1955 Small Club World Cup
The 1955 Small Club World Cup was the fourth edition of the Small Club World Cup, a tournament held in Venezuela between 1952 and 1957, and in 1963 and in 1965. It was played by four participants, half from Europe and half from South America in double round robin format and featured players like Mario Coluna, José Águas, goalkeeper Costa Pereira for Benfica, Dino Sani, Nílton de Sordi for Sao Paulo, Dutch Faas Wilkes and Pasieguito for Valencia.


1955 Small Club World Cup
As Milan and Real Madrid declined to participate, they were replaced by Spanish club Valencia and local team La Salle. On the other hand, Brazilian club São Paulo's participation was part of a tour that also included Colombia and Mexico, while Valencia became the third Spanish team to visit Venezuela, after Real Madrid and Barcelona.


1955 Small Club World Cup
The tournament was organised by Spanish entrepreneurs Damián Gaubeka and Pedro Reyes, and named "Copa General de Brigada Marcos Pérez Jiménez" by the press, which never mentioned it as "Pequeña Copa del Mundo". Argentine striker Rubén Padín of La Salle (who had been loaned from Cúcuta Deportivo to play this tournament exclusively) was the topscorer with 10 goals.


1955 South African Senate election
The 1955 election for the sixth Senate of South Africa occurred because of the wish of National Party Prime Minister Johannes Strijdom to amend one of the entrenched clauses in the Constitution, to separate Coloured voters from whites. However, since his party did not have the constitutionally required two-thirds majority in a joint session of both houses of Parliament, it was decided to alter the composition and electoral system for the Senate, to enable the Separate Representation of Voters Act 1951 to be validated. Consequently, Strijdom had the Senate Act 1955 passed to amend the constitution.


1955 South African Senate election
Instead of each province electing eight Senators, by proportional representation, the new system required provincial representatives to be selected by a first past the post election in the Electoral College. The effect of this was to enable the majority group from each province (NP in all the provinces, except for Natal) to secure all the seats available. In addition, Cape Province and Transvaal had their representation increased to 22 and 27 seats respectively. The number of Senators nominated by the Governor-General was doubled from eight to sixteen. The representation of South-West Africa and black voters was unchanged.


1955 South African Senate election
Another change made in 1955 was to reduce Senatorial terms from ten years to five. The size of the Senate rose from 44 to 89 (increased to 90 in 1957 when a nominated Senator was added based on section 7 of the Separate Representation of Voters Act, 1951 to represent the coloured population of the Cape Province for a fixed term until 1962).


1955 South American Basketball Championship
The South American Basketball Championship 1955 was the 16th edition of this tournament. It was played in Cúcuta, Colombia. The title holder is Uruguay.


1955 South American Championship
The South American Championship 1955 was a football tournament held in Chile and won by Argentina with Chile as runners-up. Brazil, Bolivia, and Colombia withdrew from the tournament. Rodolfo Micheli from Argentina became top scorer of the tournament with 8 goals.


1955 South American Championship squads
The following squads were named for the 1955 South American Championship that took place in Chile.


1955 South Carolina Gamecocks football team
The 1955 South Carolina Gamecocks football team represented the University of South Carolina in the Atlantic Coast Conference in the 1955 college football season. The Gamecocks finished the season 3–6 overall.


1955 South Dakota Coyotes football team
The 1955 South Dakota Coyotes football team was an American football team that represented the University of South Dakota in the North Central Conference (NCC) during the 1955 college football season. In its 17th season under head coach Harry Gamage, the team compiled a 4–4 record (3–3 against NCC opponents), tied for fifth place out of seven teams in the NCC, and outscored opponents by a total of 191 to 151. The team played its home games at Inman Field in Vermillion, South Dakota.


1955 South Dakota State Jackrabbits football team
The 1955 South Dakota State Jackrabbits football team was an American football team that represented South Dakota State University in the North Central Conference (NCC) during the 1955 college football season. In its ninth season under head coach Ralph Ginn, the team compiled a 6–2–1 record, won the NCC championship, and outscored opponents by a total of 197 to 114.


1955 South Dakota State Jackrabbits football team
The team's statistical leaders included Bob Betz with 725 rushing yards and Dick Steiner with 483 passing yards. Other key players included end Jerry Acheson, tackle Harwood Hoeft, guard Len Spanjers, center Dick Lawitter, and back Larry "Bubb" Korver.


1955 South Norfolk by-election
The South Norfolk by-election, 1955 was a by-election held on 13 January 1955, for the British House of Commons constituency of South Norfolk.


1955 South Norfolk by-election
The by-election was triggered by the expulsion of the serving Conservative Member of Parliament (MP), Peter Baker, who had been expelled from the House of Commons after being convicted of uttering, forgery and fraud and sentenced to seven years' imprisonment.


1955 South Norfolk by-election
In the early 1920s, South Norfolk had been a marginal seat which alternated between Conservative and Labour MPs, before the Conservative James Christie held it from the 1924 election until Labour's Christopher Mayhew won the seat at the 1945 general election. Baker had recaptured South Norfolk for the Conservatives in 1950 and held it in 1951; but with majorities of 6.8% and 9.0%, it was far from being a safe seat for the Conservative Party.


1955 South Norfolk by-election
The result was a narrow win for the Conservative candidate John Hill, with a majority of only 865 votes (2.9%) over his sole opponent, the Labour candidate J. M. Stewart. At the general election in May 1955, Hill again faced Stewart, and on a much higher turnout held the seat with a majority of 1,475 (4.1%). He remained South Norfolk's MP until his retirement from Parliament at the February 1974 general election.


1955 South Pacific Championship for racing cars
The 1955 South Pacific Championship for racing cars was a motor race staged at the Gnoo Blas Motor Racing Circuit at Orange in New South Wales, Australia on 31 January 1955. The race, which was a Formula Libre event open to racing cars and stripped sports cars, was contested as a scratch race which also incorporated a handicap award. It was held over 27 laps  of the 3¾ mile circuit  for a total distance of 100 miles. The race, which was the first South Pacific Championship for racing cars, was won by Englishman Peter Whitehead driving a 3 litre Ferrari.


1955 South Pacific Championship for racing cars
The championship meeting, which was conducted by the Australian Sporting Car Club, was the first FIA sanctioned international race meeting to be staged in Australia.


1955 South West African legislative election
Legislative elections were held in South West Africa on 16 November 1955. The whites-only election saw a victory for the National Party of South West Africa, which won 16 of the 18 seats in the Legislative Assembly.


1955 South West African legislative election, Electoral system
The 18 members of the Legislative Assembly were elected from single-member constituencies: Aroab, Gobabis, Grootfontein, Keetmanshoop, Luderitz, Maltahöhe, Mariental, Okahandja, Otjikondo, Otjiwarongo, Outjo, Rehoboth, Swakopmund, Usakos, Warmbad, Windhoek East, Windhoek North and Windhoek West.


1955 Southeast Missouri State Indians football team
The 1955 Southeast Missouri State Indians football team was an American football team that represented Southeast Missouri State College—now known as Southeast Missouri State University— in the 1955 college football season as a member of the Missouri Intercollegiate Athletics Association (MIAA). Led by Kenneth Knox in his fourth season as head coach, the team compiled a perfect record of 9–0, winning MIAA title with a 5–0 mark.


1955 Southern 100 Races, Race Results, Race 1; 1955 Southern 100 Junior 350cc Race final standings.
July 1955 Billown Circuit 12 laps – 51 miles (81.13 km)


1955 Southern 100 Races, Race Results, Race 2; 1955 Southern 100 Lightweight 250cc Race final standings.
July 1955 Billown Circuit 6 laps – 25.50 miles (41.06 km)


1955 Southern 100 Races, Race Results, Race 3; 1955 Southern 100 Solo Championship 500cc Race final standings.
July 1955 Billown Circuit 24 laps – 102 miles (164.25 km)


1955 Southern 500
The 1955 Southern 500, the sixth running of the event, was a NASCAR Grand National Series event. The event was held on September 5, 1955, at Darlington Raceway in Darlington, South Carolina. This race spanned 500 miles on a paved oval track. An unofficial 30-minute highlight film of this race would appear on the collector's set of Stock Cars of 50s & 60s – Stock Car Memories: Darlington-Southern 500; which was released in 2008.


1955 Southern 500
The local radio station WJMX made it possible to hear the entire race. Coverage of the race would be spotty outside the Darlington area due to the broadcasting limitations of AM radio. Confederate flags were frequently flown in all parts of the state back then; they were shown alongside the Stars and Stripes.


1955 Southern 500, Background
Darlington Raceway, nicknamed by many NASCAR fans and drivers as "The Lady in Black" or "The Track Too Tough to Tame" and advertised as a "NASCAR Tradition", is a race track built for NASCAR racing located near Darlington, South Carolina. It is a unique, somewhat egg-shaped design, an oval with the ends of very different configurations. A condition which supposedly arose from the proximity of one end of the track to a minnow pond the owner refused to move. The track makes it challenging for crews to set up their car's handling in a way that will be effective at both ends.


1955 Southern 500, Background
The track is a four-turn 1.366 miles (2.198 km) oval. The track's first two turns are banked at twenty-five degrees. While the final two turns are banked two degrees lower at twenty-three degrees. The front stretch (the location of the finish line) and the back stretch is banked at six degrees. Darlington Raceway can seat up to 60,000 people.


1955 Southern 500, Background
Darlington has something of a legendary quality among drivers and older fans; this is probably due to its long track length relative to other NASCAR speedways of its era. It's the first venue where many fans realized the truly high speeds that stock cars can achieve on a long track. The track allegedly earned the moniker The Lady in Black because the night before the race the track maintenance crew would cover the entire track with fresh asphalt sealant, in the early years of the speedway, thus making the racing surface dark black.


1955 Southern 500, Background
Darlington is also known as "The Track Too Tough to Tame" because drivers can run lap after lap without a problem and then bounce off of the wall the following lap. Racers explain that they have to race the racetrack, not their competition. Drivers who hit the wall gain their "Darlington Stripe", thanks to the car's missing paint.


1955 Southern 500, Pre-race report, Historical information
The event finished before dusk because artificial lighting was not available. This luxury would not appear until after the 1999 NASCAR Winston Cup Series season. Lights would be first used at the 2000 Mall.com 400 race (which became the Carolina Dodge Dealers 400 from 2001 to 2004 and is currently under the schedule as the Showtime Southern 500). Nearly all the drivers who raced in this event owned their vehicles under their name instead of delegating control to a multi-car team. The Motor Racing Network would not be established until 1970; they would make national coverage of the later NASCAR races starting in the sport's "modern era." Its rival, the Performance Racing Network, would eventually be founded at a later date by Speedway Motorsports.


1955 Southern 500, Pre-race report, Historical information
This was the thirty-fifth race of the 1955 season, there would be only ten races after the conclusion of the 1955 Southern 500. This race was the major race of any NASCAR season that came before the very first running of the Daytona 500.


1955 Southern 500, Pre-race report, Pre-race festivities
Before the race, each part was inspected to verify that it is stock (i.e., can be bought at regular automobile shops as opposed to sneaking in "police parts" or parts intended entirely for racing). Sometimes, vehicles had to be dismantled to find parts that look dissimilar to everyday passenger vehicles. Only roll bars were added for extra safety during the 500 miles of racing. Every car that passed the inspection and was "certified stock" was given a certification ticket on the dash. Having a certification permitted the driver to take part in the event with the full blessing of NASCAR. Intermittent periods of rain hampered qualifying and made the track wet. When qualifying finished Fireball Roberts earned the coveted pole position for the race.


1955 Southern 500, Pre-race report, Pre-race festivities
On the night preceding the race, a beauty pageant was conducted with Fonty Flock as one of the judges; this tradition would be repeated at the 1956 Southern 500 and all later Southern 500 races. Out of the many contestants that signed up from the Darlington area, Miss Martha Williams (from Myrtle Beach, South Carolina) won the honors of becoming Miss Southern 500 and accepted the ceremonial position that she held during the race.


1955 Southern 500, Pre-race report, Pre-race festivities
A marching band was also used as a part of the pre-race festivities. It was unknown whether NASCAR had a pre-race invocation service or not during the 1950s as the highlight film never showed a detailed coverage of the pre-race ceremonies like today's live coverage on television. The singing of The Star-Spangled Banner (which had been the official anthem of the nation since 1931) would be performed but not filmed in the highlight video. NASCAR would become one of the first major league sports where the American national anthem was used since its start.


1955 Southern 500, Pre-race report, Pre-race festivities
Even back in those days, it was customary to hear "Gentlemen start your engines" to fire up the racers into a rolling start. Qualifying would take up the whole month as it does at today's Indianapolis 500 races; regulations made in the "modern era" of the sport (1972–2003) modified the rules so that qualifying is limited to one day.


1955 Southern 500, Pre-race report, Qualifying results
Note: Some drivers qualified with a four-lap run (only the first and second qualifying session) and the majority qualified with a two-lap run (the next three qualifying sessions)


1955 Southern 500, Pre-race report, Qualifying results
Failed to qualify: Maurice Thompson (#39), Harvey Eakin (#47), Homer Newland (#48), Leland Sewell (#51), Jack Smith (#1), Ted Wright (#01)


1955 Southern 500, Race report
Fireball Roberts earned the pole position at a speed of 110.682 miles per hour or 178.125 kilometres per hour. The average speed of the race (with full racing traffic), however, was 92.281 miles per hour or 148.512 kilometres per hour. Out of the 336 laps, there were eight yellow flag periods consisting of fifty-one laps. Fifty thousand people attended the live event to see sixty-nine cars race (less than half of them finished the race). The two laps led by Bill Widenhouse were the only two for his Grand National career.


1955 Southern 500, Race report
Joe Weatherly, making only his third career start, put on quite a show leading most laps in the race but ultimately crashed out on lap 317. Russ Graham also spun twice in this race, once avoiding Fireball Roberts's M-1 (who had blown a tire and crashed) and then once a couple of laps later on his own. Graham would eventually finish in 29th place after qualifying 19th.


1955 Southern 500, Race report
Regulations made decades after this race would finally standardize the field to forty-three racing vehicles; a far cry from the fairly unregulated form of NASCAR that dominated the 1950s and 1960s.


1955 Southern 500, Race report
Vehicles ranged in production year from the 1953 models that were driven by the less affluent teams to the 1955 models driven by wealthy teams like Petty Enterprises. Other notable NASCAR Grand National Series drivers that participated in this event were Junior Johnson, Ned Jarrett, and Lee Petty. All of the drivers competing in this race were American. This race would serve as the "swan song" for Cadillac in the Cup Series.


1955 Southern 500, Race report
Arden Mounts' appearance at this race, where he would crash into Don Duckworth's stalled vehicle, would be captured on highlight films. While Bill Champion managed to avoid Duckworth by swerving past, Mounts managed saw the stalled vehicle too late and crashed into him. The proper use of seat belts saved the lives of both Mounts and Duckworth.


1955 Southern 500, Race report
Herb Thomas would end up winning the race after five hours, twenty-five minutes, and twenty-five seconds of racing; beating Jim Reed by more than one lap. He would receive $7,480 ($72,263 when adjusted for inflation) while the total winnings for the race were $28,270 ($273,113 in when adjusted for inflation). Thomas drove a pale green 1955 Chevrolet 150 during a time where NASCAR was used to test the endurance of the newest passenger automobiles. However, the eventual championship winner would be Tim Flock with 18 season wins and winnings of $37,780 ($364,988 when adjusted for inflation).


1955 Southern 500, Race report
An SBC Chevy V8 engine was used in Herb Thomas's race-winning vehicle; the Chevrolets during the 1955 season were lighter than their competitors, giving them better gas mileage and fewer pit stops needed to finish the race. Tire changes were also relatively infrequent on the Chevrolet vehicles during the race; which was another reason why Chevrolets dominated. The final fate of the original winning car that Herb Thomas used isn't known but it was likely raced into the ground over the course of subsequent races and no longer exists.


1955 Southern 500, Race report
Van Van Wey spun four times during the race; eventually resulting in him inflicting terminal damage to his vehicle on lap 247. Vehicle manufacturers involved in the race were Studebaker, Plymouth, Chevrolet, Buick, Dodge, Ford, Hudson, Cadillac, Pontiac, and Nash Motors.


1955 Southern 500, Race report
More than half of the vehicles used were manufactured by Chevrolet while Nash Motors only had one vehicle in the running along with Studebaker. Sponsors for the drivers in the race included Mercury Outboards, Marion Cox Garage, Schwam Motors, Helzafire (owned by Kentucky Colonel Ernest Woods), The Racing Club, Paper Hangers, and   2008-10-22 at the Wayback Machine.


1955 Southern 500, Race report
Lloyd Moore would announce his retirement from NASCAR after this race. Smokey Yunick, Carl Kiekhaefer, and Red Vogt were the three most notable crew chiefs to take part in this event.


1955 Southern 500, Race report
Dick Beaty would make his NASCAR Grand National Series debut in this race.


1955 Southern 500, Race report, Finishing order
† signifies that the driver is known to be deceased * Driver failed to finish race


1955 Southern Area League
The 1955 Southern Area League was the second season of the regional third tier of speedway racing in the United Kingdom for Southern British teams. The season started with the same five teams that finished the previous season.


1955 Southern Conference Men's Basketball Tournament
The 1955 Southern Conference Men's Basketball Tournament took place from March 3–5, 1955 at the Richmond Arena in Richmond, Virginia. The West Virginia Mountaineeers, led by head coach Fred Schaus, won their first Southern Conference title and received the automatic berth to the 1955 NCAA Tournament.


1955 Southern Conference Men's Basketball Tournament, Format
The top eight finishers of the conference's ten members were eligible for the tournament. Teams were seeded based on conference winning percentage. The tournament used a preset bracket consisting of three rounds.


1955 Southern Illinois Salukis football team
The 1955 Southern Illinois Salukis football team was an American football team that represented Southern Illinois University (now known as Southern Illinois University Carbondale) in the Interstate Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (IIAC) during the 1955 college football season. Under first-year head coach Albert Kawal, the team compiled a 4–4–2 record. The team played its home games at McAndrew Stadium in Carbondale, Illinois.


1955 Southern Jaguars football team
The 1955 Southern Jaguars football team was an American football team that represented Southern University in the Southwestern Athletic Conference (SWAC) during the 1955 college football season. In their 20th season under head coach Ace Mumford, the Jaguars compiled a 7–2–1 record, won the SWAC championship, and were ranked No. 5 in the final Pittsburgh Courier rankings of black college football teams.


1955 Southwestern Louisiana Bulldogs football team
The 1955 Southwestern Louisiana Bulldogs football team was an American football team that represented the Southwestern Louisiana Institute of Liberal and Technical Learning (now known as the University of Louisiana at Lafayette) in the Gulf States Conference during the 1955 college football season. In their fifth year under head coach Raymond Didier, the team compiled a 5–4 record.


1955 Soviet Class B
Following are the results of the 1955 Soviet First League football championship. FC Burevestnik Kishinev and FC ODO Sverdlovsk winning the championship.


1955 Soviet Cup
The 1955 Soviet Cup was an association football cup competition of the Soviet Union.


1955 Soviet Top League
12 teams took part in the league with FC Dynamo Moscow winning the championship.


1955 Soviet Union regional elections
On February 27, 1955, elections were held for the Supreme Soviets of the Soviet Union's constituent republics.


1955 Soviet Union regional elections
According to Soviet law, 3,369,000 out of an eligible adult voting population of 123,174,000 were disenfranchised for various reasons.


1955 Soviet nuclear tests
The Soviet Union's 1955 nuclear test series was a group of 7 nuclear tests conducted in 1955. These tests followed the 1954 Soviet nuclear tests series and preceded the 1956 Soviet nuclear tests series.


1955 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix
The 1955 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix was the first round of the 1955 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season. It took place on 1 May 1955 at the Montjuïc circuit.


1955 Speedway National League
The 1955 Speedway National League was the 21st season and tenth post-war season of the highest tier of motorcycle speedway in Great Britain.


1955 Speedway National League, Summary
The league consisted of seven teams after the Harringay Racers ceased competitive speedway racing at the end of 1954. Match line-ups were reduced from eight riders to seven riders. Wimbledon won their second successive National League Championship. West Ham closed at the end of the season, blaming poor attendances.


1955 Speedway National League, National Trophy Stage Two
The 1955 National Trophy was the 18th edition of the Knockout Cup. The Trophy consisted of two stages; stage one was for the second tier clubs, stage two was for the top tier clubs. Norwich won the second and final stage and were therefore declared the 1955 National Trophy champions.


1955 Speedway National League Division Two
The 1955 National League Division Two was the tenth post-war season of the second tier of motorcycle speedway in Great Britain.


1955 Speedway National League Division Two, Summary
The only change in the list of teams that finished the previous season was the replacement of Motherwell Eagles with Weymouth Scorchers. Poole Pirates won the title.


1955 Speedway National League Division Two, Summary
Weymouth Scorchers withdrew after 7 league fixtures, Bristol Bulldogs withdrew after 14.


1955 Speedway National League Division Two, National Trophy Stage One
The 1955 National Trophy was the 18th edition of the Knockout Cup. The Trophy consisted of two stages; stage one was for the second tier clubs, stage two was for the top tier clubs. Poole won stage one and qualified for second and final stage.


1955 Springfield Maroons baseball team
The 1955 Springfield Maroons baseball team represented Springfield College in the 1955 NCAA baseball season. The team was coached by Archie Allen in his 8th year at Springfield.


1955 Springfield Maroons baseball team
The Maroons won the District I playoff to advance to the College World Series, where they were defeated by the Arizona Wildcats.


1955 St. Louis Cardinals season
The 1955 St. Louis Cardinals season was the team's 74th season in St. Louis, Missouri and the 64th season in the National League. The Cardinals went 68–86 during the season and finished seventh in the National League, 30½ games behind the Brooklyn Dodgers.


1955 St. Louis Cardinals season
Outfielder Bill Virdon won the Rookie of the Year Award this year, batting .281, with 17 home runs and 68 RBIs. This was the second consecutive year a Cardinal won the Rookie of the Year Award, with Wally Moon winning the previous season. The Cardinals would have this occur again in 1985 and 1986, with Vince Coleman and Todd Worrell, respectively.


1955 St. Louis Cardinals season, Player stats, Batting, Starters by position
Note: Pos = Position; G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in


1955 St. Louis Cardinals season, Player stats, Batting, Other batters
Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in


1955 St. Louis Cardinals season, Player stats, Pitching, Starting pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1955 St. Louis Cardinals season, Player stats, Pitching, Other pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1955 St. Louis Cardinals season, Player stats, Pitching, Relief pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1955 St. Louis Cardinals season, Farm system
LEAGUE CHAMPIONS: Rochester, Fresno, Paducah, Hamilton; LEAGUE CO-CHAMPIONS: Johnson City


1955 Stanford Indians football team
The 1955 Stanford Indians football team represented Stanford University in the Pacific Coast Conference during the 1955 college football season. Led by fifth-year head coach Chuck Taylor, the Indians finished at 6–3–1 overall (3–2–1 in PCC, third), and played home games on campus at Stanford Stadium in Stanford, California.


1955 Stanford Indians football team, NFL Draft
Two Stanford Indians were selected in the 1956 NFL Draft


1955 Stanley Cup Finals
The 1955 Stanley Cup Finals  was the championship series of the National Hockey League's (NHL) 1954–55 season, and the culmination of the 1955 Stanley Cup playoffs. It was contested between the Montreal Canadiens, appearing in their fifth of ten straight Finals, and the defending champion Detroit Red Wings, in the third Detroit-Montreal Finals series of the 1950s and the second consecutively. The Wings won the series, four games to three, for their second consecutive Stanley Cup championship, fourth in six seasons, and seventh overall. Detroit did not win the Stanley Cup again until 1997.


1955 Stanley Cup Finals, Paths to the Finals
Montreal defeated the Boston Bruins in five games to reach the Finals. Detroit defeated the Toronto Maple Leafs in four games to reach the Finals.


1955 Stanley Cup Finals, Game summaries
Prior to the playoffs, Montreal's Maurice Richard was suspended and would be missed by the Canadiens.


1955 Stanley Cup Finals, Game summaries
In the second game, Ted Lindsay scored four goals to set a NHL record for most goals in one game in a Finals series. The win was also the Wings' fifteenth consecutive, another NHL record.


1955 Stanley Cup Finals, Game summaries
Gordie Howe set two NHL records, amassing 12 points in this round, and surpassing former Canadiens player (and soon-to-be-coach) Toe Blake's point mark for the playoffs with 20 points in 11 games.


1955 Stanley Cup Finals, Game summaries
This was also the first Finals in which the home team won all seven games of the series, a feat that would be repeated only twice in the next 50 years, in 1965 (Montreal defeated the Chicago Black Hawks) and 2003 (the New Jersey Devils beat the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim).


1955 Stanley Cup Finals, Stanley Cup engraving
The 1955 Stanley Cup was presented to Red Wings captain Ted Lindsay by NHL President Clarence Campbell following the Red Wings 3–1 win over the Canadiens in game seven.


1955 Stanley Cup Finals, Stanley Cup engraving
The following Red Wings players and staff had their names engraved on the Stanley Cup


1955 Stanley Cup Finals, Stanley Cup engraving, Members of Detroit Red Wings Dynasty 1950, 1952, 1954, 1955
Gordie Howe, Red Kelly, Ted Lindsay, Marty Pavelich, Marcel Pronovost, John Wilson (6 Players), Jack Adams, Carl Mattson, Fred Hubert Jr. (3 Non-players).


1955 Star World Championship
The 1955 Star World Championship was held in Havana, Cuba in 1955.


1955 Star World Championship, Results
Legend: DNF – Did not finish; DSA – Disabled; DSQ – Disqualified; WDR – Withdrew;


1955 State of Vietnam referendum
The 1955 State of Vietnam referendum determined the future form of government of the State of Vietnam, the nation that was to become the Republic of Vietnam (widely known as South Vietnam). It was contested by Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm, who proposed a republic, and former emperor Bảo Đại, who had abdicated in 1945 and at the time of the referendum held the title of head of state.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum
Though published counts showed Diệm winning the election with 98.9% of the vote, the referendum was widely marred by  electoral fraud. In the capital, Saigon, Diệm was credited with more than 600,000 votes, although only 450,000 people were on the electoral roll, while Diệm was also credited with  receiving over 90% of registered voters in rural regions where opposition groups had prevented voting.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum
The referendum was the last phase in the power struggle between Bảo Đại and his prime minister. Bảo Đại disliked Diệm and had frequently attempted to undermine him, having appointed him only because he was a conduit to American aid. At the time, the country was going through a period of insecurity, as Vietnam had been temporarily partitioned as a result of the 1954 Geneva Accords that ended the First Indochina War. The State of Vietnam controlled the southern half of the country, pending national elections that were intended to reunify the country under a common government.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum
Still, the Vietnamese National Army was not in full control of southern Vietnam; the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo religious sects ran their own administrations in the countryside supported by private armies, while the Bình Xuyên organised crime syndicate controlled the streets of Saigon. Despite interference from these groups, Bảo Đại, and even French officials, Diệm managed to subdue the private armies and consolidate government control over the country by mid-1955.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum
Emboldened by his success, Diệm began to plot Bảo Đại's downfall. He scheduled a referendum for 23 October 1955 and pushed Bảo Đại out of the political scene, hindering the former emperor's attempts to derail the poll. In the period leading up to the vote, campaigning for Bảo Đại was banned, while Diệm's election campaign focused on personal attacks against Bảo Đại. These included pornographic cartoons of the head of state and unverified rumours claiming he was illegitimate and linking him to various mistresses. The government-controlled media launched polemical attacks on Bảo Đại, and police went door-to-door, warning people of the consequences of failing to vote. After his brother Ngô Đình Nhu had rigged the referendum, Diệm proclaimed himself president of the newly created Republic of Vietnam.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Background
The defeat of the French Army at Điện Biên Phủ in 1954, followed by the Geneva Accords, led to a divided Vietnam. The French-backed State of Vietnam, led by former Emperor Bảo Đại, provisionally held control south of the 17th parallel. Hồ Chí Minh's Viet Minh held the north under the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, which Hồ Chí Minh had proclaimed in 1945. The agreements stated that nationwide elections were to be held in 1956 to unify the country under a common government. In July 1954, during the transition period, Bảo Đại appointed Diệm as Prime Minister of the State of Vietnam.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Background
On 11 October 1954, the border was closed by the International Control Commission, after a period of 300 days during which free passage between both halves of Vietnam had been allowed. Under the Geneva Accords, anti-communist military personnel were obliged to evacuate to the south, while communist forces were to be moved north. Civilians were free to move to whichever zone they preferred. During the 300 days, Diệm and U.S. CIA adviser Colonel Edward Lansdale staged a campaign to convince people to move to South Vietnam.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Background
The campaign was particularly focused on Vietnam's Catholics, who were to provide Diệm's power base in his later years, with the use of the slogan "God has gone south". Between 800,000 and 1,000,000 people migrated to the south, mostly Catholics. At the start of 1955, French Indochina was dissolved, leaving Diệm in temporary control of the south.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Background
At the time, Diệm had little authority beyond the gates of his own palace. Bảo Đại had little confidence in him and gave him meagre support—the pair had clashed in the past, with Diệm resigning as Bảo Đại's Interior Minister two decades earlier, believing the head of state to be weak and ineffective. Many historians believe that Bảo Đại may have selected Diệm for the latter's ability to attract U.S. support and funding. During the transition period, the French Expeditionary Corps maintained a presence in South Vietnam. This led to tension between France and the State of Vietnam. Diệm, a passionate nationalist, detested the French, who reciprocated, hoping he would fail, even calling for his removal on occasions.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Background
Diệm faced challenges to his authority from four more groups. The Hòa Hảo and Cao Đài religious sects had private armies that controlled the Mekong Delta and the areas west of Saigon, respectively. The Bình Xuyên was an armed, organised crime empire that controlled much of Saigon with a 40,000 strong private army, while the Vietminh still controlled much of the rural area. Diệm's Vietnamese National Army (VNA) was led by General Nguyễn Văn Hinh, a French citizen who loathed and frequently disobeyed him. Bảo Đại sold the operating license of the national police to the Bình Xuyên, effectively putting administrative control of the police in the hands of a crime syndicate.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Background
Amid growing French and US skepticism of his ability to provide stable rule, Diệm forced the matter to a head in April 1955. He ordered the Bình Xuyên to relinquish control of the National Police and submit to his command by integrating into the VNA or disbanding, threatening to crush them if they refused. He bribed Hòa Hảo and Cao Đài commanders into joining the VNA, gradually resulting in the defection of some commanders and their units, while others continued to lead their forces against Saigon. The Bình Xuyên defied Diệm's ultimatum.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Background
On 27 April, the VNA initiated the Battle for Saigon. After a brief but violent battle that left between 500 and 1,000 people dead and about 20,000 homeless, the Bình Xuyên were crushed. Diệm had regained both U.S. confidence and control of the police. Jubilant crowds lauded Diệm and denounced Bảo Đại, who had tried to dismiss him in the middle of the battle to prevent him from quelling the Bình Xuyên. In addition, General Paul Ely, the head of the French presence in Vietnam, tried to impede Diệm; his troops put road blocks against the VNA and gave intelligence to the Bình Xuyên.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Background
Buoyed by his successes, and fueled by increased hatred of both the French and Bảo Đại after their attempts to prevent him from dismantling the Bình Xuyên,  Diệm became more confident as he went about consolidating his hold on power. On 15 May, Diệm abolished Bảo Đại's Imperial Guard; its 5,000 men became the 11th and 42nd Infantry Regiments of the VNA. Diệm then stripped Bảo Đại of his extensive crown lands.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Background
On 15 June, Diệm had the Council of the Royal Family at Huế declare that Bảo Đại be stripped of his powers, and that he, Diệm, be made president. Bảo Đại's relatives condemned him for abdicating as head of state, and for his links with France and the Bình Xuyên. Historians have speculated that the royals agreed to turn on Bảo Đại so Diệm would not seize their assets.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Organization of the referendum
On 7 July 1955, the first anniversary of his installation as prime minister, Diệm announced that a national referendum would be held to determine the future of the country. On 16 July, Diệm publicly announced his intention to not take part in the reunification elections: "We will not be tied down by the [Geneva] treaty that was signed against the wishes of the Vietnamese people."


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Organization of the referendum
Diệm contended that the Communists would never allow free elections in the north, so therefore South Vietnam must strike out on its own and establish a separate, non-Communist state. This was echoed by the Saigon press, which ran articles assailing communist elections as shambolic, rigged, and meaningless; at the time, the northern half of Vietnam had a greater population than the south. A month earlier, North Vietnamese Prime Minister Phạm Văn Đồng wrote to Saigon asking to begin negotiations over the specific details of the elections.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Organization of the referendum
While the Americans were happy to avoid elections because of fears of a communist victory, they hoped that Diệm would enter the dialogue over planning matters and wait for North Vietnam to object to a proposal, and thus use it to blame Ho [Chi Minh] for violating the Geneva Accords. The Americans had earlier advised Diệm, who had been acting in defiance of Bảo Đại, that continued aid was contingent on Diệm establishing a legal basis for usurping the head of state's power.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Organization of the referendum
On 6 October 1955, Diệm announced the referendum would be held on 23 October. The election was open to men and women aged 18 or over, and the government arranged to have a polling station set up for every 1,000 registered voters. The poll was contested by Bảo Đại, who had spent much of his time in France and advocated a monarchy, and Diệm, who ran on a republican platform. According to historian Jessica Chapman, it was a choice between "the country's obsolete emperor and its far-from-popular prime minister, Ngo Dinh Diem".


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Organization of the referendum
In announcing the referendum, Diệm portrayed his decision as being motivated by a love of democracy and popular discontent with the rule of Bảo Đại. The prime minister cited a plethora of petitions from various social, religious, and political groups calling on him to stage a plebiscite to remove Bảo Đại, claiming he was motivated by these "legitimate and democratic" sentiments. Lansdale cautioned Diệm against electoral fraud, confident that Diệm would win a free election: "While I'm away I don't want to suddenly read that you have won by 99.99%. I would know that it's rigged then." U.S. officials thought that a fair election would have seen Diệm poll between 60% and 70% of the vote.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Organization of the referendum
Under the Elysee Accords and the subsequent legislation that created the State of Vietnam in 1949, Bảo Đại's position as head of state was neither permanent nor indefinite. Sovereignty was presumed to rest solely upon the people, with Bảo Đại being a mere conduit. As a result, the referendum itself was within the law. Diệm had not been elected to his post, so he saw the referendum as an opportunity to rebuff opponents, who claimed that he was undemocratic and autocratic. The event also gave Diệm an opportunity to boost his prestige by defeating Bảo Đại in a head-to-head contest. It was previously agreed that a National Assembly would be elected first, but Diệm went ahead with the plebiscite, which meant that he would have total power if he deposed Bảo Đại before a legislature was formed.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Organization of the referendum
U.S. diplomats were concerned that the move would be seen as a power grab, as Diệm was organising and driving an electoral process in which he was a candidate. The Americans felt that a legislature should be formed first and that the body should oversee the referendum, but Diệm ignored their advice. Ambassador G. Frederick Reinhardt informed Washington that Diệm had no intention of allowing a level playing field for the opposition, and that the foreign press had already made much of Diệm's democratic pronouncements being a facade.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Organization of the referendum
The Department of State agreed and opted to avoid trumpeting the referendum as an exercise in democracy for fear of attracting negative reactions to their foreign policy. Nevertheless, U.S. officials in Vietnam were pleased with the referendum, as they saw it as an opportunity to strengthen South Vietnam and avoid defeat to the communists, as they saw a republican model as being more robust.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Organization of the referendum
Having declared his disdain for the 1956 reunification elections, Diệm saw the referendum as the first step in creating a long-term state to rule over South Vietnam. He repeatedly said that the creation of a legislature and a constitution for his new state would follow the referendum.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Organization of the referendum
Diệm reportedly saw the poll as an opportunity to legitimise him as a symbol of Vietnamese democracy, so that he could frame and justify his refusal to participate in national elections as a struggle between freedom and communist authoritarianism. Diệm asserted that South Vietnam would eventually reunify the nation under a democratic administration and liberate their northern compatriots from communist oppression, and championed the referendum as a first step in nurturing democracy. His support base was to use this as a means of justifying the deposal of Bảo Đại, citing past decisions that according to them, were pro-communist.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Organization of the referendum
One of Diệm's main themes was that the referendum would usher in a new era of unprecedented democracy: "This shall be but the first step made by our people in the free use of our political rights." The day before the poll, Diệm said: "This 23 October, for the first time in our country's history, our men and women will exercise one of many basic civil rights of a democracy, the right to vote." A government proclamation four days before the poll said: "Dear compatriots, proclaim your will forcefully! Go forward firmly in the path of Freedom, Independence and Democracy!"


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Campaign
Diệm ran a personal attack campaign against the head of state, for whom campaigning was prohibited. The army and national police went about enforcing the ban on pro-Bảo Đại and anti-Diệm activities. Police went from door to door, explaining the consequences of failing to vote. They organized conferences in rural villages and addressed the populace with loudspeakers. In general, Diệm's line of attack was to portray Bảo Đại as a drunken womanizer who was preoccupied with immoral pleasures and unconcerned with the problems of the populace.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Campaign
Vietnam's monarchic tradition was built on Confucianism and the emperor's Mandate of Heaven, and Diệm's campaign claimed Bảo Đại had lost this mandate through his debauched lifestyle. According to Joseph Buttinger, who was based in Vietnam as the second in command at the International Rescue Committee, the methods used to influence the poll were "outrageous". Donald Lancaster, a journalist who covered the poll, said "Whereas Bao Dai was given no opportunity to defend himself, the government-controlled press proceeded to overwhelm him with scurrilous abuse." Diệm later banned Bảo Đại from entering the State of Vietnam.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Campaign
Diệm's advertising included the parading of giant pageant-style floats of Bảo Đại through the streets of Saigon, depicted with bags of money on his shoulders, a deck of cards in his hands, and with naked blonde women and bottles of cognac in his arms. This was a reference to the head of state's reputation for opulence, gambling and womanising. In particular, the blonde hair referred to Bảo Đại's purported penchant for European mistresses with whom he liaised on the French Riviera. Bảo Đại's dummy was accompanied by that of a Frenchman putting gold into his pockets, thereby questioning his nationalist credentials. Posters and effigies associating Bảo Đại with a pig's head were disseminated, while a prominent newspaper composed and encouraged the people to sing insulting songs about Bảo Đại.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Campaign
Walls and public transport vehicles were plastered with slogans, including "Beware of the evil king Bảo Đại's preference for gambling, women, wine, milk, and butter. Those who vote for him betray their country." Aside from referring to his opulent lifestyle, other slogans such as "Bao Dai, puppet king selling his country", and "Bao Dai, master keeper of gambling dens and brothels", referred to his alleged softness towards the communists. The radio was used to verbally abuse Bảo Đại, who was accused of treason and corruption in these broadcasts.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Campaign
On the other hand, the bachelor Diệm was described as the "hero of the people" and "father of all children". The slogans exhorted the populace to vote for the prime minister because "To vote for the revolutionary man Ngo Dinh Diem is to build a society of welfare and justice". They portrayed Diệm as a patriotic and nationalist anti-communist, proclaiming "To kill communists, depose the king, [and] struggle against colonialists is a citizen's duty in Free Vietnam."


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Campaign
Diệm's government-controlled press overwhelmed Bảo Đại with endless personal propaganda attacks, with special editions of newspapers being devoted to polemical biographical accounts of the former emperor. This allowed Diệm's campaign to condemn Bảo Đại with much more salacious detail than was possible through mere slogans. This started in August when the daily newspaper Thoi Dai started a three-week series that disseminated unsubstantiated and scandalous details about Bảo Đại's life. These were written by editorialist Hong Van, who called Bảo Đại a "dung beetle who sold his country for personal glory".


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Campaign
Van claimed Bảo Đại was the illegitimate son of Emperor Khải Định, alleging Khải Định had been infertile and married a maid, before claiming the maid's son, by another man, as his own. The paper claimed Bảo Đại was "big like a lubber, had many children, and was very fond of women" while Khải Định was uncomfortable with females, hinting that the different personalities were inconsistent with a common biological lineage.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Campaign
Capitalising on anti-French sentiment, the paper went on to discuss Bảo Đại's upbringing in France, claiming that he was already womanising as a teenager because of his European upbringing. Bảo Đại later married an ethnic Vietnamese French citizen, who became Empress Nam Phương, who had been raised Catholic. The editorials accused her of being a French agent and claimed she had treated the queen mother badly, a serious character flaw as Confucianism strongly emphasized respect for elders. Hong Van went on to claim that Bảo Đại's sequence of Gallic lovers was an indication that colonial officials were successfully using sex to turn the head of state into a puppet of France.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Campaign
The culmination of the newspaper campaign was a satirical pornographic cartoon, entitled "The Story of Bảo Đại". It summarized the scandalous depictions of the head of state made by Thoi Dai in the preceding weeks and was published on 19 October, four days before the referendum. The pictures featured full frontal nude depictions of Bảo Đại and his mistresses, with genitalia clearly visible, including a frame showing a naked blonde performing an erotic dance for the head of state.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Campaign
Aside from painting Bảo Đại as a sexually insatiable glutton, Diệm's campaign also attacked the head of state's nationalist credentials. They criticised him as being too soft in his dealings with French colonial authorities, and for serving as the head of state of the Empire of Vietnam, a puppet regime set up by Imperial Japan after they invaded during World War II. They also accused him of ceding half the country to the communists. The communists had already captured more than half the country on the battlefield, and Diệm claimed he had no choice, but Diệm's campaign portrayed him as incompetent and unwilling to take the blame.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Campaign
Diệm used the Ministry of Information's electoral education campaign as a partisan political tool. Instead of using it purely to explain the democratic process, the campaign was used to extol Diệm and his allies. After explaining what democracy was, a pamphlet outlined why Deposing a chief-of-state is a vital act. After elaborating on the powers of the head of state, the pamphlet went on to champion Diệm as an anti-communist who could defend people's freedom, while explaining why Bảo Đại was unfit to lead, saying that he did not have respect among the international community.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Campaign
On 15 October, Bảo Đại issued a statement protesting against the referendum. He urged the governments of France, the United Kingdom, the United States, India and even the Soviet Union not to recognise Diệm, asserting that he was an obstacle to the reunification of Vietnam under the Geneva Accords. He accused Diệm's poll of being "a governmental activity which conforms neither to the profound sentiment of the Vietnamese people nor to the common cause of peace".


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Campaign
On 18 October, he made the token gesture of formally dismissing Diệm. The following day, he denounced "the police methods" of Diệm's "dictatorship" and warned the Vietnamese populace "against a regime that was bound to lead them to ruin, famine, and war". Bảo Đại accused Diệm of trying to foment conflict between the French and the Americans. On the eve of the poll, Bảo Đại stated "I can even tell you that I know the percentage of favourable votes that Mr. Diem has decided to obtain."


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Other opposition
The staging of the election was subsidised by foreign funding. The United States government and a combination of American Roman Catholic charities contributed US$2 million each. Ba Cụt, a leader of an anti-government Hòa Hảo religious sect, distributed a pamphlet condemning Diệm as an American puppet, citing the funding as proof and further asserting that Diệm was going to "Catholicize" the country.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Other opposition
The Vietnamese Socialist Party, which was affiliated to the Hòa Hảo, claimed Diệm had "bribed the world of laborers and young students to petition in support of Diem's rise to chief-of-state and to petition in favor of deposing Bao Dai", using the American election funding. Another Hòa Hảo rebel leader, General Trần Văn Soái, assailed Diệm's undemocratic regime and declared the referendum illegal. He invited "friendly countries and the people of Vietnam to distrust this political maneuver". Diệm had earlier told a cabinet minister that there was only one political party – Nhu's outfit, and went about eradicating opposition by force. Opponents claimed Diệm's declarations about the value of democracy were hollow.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Logistics and voting
Lansdale advised Diệm to print his ballots in red, while those of Bảo Đại were printed in green. In Vietnam, red is associated with good luck and prosperity, whereas green is often associated with a cuckold and bad luck. Diệm's red ballots pictured him with youthful and modern-looking people, while Bảo Đại's photo was placed in old-fashioned robes, which he never wore. In addition, Bảo Đại's portrait showed him to appear dazed and bloated, while Diệm and those surrounding him were smiling and appeared to be energetic.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Logistics and voting
The ballot claimed that a vote for Diệm would be a vote for democracy, stating "I depose Bảo Đại and recognise Ngô Đình Diệm as Head of State, charged with the commission of setting up a democratic regime." Bảo Đại's ballot read "I do not depose Bảo Đại and do not regard Ngô Đình Diệm as the Head of State charged with the commission of setting up a democratic regime." The voters would place the red or green ballot into the box, according to their preference, while discarding the other, which meant the voting was actually not secret.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Logistics and voting
The logistics of the referendum were organised and supervised by Diệm's brother and confidant, Nhu, who was the leader of the family's secret Cần Lao party, which supplied the Ngôs' electoral base. Reports of violence and intimidation were widespread. During the referendum, Nhu's staff told voters to throw away the green ballots. Those who disobeyed were often chased down and beaten, with pepper sauce and water sometimes being forced into their nostrils. The violations were particularly flagrant in central Vietnam, a region over which another of Diệm's younger brothers, Ngô Đình Cẩn, ruled.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Logistics and voting
Cẩn was based in the former imperial capital city of Huế, home of the Nguyễn Dynasty and a source of support for Bảo Đại. He stifled this support by ordering the police to arrest 1,200 people for political reasons in the week leading up to the vote. In the city of Hội An, several people were killed in election violence on the day of the poll. Voting started at 07:00 and ended at 17:00.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Counting and results
Diệm's government formulated procedural regulations ostensibly designed to ensure results and ballots were correctly accounted for and to prevent election fraud. In reality however, the votes were counted without independent supervision, which resulted in Diệm being credited with 98.9% of the vote. The prime minister tallied 605,025 votes in Saigon, although only 450,000 voters were registered in the capital. Diệm's tally also exceeded the registration numbers in other districts.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Counting and results
French newspapers claimed that only half of the registered voters in Saigon had actually voted, and that the rest had boycotted the election, implying that more than 60% of the votes in the capital were not authentic. Defenders of Diệm claim this was due to recently arrived, mostly Catholic, refugees from North Vietnam who voted without being enrolled, rather than large-scale ballot stuffing.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Counting and results
Diệm's regime had announced that 5,335,668 people were eligible to vote, but when the results were declared, there were 5,784,752 ballots. Diệm's government claimed his candidacy had been endorsed by the mother of Bảo Đại, although Diệm had ordered the military to confiscate her family's property and evict her from the land. The near unanimous voter turnout and support for Diệm was replicated in highland and Mekong Delta swamp areas, which were not even under the control of the government and its Vietnamese National Army. In some districts of the Mekong Delta, overwhelming tallies for Diệm in excess of 90% of the registered voters were recorded, even though the Hòa Hảo warlord Ba Cụt and his army had prevented voting.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Counting and results
The referendum was widely condemned for being fraudulent. Historian and writer Jessica Chapman said "Even Diệm apologists like Anthony Trawick Bouscaren and American CIA officer Edward Lansdale concur with the prime minister's harshest critics on the conclusion that the South Vietnamese government was either incapable of or unwilling to hold a truly free, representative plebiscite". A CIA report written in 1966 adjudged the poll to be the most heavily manipulated in the first 11 years of South Vietnam's history.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Counting and results
The U.S. government privately concluded that the monopoly Diệm had on the media and the election campaign was a greater factor in the victory than intimidation and the fact that the voting was effectively public. Reinhardt cabled Washington, saying that the "referendum proved [a] resounding success for [the] Diem government". He indicated that the poll results were not necessarily a reflection of reality by adding that the result did not show that Diệm had majority support but that he was able to control the country, effectively unchallenged. The U.S. government was heartened by Diệm's apparent ability to negate communist and other opposition.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Counting and results
The scholar Bernard B. Fall stated that "there is not the slightest doubt that this plebiscite was only a shade more fraudulent than most electoral tests under a dictatorship". The American journalist Stanley Karnow cited the dubious plebiscite as evidence of Diệm's "mandarin mentality". Chapman wrote that "... no amount of unilateral campaigning, anti-Bảo Đại sentiment, or Confucian political restraint could explain Diệm's 98 percent margin of victory in a politically heterogeneous South Vietnam. Corruption and intimidation must have played a significant role."


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Counting and results
Buttinger said that while the monarchy was "another rotten relic of Vietnam's past" and Bảo Đại "its last, unworthy representative", fraud and intimidation were unnecessary as Diệm would have won easily in any event. Historian David Anderson said the victory "was not a true representation of Diệm's power or popularity. The emperor's weakness, the disarray of the political opposition, and other such factors explain his triumph".


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Reaction and aftermath
Three days after the vote, Diệm proclaimed the creation of the Republic of Vietnam, naming himself as its president. He said "The October 23rd plebiscite in which [the people of South Vietnam] took such an enthusiastic part, constitutes an approval of the policies pursued thus far and at the same time augurs a whole new era for the future of our country." Diệm reiterated that he would not partake in national reunification elections, saying that they would be futile unless "true liberty" came about in the communist North Vietnam, which impressed American observers, who feared a total communist takeover.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Reaction and aftermath
Having claimed the election was entirely without irregularities, the United States government hailed Diệm as a new hero of the "free world". Senator Mike Mansfield (D-MT) claimed the referendum "was a reflection of their [the Vietnamese people's] search for a leader who would respond to their needs ... they sensed that Diệm could provide that kind of leadership." Mansfield had been a professor of Asian history before entering politics; as a result his opinions about Vietnam were more influential and held in high regard by his fellow senators.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Reaction and aftermath
Archives of policy discussions show that the Americans were concerned more about the negative image created by Diem's autocratic and antidemocratic style among the international community, rather than its possible effects on national cohesion. The US State Department spokesman said "the people of Viet-Nam have spoken, and we, of course, recognise their decision". An official congratulatory statement from the department said "The Department of State is gratified that according to reports the referendum was conducted in such an orderly and efficient manner and that the people of Viet-Nam have made their choice unmistakably clear ... we look forward to a continuation of the friendly relations between the Government of Viet-Nam and the United States."


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Reaction and aftermath
Reaction to Diệm's victory among the American press varied with geographic location. Newspapers in the Midwest hailed Diệm's win as a triumph for democracy and extolled the new president as a champion of democracy. However, The New York Times said that the extreme margin of victory made "Diem's administrative control look more pervasive than is thought to be the case by a number of observers here." However, the paper also obligingly claimed the poll a "sound democratic procedure" and a "public tribute to a strong-willed leader". Reader's Digest called it an "overwhelming endorsement" and dubbed Diệm a "beacon of light, showing the way to free people".


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Reaction and aftermath
Diệm's victory was seen as a blow to French stature in Vietnam, as the former colonial power had helped to set up Bảo Đại's State of Vietnam in 1949. They consistently opposed Diệm and his policies, and unsuccessfully tried to impede him. The U.S. media regarded Diệm's victory as a signal that the United States would be the only Western power in South Vietnam. Some felt that this would enable Diệm to rule effectively without French hindrance, while others felt that this would leave too much of a burden on the American government.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Reaction and aftermath
The French media and diplomatic corps viewed the result as a humiliation. Before the poll, French officials had privately predicted Diệm would dissolve the French High Command and use any victory as justification for scrapping the national reunification elections. The French media viewed the poll as undemocratic and a plot by the Americans to sabotage any prospect of national reunification, but France recognised the Republic of Vietnam soon after.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Reaction and aftermath
Diệm severed economic relations with France on 9 December 1955, and withdrew from the French Union shortly afterwards. Neither the Soviet Union nor communist China overtly objected to Diệm's actions in creating a new state in the southern half of Vietnam. Nevertheless, by the time of Diệm's deposal and assassination in 1963, France bought 46.3% of South Vietnam's exports and accounted for most of the foreign investment in the country. French cultural influences and the language remained prevalent.


1955 State of Vietnam referendum, Reaction and aftermath
In January 1956, with no legislature and constitution in place, Diệm used his absolute power to dissolve the Revolutionary Council by launching police raids on the members, forcing those from the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo who had rallied to his side to go on the run. As a result, they turned against him.


1955 State of the Union Address
The 1955 State of the Union Address was given by the 34th president of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower, on Thursday, January 6, 1955, to the 84th United States Congress. He said, "Every citizen wants to give full expression to his God-given talents and abilities and to have the recognition and respect accorded under our religious and political traditions." He also said, "To protect our nations and our peoples from the catastrophe of a "nuclear holocaust", free nations must maintain countervailing military power to persuade the Communists of the futility of seeking their ends through aggression."


1955 State of the Union Address
He is referring to what seemed to be the high likelihood of nuclear warfare of the time. He ended with, "And so, I know with all my heart--and I deeply believe that all Americans know--that, despite the anxieties of this divided world, our faith, and the cause in which we all believe, will surely prevail." This address was given in his first term (1953-1957), in Washington, D.C.


1955 Stockport South by-election
The Stockport South by-election was held on 3 February 1955. It was held due to the elevation to a hereditary peerage of the incumbent Conservative MP, Arnold Gridley. It was retained by the Conservative candidate, Harold Macdonald Steward.


1955 Sugar Bowl
The 1955 Sugar Bowl was an American college football bowl game played on January 1, 1955 at Tulane Stadium in New Orleans. The game featured the fifth-ranked Navy Midshipmen and the sixth-ranked Ole Miss Rebels.


1955 Sugar Bowl
Running back Joe Gattuso scored on a 3-yard touchdown run as Navy took a 7–0 lead in the first quarter. The second quarter had no scoring. In the third quarter, Navy quarterback George Welsh threw a 16-yard touchdown pass to halfback Jack Weaver, as Navy took command with a 14–0 lead. Gattuso scored on a 1-yard touchdown run, his second of the game, as Navy built a 21–0 lead. With no more scoring, Navy held on to win. With two rushing touchdowns, Gattuso was named the game's MVP.


1955 Sugar Bowl, Team selection
The 1954 Sugar Bowl, played between the Georgia Tech and West Virginia, was a fiasco for the game's organizers. West Virginia, in an attempt to stop Georgia Tech's rushing attack, utilized an unusual 8-3 defensive structure and set themselves up for a 42-19 rout. The Mid-Winter Sports Association, who organizes the game, wanted to recover from the 1954 disaster. Journalist Marty Mulé wrote that the group "felt obligated to reestablish itself as the premier bowl". Because of this, the organization "went hunting in new territory: the service academies". Army quickly rejected an offer from the Sugar Bowl, but Navy officials said they would consider accepting a bid from the Sugar or Cotton bowls.


1955 Sugar Bowl, Team selection, Navy
The 1953 season was a disappointment for Navy, who entered the year ranked 13th in the AP Poll, but finished with a mediocre record at 4-3-2. The Midshipmen were in their fourth season under the leadership of Eddie Erdelatz, who held an 11-14-2 record before the 1953 season, which included a 14-2 upset of undefeated rival Army in 1950. The 1953 season began decently for Navy, but ended in with a 1-3-1 record in their last five games, of which all three losses were to rivals.


1955 Sugar Bowl, Team selection, Navy
The 1954 season began with an easy 27-0 victory over a weak rival William and Mary team which had ruined the Midshipmen's previous season with a 6-6 tie. Navy followed the win with a blowout victory over another weak team, Dartmouth, the following week. After the 42-7 victory, the Midshipmen were ranked on the AP Poll, tying for the nineteenth spot along with Virginia Tech. The team's next game was against a seventeenth-ranked Stanford team. The Indians, which was the team's nickname, were coming off a 12-2 upset of Illinois in the national game of the week.


1955 Sugar Bowl, Team selection, Navy
Sportswriters were mixed on who would win the contest, but opinion favored Stanford and a writer for the Eugene Register-Guard, in selecting Navy to win, wrote that was "going out on a limb" with his decision. However, the Midshipmen smashed any doubts and shutout Stanford 25-0. Following the win, Navy jumped in the polls and placed ninth, while receiving one first place vote. Navy was scheduled to play Pittsburgh the following week. The Midshipmen's opponents were coached by former Navy player and coach, as well as future hall-of-fame inductee, Tom Hamilton, who had just taken over the position that week. Navy was upset by Pitt in a close game, by the score of 21-19. After the loss, they dropped completely out of the rankings.


1955 Sugar Bowl, Team selection, Navy
The next game for the Midshipmen was against a struggling Pennsylvania team. In a very one-sided match, Navy won in a 52-7 blowout against Penn, who would go winless for the season. The Midshipmen reentered the AP Poll after the game, placing fifteenth. The Notre Dame Fighting Irish, Navy's second-oldest rival, was next up on the Midshipmen's schedule. The Fighting Irish were heavily favored coming into the game, ranked sixth in the AP Poll; they also had won the previous ten games in the rivalry, often by large amounts.


1955 Sugar Bowl, Team selection, Navy
However, Navy's coach, Eddie Erdelatz, as well as several sportswriters, held that the Midshipmen could win the game. The game was plagued with sloppy play from both teams, mainly due to muddy field conditions, but Notre Dame won 6-0 with a 46-yard touchdown pass late in the first half. Navy nearly tied the game, but fumbled the ball on the one-yard line. Despite the loss, the Midshipmen managed to remain in the polls, ending the week at number nineteen. Navy's next game was against eleventh-ranked Duke in the eighth annual Oyster Bowl, a special contest organized by several Shrine groups, where proceeds help disabled children. Navy easily defeated Duke by a score of 40-7, which included twice scoring touchdowns with their backup offense.


1955 Sugar Bowl, Team selection, Navy
The Midshipmen's penultimate game was against a poor-quality Columbia team which had won only a single game against a weak schedule. Navy, now ranked tenth, had no trouble with them, winning 51-7. Going into their final game, the Midshipmen were ranked sixth, with two first place votes. Their last game was the annual Army–Navy Game against the fifth-ranked Army Black Knights. Neither team had an edge going into the contest; both had similar records, offensive and defensive rankings, and scores against common opponents.


1955 Sugar Bowl, Team selection, Navy
Sportswriters considered the game to be the biggest of the season, and the Lambert-Meadowlands Trophy, awarded to the best team in the Eastern United States, would be awarded to the winner of the game. The match was closely fought throughout, but Navy managed to hold a lead for the majority of the second half, and won 27-20. They moved up to fifth in the polls, and were awarded the Lambert-Meadowlands Trophy in a near-unanimous vote.


1955 Sugar Bowl, Team selection, Ole Miss
The Rebels' 1953 season, despite being worse than the 1952 year, was a moderate success with a 7-2-1 record and a second-place finish in conference play. Johnny Vaught was in his seventh year at the school, during which time he had won them a conference championship and two bowl bids. After a decent start to the 1953 season with two wins and a loss to a conference opponent, Ole Miss went on a five-game winning streak, which hit its peak with an eleventh-place spot in the AP Poll after a blowout of North Texas. However, the year ended on a sour note, losing to national champion Maryland in a shutout and tying arch-rival Mississippi State.


1955 Sugar Bowl, Team selection, Ole Miss
The Rebels began the 1954 season with a game against a mediocre North Texas team. Going into the game ranked tenth in the AP Poll, they were heavily expected to win the game. Ole Miss controlled the contest for its entirety; after allowing North Texas to score on its first drive, Mississippi's defense stopped them quickly the rest of the game, while their offense repeatedly put up big plays that led to a 35-12 victory. Ole Miss moved up one place in the polls after the win and received a single first-place vote.


1955 Sugar Bowl, Team selection, Ole Miss
The Rebels' next game was against Kentucky and began Southeastern Conference (SEC) play for both teams. Kentucky scored first with a field goal, but Ole Miss took over afterwards and won easily, 28-9. Mississippi again moved up a single spot in the polls, but received three first place votes. In front of a crowd of about 96,000 people, Ole Miss challenged Villanova the following week. The contest was a slaughter from the beginning and Mississippi, relying mainly on their passing game, won in a shutout 52-0. They moved up another spot in the polls and gained another nine first place votes following the game.


1955 Sugar Bowl, Team selection, Ole Miss
In their second conference game, Ole Miss played a close game against Vanderbilt. Following a closely fought first half, Mississippi pulled away late in the third quarter with two consecutive touchdowns. Vanderbilt attempted to recover, but a late safety sealed a 22-7 victory for the Rebels. Ole Miss did not move in the polls following the game, but did lose a first-place vote. The following week against Tulane was the school's homecoming game. Their third SEC game, Ole Miss was in the lead for the whole contest. Tulane's offense picked up less than fifty yards, their only score in the 34-7 match coming from a ninety-one yard interception return. Following the contest, the Rebels were the only undefeated team left in the SEC. The win propelled Mississippi to the fifth spot in the AP Poll.


1955 Summer International University Sports Week
The 1955 Summer International University Sports Week were organised by the International University Sports Federation (FISU) and held in San Sebastián, Spain, between 7 and 14 August.


1955 Sun Bowl
The 1955 Sun Bowl was a college football postseason bowl game that featured the Texas Western Miners and the Florida State Seminoles.


1955 Sun Bowl, Background
The Miners finished 3rd in the Border Intercollegiate Athletic Association in their second straight Sun Bowl, and fourth Sun Bowl in six years. As for the Seminoles, a 3–3 start ended with 5 straight wins to close out the regular season. This was their first Bowl since the 1950 Cigar Bowl.


1955 Sun Bowl, Game summary
Harry Massey scored on a 1-yard touchdown run to give the Seminoles an early 7–0 lead, set up by a 25-yard kickoff return and a 48-yard rush both by Lee Corso. After Florida State lost both Corso (on a collision) and the ball after an ensuing punt, the Miners took advantage, scoring on a Rusty Rutledge touchdown catch from Jesse Whittenton to make it 7–7 after one quarter. In the second, the Miners exploded for 27 points. Whittenton ran for a touchdown run from 7 yards out to make it 13–7.


1955 Sun Bowl, Game summary
Bob Forrest scored on a 45-yard touchdown run to make it 20–7. Whittenton threw his 2nd touchdown pass to make it 27–7. He then threw a pass to Rutledge from 16 yards out to make it 34–7 at halftime. Forrest scored once again to make it 41–7 Miners. The Seminoles finally responded with a Len Swantic touchdown pass to make it 41–13 (after the kick was blocked). Whittenton made it 47–13 on his 2-yard touchdown plunge. In the fourth quarter, the only score was on a Larry Massey touchdown pass to make it 47–20. Future actor Burt Reynolds rushed for 35 yards on 7 carries for Florida State. Whittenton went 7 of 13 for 138 yards and three touchdowns passing and two touchdowns on 13 yards (on 8 carries) rushing in an MVP effort.


1955 Sun Bowl, Aftermath
The Miners went to the Sun Bowl thrice more in the next 12 years. As for Florida State, they returned once in 1966.


1955 Surinamese general election
General elections were held in Suriname on 29 March 1955. The result was a victory for the Unity Front, which won 11 of the 21 seats.


1955 Swedish driving side referendum
A non-binding referendum on the introduction of right hand traffic was held in Sweden on 16 October 1955.


1955 Swedish driving side referendum
The voter turnout was 53.2%, and the suggestion failed by 15.5% against 82.9%. However, eight years later, in 1963, the Riksdag approved the change, following pressure from the Council of Europe and the Nordic Council. Traffic in Sweden switched from driving on the left-hand side of the road to the right on 3 September 1967 (see Dagen H).


1955 Swiss federal election
Federal elections were held in Switzerland on 30 October 1955. The Social Democratic Party emerged as the largest party in the National Council, winning 53 of the 196 seats.


1955 Swiss federal election, Results, Council of the States
In several cantons the members of the Council of the States were chosen by the cantonal parliaments.


1955 Swiss tenant and consumer protection referendum
A referendum on tenant and consumer protection was held in Switzerland on 13 March 1955. Voters were asked whether they approved of a popular initiative "for the protection of tenants and consumers", which would prolong price controls. Although the proposal was approved by a majority of voters, it was rejected by a majority of cantons, so did not come into force. Voters also voted on a counterproposal, which was rejected by a majority of voters and cantons.


1955 Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race
The 1955 Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race, was the eleventh annual running of the "blue water classic" Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race.


1955 Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race
Hosted by the Cruising Yacht Club of Australia based in Sydney, New South Wales, the 1955 edition began on Sydney Harbour, at noon on Boxing Day (26 December 1955), before heading south for 630 nautical miles (1,170 km) through the Tasman Sea, past Bass Strait, into Storm Bay and up the River Derwent, to cross the finish line in Hobart, Tasmania.


1955 Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race
The 1955 Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race comprised a fleet of 17 competitors, the same number as in the 1954 race. Line-honours were awarded to Even, which raced out of New South Wales and was owned and skippered by Frederick John Palmer.


1955 Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race, 1955 fleet
17 yachts registered to begin the 1953 Sydney to Hobart Yacht race. They are:


1955 Sylvania Television Awards
The 1955 Sylvania Television Awards were presented on December 2, 1955, in New York City. The Sylvania Awards were established by Sylvania Electric Products.


1955 Syracuse Grand Prix
The 1955 Syracuse Grand Prix was a Formula One race, held on 23 October at the Syracuse Circuit in Sicily. The race was won by Tony Brooks, in his first Formula One race, driving a Connaught type B. This was the first international Grand Prix win for a British car since the 1924 San Sebastián Grand Prix.


1955 Syracuse Grand Prix, Background
After two fairly poor seasons, Connaught were close to running out of money, and were considering withdrawing from racing altogether. However they received an invitation to the Syracuse Grand Prix which included an offer of substantial starting money, so decided they would enter. They did not, however, have enough money to afford them an experienced driver. Instead they looked to dental student Tony Brooks, who had had some success in Aston Martin and Connaught sports cars earlier in the year but had never even driven a Formula One car before, as well as Formula Three driver Les Leston.


1955 Syracuse Grand Prix, Background
Although Ferrari did not enter, Maserati entered a full team of five cars, to the relief of the race organisers. Few expected the Maserati team to have any trouble against the Connaughts, Gordinis, several privately entered Maseratis and two privately entered Ferraris.


1955 Syracuse Grand Prix, Report, Practice/Qualifying
The first practice session was on Friday afternoon. As expected  the works Maseratis dominated, with Luigi Musso and Luigi Villoresi (who had driven for Lancia earlier in the year before the team folded) easily the fastest. The Connaughts had yet to arrive, however, so Brooks and Leston attempted to learn the circuit on borrowed Vespas.


1955 Syracuse Grand Prix, Report, Practice/Qualifying
The Connaughts arrived on Saturday in time for the second practice session, the cars being ready immediately after arriving at the circuit after a five day journey across Europe. Musso and Villoresi went slower than on Friday as they had no reason to believe any of their competitors would be able to challenge their times, Musso's best having been 2 minutes and 5 seconds. However it took Brooks remarkably little time to familiarise himself with the circuit and was able to set fairly quick times, eventually down to 2 minutes and 6 seconds, fastest so far in the Saturday session.


1955 Syracuse Grand Prix, Report, Practice/Qualifying
This was cause for concern in the Maserati pits, so Musson and Villoresi went back out to try to hold onto the first two starting positions. Eventually Musso got down to 2 minutes 3.6 seconds, Villoresi 2 minutes 4.7 seconds and Brooks not far behind with 2 minutes 5.4 seconds, which was enough to give him a front row start (on the 3–2–3 grid) ahead of the other works Maseratis, two of which were driven by Americans Carroll Shelby and Harry Schell, who shared the second row. None of the other drivers came close, with Robert Manzon in sixth place in the first of the two Gordinis and a second behind Schell.


1955 Syracuse Grand Prix, Report, Race
At the start the two Maseratis on the front row lead away, staying side-by-side for some way with Musso eventually taking the lead. Meanwhile Brooks, who hadn't practiced a race start in the Connaught, made a slow start. At the end of the first lap, Musso lead Villoresi, Schell and Brooks, followed by Leston in fifth place after starting from the fifth row of the grid. The order at the front remained for three laps before Brooks was able to overtake Schell. Over the following laps Brooks continued to close the gap on Villoresi until he was able to overtake him too by the tenth lap. Leston had spun off and dropped down the order.


1955 Syracuse Grand Prix, Report, Race
On lap 11 Brooks was able to overtake Musso for the lead, but was unable to pull away and Musso retook the lead the next lap and on the following lap Brooks overtook again. For several laps Musso was almost touching Brooks' tail, and both drivers were lapping very fast, with the lap record being broken three times, first by Brooks, then twice by Musso.


1955 Syracuse Grand Prix, Report, Race
On several occasions Musso was able to temporarily get ahead of Brooks by braking later on approach to the hairpin roughly a third of the way into the lap, but Brooks was always able to take the lead back under acceleration. This suited Brooks as he knew the disc-brakes on his Connaught would last much longer than the drum-brakes on the Maserati, and so eventually Brooks started to pull away as Musso suffered brake fade.


1955 Syracuse Grand Prix, Report, Race
By half distance Brooks lead Musso by 40 seconds and continued to pull away. He set the fastest lap of 2 minutes 00.2 seconds, 3.4 seconds faster than Musso's pole time, on lap 55, and then began to slow as it was clear Musso would not be able to catch him. Musso tried however, lowering the gap to 32 seconds at which point Brooks increased his pace again, eventually winning by just over 50 seconds, with Villoresi still third, two laps behind.


1955 Syracuse Orangemen football team
The 1955 Syracuse Orangemen football team represented Syracuse University in the 1955 college football season. The Orangemen were led by seventh-year head coach Ben Schwartzwalder and played their home games at Archbold Stadium in Syracuse, New York. Syracuse finished the season with a 5–3 record and were not invited to a bowl game.


1955 System
The 1955 system (55年体制) refers to the political system in Japan since 1955 in which the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has successively held a majority government with opposition parties incapable of forming a significant alternative. The terms 1955 system or the one-and-a-half system are credited to Junnosuke Masumi who described the system of 1955 as "a grand political dam into which the history of Japanese politics surge."


1955 System
The years of Japan under such a regime witnessed high economic growth during the late 20th century, but it also led to the dominance of the ruling party in the National Diet, with an undergirded tight connection between the bureaucracy and the business sector. Due to a series of LDP scandals and the 1992 burst of the Japanese asset price bubble, influenced by the Plaza Accord, the LDP was 33 seats short of a majority in the House of Representatives during the 1993 general election, which initially signified the end of the 1955 system. However, the opposition coalition would soon fall apart just a few months later due to infighting and lose much of its support, leading to LDP's swift return by the next election.


1955 System
Since the turn of the century, similar circumstances from a decade earlier led to both the LDP briefly losing power in 2009 before subsequently regaining it in 2012, where it remains so today.


1955 System
The continued political dominance and its robust grip on the state apparatus by the LDP as well as its considerable influence in both the public and private sectors has led many political analysts and researchers to characterize Japan as a de facto one-party state, as it would be arduous for non-LDP parties to stay in power for long even if they manage to win a significant amount of seats in the Diet. Japan is also seen as a form of a dominant-party state.


1955 System, Background, Pre-1955 multiparty system
After World War II, Japan was controlled by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP). SCAP aimed at the eradication of militarism and the promotion of democratization in Japan, and therefore it issued a series of policies to arrest suspected war criminals which shuffled the political power in Japan. The power of right-wing parties declined in the immediate post war periods due to the purge. The Japan Progressive Party lost about 90% of the seats in the purge, while the Japan Liberal Party lost about 45%. Meanwhile, since many parties on the left were only legalized under the command of SCAP after the WW2, they were barely influenced by the purge. As a result, the Japan Socialist Party led by Tetsu Katayama won the first general election after the enforcement of the constitution of Japan.


1955 System, Background, Pre-1955 multiparty system
Although at the time no formal regulations about how to form a coalition government existed, there was a consensus among the major parties that a coalition government should be formed to manage the post-war economic problems. Nonetheless, which party would be included in the coalition took a long process of negotiations. Both a four-party coalition excluding the Japan Communist Party (JCP) and a three-party coalition excluding both the Communist Party and the Liberal Party were suggested within the socialists. The Liberal party, led by anticommunist Shigeru Yoshida, showed great reluctance of joining the coalition.


1955 System, Background, Pre-1955 multiparty system
At a meeting between the Katayama and Yoshida on May 19, 1947, the Liberal Party asked Katayama to "break off with the leftists" in return of its participation in the coalition. Since the Socialist Party had already claimed to officially cut ties with the Communist Party earlier, it refused such demand. The lengthy coalition-building process ended up with a government headed by the Socialist Party, the Democratic Party, and the National Cooperative Party.


1955 System, Background, Pre-1955 multiparty system
The Katayama-led coalition government did not last more than a year due to opposition from both inside the Socialist Party and outside. In order to form a coalition, Katayama had to make concessions which departed from original policy proposals, which further facilitated the split between the leftist faction and the rightist faction within the party. At the same time, policies which Katayama did implement, such as nationalization of coal and mine production, drove the conservatives away.


1955 System, Background, Yoshida hegemony
After the failure of Katayama cabinet, voters lost confidence in the Socialist Party, which led to the takeover of government by Shigeru Yoshida. In the general election of 1949, the Democratic Liberal Party led by Yoshida won a majority in the House of representatives with 269 seats out of 466 seats, while the Socialist Party won only 48 seats. This was the first majority cabinet in post-war Japan.


1955 System, Background, Yoshida hegemony
Yoshida Shigeru organized five cabinets as a prime minister between 1946 and 1954. The diplomatic, economic, and security policies which Yoshida adopted when he was in power were altogether referred as the "Yoshida Doctrine". These policies remained influential even after him being voted out of the office by a no-confidence motion by the "Yoshida students" who followed his ideology. The Yoshida Doctrine has three major components: 1. Japan relies on its alliance with the U.S. for national security; 2. Japan preserves a low level of self-defense capacity; 3. Japan should concentrate on the reconstruction of domestic economy.


1955 System, Background, Yoshida hegemony
The Yoshida Doctrine set the tone for Japan's economic miracle and alignment with the West. However, Yoshida's "one man" leadership and anti-communist stance was criticized and eventually led to the defection of many Diet members from his party to the new Democratic Party, causing his cabinet to resign on December 7, 1954.


1955 System, Background, Fall of Shigeru Yoshida
The criticisms of Yoshida cabinet mainly focused on three issues:


1955 System, Background, Fall of Shigeru Yoshida
The three controversies led to the gathering of anti-Yoshida forces. On October 20, 1954, anti-Yoshida conservatives formed a coalition party: the Japan Democratic Party. The Japan Democratic Party along with the Leftist Socialist Party of Japan and the Rightist Socialist Party of Japan tabled a no-confidence motion against the cabinet on December 6 and won the majority. As a result, Yoshida Cabinet resigned on December 7 after six years of rule.


1955 System, Establishment of the 1955 System, Merger of the Japan Socialist Party (JSP)
Within the Socialist party, ideological conflicts had long been a problem. The leftists in the party adopted a Marxist-Leninist ideology like China, while the rightists leaned towards a socialist welfare nation under a capitalist system. The San Francisco Peace Treaty and the Security Treaty Between the United States and Japan signed in 1951 triggered the final split. The right socialists agreed on the San Francisco Peace Treaty but were against the Security Treaty, due to their constitutionalist stance, while the left socialists were against both treaties due to their exclusion of Soviet Union. On October 23, 1951, the old Socialist Party officially split into the Leftist Socialist Party of Japan and the Rightist Socialist Party of Japan.


1955 System, Establishment of the 1955 System, Merger of the Japan Socialist Party (JSP)
After the split, however, the socialists soon realized the necessity of merging into one party to fight against the anti-communist approach taken by the GHQ and the conservatives, which is commonly referred to as the reverse course (逆コース). After the San Francisco Peace Treaty came into effect, influential members from the Rightist Socialist Party of Japan came back from the purge and boosted the power of the rightists. The Leftist Socialist Party of Japan also expanded its power with the support of the General Council of Trade Unions of Japan, also known as Sohyo (日本労働組合総評議会).


1955 System, Establishment of the 1955 System, Merger of the Japan Socialist Party (JSP)
Meanwhile, the conservatives were suffering criticisms from the public for the corruption scandals and Security Treaty. Sensing the possibility of success, despite their ideological differences, to take power from the political right and fight against the anti-communist movement, the socialists decided to reunite and formed the Japan Socialist Party (JSP) on October 13, 1955.


1955 System, Establishment of the 1955 System, Merger of the Japan Socialist Party (JSP)
One crucial external factor that caused the merger of JSD is Sohyo. Sohyo, the abbreviation of the General Council of Trade Unions of Japan, was a trade confederation in Japan which was established on July 11, 1950, soon after the start of the Korean War. It incorporated about 48% of organized workers in Japan. Initially, Sohyo was the unified body of anti-communist unions, but it soon changed from a centralist stance to a left stance due to the remilitarization tendency of Japan shown in the Korean War. Due to the rationalization strategy taken by the conservative government, Japanese workers, particular those worked in small and median-sized factories were facing slow wage increase and even dismissals. In response, Sohyo organized the anti-rationalization campaign and pressured the merger of JSP.


1955 System, Establishment of the 1955 System, Merger of the Liberal Democratic Party of Japan (LDP)
In the 1955 general election, the conservative Japan Democratic Party won the ruling position. Meanwhile, the Leftist Socialist Party of Japan was able to win 17 more seats. The expansion of Leftist Socialist Party of Japan and the soon formation of the leftists and rightists in the socialist camp into JSP became a more substantial threat for the conservatives. As a result, also in 1955, the Japan Democratic Party and the Japan Liberal Party merged as Liberal Democratic Party of Japan (LDP).


1955 System, Establishment of the 1955 System, Merger of the Liberal Democratic Party of Japan (LDP)
The expansion of the socialist power also worried the Zaikai (business community). Zaikai had incentives to secure a conservative government since it would pump money into the big companies to keep their competitiveness, stay in a close relationship with the U.S. to maintain a liberal trade policy, and deal with the intensified anti-rationalization labor movement. Therefore, to counter the socialist power, the Zaikai pressured the Liberal Party and the Democratic Party to merge.


1955 System, Establishment of the 1955 System, Outcome of the merger: 1955 System
After the formation of the two major parties, JSP and LDP, a general election was held in 1958. Although the Socialist Party was gaining more power at the time, the conservative Liberal Party and Democratic Party had more voters from the beginning, and were able to consolidate support after their merger. As a result, the LDP won almost twice as many seats as the JSP. The 1955 system, also known as "one and a half system," was established, in which the LDP maintained its status as the dominant party, while the JSP was never able to muster enough support to seriously challenge it.


1955 System, Establishment of the 1955 System, Outcome of the merger: 1955 System
The 1955 system centered around the two parties' confrontation over two major issues: the 1946 constitution and the Security Treaty. During the occupation years, Minister Matsumoto Joji (松本烝治) drafted the 1946 constitution under the demand of General Douglas MacArthur. Unsatisfied with the draft, SCAP revised it, and it served as the banner for SCAP's efforts to democratize and demilitarize Japan. The conservative parties had wished to revise the constitution since its enactment, particularly Article 9. At the same time, the socialist parties opposed any revision of the constitution.


1955 System, Establishment of the 1955 System, Outcome of the merger: 1955 System
Another issue was the Security Treaty signed in 1951, a product of the late occupation years. Unlike the 1946 constitution, designed to wipe out militarism in Japan, the Security Treaty was the result of the U.S. wishing to secure its military strength in Asia to counter the communist threat in the Cold War. The JSP strongly opposed the Security Treaty due to fears of rearmament or a revival of militarism in Japan, while the LDP argued that the presence of the U.S. army in Japan was merely for self-defense.


1955 System, Establishment of the 1955 System, Challenge to the 1955 System: the 1960 Anpo Protests
In 1960, the JSP and the JCP, working in coalition with the Zengakuren student federation, the Sōhyō labor federation, and a variety of civic groups, managed to mount the massive, nationwide Anpo Protests against the attempt by the LDP to revise the Security Treaty. Because of the size of the protests and dogged JSP opposition in the Diet, ratification of the revised treaty proved extremely difficult.


1955 System, Establishment of the 1955 System, Challenge to the 1955 System: the 1960 Anpo Protests
After Prime Minister Nobusuke Kishi forcibly rammed the new treaty through the Diet against the objections of several factions of his own party, it looked like the 1955 System was on the verge of collapse, as several LDP factions began making plans to bolt from the party. However, intense public outrage at Kishi's actions exploded in even larger demonstrations, and Kishi was forced to resign. Kishi was replaced as prime minister by Hayato Ikeda, who managed to tame factional rivalries and stabilize the 1955 System.


1955 System, LDP dominance in the 1955 system, Electoral system
The electoral system that was used under 1955 system is known as the Single Nontransferable Vote (SNTV). Under SNTV, each constituency has multiple seats to be filled. Voters instead of voting for parties, votes for individual candidates, and seats of the constituency go to whoever wins the most votes. One problem of such electoral system is that the fair allocation of seats to different parties are not taken into consideration: Since the winners of most votes eventually get the seats, candidates of one party can take all the seats of one constituency.