1938 World Series, Matchups, Game 4
In the bottom of the second, the Yankees struck for three runs. Hoag reached on Hack's throwing error from the hot corner, and advanced to third on a Gordon single. Ruffing helped his own cause by singling in Hoag, and Crosetti's triple to left scored Gordon and Ruffing. The Cubs broke the shutout with a Billy Jurges fielder's choice scoring Demaree, but in the sixth the Bombers got the run back with Henrich's solo homer off veteran Cub reliever Charlie Root.


1938 World Series, Matchups, Game 4
In the top of the eighth, the Cubs cut the New York lead to one with a Ken O'Dea home run scoring Cavarretta ahead of him. But in the bottom half, the Yankees broke the game open with a four-run outburst off four Cub pitchers—Vance Page, Larry French, Tex Carleton and Dean. Crosetti drove in two with a double off Dean, giving him four RBI for the game and six for the Series. As in Game 1, Ruffing went the distance, allowing two earned runs and eight hits with six strikeouts.


1938 World Series, Matchups, Game 4
This was the last World Series game ever played by Yankee first baseman Lou Gehrig. He had one hit in four at-bats. Defensively he had five putouts and two assists.


1938 World Series, Composite line score
1938 World Series (4–0): New York Yankees (A.L.) over Chicago Cubs (N.L.)


1938 World Series, Umpires
Umpires Cal Hubbard and Lou Kolls were selected from the American League while Charley Moran and Ziggy Sears were chosen from the National League by Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis.


1938 World Snooker Championship
The 1938 World Snooker Championship was a snooker tournament held from 14 March to 9 April 1938 at Thurston's Hall in London, England. It was the twelfth edition of the World Snooker Championship. Joe Davis won his twelfth championship title by defeating Sidney Smith by 37 frames to 24 in the final, after securing a winning margin at 31–23. The highest break of the tournament was 104, compiled by Davis in the sixth frame of his semi-final match against Willie Smith. It was the only century break during the event.


1938 World Snooker Championship
There were ten entrants to the competition, three of whom took part in a qualification event from which Fred Davis emerged to join the other seven players in the main draw. Horace Lindrum, the runner-up in 1936 and 1937 did not participate, due to his disagreement with Billiards Association and Control Council the over the competition terms, including about the type of cloth that would be used on the playing tables.


1938 World Snooker Championship, Background
The World Snooker Championship is a professional tournament and the official world championship of the game of snooker. The sport was developed in the late 19th century by British Army soldiers stationed in India. Professional English billiards player and billiard hall manager Joe Davis noticed the increasing popularity of snooker compared to billiards in the 1920s, and with Birmingham-based billiards equipment manager Bill Camkin, persuaded the Billiards Association and Control Council (BACC) to recognise an official professional snooker championship in the 1926–27 season.


1938 World Snooker Championship, Background
In 1927, the final of the first professional snooker championship was held at Camkin's Hall; Davis won the tournament by beating Tom Dennis in the final. The annual competition was not titled the World Championship until the 1935 tournament, but the 1927 tournament is now referred to as the first World Snooker Championship. Davis had also won the title every year from 1928 to 1937.


1938 World Snooker Championship, Background
There were ten entrants. Horace Lindrum, the losing finalist in 1936 and 1937, did not enter for 1938, because he objected to certain conditions, particularly to the cloth used. Fred Davis, Herbert Holt and Charles Read were chosen to play in a qualifying event, the winner to join the other seven players in the main event. Holt and Read were drawn each other for the opportunity to face Davis for a place in the competition proper. The main event was held from 14 March to 22 April at Thurston's Hall, with the final over 61 frames and all other matches over 31 frames. The entry fees of 5 guineas per player were to be used as prize money for the finalists, with the winner receiving 60%.


1938 World Snooker Championship, Summary, First round
The first match in the competition proper was held from 14 to 16 March, with defending champion Joe Davis playing Sydney Lee. Davis led 7–3 after the first day, making a 93 break in frame 10. Davis won the match by winning the final frame on the second day, taking a 16–4 lead. Davis had made a 98 break in frame 16. The final score was 24–7. The correspondent for Billiards and Snooker magazine wrote that the quality of Davis's play was far ahead of his contemporaries, and that in the match "his winning-hazard striking and his positional play were a revelation even for him."


1938 World Snooker Championship, Summary, First round
Starting on 17 March, Willie Smith met Tom Newman in the second match. The score was level at 5–5 after the first day and 10–10 after two days. Smith led 13–12 after the final afternoon session and, winning three of the first four evening frames, took the match 16–13. Newman won the two dead frames so finished at 15–16 at the conclusion on 19 March. The match was dominated by tactical play, with few high breaks. A 63 break by Newman was the highest of the match.


1938 World Snooker Championship, Summary, First round
Qualifier Fred Davis was drawn against Alec Brown in the third match, which started on 22 March. Davis won the first four frames, and led 7–3 after the first day and 14–6 after two days. Brown, experiencing neuritis in his arm and shoulder, then conceded the match.


1938 World Snooker Championship, Summary, First round
The last quarter-final, from 24 to 26 March, saw Sidney Smith face Conrad Stanbury. Smith lost the first three frames, but then won the next seven, for a four-frame lead after day one. Smith then claimed all 10 frames on the second day, having taken a decisive 16–3 lead. He extended his winning streak to 22 frames before Stanbury won frame 26. The final score was 27–4, with Smith making a break of 95 in frame 31.


1938 World Snooker Championship, Summary, Semi-finals
The first semi-final, from 28 to 30 March, was between Joe Davis and Willie Smith. Smith won the first frame despite trailing 65–30 with just the colours, representing only 27 available points, left. Davis went in-off three times, thus conceding penalty points, and Smith took the frame 69–65. This success was short-lived as Davis took the remaining four frames in the afternoon session. In the evening Davis cleared the table with a 104 break in frame 6 and then had a 96 break in frame 7. Smith took frame 8 but Davis led 8–2 after the first day.


1938 World Snooker Championship, Summary, Semi-finals
Davis increased his lead to 11–4 on the second afternoon. Smith made a 91 break in frame 15, going in-off trying to pot the final black ball. With four more frames in the evening, Davis led 15–5, so was just one frame from victory. He claimed the opening frame of the final day to gain a winning 16–5 lead. The final score was 24–7. Davis's break of 104 was the highest of the tournament.


1938 World Snooker Championship, Summary, Semi-finals
Sidney Smith and Fred Davis contested the second semi-final, which took place from 31 March to 2 April. Smith secured four of the five frames in the first session, and led 7–3 after the first day. The first frame of day two had been in progress for fifteen minutes before a ball was potted, and was won by Davis. Smith took the following three frames, and Davis compiled a break of 47 in winning the fifteenth frame, leaving him ten behind at 5–10.


1938 World Snooker Championship, Summary, Semi-finals
Smith increased his lead by a further frame in the fourth session, finishing 13–7 ahead at the end of the day, having made a 97 break in frame 19. On the final day Davis won three of the afternoon frames but Smith took the first frame in the evening to secure victory at 16–10. The final score was 18–13.


1938 World Snooker Championship, Summary, Final
Joe Davis and Sidney Smith met in the final, played over 61 frames from 4 to 9 April. Davis led 6–4 after the first day, winning each of the first two sessions 3–2. The correspondent for The Times remarked that the standard of play in the evening session was "below the usual standard and the breaks were small." He increased his lead to 9–6 after the next session, and 12–8 after two days.


1938 World Snooker Championship, Summary, Final
Smith took four of the five frames in the fifth session, leaving him one frame behind at 12–13, and levelled the match by winning the first frame of the sixth session, but Davis again led over-night with the score at 16–14. Davis dominated on the fourth day and led 23–17 by the close. Davis compiled a 93 break in frame 34. Davis won the last four frames on the fifth day to lead 30–20, just one frame from victory. Smith won the first three frames on the final day but Davis had a 98 clearance in frame 54 to ensure victory at 31–23. Smith won the next before Davis won the six evening frames to finish 37–24 ahead.


1938 World Snooker Championship, Summary, Final
It was Davis's twelfth consecutive world snooker championship title. The author of the report in The Times following his victory suggested that Smith had established that he was the third-best player, behind Davis and Lindrum, but that based on the final, "there was no question regarding the superiority of the holder of the championship." Davis and Lindrum arranged a match over 133 frames, starting on 11 April, to be played at Thurston's. The match was handicapped, with Davis, conceding 10 points each frame to Lindrum. Davis won that series 71–62, after Lindrum had been only two frames behind when the score was 61–59.


1938 World Snooker Championship, Main draw
Match results are shown below. Winning players and scores are denoted in bold text.


1938 World Snooker Championship, Qualifying
The two matches were played at Thurston's Hall immediately before the competition proper. Two players described as "unknowns" by Willie Smith played in the first match from 7 to 9 March; Herbert Holt from Blackpool and Charles Read from Salisbury. Read took an early 4–1 lead but Holt dominated thereafter, winning 16–10, the final score being 21–10. From 10 to 12 March, Holt then played Fred Davis to determine the winner of the qualifying event. Davis proved too strong for Holt, leading 9–1 after the first day and taking a winning 16–2 lead on the second day. The final score was 23–8.


1938 World Table Tennis Championships
The 1938 World Table Tennis Championships were held in London from January 24 to January 29, 1938. The pool stages were held at the Royal Albert Hall with the finals at the Wembley Empire Pool and Sports Arena.


1938 World Table Tennis Championships – Men's Doubles
The 1938 World Table Tennis Championships – Men's Doubles was the 12th edition of the men's doubles championship. Jimmy McClure and Sol Schiff won the title after defeating Viktor Barna and Laszlo Bellak in the final by three sets to two. It was McClure's third consecutive title.


1938 World Table Tennis Championships – Men's Singles
The 1938 World Table Tennis Championships – Men's Singles was the 12th edition of the men's singles championship.


1938 World Table Tennis Championships – Men's Singles
Bohumil Váňa defeated Richard Bergmann in the final, winning three sets to one to secure the title.


1938 World Table Tennis Championships – Men's Team
The 1938 World Table Tennis Championships – Swaythling Cup (Men's Team) was the 12th edition of the men's team championship.


1938 World Table Tennis Championships – Men's Team
Hungary won the gold medal defeating Austria 5-3 in the final. Czechoslovakia and the United States claimed bronze medals.


1938 World Table Tennis Championships – Mixed Doubles
The 1938 World Table Tennis Championships – Mixed Doubles was the 12th edition of the mixed doubles championship.


1938 World Table Tennis Championships – Mixed Doubles
Laszlo Bellak and Wendy Woodhead defeated Bohumil Váňa and Věra Votrubcová in the final by three sets to two.


1938 World Table Tennis Championships – Women's Doubles
The 1938 World Table Tennis Championships – Women's Doubles was the eleventh edition of the women's doubles championship. Věra Votrubcová and Vlasta Depetrisová defeated Dora Beregi and Ida Ferenczy in the final by three sets to one.


1938 World Table Tennis Championships – Women's Singles
The 1938 World Table Tennis Championships – Women's Singles was the 12th edition of the women's singles championship. Gertrude Pritzi defeated Vlasta Depetrisová in the final by three sets to nil, to win the title.


1938 World Table Tennis Championships – Women's Team
The 1938 World Table Tennis Championships – Corbillon Cup (Women's Team) was the fifth edition of the women's team championship.


1938 World Table Tennis Championships – Women's Team
Czechoslovakia won the gold medal after finishing with a perfect 9-0 match record.


1938 World Weightlifting Championships
The 1938 Men's World Weightlifting Championships were held in Vienna, Nazi Germany from October 21 to October 23, 1938. There were 38 men in action from 11 nations.


1938 Wyoming Cowboys football team
The 1938 Wyoming Cowboys football team represented the University of Wyoming in the Mountain States Conference (MSC) during the 1938 college football season. In its sixth and final season under head coach Willard Witte, the team compiled a 2–5–1 record (1–4–1 against MSC opponents) and was outscored by a total of 147 to 66.


1938 Wyoming gubernatorial election
The 1938 Wyoming gubernatorial election took place on November 8, 1938. Incumbent Democratic Governor Leslie A. Miller ran for re-election to his third term, and his second full term. Nels H. Smith, a former State Representative and former state highway commissioner, won a crowded Republican primary and advanced to the general election against Miller. Though Miller won his re-election campaign four years earlierin a landslide, Smith was able to take advantage of the nationwide Republican wave to defeat him in a landslide, winning 60% of the vote to Governor Miller's 40%.


1938 Wyoming state elections
A general election was held in the U.S. state of Wyoming on Tuesday, November 8, 1938. All of the state's executive officers—the Governor, Secretary of State, Auditor, Treasurer, and Superintendent of Public Instruction—were up for election. After losing all of the statewide executive offices in 1934, Republicans made up some ground; they won elections for Governor, Treasurer, and Superintendent, while Secretary of State Lester C. Hunt and Auditor William M. Jack won decisive re-elections.


1938 Wyoming state elections, Governor
Incumbent Democratic Governor Leslie A. Miller, first elected in the 1932 special election, ran for re-election to his second term and his first full term. He defeated Republican Secretary of State Alonzo M. Clark, who had acted as governor during the vacancy.


1938 Wyoming state elections, Secretary of State
Incumbent Secretary of State Lester C. Hunt ran for re-election to a second term. He was initially challenged by Doc Rogers, the former Deputy Secretary of State, but after the deadline, Rogers attempted to switch places on the ballot with W. K. Mylar, who was initially running for State Auditor. Hunt's office refused to allow Rogers to withdraw and be replaced by Mylar, but the state supreme court ordered the office to accept the filings. Accordingly, Hunt was challenged by Mylar, a physician. Despite the success of the Republican Party elsewhere in the state, Hunt had little difficulty defeating Mylar by a solid margin, winning his second term.


1938 Wyoming state elections, Auditor
Incumbent Democratic Auditor William M. Jack ran for re-election to a second term. He was initially challenged by physician W. K. Mylar, but the Republican Party successfully substituted Doc Rogers for Mylar after filing closed following a successful court challenge.


1938 Wyoming state elections, Treasurer
Incumbent Democratic State Treasurer J. Kirk Baldwin was barred from seeking a second term due to term limits. Pat Flannery, the Chairman of the Wyoming Democratic Party, won a close primary to succeed Baldwin and advanced to the general election, where he faced Republican Matt Christensen, the former Deputy Assessor of Carbon County. Ultimately, Christensen defeated Flannery by a slim margin, flipping the Treasurer's office back to the Republican Party.


1938 Wyoming state elections, Superintendent of Public Instruction
Incumbent Democratic Superintendent of Public Instruction Jack R. Gage ran for re-election to a second term. Following his narrow victory in the 1934 Democratic primary, he faced an intraparty challenge from one of his 1934 opponents, Maude Sholty. However, he defeated Sholty by a wide margin and advanced to the general election, where he was opposed by Republican nominee Esther L. Anderson, a junior high school teacher. Despite Gage's large victory four years earlier, he fell victim to the strong Republican performance in Wyoming and narrowly lost re-election to Anderson.


1938 Xavier Musketeers football team
The 1938 Xavier Musketeers football team was an American football team that represented Xavier University as an independent during the 1938 college football season. In its fourth season under head coach Clem Crowe, the team compiled a 7–2 record and outscored opponents by a total of 200 to 47. The team played its home games at Xavier Stadium in Cincinnati.


1938 Yale Bulldogs football team
The 1938 Yale Bulldogs football team represented Yale University in the 1938 college football season. The Bulldogs were led by fifth-year head coach Ducky Pond, played their home games at the Yale Bowl and finished the season with a 2–6 record.


1938 Yellow River flood
The 1938 Yellow River flood (Chinese: 花園口決隄事件, literally "Huayuankou embankment breach incident") was a flood created by the Nationalist Government in central China during the early stage of the Second Sino-Japanese War in an attempt to halt the rapid advance of Japanese forces. It has been called the "largest act of environmental warfare in history" and an example of scorched earth military strategy.


1938 Yellow River flood, Strategic decision and subsequent flood
Following the onset of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, the Imperial Japanese Army marched rapidly into the heart of Chinese territory. By June 1938, the Japanese had control of all of North China. On June 6, they captured Kaifeng, the capital of Henan, and threatened to take over Zhengzhou, the junction of the arterial Pinghan and Longhai Railways. Japanese success here would have directly endangered the major city of Wuhan.


1938 Yellow River flood, Strategic decision and subsequent flood
To stop further Japanese advances into western and southern China, Chiang Kai-shek, at the suggestion of Chen Guofu, determined to open up the dikes (levees) on the Yellow River near Zhengzhou. The original plan was to destroy the dike of Zhaokou, but due to difficulties at that location, the dike of Huayuankou, on the Yellow River's south bank, was destroyed on June 5 and June 7 via tunneling, with waters flooding into Henan, Anhui, and Jiangsu.


1938 Yellow River flood, Strategic decision and subsequent flood
The floods covered and destroyed thousands of square kilometers of farmland, and shifted the course of the Yellow River hundreds of kilometers to the south. Thousands of villages were inundated, and several million villagers were forced from their homes and made refugees. An unknown number of Japanese soldiers were killed by the flood. An official Kuomintang-led postwar commission estimated that the total number of casualties may be as high as 800,000 killed by the flood.


1938 Yellow River flood, Strategic decision and subsequent flood
After the flooding, the Yellow River was diverted from its earlier course at Huayuankou, and flowed into the Jialu River in Zhongmu County. The new course led the Yellow River into the Shaying River at the city of Zhoujiakou (now Zhoukou), eventually joining the Huai River. Water overflowed from these smaller rivers, causing widespread destruction in the basin. According to a postwar report, floods inundated 32 percent of land and 45 percent of villages in 20 affected counties.


1938 Yellow River flood, Controversy regarding the strategy
The strategic value of the flood has been questioned. Japanese troops were out of its range, either to the north and east or to the south. Their advance on Zhengzhou was halted, but they took Wuhan in October by attacking from a different direction. The Japanese did not occupy much of Henan until late in the war, and their hold on Anhui and Jiangsu remained tenuous. Most of the flooded towns and transport lines had already been captured by the Japanese; after the flood, the Japanese could not consolidate their control over the area. In fact, large parts of it became guerrilla areas.


1938 Yellow River flood, Controversy regarding number of casualties
The number of casualties in the flood remains disputed and estimates have been revised by the Chinese government and other researchers in the decades after the event. There is no way of accurately assessing the casualties: much of the population, including officials, had already fled, leaving no government control and no one to count the dead. In the shifting battles between bandits, Nationalists, Communists, and Japanese, counting casualties was not a high priority.


1938 Yellow River flood, Controversy regarding number of casualties
The Nationalist government, after initially claiming that the breach was caused by Japanese bombing,  used the heavy casualties to demonstrate the scale of sacrifice required of the Chinese people; it claimed that 12 million people had been affected by the flood, and in 1948 it estimated the number of deaths, including hundreds of thousands of Japanese who perished during the flooding, at 800,000. A 1994 PRC (People's Republic of China) official history of the war put the dead in the flood at 900,000 and the number of refugees at nearly 10 million. Scholars exploring the archives now give much lower figures: 400,000–500,000 dead, 3 million refugees, and 5 million people affected (another estimate puts the number of dead at 500,000, and the number of homeless at 500,000).


1938 Yellow River flood, Aftermath
Besides the massive death toll, the flooded areas were affected for years to come. The flooded countryside was more or less abandoned and all the crops destroyed. Upon the recession of the waters, much of the ground was uncultivable as much of the soil was covered in silt. Many of the public structures and housing were also destroyed, leaving any survivors destitute. The irrigation channels were also ruined, further adding to the toll on the farmlands. The destruction also had a long-term psychological effect on the Chinese population.


1938 Yellow River flood, Aftermath
Unable to fully decide which group deserved more blame for the catastrophe, the Chinese Government or the invading Japanese, many survivors blamed both sides. Believing that the civilians would help them, the Chinese Communists turned the flooded area into a recruiting ground, directing survivors' anger towards a common enemy to bring them into their ranks. By the 1940s the area had evolved into a major guerrilla base known as the Yuwansu Base Area.


1938 Yellow River flood, Aftermath, Repairs
Attempts to seal the breach and return the river to its former course were made in 1946 by the KMT with assistance from UNRRA. Work began in March and was completed in June, but the dams were again destroyed by large summer flows. Subsequent repairs succeeded and were eventually completed in March 1947.


1938 Yellow River flood, Aftermath, Repairs
The repairs became a political issue between the KMT and the CPC, as the KMT controlled areas around the breach, and the CPC controlled the areas around the original downstream course. The river's pre-1938 bed had become a productive swath of farmland populated by 400,000 people; there were disputes around relocating and compensating these people, and whether to complete downstream dikes to retain some of this land before sealing the breach.


1938 Yosemite TWA crash
The 1938 Yosemite TWA crash involved a Transcontinental & Western Air Douglas DC-2. On March 1, 1938, during a scheduled passenger flight from San Francisco to Winslow, Arizona, TWA's interstate hub, the flight encountered severe weather. The pilot radioed his intention to land in nearby Fresno. The aircraft subsequently crashed on a mountain in Yosemite National Park, and was found three months later.


1938 Yosemite TWA crash, Flight
The aircraft was TWA plane #327 AC-III, NC13789, a twin-engine Douglas Aircraft Corporation DC-2-112 piloted by Captain John Graves, a former Army Air Corps pilot who won some measure of fame in 1932 when he located and dropped food to a group of snowbound people in northern Arizona. Crew members on board were the co-pilot, First Officer C. W. Wallace, and stewardess Martha Mae Wilson.


1938 Yosemite TWA crash, Flight
The aircraft was flying from San Francisco to Winslow, which was a hub connecting TWA's transcontinental Los Angeles-New York route. It departed San Francisco in conditions of good visibility, with a cloud ceiling between 6,000 and 7,000 feet (1,800 and 2,100 m), and had sufficient fuel to last until midnight.


1938 Yosemite TWA crash, Flight
The accident report list the causes of the disaster as "a change in wind direction and a sharp increase in velocity, unknown to the pilot, together with the pilot's confusion as to his position with reference to the Fresno Radio Range station, which combined to bring about flight over mountainous terrain, ending in a crash at near his reported cruising altitude."


1938 Yosemite TWA crash, Disappearance
Two hours after takeoff, the flight encountered a building weather front that developed into the most severe storm on the West Coast in 64 years. As the flight neared the Tehachapi Mountains near Bakersfield, California, Captain Graves noticed ice forming on the wings. He advised air traffic controllers, who ordered him to divert to Los Angeles due to the deteriorating weather conditions. Graves replied that he planned to divert to nearby Fresno due to local weather. At 9:28 PM, he requested a weather update; this was his last transmission received by air traffic control.


1938 Yosemite TWA crash, Search efforts
Officials based their search area on the reports of Mrs. C.G. Landry, who was operating the Edison Electric Company power house on Huntington Lake, approximately 45 miles (72 km) northeast of Fresno. She observed the plane at 9:29 PM flying along the San Joaquin River at an altitude of 500 feet (150 m). The search was concentrated in the snow-covered Sierra Nevada mountains to the east of Fresno.


1938 Yosemite TWA crash, Search efforts
Severe storms that lingered throughout the week hampered searches for the missing aircraft. Pelting rain and heavy winds prevented the use of aircraft in the search, forcing searchers to rely on automobiles, which were unsuited for the rugged mountain terrain. Harold Bromley, the Fresno inspector for the Bureau of Air Commerce, told reporters that the "visibility in the Fresno area was practically zero" as a result of the downpour.


1938 Yosemite TWA crash, Search efforts
The general search involved both TWA and government officials, who drove to Fresno from San Francisco and Los Angeles to aid in the search. As days passed, Transcontinental & Western Air grew increasingly desperate to find the aircraft, and eventually offered a $1,000 reward (equivalent to $18,385 in 2020) to anyone who could locate the aircraft.


1938 Yosemite TWA crash, Search efforts, Hoax call
On March 2, 1938, the day after the flight's disappearance, Transcontinental & Western Air headquarters told reporters that it had received a message purporting to be from United Airlines offices in Fresno, which claimed that the missing aircraft had been found. The telephoned message said that the plane had been found approximately 20 miles from Fresno with "several passengers injured but everybody alive," as later reported in the Ogden Standard Examiner.


1938 Yosemite TWA crash, Search efforts, Hoax call
Upon investigation, however, the message turned out to be a hoax; the plane had not been found. An outraged TWA spokesman denounced the message as "one of the cruelest hoaxes ever perpetrated." Officials at United Airlines offices in both Fresno and San Francisco denied that their employees had been the ones to call in the hoax.


1938 Yosemite TWA crash, Search efforts, Discovery
Three months after the crash, the aircraft had still not been located. A private citizen, 23-year-old H.O. Collier of Fresno, began a personal search for the missing plane after interviewing numerous TWA personnel and studying charts of the flight path. In early June, Collier hiked into the snowy terrain northeast of Wawona, California, and discovered the wreckage of the aircraft on June 12, 1938. The crash site was located 32 miles (51 km) northwest of the area searched by investigators.


1938 Yosemite TWA crash, Search efforts, Discovery
The aircraft was partially buried in the snow of Buena Vista Crest, within Yosemite National Park. Eight bodies out of 9 occupants were thrown from the plane. Only the body of stewardess Wilson was trapped in the wreckage.


1938 Yosemite TWA crash, Search efforts, Discovery
Investigators speculated that the aircraft had been blown off course while attempting to divert to Fresno, and had subsequently lost radio contact. It appeared that the plane had sheared off the tops of pine trees while in a steep bank and crashed into the mountain 200 feet (61 m) below the summit.


1938 Yosemite TWA crash, Search efforts, Discovery
Seventy-one years later, Bob Hoskin of Redlands, California discovered a collection of artifacts from the crash in a cedar chest at a yard sale. It included a collection of original crash scene photos, letters from family members & TWA Officials, the TWA $1,000.00 reward check stub, First Officer Salisbury's pilot cap, a detailed manuscript written by Collier himself about how he found the plane, and several rejection letters regarding his composition.


1938 Yosemite TWA crash, Investigation
On June 13, 1938, after the discovery of the crash site, Daniel C. Roper, the Secretary of Commerce, named a special board to investigate the crash. As the members of the inquisitorial board made their way cross-country from Washington, D.C., the coroner ruled that the cause of death of the victims of the flight was "accidental."


1938 Yugoslavian parliamentary election
Parliamentary elections were held in Yugoslavia on 11 December 1938. The result was a victory for the governing Yugoslav Radical Union, which won 306 of the 373 seats in National Assembly.


1938 Yugoslavian parliamentary election
These would be the last elections held in Yugoslavia before World War II. By the time of the first postwar elections, in 1945, the Communist Party of Yugoslavia was rapidly consolidating power, and the non-Communist opposition boycotted the vote after claiming to have been targeted with severe intimidation. As a result, the 1938 elections would be the last multi-party elections held in Yugoslavia until the Communists gave up their monopoly of power in 1990.


1938 Yugoslavian parliamentary election, Coalitions
The Yugoslav Radical Union (JRZ, Jereza) led by PM Milan Stojadinović, form an right-wing alliance with:


1938 Yugoslavian parliamentary election, Aftermath
Although the United Opposition, de facto led by Maček, had attracted 44.9% of the vote, due to the electoral rules by which the government parties received 40% of the seats in the National Assembly before votes were counted, the opposition vote only translated into 67 seats out of a total of 373.


1938 Yugoslavian parliamentary election, Aftermath
Following the election, there was a faction led by the commander of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force (VVKJ), General Dušan Simović, that contemplated a pro-Serb coup. Simović had been involved in similar plotting earlier in the year.


1938 college football season
The 1938 college football season ended with the Horned Frogs of Texas Christian University (TCU) being named the nation's No. 1 team by 55 of the 77 voters in the final Associated Press writers' poll in early December. Tennessee is also recognized as a national champion; both teams won every game.


1938 college football season, September
September 24 Defending champion Pittsburgh beat West Virginia, 19–0. California defeated St. Mary's 12–7. In Los Angeles, Alabama beat USC 19–7. Minnesota defeated Washington 15–0, and Dartmouth beat Bates 46–0.


1938 college football season, October
October 1 Alabama defeated Samford 34–0,  Fordham beat Upsala 47–0, Dartmouth beat St Lawrence 51–0, and Notre Dame beat Kansas 52–0. Pitt defeated Temple 28–6, California beat Washington State 27–3, and Minnesota beat Nebraska 16–7.


1938 college football season, October
October 8 Minnesota defeated Purdue 7–0. Alabama beat North Carolina State 14–0. Dartmouth stayed unscored upon, winning at Princeton 22–0. Pittsburgh beat cross-town rival Duquesne 27–0. Fordham beat Waynesburg College 53–0. California played a double-header for the fans, with the reserves beating the California Agricultural school (lager UC-Davis) 48–0, and the varsity and reserves beating College of the Pacific 39–0. In Atlanta, Notre Dame beat Georgia Tech 14–6


1938 college football season, October
October 15 Pittsburgh won at Wisconsin 26–6. California defeated UCLA 20–7. Dartmouth beat Brown 34–13, and Notre Dame beat Illinois 14–6. Minnesota edged Michigan, 7–6. Fordham was tied by Purdue 6–6, and in Birmingham, Alabama was shut out by Tennessee, 13–0. When the first round of balloting was finished, the defending champion Panthers were again No. 1, followed by Minnesota, California, Dartmouth and Notre Dame.


1938 college football season, October
October 22 No. 1 Pittsburgh beat SMU 34–7. No. 2 Minnesota was idle. No. 3 California won at Seattle over Washington 14–7. No. 4 Dartmouth won at Harvard 13–7. No. 5 Notre Dame beat No. 13 Carnegie Tech 7–0. In San Francisco, No. 6 Santa Clara beat Arkansas 21–6 in San Francisco, while in Milwaukee, No. 7 TCU beat Marquette 21–0, and the two winners replaced Dartmouth and Notre Dame in the Top Five: 1.Pittsburgh 2.Minnesota 3.California 4.TCU 5. Santa Clara.


1938 college football season, October
October 29No. 1 Pittsburgh beat No. 9 Fordham, 24–13. No. 2 Minnesota fell to No. 12 Northwestern, 6–3. No. 3 California beat Oregon State 13–7. No. 4 TCU beat Baylor 39–7, and No. 5 Santa Clara won at Michigan State 7–6. No. 6 Dartmouth won at Yale 24–6 and No. 7 Notre Dame beat Army in Yankee Stadium, 19–7, and both returned to the Top Five: 1.Pittsburgh 2.TCU 3.California 4.Notre Dame 5.Dartmouth


1938 college football season, November
November 5 In Pittsburgh, the No. 1 Panthers lost to No. 19 Carnegie Tech, 20–10. No. 2 TCU won at Tulsa 21–0. No. 3 California lost at No. 13, USC 13–7. In Baltimore, No. 4 Notre Dame beat Navy 15–0. No. 5 Dartmouth beat Dickinson College, 44–6. No. 6 Tennessee beat Chattanooga 45–0 to extend its record to 7–0–0. The Horned Frogs of TCU leaped into the top spot: 1.TCU 2.Notre Dame 3.Pittsburgh 4.Tennessee 5.Dartmouth


1938 college football season, November
November 12 No. 1 TCU beat Texas 28–6. No. 2 Notre Dame beat No. 12 Minnesota 19–0. No. 3 Pittsburgh beat Nebraska 19–0. No. 4 Tennessee won at Vanderbilt 14–0. No. 5 Dartmouth lost at No. 20 Cornell 14–7. No. 7 Duke remained unbeaten (7–0–0), untied, and unscored upon with a 21–0 win at Syracuse. In the next poll, the Irish moved up to the top rung: 1.Notre Dame 2.TCU 3.Tennessee 4.Duke 5.Pittsburgh


1938 college football season, November
November 19 No. 1 Notre Dame won at No. 16 Northwestern 9–7. No. 2 TCU won at Rice 29–7. No. 3 Tennessee was idle as it prepared for a holiday game. No. 4 Duke beat N.C. State, 7–0. No. 5 Pittsburgh beat Penn State 26–0. The rankings shuffled to 1.Notre Dame 2.TCU 3.Duke 4.Pittsburgh 5.Tennessee.


1938 college football season, November
On Thanksgiving Day No. 5 Tennessee beat Kentucky 46–0, while No. 6 Oklahoma beat OK State. Two days later, November 26, No. 1 Notre Dame remained idle. No. 2 TCU beat SMU in Dallas, 20–7. No. 3 Duke and No. 4 Pittsburgh met at Durham, with the hosts winning 7–0. With a record of 9–0–0, Duke had outscored its opponents 114–0, but stayed in third in the final rankings: 1.Notre Dame 2.TCU 3.Duke 4.Pittsburgh 5.Tennessee.


1938 college football season, November
On December 3, No. 1 Notre Dame lost in Los Angeles to No. 7 USC, 13–0, and fell from grace to fifth place. No. 2 TCU received 55 first place votes and, as national champion, accepted a bid to the Sugar Bowl. No. 4 Tennessee beat Ole Miss 47–0 in Memphis, and moved up to second place. Though the SEC champion would be Sugar Bowl bound in later years, a No. 1 vs. No. 2 match was not to be had, as Tennessee instead took a bid for the Orange Bowl.


1938 college football season, November
No. 3 Duke stayed in third place, despite having never been scored upon in 1938, and accepted an invitation to the Rose Bowl. No. 5 Oklahoma, which beat Washington State 28–0, and moved up to fourth place. Both unbeaten and untied at 10–0–0, Tennessee and Oklahoma would meet in Miami, but the title had been awarded to 10–0–0 TCU.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia
From 4 to 7 November 1938, thousands of Jews were deported from Slovakia to the no-man's land on the Slovak−Hungarian border. Following Hungarian territorial gains in the First Vienna Award on 2 November, Slovak Jews were accused of favoring Hungary in the dispute. With the help of Adolf Eichmann, Slovak People's Party leaders planned the deportation, which was carried out by local police and the Hlinka Guard. Conflicting orders were issued to target either Jews who were poor or those who lacked Slovak citizenship, resulting in chaos.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia
Many of the deportees managed to return home within a few days, but more than 800 were left in tent camps near Miloslavov (Annamajor), Veľký Kýr (Nyitranagykér), and Šamorín (Somorja) in the no man's land along the border for months with some groups staying until January or February 1939. Another several hundred Jews were deported from Hungary to the no man's land. In the meantime they endured winter weather with little or no shelter, although they were helped by Jewish organizations in Bratislava. The deportations were a fiasco for the Slovak People's Party leadership, worsening the country's reputation abroad and causing capital flight by frightened Jews who intended to emigrate, but they were a preparation for the 1942 deportations to the ghettos and extermination camps in German-occupied Poland.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia, Background
Following the Munich Agreement, in which the Czechoslovak Sudetenland was annexed by Nazi Germany, the Slovak People's Party (HSĽS)—long in favor of Slovak autonomy or independence—unilaterally announced Slovakia's autonomy within the Second Czechoslovak Republic. HSĽS was an ethnonationalist party which had a paramilitary wing, the Hlinka Guard. The pro-Nazi German Party, for Slovak Germans, also had a paramilitary wing, the Freiwillige Schutzstaffel. Jozef Tiso, a Catholic priest and HSĽS leader, became prime minister of the Slovak autonomous region and under Tiso's leadership, the Slovak government opened negotiations in Komárno with Hungary regarding their border.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia, Background
The dispute was submitted to arbitration in Vienna by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Hungary was awarded land in southern Slovakia on 2 November 1938, including 40 percent of Slovakia's arable land and 270,000 people who had declared Czechoslovak ethnicity. On 1 November, several Jews were arrested at a pro-Hungarian demonstration at the Carlton Hotel in Bratislava, agitating for the city to be annexed by Hungary. This exacerbated the previous antisemitic sentiment of the HSĽS and provided a pretext for actions against Slovak Jews.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia, Planning
On 3 November, SS official Adolf Eichmann met with several radical politicians—including Jozef Faláth of the HSĽS; leader of the Academic Hlinka Guard, Jozef  Kirschbaum; Julius Janek, a local Hlinka Guard commander; Konrad Goldbach, a correspondent of the Nazi newspaper Völkischer Beobachter; and German Party leader Franz Karmasin—at the Carlton Hotel. Faláth drafted a plan to deport impoverished and foreign Jews to the ceded territory, which was approved by Tiso on 4 November. The plan probably had the knowledge and approval of Ferdinand Ďurčanský and Alexander Mach.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia, Planning
Around noon that day, Faláth went to the police headquarters in Bratislava and phoned police departments across the country, ordering them to carry out a joint operation with the Hlinka Guard. Before midnight, the police and guardsmen were to physically remove all Jews "without material means" to the territory that would be ceded to Hungary, in order to effect a "quick solution to the Jewish problem in Slovakia". Deportees were to have their property locked up and were provided only 50 Czechoslovak koruna (Kčs) worth of food. A few hours later, the orders were changed to target foreign Jews instead.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia, Planning
Jews from Carpathian Ruthenia or the Czech lands were to be forcibly returned to their place of origin. The contradictory orders increased the chaos and confusion that accompanied the deportation. According to Czech historian Michal Frankl, the organizers of the deportation were inspired by the recent Polenaktion in late October, of which Eichmann was certainly aware, in which thousands of Polish Jews were deported from Germany and rejected by Poland.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia, Deportation
From 4 to 7 November, between 4,000 and 7,600 Jews were deported, in a chaotic, pogrom-like operation in which Hlinka Guard, Freiwillige Schutzstaffel, and the German Party participated. The victims were rounded up, loaded onto buses, and dropped off past the new border. About 260 were foreigners, such as Austrian Jews who had escaped into Czechoslovakia following the Anschluss. The bulk of the deportees were Jews with Polish citizenship, who were effectively stateless because they had lost their Polish nationality by living abroad. Young children, the elderly, and pregnant women were among those deported. Deportees faced bullying and intimidation from the Hlinka Guard and were warned that their presence in Slovakia was undesired and that they would face criminal charges if they attempted to return.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia, Deportation
However, most of the deportees—not just Slovak Jews, but also Polish citizens and stateless people—ignored the warning and made their way back home, which was unauthorized but quietly tolerated. In many places, the Hlinka Guard's zeal was such that they continued the action after the order was rescinded; the Jews of Vranov nad Topľou were expelled on 7 November. Four Jews who tried to return to Banská Bystrica were deported again, but 70% of the  292 Jews deported from Michalovce had returned by 19 November.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia, Deportation
Meanwhile, Jews with a net worth of over 500,000 Kčs were arrested to prevent capital flight. Jews with foreign citizenship, except German, Hungarian and Romanian nationality (who comprised most of the Jews with foreign citizenship in Slovakia at the time) were exempt from deportation. The arrests did not prevent a spike in capital flight,  and Hungary refused to admit the deported Jews, so Tiso canceled the operation on 7 November 1938.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia, Detention
Deportees were confined in makeshift tent camps at Miloslavov (Hungarian: Annamajor, German: Michsdorf, near Bratislava) and Veľký Kýr (Nyitranagykér, near Nitra) on the new Slovak–Hungarian border during the winter. The camps were located in the neutral zone of 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) between the countries; there was an additional 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) demilitarized zone on the Slovak side. Neither country accepted responsibility for them or guarded them, blaming the other country for the situation. Miloslavov was located on a road near Štvrtok na Ostrove (Csütörtök), 250 metres (820 ft) from the new border. At both camps, there were initially no shelters, and especially children and elderly fell ill due to the wet winter weather. At Miloslavov, the temperatures for the first week  got as low as −5 °C (23 °F) before the deportees obtained any shelters.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia, Detention
Heinrich Schwartz, a representative of the Orthodox Religious Communities, and Marie Schmolka, director of  HICEM Prague, were allowed to visit Miloslavov in late November. With the aid of Jewish organizations, the refugees obtained food, shelter, and more clothing. According to a 29 November letter from the president of Orthodox  Religious  Communities, the population of Veľký Kýr was 344, consisting of 132 men, 73  women, and 139  children and Miloslavov had more than 300, including 120 men, 77  women, and 105  children.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia, Detention
Of the detainees at Miloslavov, 197 were stateless, although many of these had lived in the country for many years. Seven of the deportees had Slovak citizenship, thirty were from Carpathian Ruthenia, 28 originated in the local area, 22 were  from  Poland, and 38  from  Germany. Another camp, at Šamorín, had 190 people: 108 men, 40 women and 42 children.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia, Detention
In the letter, the community leader begged for the Slovak Jews to be allowed to go home and the other Jews to be released so that they could wind up their affairs and leave the country. He promised that the Jews not from Slovakia would live in centers or with relatives and that all expenses would be borne by the Orthodox community. At the same time, local officials worried that the tent camps would become a haven for infectious diseases, which could spread to neighboring Slovak communities. On 30 November, a quarantine was imposed in Miloslavov, which also prevented aid from Jewish organizations in Bratislava. The poor conditions in the camps were condemned by the United Kingdom and France and worsened Slovakia's image abroad.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia, Aftermath and effects
By early December, the Hungarian authorities also expelled several hundred Jews with foreign citizenship, although Czechoslovak Jews from southern Slovakia were de facto treated as Hungarian citizens. On 8 December, Slovak authorities issued another order was issued so that the deportation of Jews would not be done en masse but on a case-by-case basis and in line with Czechoslovak law. Jews from other countries (such as Poland or the Czech lands) were to be returned home, while stateless Jews were imprisoned in camps along the border.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia, Aftermath and effects
Although these orders did not say so explicitly, they implied that most of the deported Jews with Czechoslovak citizenship would be allowed to return home. After this, the remaining deportees were mostly stateless. At Veľký Kýr this was implemented beginning 12 December. On 19 December, 118 deportees at Miloslavov were moved to Kühmeyer Inn on the outskirts of Bratislava (in the Červený Most  area) and from there to a former ammunition factory in Patrónka, where they remained (according to Aron Grünhut) until the 1942 deportations.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia, Aftermath and effects
According to Slovak National Archives documents, many of the Jews from Miloslavov were able to emigrate and the rest were deported overnight to Hungary in January 1939, in order to minimize publicity. On 21 February 1939, 158 Jews were released from Veľký Kýr, but it is unclear when the camp was shut down.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia, Aftermath and effects
Along with Germany's Polenaktion and Hungary's expulsion of Jews from the areas it annexed in 1938, the Slovak deportations were the first in central Europe. There were also expulsions after the Anschluss, the annexation of the Sudetenland, and Kristallnacht. Frightened, many Slovak Jews tried to transfer their property abroad and attempt emigration. Over the winter, many refugee Jews from Germany and Austria managed to leave the country. Between December 1938 and February 1939, more than 2.25 million Kčs were transferred illegally to the Czech lands, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom; additional amounts were transferred legally. The deportations reduced British investment, increasing dependence on German capital. They also served as a rehearsal for the 1942 deportations, in which two-thirds of Slovak Jews were deported to ghettos and extermination camps in occupied Poland.


1938 deportation of Jews from Slovakia, Interpretations
In Slovak historiography, the deportations are presented as the result of the cynical opportunism of the HSĽS leadership, which sought to scapegoat Jews for its own foreign policy failure. American historian James Mace Ward argues that the role of Hungary–Slovakia relations in the deportation have been ignored in the literature. According to Ward, the main cause of the deportation was that Slovak Jews were perceived as a security threat and loyal to the enemy by both the Hungarian and Slovak sides of the dispute. Michal Frankl commented that the deportation of poor Jews and arrest of wealthy ones reflected two streams of antisemitism that portrayed Jews as foreign and poor Ostjuden on the one hand and as wealthy economic exploiters of Slovaks on the other.


1938 in Afghanistan
The following lists events that happened during 1938 in Afghanistan.


1938 in Afghanistan
Afghanistan makes rapid strides towards western civilization. Roads are being laid out for motor traffic; industries, based originally on military requirements, are being developed; and education is spreading. There are three colleges in Kabul, and schools are being set up everywhere.


1938 in Afghanistan, Early 1938
Treaties of friendship are concluded with Liberia and with Brazil, and the treaty with Turkey is extended for ten years. On the other hand, on the proposal of the Soviet government, the Afghan consulates in Russia and the Soviet consulates in Afghanistan are closed.


1938 in Afghanistan, June 1938
A number of Wazirs from South and West Waziristan cross the Afghan frontier with the object of looting and of stirring up a rising against the reigning Afghan house. This movement is the result of an agitation carried on for some months in Waziristan by one Syed Mohammad Sadi, commonly known as the Shami Pir (Syrian imam), a priest from Damascus whose family is connected with the ex-king Amanullah. A rebellion breaks out in southeast Afghanistan, headed by the Suleiman khel, and the number of the insurgents soon rises to 2,000.


1938 in Afghanistan, June 1938
The government, which has been watching the activities of the Shami Pir, is not taken unawares, and quickly sends to the scene of the disturbances two brigades with ten aeroplanes, which are soon after reinforced by two more brigades. The insurgents are defeated in two battles on June 22 and 24, and the revolt soon comes to an end.


1938 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1938 in Australia.


1938 in Australian literature
This article presents a list of the historical events and publications of Australian literature during 1938.


1938 in Australian literature, Births
A list, ordered by date of birth (and, if the date is either unspecified or repeated, ordered alphabetically by surname) of births in 1938 of Australian literary figures, authors of written works or literature-related individuals follows, including year of death.


1938 in Australian literature, Deaths
A list, ordered by date of death (and, if the date is either unspecified or repeated, ordered alphabetically by surname) of deaths in 1938 of Australian literary figures, authors of written works or literature-related individuals follows, including year of birth.


1938 in Brazilian football
The following article presents a summary of the 1938 football (soccer) season in Brazil, which was the 37th season of competitive football in the country.


1938 in Brazilian football, State championship champions
(1)In 1938, two different Bahia State Championship competitions were contested. Bahia won one of the competitions while Botafogo-BA won the other.


1938 in Brazilian football, Brazil national team
The following table lists all the games played by the Brazil national football team in official competitions and friendly matches during 1938.


1938 in British music
This is a summary of 1938 in music in the United Kingdom.


1938 in British radio
This is a list of events from British radio in 1938.


1938 in British television
This is a list of events related to British television in 1938.


1938 in Canada, Historical Documents
Prime Minister Chamberlain defends Munich Agreement in "peace for our time" speech in British House of Commons


1938 in Canada, Historical Documents
President Roosevelt says "we[...]are no longer a far away continent" in address at Queen's University at Kingston


1938 in Canada, Historical Documents
Vancouverites fail in plot to bomb Japanese ocean liner Hiye Maru


1938 in Canada, Historical Documents
Jewish Anti- Defamation League member says act on "passion for democracy" in face of world events


1938 in Canada, Historical Documents
Jewish columnist sets radio host straight on his "joke" about Jews


1938 in Canada, Historical Documents
Al Rashid Mosque, Canada's first, opened in Edmonton with Indian statesman and Hanna, Alta. mayor present


1938 in Canada, Historical Documents
With prices for necessities and product sold dictated to them, Alberta farmers form United Farmers of Canada branch


1938 in Canada, Historical Documents
Manitoba premier comments on globally higher production, lower demand and drastically lower prices for wheat


1938 in Canada, Historical Documents
Development of huge Turner Valley oil field and its significance to Canada and Empire (especially British Navy)


1938 in Canada, Historical Documents
Nellie McClung praises cooperation as solution to poverty resulting from "profit system divorced from Christian ethics"


1938 in Canada, Historical Documents
Woonsocket, Rhode Island Franco-American mill worker and his family survive another layoff during Depression


1938 in Canada, Historical Documents
Trans-Canada Air Lines will be part of multi-day international flights linking Britain with New Zealand and Australia


1938 in Canada, Historical Documents
Tides and trees, gardens and exiles are subjects of Nellie McClung's Nova Scotia travel article


1938 in Canada, Historical Documents
New wing of Kitchener-Waterloo YWCA hosts Saturday morning games, stories and handwork for girls


1938 in Canada, Historical Documents
18th century Kanien’kéhà:ka-British alliance seen as "administration" of Indigenous people versus French "encroachments"


1938 in Canadian football
For the second consecutive season the Toronto Argonauts and Winnipeg Blue Bombers met for the Grey Cup. The Argonauts won the game.


1938 in Canadian football, Canadian Football News in 1938
The Edmonton Eskimos joined the WIFU and adopted the colours of blue and white. The Eskimos eventually withdrew from the union in 1940.


1938 in Canadian football, Regular season, Final regular season standings
Note: GP = Games Played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, PF = Points For, PA = Points Against, Pts = Points


1938 in Canadian football, Grey Cup Championship
26th Annual Grey Cup Game: Varsity Stadium – Toronto, Ontario


1938 in Canadian football, 1938 Eastern (Combined IRFU & ORFU) All-Stars selected by Canadian Press
NOTE: During this time most players played both ways, so the All-Star selections do not distinguish between some offensive and defensive positions.


1938 in Canadian football, 1938 Ontario Rugby Football Union All-Stars
NOTE: During this time most players played both ways, so the All-Star selections do not distinguish between some offensive and defensive positions.


1938 in Cape Verde
The following lists events that happened during 1938 in Cape Verde.


1938 in Chile
The following lists events that happened during 1938 in Chile.


1938 in El Salvador
The following lists events that happened in 1938 in El Salvador.


1938 in Estonia
This article lists events that occurred during 1938 in Estonia.


1938 in Iceland
The following lists events that happened in 1938 in Iceland.


1938 in India
Events in the year 1938 in India. Indian independence – Government of India Act gives Indians a role in governing their provinces.


1938 in Japan
Events in the year 1938 in Japan. It corresponds to Shōwa 13 (昭和13年) in the Japanese calendar.


1938 in Malaya
This article lists important figures and events in the public affairs of British Malaya during the year 1938, together with births and deaths of prominent Malayans.


1938 in Mandatory Palestine
Events in the year 1938 in the British Mandate of Palestine.


1938 in Michigan, Population
In the 1930 United States Census, Michigan was recorded as having a population of 4,842,325, ranking as the seventh most populous state in the country. By 1940, Michigan's population had increased by 8.5% to 5,256,106.


1938 in Michigan, Population, Cities
The following is a list of cities in Michigan with a population of at least 20,000 based on 1930 U.S. Census data. Historic census data from 1920 and 1940 is included to reflect trends in population increases or decreases. Cities that are part of the Detroit metropolitan area are shaded in tan.


1938 in Michigan, Population, Counties
The following is a list of counties in Michigan with populations of at least 50,000 based on 1930 U.S. Census data. Historic census data from 1920 and 1940 are included to reflect trends in population increases or decreases.


1938 in New Zealand
The following lists events that happened during 1938 in New Zealand.


1938 in New Zealand, Incumbents, Government
The 25th New Zealand Parliament continues with the Labour Party in government. The general election in October results in the Labour government being returned for the 26th New Zealand Parliament.


1938 in New Zealand, Arts and literature, Film
See : Category:1938 film awards, 1938 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, Category:1938 films


1938 in New Zealand, Sport, Basketball
An interprovincial championship is held even though there is no national association at this time.


1938 in New Zealand, Sport, Lawn bowls
The national outdoor lawn bowls championships are held in Dunedin.


1938 in Norwegian football, Norgesserien 1937/38, Championship rounds, Second round
May 29Fram Larvik-Odd 1-1 (Total: 2-1)Vigør-Viking 0-0 (Total: 0-3)Lyn-Mjøndalen 0-0 (Total: 2-1)


1938 in Norwegian football, Norgesserien 1937/38, Championship rounds, Championship quarter-finals
June 19Fram Larvik-Fredrikstad 1-3 (Total:1-4)Gjøvik/Lyn-Lyn 2-2 (Total:3-7)Djerv-Viking 4-0 (Total:6-6, Djerv goes to the next round)Neset-Kristiansund 2-5 (Total: 2-7)


1938 in Norwegian football, Promotion
Fjell, Holmestrand, Nordlandet, Sandefjord, Skeid, Skiens-Grane, Skreia, Strømsgodset, Tistedalen, Verdal, Voss, Ålgård


1938 in Norwegian football, Norwegian Cup, Third round
Brann-Skeid 4-0 Frigg-Djerv 1-0Odd-Flekkefjord 3-1Jevnaker-Fram Larvik 3-2 (extra time)Viking-Hardy 2-0Kjelsås-Mjøndalen 0-2Kristiansund-Veblungsnes 8-0Larvik Turn-Vigør 0-1Lillestrøm-Speed 8-1Storm-Moss 3-1Steinkjer-Neset 1-2Ørn-Nydalen 2-0Vålerenga-Pors 1-0Urædd-Strong 3-1


1938 in Norwegian football, Norwegian Cup, Fourth round
Vålerenga-Fram Larvik 3-0Fredrikstad-Storm 7-0Vigør-Frigg 3-2Kristiansund-Lillestrøm 1-3Lyn-Ørn 1-2Mjøndalen-Urædd 2-1Neset-Odd 0-2Skeid-Viking 4-5 (extra time)


1938 in Norwegian music
The following is a list of notable events and releases of the year 1938 in Norwegian music.


1938 in Poland, Incumbents
On May 15, 1936, president of Poland Ignacy Mościcki designed the government under prime minister Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski. The government was dissolved on September 30, 1939, and it was the last government of the Second Polish Republic which resided in Warsaw.


1938 in South Africa
The following lists events that happened during 1938 in South Africa.


1938 in Taiwan
Events from the year 1938 in Taiwan, Empire of Japan.


1938 in Wales
This article is about the particular significance of the year 1938 to Wales and its people.


1938 in animation
This is a list of events in 1938 in animation.


1938 in association football
The following are the football (soccer) events of the year 1938 throughout the world.


1938 in association football, Winners club national championship
Manchester City F.C. become the only team in history to be relegated the year after being champions of England.


1938 in baseball
The following are the baseball events of the year 1938  throughout the world.


1938 in basketball
The following are the basketball events of the year 1938  throughout the world.


1938 in comics
Notable events of 1938 in comics. See also List of years in comics.


1938 in country music
This is a list of notable events in country music that took place in the year 1938.


1938 in film, Top-grossing films (U.S.)
The top ten 1938 released films by box office gross in North America are as follows:


1938 in fine arts of the Soviet Union
The year 1938 was marked by many events that left an imprint on the history of Soviet and Russian Fine Arts.


1938 in jazz
This is a timeline documenting events of Jazz in the year 1938.


1938 in literature
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1938.


1938 in motorsport
The following is an overview of the events of 1938 in motorsport including the major racing events, motorsport venues that were opened and closed during a year, championships and non-championship events that were established and disestablished in a year, and births and deaths of racing drivers and other motorsport people.


1938 in motorsport, Annual events
The calendar includes only annual major non-championship events or annual events that had own significance separate from the championship. For the dates of the championship events see related season articles.


1938 in music
This is a list of notable events in music that took place in the year 1938.


1938 in music, Biggest hit songs
The following songs achieved the highest chart positions in the limited set of charts available for 1938.


1938 in paleontology
Paleontology or palaeontology (from Greek: paleo, "ancient"; ontos, "being"; and logos, "knowledge") is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science. This article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1938.


1938 in philosophy, Events
September 2 – B. F. Skinner's ground-breaking book The Behavior of Organisms was first published. Of the 800 copies in the first printing, only 548 had been sold by 1946.


1938 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature (for instance, Irish or France).


1938 in poetry, Works published in other languages, Indian subcontinent
Including all of the British colonies that later became India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Nepal. Listed alphabetically by first name, regardless of surname:


1938 in poetry, Births
Death years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1938 in poetry, Deaths
Birth years link to the corresponding "[year] in poetry" article:


1938 in professional wrestling
1938 in professional wrestling describes the year's events in the world of professional wrestling.


1938 in radio
The year 1938 saw a number of significant events in radio broadcasting.


1938 in rail transport
This article lists events related to rail transport that occurred in 1938.


1938 in science
The year 1938 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.


1938 in science fiction
The year 1938 was marked, in science fiction, by the following events.


1938 in science fiction, Awards
The main science-fiction Awards known at the present time did not exist at this time.


1938 in sports
1938 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.


1938 in sports, Alpine skiing
FIS Alpine World Ski Championships8th FIS Alpine World Ski Championships are held at Engelberg, Switzerland. The events are a downhill, a slalom and a combined race in both the men's and women's categories. The winners are:


1938 in television
The year 1938 in television involved some significant events. Below is a list of television-related events during 1938.


1938 in the Belgian Congo
The following lists events that happened during 1938 in the Belgian Congo.


1938 in the Soviet Union
The following lists events that happened during 1938 in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.


1938 renaming of East Prussian placenames
More than 1,500 East Prussian places were ordered to be renamed by 16 July 1938, following a decree issued by Gauleiter and Oberpräsident Erich Koch and initiated by Adolf Hitler. This resulted in the elimination, Germanization, or simplification of a number of Old Prussian names, as well as those Polish or Lithuanian origin. Other areas of the Third Reich were also affected.


1938 renaming of East Prussian placenames, East Prussia
Placenames in Masuria were occasionally renamed prior to 1938, and indeed even before the Nazi era. In the district of Lötzen 47 percent of all villages had already been renamed in the Weimar Republic and another 36 percent after 1933. A systematic renaming campaign was prepared after Koch issued the corresponding order on 25 August 1937. Following this order, the Prussian Ministry of Science, Education and People's Education (Ministerium für Wissenschaft, Erziehung und Volksbildung) set up an expert commission led by Mr Harmjanz (the Ministerialrat or ministerial adviser).


1938 renaming of East Prussian placenames, East Prussia
Members included Mr Meyer (a Slavicist from Königsberg), Mr Ziesemer (a Germanist from Königsberg), Mr Falkenhayn (a lecturer, expert in Lithuanian and Old Prussian names) and Max Hein (the director of the Königsberg state archives and expert in names of the Teutonic Order state). Affected were names of villages, water bodies, forests and cadastral districts. In some counties up to 70% of the placenames had been changed by 16 July 1938.


1938 renaming of East Prussian placenames, East Prussia
After World War II the local populace fled or was expelled. The modern Polish names were determined by the Commission for the Determination of Place Names. The names invented in 1938 remain in official use in Germany.


1938 renaming of East Prussian placenames, Silesia and other regions
A similar Germanization of place names was carried out in other regions of the Third Reich, especially in Silesia. There, 1088 place names in the Oppeln (Opole) region were changed in 1936, also 359 in the Breslau (Wroclaw) area and 178 in the Liegnitz (Legnica) area between 1937 and 1938. In the portion of Upper Silesia which after World War I had become part of the Second Polish Republic, most places had two locally used names, a German one and a Polish one, and after 1922, Polish authorities made the Polish variants the "official" names.


1938 renaming of East Prussian placenames, World War II
During World War II, renaming occurred primarily in occupied/annexed territories, because the Nazi government felt that "foreign language names for places constitute a national threat and may lead to mistaken world opinion in regard to their nationality". Areas affected included Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany, e.g. Upper Silesia and the area near Poznań. and Alsace, as well as Czechoslovakia .


1938 Úrvalsdeild, Overview
It was contested by 4 teams, and Valur won the championship. Valur's Magnús Bergsteinsson, Fram's Jón Sigurðsson and Víkingur's Björgvin Bjarnason were the joint top scorers with 3 goals.


1938-39 NHL transactions
The following is a list of all team-to-team transactions that have occurred in the National Hockey League (NHL) during the 1938–39 NHL season. It lists which team each player has been traded to and for which player(s) or other consideration(s), if applicable.


1938/1939 Daily Mail Gold Cup
The 1938/1939 Daily Mail Gold Cup was a professional snooker tournament sponsored by the Daily Mail. The cup was won by Alec Brown with Sidney Smith finishing in second place in the final table. It was the fifth Daily Mail Gold Cup tournament, although only the third as a snooker event. The Daily Mail Gold Cup ran from 1935 to 1940.


1938/1939 Daily Mail Gold Cup, Format
The 1938/1939 event was a round-robin snooker tournament and was played from 10 October 1938 to 21 January 1939. Most of the matches were played at Thurston's Hall in London. There were 6 competitors and a total of 15 matches. As previously, each match was of 71 frames and lasted six days. The 6 competitors were the same as in the 1937/38 event without Melbourne Inman. The handicap system was revised, each match having a separate handicap.


1938/1939 Daily Mail Gold Cup, Format
Joe Davis gave Horace Lindrum 20, Sidney Smith 30, Willie Smith 25, Alec Brown 35 and Tom Newman 40. Horace Lindrum gave Sidney Smith 7, Willie Smith 14, Alec Brown 21 and Tom Newman 30. Sidney Smith gave Willie Smith and Alec Brown 7 and Tom Newman 14. Willie Smith and Alec Brown gave Tom Newman 7. Willie Smith and Alec Brown played level.


1938/1939 Daily Mail Gold Cup, Results
Joe Davis was given a harsher handicap than previously. He won his first two matches but then lost heavily to Sidney Smith (giving 30 point per frame) and Alec Brown (giving 35). Giving 20 points per frame, he lost the final match of the tournament against Horace Lindrum. Davis led 35–33 but lost the last three to lose the match by the odd frame.


1938/1939 Daily Mail Gold Cup, Results
On 14 November, in frame 4 of the match between Tom Newman and Alec Brown there was a "peculiar incident". Brown had potted a red and was between the pack and the black. Rather than play a shot with the long rest, bridging over the pack, Brown took a "cue" from his pocket. It was made of ebony and was about the size of a pencil. He chalked it and played a shot onto the black.


1938/1939 Daily Mail Gold Cup, Results
After some discussion the referee, Charlie Chambers, called a "foul" explaining that, according to the rules, "a stroke must be made with the tip of the cue" and "a pen is not a cue" even if it had a cue-tip on the end. Brown won the frame 78–41, the afternoon session ending at 3 frames each.


1938/1939 Daily Mail Gold Cup, Results
During the tournament Joe Davis scored a new official record break of 138, beating the previous record of 137. It happened in his match against Alec Brown on 9 December. Davis was conceding 35 points to Brown in this match. Brown made only two visits to the table before Davis made the total clearance which included the 15 reds with 11 blacks, a pink, two blues, a green and then all the colours. The clearance was in frame 53 of the match, the fifth of the afternoon session.


1938/1939 Daily Mail Gold Cup, Results
The positions were determined firstly by the number of matches won (MW) and, in the event of a tie, the number of frames won (FW).


19383 Rolling Stones
19383 Rolling Stones, provisional designation 1998 BZ32, is a bright Vestian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 2.7 kilometers (1.7 miles) in diameter. The V-type asteroid was discovered on 29 January 1998, by astronomers with the OCA–DLR Asteroid Survey at Caussols in southern France and named for the rock band The Rolling Stones.


19383 Rolling Stones, Orbit and classification
Rolling Stones is a core member of the Vesta family (401), one of the largest asteroid families in the main belt. Vestian asteroids have a composition akin to cumulate eucrites (HED meteorites) and are thought to have originated deep within 4 Vesta's crust, possibly from the Rheasilvia crater, a large impact crater on its southern hemisphere near the South pole, formed as a result of a subcatastrophic collision. It orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 2.0–2.7 AU once every 3 years and 6 months (1,282 days; semi-major axis of 2.31 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 7° with respect to the ecliptic.


19383 Rolling Stones, Orbit and classification
The body's observation arc begins with a precovery in September 1954, taken at Palomar Observatory and published by the Digitized Sky Survey, more than 43 years prior to its official discovery observation at Caussols.


19383 Rolling Stones, Naming
This minor planet was named after the English musical group The Rolling Stones. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 6 August 2003 (M.P.C. 49281). The asteroid's name is unusual in that it is expressed as two words, instead of "Rollingstones" which is the format used by most other minor planets named for individuals or groups (although the asteroid named after Pink Floyd is also expressed as two words).


19383 Rolling Stones, Physical characteristics
In the SDSS-based taxonomy, Rolling Stones is a bright V-type asteroid.


19383 Rolling Stones, Physical characteristics
According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Rolling Stones measures 2.68 kilometers in diameter and its surface has a high albedo of 0.47. As of 2018, no rotational lightcurve of this asteroid has been obtained from photometric observations. The body's rotation period, pole and shape remain unknown.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet
The 1938-1939 German Expedition to Tibet was a German scientific expedition from April 1938 to August 1939 that was led by the German zoologist and SS officer Ernst Schäfer.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Origins
Nazi Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler wished to use the reputation of the scientist and explorer Ernst Schäfer for Nazi propaganda after Schafer's first two trips to China and Tibet in 1930 to 1931 and 1934 to 1936 came to Himmler's attention. Himmler asked about Schafer's future plans. Schäfer responded that he wanted to lead another expedition to Tibet and requested for his expedition to be under the patronage of the cultural department of the Foreign Affairs Department or of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft ("German Research Foundation").


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Origins
Himmler was fascinated by Asian mysticism and therefore wished to send such an expedition under the auspices of the SS Ahnenerbe (SS Ancestral Heritage Society), and he desired for Schäfer to perform research based on Hanns Hörbiger's pseudoscientific theory of "Glacial Cosmogony," promoted by the Ahnenerbe. Schäfer had scientific objectives and therefore refused to include Edmund Kiss, an adept of the theory, in his team and required 12 conditions to ensure scientific freedom. Wolfram Sievers, from the Ahnenerbe, therefore expressed criticism concerning the objectives of the expedition, and Ahnenerbe would not sponsor it. Himmler was agreeable to the expedition going ahead if all members joined the SS, and Schäfer found that he had no alternative but to accept that condition even without sponsorship.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Designations
While he prepared the expedition, Schäfer used the term "Schaefer Expedition 1938/1939" on his letterhead and to apply for sponsorship from businessmen. The official expedition name had to be changed by order of the Ahnenerbe, however, to German Tibet-Expedition Ernst Schaefer (in capital letters), "under the patronage of the Reichsführer-SS Himmler and in connection with the Ahnenerbe" (in small letters).


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Designations
After the German Consul-General in Calcutta had criticized the letterhead in a report to the German Foreign Office by "arguing that the prescribed letterhead was counter-productive and immediately generated mistrust among the British," Schäfer "ordered a new, discreet letterhead in Antiqua font, which read 'Deutsche Tibet Expedition Ernst Schäfer'." During the expedition, Schäfer used only the latter letterhead or his original "Schaefer Expedition" paper. The Ahnenerbe-prescribed letterhead was used only prior to the expedition's departure.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Designations
The British writer Christopher Hale claims that one cannot infer that Schäfer was independent of the SS and could do "pure science" simply from the special letterhead that he got printed for the expedition. To all intents and purposes, the expedition remained under Himmler's patronage, and Schäfer had no interest in losing his support.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Designations
In its time, the expedition was also commonly referred to in German newspapers and academic journals as the "SS Tibet Expedition," as it had Himmler as its patron, and all five members were SS officers. The "SS Tibet Expedition" designation was used by Schäfer himself in the Atlantis Journal. "SS Tibet Expedition" is the title used in a 1946 report by US military intelligence in Western Europe.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Designations
In the "Register of the Heinrich Himmler Papers," 1914–1944, archived at Stanford University's Hoover institution, the folder containing the material pertaining to the expedition bears the title "The SS-Tibet-Expedition, 1939.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Designations
That designation is still in use by modern scholars, such as Mechtild Rössler in 2001, and Suzanne Heim in 2002, as well as by the writer Peter Lavenda in 2002.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Funding
According to Christopher Hale, as Schäfer was demanding more than 60,000 Reichsmarks for his expedition, and the coffers of the SS were depleted at the time, he was forced to raise the funds himself.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Funding
According to researcher Isrun Engelhardt, the expedition was not funded by the Ahnenerbe. Schäfer raised the funds by himself, 80% of which came from the Public Relations and Advertising Council of German Industry (Werberat der deutschen Wirtschaft) as well as large German business enterprises, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation) and Brooke Dolan II. Himmler's personal friends sponsored only the flight back to Germany.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Funding
According to the United States Forces, the expedition's funding was provided by various public and private contributors, with the return flight to Germany being paid for by the SS. The cost of equipping the expedition was RM 65,000, and the expedition itself cost another RM 65,000, excluding the flight back.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Members
Ernst Schäfer was a member of the SS when he arrived at the German consulate in Chungking in 1935. He had just returned from a trip through parts of Asia, mainly India and China, in which the two other heads of the expedition had abandoned him out of fear of the native tribes. Schäfer turned the expedition from a complete failure into a great success, and the SS took note by sending him a letter informing him of a promotion to SS-Untersturmführer and summoning him back to Germany from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In June 1936, Schäfer met with Himmler, who informed Sievers and Galke to start organizing an expedition to Tibet.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Members
Schäfer recruited young, fit men who would be well suited for an arduous journey. At 24, Karl Wienert (an assistant of Wilhelm Filchner, a famous explorer) was the team's geologist. Also 24, Edmund Geer was selected as the technical leader to organize the expedition. A relatively-old teammate, who was 38, was Ernst Krause (not to be confused with the German biologist of the same name), who was to double as a filmmaker and an entomologist. Bruno Beger was a 26-year-old Rassekunde expert and student of Hans F.K. Günther and was to be the team's anthropologist.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Objectives
The researcher Roger Croston described the objective of the expedition as "an holistic creation of a complete biological record of Tibet alongside a synthesis of inter-relating natural sciences with regard to geography, cartography, geology, earth magnetics, climate, plants, animals and mankind."


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Objectives
Reacting to Dr Isrun Engelhardt's conclusions that the Schäfer expedition was "purely scientific" and her claim that the historical context of Germany in the 1930s made the expedition's goals appear as somehow sinister, the British writer Christopher Hale observed that "while the idea of ‘Nazi botany’ or ‘Nazi ornithology’ is probably absurd, other sciences are not so innocent – and Schäfer's small expedition represented a cross-section of German science in the 1930s." To Hale, that has considerable significance as "under the Third Reich anthropology and medicine were cold-bloodedly exploited to support and enact a murderous creed." There have been allegations that one of the expedition's purposes was to determine whether Tibet was the cradle of the "Aryan race". The taking of cranial measurements and the making of facial casts of local people by the anthropologist Bruno Beger did little to dissipate those allegations.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Objectives
Hale also recalled the existence of a secret warning issued by propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels to German newspapers in 1940 that "the chief task of the Tibet expedition" was "of a political and military nature" and "had not so much to do with the solution of scientific questions" and added that details could not be revealed.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Objectives
However, Croston agreed with Engelhardt and stated that the expedition "was planned as a scientific mission […] but it was caught up in the politics of the time. [ …] Schaefer’s vehement refusal to accept Himmler’s plans led, eventually, to the expedition not being sponsored by Himmler’s SS or its organisations 'because it would lie outside the scope of his work'."


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Objectives
The Chinese journalist Ren Yanshi, quoting the Austrian weekly Wochenpresse, wrote that the first major task of the expedition was "to investigate the possibility of establishing the region as a base for attacking the British troops stationed in India," and its second major assignment was "to verify Heinrich Himmler's Nazi racial theory that a group of pure-blooded Aryans had settled in Tibet."


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Objectives
According to the American journalist Karl E. Meyer, one of the expedition's aims was to prepare maps and survey passes "for possible use of Tibet as a staging ground for guerrilla assaults on British India."


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Objectives
The Italian essayist Claudio Mutti stated that the official plan included research on the landforms, climate, geography, and culture of the region, and contacting the local authorities for the establishment of representation in the country.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Objectives
According to Claudio Mutti, the group of five researchers intended to contact the Regent of Tibet and to visit the sacred cities of Lhasa and Shigatse. Even with wartime difficulties, the group contacted the Tibetan authorities and people. They returned to Germany with a complete edition of the Tibetan sacred text the Kangyur (108 volumes), examples of Mandala, other ancient texts, and an alleged document regarding the "Aryan race". The documents were kept in the Ahnenerbe archives.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Details
In July 1937, the team suffered a setback when Japan invaded Manchuria, China, which ruined Schäfer's plans to use the Yangtze River to reach Tibet. Schäfer flew to London to seek permission to travel through India but was turned down by the British government, which feared an imminent war with Germany.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Details
Another problem in the preparations for the Tibetan expedition occurred during a duck hunting accident on November 9, 1937, when Schäfer, his wife of four months and two servants were in a rowboat. A sudden wave caused Schäfer to drop his gun which broke in two and discharged, which mortally wounded his wife. Despite subsequent emotional problems, Schäfer was back to work on the expedition in eight weeks.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Details
In a move that lost the Ahnenerbe's support, Schäfer asked Himmler for permission simply to arrive in India and to try to force his way into Tibet. Himmler agreed with the plan and set about furthering it by contacting influential people, including German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop. On April 21, 1938, the team departed from Genoa, Italy, on their way to Ceylon, where they would then travel to Calcutta, British India.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Details
The day before the team had left Europe, the Völkischer Beobachter ran an article on the expedition, which alerted British officials of its intentions. Schäfer and Himmler were enraged. Schäfer complained to SS headquarters and Himmler in turn wrote to Admiral Barry Domvile, who was a Nazi supporter and former head of British naval intelligence. He the letter to British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, who permitted the SS team to enter Sikkim, a region bordering Tibet.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Details, Journey through Sikkim
In Sikkim's capital of Gangtok, the team assembled a 50-mule caravan and searched for porters and Tibetan interpreters. There, the British official, Sir Basil Gould, observed them and described Schäfer as "interesting, forceful, volatile, scholarly, vain to the point of childishness, disregardful of social convention." Gould noted that Schäfer was determined to enter Tibet regardless of permission.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Details, Journey through Sikkim
The team began its journey on June 21, 1938, traveled through the Teesta River valley, and then headed north. Krause worked light traps to capture insects, Wienert toured the hills to make measurements, Geer collected bird species and Beger offered locals medical help in exchange for allowing him to take measurements of them.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Details, Journey through Sikkim
In August 1938, a high official of the Rajah Tering, a member of the Sikkimese royal family living in Tibet, entered the team's camp. Although Beger wished to ask the guest's permission to measure him, he was dissuaded by the Tibetan porters, who encouraged him to wait for Schäfer to return from a hunting trip. Schäfer met with the official and presented him with mule-loads of gifts.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Details, Journey through Sikkim
In December 1938, the Tibetan council of ministers invited Schäfer and his team to Tibet but forbade them from killing any animals during their stay by citing religious concerns. After a supply trip back to Gangtok, Schäfer learned he had been promoted to SS-Hauptsturmführer, and the rest of the team had been promoted to SS-Obersturmführer.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Details, Trip To Lhasa
During the trip to Tibet's highlands, Beger began making facial casts of local people, including his personal servant, a Nepalese Sherpa named Passang. During the first casting, paste got into one of Passang's nostrils and he panicked, which tore at the mask. Schäfer threatened to terminate the employment of the porters who had seen the incident if they told anyone. Most of the Tibetans had a much more friendly and light-hearted attitude, however, and photographic and film footage remains of smiling and laughing Tibetans undergoing facial and skull feature measurements.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Details, Trip To Lhasa
On January 19, 1939, the team reached Lhasa, the capital of Tibet. Schäfer proceeded to pay his respects to the Tibetan ministers and a nobleman. He also gave out Nazi pennants and explained the reverence shown for the shared symbol in Germany. His permission to remain in Lhasa was extended, and he was permitted to photograph and film the region. The team spent two months in Lhasa and collected information on agriculture, culture, and religion.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Details, Trip To Lhasa
As the arrival of the expedition had been announced in advance, its members, according to Bruno Beger's testimony, were welcome everywhere in Tibet and provided with all the things that they needed for their trip and sojourn. In Lhasa itself, they got into close touch with government officials and other noteworthy people.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Details, Trip To Lhasa
Schäfer met the Regent of Tibet, Reting Rinpoche, on several occasions. During one of their meetings, the Regent asked him point blank whether his country would be willing to sell weapons to Tibet.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Details, Trip to Gyantse and Shigatse
In March 1939, the expedition left Lhasa, headed for Gyantse, and was escorted by a Tibetan official. After exploring the ruins of the ancient deserted capital city of Jalung Phodrang, they reached Shigatse, the city of the panchen lamas, in April. They received a warm welcome from the locals, with thousands coming out to greet them. In a 1946 "Final Interrogation Report by American Intelligence", Schäfer claims to have met "the pro-German regent of Shigatse" (the 9th Panchen Lama had died in 1937 and the 10th was not to arrive before 1951). In May, the expedition returned to Gyantse, where negotiations were held with local British officials about the trip back to India and the transport of the expeditions's gear and collections.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Communications with Germany
Throughout his stay in Lhasa, Ernst Schäfer remained in touch with Germany through mail and the Chinese Legation's radio. Himmler is reported to have followed the expedition enthusiastically, written several letters to Schäfer and even broadcast Christmas greetings to him via shortwave.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Results of research
The Germans collected anything they could: thousands of artifacts, a huge number of plants and animals, including live specimens. They sent back specimens of three breeds of Tibetan dogs, rare feline species, wolves, badgers, foxes, other animals, and bird skins.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Results of research
The expedition members collected a huge quantity of plants, particularly hundreds of varieties of barley, wheat, and oats. The seeds were later stored in the SS-Institute for Plant Genetics in Lannach, near Graz, Austria, a research centre run by SS botanist Heinz Brücher, who entertained hopes of using both the Tibet collection and that of the Vavilov Institute in the eastern territories to select crop plants able to withstand the climate of Eastern Europe, which was considered as part of the Nazi Lebensraum or "living space," with a view to reaching autarky.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Results of research
Wienert took four sets of geomagnetic data. Krause studied Tibetan wasps. Schäfer observed Tibetan rituals, including sky burial, and even bought some human skulls. The researchers took stills and film footage of local culture, notably the spectacular New Year celebrations in which tens of thousands of pilgrims flocked to Lhasa. Bruno Beger recorded the measurements of 376 people and took casts of the heads, faces, hands, and ears of 17 others, as well as fingerprints and handprints from another 350. To carry out his research, he posed as a physician to win the favour of Tibetan aristocrats, dispensed drugs, and tended to monks with sexually-transmitted diseases.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Results of research
Schäfer kept meticulous notes on the religious and cultural customs of the Tibetans from their various colorful Buddhist festivals to Tibetan attitudes towards marriage, rape, menstruation, childbirth, homosexuality, and masturbation. In his account of Tibetan homosexuality, he described the various positions taken by older lamas with younger boys and then went on to explain how homosexuality played an important role in the higher politics of Tibet. There are pages of careful observation of Himalayan people engaged in a variety of intimate acts.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Results of research
Schäfer presented the results of the expedition on 25 July 1939 at the Himalaya Club Calcutta.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Return home
After Schäfer had read a letter from his father who reported to him about the imminent threat of war and urged him to return to Germany as quickly as possible, Schäfer decided to return to Germany. After being given two complimentary letters, one to Hitler and the other to Himmler, Schäfer and his companions left Lhasa in August 1939. They also took with them two presents for Hitler that consisted of a Lhama dress and a hunting dog, as well as a copy of the Tibetan "Bible", the 120-volume Kangyur. They headed south to Calcutta, boarded a seaplane at the mouth of the Hooghly River, and began the journey home.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Return home
From Calcutta the expedition first took a British Airways seaplane to Baghdad, which developed engine trouble and was forced to make an emergency water landing in Karachi. In Baghdad they were fortunate to be able to continue their flight to Athens on a Lufthansa Ju 52. They learned a few hours later that their previous British Airways seaplane had sunk off Alexandria. A surprise awaited them in Athens, where they boarded a special new aircraft that was placed at their disposal by the German government for their safe return home.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Return home
According to Trimondis at Tempelhof Airport in Berlin, they were greeted on the runway by an ecstatic Himmler, who presented Schäfer with the SS skull ring and dagger of honor.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Return home
When grilled by US military intelligence in February 1946, Schäfer stated that after his return, he had a meeting with Himmler in which he outlined his plans to launch another expedition to Tibet in case of war. The idea was to win Tibet over to the German side and to organize a resistance movement there. The project never took off.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Return home
After returning to Germany, Wienert, Krause and Geer went back to civilian life and were heard of no more. Beger worked together with August Hirt at the Reichsuniversität Straßburg. His assignment, which he carried out, was to provide the Nazi physician with a selection of detainees of diverse ethnic types from Auschwitz to serve Hirt's racial experiments.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Return home
In 1943, Schäfer was given his own institute within the Ahnenerbe. He named it "the Sven Hedin Institute for Inner Asian Research" after the Swedish explorer who visited Tibet in 1907.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Return home
In 1943, the release of the film Geheimnis Tibet put together from the various rolls brought back from Tibet. It premiered on January 16, during the inauguration of the Sven Hedin Institute, with the Swedish explorer himself in attendance.


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Return home
Because of the war, Schäfer's writings about the trip were not published until 1950, under the title "Festival of the White Gauze Scarves: A research expedition through Tibet to Lhasa, the holy city of the god realm."


1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet, Return home
All through the expedition, Beger kept a travel diary, which was published in book form 60 years later: Mit der deutschen Tibetexpedition Ernst Schäfer 1938/39 nach Lhasa (Wiesbaden, 1998). Only 50 copies of it exist.


1938–1939 in the Spanish Civil War
This article covers the Spanish Civil War in the period from the start of 1938 to the end of 1939. For a historical context, see Timeline of Spanish history#20th century.


1938–1939 in the Spanish Civil War
By this period, the Nationalists had already become dominant, yet the outcome of the war was still not certain. This was to progressively change as the Nationalist forces notched up several victories.


1938–1939 in the Spanish Civil War
The Battle of Teruel was an important confrontation between Nationalists and Republicans. The city belonged to the Republicans at the beginning of the battle, but the Nationalists conquered it in January. The Republican government launched an offensive and recovered the city, however the Nationalists finally conquered it for good by February 22. On April 14 1938, the Nationalists broke through to the Mediterranean Sea during the Aragon Offensive, cutting the government-held portion of Spain in two. The government tried to sue for peace in May, but Francisco Franco demanded unconditional surrender, and the war raged on. The Nationalist army pressed southward from Teruel and along the coast toward the capital of the Republic at Valencia but were halted in heavy fighting along the fortified XYZ Line.


1938–1939 in the Spanish Civil War
The government now launched an all-out campaign to distract the Nationalists from their attack on Valencia and to reconnect their territory in the Battle of the Ebro, beginning on July 24 and lasting until November 26. Although the campaign was militarily successful at first, it was fatally undermined by the Franco-British appeasement of Adolf Hitler in the Munich Agreement. The concession of Czechoslovakia destroyed the last vestiges of Republican morale by ending all hope of an anti-Francoist alliance with the great powers. The Republicans were eventually defeated and withdrew in November 1938, another significant step towards the Nationalist's final victory.


1938–1939 in the Spanish Civil War
The retreat from the Ebro all but determined the final outcome of the war. Eight days before the new year, Franco struck back by throwing massive forces into an invasion of Catalonia.