1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, Shitrit/Shertok intervention
Ben-Gurion passed the order to the IDF General Staff, who passed it to Dani HQ at 23:30 hours on 12 July, ten hours after the expulsion orders were issued; Morris writes that there was an ambiguity in the instruction that women, children and the sick were not to be forced to go: the word "lalechet" can mean either "go" or "walk". Satisfied that the order had been passed on, Shertok believed he had managed to avert the expulsions, not realizing that, even as he was discussing them in Tel Aviv, they had already begun.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, The departure
Thousands of Ramle residents began moving out of the town on foot, or in trucks and buses, between 10 and 12 July. The IDF used its own vehicles and confiscated Arab ones to move them. Morris writes that, by 13 July, the wishes of the IDF and those of the residents in Lydda had dovetailed.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, The departure
Over the past three days, the townspeople had undergone aerial bombardment, ground invasion, had seen grenades thrown into their homes and hundreds of residents killed, had been living under a curfew, had been abandoned by the Arab Legion, and the able-bodied men had been rounded up. Morris writes they had concluded that living under Israeli rule was not sustainable. Spiro Munayyer, an eyewitness, wrote that the important thing was to get out of the city.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, The departure
A deal was reached with an IDF intelligence officer, Shmarya Guttman, normally an archeologist, that the residents would leave in exchange for the release of the prisoners; according to Guttman, he went to the mosque himself and told the men they were free to join their families. Town criers and soldiers walked or drove around the town instructing residents where to gather for departure.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, The departure
Notwithstanding that an agreement may have been reached, Morris writes that the troops understood that what followed was an act of deportation, not a voluntary departure. While the residents were still in the town, IDF radio traffic had already started calling them "refugees" (plitim). Operation Dani HQ told the IDF General Staff/Operations at noon on 13 July that "[the troops in Lydda] are busy expelling the inhabitants [oskim begeirush hatoshavim]," and told the HQs of Kiryati, 8th and Yiftah brigades at the same time that, "enemy resistance in Ramle and Lydda has ended. The eviction [pinui]" of the inhabitants... has begun."


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, The march
Lydda's residents began moving out on the morning of 13 July. They were made to walk, perhaps because of their earlier resistance, or simply because there were no vehicles left. They walked six to seven kilometers to Beit Nabala, then 10–12 more to Barfiliya, along dusty roads in temperatures of 30–35°C, carrying their children and portable possessions in carts pulled by animals or on their backs. According to Shmarya Guttman, an IDF soldier, warning shots were occasionally fired. Some were stripped of their valuables en route by Israeli soldiers at checkpoints. Another IDF soldier described how possessions and people were slowly abandoned as the refugees grew tired or collapsed: "To begin with [jettisoning] utensils and furniture, and in the end, bodies of men, women, and children, scattered along the way."


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, The march
Haj As'ad Hassouneh, described by Saleh Abd al-Jawad as "a survivor of the death march", shared his recollection in 1996: "The Jews came and they called among the people: "You must go." "Where shall we go?" "Go to Barfilia." ... the spot you were standing on determined what if any family or possession you could get; any to the west of you could not be retrieved. You had to immediately begin walking and it had to be to the east. ... The people were fatigued even before they began their journey or could attempt to reach any destination.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, The march
No one knew where Barfilia was or its distance from Jordan. ... The people were also fasting due to Ramadan because they were people of serious belief. There was no water. People began to die of thirst. Some women died and their babies nursed from their dead bodies. Many of the elderly died on the way. ... Many buried their dead in the leaves of corn".


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, The march
After three days of walking, the refugees were picked up by the Arab Legion and driven to Ramallah. Reports vary regarding how many died. Many were elderly people and young children who died from the heat and exhaustion. Morris has written that it was a "handful and perhaps dozens." Glubb wrote that "nobody will ever know how many children died." Nimr al Khatib estimated that 335 died based on hearsay. Walid Khalidi gives a figure of 350, citing Palestinian historian Aref al-Aref. The expulsions clogged the roads eastward. Morris writes that IDF thinking was simple and cogent. They had just taken two major objectives and were out of steam. The Arab Legion had been expected to counter-attack, but the expulsions thwarted it: the roads were now cluttered, and the Legion was suddenly responsible for the welfare of an additional tens of thousands of people.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, Looting of refugees and the towns
The Sharett-Ben Gurion guidelines to the IDF had specified there was to be no robbery, but numerous sources spoke of widespread looting. The Economist wrote on 21 August that year: "The Arab refugees were systematically stripped of all their belongings before they were sent on their trek to the frontier. Household belongings, stores, clothing, all had to be left behind."


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, Looting of refugees and the towns
Aharon Cohen, director of Mapam's Arab Department, complained to Yigal Allon months after the deportations that troops had been told to remove jewellery and money from residents so that they would arrive at the Arab Legion without resources, thereby increasing the burden of looking after them. Allon replied that he knew of no such order, but conceded it as a possibility.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, Looting of refugees and the towns
George Habash, who later founded the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, was born in Lydda to a Greek Orthodox family. He was in his second year at medical school in Beirut at the time, but returned to Lydda when he heard the Israelis had arrived in Jaffa, and was subsequently one of those expelled.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, Looting of refugees and the towns
Recalling the events of 1948 in 1990, he said that the Israelis took watches, jewellery, gold, and wallets from the refugees, and that he witnessed a neighbour of his shot and killed because he refused to be searched; he said the man's sister, who also saw what happened, died during the march from the shock, exposure and thirst.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, Looting of refugees and the towns
As the residents left, the sacking of the cities began. The Yiftah brigade commander, Lt. Col. Schmuel "Mula" Cohen, wrote of Lydda that, "the cruelty of the war here reached its zenith." Bechor Sheetrit, the Minister for Minority Affairs, said the army removed 1,800 truckloads of property from Lydda alone. Dov Shafrir was appointed Israel's Custodian of Absentee Property, supposedly charged to protect and redistribute Palestinian property, but his staff were inexperienced and unable to control the situation.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, Looting of refugees and the towns
The looting was so extensive that the 3rd Battalion had to be withdrawn from Lydda during the night of 13–14 July, and sent for a day to Ben Shemen for kinus heshbon nefesh, a conference to encourage soul-searching. Cohen forced them to hand over their loot, which was thrown onto a bonfire and destroyed, but the situation continued when they returned to town. Some were later prosecuted.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, Looting of refugees and the towns
There were also allegations that Israeli soldiers had raped Palestinian women. Ben-Gurion referred to them in his diary entry for 15 July 1948: "The bitter question has arisen regarding acts of robbery and rape [o'nes ("אונס")] in the conquered towns ..." Israeli writer Amos Kenan, who served as a platoon commander of the 82d Regiment of the Israeli Army brigade that conquered Lydda told The Nation on 6 February 1989: "At night, those of us who couldn't restrain ourselves would go into the prison compounds to fuck Arab women.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, Looting of refugees and the towns
I want very much to assume, and perhaps even can, that those who couldn't restrain themselves did what they thought the Arabs would have done to them had they won the war." Kenan said he heard of only one woman who complained. A court-martial was arranged, he said, but in court, the accused ran the back of his hand across his throat, and the woman decided not to proceed. The allegations were given little consideration by the Israeli government.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, Looting of refugees and the towns
Agriculture Minister Aharon Zisling told the Cabinet on 21 July: "It has been said that there were cases of rape in Ramle. I could forgive acts of rape but I won't forgive other deeds, which appear to me much graver. When a town is entered and rings are forcibly removed from fingers and jewellery from necks—that is a very grave matter."


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Exodus, Looting of refugees and the towns
Stuart Cohen writes that central control over the Jewish fighters was weak. Only Yigal Allon, commander of the IDF, made it standard practice to issue written orders to commanders, including that violations of the laws of war would be punished. Otherwise, trust was placed, and sometimes misplaced, in what Cohen calls intuitive troop decency. He adds that, despite the alleged war crimes, the majority of the IDF behaved with decency and civility. Yitzhak Rabin wrote in his memoirs that some refused to take part in the evictions.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, In Ramallah, Amman, and elsewhere
Tens of thousands of Palestinians from Lydda and Ramle poured into Ramallah. For the most part, they had no money, property, food, or water, and represented a health risk, not only to themselves. The Ramallah city council asked King Abdullah to remove them. Some of the refugees reached Amman, the Gaza Strip, Lebanon, and the Upper Galilee, and all over the area there were angry demonstrations against Abdullah and the Arab Legion for their failure to defend the cities. People spat at Glubb, the British commander of the Arab Legion, as he drove through the West Bank, and wives and parents of Arab Legion soldiers tried to break into King Abdullah's palace. Alec Kirkbride, the British ambassador in Amman, described one protest in the city on 18 July:


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, In Ramallah, Amman, and elsewhere
A couple of thousand Palestinian men swept up the hill toward the main [palace] entrance ... screaming abuse and demanding that the lost towns should be reconquered at once ... The King appeared at the top of the main steps of the building; he was a short, dignified figure wearing white robes and headdress. He paused for a moment, surveying the seething mob before, [then walked] down the steps to push his way through the line of guardsmen into the thick of the demonstrators.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, In Ramallah, Amman, and elsewhere
He went up to a prominent individual, who was shouting at the top of his voice, and dealt him a violent blow to the side of the head with the flat of his hand. The recipient of the blow stopped yelling ... the King could be heard roaring: so, you want to fight the Jews, do you? Very well, there is a recruiting office for the army at the back of my house ... go there and enlist. The rest of you, get the hell down the hillside!" Most of the crowd got the hell down the hillside.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, In Ramallah, Amman, and elsewhere
Morris writes that, during a meeting in Amman on 12–13 July of the Political Committee of the Arab League, delegates—particularly from Syria and Iraq—accused Glubb of serving British, or even Jewish, interests, with his excuses about troop and ammunition shortages. Egyptian journalists said he had handed Lydda and Ramle to the Jews. Perie-Gordon, Britain's acting minister in Amman, told the Foreign Office there was a suspicion that Glubb, on behalf of the British government, had lost Lydda and Ramle deliberately to ensure that Transjordan accept a truce.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, In Ramallah, Amman, and elsewhere
King Abdullah indicated that he wanted Glubb to leave, without actually asking him to—particularly after Iraqi officers alleged that the entire Hashemite house was in the pay of the British—but London asked him to stay on. Britain's popularity with the Arabs reached an all-time low. The United Nations Security Council called for a ceasefire to begin no later than 18 July, with sanctions to be levelled against transgressors. The Arabs were outraged: "No justice, no logic, no equity, no understanding, but blind submission to everything that is Zionist," Al-Hayat responded, though Morris writes that cooler heads in the Arab world were privately pleased that they were required not to fight, given Israel's obvious military superiority.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, Situation of the refugees
Morris writes that the situation of the 400,000 Palestinian Arabs who became refugees that summer—not only those from Lydda and Ramle—was dire, camping in public buildings, abandoned barracks, and under trees. Count Folke Bernadotte, the United Nations mediator in Palestine, visited a refugee camp in Ramallah and said he had never seen a more ghastly sight. Morris writes that the Arab governments did little for them, and most of the aid that did reach them came from the West through the Red Cross and Quakers.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, Situation of the refugees
A new UN body was set up to get things moving, which in December 1949 became the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), which many of the refugees and their descendants, now standing at four million, still depend on. Bernadotte's mediation efforts—which resulted in a proposal to split Palestine between Israel and Jordan, and to hand Lydda and Ramle to King Abdullah—ended on 17 September 1948, when he was assassinated by four Israeli gunmen from Lehi, an extremist Zionist faction.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, Lausanne Conference
The United Nations convened the Lausanne Conference of 1949 from April to September 1949 in part to resolve the refugee question. On 12 May 1949, the conference achieved its only success when the parties signed the Lausanne Protocol on the framework for a comprehensive peace, which included territories, refugees, and Jerusalem. Israel agreed in principle to allow the return of all of Palestinian refugees because the Israelis wanted United Nations membership, which required the settlement of the refugee problem.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, Lausanne Conference
Once Israel was admitted to the UN, it retreated from the protocol it had signed, because it was completely satisfied with the status quo, and saw no need to make any concessions with regard to the refugees or on boundary questions. Israeli Foreign Minister Moshe Sharett had hoped for a comprehensive peace settlement at Lausanne, but he was no match for Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion, who saw the armistice agreements that stopped the fighting with the Arab states as sufficient, and put a low priority on a permanent peace treaty.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, Lausanne Conference
On 3 August 1949, the Israeli delegation proposed the repatriation of 100,000 refugees, but not to their former homes, which had been destroyed or given to Jewish refugees from Europe; Israel would specify where the refugees would be relocated and the specific economic activities the refugees would be permitted to engage in. Also, the 100,000 would include 25,000 who had already returned illegally, so the actual total was only 75,000. The Americans felt it too low: they wanted to see 200,000-250,000 refugees taken back. The Arabs considered the Israeli offer was "less than token." When the '100,000 plan' was announced, the reaction of Israeli newspapers and political parties was uniformly negative. Soon after, the Israelis announced their offer had been withdrawn.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, Resettlement of the cities
On 14 July 1948 the IDF told Ben-Gurion that "not one Arab inhabitant" remained in Ramla or Lod, as they were now called. In fact, several hundred remained, including city workers who maintained essential city services like water service, and workers with expertise with the railroad train yards and the airport, the elderly, the ill and some Christians, and others who return to their homes over the following months. In October 1948 the Israeli military governor of Ramla-Lod reported that 960 Palestinians were living in Ramla, and 1,030 in Lod. Military rule in the towns ended in April 1949.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, Resettlement of the cities
Nearly 700,000 Jews immigrated to Israel between May 1948 and December 1951 from Europe, Asia and Africa, doubling the state's Jewish population; in 1950 Israel passed the Law of Return, offering Jews automatic citizenship. The immigrants were assigned Palestinian homes—in part because of the inevitable housing shortage, but also as a matter of policy to make it harder for former residents to reclaim them—and could buy refugees' furniture from the Custodian for Absentees' Property.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, Resettlement of the cities
Jewish families were occasionally placed in houses belonging to Palestinians who still lived in Israel, the so-called "present absentees," regarded as physically present but legally absent, with no legal standing to reclaim their property. By March 1950 there were 8,600 Jews and 1,300 Palestinian Arabs living in Ramla, and 8,400 Jews and 1,000 Palestinians in Lod. Most of the Jews who settled in the towns were from Asia or North Africa.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, Resettlement of the cities
The Palestinian workers allowed to remain in the cities were confined to ghettos. The military administrator split the region into three zones—Ramla, Lod, and Rakevet, a neighbourhood in Lod established by the British for rail workers—and declared the Arab areas within them "closed," with each closed zone run by a committee of three to five members. Many of the town's essential workers were Palestinians.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, Resettlement of the cities
The military administrators did satisfy some of their needs, such as building a school, supplying medical aid, allocating them 50 dunams for growing vegetables, and renovating the interior of the Dahmash mosque, but it appears the refugees felt like prisoners; Palestinian train workers, for example, were subject to a curfew from evening until morning, with periodic searches to make sure they had no guns.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, Resettlement of the cities
One wrote an open letter in March 1949 to the Al Youm newspaper on behalf of 460 Muslim and Christian train workers: "Since the occupation, we continued to work and our salaries have still not been paid to this day. Then our work was taken from us and now we are unemployed. The curfew is still valid ... [ W]e are not allowed to go to Lod or Ramla, as we are prisoners. No one is allowed to look for a job but with the mediation of the members of the Local Committee ... we are like slaves. I am asking you to cancel the restrictions and to let us live freely in the state of Israel.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, Artistic reception
The Palestinian artist Ismail Shammout (1930–2006) was 19 years old when he was expelled from Lydda. He created a series of oil paintings about the march, the best known of which is Where to ...? (1953), which enjoys iconic status among Palestinians. A life-size image of a man dressed in rags holds a walking stick in one hand, the wrist of a child in the other, a toddler on his shoulder, with a third child behind him, crying and alone. There is a withered tree behind him, and in the distance the skyline of an Arab town with a minaret. Gannit Ankori writes that the absent mother is the lost homeland, the children its orphans.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, Artistic reception
By November 1948 the IDF had been accused of atrocities in a number of towns and villages, to the point where David Ben-Gurion had to appoint an investigator. Israeli poet Natan Alterman (1910–1970) wrote about the allegations in his poem Al Zot ("On This"), published in Davar on 19 November 1948, about a soldier on a jeep machine-gunning an Arab, referring to the events in Lydda, according to Morris. Two days later Ben-Gurion sought Alterman's permission for the Defence Ministry to distribute the poem throughout the IDF:


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, Artistic reception
Let us sing then also about "delicate incidents"For which the true name, incidentally, is murderLet songs be composed about conversations with sympathetic interlocutorswho with collusive chuckles make concessions and grant forgiveness.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, Four figures after the exodus
Yigal Allon, who led Operation Dani and may have ordered the expulsions, became Israel's deputy prime minister in 1967. He was a member of the war cabinet during the 1967 Arab Israeli Six-Day War, and the architect of the post-war Allon Plan, a proposal to end Israel's occupation of the West Bank. He died in 1980.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, Four figures after the exodus
Yitzhak Rabin, Allon's operations officer, who signed the Lydda expulsion order, became Chief of Staff of the IDF during the Six-Day War, and Israel's prime minister in 1974 and again in 1992. He was assassinated in 1995 by a right-wing Israeli radical opposed to making peace with the PLO.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, Four figures after the exodus
Khalil al-Wazir, the grocer's son expelled from Ramle, became one of the founders of Yasser Arafat's Fatah faction within the PLO, and specifically of its armed wing, Al-Assifa. He organised the PLO's guerrilla warfare and the Fatah youth movements that helped spark the First Intifada in 1987. He was assassinated by Israeli commandos in Tunis in 1988.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Aftermath, Four figures after the exodus
George Habash, the medical student expelled from Lydda, went on to lead one of the best-known of the Palestinian militant groups, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine. In September 1970 he masterminded the hijacking of four passenger jets bound for New York, an attack that put the Palestinian cause on the map. The PFLP was also behind the 1972 Lod Airport massacre, in which 27 people died, and the 1976 hijacking of an Air France flight to Entebbe, which famously led to the IDF's rescue of the hostages. Habash died of a heart attack in Amman in 2008.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Historiography
Benny Morris argues that Israeli historians from the 1950s throughout the 1970s—who wrote what he calls the "Old History"—were "less than honest" about what had happened in Lydda and Ramle. Anita Shapira calls them the Palmach generation: historians who had fought in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, and who thereafter went to work for the IDF's history branch, where they censored material other scholars had no access to.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Historiography
For them, Shapira writes, the Holocaust and the Second World War—including the experience of Jewish weakness in the face of persecution—made the fight for land between the Arabs and Jews a matter of life and death, the 1948 war the "tragic and heroic climax of all that had preceded it," and Israeli victory an "act of historical justice."


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Historiography
The IDF's official history of the 1948 war, Toldot Milhemet HaKomemiyut ("History of the War of Independence"), published in 1959, said that residents of Lydda had violated the terms of their surrender, and left because they were afraid of Israeli retribution. The head of the IDF history branch, Lt. Col Netanel Lorch, wrote in The Edge of the Sword (1961) that they had requested safe conduct from the IDF; American political scientist Ian Lustick writes that Lorch admitted in 1997 that he left his post because the censorship made it impossible to write good history. Another employee of the history branch, Lt. Col. Elhannan Orren, wrote a detailed history of Operation Dani in 1976 that made no mention of expulsions.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Historiography
Arab historians published accounts, including Aref al-Aref's Al Nakba, 1947–1952 (1956–1960), Muhammad Nimr al-Khatib's Min Athar al-Nakba (1951), and several papers by Walid Khalidi, but Morris writes that they suffered from a lack of archival material; Arab governments have been reluctant to open their archives, and the Israeli archives were at that point still closed. The first person in Israel to acknowledge the Lydda and Ramle expulsions, writes Morris, was Yitzhak Rabin in his 1979 memoirs, though that part of his manuscript was removed by government censors.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Historiography
The 30-year rule of Israel's Archives Law, passed in 1955, meant that hundreds of thousands of government documents were released throughout the 1980s, and a group calling itself the "New Historians" emerged, most of them born around 1948. They interpreted the history of the war, not in terms of European politics, the Holocaust, and Jewish history, but solely within the context of the Middle East.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Historiography
Shapira writes that they focused on the 700,000 Palestinian Arabs who were uprooted by the war, not on the 6,000 Jews who died during it, and assessed the behavior of the Jewish state as they would that of any other. Between 1987 and 1993, four of these historians in particular—Morris himself, Simha Flapan, Ilan Pappé, and Avi Shlaim—three of them Oxbridge-trained, published a series of books that changed the historiography of the Palestinian exodus. According to Lustick, although it was known in academic circles that the Palestinians had left because of expulsions and intimidation, it was largely unknown to Israeli Jews until Morris's The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949 appeared in 1987.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Historiography
Their work is not without its critics, most notably Israeli historian Efraim Karsh, who writes that there was more voluntary Palestinian flight than Morris and the others concede. He acknowledges that there were expulsions, particularly in Lydda, though he argues—as does Morris—that they resulted from decisions made in the heat of battle, and account for a small percentage of the overall exodus. Karsh argues that the New Historians have turned the story of the birth of Israel upside down, making victims of the Arab aggressors, though he acknowledges that the New History is now widely accepted.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Historiography
Ari Shavit devotes a chapter of his book My Promised Land (2013) to the expulsion, and calls the events "our black box, . . In it lies the dark secret of Zionism." The positions of Karsh and Morris, though they disagree, contrast in turn with those of Ilan Pappé and Walid Khalidi, who argue not only that there were widespread expulsions, but also that they were not the result of ad hoc decisions. Rather, they argue, the expulsions were part of a deliberate strategy, known as Plan Dalet and conceived before Israel's declaration of independence, to transfer the Arab population and seize their land—in Pappé's words, to ethnically cleanse the country.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Lod and Ramla today
As of 2013 around 69,000 people were living in Ramla, which became briefly known around the world in 1962, when former SS officer Adolf Eichmann was hanged in Ramla prison in May that year. The population in Lod as of 2010 was officially around 45,000 Jews and 20,000 Arabs; its main industry is its airport, renamed Ben Gurion International Airport in 1973.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Lod and Ramla today
Beth Israel immigrants from Ethiopia were housed there in the 1990s, increasing the ethnic tension in the city which, together with the economic deprivation, make the town "the most likely place to explode," according to Arnon Golan, Israeli's foremost expert on ethnically-mixed cities. In 2010 a three-meter-high wall was built to separate the Jewish and Arab neighbourhoods.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Lod and Ramla today
The Arab community has complained that, when Arabs became a majority in Lod's Ramat Eshkol suburb, the local school was closed rather than turned into an Arab-sector school, and in September 2008 it was re-opened as a yeshiva, a Jewish religious school. The local council acknowledges that it wants Lod to become a more Jewish city. In addition to the Arabs officially registered, a fifth of the overall population are Bedouin, who arrived in Lod in the 1980s when they were moved off land in the Negev, according to Nathan Jeffay. They live in dwellings deemed illegal by Israeli authorities on agricultural land, unregistered and with no municipal services.


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Lod and Ramla today
The refugees are occasionally able to visit their former homes. Zochrot, an Israeli group that researches former Palestinian towns, visited Lod in 2003 and 2005, erecting signs in Hebrew and Arabic depicting its history, including a sign on the wall of the former Arab ghetto. The visits are met with a mixture of interest and hostility. Father Oudeh Rantisi, a former mayor of Ramallah who was expelled from Lydda in 1948, visited his family's former home for the first time in 1967:


1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle, Lod and Ramla today
As the bus drew up in front of the house, I saw a young boy playing in the yard. I got off the bus and went over to him. "How long have you lived in this house?" I asked. "I was born here," he replied. "Me too," I said ...


1948 Pan-American Students Conference
The Pan-American Students Conference was a student conference held in Bogotá, Colombia, in April 1948. The conference was organized in opposition to the Pan-American Conference also held in Bogotá. The conference was attended by a young Fidel Castro.


1948 Pan-American Students Conference
On April 8 an organizational meeting in office of the Confederation of Workers of Colombia. A second meeting is claimed to have happened on April 9. Not long after that Gaitán was shot, leading to the Bogotazo.


1948 Panamanian general election
General elections were held in Panama on 27 May 1948, electing both a new President of the Republic and a new National Assembly.


1948 Panamanian general election
"For the 1948 campaign the reigning Liberal Doctrinaire Party chose 73-year-old Domingo Díaz Arosemena as its candidate. Arnulfo Arias Madrid rose from the political dead, dusted off his ‘panameñismo’ nationalism, and in an initial count by the National Elections Board apparently won the presidency by 1500 votes. Díaz supporters thereupon attacked the Board. At this point José Antonio Remón Cantera, head of the National Guard, took charge. Under his protection the Elections Board magically made enough of Arias’s votes disappear so Díaz became President".


1948 Panamanian general election, Aftermath
On 28 July 1949 the president Domingo Díaz Arosemena took a six month leave for health reasons. The First Vice-President Daniel Chanis Pinzón was sworn in as acting chief executive. Chanis became president following Arosemena's death on 23 August 1949.


1948 Panamanian general election, Aftermath
Daniel Chanis Pinzón's presidency came to an end on 20 November. Police Chief José Antonio Remón Cantera led a coup d'état in response to Chanis's refusal to overturn a Panama Supreme Court decision invalidating a contract between an abattoir that was "part of José Antonio Remón Cantera's business empire" and several powerful Panamanian families. Daniel Chanis Pinzón had asked for Remón's resignation previously, and, when Remón refused, tendered his own resignation in protest. Whether this resignation was voluntary or forced by Remón is unclear, although it would appear that foreign diplomatic pressure, not wanting to see full out bloodshed, encouraged the resignation.


1948 Panamanian general election, Aftermath
Daniel Chanis Pinzón was replaced by Second Vice-President, and Remón's cousin, Roberto Francisco Chiari Remón.


1948 Panamanian general election, Aftermath
But Roberto Chiari, lacked effective political support; after two days Chanis tried a comeback. He rescinded his resignation in the presence of the National Assembly, then led a hastily organized march on the palace to reclaim his job. Police turned the marchers back with tear gas and gunfire. Then the Supreme Court decided to review the constitutionality of the Chiari regime. That convinced Remón that he would have to try a third President. Even before the court spoke, the disgusted strong man cried: "If they want legality, I'll give them legality. I'll give them Arnulfo!".


1948 Panamanian general election, Aftermath
Arnulfo Arias Madrid  would have won the 1948 presidential elections if an electoral jury had not thrown out 2,714 of his ballots. When the Supreme Court declared ousted Daniel Chanis still the lawful President, Remón went straight to Arnulfo's Bella Vista home and invited the man he helped toss out in 1941 to take over at the palace. Quickly summoned crowds rushed to the Presidencia and roared approval as Remón, presenting the new President, shouted: "Arias is legality." Arnulfistas who had been dodging Remón's cops for years yelled: "Viva Remón!" Within hours, the electoral jury amiably announced that Arnulfo Arias had really won in 1948 after all, revising the totals to 74,080 for Arias and 71,536 for  Díaz.


1948 Panamanian general election, Aftermath
On 7 May 1951 the 1946 constitution was abrogated to make way for the return of the 1941 constitution, which gave the President broader powers and a longer term of office (six years instead of four)


1948 Panamanian general election, Aftermath
After suspending the 1946 constitution, Arnulfo Arias Madrid tried to destroy the National Assembly and Supreme Court. On 9 May the Assembly retaliated by impeaching him and electing the First Vice-President Alcibíades Arosemena as President. Arias asked Remón for protection. Concluding that Arias could no longer be trusted, Remón sided with the Assembly. But when Remón’s two top aides served the eviction notice on the President, Arias’s supporters killed both in cold blood. The Assembly brought Arias to trial, stripped him of all political rights, and sent him off into exile.


1948 Paraguayan Primera División season
The 1948 season of the Paraguayan Primera División, the top category of Paraguayan football, was played by 10 teams. The national champions were Olimpia.


1948 Paris–Brussels
The 1948 Paris–Brussels was the 34th edition of the Paris–Brussels, a classic one-day cycle race in France and Belgium. The single day event was held on 11 April 1948 and stretched 325 km (202 mi) from Paris to the finish in Brussels.


1948 Paris–Roubaix
The 1948 Paris–Roubaix was the 46th edition of the Paris–Roubaix, a classic one-day cycle race in France. The single day event was held on 4 April 1948 and stretched 246 km (153 mi) from Paris to the finish at Roubaix Velodrome. The winner was Rik Van Steenbergen from Belgium.


1948 Paris–Tours
The 1948 Paris–Tours was the 42nd edition of the Paris–Tours cycle race and was held on 25 April 1948. The race started in Paris and finished in Tours. The race was won by Louis Caput.


1948 Pau Grand Prix
The 1948 Pau Grand Prix was a non-championship Formula One motor race held on 29 March 1948 at the Pau circuit, in Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, France. The Grand Prix was won by Nello Pagani, for the second time running, driving the Maserati 4CL. Yves Giraud-Cabantous finished second and Charles Pozzi third.


1948 Penn Quakers football team
The 1948 Penn Quakers football team was an American football team that represented the University of Pennsylvania as an independent during the 1948 college football season. In its 11th season under head coach George Munger, the team compiled a 5–3 record and outscored opponents by a total of 169 to 117. The team won its first five games and was ranked No. 7 in the AP Poll before losing its last three games of the season and dropping out of the AP Poll. The team played its home games at Franklin Field in Philadelphia.


1948 Penn State Nittany Lions football team
The 1948 Penn State Nittany Lions football team represented the Pennsylvania State University in the 1948 college football season. The team was coached by Bob Higgins and played its home games in New Beaver Field in State College, Pennsylvania.


1948 Pepperdine Waves football team
The 1948 Pepperdine Waves football team represented George Pepperdine College as an independent during the 1948 college football season. The team was led by third-year head coach Warren Gaer. For the 1948 season only, the Waves played home games at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles. Pepperdine finished the season with a record of 4–5.


1948 Pepperdine Waves football team, Team players in the NFL
No Pepperdine Players were selected in the 1949 NFL Draft.


1948 Pepperdine Waves football team, Team players in the NFL
The following player finished his collegiate playing career in 1948 at Pepperdine. He had played in the NFL during World War II, at age 19, and prior to playing football at Pepperdine.


1948 Peruvian Primera División
The 1948 season of the Primera División Peruana, the top category of Peruvian football, was played by 9 teams. The national champions were Alianza Lima.


1948 Philadelphia Athletics season
The 1948 Philadelphia Athletics season involved the A's finishing fourth in the American League with a record of 84 wins and 70 losses.


1948 Philadelphia Athletics season, Player stats, Batting, Starters by position
Note: Pos = Position; G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in


1948 Philadelphia Athletics season, Player stats, Batting, Other batters
Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in


1948 Philadelphia Athletics season, Player stats, Pitching, Starting pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1948 Philadelphia Athletics season, Player stats, Pitching, Other pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1948 Philadelphia Athletics season, Player stats, Pitching, Relief pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1948 Philadelphia Eagles season
The 1948 Philadelphia Eagles season was the franchise's 16th season in the National Football League (NFL). The Eagles repeated as Eastern Division champions and returned to the NFL Championship game, this time defeating the Chicago Cardinals to win their first NFL title.


1948 Philadelphia Eagles season, Off season
The Eagles travel to New York State to hold training camp at Saranac Lake High School Field in Saranac Lake, New York, in northern New York State near Lake Placid and in the Adirondack Park. As of 2014 the building where the Eagles stayed is still a local landmark and is located on Lake Street in Saranac Lake and it is still called the Eagles Nest.


1948 Philadelphia Eagles season, Off season, NFL Draft
The 1948 NFL draft was held on December 19, 1947, five days after the end of the regular season, and nine days before the championship game was played. The Eagles finished the 1947 season with an 8–4 record. Tied with the Chicago Bears and Pittsburgh Steelers they picked 7th, 8th or 9th normally in the 32 rounds that they had picks.


1948 Philadelphia Eagles season, Off season, NFL Draft
The Washington Redskins had a lottery bonus pick at number one and chose Harry Gilmer, Back out of the University of Alabama. In the first round, the Eagles selected Clyde Scott, a running back from the University of Arkansas.


1948 Philadelphia Eagles season, Off season, NFL Draft
The Eagles' 26th round pick, Lou Creekmur, did not make the team but ended up becoming a Hall of Fame player for the Detroit Lions.


1948 Philadelphia Eagles season, Off season, NFL Draft
Many of the draft picks made by NFL teams ended up playing for teams in the rival All-America Football Conference (AAFC).


1948 Philadelphia Eagles season, Off season, Player selections
The table shows the Eagles selections and what picks they had that were traded away and the team that ended up with that pick. It is possible the Eagles' pick ended up with this team via another team that the Eagles made a trade with. Not shown are acquired picks that the Eagles traded away.


1948 Philadelphia Eagles season, Game recaps, Week 2
Played at Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum in Los Angeles, CA


1948 Philadelphia Eagles season, Game recaps, Week 8
For third time in the 1948 season, and the second time playing at Shibe Park, the Eagles win a game by the score of 45–0.


1948 Philadelphia Eagles season, Standings
Note: Tie games were not officially counted in the standings until 1972.


1948 Philadelphia Eagles season, Playoffs, NFL Championship Game
The NFL Championship game was played at Philadelphia's Shibe Park on December 19 during a blizzard. Thinking the game would not be played in the blizzard, Steve Van Buren remained home until Eagles coach Earle "Greasy" Neale called him and told him the game was still on. He had to catch 3 trolleys and walk 12 blocks in order to make the game on time.


1948 Philadelphia Eagles season, Playoffs, NFL Championship Game
The paid attendance for the game was 36,309 (28,864 actual), and it was scoreless until early in the fourth quarter. The Eagles recovered a fumble that set up Van Buren's five-yard touchdown at 1:05 into the fourth quarter. The Cardinals disputed that the ball or Van Buren had crossed the snow-covered goal line.


1948 Philadelphia Eagles season, Playoffs, NFL Championship Game
This was the Cardinals' last appearance in any NFL Championship game in the 20th century. There is said to be a curse on the football Cardinals that followed them from Chicago to St. Louis and on to Arizona.


1948 Philadelphia Eagles season, Roster
All time List of Philadelphia Eagles players in franchise history


1948 Philadelphia Eagles season, Postseason, NFL Championship Game recap
Played at Shibe Park in Philadelphia, PA Weather: Snow, Blizzard conditions


1948 Philadelphia Phillies season, Regular season
The 1948 season was the Phillies' 16th consecutive losing season. It was the major league record until the Pittsburgh Pirates broke it in 2009 with their 17th consecutive losing season.


1948 Philadelphia Phillies season, Player stats, Batting, Starters by position
Note: Pos = Position; G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in


1948 Philadelphia Phillies season, Player stats, Batting, Other batters
Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in


1948 Philadelphia Phillies season, Player stats, Pitching, Starting pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1948 Philadelphia Phillies season, Player stats, Pitching, Other pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1948 Philadelphia Phillies season, Player stats, Pitching, Relief pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1948 Pittsburgh Panthers football team
The 1948 Pittsburgh Panthers football team represented the University of Pittsburgh in the 1948 college football season. The team compiled a 6–3 record under head coach Mike Milligan.


1948 Pittsburgh Pirates season
The 1948 Pittsburgh Pirates season was the 67th season of the Pittsburgh Pirates franchise; the 62nd in the National League. The Pirates finished fourth in the league standings with a record of 83–71.


1948 Pittsburgh Pirates season, Player stats, Batting, Starters by position
Note: Pos = Position; G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in


1948 Pittsburgh Pirates season, Player stats, Batting, Other batters
Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in


1948 Pittsburgh Pirates season, Player stats, Pitching, Starting pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1948 Pittsburgh Pirates season, Player stats, Pitching, Other pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1948 Pittsburgh Pirates season, Player stats, Pitching, Relief pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1948 Pittsburgh Steelers season
The 1948 Pittsburgh Steelers season was the franchise's 16th season in the National Football League (NFL). The team finished the season with a record of 4–8, failing to qualify for the playoffs. This season marked the first played with John Michelosen as head coach.


1948 Pittsburgh Steelers season, Standings
Note: Tie games were not officially counted in the standings until 1972.


1948 Portland Pilots football team
The 1948 Portland Pilots football team was an American football team that represented the University of Portland as an independent during the 1948 college football season. In its third and final year under head coach Hal Moe, the team compiled a 2–5–1 record. The team played its home games at Multnomah Stadium in Portland, Oregon.


1948 Portland Pilots football team
Key players included quarterback Danny Christianson, left halback John Freeman, right halfback Larry Wissbaum, and ends Joe Marshello, Ray Utz, and Bill Connell.


1948 Primera División de Chile
The 1948 Campeonato Nacional de Fútbol Profesional was Chilean first tier’s 16th season. Audax Italiano were the champions, winning their third league title.


1948 Princeton Tigers football team
The 1948 Princeton Tigers football team was an American football team that represented Princeton University as an independent during the 1948 college football season. In its fourth season under head coach Charlie Caldwell, the team compiled a 4–4 record and outscored opponents by a total of 184 to 156. Princeton played its 1948 home games at Palmer Stadium in Princeton, New Jersey.


1948 Progressive Conservative leadership convention
The 1948 Progressive Conservative leadership election was held to choose a leader for the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada. The convention was held at the Ottawa Coliseum in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Voting occurred on October 2, 1948. Premier of Ontario George A. Drew was elected as the party's new leader.


1948 Progressive Conservative leadership convention, Background
John Bracken had been leader of the party since 1942 but did not enter parliament until the 1945 federal election in which the Liberal government was re-elected despite an increase in seats for the Progressive Conservatives. Unable to impress his leadership on the parliamentary party, which viewed him as an outsider, he was persuaded to step down as leader in 1948.


1948 Progressive Conservative leadership convention, Candidates
Grey North (Ontario) MP W. Garfield Case ended his candidacy before the convention to support Drew.


1948 Progressive Conservative leadership convention, Convention
Policies considered by delegates including tax relief, a ban on communist activities, abolishing an annual $2.50 radio licence fee, reducing the cost of government, strengthened defence, a long-term immigration policy, a national flag, and a national library.


1948 Progressive Conservative leadership convention, Convention
Drew's speech to delegates received more applause than Diefenbaker's. The Ontario premier called for stronger ties between Quebec and English Canada, warned against centralization of power in Ottawa and favoured personal initiative, saving, and security.


1948 Progressive Conservative leadership convention, Convention
Fleming warned of the "cancer of Communism in our midst (that) must be fought without quarter by every democratic weapon open to a free people" and accused the Liberals of surrendering to socialist economics. He argued that Quebec was essential for the party's success.


1948 Progressive Conservative leadership convention, Convention
Diefenbaker said the party needed more support from what he called the "forgotten man" arguing that "They want leadership that will assert that decent living cannot come from government handouts; they know that government cannot take the place of fundamental virtues of honest, thrift, hard work, tolerance and sympathy... I believe that progress can be achieved by free enterprise rather than through the muddling interference of bureaucrats."


1948 Progressive Conservative leadership convention, Results
Whereas the party's previous leadership conventions had for the most part been highly contested, few expected this convention to be anything other than a coronation for Drew, who many had identified as a potential national party leader after the popularity of his provincial government in Ontario helped the Tories to a major breakthrough in the province at the 1945 election. In the end, while Diefenbaker was able to attract some support from the west, Drew scored an overwhelming victory on the first ballot.


1948 Progressive Conservative leadership convention, Results
Wilfrid Garfield Case announced his candidacy but withdrew before the convention to support Drew.


1948 Progressive National Convention
The 1948 Progressive National Convention was held in Philadelphia from July 23–25, 1948. The convention ratified the candidacies of former Vice President Henry A. Wallace from Iowa for president and U.S. Senator Glen H. Taylor of Idaho for vice president. The Progressive Party's platform opposed the Cold War and emphasized foreign policy.


1948 Progressive National Convention, Background
Henry Wallace who formed the Progressive Party in 1948 was deemed one of the most liberal idealists in the Roosevelt administration. He was the secretary of agriculture before he served as FDR's vice president during his (1941–45) third term, but was dropped from the ticket for the 1944 election. He later became secretary of commerce under FDR. Roosevelt died during his fourth term and Vice President Harry S. Truman succeeded to the presidency. He further resented Truman after the President fired Wallace, who had been appointed as Secretary of Commerce, from his cabinet in 1946.


1948 Progressive National Convention, Background
In a speech, Wallace had broken with administration policy and became a public advocate for peaceful coexistence with the Soviet Union. Truman was unpopular in 1947, and some polls from the end of that year showed that Wallace had the support of more than 20% of the voters. Wallace started a left-wing independent candidacy under the name of the Progressive Party, named after two previous parties who used the name for the 1912 election and the 1924 election. He was supported by the American Labor Party, the Progressive Citizens of America, and other progressive groups in Illinois and California. Wallace would announce his candidacy in December 1947. The formal launch of the Progressive party was held in Philadelphia the following July.


1948 Progressive National Convention, Vice Presidential running mate
Wallace wanted a Senator to serve as his running mate, as he thought a Senator would add legitimacy and popular appeal to his fledgling party. After Florida Senator Claude Pepper declined Wallace's entreaties, Wallace approached Idaho Senator Glen H. Taylor about being his running mate. Taylor, a first term Democratic Senator, shared Wallace's concerns about Truman, but was worried about his own career. A former country music singer, Taylor did not have a lucrative career to fall back on, and took his time considering Wallace's offer. Finally, Taylor accepted Wallace's offer, motivated by fears about rising Cold War tensions. In February 1948, Wallace announced that Senator Taylor had agreed to become his running mate.


1948 Progressive National Convention, The convention
By the time of the Convention, the Wallace campaign had already peaked. Wallace's criticism of the Marshall Plan and "red baiting", had left Wallace and his supporters open to the charge of being "fellow travellers" if not being outright communists, a charge that was, for some at least, quite true.


1948 Progressive National Convention, The convention
The convention began on July 23, 1948, at the Municipal Auditorium. Among the delegates were such past and future luminaries as H.L. Menken, Norman Mailer, Norman Thomas, Pete Seeger and George McGovern. There were also numerous FBI agents. The first item on the agenda was to formally name the party the Progressives. Wallace and Taylor were nominated by acclamation.


1948 Progressive National Convention, The convention
Wallace and Taylor accepted their nominations at the Shibe Park baseball stadium.


1948 Progressive National Convention, The platform
The platform opposed the Cold War and emphasized foreign policy. They called for the end of the Marshall Plan, Truman Doctrine, and nuclear weapons. They promoted coexistence with the Soviets and support for Israel. In domestic policy, the party supported civil rights, worker's rights and women's rights.


1948 Progressive National Convention, Supporters
Underrepresented groups such as women, blacks, Hispanics, Jews, and youth were very active in the Progressive movement. The Communist Party was another supporter of the Progressive party. Wallace accepted the Communist Party's endorsement, characterizing his philosophy as "progressive capitalism". Their endorsement brought damage to the life of the party which was now portrayed as a left-wing front.


1948 Progressive National Convention, Election Outcome
Democratic President Harry S. Truman with running mate Alben Barkley defeated Republican candidate Governor Thomas E. Dewey and running mate Governor Earl Warren. Henry Wallace's Progressive Party received no electoral votes, but received 1,156,103 popular votes, coming in fourth place behind the States' Rights Democratic party, or the Dixiecrats.


1948 Puerto Rican general election
The 1948 Puerto Rican general elections were held in Puerto Rico on 2 November 1948, which included the first-ever elections for the position of governor, who had previously been appointed by the President of the United States. Luis Muñoz Marín of the Popular Democratic Party won the gubernatorial elections with 61.2% of the vote, becoming the first ever popularly elected governor of Puerto Rico.


1948 Purdue Boilermakers football team
The 1948 Purdue Boilermakers football team was an American football team that represented Purdue University during the 1948 Big Nine Conference football season. In their second season under head coach Stu Holcomb, the Boilermakers compiled a 3–6 record, finished in tie for fifth place in the Big Ten Conference with a 2–4 record against conference opponents, and were outscored by their opponents by a combined total of 175 to 126.


1948 Purdue Boilermakers football team
Notable players from the 1948 Purdue team included halfback Harry Szulborski and tackle Phil O'Reilly.


1948 Quebec general election
The 1948 Quebec general election was held on July 28, 1948, to elect members of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Quebec, Canada. The incumbent Union Nationale, led by Maurice Duplessis, won re-election, defeating the Quebec Liberal Party, led by Adélard Godbout.


1948 Quebec general election
This was the third time (and the second in a row) that Duplessis led his party to a general election victory.


1948 Quebec general election
It was Godbout's third (and final) loss to Duplessis in a general election, and the second in a row. He had won one victory against Duplessis years earlier in the 1939 election. In this election, the Liberals fared particularly poorly, reduced to only 8 seats, although their share of the popular vote was around 36%.


1948 Quebec general election, Results
* Information on party's actions in previous election not available.


1948 Quebec general election, Results
1 including results of Bloc Populaire and Co-operative Commonwealth Federation from previous election.


1948 Queensland railway strike
The 1948 Queensland railway strike was a strike which lasted nine weeks, from 3 February to 5 April 1948, over wages of workers at railway workshops and locomotive depots in Queensland, Australia.


1948 Queensland railway strike
As head of the Commonwealth Security Service in Queensland, Bob Wake played an active role in watching the activities of the Communist Party of Australia during the strike.


1948 Queensland railway strike, Background and causes of the strike
The main reason for the strike was the failure of the state Arbitration Court to hear claims the relevant unions lodged the previous year. In these claims the unions sought wages comparable to those covering railway workers in other states. The unions were also unhappy about the Court's apparent delay in hearing their further claim regarding weekend penalty rates, a claim which was linked to the 40-hour week campaign.


1948 Queensland railway strike, Background and causes of the strike
The demands of World War II left Queensland's railways rundown and badly in need of maintenance, but there was a shortage of materials and skilled workers to deal with the demand. Furthermore, because the Railways Department was unable to pay a competitive wage, they could not attract the number of workers they needed. Eventually, the Department contracted some of the work out to private firms, but this further insulted the unions and railway workers because the tradesmen employed by these private firms were being paid more than the Department's own employees.


1948 Queensland railway strike, Background and causes of the strike
These issues were inflamed by other issues Queensland was facing at the time: clothing, petrol and meat were still being rationed, while a severe drought had led to meat and milk shortages in Brisbane and a reduced sugar cane harvest in the North. In March 1947, the Commonwealth statistician reported that more than half the country's unemployed were in Queensland, and that this number was rising.


1948 Queensland railway strike, Background and causes of the strike
Amid this background, workshop and running shed tradesmen employed by the Queensland Railways Department officially stopped work at one minute past midnight on Tuesday 3 February 1948.


1948 Queensland railway strike, "St Patrick's Day Bash"
On 9 Mar 1948, the Queensland Parliament, led by Premier Ned Hanlon, passed the Industrial Law Amendment Act of 1948, which gave police extraordinary powers to arrest without warrant and enter any home without cause. The bill, described as “one of the most drastic bills ever brought before an Australian parliament”, was aimed at preventing picketing and ending the railway strike.


1948 Queensland railway strike, "St Patrick's Day Bash"
On St Patrick's Day (17 Mar), in response to the passing of this legislation, a group of men and women carrying banners, placards and a fake coffin proceeded down Edward St from Trades Hall towards Central Street Station in order to protest the law. Police soon closed in on the demonstrators, tore the placards from their grasp and attacked them with batons. Five men were arrested and two were hospitalized. One of the men who was hospitalized was Fred Paterson, Queensland Member of the Legislative Assembly for the seat of Bowen. Patterson's injuries included scalp lacerations, brain damage, concussion and shock. The incident was later known as the "St Patrick's Day Bash".


1948 Queensland railway strike, "St Patrick's Day Bash"
In the following days there was mass protest over the incident with thousands of union sympathizers gathering in King George Square, with other demonstrations held around the country.


1948 Queensland railway strike, "St Patrick's Day Bash"
In June of that year, the so called "Picket Law" was repealed.


1948 Queensland railway strike, End of strike and repercussions
On 1 April, following seven and a half hours of discussion, the Central Railway Disputes Committee recommended workers accept a wage rise of 12s.4d. a week, with proportionate increases for unskilled and semi-skilled workers. While this was less than the unions had originally requested, it was substantially more than the Department had originally offered. Following the recommendation of the Committee, the railwaymen accepted the government's offer, and the rail strike finally ended at midnight on 5 April 1948.


1948 Queensland railway strike, End of strike and repercussions
Queensland paid a heavy economic toll for the work stoppage, with estimates it cost the state up to £20 million.


1948 Queensland railway strike, End of strike and repercussions
The strike had a long-lasting impact on the Queensland labour movement, generating friction in the union ranks and exposing the struggle between the Communist Party of Australia and Queensland Labor for years to come.


1948 Railway Cup Hurling Championship
The 1948 Railway Cup Hurling Championship was the 22nd series of the inter-provincial hurling Railway Cup. Three matches were played between 15 February 1948 and 17 March 1948 to decide the title. It was contested by Connacht, Leinster, Munster and Ulster.


1948 Railway Cup Hurling Championship
Connacht entered the championship as the defending champions, however, they were defeated by Munster at the semi-final stage.


1948 Railway Cup Hurling Championship
On 17 March 1948, Munster won the Railway Cup after a 5-05 to 3-05 defeat of Leinster in the final at Croke Park, Dublin. It was their 16th Railway Cup title overall and their first Railway Cup title since 1946. The attendance of 37,103 set a new record for the Railway Cup finals.


1948 Railway Cup Hurling Championship
Leinster's Jackie Cahill (3-00) and Munster's Christy Ring (1-06) were the Railway Cup top scorers.


1948 Republican National Convention
The 1948 Republican National Convention was held at the Municipal Auditorium, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from June 21 to 25, 1948.


1948 Republican National Convention
New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey had paved the way to win the Republican presidential nomination in the primary elections, where he had beaten former Minnesota Governor Harold E. Stassen and World War II General Douglas MacArthur. In Philadelphia he was nominated on the third ballot over the opposition from die-hard conservative Ohio Senator Robert A. Taft, the future "minister of peace" Stassen, Michigan Senator Arthur Vandenberg, and California Governor Earl Warren. In all Republican conventions since 1948, the nominee has been selected on the first ballot. Warren was nominated for vice president.


1948 Republican National Convention
The Republican ticket of Dewey and Warren surprisingly went on to lose the general election to the Democratic ticket of Harry S. Truman and Alben W. Barkley. One of the decisive factors in convening both major party conventions in Philadelphia that year was that Philadelphia was hooked up to the coaxial cable, giving the ability for two of the three then young television networks, NBC and CBS, to telecast for the first time live gavel to gavel coverage along the East Coast. Only a few minutes of kinescope film have survived of these historic, live television broadcasts.


1948 Republican National Convention, Platform
The party platform formally adopted at the convention included the following points:


1948 Republican National Convention, Balloting
As of 2020, this was the last Republican Convention to go past the first ballot.


1948 Republican National Convention, Vice Presidential nomination
Dewey had a long list of potential running mates, including his 1944 running mate, Senator John Bricker of Ohio, Representative Charles Halleck of Indiana, former Governor Harold Stassen of Minnesota, and California Governor Earl Warren.


1948 Republican National Convention, Vice Presidential nomination
The Dewey–Warren ticket was the last to consist of two current or former state Governors until 2016, when former governors Gary Johnson and Bill Weld ran on the Libertarian Party ticket.


1948 Republican Party presidential primaries
From March 9 to June 1, 1948, voters of the Republican Party chose its nominee for president in the 1948 United States presidential election. The nominee was selected through a series of primary elections and caucuses culminating in the 1948 Republican National Convention held from June 21 to June 25, 1948, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, with New York Governor, Thomas E. Dewey being nominated for president and California Governor, Earl Warren being nominated for Vice President. Dewey and Warren went on to lose the general election to the Democratic Party's ticket of incumbent President Harry S. Truman and Kentucky senator Alben W. Barkley


1948 Republican Party presidential primaries, Candidates
Both the Republican Party and the Democratic Party courted Dwight D. Eisenhower, the most popular United States general of World War II. Eisenhower's political views were unknown in 1948. He was, later events would prove, a moderate Republican, but in 1948 he flatly refused the nomination of any political party.


1948 Republican Party presidential primaries, Candidates
With Eisenhower refusing to run, the contest for the Republican nomination was between New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey, former Minnesota Governor Harold Stassen, General Douglas MacArthur, Ohio Senator Robert A. Taft and California Governor Earl Warren. Governor Dewey, who had been the Republican nominee in 1944, was regarded as the frontrunner when the primaries began. Dewey was the acknowledged leader of the GOP's powerful eastern establishment; in 1946 he had been re-elected Governor of New York by the largest margin in state history.


1948 Republican Party presidential primaries, Candidates
Dewey's handicap was that many Republicans disliked him; he often struck observers as cold, stiff and condescending. Senator Taft was the leader of the GOP's conservative wing. He opened his campaign in 1947 by attacking the Democratic Party's domestic policy and foreign policy. In foreign policy, Taft was a non-interventionist who opposed many of the alliances the U.S. government had made with other nations to fight the Cold War with the Soviet Union; he believed that the nation should concentrate on its own problems and avoid "imperial entanglements".


1948 Republican Party presidential primaries, Candidates
On domestic issues, Taft and his fellow conservatives wanted to abolish many of the New Deal social welfare programs that had been created in the 1930s; they regarded these programs as too expensive and harmful to business interests. Taft had two major weaknesses: he was seen as a plodding, dull campaigner, and he was viewed by most party leaders as being too conservative and controversial to win a presidential election. Taft's support was limited to his native Midwestern United States and parts of the Southern United States.


1948 Republican Party presidential primaries, Candidates
The "surprise" candidate of 1948 was Stassen, the former "boy wonder" of Minnesota politics. Stassen had been elected governor of Minnesota at the age of 31; he resigned as governor in 1943 and served in the United States Navy in World War II. In 1945 he had served on the committee which created the United Nations. Stassen was widely regarded as the most "liberal" of the Republican candidates, yet as the primaries continued he was criticized for being vague on many issues.


1948 Republican Party presidential primaries, Candidates
The following political leaders were candidates for the 1948 Republican presidential nomination:


1948 Republican Party presidential primaries, Candidates, Major candidates
These candidates participated in multiple state primaries or were included in multiple major national polls.


1948 Republican Party presidential primaries, Candidates, Major candidates, Bypassing primaries
The following candidates did not actively campaign for any state's presidential primary, but may have had their name placed on the ballot by supporters or may have sought to influence to selection of un-elected delegates or sought the support of uncommitted delegates.


1948 Republican Party presidential primaries, Candidates, Favorite sons
The following candidates ran only in their home state's primary or caucus for the purpose of controlling its delegate slate at the convention and did not appear to be considered national candidates by the media.


1948 Republican Party presidential primaries, Primary campaign
Stassen stunned Dewey in the Wisconsin and Nebraska primaries, thus making him the frontrunner. He then made the mistake of trying to beat Senator Taft in Taft's home state of Ohio; Taft defeated Stassen on his home turf and Stassen earned the animosity of the party's conservatives. Even so, Stassen was still leading Dewey in the polls for the upcoming Oregon primary. However, Dewey, who realized that a defeat in Oregon would end his chances at the nomination, sent his powerful political organization into the state.


1948 Republican Party presidential primaries, Primary campaign
Stassen also agreed to debate Dewey in Oregon on national radio – it was the first-ever radio debate between presidential candidates. The sole issue of the debate concerned whether to outlaw the Communist Party in the United States. Stassen, despite his liberal reputation, argued in favor of outlawing the party, while Dewey forcefully argued against it; at one point he famously stated that "you can't shoot an idea with a gun". Most observers rated Dewey as the winner of the debate, and a few days later Dewey defeated Stassen in Oregon. From that point forward, the New York governor had the momentum he needed to win his party's second nomination.


1948 Republican Party presidential primaries, Convention
The 1948 Republican National Convention was held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was the first presidential convention to be shown on television. As the convention opened, Dewey was seen as having a large lead in the delegate count. His major opponents – Taft, Stassen, and Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg of Michigan – met in Taft's hotel suite to plan a "stop-Dewey" movement. However, a key obstacle soon developed when the three men refused to unite behind a single candidate to oppose Dewey.


1948 Republican Party presidential primaries, Convention
Instead, all three men simply agreed to try to hold their own delegates in the hopes of preventing Dewey from obtaining a majority. This proved to be futile, as Dewey's efficient campaign team gathered up the delegates they needed to win the nomination. After the second round of balloting, Dewey was only 33 votes short of victory. Taft then called Stassen and urged him to withdraw from the race and endorse him as Dewey's main opponent.


1948 Republican Party presidential primaries, Convention
When Stassen refused, Taft wrote a concession speech and had it read at the start of the third ballot; Dewey was then nominated by acclamation. Dewey then chose popular Governor Earl Warren of California as his running mate. Following the convention, most political experts in the news media rated the GOP ticket as an almost-certain winner over the Democrats.


1948 Republican Party vice presidential candidate selection
This article lists those who were potential candidates for the Republican nomination for Vice President of the United States in the 1948 election. After New York Governor Thomas Dewey secured the Republican presidential nomination on the third ballot of the 1948 Republican National Convention, the convention needed to choose Dewey's running mate. Dewey and several party leaders discussed Dewey's running mate during the evening of June 24. House Majority Leader Charles A. Halleck and former Minnesota Governor Harold Stassen were both considered, but Dewey ultimately decided to ask California Governor Earl Warren to be his running mate.


1948 Republican Party vice presidential candidate selection
Warren had earlier said that he would not accept the vice presidential nomination, and asked for time to consider the offer. In the meantime, Stassen was offered the nomination if Warren declined. However, Dewey convinced the reluctant Warren to join his ticket. Halleck alleged that he had been promised the vice presidency in exchange for supporting Dewey, but Halleck's isolationism convinced Dewey and others to pass him over. The Dewey-Warren ticket was well-received by the press, as it combined the youthful, popular governors of two of the three most populous states in the nation. Despite being favored by most, the Dewey-Warren ticket lost the 1948 election to the Democratic Truman-Barkley ticket. In 1953, Warren was appointed Chief Justice of the United States by President Dwight D. Eisenhower.


1948 Rhode Island State Rams football team
The 1948 Rhode Island Rams football team was an American football team that represented Rhode Island State College (later renamed the University of Rhode Island) as a member of the Yankee Conference during the 1948 college football season. In its fourth season under head coach Bill Beck, the team compiled a 2–4–1 record (1–3 against conference opponents) and finished in last place in the conference. The team played its home games at Meade Stadium in Kingston, Rhode Island.


1948 Rhode Island gubernatorial election
The 1948 Rhode Island gubernatorial election was held on November 2, 1948. Incumbent Democrat John Pastore defeated Republican nominee Albert P. Ruerat with 61.15% of the vote.


1948 Rice Owls football team
The 1948 Rice Owls football team represented Rice University during the 1948 college football season. The Owls were led by ninth-year head coach Jess Neely and played their home games at Rice Field in Houston, Texas. Rice competed as a member of the Southwest Conference, finishing tied for third.


1948 Roller Hockey World Cup
The 1948 Roller Hockey World Cup was the fourth roller hockey world cup, organized by the Fédération Internationale de Patinage a Roulettes (now under the name of Fédération Internationale de Roller Sports). It was contested by 9 national teams (8 from Europe and 1 from Africa) and it is also considered the 1948 European Roller Hockey Championship (despite the presence of Egypt) and the 1948 Montreux Nations Cup. All the games were played in the city of Montreux, in Switzerland, the chosen city to host the World Cup.


1948 Romanian legislative election
Parliamentary elections were held in Romania on 28 March 1948. They were the first elections held by the Romanian People's Republic, proclaimed by the Communist-dominated legislature after King Michael abdicated in December 1947.


1948 Romanian legislative election
With all meaningful opposition having been eliminated, the People's Democratic Front, dominated by the Communist Romanian Workers Party (PMR) received 93.2% of the vote and won 405 of the 414 seats in the Great National Assembly. Within the Front, the PMR and its allies won a total of 201 seats, seven short of a majority in its own right. Rump Liberal and Peasant parties appeared on the ballot, between them receiving 3.5 percent of the vote and winning nine seats.


1948 Romanian legislative election, Background
In 1945, the Soviet Union all but forced King Michael to appoint Petru Groza as Prime Minister. Soviet emissary Andrei Vyshinsky had warned the king that he would be placing Romania's very existence at risk unless he complied. The following year, Groza's pro-Communist government oversaw an election that resulted in a legislature in which the Communist-dominated Bloc of Democratic Parties won over four-fifths of the seats (over 91 percent counting the BPD's allies). The election was far from free; Communist unions hindered delivery of opposition newspapers, and Communist operatives harassed opposition workers.


1948 Romanian legislative election, Background
Over the next two years, the Communists, with Groza's help, consolidated their hold on the country. The turning point came in the second half of 1947, when the government initiated a campaign of harsh repression against the remaining opposition parties. The National Peasants' Party and National Liberal Party, the two largest opposition parties, were dissolved by the government. The National Peasants' leaders, Iuliu Maniu and Ion Mihalache, were tried on charges of plotting to overthrow the government in the Tămădău Affair, and were both sentenced to life imprisonment.


1948 Romanian legislative election, Background
On 30 December, Groza and Communist leader Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej confronted Michael and forced his abdication. Michael and his personal counselor would later claim this was done with the help of a detachment of troops from the pro-Communist Tudor Vladimirescu Division. Hours later, the Communist-dominated legislature abolished the monarchy and proclaimed Romania a "people's republic".


1948 Romanian legislative election, Background
A month before the elections, the Communists and part of the Social Democrats merged to form the Romanian Workers' Party (PMR). However, Communists retained key posts in the new party, and used the principle of democratic centralism to ensure that the Social Democratic part of the new party complied with the new order. The Social Democratic half was gradually pushed out altogether, leaving the PMR as the PCR under a new name. At the same time, the National Democratic Front, an electoral alliance dominated by the PMR, was reorganized as the People's Democratic Front.


1948 Romanian legislative election, Background
The Front rapidly took on a character similar to other "national fronts" in the emerging Soviet bloc. The front's minor parties became completely subservient to the PMR, and had to accept the PMR's "leading role" as a condition of their continued existence. Despite this, Groza, leader of one of those minor parties, the Ploughmen's Front, remained prime minister.


1948 Romanian legislative election, Aftermath
A month after the elections, the legislature, now a pliant rubber stamp of the Communists, adopted a new constitution. While all power was nominally derived from the will of the people through the GNA, in practice power was exercised by the PMR, which itself was closely supervised by the Kremlin. Soon afterwards, all parties outside the People's Democratic Front ceased to exist, though Romania had effectively been a single-party state since the monarchy was abolished in December.


1948 Rose Bowl
The 1948 Rose Bowl was the 34th edition of the college football bowl game, played at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California on Thursday, January 1. The second-ranked and undefeated Michigan Wolverines of the Big Nine Conference routed the #8 USC Trojans, champions of the Pacific Coast Conference, 49–0.


1948 Rose Bowl
It was the second year of the initial five-year agreement between the conferences to match their champions each New Year's Day in Pasadena. Michigan halfback Bob Chappuis was named the  Player of the Game when the award was created in 1953 and selections were made retroactively.


1948 Rose Bowl
Michigan tied the record for the most points scored by a team in the Rose Bowl, first set by the 1901 Wolverines in the first Rose Bowl and later matched by USC in 2008. Oregon supplanted the record in 2015. Michigan also tied the game's record for largest margin of victory also set by the 1901 Michigan team that defeated Stanford by an identical 49–0 score. The record of seven PATs converted by Michigan kicker Jim Brieske remains unbroken, but was tied in 2008 by USC's David Buehler.


1948 Rose Bowl
The game was aired by local station KTLA in the first telecast of a bowl game in the Greater Los Angeles Area. It was also the first time a U.S. motion picture newsreel was taken in color. In a special unofficial AP Poll following the game, Michigan replaced Notre Dame as the 1947 national champion by a vote of 226 to 119.


1948 Rose Bowl, Teams, USC Trojans
In October, USC tied Rice 7–7 and defeated #4 California 39–14 in Berkeley. The Trojans' rivalry matchup with defending PCC champion UCLA saw USC win 6–0. The game against Notre Dame had 104,953 on hand, the highest attendance for a football game in the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, to see 7–0–1 Rose Bowl-bound USC fall to the 8–0 Fighting Irish, 38–7. USC dropped from third to eighth in the final AP Poll in early December, and Notre Dame did not play in a bowl.


1948 Rose Bowl, Teams, Michigan Wolverines
The 1947 Wolverines, known as the "Mad Magicians," won the Big Nine title on the strength of strong offense and defense. They shut out four opponents, including Ohio State, 21–0. Their close game was a 14–7 win at #11 Illinois, the reigning Big Nine and Rose Bowl champion.


1948 Rose Bowl, Game summary
Bob Chappuis and Bump Elliott were the stars for the Wolverines. Jack Weisenburger scored three touchdowns. Nine Rose Bowl records were set.


1948 Rose Bowl, Aftermath
The final regular season AP Poll, taken before the bowls, had Notre Dame #1 (107 first place votes) and Michigan #2 (25 first place votes). Notre Dame did not play in a bowl game. After urging from Detroit Free Press sports editor Lyall Smith, the Associated Press conducted its first ever post-bowl poll; Michigan won that unofficial final poll,  266–119.


1948 Rose Bowl, Aftermath
The Wolverines continued their winning streak through the next season, winning all nine games. Because of the no-repeat rule for the Rose Bowl, runner-up Northwestern represented the Big Nine in the 1949 Rose Bowl. Michigan's 1,788 passing yards in 1947 was a school record that stood for 32 years, until 1979.


1948 Rose Bowl, Legacy
In Super Bowl LIV, the Kansas City Chiefs offense lined up for a 4th & 1 conversion attempt during the first quarter. The offense attempted a running back direct snap, converting the run for a first down. After the game, Chiefs' offensive coordinator Eric Bieniemy told the media he discovered the trick play from watching Michigan run the play on the goal line in the 1948 Rose Bowl, adding it to the team's repertoire. Kansas City went on to win the game. The play was even named shift right to Rose Bowl parade.


1948 Roussillon Grand Prix
Results from the III Grand Prix du Roussillon held at Circuit des platanes de Perpignan on April 25, 1948, as Formula Two. The Grand Prix is raced in 40 laps with the best drivers from the two 27 laps heats.


1948 Rural West by-election
A by-election was held in the Rural West constituency of the Legislative Council of Singapore on 16 October 1948. Independent candidate Balwant Singh Bajaj was elected with 55.5% of the vote, taking his seat on 19 October.


1948 Rural West by-election, Background
General elections for the Legislative Council had been held in March 1948. However, Srish Chandra Goho, who was elected in the Rural West constituency died on 24 July. A writ for a by-election was issued on 12 August, and nominations were required by 3 September.


1948 Rural West by-election, Campaign
The Progressive Party nominated Cheong Hock Chye, who had run as an independent in the Rural East constituency in the general elections earlier in the year. Cheong faced two independents, one of which had presented his nomination at the last minute.


1948 Rutgers Queensmen football team
The 1948 Rutgers Queensmen football team represented Rutgers University in the 1948 college football season. In their seventh season under head coach Harvey Harman, the Queensmen compiled a 7–2 record, won the Middle Three Conference championship, and outscored their opponents 224 to 130.


1948 Rutgers Queensmen football team
On October 16, 1948, Rutgers defeated Princeton, 22-6, in front of a crowd of 41,000 at Palmer Stadium in Princeton, New Jersey. This was the first Rutgers victory at Princeton in 79 years of play between the two schools, ending what the Associated Press called "the oldest jinx in intercollegiate football history."


1948 SANFL Grand Final
The 1948 SANFL Grand Final was an Australian rules football competition. Norwood beat West Adelaide 106 to 49.


1948 SANFL season
The 1948 South Australian National Football League season was the 69th season of the top-level Australian rules football competition in South Australia.


1948 SMU Mustangs football team
The 1948 SMU Mustangs football team represented the SMU Mustangs of Southern Methodist University during the 1948 college football season. Doak Walker was a junior when he won the Heisman Trophy. Doak established several other Southwest Conference records that still stand.


1948 Sabena DC-4 Crash
The 1948 Sabena DC-4 Crash was the crash of a Douglas DC-4-1009 of the Belgian airline Sabena, 27 km south of Libenge, Belgian Congo, on 12 May 1948. It was the deadliest accident for Sabena at the time and the second of three deadly Sabena crashes in 1948. It was also the deadliest in Belgian Congo before the country's independence as the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1960. Of the 32 people on board 31 were killed, leaving only one survivor.


1948 Sabena DC-4 Crash, Aircraft
The DC-4-1009 involved was built in 1946 and bought new from Douglas with serial number 42932 and registration OO-CBE and was used by the Belgian airline company Sabena from 17 April 1946 until its destruction in 1948. The aircraft was mostly used in Belgian Congo and carried Regent Prince Charles of Belgium back to Belgium on 13 August 1947 after his official visit to Congo.


1948 Sabena DC-4 Crash, Crash
The Sabena flight departed from Léopoldville-N'Djili Airport en route to Libenge Airport with 25 passengers and seven crew members on board.


1948 Sabena DC-4 Crash, Probable cause
While above the Congo rainforest, 27 km south of Libenge, at an altitude of 700 feet (210 m), the aircraft probably penetrated a very turbulent line of clouds or flew the aircraft into the active centre of a tornado at a low altitude. The aircraft was probably then forced to the ground by a downward gust.


1948 Sabena DC-4 Crash, Probable cause
The aircraft hit the tree-tops and left a 200 m (660 ft) trail through the forest until it finally crashed, killing all seven crew members and 24 of the 25 passengers. The sole survivor was an Egyptian man.


1948 Sabena DC-4 Crash, Aftermath
The wreck was located the following day and the injured sole survivor was rescued. Rescuers searched for more survivors, but it quickly became clear that their efforts were in vain. This crash was the second deadly crash of three involving a Sabena aircraft in 1948, making 1948 the deadliest year in Sabena's history.


1948 Saint Louis Billikens football team
The 1948 Saint Louis Billikens football team was an American football team that represented Saint Louis University as a member of the Missouri Valley Conference (MVC) during the 1948 college football season. In its first season under head coach Joe Maniaci, the team compiled a 4–7 record (0–2 against MVC opponents), finished in last place in the conference, and was outscored by a total of 258 to 139. The team played its home games at Walsh Stadium in St. Louis.


1948 Saint Mary's Gaels football team
The 1948 Saint Mary's Gaels football team was an American football team that represented Saint Mary's College of California during the 1948 college football season. In their first season under head coach Joe Verducci, the Gaels compiled a 4–6 record and were outscored by opponents by a combined total of 161 to 150.


1948 Salad Bowl
The 1948 Salad Bowl was a postseason American college football bowl game between the Nevada Wolf Pack and the North Texas State Eagles at Montgomery Stadium in Phoenix, Arizona, on January 1, 1948. The game marked the first bowl game for each school.


1948 Salad Bowl
It was the 1st edition of the annual Salad Bowl. North Texas represented the Lone Star Conference in the contest, while Nevada competed as an Independent. In a defensive struggle, Nevada would earn their first bowl win with a 13–6 victory.


1948 Salad Bowl, Organization of the game
The Salad Bowl began  as the idea of Herb Askins, a prominent businessman in the Phoenix area and the president of the Phoenix Kiwanis Club. The game was intended to serve as a community-minded fund raiser with all proceeds going to local charities that helped handicapped children. Although the seeds for the Salad Bowl were planted in Askin's mind prior to World War II, the game would not come to fruition until 1948.


1948 Salad Bowl, Organization of the game
The site of the game was Montgomery Stadium at Phoenix Union High School. Arizona State College's Goodwin Stadium was entertained as a possible site of the game although it was ultimately rejected as Montgomery had a seating capacity of 23,000 as opposed to Goodwin's 15,000.


1948 Salad Bowl, Background
The Eagles entered its first bowl game with a 10–1 record and the Lone Star Conference championship in hand. The 1947 team was dominant, holding 5 opponents scoreless and 10 to a touchdown or less. The Eagles' lone loss was a 12–0 defeat against Arkansas in Little Rock which was followed by a victory in Gainesville against Florida.


1948 Salad Bowl, Background
The Nevada Wolf Pack also entered its first bowl game with an 8–2 record. The Wolfpack was led by All-American and Heisman Finalist Stan Heath. Nevada originally accepted its invitation to the salad bowl however, weeks prior to the game, the team voted not to participate in the game. Nevada ultimately attended after the threat of lawsuit.


1948 Salad Bowl, Game summary
North Texas scored first before Nevada added a pair of touchdowns, with the second one coming late in the fourth quarter. A missed extra point kept North Texas within a touchdown, but a final drive stalled at the Nevada 28 when a likely game–winning score was dropped in the end zone. All players received a wristwatch after the game as a token of appreciation.


1948 Salta earthquake
The 1948 Salta earthquake took place in the Argentinian province of Salta on 25 August at 03:09:28 local time The shock was 7.0 on the moment magnitude scale and had a maximum Mercalli Intensity of IX (Violent). Property damage and casualties occurred in several towns in the east and southeast of Salta, and also in northern Tucumán and Jujuy, affecting the capitals of both. It was the last major earthquake recorded in the Argentine Northwest until the 2010 Salta earthquake.


1948 San Diego State Aztecs football team
The 1948 San Diego State Aztecs football team represented San Diego State College during the 1948 college football season.


1948 San Diego State Aztecs football team
San Diego State competed in the California Collegiate Athletic Association (CCAA). The team was led by second-year head coach Bill Schutte, and played home games at both Aztec Bowl and Balboa Stadium. They finished the season with four wins and seven losses (4–7, 1–4 CCAA). Overall, the team was outscored by its opponents 158–190 for the season.


1948 San Diego State Aztecs football team, Team players in the NFL
No San Diego State players were selected in the 1949 NFL Draft.


1948 San Francisco 49ers season
The 1948 AAFC season 49ers began their third season in the AAFC, hoping to improve upon their 8–4–2 output from the previous season. They began the season 10–0, and finished 12–2, both losses coming to eventual season champions, the Cleveland Browns.


1948 San Francisco 49ers season
The 49ers' offense was historically prolific: they scored 495 points in 1948 (averaging over 35 points per game), which was more than 100 points more than the next best output (389 points by the Browns). Despite their 12–2 record, the 49ers did not qualify for the playoffs, due to the Browns 14–0 record.


1948 San Francisco 49ers season
The 1948 49ers had a record-setting rushing attack: the team rushed for a staggering 3,653 yards in only fourteen games, a professional football record that still stands.


1948 San Francisco 49ers season
The team's statistical leaders included Frankie Albert with 1,990 passing yards, Johnny Strzykalski with 915 rushing yards, and Alyn Beals with 591 receiving yards and 84 points scored.


1948 San Francisco Dons football team
The 1948 San Francisco Dons football team was an American football team that represented the University of San Francisco as an independent during the 1948 college football season. In their first season under head coach Joe Kuharich, the Dons compiled a 2–7 record and were outscored by their opponents by a combined total of 216 to 123.


1948 San Francisco State Gators football team
The 1948 San Francisco State Gators football team represented San Francisco State College during the 1948 college football season.


1948 San Francisco State Gators football team
San Francisco State competed in the Far Western Conference (FWC). The Gators were led by head coach Dick Boyle. Boyle was in the third year of his second stint as head coach of the team. They played home games at Cox Stadium in San Francisco, California. The team finished the regular season with a record of three wins and four losses (3–4, 2–2 FWC).


1948 San Francisco State Gators football team
At the end of the season, the Gators were invited to participate in the second annual Fruit Bowl. It was held on December 5, 1948, and was the first inter-racial bowl game played in the United States. San Francisco State lost to Southwestern Athletic Conference (SWAC) champion Southern by a score of 0–30. That brought their final record to three wins and five losses (3–5, 2–2 FWC). For the season the team was outscored by its opponents 63–137.


1948 San Francisco State Gators football team, Team players in the NFL
No San Francisco State players were selected in the 1949 NFL Draft.


1948 San Jose State Spartans football team
The 1948 San Jose State Spartans football team represented San Jose State College during the 1948 college football season.


1948 San Jose State Spartans football team
San Jose State competed in the California Collegiate Athletic Association. The team was led by head coach Wilbur V. Hubbard, in his third year, and played home games at Spartan Stadium in San Jose, California. They finished the season as champion of the CCAA with a record of nine wins and three losses (9–3, 5–0 CCAA).


1948 San Jose State Spartans football team, Team players in the NFL
The following San Jose State players were selected in the 1949 NFL Draft.


1948 San Remo Grand Prix
The 1948 San Remo Grand Prix was a non-Championship Voiturette motor race held on 27 June 1948 at the Autodromo di Ospedaletti, in Sanremo, Liguria, Italy. It was the 8th race of the 1948 Grand Prix season. The race, contested over 85 laps, was won by Alberto Ascari in a Maserati 4CLT/48, starting from pole position. Luigi Villoresi finished second also in a Maserati 4CLT/48 and Clemar Bucci third, driving a Maserati 4CL 1502.


1948 Santa Barbara Gauchos football team
The 1948 UC Santa Barbara Gauchos football team represented Santa Barbara College during the 1948 college football season.


1948 Santa Barbara Gauchos football team
Santa Barbara competed in the California Collegiate Athletic Association (CCAA). The team was led by fourth-year head coach Stan Williamson and played home games at La Playa Stadium in Santa Barbara, California. They finished the season with a record of six wins and five losses (6–5, 2–3 CCAA). At the end of the season, the Gauchos played in the first Potato Bowl, in Bakersfield, California.


1948 Santa Barbara Gauchos football team, Team players in the NFL
No Santa Barbara Gaucho players were selected in the 1949 NFL Draft.


1948 Santa Barbara Gauchos football team, Team players in the NFL
The following finished their Santa Barbara Gauchos career in 1948, were not drafted, but played in the NFL.


1948 Santa Clara Broncos football team
The 1948 Santa Clara Broncos football team was an American football team that represented Santa Clara University during the 1948 college football season. In their third season under head coach Len Casanova, the Broncos compiled a 7–2–1 record and outscored their opponents by a combined total of 228 to 153.


1948 Santos FC season
The 1948 season was the thirty-seventh season for Santos FC.


1948 Saskatchewan general election
The 1948 Saskatchewan general election was held on June 24, 1948, to elect members of the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan.


1948 Saskatchewan general election
The Co-operative Commonwealth Federation government of Premier Tommy Douglas was re-elected with a reduced majority in the legislature.


1948 Saskatchewan general election
Although the share of the popular vote won by the Liberal Party of Walter Tucker fell by almost five percentage points, the party increased its representation in the legislature from 5 seats to 19.


1948 Saskatchewan general election
The Social Credit Party of Saskatchewan, which had won 2 seats and 16% of the popular vote in the 1938 election – only to disappear in the 1944 election – returned to win over 8% of the vote, but no seats.


1948 Saskatchewan general election
The Progressive Conservative Party – now led by Rupert Ramsay – continued to decline, and was also shut out of the legislature.