1953 Fresno State Bulldogs football team
The 1953 Fresno State Bulldogs football team represented Fresno State College during the 1953 college football season. The Bulldogs rejoined the California Collegiate Athletic Association (CCAA), after having played as an Independent in the 1951 and 1952 seasons.


1953 Fresno State Bulldogs football team
Fresno State returned to the California Collegiate Athletic Association (CCAA) after playing as an Independent for two years. The team was led by second-year head coach Clark Van Galder and played home games at Ratcliffe Stadium on the campus of Fresno City College in Fresno, California. They finished the season with a record of four wins, four losses and two ties (4–4–2, 2–2–1 CCAA).


1953 GP Ouest–France
The 1953 GP Ouest-France was the 17th edition of the GP Ouest-France cycle race and was held on 31 August 1953. The race started and finished in Plouay. The race was won by Serge Blusson.


1953 Gator Bowl
The 1953 Gator Bowl was a post-season college football bowl game between the Tulsa Golden Hurricane of the Missouri Valley Conference and the Florida Gators representing the Southeastern Conference (SEC). Florida defeated Tulsa, 14–13. This was the Gators' first appearance in an NCAA-sanctioned bowl game.


1953 Gator Bowl, Game summary
An extra point by Rick Casares proved the difference. Florida outrushed the Golden Hurricane 233 to 182, while Tulsa outpassed the Gators 132 to 101. The Golden Hurricane turned the ball over twice, while Florida turned it over five times. This was the first Gator Bowl where more than one player was be awarded MVP honors, which was done until 2011.


1953 Gent–Wevelgem
The 1953 Gent–Wevelgem was the 15th edition of the Gent–Wevelgem cycle race and was held on 29 March 1953. The race started in Ghent and finished in Wevelgem. The race was won by Raymond Impanis.


1953 George Washington Colonials football team
The 1953 George Washington Colonials football team was an American football team that represented George Washington University as part of the Southern Conference during the 1953 college football season. In their second season under head coach Bo Sherman, the team compiled a 5–4 record (4–2 in the SoCon).


1953 Georgia Bulldogs football team
The 1953 Georgia Bulldogs football team represented the Georgia Bulldogs of the University of Georgia during the 1953 college football season.


1953 Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football team
The 1953 Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football team represented the Georgia Institute of Technology during the 1953 college football season. The Yellow Jackets were led by ninth-year head coach Bobby Dodd and played their home games at Grant Field in Atlanta. They finished second in the Southeastern Conference to Alabama, who had upset then-No. 5 Georgia Tech in Birmingham, giving the Yellow Jackets their first conference loss since 1950. The Yellow Jackets were invited to the 1954 Sugar Bowl, where they defeated West Virginia, 42–19.


1953 German Grand Prix
The 1953 German Grand Prix was a Formula Two motor racing event held on 2 August 1953 at the Nürburgring Nordschleife. It was race 7 of 9 in the 1953 World Championship of Drivers, which was run to Formula Two rules in 1952 and 1953, rather than the Formula One regulations normally used. This race had the highest number of cars on the grid of any World Drivers' Championship race, with 34 starters.


1953 German Grand Prix
This race was won by Nino Farina in a Ferrari, just over 1 minute ahead of Juan Manuel Fangio. This was Farina's last victory in Formula One.


1953 German Grand Prix
Ferrari driver Alberto Ascari clinched his second consecutive World Drivers' Championship as neither Mike Hawthorn nor Juan Manuel Fangio won the race and now couldn't beat his points total with two races left.


1953 German Grand Prix
During his tour of Europe that saw Japan's 19-year old Crown Prince Akihito visit the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, he also attended the German Grand Prix.


1953 German football championship
The 1953 German football championship was the culmination of the football season in the West Germany in 1952–53. 1. FC Kaiserslautern were crowned champions for the second time after a group stage and a final, having previously won the championship in 1951.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition
On the 1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition Hermann Buhl succeeded in making the first ascent of Nanga Parbat, the ninth highest mountain in the world. He reached the top on 3 July 1953 and this was and remains the only time an 8,000-metre summit was first reached by someone climbing alone. The expedition was led by Karl Herrligkoffer who went on to lead a long series of attempts to climb eight-thousanders in the Himalaya and Karakoram.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition
Buhl set off from the high camp at about 02:00 on 3 July followed by his climbing partner about an hour later and who subsequently returned to the tent. Buhl reached the summit at 19:00 after having been reduced to crawling on hands and knees. When he started to return he had no ice axe or tent, hardly any food, and a crampon missing a strap. He had to stop when it got dark at about 21:00 where the only place to stay the night was a small ledge with only standing room and with a single handhold.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition
At 04:00, after no sleep, he could resume his descent and eventually got back to the tent at 19:00 where he was helped by two companions who had presumed he had died. Herrligkoffer later considered the solo climb was disloyal because the plan had been for the summit to be reached by a group of climbers.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Background, Description of mountain
The 8,126-metre (26,659 ft) Nanga Parbat in Pakistan is at the extreme western end of the Himalaya mountain range. It is over 620 miles (1,000 km) from Dhaulagiri, its nearest eight-thousander neighbour in the Himalayas, but it is about 120 miles (190 km) from K2 in the Karakoram, separated by the Indus River flowing 7,000 metres (23,000 ft) lower than the summit. Nanga Parbat is the ninth-highest mountain in the world but, of the eight-thousanders, it is second only to Mount Everest in topographic prominence.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Background, Description of mountain
Unlike Nepal or Tibet, Pakistan allowed ready access to westerners and in 1953 it was possible to fly to Gilgit and then get by truck to within two days march of Base Camp.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Background, Previous attempts to climb the mountain
The first attempt to climb Nanga Parbat, which was also the first summit attempt on any eight-thousand-metre mountain, was by the Englishmen Fred Mummery, Geoffrey Hastings and Norman Collie in 1895. Along with two Gurkha companions, Mummery died in an avalanche on the Rakhiot Face. From then until the Second World War all the expeditions to the mountain were from Germany – in 1932, 1934, 1937, 1938 and 1939. At that time Nepal and Tibet were closed to Germany so Nanga Parbat, in the Indian Empire, became the German focus of attention.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Background, Previous attempts to climb the mountain
The mountain was accessible politically and it could be approached reasonably easily while still providing a very difficult mountaineering challenge. Willy Merkl was the leader in 1932 and 1934 but on the 1934 expedition he was one of those who died, trapped in a storm slightly below the summit. In 1950 a British team of three explored the mountain but after a storm two of the climbers were not seen again. So, by 1953 there had been seven unsuccessful expeditions leading to 31 deaths.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Background, Karl Herrligkoffer
Herrligkoffer was Merkl's younger half-brother and he was 17 years old when Merkl died. Over the years he developed a determination to lead an expedition, to be the Willy Merkl Memorial Expedition, to Nanga Parbat to replicate his brother's climb and go on to reach the summit. When he started active organisation in 1951 he was met with scepticism because he had never been to Himalaya nor even had much experience in the Alps. Paul Bauer described him as "a man unknown in mountaineering circles and without experience in the subject".


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Background, Karl Herrligkoffer
In 1934 Merkl had planned to have large group reach the summit together in honour of Germany. So Herrligkoffer wanted to achieve a group success and for it to be accomplished along the same route. Neither the German Himalaya Foundation nor the German Alpine Club, who had sponsored Merkl, would help in this enterprise but the club's Munich branch (that of Herrligkoffer himself) and the Austrian Alpine Club did support the climb.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Preparations, Climbing team
For the 1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition Peter Aschenbrenner (50 years), an Austrian mountain guide, was appointed deputy to Herrligkoffer (36 years) and was to be the climbing leader on the mountain. He had been on the 1932 and 1934 expeditions. He was due to leave the expedition at the beginning of July so Walter Frauenberger (45), also Austrian, who was initially deputy climbing leader, took over at that time.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Preparations, Climbing team
Hermann Buhl (29 years), from Innsbruck in Austria was, by 1953, one of the leading Alpine climbers in Europe. He had climbed the North Face of the Eiger but had not been to Himalaya. He was joined by Kuno Rainer (38) who was also Austrian and Buhl's frequent climbing partner. The rest of the party were German. Otto Kempter (27) and Hermann Köllensperger (27) were from the Munich branch of the German Alpine Club and Albert Bitterling (52) was a mountain guide.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Preparations, Climbing team
The renowned cinematographer Hans Ertl (45) was also a mountaineer and he was in the team to make a documentary film. Fritz Aumann was the camp organiser but for a time was able to take a full part in the climbing. Herrligkoffer, a general practitioner by profession, as well as organising the expedition was the expedition doctor.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Preparations, Climbing team
A team of five Sherpas, led by Pasang Dawa Lama, had been appointed but after being held up at for several weeks at the Pakistan–Kashmir frontier they were finally refused entry visas. Not knowing what was happening, at Gilgit Herrligkoffer took on twenty-two Hunzas as replacements, led by Rhabar Hassan, a Gilgit police officer who became the expedition's liaison officer with the Hunzas. 300 local porters were taken on as casual labour at Talichi for carrying to base camp.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Preparations, Equipment
The equipment used was based on that used on the expeditions before the war and they were considerably reliant on what was donated by businesses. Boots were traditional leather reaching above the ankle and with a rubber sole without Tricouni nails and with a double removable felt lining. Two thick and one thin sock could be worn in each boot and 2-metre (6 ft 7 in) woollen puttees were worn.. In their Deuter tents they were pleased with the innovative inflatable mattresses but regretted their own choice of snap fasteners to close the tent flaps. The sleeping bags were double so that they could slip into each other. They envied the British on Everest who they considered had better designed and tested equipment.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Preparations, Equipment
For clothing they had gaberdine trousers and double-layer Ninoflex anoraks worn over multiple layers of woollen garments. The climbers' gloves were of horse-hide and the Hunzas' of Perlon. Climbing ropes were 8-mm Perlon. Their oxygen sets were taken as a precaution but they hoped to avoid using supplementary oxygen – in the event it was carried as high as Camp V but it was not used for climbing. One of the three radio communications sets was damaged in transit – the two left they found extremely useful.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Departure from Munich and trek to Base Camp
The team left Munich by train on 17 April 1953 and at Genoa boarded the Lloyd Triestino MV Victoria bound for Karachi via the Suez Canal. Time on the voyage was spent learning Urdu. They received a great welcome in the newly-independent Pakistan particularly when they agreed to raise the Pakistan flag on the summit of Nanga Parbat which was, and still is, in the Pakistan-controlled area of the disputed Kashmir region.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Departure from Munich and trek to Base Camp
After arranging for daily weather forecasts to be broadcast by Radio Rawalpindi they went in an air-conditioned train as far as Lahore with the junior team members following with the baggage in two ordinary trains. Then even poorer trains took them to Rawalpindi from where they had arranged to be flown with their nine tons of baggage to Gilgit in four separate flights by Dakota.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Departure from Munich and trek to Base Camp
When they arrived in Gilgit a team of twenty-two Hunza porters had already been arranged (see section Hunza porters below). They were entertained with a game of polo and a series of banquets. On 8 May at a grand ceremony they were presented with a large Pakistani flag to be flown at Base camp and a small pennant for the summit. Then, over the next days they drove in fleets of trucks up the Indus valley to Talichi where they met 300 hill-peasant porters for the carry to Base Camp which commenced on 13 May. Trekking up the Rakhiot valley they left the last habitation at Tato and set up their interim base camp at 3,700 metres (12,000 ft) somewhat beyond Fairy Meadows.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Departure from Munich and trek to Base Camp
The permanent base camp was further up the valley beyond the snout of the Rakhiot Glacier and on a  moraine mound at about 4,000 metres (13,000 ft). The porters refused to go any further so it was left to the climbers and Hunzas to establish Base Camp which was done by 25 May.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Progress up mountain, Camps I and II
The intention was to establish Camp I at 4,494 metres (14,745 ft) at the foot of the Great Icefall on the Rakhiot Glacier, sheltered from avalanches by a large rock. However the Hunzas went on strike asking for more food, clothes and pay and a reduction in their loads from 28 kilograms (62 lb) to 18 kilograms (40 lb). They were dismissed and, indeed, five of them left without pay. Hassan advised Herrligkoffer that just to be given extra food would be sufficient.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Progress up mountain, Camps I and II
The Hunzas were made to apologise personally and after prolonged delay nine of them were willing to go up to Camp I and Herrligkoffer started to arrange for 10 to 15 porters to be recruited from Tato in the Rakhiot valley to help up to Camp I. The lambardar or mayor of Tato insisted in joining in and Herrligkoffer was to find him a useless porter and a disruptive influence.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Progress up mountain, Camps I and II
From Camp I on 28 May Buhl and Rainer started reconnoitring a route up the icefall but they turned back exhausted after over 12 hours work and only reaching 400 metres (1,300 ft) of the 910 metres (3,000 ft) to the intended site for Camp II at 5,300 metres (17,400 ft). Frauenberger considered this the most dangerous part of the whole climb. Each day a separate pair of climbers furthered the icefall route until by 30 May they had reached only 91 metres (300 ft) below the site.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Progress up mountain, Camps I and II
Also by this time ten Hunzas and twenty Tato porters were carrying loads up to Camp I. Fixed ropes, rope ladders and a bridge were installed up to Camp II to let the Hunzas carry up to there as well. This camp provided a magnificent view of the Rakhiot Face and surroundings and would be used as a viewpoint for observing progress on the mountain. But it was also dangerous there with seracs all around and crevasses even passing between the tents.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Progress up mountain, Camp III
On 6 June Rainer and Kempter started prospecting the route to Camp III and on 9 June Buhl and Bitterling led twelve Hunzas up to near the planned location for this camp at about 6,100 metres (20,000 ft). Herrligkoffer thought progress had been too slow so he sent Hassan to recruit twelve more Hunzas but it turned out only four of them were at all effective.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Progress up mountain, Camp III
Aschenbrenner then seized on a spell of good weather to arrange for Buhl, Kempter, Köllensperger and Rainer to start to force a way rapidly up towards Rakhiot Peak and then to traverse to the East Arête, leaving the older team members to establish the camps. This was generally the route taken on the 1934 expedition – the 1932 expedition had tried to take a technically simpler lower route across the so-called "Mulde" (amphitheatre) at the base of Rakhiot Peak but had become bogged down in the snow.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Progress up mountain, Camp III
Buhl wrote that he and Köllensperger set off with some porters at 04:00 on 10 June to try to establish Camps III and IV on that day. They reached the site of the earlier expeditions' Camp III very early so Buhl let his porters straight past without explaining to them and on to the site of the previous Camp IV. Frauenberger followed them with more porters.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Progress up mountain, Camp III
By 07:00 they were at the level plateau at 6,134 metres (20,125 ft) – Camp IV had been here in 1932 and 1934 but the 1937 expedition had set up camp some 91 metres (300 ft) lower and it was there that sixteen people had been killed by an avalanche that buried them in their tents. Rather than wait for everyone else, Buhl rapidly climbed the 6,450-metre (21,162 ft) South Chongra (a subsidiary peak of Chongra Peak) and returned to help set up their own Camp III before noon.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Progress up mountain, Camp III
He and Frauenberger stayed overnight at the camp and everyone else went down. Next day Frauenberger also climbed South Chongra and Köllensperger came up with three porters bringing fuel and supplies. On 12 June Buhl and Frauenberger managed to reach 6,700 metres (22,000 ft) at the foot of the ice wall rising to Rakhiot Peak – the place that would become their Camp IV – but a gathering storm made them go back to Camp III. They later heard that the South Congra excursions had been disapproved of by those in charge because they were not part of the essential plan.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Progress up mountain, Camp III
In his book Herrligkoffer places these events as being part of a new plan involving a whole team of climbers to speed up progress, a plan that Ashenbrenner, the climbing leader, launched on 11 June.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Progress up mountain, Camp IV
For a week the storm and deep snow prevented any progress above Camp III but on the fifth day of the storm Ashenbrenner, Ertl, Rainer, Kempter and Köllensperger arrived with porters to join them at Camp III with ample supplies. This, and the news coming through that Everest had been climbed, was a great encouragement. It was only on 18 June when the weather was fine, but the temperature was −21 °C (−6 °F), Frauenberger, Rainer, Köllensperger and Buhl were able to struggle up to the site for Camp IV where they dug two snow holes for tents. One cave could be quite roomy because they encountered a crevasse when digging and so were able to dump snow into it and then fill the gap. The next day Kempter and Buhl were able to stay the night at Camp IV.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Progress up mountain, Camp IV
From Camp IV the whole route to the summit could be seen. They would cross the 7,597-metre (24,925 ft) Silbersattel (or Silver Saddle), a broad snow-covered pass between the north and south Silberzacken peaks. After that was the so-called Fore Summit to be negotiated in some way from where the East Arête led on via a notched col at the Bazhin Gap, then over the 8,070-metre (26,478 ft) Shoulder and on to the summit of Nanga Parbat itself.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Progress up mountain, Camp IV
The next few days were spent bringing up belaying rope and pitons preparing the way for Hunzas to climb to Camps IV and V but frequent storms delayed progress. In this way they reached the Moor's Head. Buhl and Kempter took time out to climb Rakhiot Peak, their first 7,000-metre peak, with Buhl climbing the pinnacle on the summit so pointed he could barely stand on it and from where he could look down on the vast Rupal Face to the south. Returning down they cut steps in the snow for the Hunzas. Although they were now ready for supplies to be carried higher the Hunzas, even the ones considered most capable, all claimed to be sick and storms intervened again.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Progress up mountain, Camp IV
Buhl had now recovered from a very severe cough but Rainer was suffering from phlebitis and had to return to base camp. Hence, Buhl and Kempter were poised to set up Camp V and make a bid for the summit. However Herrligkoffer wanted to attain success for the team, not for particular individuals, and was determined to control matters himself from Base Camp: "If I had to choose between the two I would always go for the collaborative expedition that didn't reach the summit".


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Progress up mountain, Camp IV
Herrligkoffer heard from the radio at Rawalpindi that the monsoon was imminent and from low on the mountain the conditions high up indeed looked very threatening so on 30 June he radioed to the four climbers and four Hunzas at Camp III to return to Base Camp. The climbers replied that the weather was good there so Herrligkoffer threatened to stop any further support. However Frauenberger was able to persuade Achenbrenner to allow them to proceed and so he, along with Buhl, Kempter and Ertl climbed up to Camp IV in glorious weather on 1 July. Next day they were again ordered to retreat from Camp IV and again they successfully resisted.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Progress up mountain, Camp V
The four climbers were at last able to persuade the Hunzas to accompany them in good weather along the difficult route across the Rakhiot Face and to reach the "Moor's Head" and establish Camp V behind the Moor's Head on 2 July.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Progress up mountain, Camp V
The expedition's plan had been for one more higher camp, possibly at the Bazhin Gap, but they decided because of the good weather that Buhl and Kempter would try next day for the summit. It would be an ascent of 1,200 metres (4,000 ft) over a distance of 4 miles (6.4 km). Frauenberger and Ertl would have liked to stay at Camp V to make their own bid the day after but there was no room in the tent so they accepted they would drop down to make way for the younger men.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Summit attempt, 3 July 1953
By 02:00 on 3 July Buhl was ready to leave the tent and set off for the summit but Kempter only stayed in his sleeping bag. Leaving Kempter with some of the food because he said he would soon follow, Buhl took the rest of the food, the Pakistan flag and Tirolese pennants, stimulant and anti-frostbite drugs (Pervitin and Padutin), ice axe, ski poles, crampons and a camera but no rope or climbing gear. As planned, neither took supplementary oxygen. There was an almost complete calm, it was very cold, and the night sky was clear. Once he reached the crest of the East Arête the soft snow gave way to firm and progress was good though he was already taking two breaths for every stride. The sun was rising by 05:00 and Buhl could see Kempter about one hour behind.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Summit attempt, 3 July 1953
By 07:00 he reached the Silver Saddle and could see the summit plateau stretching ahead. He decided not to wait for his partner and started crossing the plateau, now taking five breaths per stride. After three hours, from far side of the plateau, he could see Kempter on the Silver Saddle itself. Buhl was now at the level of the Bazhin Gap, a planned objective, but before him was the vertical south wall of the Fore Peak which he could not traverse alone.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Summit attempt, 3 July 1953
The easiest route was to descend to the Diamir Gap but that involved a considerable climb up again. He was near the highest point reached by Aschenbrenner and Schneider on the 1934 expedition. He decided to skirt the Fore Peak closely to the north but he left his rucksack and carried only absolute necessities – by mistake he left a sweater in his rucksack.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Summit attempt, 3 July 1953
Not attempting the 37 metres (120 ft) climb to the 8,055-metre (26,428 ft) summit of the Fore Peak by 14:00 he attained the Bazhin Gap, a col crossing the East Arête, and he ascended the sharp, corniced ridge to the Shoulder with the 5,200-metre (17,000 ft) Rupal Face to his left. A gendarme rock pinnacle blocked the way but he passed it to the north using a hanging traverse which involved climbing down to a snow gully using his bare hands to jam into the rock. He climbed up again to the crest of the ridge and at 18:00 was at the top of the Shoulder at 8,070 metres (26,478 ft). After a gulp of coca tea he found the going easier but he was very tired and was reduced to crawling on all fours.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Summit attempt, Summit
At 19:00 on 3 July 1953 Buhl reached the summit of Nanga Parbat itself. After seventeen hours' solo effort he became, and remains, the only person to have made the first ascent of an eight-thousand metre peak by himself. He took photographs and tied the Pakistan flag to his ice axe to leave it there as evidence. After about 30 minutes he took a small stone from the summit for his wife and started to descend using his ski poles but he soon regretted leaving his ice axe behind.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Summit attempt, Summit
He knew he would not be able to traverse past the gendarme again so he went down a snow slope towards the top of the ridge called the Mummery Rib hoping to regain the East Arête before dark and reach camp V across the Silver Plateau in moonlight. However, severely delayed by a broken crampon strap, he was forced to stop in the dark at 21:00. He was forced to wait out the night at about 7,900 metres (26,000 ft) with only room for standing and leaning against a rock with a single handhold. He had nothing to eat or drink and missed his spare sweater but he fortified himself with stimulant and anti-frostbite pills. The weather was completely calm and the sky was filled with stars.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Summit attempt, Descent to Base Camp
At first light on 4 July he continued down a rocky slope eventually reaching just under the Diamir Gap at noon then climbing up to below the Fore Peak to retrieve his rucksack. By this time the intense cold had given way to excessive heat in the sun. He was fortunate in managing to find his rucksack which provided him with glucose tablets which he swallowed mixed with snow. Accompanied by an imaginary companion he fought his way across the plateau to reach the Silver Saddle at 17:30 from where he could see the tent.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Summit attempt, Descent to Base Camp
At 19:00, after forty-one hours on his own, he neared the tent and Ertl joyfully came to meet him. He called across to Frauenberger at the Moor's Head who had started descending to Camp IV to leave room for two at Camp V in case Buhl returned. Their plan had been to take oxygen and start searching next day. To begin with they tactfully did not ask if he had reached the summit. They treated his frostbitten toes as best they could.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Summit attempt, Descent to Base Camp
Next day they hurried down before the weather broke and they reached Camp III. On 6 July they were met by Aumann and Köllensperger with fifteen Hunzas who were delighted by the success. Ertl took a photograph of Buhl showing the hardship he had suffered "This famous portrait, arguably one of the most iconic in mountaineering history, was taken as Buhl made his descent".


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Summit attempt, Descent to Base Camp
Heated by the sun, the snow and ice conditions became dreadful so they had to stop at Camp II before starting off next day in the chill of the morning with Buhl in agony from his frostbite and inflamed throat. They reached Base Camp to what Buhl later described as "the coolest of receptions".


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Return to Germany
It was at Base Camp on 7 July that Herrligkoffer started treating Buhl's frostbite. He said that he did not climb up the mountain to treat Buhl sooner because originally his condition was not thought to be serious but by the time Buhl reached Base Camp it was too late to save his toes. Herrligkoffer offered to take Buhl as quickly as possible to hospital in Gilgit but for whatever reason Buhl was carried back along with the main party. In the event Buhl had to have half of each of two toes amputated.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Return to Germany
The expedition returned to the Indus valley in torrential monsoon rain from where they were able to telephone for trucks. On their journey to Gilgit large numbers of people who emerged to cheer them and in Karachi they were given a welcoming ceremony by the president of Pakistan and governnment ministers. By 22 July they flew back to Munich in groups and where the Berlin Geographical Society presented the expedition with its gold medal.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Return to Germany
However, the success of the expedition was marred by various recriminations. Herrligkoffer had not approved of the lead climbers' (particularly Buhl's) going against the team orders on the ascent and provided a very cool reception for them on the return to base camp and back in Germany he downplayed Buhl's role. Buhl retaliated by publishing his book Nanga Parbat Pilgrimage and by giving public lectures without permission and so breaking his contract. The returning climbers were polarised into  two groups.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Return to Germany
Those who Herrligkoffer felt had sacrificed their own personal ambitions he invited on his next expedition to Gasherbrum I then redirecting to Broad Peak but the summit attempt failed. Buhl was not invited and the expedition was not successful. Buhl then successfully tackled Broad Peak in 1957 but he was killed when trying for Chogolisa immediately afterwards.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Other issues, Hunza porters
Early in 1953, before departure from Munich, Herrligkoffer had arranged for five Sherpas based in Darjeeling, led by Pasang Dawa Lama, to join the party in Rawalpindi. They did not arrive as scheduled so instructions were left for them to follow on when they arrived. The previous 1934 Nanga Parbat expedition had employed Sherpas and Bhotias based in Darjeeling who had been found more capable than the Hunzas of 1932.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Other issues, Hunza porters
However, following Pakistan's independence, there was a delay in visas being issued to people from India and so this expedition and the 1953 American Karakoram expedition had needed to employ local Hunza porters. There were difficulties other than political – Sherpas had suffered many deaths on Nanga Parbat and so tried to avoid the mountain, and that year there was a great demand for Sherpas, particularly from the 1953 British Mount Everest expedition.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Other issues, Hunza porters
The Hunza porters came from the Hunza valley to the north of Gilgit. Herrligkoffer compared them unfavourably with Sherpas but he put this down to their comparative inexperience with mountain climbing rather than anything else. In his book Herrligkoffer praises Madi, the sirdar, and a group led by Isa Khan but says that only twelve of the twenty-two Hunzas were willing and adaptable. They were, however, willing, hefty and enthusiastic but needing to be supervised.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Other issues, Rudolf Rott
Rudolf Rott, from Augsburg, was an enthusiast for Nanga Parbat although he had no mountaineering experience. He had applied to join the expedition before it had left Germany but after he was turned down he had hitch-hiked to Karachi in Pakistan where he became ill and had to be hospitalised for a few weeks. Again he applied unsuccessfully to join the team. Then, unknown to the expedition, he hitch-hiked to Rawalpindi where he was refused an entry visa to Chilas.


1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, Other issues, Rudolf Rott
He then went along the Kaghan Valley to cross the Babusar Pass so arriving at Base Camp in early June, equipped with tent, ice axe and 27-kilogram (60 lb) rucksack, and asking to stay for a fortnight. Herrligkoffer decided to make him welcome, applied retrospectively for an entry visa for him, and appointed him deputy camp manager. This freed up Aumann for the actual climb enabling him to reach the Moor's Head at 7,000 metres (23,000 ft). Sadly for Rott the police later arrived to escort him away to Gilgit because he had entered Kashmir illegally.


1953 Gibraltar general election
General elections were held in Gibraltar on 17 November 1953. The Association for the Advancement of Civil Rights remained the largest party in the legislature, winning three of the five elected seats.


1953 Giro d'Italia
The 1953 Giro d'Italia was the 36th edition of the Giro d'Italia, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Giro started off in Milan on 12 May with a 263 km (163.4 mi) flat stage and concluded back in Milan with a 220 km (136.7 mi) relatively flat mass-start stage on 2 June. Sixteen teams entered the race, which was won by Italian Fausto Coppi of the Bianchi team. Second and third respectively were Swiss rider Hugo Koblet and Italian Pasquale Fornara.


1953 Giro d'Italia
Hugo Koblet held the pink jersey up until the penultimate stage, when Coppi attacked and caught him on the climb up the Stelvio Pass, taking the lead and securing the final victory.


1953 Giro d'Italia, Teams
Sixteen teams were invited by the race organizers to participate in the 1953 edition of the Giro d'Italia. Like the Tour de France the teams were nation based for the first time at the Giro, with each national team being sponsored by an Italian brand. Each team sent a squad of seven riders, which meant that the race started with a peloton of 112 cyclists. From the riders that began the race, 72 made it to the finish in Milan. In total there were 35 foreign riders that started the race.


1953 Giro d'Italia, Pre-race favorites
The "Big Three" of Gino Bartali (Bartali), Fausto Coppi (Bianchi), and Fiorenzo Magni (Ganna) were expected to dominate the general classification. A La Liberté writer felt that young riders Giancarlo Astrua (Atala), Nino Defilippis (Legnano), Pasquale Fornara (Bottecchia), and climber Bruno Monti (Arbos) would be exciting to watch throughout the race to see their potential. French rider and Swiss riders were thought to be very strong, while Spanish riders Bernardo Ruiz and Michel Gual were thought to be their country's best riders. Swiss rider and former Giro winner Hugo Koblet (Cilo) was regarded as being in sensational form entering the Giro, coming off a win at the Tour de Romandie. Taking that into account with his good health, the media felt Koblet could be the one to challenge Coppi best.


1953 Giro d'Italia, Pre-race favorites
A notable absence from the race was Bianchi rider Loretto Petrucci who had won the previous two Milan–San Remo, who was not brought to the race because of his young age according to his team; however, he had previously raced in 1951 and 1952. A La Sentinelle writer believed that Petrucci's omission from the race was due to Petrucci's desire to race for victories and not for the team leader Coppi.


1953 Giro d'Italia, Route and stages
On 26 March, the route was announced to be from 12 May to 28 May. It was later rumored on 30 March, that the race may include the Olympic stadium. The full route was later unveiled on 9 April 1953, with a changed finale on the 2 June. The race route featured 20 days of racing spread across 22 days as 20 May in Pisa and 27 May in San Pellegrino were set aside as rest days.


1953 Giro d'Italia, Race overview
The race started outside the Piazza del Duomo in Milan. Ferdinand Kubler withdrew from the race early on due to disputes.


1953 Giro d'Italia, Classification leadership
The leader of the general classification – calculated by adding the stage finish times of each rider – wore a pink jersey. This classification is the most important of the race, and its winner is considered as the winner of the Giro. Time bonuses were awarded to the stage winner and the first riders to summit categorized climbs. Riders were allowed to have teammates and team cars help to following accidents and punctures.


1953 Giro d'Italia, Classification leadership
"Strollers" in years past were punished with small fines, but in this edition of the race they were punished by time adjustments and repeat offenses may lead to disqualification from the race. The winner of the race received 1 million lire, while the remainder of the podium received 450,000 lire each.


1953 Giro d'Italia, Classification leadership
Two additional jerseys were in use. The green jersey was given to the best foreign cyclist in the general classification; at the end of the Giro it was worn by Swiss Hugo Koblet. The white jersey was given to the best cyclist riding with a licence for independents; this was won by Angelo Conterno. The winner of each classification earned 500,000 lire.


1953 Giro d'Italia, Classification leadership
The mountains classification leader was not identified by a special jersey. The climbs all awarded three points to the first rider and one point to the second rider to cross the summit. There was one category for mountains which awarded five points down to one point for the first riders to cross the summit. The winner of the mountains classification was given 400,000 lire. Although no jersey was awarded, there was also one classification for the teams, in which the stage finish times of the best three cyclists per team were added; the leading team was the one with the lowest total time. The team winning team received 2.5 million lire.


1953 Giro d'Italia, Classification leadership
Each day leading the general classification earned the rider and his team 100,000 lira, while the independent rider and foreign rider earned 25,000 lira each day for leading their respective classifications.


1953 Giro di Lombardia
The 1953 Giro di Lombardia cycling race took place on October 25, 1953, and was won by Fiorelli's Bruno Landi. It was the 47th edition of the Giro di Lombardia "monument" classic race.


1953 Governor General's Awards
In Canada, the 1953 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit were the seventeenth such awards. The awards in this period had no monetary prize but were an honour for the authors.


1953 Grand National
The 1953 Grand National was the 107th renewal of the Grand National horse race that took place at Aintree Racecourse near Liverpool, England, on 28 March 1953.


1953 Grand National
The race was won by eight-year-old Early Mist at odds of 20/1. Early Mist was the first of trainer Vincent O'Brien's three consecutive Grand National victories, and his jockey, Bryan Marshall, would also go on to win a second successive National the following year on Royal Tan.


1953 Grand National
Of the 31 that started, 5 finished. Mont Tremblant was 2nd, Irish Lizard was 3rd, Overshadow finished 4th and Senlac Hill was last to complete in 5th.


1953 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season
The 1953 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season was the fifth F.I.M. Road Racing World Championship Grand Prix season. The season consisted of nine Grand Prix races in five classes: 500cc, 350cc, 250cc, 125cc and Sidecars 500cc. It began on 12 June, with Isle of Man TT and ended with Spanish Grand Prix on 4 October.


1953 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season, 1953 Grand Prix season calendar
† After pronouncing the track unsafe before practice had begun, all the factory teams withdrew from the 350cc and 500cc classes in the proposed German Grand Prix. The event continued, but with the agreement that these two classes were only counted as an ordinary international event.


1953 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season, Standings, Scoring system
Points were awarded to the top six finishers in each race. Only the four best races counted in the Sidecars, 125cc and 250cc, while in the 350cc and 500cc championships, the five best results were counted.


1953 Green Bay Packers season
The 1953 Green Bay Packers season was their 35th season overall and their 33rd in the National Football League. The team finished with a 2–9–1 record under head coach Gene Ronzani and interim co-coaches Ray McLean, and Hugh Devore, and finished last in the newly named Western Conference.


1953 Green Bay Packers season
Fourth-year head coach Ronzani led the team for the first ten games, but resigned after a nationally televised Thanksgiving Day loss, his eighth loss to the Detroit Lions in four seasons; McLean and Devore co-coached the last two games of the season, both losses. It was the only in-season coaching change in Packers history, until 2018. This season also marked the first season that the Packers played at the recently completed Milwaukee County Stadium.


1953 Green Bay Packers season, Regular season, Standings
Note: Tie games were not officially counted in the standings until 1972.


1953 Guatemalan parliamentary election
Parliamentary elections were held in Guatemala for half the seats in Congress between 16 and 18 January 1953. The Revolutionary Action Party won a plurality of seats.


1953 Guatemalan parliamentary election, Results
The four other parties were opposition parties, whilst all independents were pro-government.


1953 Gwydir by-election
A by-election was held for the Australian House of Representatives seat of Gwydir on 19 December 1953. This was triggered by the death of Country Party MP Thomas Treloar.


1953 Gwydir by-election
The by-election was won by Country Party candidate Ian Allan.


1953 Hamilton Tiger-Cats season
The 1953 Hamilton Tiger-Cats finished in 2nd place in the East Division with an 8–6 record and won the Grey Cup over the Winnipeg Blue Bombers. This was their first Grey Cup as the Hamilton Tiger-Cats and the eighth won by teams based in Hamilton.


1953 Hardin–Simmons Cowboys football team
The 1953 Hardin–Simmons Cowboys football team was an American football team that represented Hardin–Simmons University in the Border Conference during the 1953 college football season. In its second season under head coach Murray Evans, the team compiled a 6–5 record (4–1 against conference opponents), finished in second place in the conference, and was outscored by a total of 211 to 199. The team played its home games at Parramore Field, also known as Parramore Stadium, in Abilene, Texas.


1953 Hardin–Simmons Cowboys football team
Two Hardin-Simmons players were named to the 1953 All-Border Conference football team: end D.C. Andrews; and center Sam Walker.


1953 Harvard Crimson football team
The 1953 Harvard Crimson football team was an American football team that represented Harvard University during the 1953 college football season. In their fourth year under head coach Lloyd Jordan, the Crimson compiled a 6–2 record and outscored opponents 146 to 78. Richard J. Clasby was the team captain.


1953 Harvard Crimson football team
Harvard played its home games at Harvard Stadium in the Allston neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts.


1953 Hawaii Rainbows football team
The 1953 Hawaii Rainbows football team represented the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa as an independent during the 1953 college football season. In their second season under head coach Hank Vasconcellos, the Rainbows compiled a 5–6 record.


1953 Hawthorn Football Club season
The 1953 season was the Hawthorn Football Club's 29th season in the Victorian Football League and 52nd overall.


1953 Hawthorn Football Club season, Fixture, Lightning Premiership
The lightning premiership was played between rounds 6 and 7.


1953 Hayes and Harlington by-election
The 1953 Hayes and Harlington by-election was held on 1 April 1953 after the resignation of the Labour MP Walter Ayles. It was won by the Labour candidate Arthur Skeffington.


1953 Holborn and St Pancras South by-election
The 1953 Holborn and St Pancras South by-election was held on 19 November 1953. It was held due to the death of the incumbent Labour MP, Santo Jeger. The seat was retained by his wife, Lena Jeger, the Labour candidate and a Guardian journalist and councillor on St Pancras Borough Council and the London County Council.


1953 Holborn and St Pancras South by-election
Jeger retained the seat at the 1955 general election by 931 votes, but lost it by 656 votes to Geoffrey Johnson Smith of the Conservatives in the 1959 general election. She regained the seat in the 1964 general election.


1953 Holy Cross Crusaders football team
The 1953 Holy Cross Crusaders football team was an American football team that represented the College of the Holy Cross as an independent during the 1953 college football season. In its tenth year under head coach Eddie Anderson, the team compiled a 5–5 record. The team played its home games at Fitton Field in Worcester, Massachusetts.


1953 Honduran Amateur League
The 1953 Honduran Amateur League was the seventh edition of the Honduran Amateur League. C.D. Federal obtained its 1st national title. The season ran from 3 May to 27 September 1953.


1953 Honduran Amateur League, National championship round
Played in a double round-robin format between the regional champions. Also known as the Cuadrangular.


1953 Hong Kong municipal election
The 1953 Urban Council election was held on 20 May 1953 for the 4 elected seats of the Urban Council of Hong Kong.


1953 Hong Kong municipal election
The elected seats extended from 2 seats to 4 seats in this election, which increased the total numbers of member from 13 to 15. For the first time the polling station was set in the Kowloon peninsula, at the Kowloon-Canton Railway Station in Tsim Sha Tsui, besides the one in Hong Kong Island. Despite that, only 2,536 of 10,798 eligible voters, about twenty percent of the electorate, cast ballots, less than last year.


1953 Hong Kong municipal election
All candidates from the Reform Club, including Brook Bernacchi and Woo Pak-chuen were elected, while incumbent William Louey lost the re-election.


1953 Houston Cougars baseball team
The 1953 Houston Cougars baseball team represented the University of Houston during the 1953 NCAA baseball season. The team won the Missouri Valley Conference regular season championship, and advanced to participate in the College World Series. It was Houston's first appearance in the College World Series. The team was coached by fourth-year head coach Lovette Hill, and played its home games at Cougar Field.


1953 Houston Cougars baseball team
Showing a sluggish start to the season, Houston lost six out of their first seven games, but then went on a seven-game winning streak that eventually propelled the team to a conference championship.


1953 Houston Cougars football team
The 1953 Houston Cougars football team was an American football team that represented the University of Houston in the Missouri Valley Conference (MVC) during the 1953 college football season. In its sixth season under head coach Clyde Lee, the team compiled a 4–4–1 record (1–2 against conference opponents) and tied for third place out of five teams in the MVC. Buddy Gillioz and Paul Carr were the team captains. The team played its home games at Rice Stadium in Houston.


1953 Humboldt State Lumberjacks football team
The 1953 Humboldt State Lumberjacks football team represented Humboldt State College during the 1953 college football season. Humboldt State competed in the Far Western Conference (FWC).


1953 Humboldt State Lumberjacks football team
The 1953 Lumberjacks were led by third-year head coach Phil Sarboe. They played home games at the Redwood Bowl in Arcata, California. Humboldt State finished with a record of six wins and two losses (6–2, 2–1 FWC). The Lumberjacks outscored their opponents 122–39 for the season. The defense yielded more than a touchdown in only two games and had four shutouts.


1953 Humboldt State Lumberjacks football team, Team players in the NFL
No Humboldt State players were selected in the 1954 NFL Draft.


1953 Hungarian parliamentary election
Parliamentary elections were held in Hungary on 17 May 1953. As would be the case with all elections for the remainder of Communist rule, voters were presented with a single list from the Communist Hungarian Working People's Party, comprising Communists and pro-Communist independents. The Working People's Party  won 206 of the 298 seats, with the remaining 92 going to independents.


1953 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships
The 1953 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships were held in Meran, Italy under the auspices of International Canoe Federation. It was the 3rd edition.


1953 IRFU College Draft
The 1953 IRFU College Draft was the first official sports draft held by the Interprovincial Rugby Football Union, a predecessor of the East Division of the Canadian Football League, in the spring of 1953. 40 players were chosen from among eligible players from five eastern universities, McGill University, Queen's University, University of Toronto, University of Western Ontario, and McMaster University. The Montreal Alouettes had the first selection, Doug McNichol, who became the first player to be drafted to a Canadian professional football team.


1953 IRFU College Draft
The following list only includes the first three rounds due to historical limitations.


1953 Ice Hockey World Championships
The 1953 Ice Hockey World Championships  were the 20th World Championships and the 31st European Championships in ice hockey. The tournament took place between March 7 and March 15, 1953, in Basel and Zurich, Switzerland. Sweden won their first World Championship title and their seventh European Championship title.


1953 Ice Hockey World Championships
This was the first world championship tournament with only European teams; on January 12, 1953, Canadian Amateur Hockey Association president W. B. George stated Canada would not be sending a team to the 1953 World Championships. He told the press: "Every year we spend C$10,000 to send a Canadian hockey team to Europe to play 40 exhibition games. All these games are played to packed houses that only enrich European hockey coffers. In return we are subjected to constant, unnecessary abuse over our Canadian style of play".


1953 Ice Hockey World Championships
Also absent were the Soviet Union; it was hoped that the USSR would participate but they did not, but they sent observers, including coach Anatoli Tarasov, to scout the tournament. It is believed that injuries to their star players, including Vsevolod Bobrov, was the reason behind the decision.


1953 Ice Hockey World Championships
Czechoslovakia were withdrawn from the tournament by General František Janda, the Chairman of the State Committee for the Physical Education and Sport, who ordered the team home when it became obvious their President, Klement Gottwald, was going to die from pneumonia he contracted at Stalin's funeral. Gottwald died the next day, March 14, 1953; subsequently, the team was disqualified, with their results being deleted from the records and their remaining games cancelled.


1953 Ice Hockey World Championships, World Championships Group B (Switzerland)
Also participating was a Swiss 'B' team who (if their games counted) would have finished third.


1953 Icelandic parliamentary election
Parliamentary elections were held in Iceland on 28 June 1953. The Independence Party remained the largest party in the Lower House of the Althing, winning 14 of the 35 seats.


1953 Icelandic parliamentary election, Electoral system
The elections were conducted under two electoral systems. Twenty-one members were elected in single-member constituencies via first-past-the-post voting, while the remainder were elected using D'Hondt method proportional representation: twelve members in two-member constituencies, eight members in Reykjavík, and eleven from a single national compensatory list. To earn national list seats, a party had to win at least one constituency seat. In constituencies electing two or more members, within the party list, voters had the option to re-rank the candidates and could also strike a candidate out. Allocation of seats to candidates was done using a system based on the Borda count.


1953 Idaho State Bengals football team
The 1953 Idaho State Bengals football team was an American football team that represented Idaho State University in the Rocky Mountain Conference (RMC) during the 1953 college football season. In their second season under head coach Babe Caccia, the Bengals compiled a 6–2 record (5–0 against conference opponents), won the RMC championship, and outscored opponents by a total of 165 to 141. The team captains were Nolan Ford and Vernon Ravsten.


1953 Idaho Vandals football team
The 1953 Idaho Vandals football team represented the University of Idaho in the 1953 college football season. The Vandals were led by third-year head coach Raymond "Babe" Curfman and were members of the Pacific Coast Conference. Home games were played on campus at Neale Stadium in Moscow, with two games in Boise at old Bronco Stadium at Boise Junior College.


1953 Idaho Vandals football team
Led on the field by quarterback George Eidam, Idaho compiled a 1–8 record and were winless in their three PCC games.


1953 Idaho Vandals football team
The Vandals suffered another loss in the Battle of the Palouse with neighbor Washington State, falling 13–30 at Neale Stadium on October 17. It ran the winless streak against the Cougars to 27 games, a record of 0–25–2 since taking three straight in 1923–25; the Vandals broke the streak the next year in Pullman under new head coach Skip Stahley.


1953 Idaho Vandals football team
In the rivalry game with Montana at Missoula two weeks earlier, the Vandals ran their winning streak over the Grizzlies to three and retained the Little Brown Stein. Idaho scored twenty unanswered points to win 20–12, in their sole victory of the season.


1953 Idaho Vandals football team
Curfman made headlines in 1953 as his overmatched Vandals struggled in conference play in the PCC, and was under fire from alumni and boosters after a disappointing season. Following his resignation in December, he was hired as the business manager for the Spokane Indians minor league baseball team in January 1954.


1953 Idaho Vandals football team, All-conference
No Vandals were on the All-PCC team; fullback Flip Kleffner was named to the second team and center Mel Bertrand was honorable mention.


1953 Idaho Vandals football team, NFL Draft
One senior from the 1953 Vandals was selected in the 1954 NFL Draft:


1953 Illinois Fighting Illini football team
The 1953 Illinois Fighting Illini football team was an American football team that represented the University of Illinois during the 1953 Big Ten Conference football season. In their 12th year under head coach Ray Eliot, the Illini compiled a 7–1–1 record, finished in a tie for first place in the Big Ten Conference, and were ranked #7 in the final AP Poll. The sole defeat was a 34–7 loss to Wisconsin.


1953 Illinois Fighting Illini football team
Tackle Don Ernst was selected as the team's most valuable player. Sophomore halfback J. C. Caroline led the team with 1,256 rushing yards on 194 attempts (6.5 yards per carry) and was selected as a consensus first-team player on the 1953 College Football All-America Team. Guard John Bauer was selected by the Newspaper Enterprise Association as a third-team All-American.


1953 Indian Rajya Sabha elections
Rajya Sabha elections were held on various dates in 1953, to elect members of the Rajya Sabha, Indian Parliament's upper chamber.


1953 Indian Rajya Sabha elections, Elections, Members elected
The following members are elected in the elections held in 1953. They are members for the term 1953-1959 and retire in year 1959, except in case of the resignation or death before the term. The list is incomplete.


1953 Indian Rajya Sabha elections, Bye-elections
The following bye elections were held in the year 1953.


1953 Indiana Hoosiers football team
The 1953 Indiana Hoosiers football team represented the Indiana Hoosiers in the 1953 Big Ten Conference football season. They participated as members of the Big Ten Conference. The Hoosiers played their home games at Memorial Stadium in Bloomington, Indiana. The team was coached by Bernie Crimmins, in his second year as head coach of the Hoosiers.


1953 Indianapolis 500
The 37th International 500-Mile Sweepstakes was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway on Saturday, May 30, 1953. The event was part of the 1953 AAA National Championship Trail, and was race 2 of 9 in the 1953 World Championship of Drivers.


1953 Indianapolis 500
Bill Vukovich, after falling short a year before, earned the first of two consecutive Indy 500 victories. With the temperature in the high 90s (°F), and the track temperature exceeding 130 °F (54 °C), this race is often known as the "Hottest 500." Driver Carl Scarborough dropped out the race, and later died at the infield hospital due to heat prostration.


1953 Indianapolis 500
Due to the extreme heat conditions, several drivers in the field required relief drivers, and some relief drivers even required additional relief. Vukovich, however, as well as second-place finisher Art Cross, both ran the full 500 miles solo.


1953 Indianapolis 500, Race details, Practice
Sixteen year race veteran Chet Miller died in an accident in practice on May 15.


1953 Indianapolis 500, Race details, Qualifying
Vukovich qualified on pole, with a speed of 138.392 mph (222.720 km/h).


1953 Indianapolis 500, Race details, Race
Polesitter Bill Vukovich dominated the race, leading 195 laps and also recording fastest lap.


1953 Indianapolis 500, Race details, Race
Carl Scarborough retired from the race due to heat exhaustion, and died later at the infield hospital.


1953 Indianapolis 500, Broadcasting, Radio
The race was carried live flag-to-flag on the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Radio Network. Instead of being produced by 1070 WIBC-AM, the network pooled together talent and technical staff from all five of the major radio stations in Indianapolis. The broadcast was anchored by Sid Collins, and featured on-air talent from WIBC, WFBM, WISH, WIRE, and WXLW.


1953 Indianapolis 500, Broadcasting, Radio
The broadcast signed on at 10:45 a.m. local time, and carried live through the conclusion, until 3:45 p.m. local time. The broadcast was carried on 135 stations in at least 35 states across the country, and on Armed Forced Network to Europe and Asia.


1953 Indianapolis 500, Broadcasting, Radio
South Turns: Bill FroschNorth Turns: Jim SheltonTrackside location: Dick PittengerTrackside location: Robin Bright


1953 Individual Speedway World Championship
The 1953 Individual Speedway World Championship was the eighth edition of the official World Championship to determine the world champion rider.


1953 Individual Speedway World Championship
Welshman Freddie Williams became the second rider to win a second title in front of a 90,000 attendance at Wembley Stadium. Williams won 4 of his 5 races, only dropping one point in heat 13 to Jeff Lloyd. Geoff Mardon defeated Olle Nygren in the bronze medal ride off.


1953 Individual Speedway World Championship, World final, Classification
m - exclusion for exceeding two minute time allowance •  t - exclusion for touching the tapes •  x - other exclusion •  e - retired or mechanical failure •  f - fell •  ns - non-starter •  nc - non-classify


1953 International Cross Country Championships
The 1953 International Cross Country Championships was held in Vincennes, France, at the Hippodrome de Vincennes on March 21, 1953. A report on the event was given in the Glasgow Herald.


1953 International Cross Country Championships
Complete results, medallists, and the results of British athletes were published.


1953 International Cross Country Championships, Participation
An unofficial count yields the participation of 89 athletes from 10 countries.


1953 Invercargill mayoral election
The 1953 Invercargill mayoral election was part of the New Zealand local elections held that same year. The polling was conducted using the standard first-past-the-post electoral method.


1953 Invercargill mayoral election, Background
A major talking point in the lead up to the election was the potential of a clash with the 1953 Royal Tour. There were proposals to postpone local elections until early 1954 over fears of reduced turnout due to a conflicted schedule. The proposals were considered by the Minister of Internal Affairs William Bodkin, who ultimately decided against it.


1953 Invercargill mayoral election, Background
The one-term incumbent mayor Brian Hewat sought another term, but was defeated for the position in a challenge from three-term Invercargill Borough Councillor Adam Adamson.


1953 Ionian earthquake
The 1953 Ionian earthquake (also known as the Great Kefalonia earthquake) struck the southern Ionian Islands in Greece on August 12. In mid-August there were over 113 recorded earthquakes in the region between Kefalonia and Zakynthos, and the most destructive was the August 12 earthquake. The event measured 6.8 on the moment magnitude scale, raised the whole island of  Kefalonia by 60 cm (24 in), and caused widespread damage throughout the islands of Kefalonia and Zakynthos. The maximum felt intensity of shaking was X (extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale. Between 445 and 800 people were killed.


1953 Ionian earthquake, Earthquake
The earthquake struck at 09:23:55 (UTC) or 11:23:55 (local time); the Royal Navy vessels HMS Gambia and HMS Bermuda were among the first on the scene. In addition, four Israeli warships received calls for help coming from the island of Kefalonia and the ships headed to the island. The sailors provided emergency medical aid, food, and water. This was the first time Israel provided aid to a disaster-stricken area.


1953 Ionian earthquake, Earthquake
Although known as the "Great Kefalonia earthquake", damage was very heavy in Zakynthos' eponymous capital city. Only two buildings survived there; the rest of the island's capital had to be rebuilt. Argostoli, the capital of Kefalonia, suffered substantial damage and all of Kefalonia's buildings were flattened except for those in Fiskardo in the far north.


1953 Ionian earthquake, Damage
As well as causing major destruction on the two islands, the economic impact was far greater, and damage was estimated to have totaled billions of drachmas. Many people fled the island: some people temporarily moved to the capital, however the majority emigrated out of Greece entirely to countries such as Canada, USA, Australia or the UK, leaving both the islands and their economy in ruins.


1953 Ionian earthquake, Damage
On November 15, 1953 The Greek state issued a special set of 2 stamps dedicated to the earthquake. One stamp was of 300 drachmas value (equivalent to $10 in those days) depicting the collapsing bell tower of the Faneromeni Church at Zakynthos. The other stamp, denominated at 500 drachmas ($16,67), showed the damage to the famous De Bosset stone bridge at the Argostoli bay. The stamp set was issued in order to support financially the earthquake fund for the relief of those who had suffered.


1953 Ionian earthquake, Damage
An Italian mission of the National Fire and rescue Services (Corpo Nazionale dei Vigili del Fuoco) was sent to help people and save heritage artifacts.


1953 Ionian earthquake, Aftermath
Earthquakes still regularly affect the islands of Zakynthos and Kefalonia, including several 2006 earthquakes in Zakynthos and others in 2003 and 2005. There were also several large earthquakes on January 26 and February 3, 2014, measuring 6.1 and 6.0 on the Richter scale. The epicenters of both were in Kefalonia at very shallow depths and caused damage in the island. On October 25, 2018 there was a 6.8 magnitude earthquake off the coast that damaged parts of the Zante port docks. Following that quake, there were more than 50 additional quakes over 4 magnitude in the Ionian Sea between the 25th and the end of October.


1953 Iowa Hawkeyes football team
The 1953 Iowa Hawkeyes football team represented the University of Iowa in the 1953 Big Ten Conference football season.


1953 Iowa State Cyclones football team
The 1953 Iowa State Cyclones football team represented Iowa State College of Agricultural and Mechanic Arts (later renamed Iowa State University) in the Big Seven Conference during the 1953 college football season. In their seventh and final year under head coach Abe Stuber, the Cyclones compiled a 2–7 record (1–5 against conference opponents), finished in last place in the conference, and were outscored by their opponents by a combined total of 211 to 120. They played their home games at Clyde Williams Field in Ames, Iowa.


1953 Iowa State Cyclones football team
The team's regular starting lineup on offense consisted of left end Barney Alleman, left tackle Ralph Brown, left guard Bill Wilson, center Jim Rawley, right guard Gean Kowalski, right tackle Jack Lessin, right end Kim Tidd, quarterback Bill Plantan, left halfback Dan Rice, right halfback Dick Cox, and fullback Max Burkett. Jack Lessin and Jim Rawley were the team captains.


1953 Iowa State Cyclones football team
The team's statistical leaders included Max Burkett with 342 rushing yards, Bill Plantan with 723 passing yards and 41 points (five touchdowns and 11 extra points), and Gary Lutz with 249 receiving yards. Max Burkett was selected as a first-team all-conference player.


1953 Iranian coup d'état
The 1953 Iranian coup d'état, known in Iran as the 28 Mordad coup d'état (Persian: کودتای ۲۸ مرداد), was the overthrow of the democratically elected Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh in favour of strengthening the monarchical rule of the Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi on 19 August 1953. It was orchestrated by the United States (under the name TPAJAX Project or "Operation Ajax") and the United Kingdom (under the name "Operation Boot"). The clergy also played a considerable role.


1953 Iranian coup d'état
Mosaddegh had sought to audit the documents of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC), a British corporation (now part of BP) and to limit the company's control over Iranian oil reserves. Upon the AIOC's refusal to co-operate with the Iranian government, the parliament (Majlis) voted to nationalize Iran's oil industry and to expel foreign corporate representatives from the country. After this vote, Britain instigated a worldwide boycott of Iranian oil to pressure Iran economically.


1953 Iranian coup d'état
Initially, Britain mobilized its military to seize control of the British-built Abadan oil refinery, then the world's largest, but Prime Minister Clement Attlee (in power until 1951) opted instead to tighten the economic boycott while using Iranian agents to undermine Mosaddegh's government. Judging Mosaddegh to be unreliable and fearing a Communist takeover in Iran, UK prime minister Winston Churchill and the Eisenhower administration decided in early 1953 to overthrow Iran's government, though the preceding Truman administration had opposed a coup, fearing the precedent that Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) involvement would set. British intelligence officials' conclusions and the UK government's solicitations were instrumental in initiating and planning the coup, despite the fact that the U.S. government in 1952 had been considering unilateral action (without UK support) to assist the Mosaddegh government.


1953 Iranian coup d'état
Following the coup in 1953, a government under General Fazlollah Zahedi was formed which allowed Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the last Shah of Iran (Persian for an Iranian king), to rule more firmly as monarch. He relied heavily on United States support to hold on to power. According to the CIA's declassified documents and records, some of the most feared mobsters in Tehran were hired by the CIA to stage pro-Shah riots on 19 August. Other men paid by the CIA were brought into Tehran in buses and trucks, and took over the streets of the city.


1953 Iranian coup d'état
Between 200 and 300 people were killed because of the conflict. Mosaddegh was arrested, tried and convicted of treason by the Shah's military court. On 21 December 1953, he was sentenced to three years in jail, then placed under house arrest for the remainder of his life. Other Mosaddegh supporters were imprisoned, and several received the death penalty. After the coup, the Shah continued his rule as monarch for the next 26 years until he was overthrown in the Iranian Revolution in 1979.


1953 Iranian coup d'état
In August 2013 the U.S. government formally acknowledged the U.S. role in the coup by releasing a bulk of previously classified government documents that show it was in charge of both the planning and the execution of the coup, including the bribing of Iranian politicians, security and army high-ranking officials, as well as pro-coup propaganda. The CIA is quoted acknowledging the coup was carried out "under CIA direction" and "as an act of U.S. foreign policy, conceived and approved at the highest levels of government".


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Background
Throughout the 19th century, Iran was caught between two advancing imperial powers, Russia and Britain. In 1892, the British diplomat George Curzon described Iran as "pieces on a chessboard upon which is being played out a game for the dominion of the world." During the latter half of the 19th century, the concession policies of the monarchy faced increased opposition.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Background
In 1872, a representative of British entrepreneur Paul Reuter met with the Iranian monarch Naser al-Din Shah Qajar and agreed to fund the monarch's upcoming lavish visit to Europe in return for exclusive contracts for Iranian roads, telegraphs, mills, factories, extraction of resources, and other public works, in which Reuter would receive a stipulated sum for five years and 60% of all the net revenue for 20 years. However, the so-called "Reuter concession" was never put into effect because of violent opposition at home and from Russia. In 1892 the Shah was forced to revoke a tobacco monopoly given to Major G. F. Talbot, following protests and a widespread tobacco boycott.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Background
In 1901, Mozzafar al-Din Shah Qajar granted a 60-year petroleum search concession to William Knox D'Arcy. D'Arcy paid £20,000 (equivalent to £2.1 million in 2019), according to journalist-turned-historian Stephen Kinzer, and promised equal ownership shares, with 16% of any future net profit, as calculated by the company. However, the historian L. P. Elwell-Sutton wrote, in 1955, that "Persia's share was 'hardly spectacular' and no money changed hands." On 31 July 1907, D'Arcy withdrew from his private holdings in Persia, and transferred them to the British-owned Burmah Oil Company. On 26 May 1908 the company struck oil at a depth of 1,180 feet (360 m). The company grew slowly until World War I, when Persia's strategic importance led the British government to buy a controlling share in the company, essentially nationalizing British oil production in Iran.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Background
The British angered the Persians by intervening in their domestic affairs, including in the Persian Constitutional Revolution. Massive popular protests had forced Mozzafar al-Din Shah to allow for the Constitution of 1906, which limited his powers. It allowed for a democratically elected parliament Majlis to make the laws, and a prime minister to sign and carry them out. The Prime Minister would be appointed by the Shah after a vote of confidence from Parliament. Nevertheless, the new constitution gave the shah many executive powers as well.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Background
It allowed for the shah to issue royal decrees (Farman), gave him the power to appoint and dismiss prime ministers (upon votes of confidence from Parliament), appoint half of the members of the Senate (which was not convened until 1949), and introduce bills to and even dissolve Parliament. It abolished arbitrary rule, but the shah served as an executive, rather than in a ceremonial role; consequently when a shah was weak, the government was more democratic, but when the shah acted on his own, the democratic aspects of the government could be sidelined.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Background
The contradictory aspects of this constitution would cause conflicts in the future. The Constitutional Revolution was opposed by the British and Russians, who attempted to subvert it through the backing of Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar (the son of Mozzafar-e-din Shah), who tried to break up the democratic government by force. A guerrilla movement led by Sattar Khan deposed him in 1910.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Background
In the aftermath of World War I there was widespread political dissatisfaction with the royalty terms of the British petroleum concession, under the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC), whereby Persia received 16% of "net profits". In 1921, after years of severe mismanagement under the Qajar Dynasty, a coup d'état (allegedly backed by the British) brought a general, Reza Khan, into the government. By 1923, he had become prime minister, and gained a reputation as an effective politician with a lack of corruption.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Background
By 1925 under his influence, Parliament voted to remove Ahmad Shah Qajar from the throne, and Reza Khan was crowned Reza Shah Pahlavi, of the Pahlavi Dynasty. Reza Shah began a rapid and successful modernization program in Persia, which up until that point had been considered to be among the most impoverished countries in the world. Nevertheless, Reza Shah was also a very harsh ruler who did not tolerate dissent. By the 1930s, he had suppressed all opposition, and had sidelined the democratic aspects of the constitution. Opponents were jailed and in some cases even executed.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Background
While some agreed with his policies, arguing that it was necessary as Iran was in such turmoil, others argued that it was unjustified. One such opponent was a politician named Mohammad Mosaddegh, who was jailed in 1940. The experience gave him a lasting dislike for authoritarian rule and monarchy, and it helped make Mosaddegh a dedicated advocate of complete oil nationalization in Iran.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Background
Reza Shah attempted to attenuate the power of the colonial forces in Iran, and was successful to a large extent. However, he also needed them to help modernize the country. He did so by balancing the influence of various colonial powers, including that of Britain and Germany. In the 1930s, Reza Shah tried to terminate the APOC concession that the Qajar dynasty had granted, but Iran was still weak and Britain would not allow it. The concession was renegotiated on terms again favorable to the British (although the D'Arcy Concession was softened). On 21 March 1935, Reza Shah changed the name of the country from Persia to Iran. The Anglo-Persian Oil Company was then renamed the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC).


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Background
In 1941, after the Nazi invasion of the USSR, the British and Commonwealth of Nations forces and the Red Army invaded Iran. Reza Shah had declared neutrality in World War II, and tried to balance between the two major powers, Britain and Nazi Germany. The primary reason for the invasion was to secure Iran's oil fields and the Trans-Iranian Railway in order to deliver supplies to the USSR. Reza Shah was arrested, deposed, and exiled by the British, and some other prominent officials were jailed as well. Reza Shah's 22-year-old son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, became the Shah of Iran.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Background
The new Shah, unlike his father, was initially a mild leader and at times indecisive. During the 1940s he did not for most part take an independent role in the government, and much of Reza Shah's authoritarian policies were rolled back. Iranian democracy effectively was restored during this period as a result.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Background
The British soldiers withdrew from Iran after the end of the war. However, under Stalin, the Soviet Union partly remained by sponsoring two "People's Democratic Republics" within Iran's borders. The related conflict was ended when the US lobbied for the Iranian Army to reassert control over the two occupied territories. The earlier agreed-upon Soviet-Iranian oil agreement would never be honored. Nationalist leaders in Iran became influential by seeking a reduction in long-term foreign interventions in their country—especially the oil concession which was very profitable for the West and not very profitable for Iran. The British-controlled AIOC refused to allow its books to be audited to determine whether the Iranian government was being paid what had been promised. British intransigence irked the Iranian population.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Background
U.S. objectives in the Middle East remained the same between 1947 and 1952 but its strategy changed. Washington remained "publicly in solidarity and privately at odds" with Britain, its World War II ally. Britain's empire was steadily weakening, and with an eye on international crises, the U.S. re-appraised its interests and the risks of being identified with British colonial interests. "In Saudi Arabia, to Britain's extreme disapproval, Washington endorsed the arrangement between ARAMCO and Saudi Arabia in the 50/50 accord that had reverberations throughout the region."


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Background
Iran's oil had been discovered and later controlled by the British-owned AIOC. Popular discontent with the AIOC began in the late 1940s: a large segment of Iran's public and a number of politicians saw the company as exploitative and a central tool of continued British imperialism in Iran.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Assassination attempt on the Shah, and the appointment of Mosaddegh as Prime Minister
In 1949, an assassin attempted to kill the Shah. Shocked by the experience and emboldened by public sympathy for his injury, the Shah began to take an increasingly active role in politics. He quickly organized the Iran Constituent Assembly to amend the constitution to increase his powers. He established the Senate of Iran which had been a part of the Constitution of 1906 but had never been convened. The Shah had the right to appoint half the senators and he chose men sympathetic to his aims.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Assassination attempt on the Shah, and the appointment of Mosaddegh as Prime Minister
Mosaddegh thought this increase in the Shah's political power was not democratic; he believed that the Shah should "reign, but not rule" in a manner similar to Europe's constitutional monarchies. Led by Mosaddegh, political parties and opponents of the Shah's policies banded together to form a coalition known as the National Front. Oil nationalization was a major policy goal for the party.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Assassination attempt on the Shah, and the appointment of Mosaddegh as Prime Minister
By 1951, the National Front had won majority seats for the popularly elected Majlis (Parliament of Iran). According to Iran's constitution, the majority elected party in the parliament would give a vote of confidence for its prime minister candidate, after which the Shah would appoint the candidate to power. The Prime Minister Haj Ali Razmara, who opposed the oil nationalization on technical grounds, was assassinated by the hardline Fadaiyan e-Islam (whose spiritual leader the Ayatollah Abol-Qassem Kashani, a mentor to the future Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, had been appointed Speaker of the Parliament by the National Front).


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Assassination attempt on the Shah, and the appointment of Mosaddegh as Prime Minister
After a vote of confidence from the National Front dominated Parliament, Mosaddegh was appointed prime minister of Iran by the Shah (replacing Hossein Ala, who had replaced Razmara). Under heavy pressure by the National Front, the assassin of Razmara (Khalil Tahmasebi) was released and pardoned, thus proving the movement's power in Iranian politics. For the time being, Mosaddegh and Kashani were allies of convenience, as Mosaddegh saw that Kashani could mobilize the "religious masses", while Kashani wanted Mosaddegh to create an Islamic state.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Assassination attempt on the Shah, and the appointment of Mosaddegh as Prime Minister
Kashani's Fadaiyan mobs often violently attacked the opponents of nationalization and opponents of the National Front government, as well as "immoral objects", acting at times as unofficial "enforcers" for the movement. However, by 1953 Mosaddegh was becoming increasingly opposed to Kashani, as the latter was contributing to mass political instability in Iran. Kashani in turn, berated Mosaddegh for not "Islamizing" Iran, as the latter was a firm believer in the separation of religion and state.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Assassination attempt on the Shah, and the appointment of Mosaddegh as Prime Minister
The Shah and his prime minister had an antagonistic relationship. Part of the problem stemmed from the fact that Mosaddegh was connected by blood to the former royal Qajar dynasty, and saw the Pahlavi king as a usurper to the throne. But the real issue stemmed from the fact that Mosaddegh represented a pro-democratic force that wanted to temper the Shah's rule in Iranian politics. He wanted the Shah to be a ceremonial monarch rather than a ruling monarch, thus giving the elected government power over the un-elected Shah.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Assassination attempt on the Shah, and the appointment of Mosaddegh as Prime Minister
While the constitution of Iran gave the Shah the power to rule directly, Mosaddegh used the united National Front bloc and the widespread popular support for the oil nationalization vote (the latter which the Shah supported as well) in order to block the Shah's ability to act. As a result, the oil nationalization issue became increasingly intertwined with Mosaddegh's pro-democracy movement. The dejected Shah was angered by Mosaddegh's "insolence" (according to Abbas Milani, he angrily paced in the rooms of his palace at the thought that he would be reduced to a figurehead).


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Assassination attempt on the Shah, and the appointment of Mosaddegh as Prime Minister
But Mosaddegh and the oil nationalization's popularity prevented the Shah from acting against his prime minister (which was allowed under Iran's constitution, something that Mosaddegh felt a king had no right to do). In 1952 the Shah dismissed Mosaddegh, replacing him with Ahmad Qavam (a veteran prime minister). But widespread protests by Mosaddegh supporters resulted in the Shah immediately reinstating him.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Oil nationalization, the Abadan crisis, and rising tensions
In late 1951, Iran's Parliament in a near unanimous vote approved the oil nationalization agreement. The bill was widely popular among most Iranians, and generated a huge wave of nationalism, and immediately put Iran at loggerheads with Britain (the handful of MPs that disagreed with it voted for it as well in the face of overwhelming popular support, and the Fadaiyan's wrath). The nationalization made Mosaddegh instantly popular among millions of Iranians, cementing him as a national hero, and placing him and Iran at the centre of worldwide attention. Many Iranians felt that for the first time in centuries, they were taking control of the affairs of their country. Many also expected that nationalization would result in a massive increase of wealth for Iranians.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Oil nationalization, the Abadan crisis, and rising tensions
Britain now faced the newly elected nationalist government in Iran where Mosaddegh, with strong backing of the Iranian parliament and people, demanded more favorable concessionary arrangements, which Britain vigorously opposed.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Oil nationalization, the Abadan crisis, and rising tensions
The U.S. State Department not only rejected Britain's demand that it continue to be the primary beneficiary of Iranian oil reserves but "U.S. international oil interests were among the beneficiaries of the concessionary arrangements that followed nationalization."


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Oil nationalization, the Abadan crisis, and rising tensions
Mohammad Mosaddegh attempted to negotiate with the AIOC, but the company rejected his proposed compromise. Mosaddegh's plan, based on the 1948 compromise between the Venezuelan Government of Romulo Gallegos and Creole Petroleum, would divide the profits from oil 50/50 between Iran and Britain. Against the recommendation of the United States, Britain refused this proposal and began planning to undermine and overthrow the Iranian government.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Oil nationalization, the Abadan crisis, and rising tensions
In July 1951, the American diplomat Averell Harriman went to Iran to negotiate an Anglo-Iranian compromise, asking the Shah's help; his reply was that "in the face of public opinion, there was no way he could say a word against nationalisation". Harriman held a press conference in Tehran, calling for reason and enthusiasm in confronting the "nationalisation crisis". As soon as he spoke, a journalist rose and shouted: "We and the Iranian people all support Premier Mosaddegh and oil nationalisation!" Everyone present began cheering and then marched out of the room; the abandoned Harriman shook his head in dismay.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Oil nationalization, the Abadan crisis, and rising tensions
On a visit to the United States in October 1951, Mosaddegh—in spite of the popularity of nationalization in Iran—agreed in talks with George C. McGhee to a complex settlement of the crisis involving the sale of the Abadan Refinery to a non-British company and Iranian control of the extraction of crude oil. The US waited until Winston Churchill became prime minister to present the deal, believing he would be more flexible, but the deal was rejected by the British.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Oil nationalization, the Abadan crisis, and rising tensions
The National Iranian Oil Company suffered decreased production, because of Iranian inexperience and the AIOC's orders that British technicians not work with them, thus provoking the Abadan Crisis that was aggravated by the Royal Navy's blockading its export markets to pressure Iran to not nationalise its petroleum. The Iranian revenues were greater, because the profits went to Iran's national treasury rather than to private, foreign oil companies.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Oil nationalization, the Abadan crisis, and rising tensions
By September 1951, the British had virtually ceased Abadan oil field production, forbidden British export to Iran of key British commodities (including sugar and steel), and had frozen Iran's hard currency accounts in British banks. British Prime Minister Clement Attlee considered seizing the Abadan Oil Refinery by force, but instead settled on an embargo by the Royal Navy, stopping any ship transporting Iranian oil for carrying so-called "stolen property". On his re-election as prime minister, Winston Churchill took an even harder stance against Iran.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Oil nationalization, the Abadan crisis, and rising tensions
The United Kingdom took its anti-nationalisation case against Iran to the International Court of Justice at The Hague; PM Mosaddegh said the world would learn of a "cruel and imperialistic country" stealing from a "needy and naked people". The court ruled that it had no jurisdiction over the case. Nevertheless, the British continued to enforce the embargo of Iranian oil. In August 1952, Iranian Prime Minister Mosaddegh invited an American oil executive to visit Iran and the Truman administration welcomed the invitation. However, the suggestion upset Churchill, who insisted that the U.S. not undermine his campaign to isolate Mosaddegh because of British support for the U.S. in the Korean War.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Oil nationalization, the Abadan crisis, and rising tensions
In mid-1952, Britain's embargo of Iranian oil was devastatingly effective. British agents in Tehran "worked to subvert" the government of Mosaddegh, who sought help from President Truman and then the World Bank but to no avail. "Iranians were becoming poorer and unhappier by the day" and Mosaddegh's political coalition was fraying. To make matters worse, the Speaker of the Parliament Ayatollah Kashani, Mosaddegh's main clerical supporter, became increasingly opposed to the Prime Minister, because Mosaddegh was not turning Iran into an Islamic state. By 1953, he had completely turned on him, and supported the coup, depriving Mosaddegh of religious support, while giving it to the Shah.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Oil nationalization, the Abadan crisis, and rising tensions
In the Majlis election in the spring of 1952, Mosaddegh "had little to fear from a free vote, since despite the country's problems, he was widely admired as a hero. A free vote, however, was not what others were planning. British agents had fanned out across the country, bribing candidates, and the regional bosses who controlled them. Robert Zaehner alone spent over a £1,500,000, smuggled in biscuit tins, to bribe Iranians, and later his colleague Norman Darbyshire admitted that the actual coup cost the British government a further £700,000. They hoped to fill the Majlis with deputies who would vote to depose Mosaddegh. It would be a coup carried out by seemingly legal means."


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Oil nationalization, the Abadan crisis, and rising tensions
While the National Front, which often supported Mosaddegh won handily in the big cities, there was no one to monitor voting in the rural areas. Violence broke out in Abadan and other parts of the country where elections were hotly contested. Faced with having to leave Iran for The Hague where Britain was suing for control of Iranian oil, Mosaddegh's cabinet voted to postpone the remainder of the election until after the return of the Iranian delegation from The Hague.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Oil nationalization, the Abadan crisis, and rising tensions
While Mosaddegh dealt with political challenge, he faced another that most Iranians considered far more urgent. The British blockade of Iranian seaports meant that Iran was left without access to markets where it could sell its oil. The embargo had the effect of causing Iran to spiral into bankruptcy. Tens of thousands had lost their jobs at the Abadan refinery, and although most understood and passionately supported the idea of nationalisation, they naturally hoped that Mosaddegh would find a way to put them back to work. The only way he could do that was to sell oil.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Oil nationalization, the Abadan crisis, and rising tensions
To make matters worse, the Communist Tudeh Party, which supported the Soviet Union and had attempted to kill the Shah only four years earlier, began to infiltrate the military and send mobs to "support Mosaddegh" (but in reality to marginalize all non-Communist opponents). Earlier, the Tudeh had denounced Mosaddegh, but by 1953 they changed tack and decided to "support" him.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Oil nationalization, the Abadan crisis, and rising tensions
The Tudeh violently attacked opponents under the guise of helping the prime minister (the cousin of the future queen of Iran, Farah Pahlavi, was stabbed at the age of 13 in his school by Tudeh activists), and unwittingly helped cause Mosaddegh's reputation to decline, despite the fact that he never officially endorsed them. However, by 1953 he and the Tudeh had formed an unofficial alliance of convenience with each other; the Tudeh were the "foot soldiers" for his government, effectively replacing the Fadaiyan in that role, all the while secretly hoping that Mosaddegh would institute communism. Pro -Shah mobs also carried out attacks on Mosaddegh opponents, and there may have been some CIA coordination.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Oil nationalization, the Abadan crisis, and rising tensions
Worried about Britain's other interests in Iran, and (thanks to the Tudeh party) believing that Iran's nationalism was really a Soviet-backed plot, Britain persuaded US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles that Iran was falling to the Soviets—effectively exploiting the American Cold War mindset. Since President Harry S. Truman was busy fighting a war in Korea, he did not agree to overthrow the government of Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh. However, in 1953, when Dwight D. Eisenhower became president, the UK convinced the U.S. to undertake a joint coup d'état.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Final months of Mosaddegh's government
By 1953, economic tensions caused by the British embargo and political turmoil began to take a major toll on Mosaddegh's popularity and political power. He was increasingly blamed for the economic and political crisis. Political violence was becoming widespread in the form of street clashes between rival political groups. Mosaddegh was losing popularity and support among the working class which had been his strongest supporters. As he lost support, he became more autocratic. As early as August 1952, he began to rely on emergency powers to rule, generating controversy among his supporters.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Final months of Mosaddegh's government
After an assassination attempt upon one of his cabinet ministers and himself, he ordered the jailing of dozens of his political opponents. This act created widespread anger among the general public, and led to accusations that Mosaddegh was becoming a dictator. The Tudeh party's unofficial alliance with Mosaddegh led to fears of communism, and increasingly it was the communists who were taking part in pro-Mosaddegh rallies and attacking opponents.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Final months of Mosaddegh's government
By mid-1953 a mass of resignations by Mosaddegh's parliamentary supporters reduced the National Front seats in Parliament. A referendum to dissolve parliament and give the prime minister power to make law was submitted to voters, and it passed with 99.9 percent approval, 2,043,300 votes to 1300 votes against. The referendum was widely seen by opponents as treason and an act against the Shah, who was stripped of military power and control over national resources. This act would be one of many key factors in a chain of events leading to Mosaddegh's deposition.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Oil nationalization crisis, Final months of Mosaddegh's government
The Shah himself initially opposed the coup plans and supported the oil nationalization, but he joined in after being informed by the CIA that he too would be "deposed" if he didn't play along. The experience left him with a lifelong awe of American power and would contribute to his pro-US policies while generating a hatred of the British. Mosaddegh's decision to dissolve Parliament also contributed to his decision.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Execution of Operation Ajax
The official pretext for the start of the coup was Mosaddegh's decree to dissolve Parliament, giving himself and his cabinet complete power to rule, while effectively stripping the Shah of his powers. It resulted in him being accused of giving himself "total and dictatorial powers." The Shah, who had been resisting the CIA's demands for the coup, finally agreed to support it. Having obtained the Shah's concurrence, the CIA executed the coup.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Execution of Operation Ajax
Firmans (royal decrees) dismissing Mosaddegh and appointing General Fazlollah Zahedi (a loyalist who had helped Reza Shah reunify Iran decades earlier) were drawn up by the coup plotters and signed by the Shah. Having signed the decrees and delivered them to General Zahedi, he and Queen Soraya departed for a week-long vacation in northern Iran. On Saturday 15 August, Colonel Nematollah Nassiri, the commander of the Imperial Guard, delivered to Mosaddegh a firman from the Shah dismissing him. Mosaddegh, who had been warned of the plot, probably by the Communist Tudeh Party, rejected the firman and had Nassiri arrested.


1953 Iranian coup d'état, Execution of Operation Ajax
Mosaddegh argued at his trial after the coup that under the Iranian constitutional monarchy, the Shah had no constitutional right to issue an order for the elected Prime Minister's dismissal without Parliament's consent. However, the constitution at the time did allow for such an action, which Mosaddegh considered unfair. The action was publicized within Iran by the CIA and in the United States by The New York Times. Mosaddegh's supporters took to the streets in violent protests. Following the failed coup attempt, the Shah, accompanied by his second wife Soraya Esfandiary-Bakhtiari and Aboul Fath Atabay fled to Baghdad.