1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Northern Samaria
Iraqi forces failed in their attacks on Israeli settlements with the most notable battle taking place at Gesher, and instead took defensive positions around Jenin, Nablus, and Tulkarm, from where they could put pressure on the Israeli center. On 25 May, Iraqi forces advanced from Tulkarm, taking Geulim and reaching Kfar Yona and Ein Vered on the Tulkarm-Netanya road. The Alexandroni Brigade then stopped the Iraqi advance and retook Geulim. The IDF Carmeli and Golani Brigades attempted to capture Jenin during an offensive launched on 31 May, but were defeated in course of the subsequent battle by an Iraqi counterattack.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Northern front – Lake of Galilee
On 14 May Syria invaded Palestine with the 1st Infantry Brigade supported by a battalion of armoured cars, a company of French R 35 and R 37 tanks, an artillery battalion and other units. The Syrian president, Shukri al-Quwwatli instructed his troops in the front, "to destroy the Zionists". "The situation was very grave. There aren't enough rifles. There are no heavy weapons," Ben-Gurion told the Israeli Cabinet.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Northern front – Lake of Galilee
On 15 May, the Syrian forces turned to the eastern and southern Sea of Galilee shores, and attacked Samakh the neighbouring Tegart fort and the settlements of Sha'ar HaGolan, Ein Gev, but they were bogged down by resistance. Later, they attacked Samakh using tanks and aircraft, and on 18 May they succeeded in conquering Samakh and occupied the abandoned Sha'ar HaGolan.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Northern front – Lake of Galilee
On 21 May, the Syrian army was stopped at kibbutz Degania Alef in the north, where local militia reinforced by elements of the Carmeli Brigade halted Syrian armoured forces with Molotov cocktails, hand grenades and a single PIAT. One tank that was disabled by Molotov cocktails and hand grenades still remains at the kibbutz. The remaining Syrian forces were driven off the next day by four Napoleonchik mountain guns – Israel's first use of artillery during the war. Following the Syrian forces' defeat at the Deganias a few days later, they abandoned the Samakh village. The Syrians were forced to besiege the kibbutz rather than advance. One author claims that the main reason for the Syrian defeat was the Syrian soldiers' low regard for the Israelis who they believed would not stand and fight against the Arab army.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Northern front – Lake of Galilee
On 6 June, the 3rd battalion of the Lebanese Army took Al-Malkiyya and Qadas in what became the only intervention of the Lebanese army during the war, handing the towns over to the Arab Liberation Army and withdrawing on 8 July.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Northern front – Lake of Galilee
On 6 June, Syrian forces attacked Mishmar HaYarden, but they were repulsed. On 10 June, the Syrians overran Mishmar HaYarden and advanced to the main road, where they were stopped by units of the Oded Brigade. Subsequently, the Syrians reverted to a defensive posture, conducting only a few minor attacks on small, exposed Israeli settlements.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Palestinian forces
In the continuity of the civil war between Jewish and Arab forces that had begun in 1947, battles between Israeli forces and Palestinian Arab militias took place, particularly in the Lydda, al-Ramla, Jerusalem, and Haifa areas. On 23 May, the Alexandroni Brigade captured Tantura, south of Haifa, from Arab forces. On 2 June, Holy War Army commander Hasan Salama was killed in a battle with Haganah at Ras al-Ein.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Air operations
All Jewish aviation assets were placed under the control of the Sherut Avir (Air Service, known as the SA) in November 1947 and flying operations began in the following month from a small civil airport on the outskirts of Tel Aviv called Sde Dov, with the first ground support operation (in an RWD-13) taking place on 17 December. The Galilee Squadron was formed at Yavne'el in March 1948, and the Negev Squadron was formed at Nir-Am in April.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Air operations
By 10 May, when the SA suffered its first combat loss, there were three flying units, an air staff, maintenance facilities and logistics support. At the outbreak of the war on 15 May, the SA became the Israeli Air Force. With its fleet of light planes it was no match for Arab forces during the first few weeks of the war with their T-6s, Spitfires, C-47s, and Avro Ansons.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Air operations
On 15 May, with the beginning of the war, four Royal Egyptian Air Force (REAF) Spitfires attacked Tel Aviv, bombing Sde Dov Airfield, where the bulk of Sherut Avir's aircraft were concentrated, as well as the Reading Power Station. Several aircraft were destroyed, some others were damaged, and five Israelis were killed. Throughout the following hours, additional waves of Egyptian aircraft bombed and strafed targets around Tel Aviv, although these raids had little effect. One Spitfire was shot down by anti-aircraft fire, and its pilot was taken prisoner.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Air operations
Throughout the next six days, the REAF would continue to attack Tel Aviv, causing civilian casualties. On 18 May, Egyptian warplanes attacked the Tel Aviv Central Bus Station, killing 42 people and wounding 100. In addition to their attacks on Tel Aviv, the Egyptians also bombed rural settlements and airfields, though few casualties were caused in these raids.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Air operations
At the outset of the war, the REAF was able to attack Israel with near impunity, due to the lack of Israeli fighter aircraft to intercept them, and met only ground fire.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Air operations
As more effective air defences were transferred to Tel Aviv, the Egyptians began taking significant aircraft losses. As a result of these losses, as well as the loss of five Spitfires downed by the British when the Egyptians mistakenly attacked RAF Ramat David, the Egyptian air attacks became less frequent. By the end of May 1948, almost the entire REAF Spitfire squadron based in El Arish had been lost, including many of its best pilots.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Air operations
Although lacking fighter or bomber aircraft, in the first few days of the war, Israel's embryonic air force still attacked Arab targets, with light aircraft being utilised as makeshift bombers, striking Arab encampments and columns. The raids were mostly carried out at night to avoid interception by Arab fighter aircraft. These attacks usually had little effect, except on morale.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Air operations
The balance of air power soon began to swing in favour of the Israeli Air Force following the arrival of 25 Avia S-199s from Czechoslovakia, the first of which arrived in Israel on 20 May. Ironically, Israel was using the Avia S-199, an inferior derivative of the Bf 109 designed in Nazi Germany to counter British-designed Spitfires flown by Egypt. Throughout the rest of the war, Israel would acquire more Avia fighters, as well as 62 Spitfires from Czechoslovakia. On 28 May 1948, Sherut Avir became the Israeli Air Force.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Air operations
Many of the pilots who fought for the Israeli Air Force were foreign volunteers or mercenaries, including many World War II veterans.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Air operations
On 3 June, Israel scored its first victory in aerial combat when Israeli pilot Modi Alon shot down a pair of Egyptian DC-3s that had just bombed Tel Aviv. Although Tel Aviv would see additional raids by fighter aircraft, there would be no more raids by bombers for the rest of the war. From then on, the Israeli Air Force began engaging the Arab air forces in air-to-air combat. The first dogfight took place on 8 June, when an Israeli fighter plane flown by Gideon Lichtman shot down an Egyptian Spitfire. By the fall of 1948, the IAF had achieved air superiority and had superior firepower and more knowledgeable personnel, many of whom had seen action in World War II. Israeli planes then began intercepting and engaging Arab aircraft on bombing missions.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Air operations
Following Israeli air attacks on Egyptian and Iraqi columns, the Egyptians repeatedly bombed Ekron Airfield, where IAF fighters were based. During a 30 May raid, bombs aimed for Ekron hit central Rehovot, killing 7 civilians and wounding 30. In response to this, and probably to the Jordanian victories at Latrun, Israel began bombing targets in Arab cities. On the night of 31 May/1 June, the first Israeli raid on an Arab capital took place when three IAF planes flew to Amman and dropped several dozen 55 and 110-pound bombs, hitting the King's Palace and an adjacent British airfield.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Air operations
Some 12 people were killed and 30 wounded. During the attack, an RAF hangar was damaged, as were some British aircraft. The British threatened that in the event of another such attack, they would shoot down the attacking aircraft and bomb Israeli airfields, and as a result, Israeli aircraft did not attack Amman again for the rest of the war. Israel also bombed Arish, Gaza, Damascus, and Cairo. Israeli Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers coming to Israel from Czechoslovakia bombed Egypt on their way to Israel. According to Alan Dershowitz, Israeli planes focused on bombing military targets in these attacks, though Benny Morris wrote that an 11 June air raid on Damascus was indiscriminate.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Sea battles
At the outset of the war, the Israeli Navy consisted of three former Aliyah Bet ships that had been seized by the British and impounded in Haifa harbour, where they were tied up at the breakwater. Work on establishing a navy had begun shortly before Israeli independence, and the three ships were selected due to them having a military background – one, the INS Eilat, was an ex-US Coast Guard icebreaker, and the other two, the INS Haganah and INS Wedgwood, had been Royal Canadian Navy corvettes.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Sea battles
The ships were put into minimum running condition by contractors dressed as stevedores and port personnel, who were able to work in the engine rooms and below deck. The work had to be clandestine to avoid arousing British suspicion. On 21 May 1948, the three ships set sail for Tel Aviv, and were made to look like ships that had been purchased by foreign owners for commercial use. In Tel Aviv, the ships were fitted with small field guns dating to the late 19th century and anti-aircraft guns.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, Sea battles
After the British left Haifa port on 30 June, Haifa became the main base of the Israeli Navy. In October 1948, a submarine chaser was purchased from the United States. The warships were manned by former merchant seamen, former crewmembers of Aliyah Bet ships, Israelis who had served in the Royal Navy during World War II, and foreign volunteers. The newly refurbished and crewed warships served on coastal patrol duties and bombarded Egyptian coastal installations in and around the Gaza area all the way to Port Said.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, End of the first phase
Throughout the following days, the Arabs were only able to make limited gains due to fierce Israeli resistance, and were quickly driven off their new holdings by Israeli counterattacks.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, End of the first phase
As the war progressed, the IDF managed to field more troops than the Arab forces. In July 1948, the IDF had 63,000 troops; by early spring 1949, they had 115,000. The Arab armies had an estimated 40,000 troops in July 1948, rising to 55,000 in October 1948, and slightly more by the spring of 1949.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, End of the first phase
Upon the implementation of the truce, the IDF had control over nine Arab cities and towns or mixed cities and towns: New Jerusalem, Jaffa, Haifa, Acre, Safed, Tiberias, Baysan (Beit She'an), Samakh and Yibna (Yavne). Another city, Jenin, was not occupied but its residents fled. The combined Arab forces captured 14 Jewish settlement points, but only one of them, Mishmar HaYarden, was in the territory of the proposed Jewish State according to Resolution 181.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, End of the first phase
Within the boundaries of the proposed Jewish state, there were twelve Arab villages which opposed Jewish control or were captured by the invading Arab armies, and in addition to them, the Lod Airport and pumping station near Antipatris, which were within the boundaries of the proposed Jewish state, were under the control of the Arabs. The IDF captured about 50 large Arab villages outside of the boundaries of the proposed Jewish State and a larger number of hamlets and Bedouin encampments. 350 square kilometres of the proposed Jewish State were under the control of the Arab forces, while 700 square kilometres of the proposed Arab State were under the control of the IDF. This figure ignores the Negev desert which was not under any absolute control of either side.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First phase: 15 May – 11 June 1948, End of the first phase
In the period between the invasion and the first truce the Syrian army had 315 of its men killed and 400–500 injured; the Iraqi expeditionary force had 200 of its men killed and 500 injured; the Jordanian Arab Legion had 300 of its men killed and 400–500 (including irregulars and Palesinian volunteers fighting under the Jordanians); the Egyptian army had 600 of its men killed and 1,400 injured (including irregulars from the Muslim Brotherhood); the ALA, which returned to fight in early June, had 100 of its men killed or injured. 800 Jews were taken hostage by the Arabs and 1,300 Arabs were taken hostage by the Jews, mostly Palestinians.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First truce: 11 June – 8 July 1948
The UN declared a truce on 29 May, which came into effect on 11 June and lasted 28 days. The truce was designed to last 28 days and an arms embargo was declared with the intention that neither side would make any gains from the truce. Neither side respected the truce; both found ways around the restrictions placed on them. Both the Israelis and the Arabs used this time to improve their positions, a direct violation of the terms of the ceasefire.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First truce: 11 June – 8 July 1948, Reinforcements
At the time of the truce, the British view was that "the Jews are too weak in armament to achieve spectacular success". As the truce commenced, a British officer stationed in Haifa stated that the four-week-long truce "would certainly be exploited by the Jews to continue military training and reorganization while the Arabs would waste [them] feuding over the future divisions of the spoils". During the truce, the Israelis sought to bolster their forces by massive import of arms.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First truce: 11 June – 8 July 1948, Reinforcements
The IDF was able to acquire weapons from Czechoslovakia as well as improve training of forces and reorganisation of the army during this time. Yitzhak Rabin, an IDF commander at the time of the war and later Israel's fifth Prime Minister, stated "[w]ithout the arms from Czechoslovakia... it is very doubtful whether we would have been able to conduct the war".


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First truce: 11 June – 8 July 1948, Reinforcements
The Israeli army increased its manpower from approximately 30,000–35,000 men to almost 65,000 during the truce due to mobilisation and the constant immigration into Israel. It was also able to increase its arms supply to more than 25,000 rifles, 5,000 machine guns, and fifty million bullets. As well as violating the arms and personnel embargo, they also sent fresh units to the front lines, much as their Arab enemies did.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First truce: 11 June – 8 July 1948, Reinforcements
During the truce, Irgun attempted to bring in a private arms shipment aboard a ship called Altalena. Fearing a coup by the Irgun (at the time the IDF was in the process of integrating various pre-independence political factions), Ben-Gurion ordered that the arms be confiscated by force. After some miscommunication, the army was ordered by Ben-Gurion to sink the ship. Several Irgun members and IDF soldiers were killed in the fighting.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First truce: 11 June – 8 July 1948, UN mediator Bernadotte
The ceasefire was overseen by UN mediator Folke Bernadotte and a team of UN Observers made up of army officers from Belgium, United States, Sweden and France. Bernadotte was voted in by the General Assembly to "assure the safety of the holy places, to safeguard the well being of the population, and to promote 'a peaceful adjustment of the future situation of Palestine'".


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First truce: 11 June – 8 July 1948, UN mediator Bernadotte
During the period of the truce, three violations occurred ... of such a serious nature:


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First truce: 11 June – 8 July 1948, UN mediator Bernadotte
After the truce was in place, Bernadotte began to address the issue of achieving a political settlement. The main obstacles in his opinion were "the Arab world's continued rejection of the existence of a Jewish state, whatever its borders; Israel's new 'philosophy', based on its increasing military strength, of ignoring the partition boundaries and conquering what additional territory it could; and the emerging Palestinian Arab refugee problem".


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First truce: 11 June – 8 July 1948, UN mediator Bernadotte
Taking all the issues into account, Bernadotte presented a new partition plan.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, First truce: 11 June – 8 July 1948, UN mediator Bernadotte
He proposed there be a Palestinian Arab state alongside Israel and that a "Union" "be established between the two sovereign states of Israel and Jordan (which now included the West Bank); that the Negev, or part of it, be included in the Arab state and that Western Galilee, or part of it, be included in Israel; that the whole of Jerusalem be part of the Arab state, with the Jewish areas enjoying municipal autonomy and that Lydda Airport and Haifa be 'free ports' – presumably free of Israeli or Arab sovereignty". Israel rejected the proposal, in particular the aspect of losing control of Jerusalem, but they did agree to extend the truce for another month. The Arabs rejected both the extension of the truce and the proposal.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second phase: 8–18 July 1948 ("Ten Day Battles")
On 8 July, the day before the expiration of the truce, Egyptian forces under General Muhammad Naguib renewed the war by attacking Negba. The following day, Israeli air forces launched a simultaneous offensive on all three fronts, ranging from Quneitra to Arish and the Egyptian air force bombed the city of Tel Aviv. During the fighting, the Israelis were able to open a lifeline to a number of besieged kibbutzim.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second phase: 8–18 July 1948 ("Ten Day Battles")
The fighting continued for ten days until the UN Security Council issued the Second Truce on 18 July. During those 10 days, the fighting was dominated by large-scale Israeli offensives and a defensive posture from the Arab side.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second phase: 8–18 July 1948 ("Ten Day Battles"), Southern front
In the south, the IDF carried out several offensives, including Operation An-Far and Operation Death to the Invader. The task of the 11th Brigades's 1st Battalion on the southern flank was to capture villages, and its operation ran smoothly, with but little resistance from local irregulars. According to Amnon Neumann, a Palmach veteran of the Southern front, hardly any Arab villages in the south fought back, due to the miserable poverty of their means and lack of weapons, and suffered expulsion. What slight resistance was offered was quelled by an artillery barrage, followed by the storming of the village, whose residents were expelled and houses destroyed.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second phase: 8–18 July 1948 ("Ten Day Battles"), Southern front
On 12 July, the Egyptians launched an offensive action, and again attacked Negba, which they had previously failed to capture, using three infantry battalions, an armoured battalion, and an artillery regiment. In the battle that followed, the Egyptians were repulsed, suffering 200–300 casualties, while the Israelis lost 5 dead and 16 wounded.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second phase: 8–18 July 1948 ("Ten Day Battles"), Southern front
After failing to take Negba, the Egyptians turned their attention to more isolated settlements and positions. On 14 July, an Egyptian attack on Gal On was driven off by a minefield and by resistance from Gal On's residents.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second phase: 8–18 July 1948 ("Ten Day Battles"), Southern front
The Egyptians then assaulted the lightly defended village of Be'erot Yitzhak. The Egyptians managed to penetrate the village perimeter, but the defenders concentrated in an inner position in the village and fought off the Egyptian advance until IDF reinforcements arrived and drove out the attackers. The Egyptians suffered an estimated 200 casualties, while the Israelis had 17 dead and 15 wounded. The battle was one of Egypt's last offensive actions during the war, and the Egyptians did not attack any Israeli villages following this battle.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second phase: 8–18 July 1948 ("Ten Day Battles"), Lydda and al-Ramla
On 10 July, Glubb Pasha ordered the defending Arab Legion troops to "make arrangements...for a phony war". Israeli Operation Danny was the most important Israeli offensive, aimed at securing and enlarging the corridor between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv by capturing the roadside cities Lod (Lydda) and Ramle. In a second planned stage of the operation the fortified positions of Latrun – overlooking the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem highway – and the city of Ramallah were also to be captured. Hadita, near Latrun, was captured by the Israelis at a cost of 9 dead.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second phase: 8–18 July 1948 ("Ten Day Battles"), Lydda and al-Ramla
The objectives of Operation Danny were to capture territory east of Tel Aviv and then to push inland and relieve the Jewish population and forces in Jerusalem. Lydda had become an important military center in the region, lending support to Arab military activities elsewhere, and Ramle was one of the main obstacles blocking Jewish transportation. Lydda was defended by a local militia of around 1,000 residents, with an Arab Legion contingent of 125–300.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second phase: 8–18 July 1948 ("Ten Day Battles"), Lydda and al-Ramla
The IDF forces gathered to attack the city numbered around 8,000. It was the first operation where several brigades were involved. The city was attacked from the north via Majdal al-Sadiq and al-Muzayri'a, and from the east via Khulda, al-Qubab, Jimzu and Daniyal. Bombers were also used for the first time in the conflict to bombard the city. The IDF captured the city on 11 July.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second phase: 8–18 July 1948 ("Ten Day Battles"), Lydda and al-Ramla
Up to 450 Arabs and 9–10 Israeli soldiers were killed. The next day, Ramle fell. The civilian populations of Lydda and Ramle fled or were expelled to the Arab front lines, and following resistance in Lydda, the population there was expelled without provision of transport vehicles; some of the evictees died on the long walk under the hot July sun.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second phase: 8–18 July 1948 ("Ten Day Battles"), Lydda and al-Ramla
On 15–16 July, an attack on Latrun took place but did not manage to occupy the fort. A desperate second attempt occurred on 18 July by units from the Yiftach Brigade equipped with armoured vehicles, including two Cromwell tanks, but that attack also failed. Despite the second truce, which began on 18 July, the Israeli efforts to conquer Latrun continued until 20 July.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second phase: 8–18 July 1948 ("Ten Day Battles"), Jerusalem
Operation Kedem's aim was to secure the Old City of Jerusalem, but fewer resources were allocated. The operation failed. Originally the operation was to begin on 8 July, immediately after the first truce, by Irgun and Lehi forces. However, it was delayed by David Shaltiel, possibly because he did not trust their ability after their failure to capture Deir Yassin without Haganah assistance.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second phase: 8–18 July 1948 ("Ten Day Battles"), Jerusalem
Irgun forces commanded by Yehuda Lapidot were to break through at the New Gate, Lehi was to break through the wall stretching from the New Gate to the Jaffa Gate, and the Beit Horon Battalion was to strike from Mount Zion.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second phase: 8–18 July 1948 ("Ten Day Battles"), Jerusalem
The battle was planned to begin on the Shabbat, at 20:00 on 16 July, two days before the second ceasefire of the war. The plan went wrong from the beginning and was postponed first to 23:00 and then to midnight. It was not until 02:30 that the battle actually began. The Irgun managed to break through at the New Gate, but the other forces failed in their missions. At 05:45 on 17 July, Shaltiel ordered a retreat and to cease hostilities.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second phase: 8–18 July 1948 ("Ten Day Battles"), Jerusalem
On 14 July 1948, Irgun occupied the Arab village of Malha after a fierce battle. Several hours later, the Arabs launched a counterattack, but Israeli reinforcements arrived, and the village was retaken at a cost of 17 dead.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second phase: 8–18 July 1948 ("Ten Day Battles"), Southern Galilee
The second plan was Operation Dekel, which was aimed at capturing the Lower Galilee including Nazareth. Nazareth was captured on 16 July, and by the time the second truce took effect at 19:00 18 July, the whole Lower Galilee from Haifa Bay to the Sea of Galilee was captured by Israel.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second phase: 8–18 July 1948 ("Ten Day Battles"), Eastern Galilee
Operation Brosh was launched in a failed attempt to dislodge Syrian forces from the Eastern Galilee and the Benot Yaakov Bridge. During the operation, 200 Syrians and 100 Israelis were killed. The Israeli Air Force also bombed Damascus for the first time.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second truce: 18 July – 15 October 1948
At 19:00 on 18 July, the second truce of the conflict went into effect after intense diplomatic efforts by the UN.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second truce: 18 July – 15 October 1948
On 16 September, Count Folke Bernadotte proposed a new partition for Palestine in which the Negev would be divided between Jordan and Egypt, and Jordan would annexe Lydda and Ramla. There would be a Jewish state in the whole of Galilee, with the frontier running from Faluja northeast towards Ramla and Lydda. Jerusalem would be internationalised, with municipal autonomy for the city's Jewish and Arab inhabitants, the Port of Haifa would be a free port, and Lydda Airport would be a free airport. All Palestinian refugees would be granted the right of return, and those who chose not to return would be compensated for lost property. The UN would control and regulate Jewish immigration.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second truce: 18 July – 15 October 1948
The plan was once again rejected by both sides. On the next day, 17 September, Bernadotte was assassinated in Jerusalem by the militant Zionist group Lehi. A four-man team ambushed Bernadotte's motorcade in Jerusalem, killing him and a French UN observer sitting next to him. Lehi saw Bernadotte as a British and Arab puppet, and thus a serious threat to the emerging State of Israel, and feared that the provisional Israeli government would accept the plan, which it considered disastrous. Unbeknownst to Lehi, the government had already decided to reject it and resume combat in a month. Bernadotte's deputy, American Ralph Bunche, replaced him.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Second truce: 18 July – 15 October 1948
On 22 September 1948, the Provisional State Council of Israel passed the Area of Jurisdiction and Powers Ordnance, 5708–1948. The law officially added to Israel's size by annexing all land it had captured since the war began. It also declared that from then on, any part of Palestine captured by the Israeli army would automatically become part of Israel.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Little triangle pocket
The Arab villagers of the area known as the "Little Triangle" south of Haifa, repeatedly fired at Israeli traffic along the main road from Tel Aviv to Haifa and were supplied by the Iraqis from northern Samaria. The sniping at traffic continued during the Second Truce. The poorly planned assaults on 18 June and 8 July had failed to dislodge Arab militia from their superior positions. The Israelis launched Operation Shoter on 24 July in order to gain control of the main road to Haifa and to destroy all the enemy in the area.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Little triangle pocket
Israeli assaults on 24 and 25 July were beaten back by stiff resistance. The Israelis then broke the Arab defences with an infantry and armour assault backed by heavy artillery shelling and aerial bombing. Three Arab villages surrendered, and most of the inhabitants fled before and during the attack. The Israeli soldiers and aircraft struck at one of the Arab retreat routes, killing 60 Arab soldiers.. Most of the inhabitants fled before and during the attack, reaching northern Samaria; hundreds were forcibly expelled during the following days. At least a hundred militiamen and civilians were killed.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Little triangle pocket
The Arabs claimed that the Israelis had massacred Arab civilians, but the Israelis rejected the claims. A United Nations investigation found no evidence of a massacre. Following the operation, the Tel Aviv-Haifa road was open to Israeli military and civilian traffic, and Arab roadblocks along the route were removed. Traffic along the Haifa-Hadera coastal railway was also restored.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949
Israel launched a series of military operations to drive out the Arab armies and secure the northern and southern borders of Israel.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Northern front – Galilee
On 22 October, the third truce went into effect. Irregular Arab forces refused to recognise the truce, and continued to harass Israeli forces and settlements in the north. On the same day that the truce came into effect, the Arab Liberation Army violated the truce by attacking Manara, capturing the strongpoint of Sheikh Abed, repulsing counterattacks by local Israeli units, and ambushed Israeli forces attempting to relieve Manara. The IDF's Carmeli Brigade lost 33 dead and 40 wounded. Manara and Misgav Am were totally cut off, and Israel's protests at the UN failed to change the situation.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Northern front – Galilee
On 24 October, the IDF launched Operation Hiram and captured the entire upper Galilee area, driving the ALA back to Lebanon, and ambushing and destroying an entire Syrian battalion. The Israeli force of four infantry brigades was commanded by Moshe Carmel. The entire operation lasted just 60 hours, during which numerous villages were captured, often after locals or Arab forces put up resistance. Arab losses were estimated at 400 dead and 550 taken prisoner, with low Israeli casualties.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Northern front – Galilee
Some prisoners were reportedly executed by the Israeli forces. An estimated 50,000 Palestinian refugees fled into Lebanon, some of them fleeing ahead of the advancing forces, and some expelled from villages which had resisted, while the Arab inhabitants of those villages which had remained at peace were allowed to remain and became Israeli citizens. The villagers of Iqrit and Birim were persuaded to leave their homes by Israeli authorities, who promised them that they would be allowed to return. Israel eventually decided not to allow them to return, and offered them financial compensation, which they refused to accept.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Northern front – Galilee
At the end of the month, the IDF had captured the whole of Galilee, driven all ALA forces out of Israel, and had advanced 8 kilometres (5 miles) into Lebanon to the Litani River, occupying thirteen Lebanese villages. In the village of Hula, two Israeli officers killed between 35 and 58 prisoners as retaliation for the Haifa Oil Refinery massacre. Both officers were later put on trial for their actions.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Negev
Israel launched a series of military operations to drive out the Arab armies and secure the borders of Israel. However, invading the West Bank might have brought into the borders of the expanding State of Israel a massive Arab population it could not absorb. The Negev desert was an empty space for expansion, so the main war effort shifted to Negev from early October. Israel decided to destroy or at least drive out the Egyptian expeditionary force since the Egyptian front lines were too vulnerable as permanent borders.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Negev
On 15 October, the IDF launched Operation Yoav in the northern Negev. Its goal was to drive a wedge between the Egyptian forces along the coast and the Beersheba-Hebron-Jerusalem road and ultimately to conquer the whole Negev. This was a special concern on the Israeli part because of a British diplomatic campaign to have the entire Negev handed over to Egypt and Jordan, and which thus made Ben-Gurion anxious to have Israeli forces in control of the Negev as soon as possible.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Negev
Operation Yoav was headed by the Southern Front commander Yigal Allon. Committed to Yoav were three infantry and one armoured brigades, who were given the task of breaking through the Egyptian lines. The Egyptian positions were badly weakened by the lack of a defence in depth, which meant that once the IDF had broken through the Egyptian lines, there was little to stop them. The operation was a huge success, shattering the Egyptian ranks and forcing the Egyptian Army from the northern Negev, Beersheba and Ashdod.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Negev
In the so-called "Faluja Pocket", an encircled Egyptian force was able to hold out for four months until the 1949 Armistice Agreements, when the village was peacefully transferred to Israel and the Egyptian troops left. Four warships of the Israeli Navy provided support by bombarding Egyptian shore installations in the Ashkelon area, and preventing the Egyptian Navy from evacuating retreating Egyptian troops by sea.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Negev
On 19 October, Operation Ha-Har commenced in the Jerusalem Corridor, while a naval battle also took place near Majdal (now Ashkelon), with three Israeli corvettes facing an Egyptian corvette with air support. An Israeli sailor was killed and four wounded, and two of the ships were damaged. One Egyptian plane was shot down, but the corvette escaped. Israeli naval vessels also shelled Majdal on 17 October, and Gaza on 21 October, with air support from the Israeli Air Force. The same day, the IDF captured Beersheba, and took 120 Egyptian soldiers prisoner. On 22 October, Israeli naval commandos using explosive boats sank the Egyptian flagship Emir Farouk, and damaged an Egyptian minesweeper.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Negev
On 9 November 1948, the IDF launched Operation Shmone to capture the Tegart fort in the village of Iraq Suwaydan. The fort's Egyptian defenders had previously repulsed eight attempts to take it, including two during Operation Yoav. Israeli forces bombarded the fort before an assault with artillery and airstrikes by B-17 bombers. After breaching the outlying fences without resistance, the Israelis blew a hole in the fort's outer wall, prompting the 180 Egyptian soldiers manning the fort to surrender without a fight. The defeat prompted the Egyptians to evacuate several nearby positions, including hills the IDF had failed to take by force. Meanwhile, IDF forces took Iraq Suwaydan itself after a fierce battle, losing 6 dead and 14 wounded.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Negev
From 5 to 7 December, the IDF conducted Operation Assaf to take control of the Western Negev. The main assaults were spearheaded by mechanised forces, while Golani Brigade infantry covered the rear. An Egyptian counterattack was repulsed. The Egyptians planned another counterattack, but it failed after Israeli aerial reconnaissance revealed Egyptian preparations, and the Israelis launched a preemptive strike. About 100 Egyptians were killed, and 5 tanks were destroyed, with the Israelis losing 5 killed and 30 wounded.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Negev
On 22 December, the IDF launched Operation Horev (also called Operation Ayin). The goal of the operation was to drive all remaining Egyptian forces from the Negev, destroying the Egyptian threat on Israel's southern communities and forcing the Egyptians into a ceasefire. During five days of fighting, the Israelis secured the Western Negev, expelling all Egyptian forces from the area.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Negev
Israeli forces subsequently launched raids into the Nitzana area, and entered the Sinai Peninsula on 28 December. The IDF captured Umm Katef and Abu Ageila, and advanced north towards Al Arish, with the goal of encircling the entire Egyptian expeditionary force. Israeli forces pulled out of the Sinai on 2 January 1949 following joint British-American pressure and a British threat of military action. IDF forces regrouped at the border with the Gaza Strip. Israeli forces attacked Rafah the following day, and after several days of fighting, Egyptian forces in the Gaza Strip were surrounded. The Egyptians agreed to negotiate a ceasefire on 7 January, and the IDF subsequently pulled out of Gaza. According to Morris, "the inequitable and unfair rules of engagement: the Arabs could launch offensives with impunity, but international interventions always hampered and restrained Israel's counterattacks."


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Negev
On 28 December, the Alexandroni Brigade failed to take the Falluja Pocket, but managed to seize Iraq el-Manshiyeh and temporarily hold it. The Egyptians counterattacked, but were mistaken for a friendly force and allowed to advance, trapping a large number of men. The Israelis lost 87 soldiers.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Negev
On 5 March, Operation Uvda was launched following nearly a month of reconnaissance, with the goal of securing the Southern Negev from Jordan. The IDF entered and secured the territory, but did not meet significant resistance along the way, as the area was already designated to be part of the Jewish state in the UN Partition Plan, and the operation meant to establish Israeli sovereignty over the territory rather than actually conquer it. The Golani, Negev, and Alexandroni brigades participated in the operation, together with some smaller units and with naval support.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Negev
On 10 March, Israeli forces secured the Southern Negev, reaching the southern tip of Palestine: Umm Rashrash on the Red Sea (where Eilat was built later) and taking it without a battle. Israeli soldiers raised a hand-made Israeli flag ("The Ink Flag") at 16:00 on 10 March, claiming Umm Rashrash for Israel. The raising of the Ink Flag is considered to be the end of the war.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Anglo-Israeli air clashes
As the fighting progressed and Israel mounted an incursion into the Sinai, the Royal Air Force began conducting almost daily reconnaissance missions over Israel and the Sinai. RAF reconnaissance aircraft took off from Egyptian airbases and sometimes flew alongside Royal Egyptian Air Force planes. High-flying British aircraft frequently flew over Haifa and Ramat David Airbase, and became known to the Israelis as the "shuftykeit."


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Anglo-Israeli air clashes
On 20 November 1948, an unarmed RAF photo-reconnaissance De Havilland Mosquito of No. 13 Squadron RAF was shot down by an Israeli Air Force P-51 Mustang flown by American volunteer Wayne Peake as it flew over the Galilee towards Hatzor Airbase. Peake opened fire with his cannons, causing a fire to break out in the port engine. The aircraft turned to sea and lowered its altitude, then exploded and crashed off Ashdod. The pilot and navigator were both killed.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Anglo-Israeli air clashes
Just before noon on 7 January 1949, four Spitfire FR18s from No. 208 Squadron RAF on a reconnaissance mission in the Deir al-Balah area flew over an Israeli convoy that had been attacked by five Egyptian Spitfires fifteen minutes earlier. The pilots had spotted smoking vehicles and were drawn to the scene out of curiosity. Two planes dived to below 500 feet altitude to take pictures of the convoy, while the remaining two covered them from 1,500 feet.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Anglo-Israeli air clashes
Israeli soldiers on the ground, alerted by the sound of the approaching Spitfires and fearing another Egyptian air attack, opened fire with machine guns. One Spitfire was shot down by a tank-mounted machine gun, while the other was lightly damaged and rapidly pulled up. The remaining three Spitfires were then attacked by patrolling IAF Spitfires flown by Chalmers Goodlin and John McElroy, volunteers from the United States and Canada respectively. All three Spitfires were shot down, and one pilot was killed.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Anglo-Israeli air clashes
Two pilots were captured by Israeli soldiers and taken to Tel Aviv for interrogation, and were later released. Another was rescued by Bedouins and handed over to the Egyptian Army, which turned him over to the RAF. Later that day, four RAF Spitfires from the same squadron escorted by seven Hawker Tempests from No. 213 Squadron RAF and eight from No. 6 Squadron RAF went searching for the lost planes, and were attacked by four IAF Spitfires. The Israeli formation was led by Ezer Weizman.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Anglo-Israeli air clashes
The remaining three were manned by Weizman's wingman Alex Jacobs and American volunteers Bill Schroeder and Caesar Dangott. The Tempests found they could not jettison their external fuel tanks, and some had non-operational guns. Schroeder shot down a British Tempest, killing pilot David Tattersfield, and Weizman severely damaged a British plane flown by Douglas Liquorish. Weizman's plane and two other British aircraft also suffered light damage during the engagement. During the battle, British Tempest pilots treated British Spitfires as potential Israeli aircraft until the British Spitfire pilots were told by radio to wiggle their wings to be more clearly identifiable. The engagement ended when the Israelis realised the danger of their situation and disengaged, returning to Hatzor Airbase.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Anglo-Israeli air clashes
Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion personally ordered the wrecks of the RAF fighters that had been shot down to be dragged into Israeli territory. Israeli troops subsequently visited the crash sites, removed various parts, and buried the other aircraft. However, the Israelis did not manage to conceal the wrecks in time to prevent British reconnaissance planes from photographing them. An RAF salvage team was deployed to recover the wrecks, entering Israeli territory during their search. Two were discovered inside Egypt, while Tattersfield's Tempest was found north of Nirim, 6 km (4 mi) inside Israel. Interviews with local Arabs confirmed that the Israelis had visited the crash sites to remove and bury the wrecks. Tattersfield was initially buried near the wreckage, but his body was later removed and reburied at the British War Cemetery in Ramla.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Anglo-Israeli air clashes
In response, the RAF readied all Tempests and Spitfires to attack any IAF aircraft they encountered and bomb IAF airfields. British troops in the Middle East were placed on high alert with all leave cancelled, and British citizens were advised to leave Israel. The Royal Navy was also placed on high alert.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Anglo-Israeli air clashes
At Hatzor Airbase, the general consensus among the pilots, most of whom had flown with or alongside the RAF during World War II, was that the RAF would not allow the loss of five aircraft and two pilots to go without retaliation, and would probably attack the base at dawn the next day. That night, in anticipation of an impending British attack, some pilots decided not to offer any resistance and left the base, while others prepared their Spitfires and were strapped into the cockpits at dawn, preparing to repel a retaliatory airstrike. However, despite pressure from the squadrons involved in the incidents, British commanders refused to authorise any retaliatory strikes.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, Anglo-Israeli air clashes
The day following the incident, British pilots were issued a directive to regard any Israeli aircraft infiltrating Egyptian or Jordanian airspace as hostile and to shoot them down, but were also ordered to avoid activity close to Israel's borders. Later in January 1949, the British managed to prevent the delivery of aviation spirit and other essential fuels to Israel in retaliation for the incident. The British Foreign Office presented the Israeli government with a demand for compensation over the loss of personnel and equipment.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Course of the war, Third phase: 15 October 1948 – 10 March 1949, UN Resolution 194
In December 1948, the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 194. It called to establish a UN Conciliation Commission to facilitate peace between Israel and Arab states. However, many of the resolution's articles were not fulfilled, since these were opposed by Israel, rejected by the Arab states, or were overshadowed by war as the 1948 conflict continued.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Weapons
Largely leftover World War II era weapons were used by both sides. Egypt had some British equipment; the Syrian army had some French. German, Czechoslovak and British equipment was used by Israel.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Aftermath, 1949 Armistice Agreements
In 1949, Israel signed separate armistices with Egypt on 24 February, Lebanon on 23 March, Transjordan on 3 April, and Syria on 20 July. The Armistice Demarcation Lines, as set by the agreements, saw the territory under Israeli control encompassing approximately three-quarters of the prior British administered Mandate as it stood after Transjordan's independence in 1946. Israel controlled territories of about one-third more than was allocated to the Jewish State under the UN partition proposal. After the armistices, Israel had control over 78% of the territory comprising former Mandatory Palestine or some 21,000 km2 (8,000 sq mi), including the entire Galilee and Jezreel Valley in the north, whole Negev in south, West Jerusalem and the coastal plain in the center.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Aftermath, 1949 Armistice Agreements
The armistice lines were known afterwards as the "Green Line". The Gaza Strip and the West Bank (including East Jerusalem) were occupied by Egypt and Transjordan respectively. The United Nations Truce Supervision Organization and Mixed Armistice Commissions were set up to monitor ceasefires, supervise the armistice agreements, to prevent isolated incidents from escalating, and assist other UN peacekeeping operations in the region.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Aftermath, 1949 Armistice Agreements
Just before the signing of the Israel-Transjordan armistice agreement, general Yigal Allon proposed a military offensive to conquer the West Bank up to the Jordan River as the natural, defensible border of the state. Ben-Gurion refused, although he was aware that the IDF was militarily strong enough to carry out the conquest. He feared the reaction of Western powers and wanted to maintain good relations with the United States and not to provoke the British. More, the results of the war were already satisfactory and Israeli leaders had to build a state.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Aftermath, Casualties
Israel lost 6,373 of its people, about 1% of its population at the time, in the war. About 4,000 were soldiers and the rest were civilians. Around 2,000 were Holocaust survivors.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Aftermath, Casualties
The exact number of Arab casualties is unknown. One estimate places the Arab death toll at 7,000, including 3,000 Palestinians, 2,000 Egyptians, 1,000 Jordanians, and 1,000 Syrians. In 1958, Palestinian historian Aref al-Aref calculated that the Arab armies' combined losses amounted to 3,700, with Egypt losing 961 regular and 200 irregular soldiers and Transjordan losing 362 regulars and 200 irregulars. According to Henry Laurens, the Palestinians suffered double the Jewish losses, with 13,000 dead, 1,953 of whom are known to have died in combat situations.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Aftermath, Casualties
Of the remainder, 4,004 remain nameless but the place, tally and date of their death is known, and a further 7,043, for whom only the place of death is known, not their identities nor the date of their death. According to Laurens, the largest part of Palestinian casualties consisted of non-combatants and corresponds to the successful operations of the Israelis.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Aftermath, Demographic outcome, Palestinian Arabs
During the 1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine and the 1948 Arab–Israeli War that followed, around 750,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes, out of approximately 1,200,000 Arabs living in former British Mandate of Palestine. In 1951, the UN Conciliation Commission for Palestine estimated that the number of Palestinian refugees displaced from Israel was 711,000.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Aftermath, Demographic outcome, Palestinian Arabs
This number did not include displaced Palestinians inside Israeli-held territory. More than 400 Arab villages, and about ten Jewish villages and neighbourhoods, were depopulated during the Arab–Israeli conflict, most of them during 1948. According to estimate based on earlier census, the total Muslim population in Palestine was 1,143,336 in 1947. The causes of the 1948 Palestinian exodus are a controversial topic among historians. After the war, around 156,000 Arabs remained in Israel and became Israeli citizens.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Aftermath, Demographic outcome, Palestinian Arabs
Displaced Palestinian Arabs, known as Palestinian refugees, were settled in Palestinian refugee camps throughout the Arab world. The United Nations established UNRWA as a relief and human development agency tasked with providing humanitarian assistance to Palestinian refugees. Arab nations refused to absorb Palestinian refugees, instead keeping them in refugee camps while insisting that they be allowed to return.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Aftermath, Demographic outcome, Palestinian Arabs
Refugee status was also passed on to their descendants, who were also largely denied citizenship in Arab states, except in Transjordan. The Arab League instructed its members to deny Palestinians citizenship "to avoid dissolution of their identity and protect their right of return to their homeland." More than 1.4 million Palestinians still live in 58 recognised refugee camps, while more than 5 million Palestinians live outside Israel and the Palestinian territories.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Aftermath, Demographic outcome, Palestinian Arabs
The Palestinian refugee problem and debate about the Palestinian right of return are also major issues of the Arab–Israeli conflict. Palestinians and their supporters have staged annual demonstrations and commemorations on 15 May of each year, which is known to them as "Nakba Day". The popularity and number of participants in these annual Nakba demonstrations has varied over time. During the Second Intifada after the failure of the Camp David 2000 Summit, the attendance at the demonstrations against Israel increased.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Aftermath, Demographic outcome, Jews
During the 1948 War, around 10,000 Jews were forced to evacuate their homes from Arab dominated parts of former Mandatory Palestine. But in the three years from May 1948 to the end of 1951, 700,000 Jews settled in Israel, mainly along the borders and in former Arab lands, doubling the Jewish population there. Of these, upwards of 300,000 arrived from Asian and North African states. Among them, the largest group (over 100,000) was from Iraq.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Aftermath, Demographic outcome, Jews
The remaining came mostly from Europe, including 136,000 from the 250,000 displaced Jews of World War II living in refugee camps and urban centers in Germany, Austria, and Italy, and more than 270,000 coming from Eastern Europe, mainly Romania and Poland (over 100,000 each). On the establishment of the state, a top priority was given to a policy for the "ingathering of exiles", and the Mossad LeAliyah Bet gave key assistance to the Jewish Agency to organise immigrants from Europe and the Middle East, and arrange for their transport to Israel. For Ben-Gurion, a fundamental defect of the State was that 'it lacked Jews'.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Aftermath, Demographic outcome, Jews
Jewish immigrants from Arab and Muslim countries left for numerous reasons. The war's outcome had exacerbated Arab hostilities to local Jewish communities. News of the victory aroused messianic expectations in Libya and Yemen; Zionism had taken root in many countries; active incentives for making aliyah formed a key part of Israeli policy; and better economic prospects and security were to be expected from a Jewish state. Some Arab governments, Egypt, for example, held their Jewish communities hostage at times. Persecution, political instability, and news of a number of violent pogroms also played a role. Some 800,000–1,000,000 Jews eventually left the Arab world over the next three decades as a result of these various factors. Approximately 680,000 of them immigrated to Israel; the rest mostly settled in Europe (mainly France) or the Americas.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Aftermath, Demographic outcome, Jews
Israel initially relied on Jewish Agency-run tent camps known as immigrant camps to accommodate displaced Jews from Europe and several Muslim-majority states. In the 1950s, these were transformed into transition camps ("Ma'abarot"), where living conditions were improved and tents were replaced with tin dwellings. Unlike the situation in the immigrant camps, when the Jewish Agency provided for immigrants, residents of the transition camps were required to provide for themselves. These camps began to decline in 1952, with the last one closing in 1963. The camps were largely transformed into permanent settlements known as development towns, while others were absorbed as neighbourhoods of the towns they were attached to, and the residents were given permanent housing in these towns and neighbourhoods.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Aftermath, Demographic outcome, Jews
Most development towns eventually grew into cities. Some Jewish immigrants were also given the vacant homes of Palestinian refugees. There were also attempts to settle Jewish refugees from Arab and Muslim countries in moshavim (cooperative farming villages), though these efforts were only partially successful, as they had historically been craftsmen and merchants in their home countries, and did not traditionally engage in farm work.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Historiography
After the war, Israeli and Palestinian historiographies differed on the interpretation of the events of 1948: in the West the majority view was of a tiny group of vastly outnumbered and ill-equipped Jews fighting off the massed strength of the invading Arab armies; it was also widely believed that the Palestinian Arabs left their homes on the instruction of their leaders.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, Historiography
From 1980, with the opening of the Israeli and British archives, some Israeli historians have developed a different account of the period. In particular, the role played by Abdullah I of Jordan, the British government, the Arab aims during the war, the balance of force and the events related to the Palestinian exodus have been nuanced or given new interpretations. Some of them are still hotly debated among historians and commentators of the conflict today.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, In popular culture
A 2015 PBS documentary, A Wing and a Prayer, depicts the Al Schwimmer-led airborne smuggling missions to arm Israel.


1948 Arab–Israeli War, In popular culture
The film Cast a Giant Shadow tells the story of an American colonel who was instrumental in the Israeli victory.


1948 Argentine Constituent Assembly election
Constituent Assembly elections were held in Argentina on 5 December 1948. Peronistas dominated the election, winning 66% of the vote. Voter turnout was 74%.


1948 Argentine Primera División
The 1948 Argentine Primera División was the 57th season of top-flight football in Argentina. The season began on April 18 and ended on December 12.


1948 Argentine Primera División
Gimnasia y Esgrima (LP) returned to Primera, while no teams were relegated. Independiente won its 5th title.


1948 Argentine legislative election
Argentina held legislative elections in 1948 were held on 7 March.


1948 Argentine legislative election, Background
Elected in early 1946 on a populist platform, President Juan Perón undertook a program of nationalization of strategic industries and services, as well as the vigorous support of demands for higher wages (led by the rapidly growing CGT labor union). He also took care to cultivate Church-state relations in Argentina, making religious instruction mandatory and regularly consulting the Archbishop of Buenos Aires, Cardinal Copello, on social policy.


1948 Argentine legislative election, Background
These moves and economic growth of nearly a fourth in his first two years led to a positive showing in legislative elections on March 7 - held only week after the nationalization of British railways in Argentina, and during Perón's appendectomy. Half the seats in the Lower House were renewed, and its makeup changed only somewhat in favor of Peronists.


1948 Argentine legislative election, Background
The opposition had dissolved their 1945 alliance, the Democratic Union; but they rallied behind and largely endorsed the only party significant enough to challenge Perón: the centrist Radical Civic Union (UCR). The president moved quickly to consolidate his political power, replacing the Labor Party that elected him with a Peronist Party, in 1947, and purging universities and the Supreme Court of opposition. The brazen moves were followed by the Peronists' introduction in Congress of a bill mandating an assembly for the replacement of the 1853 Constitution.


1948 Argentine legislative election, Background
Debate in Congress, where the UCR had retained a sizable minority, was heated throughout 1948, though the bill was approved by 96 out of 158 congressmen. The UCR itself was divided during the vote; a faction that had supported Perón (the "Renewal Group," led by Amadeo Sabattini) abstained in an attempt to deprive the vote of quorum, and ultimately broke with Perón.


1948 Argentine legislative election, Background
Elections for the 158 assemblymen were called for December 5. Results closely mirrored those of the legislative elections, though blank voting increased as a result of Congressman Sabattini's call. One Peronist assemblyman was elected as a "Labor Party" candidate, joining Sabattini's opposition to its redesignation as a "Peronist" party. UCR assemblymen, for their part, attended only the inaugural session to espress their opposition to the body's legality. The assembly concluded its proceeding on March 16, 1949, with a new constitution granting the president the right to seek reelection, depriving Congress of its right to override vetoes, enacting social guarantees, and enhancing the state's rights over natural resources - all designed to advance Perón's agenda at the time.


1948 Arizona State Sun Devils football team
The 1948 Arizona State Sun Devils football team was an American football team that represented Arizona State College (later renamed Arizona State University) in the Border Conference during the 1948 college football season. In their second season under head coach Ed Doherty, the Sun Devils compiled a 5–5 record (3–2 against Border opponents) and outscored their opponents by a combined total of 276 to 192.


1948 Arizona State–Flagstaff Lumberjacks football team
The 1948 Arizona State–Flagstaff Lumberjacks football team was an American football team that represented Arizona State Teachers College at Flagstaff (now known as Northern Arizona University) in the Border Conference during the 1948 college football season. In their second and final year under head coach Nick Ragus, the team compiled a 4–5 record (1–2 against conference opponents), was outscored by a total of 187 to 144, and finished in seventh place out of nine teams in the Border Conference. The team played its home games at Skidmore Field in Flagstaff, Arizona.


1948 Arizona Wildcats football team
The 1948 Arizona Wildcats football team represented the University of Arizona in the Border Conference during the 1948 college football season. In their eighth and final season under head coach Mike Casteel, the Wildcats compiled a 6–5 record (3–2 against Border opponents), finished in a tie for third place in the conference, lost to Drake in the 1949 Salad Bowl, and were outscored by their opponents, 246 to 167. The team captains were Harry Varner and Art Converse. The team played its home games in Arizona Stadium in Tucson, Arizona.


1948 Arizona gubernatorial election
The 1948 Arizona gubernatorial election took place on November 2, 1948. Following the death of Governor Sidney Preston Osborn while in office, Dan Edward Garvey, who was serving as Secretary of State of Arizona was ascended to the position of governor, and thus ran for a full term. Facing a crowded primary field, Garvey emerged successful as the Democratic party's nominee.


1948 Arizona gubernatorial election
Dan Edward Garvey was challenged by Republican Bruce Brockett in the general election, who had run in 1946 against Osborn, and had previously signaled a shift in voters becoming more Republican, outperforming their past electoral failures significantly. Despite this, Garvey was elected to a full term, and was sworn in on January 4, 1949.


1948 Arkansas Razorbacks football team
The 1948 Arkansas Razorbacks football team represented the University of Arkansas in the Southwest Conference (SWC) during the 1948 college football season. In their third year under head coach John Barnhill, the Razorbacks compiled a 5–5 record (2–4 against SWC opponents), finished in fifth place in the SWC, and outscored their opponents by a combined total of 227 to 136.


1948 Arkansas Razorbacks football team
For the first time since 1932, the Razorbacks did not travel to Skelly Stadium, and instead played Tulsa in the new War Memorial Stadium in Little Rock. Arkansas running back Clyde Scott was named a consensus All-American and led the team with 670 rushing yards on 95 carries (7.1 yards per carry). Gordon Long lead the Razorbacks in passing, completing 32 of 56 passes for 449 yards. Ross Pritchard led the team in receiving with 17 catches for 311 yards.


1948 Arkansas gubernatorial election
The 1948 Arkansas gubernatorial election was held on November 2, 1948.


1948 Arkansas gubernatorial election
Incumbent Democratic Governor Benjamin Travis Laney did not seek a third term.


1948 Arkansas gubernatorial election
Democratic nominee Sid McMath defeated Republican nominee Charles R. Black with 89.37% of the vote.


1948 Arkansas gubernatorial election, Democratic primary
The Democratic primary election was held on July 27, 1948, with the runoff held on August 10, 1948.


1948 Armagh by-election
The Armagh by-election was held on 5 March 1948, following the death of Ulster Unionist Party Member of Parliament William Allen.


1948 Armagh by-election
Allen had held the seat of Armagh since its recreation for the 1922 UK general election. He had often been elected without a contest; the last election at which he had faced an opponent was in 1935, where he had taken 67.6% of the vote against Charles McGleenan, an independent Irish republican candidate.


1948 Armagh by-election, Candidates
The Ulster Unionists selected James Harden, a former major in the British Army who had acted as senior liaison officer to Montgomery from early 1944. In 1947, he had left the Army to manage his family estate in County Antrim.


1948 Armagh by-election, Candidates
The Northern Ireland Labour Party had achieved some strong results in recent years, but had never stood in Armagh, and decided not to put forward a candidate for the by-election.


1948 Armagh by-election, Candidates
McGleenan was a founder member of the Irish Anti-Partition League, and the organisation decided to make Armagh its first contest. It stood James O'Reilly, a farmer and a Nationalist Party member of Kilkeel Rural District Council.


1948 Armagh by-election, Result
Harden won the by-election, taking 59.7% of the votes cast. O'Reilly took 40.3%, the best result for any opposition candidate in the constituency.


1948 Armagh by-election, Result
Geoffrey Bing stated in Parliament that impersonation took place at one polling station on "a really large scale", and that two election agents who arrived to investigate were attacked by a mob of two hundred people. Harden, in response, noted that O'Reilly had agreed with him that, despite some incidents at the close of polling, the election was fair, and that he had seconded his vote of thanks to the returning officer.


1948 Armagh by-election, Result
Harden held the seat without facing a further contest. He inherited a further estate in Pwllheli in 1954 and stood down as an MP, leading to the 1954 Armagh by-election.


1948 Army Cadets football team
The 1948 Army Cadets football team represented the United States Military Academy in the 1948 college football season. Led by head coach Earl Blaik, the Cadets offense scored 294 points while the defense allowed 89 points. At season’s end, Army was ranked sixth in the nation.


1948 Army Cadets football team, Coaching staff
Head coach Earl Blaik implemented a two-platoon system, using specialists strictly for offense and defense. Offensive coach Sid Gillman left Army after the season to become the head coach at the University of Cincinnati.


1948 Ashes series
The 1948 Ashes series was that year's edition of the long-standing cricket rivalry between England and Australia. Starting on 10 June 1948, England and Australia played five Tests. Australia had not lost a Test since the Second World War and were strong favourites. Their captain Don Bradman had publicly expressed his ambition of going through the tour without defeat, and Australia won 10 of their 12 lead-up matches, eight by an innings. The England team, however, had several notable players themselves, including Len Hutton, Denis Compton and Alec Bedser. Nevertheless, the final result was a 4–0 series win for Australia, with the Third Test being drawn. They thus retained The Ashes. The Australians remained undefeated for their entire tour of England, earning them the sobriquet of The Invincibles.


1948 Ashes series
The First Test set the trend for the series as England's batsmen struggled against the Australian pace attack and, despite attempting to stifle the Australian scoring with leg theory, fell to an eventual defeat. Failure to contain the Australian batsmen, particularly Bradman himself, plagued the English bowlers, while their batsmen were prone to struggling and collapsing on key occasions, with rain petering the Third Test into a draw.


1948 Ashes series
The series saw a number of notable cricketing feats, including a 301-run partnership between Bradman and Arthur Morris, aided by many dropped catches and missed stumpings, during the Fourth Test, and Australia's heaviest win of the series in the Fifth Test, where England were bowled out for 52 in half a day. Australia then made 389, with Bradman making a famous duck in his final innings. England were then bowled out for 188 to lose by an innings and 149 runs in less than three days' playing time.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
Since the Second World War, Australia had played 11 Tests and had been unbeaten. In early 1946, they defeated New Zealand in a one-off Test by an innings. The following season, in 1946–47, they won the five-Test series against England 3–0, and followed this with a 4–0 series win over India in the following season. Australia were regarded as an extremely strong team in the lead-up to the tour of England, and Bradman publicly expressed his desire to achieve the unprecedented feat of going through the five-month tour without defeat. Prior to the First Test, Australia had played 12 first-class matches, winning ten and drawing two. Eight of the victories were by an innings, and another was by eight wickets. One of the drawn matches, against Lancashire was rain-affected with the first day washed out entirely.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
It was thought that Bradman would play Ring, but he changed his mind on the first morning of the First Test when rain was forecast. Johnston was played in the hope of exploiting a wet wicket. Yardley won the toss and elected to bat. England lost leg spinner Wright before the match due to lumbago. The first innings of the First Test set the pattern of the series as the England top-order struggled against Australia's pace attack.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
Only twenty minutes of play was possible before the lunch break on the first day due to inclement weather, but it was enough for Miller to bowl Hutton with a faster ball. During the interval, heavy rain fell, making the ball skid through upon resumption. Washbrook was out after the luncheon interval, caught on the run by Brown at fine leg after attempting to hook Lindwall. At 15/2, Compton came to the crease, and together with Edrich, they took the score to 46 before left arm paceman Johnston bowled the latter.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
Two balls later, Johnston removed Hardstaff without scoring, caught by Miller in slips, an effort described by Wisden as "dazzling". Two runs later, Compton was bowled attempting a leg sweep from the bowling of Miller and half the English team were out with only 48 runs on the board. Lindwall was forced to leave the field mid-innings due to a groin injury and did not bowl again in the match.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
Johnston bowled Barnett for eight and when Evans and Yardley were both dismissed with the score on 74, England was facing the prospect of setting a new record for the lowest Test innings score at Trent Bridge, the current record being 112. Laker and Bedser, both from Surrey, scored more than half of England's total, adding 89 runs in only 73 minutes. Laker's innings was highlighted by hooking, while Bedser defended stoutly and drove in front of the wicket. Bedser was removed by Johnston and Miller had Laker caught behind two runs later, ending England's innings at 165. Laker top-scored with 63 in 101 minutes, with six boundaries. Johnston ended with 5/36, a display characterised with accuracy and variations in pace and swing. Miller took 3/38 and a catch.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
Australia had less than 15 minutes of batting before the scheduled close of play. Barnes made an unsuccessful appeal against the light after the first ball of the innings, which was a wide by Edrich. Morris and Barnes successfully negotiated the new ball by Edrich and Bedser to reach stumps with 17 without loss. Ideal batting conditions and clear weather greeted the players on the second day. Barnes and Morris took the score to 73 before Morris was bowled by Laker's off spin.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
Bradman came in and the score progressed to 121 when Barnes cut Laker onto the thigh of wicket-keeper Evans. The ball bounced away and the gloveman turned around and took a one-handed diving catch to dismiss Barnes for 62. Miller came in and was dismissed for a duck without further addition to Australia's total. He failed to pick Laker's arm ball, which went straight on, clipped the outside edge and was taken at slip by Edrich.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
Laker to this point had taken 3/22 from 12.4 overs. All the while, Australia had been scoring slowly, as they would throughout the day. Yardley set a defensive field, employing leg theory to slow the scoring. Brown came in at No. 5, but he had played most of his career as an opening batsman. Yardley took Laker out of the attack and took the second new ball. Bradman struck his first boundary in over 80 minutes but the run rate remained low.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
Australia passed England's total before Yardley brought himself on to bowl, trapping Brown leg before wicket in his first over. Hassett came in at 185/4 and Australia batted to stumps on the second day without further loss, ending at 293/4, a lead of 128. Bradman reached his 28th Test century in over 210 minutes, with the last 29 runs taking 70 minutes. It was one of his slower innings as Yardley focused on stopping runs rather than taking wickets.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
On the third morning, Bradman resumed on 130, before progressing to 132 and becoming the first player to pass 1,000 runs for the English season. His innings was soon terminated at 138 when he leg glanced an inswinger from Bedser to Hutton at short fine leg. Bradman had batted for 290 minutes and Johnson replaced him with Australia at 305/5. Johnson made 21 before being bowled by Laker, and Tallon took 39 minutes to compile 10 before hitting a return catch to the left arm orthodox spin of Young.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
The scoring was slow during this passage of play—Young delivered 11 consecutive maiden overs and his 26-over spell conceded only 14 runs. Lindwall came out to bat at 365/7 without a runner and he added 107 runs with Hassett for the eighth wicket. Hassett reached his century and proceeded to 137 in almost six hours of batting, striking 20 fours and a six. The partnership was terminated when Bedser struck Hassett's off stump.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
Lindwall was caught by Evans down the leg side four runs later, but Australia's last-wicket pair of Johnston and Toshack wagged a further 33 runs in only 18 minutes before Bedser trapped Toshack lbw to end the innings on 509, leaving the tourists with a 344-run lead. Australia had batted for 216.2 overs, the longest innings in terms of overs and the highest total in the series. Yardley placed the majority of the bowling load on his spinners, with Young (1/79) and Laker (4/138) bowling 60 and 55 overs respectively. Bedser bowled 44.2 overs, taking 3/113.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
At the start of England's second innings, Miller removed Washbrook for one from a top-edged hook shot. Edrich was then caught behind attempting a cut from the off spin of Johnson, leaving England 39/2. This brought together England's leading batsmen, Hutton and Compton, who took the score to 121 without further loss by stumps on the third day. Miller battled with Hutton and Compton through the afternoon, delivering five bouncers in the last over of the day. One of these struck Hutton high on his left arm. The batsmen survived, but Miller received a hostile reaction from the crowd.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
Nevertheless, the English had the better of the late afternoon period, scoring 82 runs together in 70 minutes, including one 14-run over bowled by Miller where Hutton struck consecutive boundaries. The third day was followed by a rest day on Sunday and play resumed on the fourth morning, a Monday. The Nottinghamshire County Cricket Club secretary, H. A. Brown, broadcast an appeal to the gallery to refrain from their heckling of Miller on the third day.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
Hutton resumed on 63 and he and Compton progressed before the light deteriorated. An unsuccessful appeal against the light was quickly followed by a thunderstorm, which stopped proceedings. Shortly after the resumption, Miller bowled Hutton with an off cutter in the dark conditions, ending a 111-run partnership at 150/3. The innings was then interrupted by poor light and upon the resumption, poor visibility intervened for a second time with Compton on 97. After 55 minutes of delay, the umpires called for the resumption.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
Wisden opined that "rarely can a Test Match have been played under such appalling conditions as on this day". Hardstaff supported Compton in a partnership of 93 before being removed by Toshack, and Barnett was removed by Johnston for six with the score having progressed a further 17 runs to 264/5. Compton brought up his third consecutive century at Trent Bridge, aided by a 57-run partnership with his captain before Johnston held a return catch to dismiss Yardley for 22. England reached stumps at 345/6, just one run ahead of Australia, with Compton on 154 and Evans on 10.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
Compton and Evans continued to resist the Australians on the final morning, which was briefly interrupted twice by rain. Miller bowled a fast bouncer at Compton, who moved into position to hook before changing his mind and attempting to evade the ball. He lost balance and fell onto his wicket. He was out hit wicket for 184. He had batted for 413 minutes and hit 19 fours. Wisden opined that "No praise could be too high for the manner in which Compton carried the side's responsibilities and defied a first-class attack in such trying circumstances".


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
Compton's fall at 405/7 exposed the bowlers and Australia quickly finished off the innings within half an hour. Miller bowled Laker, Evans reached 50 and was caught behind from Johnston, who then castled Young. England finished at 441 after 183 overs, leaving Australia a target of 98. Lindwall's absence meant that the remaining four frontline bowlers had to bowl more than 32 overs each—Johnston bowled 59 and ended with 4/147 while Miller took 4/125 from 44 overs.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, First Test, 10–15 June
Australia progressed steadily to 38 before Bedser bowled Morris for nine and then dismissed Bradman for a duck, again caught by Hutton at short fine leg. This left Australia 48/2. However, Hassett joined Barnes and they reached the target without further loss. Barnes ended on 64 with 11 boundaries, being prolific on the square cut. Barnes tied the scores with a boundary, but ran off the field with a souvenir stump believing that the match was over. He returned to the field when he noticed the crowd reaction and Hassett hit the winning run.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Second Test, 24–29 June
Australian retained the same XI from the First Test at Trent Bridge. On the other hand, England made three changes; the leg spinner Wright had regained fitness and replaced the left arm orthodox of Young, all rounder Coxon made his Test debut in place of Barnett and Dollery replaced Hardstaff as the No. 5. batsman. Hardstaff had scored a duck and 43 in the First Test, while Barnett managed only eight and six. Following his injury in the previous Test, Lindwall was subjected to a thorough fitness test on the first morning. Bradman was not convinced of Lindwall's fitness, but the bowler's protestations was sufficient to convince his captain to gamble on his inclusion. Australia won the toss and elected to bat, allowing Lindwall further time to recover before bowling. Miller played, but was unfit to bowl.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Second Test, 24–29 June
The debutant Coxon opened the bowling with Bedser and removed Barnes for a duck in his second over, caught by Hutton at short fine leg from a short delivery, leaving Australia 3/1. Morris and Bradman rebuilt the innings, taking the score to 87 before Bradman was caught for the third consecutive time by Hutton in the leg trap off Bedser. Hutton had dropped Bradman in the same position when the Australian captain was on 13.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Second Test, 24–29 June
In the meantime, Morris, after a slow start, made 105 runs out of a total of 166 scored while he was at the wicket, including 14 fours and one six. His innings was noted for powerful, well-placed cover drives. He was out after hitting Coxon to Hutton in the gully, leaving Australia at 166/3. Miller came in and Bedser bowled three consecutive outswingers to him. A fourth ball swung the other way, with Miller not offering a shot. He was given out leg before wicket for four.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Second Test, 24–29 June
Brown came in at 173/4 and helped Hassett to rebuild the innings after the two quick wickets of Morris and Miller. Both scored slowly, taking more than three and half minutes on average for each run. Hassett was dropped three times before Yardley bowled him and then trapped Brown lbw in the space of nine runs to leave Australia 225/6. Edrich had Johnson caught behind for four and England were well placed when Australia ended the day on 258/7.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Second Test, 24–29 June
Australia's lower order batted the tourists into control on the second morning. Despite the loss of Lindwall for 15 at 275/8, Tallon kept on batting, supported by Johnston and Toshack, who scored their highest Test scores. Australia's wicket-keeper put on 45 with Johnston—who scored 29— before becoming Bedser's second victim for the morning. Toshack then joined Johnston and the last pair put on 30 more runs before Johnston was stumped from Wright's leg spin. Yardley was later criticised for not bringing Wright into the attack at an earlier stage, as the Australian tail were dealing well with the English pacemen. Bedser was the most successful of the bowlers, ending with 4/100 from 43 overs, while debutant Coxon took 2/90 from 35 overs.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Second Test, 24–29 June
Lindwall took the new ball and felt pain in his groin again after delivering his first ball to Hutton. Despite this, Lindwall persevered through the pain. He had Washbrook caught behind for eight in his fourth over. Hutton then played outside a Johnson off break and was bowled for 20 to leave England at 32/2. Lindwall then clean bowled Edrich before doing the same to Dollery for a duck two balls later. England were 46/4 and Australia were firmly in control.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Second Test, 24–29 June
Compton was joined by his skipper Yardley and the pair rebuilt the innings, scoring 87 runs together in 100 minutes. After the tea break, Lindwall and Johnston returned with the new ball. Compton edged Johnston into the slips, where Miller took a low catch, dismissing him for 53. One run later, Lindwall clipped Yardley's off stump with the first ball of the over to leave England at 134/6 with their skipper dismissed for 44. Johnson then removed Evans for nine, before Coxon and Laker put on a 41-run stand for the eight wicket. After 85 minutes of resistance, Coxon hit a catch back to Johnson and Laker was caught behind from the same bowler, having already been dropped twice. England's last pair added ten runs to close at stumps on 9/207.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Second Test, 24–29 June
On the third morning, Bedser inside-edged a Lindwall bouncer onto his stumps, ending England's innings at 215, giving Australia a 135 first innings lead. Lindwall ended with 5/70. In later years, Bradman told Lindwall that he pretended not to notice Lindwall's pain. Lindwall was worried that Bradman had noticed his injury, but Bradman later claimed that he feigned ignorance to allow Lindwall to relax. The weather was fine as Australia started their second innings. Barnes survived a missed stumping opportunity when he was 18 and he took advantage to combine with Morris in an opening stand of 122.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Second Test, 24–29 June
Morris was then bowled for 62, knocking a ball from Wright onto his stumps. Bradman joined Barnes at the crease and they amassed 174 runs for the second wicket. Barnes started slowly, but he accelerated after reaching his half-century. Once he reached his century, Barnes became particularly aggressive. He dispatched one Laker over for 21 runs, included two successive blows over the boundary for six. He was finally removed for 141, caught on the boundary from Yardley. He had struck 14 boundaries and two sixes in his innings.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Second Test, 24–29 June
The speed of his batting had allowed Australia to be 296/2 after 277 minutes when he departed. Hassett was bowled first ball, so Miller came to the crease at 296/3 to face Yardley's hat-trick ball. Miller survived a loud leg before wicket appeal on the hat-trick ball. Bradman was on 89 and heading towards a century in his last Test innings at Lord's when he fell to Bedser again, this time because of a one-handed diving effort from Edrich at slip. Brown joined Miller at 329/4 and Australia reached stumps at 343, without further loss, with Miller having struck one six into the grandstand.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Second Test, 24–29 June
After the rest day, Australia resumed with a lead of 478 runs with six wickets in hand. The morning was punctuated by three rain stoppages. In 88 minutes of play, Australia added a further 117 runs. Brown was caught behind from Coxon for 32 after an 87-run partnership with Miller, bringing Lindwall to the crease. Miller's innings was noted for its driving and when he was out for 74, followed by Lindwall for 25, Bradman declared with Australia at 460/7, 595 runs ahead. It would take a world record chase from England to win the match. Yardley and Laker had been the only multiple wicket-takers, with two each.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Second Test, 24–29 June
Further showers breathed extra life into the pitch, and Lindwall and Johnston extracted steep bounce with the new ball, troubling the English batsmen. Miller dropped Hutton from Lindwall's bowling before he had scored and played and missed multiple times. Hutton and Washbrook took the score to 42, England's highest opening partnership of the series thus far, before Hutton edged Lindwall to Johnson and was out for 13. Edrich and Washbrook were then subjected to repeated short balls, before Toshack removed both in quick succession to leave England at 65/3. However, Compton and Dollery added 41 in the last 30 minutes to have England close at 106/3.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Second Test, 24–29 June
The final day started poorly for England, with Compton edging Johnston to a diving Miller at second slip from the second ball of the day. England had lost a wicket without adding to their overnight total. Yardley and Dollery took the score to 133 before Toshack bowled the former. He then trapped Coxon lbw two balls later in the same over. Eight runs later, Dollery shaped to duck a Lindwall bouncer, but it skidded through low and bowled him. Lindwall bowled Laker for a duck later in the same over to leave England at 141/8.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Second Test, 24–29 June
Evans continued to resist stubbornly, remaining 24 not out as England were bowled out for 186 to cede a 409-run victory. Toshack ended the innings with 5/40, while Lindwall and Johnston took three and two respectively. The gross attendance was 132,000 and receipts were £43,000 – a record for a Test in England.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Third Test, 8–13 July
When the teams reconvened at Old Trafford for the Third Test, Hutton had been dropped. The reason was said to be Hutton's struggles with Lindwall's short-pitched bowling. The omission generated considerable controversy. The Australians were pleased, feeling that Hutton was England's best batsman. Hutton's opening position was taken by debutant Emmett. England made three further changes. Young and Pollard replaced Wright and Laker in the bowling department, thereby reverting from two spinners to one.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Third Test, 8–13 July
Coxon, who made his debut in the previous match and opened the bowling, taking match figures of 3/172 and scoring 19 and a duck, was replaced by debutant batsman Crapp. Australia dropped Brown, who had scored 73 runs at 24.33 in three innings, with the all rounder Loxton. Yardley won the toss and elected to bat.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Third Test, 8–13 July
The change in England's opening pair did not result in an improvement on the scoreboard. A run out was narrowly avoided from the first ball, and Washbrook and Emmett appeared to be uncomfortable on a surface that offered early assistance to the bowlers. With 22 runs on the board, Johnston bowled Washbrook with a yorker, and six runs later, Emmett fended a rising ball from Lindwall to Barnes at short leg, leaving England 28/2. Edrich eschewed attacking strokeplay as he and Compton attempted to establish themselves. Lindwall bowled a series of short balls.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Third Test, 8–13 July
One hit Compton on the arm and the batsman attempted to hook another bouncer, but edged it into his face. This forced Compton to leave the field with a bloodied eyebrow with the score at 33/2. Edrich and Crapp then engaged in grim defensive batting, resulting in one 25-minute period where only one run was added. They reached lunch at 57/2. Upon the resumption, Crapp began to accelerate, hitting a six and three boundaries from Johnson. Australia took the new ball and Lindwall trapped Crapp lbw for 37.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Third Test, 8–13 July
Dollery took a single to get off the mark but then missed a yorker from Johnston and was bowled. England had lost two wickets for one run to be 97/4. After 170 minutes of slow batting, Edrich gloved a rising Lindwall delivery and was caught behind. At 119/5, Compton returned to the field, his wound having been stitched to stop the bleeding. Yardley fell to Toshack for 22 with the score at 141/6, bringing Evans to the crease. Compton combined with the gloveman to add 75 runs for the seventh wicket in 70 minutes, before Lindwall removed Evans to leave England 216/7.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Third Test, 8–13 July
England resumed on the second day at 231/7 and Australia was unable to break through with the new ball. Bedser stubbornly defied the Australians for 145 minutes, adding 37 and featuring in a 121-run partnership with Compton before he was run out. Soon after, Pollard pulled a ball from Johnson into the ribs of Barnes, who was standing at short leg. Barnes had to be carried from the ground by four policemen and taken to hospital for an examination. Toshack then bowled Pollard and Young was caught from Johnston's bowling as England were bowled out for 363. Compton was unbeaten on 145 in 324 minutes of batting, having struck 16 fours. Lindwall took 4/99 and Johnston 3/67. Miller did not bowl and the remaining four frontline bowlers sent down at least 38 overs each.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Third Test, 8–13 July
Having dropped Brown, Barnes's injury left Australia with only Morris as a specialist opener. Johnson was deployed as Australia's makeshift second opener. He was unable to make an impact, as Bedser removed him for one, and Pollard then trapped Bradman for seven to leave Australia at 13/2. Morris and Hassett rebuilt the innings, adding 69 for the third wicket in 101 minutes before Hassett was beaten in flight by Young and was caught by Washbrook. Miller joined Morris and they took the score to 126/3 at stumps.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Third Test, 8–13 July
Australia had added only nine runs on the third morning when Pollard trapped Miller for 31 with the new ball. Four runs later, Morris had reached 51 when Bedser removed him, leaving Australia 139/5. Barnes came out to bat at 135/4, despite having collapsed while practising in the nets due to the aftereffects of the blow to his chest. He made a painful single in 25 minutes of batting before it became too much and he had to be taken from the ground and sent to the hospital to be put under observation.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Third Test, 8–13 July
Tallon and Loxton added a further 43 before Tallon was caught behind from Edrich. Lindwall came into bat at 172/6 with Australia facing the prospect of the follow on. He then received five consecutive bouncers from Edrich, one of which hit him in the hand, evoking cheers from the home crowd. Loxton and Lindwall added a further 36 before the former was bowled by Pollard, leaving Australia 208/7, five runs behind the follow-on mark. Johnston helped Lindwall advance Australia beyond the follow on before Bedser removed both and Australia were bowled out for 221, giving England a lead of 142 runs. Bedser and Pollard were the most successful bowlers, taking 4/81 and 3/53 respectively.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Third Test, 8–13 July
Lindwall removed Emmett for a duck at the start of the second innings, bringing his tormentor Edrich to the crease. Bradman advised Lindwall not to bowl any bouncers at Edrich, fearing that it would be interpreted as retaliation and lead to a negative media and crowd reaction. However, Miller did retaliate with a series of bouncers, earning the ire of the crowd. He struck Edrich on the body before Bradman intervened and order him to stop. Edrich and Washbrook settled and put together a 124-run partnership in only 138 minutes.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Third Test, 8–13 July
This was aided by the Australian fielders, who twice dropped Washbrook at long leg and once in the slips cordon. Edrich struck eight boundaries and brought up his fifty with a six, but was immediately run out by Morris, who threw down the stumps from cover. Toshack removed Compton for a duck, leaving England at 125/3. Crapp joined Washbrook and helped see off the new ball, as England reached 174 at the close without further loss, with Washbrook unbeaten on 85.


1948 Ashes series, Match details, Third Test, 8–13 July
The rest day was followed by the fourth day, which was abandoned due to persistent rain. Yardley declared at the start of the fifth day, leaving Australia a victory target of 317, but the rain kept falling and the entire first session was lost. Young removed Johnson for six to leave Australia 10/1, but the tourists thereafter batted safely in a defensive manner to ensure a draw. They ended at 92/1 in 61 overs, a run rate of 1.50, which was the slowest innings run rate to date in the series. Morris finished unbeaten on 54, his fourth consecutive half-century of the Test series. The attendance of 133,740 exceeded the previous Test.