 All-Big Ten Conference football team. They were:


1956 Iowa Hawkeyes football team, Postseason awards
Karras also received first-team honors on the 1956 College Football All-America Team from the Associated Press, the Football Writers Association of America, and the Central Press.


1956 Iowa Hawkeyes football team, Postseason awards
On December 3, 1956, both the Associated Press (AP) and United Press (UP) released their final college football polls. Both organizations ranked undefeated Oklahoma at the No. 1 spot with Iowa at No. 3.


1956 Iowa Hawkeyes football team, Postseason awards
On December 4, 1956, the Heisman Trophy was awarded to Paul Hornung of Notre Dame. Iowa quarterback Ken Ploen placed ninth in the voting.