1928 Tennessee gubernatorial election
The 1928 Tennessee gubernatorial election was held on November 6, 1928. Incumbent Democrat Henry Hollis Horton defeated Republican nominee Raleigh Hopkins with 61.06% of the vote.


1928 Texas A&M Aggies football team
The 1928 Texas A&M Aggies football team represented Texas A&M during the 1928 college football season.


1928 Texas Longhorns football team
The 1928 Texas Longhorns football team represented the University of Texas at Austin in the 1928 college football season. It was the second year under coach Clyde Littlefield, who led the team to their third Southwest Conference title.


1928 Texas Longhorns football team
1928 was also the first year in which Texas wore their now distinctive "burnt orange" jerseys.


1928 Texas Mines Miners football team
The 1928 Texas Mines Miners football team was an American football team that represented Texas School of Mines (now known as the University of Texas at El Paso) as an independent during the 1928 college football season. In its second season under head coach E. J. Stewart, the team compiled a 3–4–1 record and was outscored by a total of 103 to 100. The team won its annual rivalry game with New Mexico A&M by a 6-0 score.


1928 Texas Tech Matadors football team
The 1928 Texas Tech Matadors football team represented Texas Tech University as an independent during the 1928 college football season. In their fourth and final season under head coach Ewing Y. Freeland, the Matadors compiled a 4–4–1 record and were outscored by opponents by a combined total of 79 to 47. The team played its home games at Tech Field.


1928 Thames flood
The 1928 Thames flood was a disastrous flood of the River Thames that affected much of riverside London on 7 January 1928, as well as places further downriver. Fourteen people died and thousands were made homeless when floodwaters poured over the top of the Thames Embankment and part of the Chelsea Embankment collapsed. It was the last major flood to affect central London, and, along with the disastrous North Sea flood of 1953, helped lead to the implementation of new flood-control measures that culminated in the construction of the Thames Barrier in the 1970s.


1928 Thames flood, Causes of the flood
During Christmas 1927, heavy snow fell in the Cotswolds in central England, where the Thames has its source. A sudden thaw occurred over the New Year's Eve of 1928, followed by unusually heavy rain, doubling the volume of water coming down the river. The sudden rise in water level coincided with a high spring tide and a storm surge caused by a major extra-tropical cyclone in the North Sea. The storm surge raised the water levels in the Thames Estuary, measured at Southend, to 1.5 metres (4 ft) above normal.


1928 Thames flood, Causes of the flood
The funnelling of the water further up the river caused its level to rise even higher. The situation was worsened by capital dredging which had been carried out between 1909 and 1928, deepening the river channel by about 2 metres (6 ft) to allow access for deeper-draughted vessels to the Port of London. This had the side-effect of making it easier for seawater to flow up the Thames on a high tide, increasing the flow on a mean tide by about 4% and raising the tidal range by about 0.7 metres (2 ft).


1928 Thames flood, Causes of the flood
This produced the highest water levels ever recorded in the Thames in London. The flood peaked at about 1:30 am on 7 January when a level of 5.55 metres (18 ft 3 in) above the datum line was recorded, nearly a foot higher than the previous record. Extensive flooding resulted as the river overflowed the Embankments from the City of London and Southwark up to Putney and Hammersmith. Serious flooding was also reported in Greenwich, Woolwich and other locations further downriver, causing major property damage.


1928 Thames flood, Consequences
The damage caused by the flood took several years to repair. Millbank, the most seriously affected area, was largely rebuilt from scratch; many of the run-down dwellings and warehouses that had characterised the area were so badly damaged that they had to be demolished, while the rest were torn down as part of the area's post-flood regeneration. They were replaced with modern office blocks and apartment buildings. Imperial Chemical House (designed by Sir Frank Baines, the Principal Architect of the Government's Office of Works), was one of the new buildings constructed in the area in 1927–29. The current headquarters of MI5, Thames House, was built to a very similar (though not identical) design in 1929–1930 on the other side of Horseferry Road, with the two buildings forming a landmark pair of office blocks facing the river.


1928 Thames flood, Consequences
A new Lambeth Bridge was constructed to replace its dilapidated predecessor, and Horseferry Road was widened to afford access to the bridge. The height of the Embankments was raised and the river wall was strengthened along substantial parts of the river. Proposals were made for the construction of a Thames flood barrier, but these came to nothing, due to concerns that such a barrier would impede shipping access to the London docks.


1928 Thames flood, Consequences
The flood of January 1928 was the last major flood in the city centre, although the North Sea flood of 1953 came within millimetres of overtopping the Embankment, and did flood Bermondsey and some other low-lying parts of the city. Another flood affected the lower Thames in 1959. In response to the threat of such floods happening again, plans were made in the mid-1960s to build a flood barrier on the Thames to guard against the threat of storm surges. By then, much of London's shipping had moved to Tilbury Docks further downriver, greatly reducing the navigational difficulties that a barrier would present. The Thames Barrier project finally got under way in 1974, with the barrier officially opening in 1984.


1928 Thames flood, Consequences, Damage resulting from the flood
A considerable area of the city centre was flooded by this unprecedented combination of events. The first section of the riverbank to give way was opposite the Tate Gallery at Millbank, where a 75-foot (25 m) section of the Chelsea Embankment collapsed. The gallery was flooded almost to the tops of the doors on the ground floor (a depth of between five and eight feet 1.5 to 2.8 m), which caused damage to many paintings in the gallery's collections, most notably those of J M W Turner.


1928 Thames flood, Consequences, Damage resulting from the flood
Near Lambeth Bridge the embankment gave way, sending a wall of water through a generally poor and run-down area where nine people drowned (and one died of a heart attack brought on by shock) in their basement apartments, unable to escape from where they were living. Another two people died in Hammersmith, and two more in Fulham. Another 4,000 Londoners were made homeless, as water filled the streets to a depth of four feet (1.2 m).


1928 Thames flood, Consequences, Damage resulting from the flood
Westminster Hall and the House of Commons were also flooded, as were the London Underground stations and lines along the riverside. The moat at the Tower of London, which had been empty for over 80 years, was refilled by the river, and the Blackwall and Rotherhithe Tunnels were submerged. Other buildings that flooded were Lots Road Power Station and Wandsworth Gas Works.


1928 Thames flood, Consequences, Damage resulting from the flood
The Manchester Guardian described the scene on the morning of 7 January:


1928 Thames flood, Consequences, Damage resulting from the flood
Remarkable scenes were witnessed all along the Embankment. At the Houses of Parliament the water "cataracted" over the parapet into the open space at the foot of Big Ben. The floods penetrated into Old Palace Yard, which shortly after one o'clock was about a foot under water in parts.


1928 Thames flood, Consequences, Damage resulting from the flood
Flooding was worst at Charing Cross and Waterloo bridges, where the river sweeps round. Water poured over the Embankment, and the road was covered in a depth of several inches.


1928 Thames flood, Consequences, Damage resulting from the flood
At intervals along the Embankment stood tramcars derelict and deserted. Later attempts were made to tow them through the floods by means of motor-lorries. Taxicabs and motor-cars splashed along the far side of the road. The public subway, Westminster Bridge, was flooded to a depth of four feet. There were miniature waterfalls at Cleopatra's Needle and the Royal Air Force Memorial, and the training ship President floated at street level.


1928 Thames flood, Consequences, Damage resulting from the flood
The flood was short-lived, and the waters subsided by the end of the day. However, it took considerably longer to drain the many roads, tunnels, basements and cellars that had been flooded.


1928 The Citadel Bulldogs football team
The 1928 The Citadel Bulldogs football team represented The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina as member of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association (SIAA) in the 1928 college football season. Carl Prause served as head coach for the first season overall. The Bulldogs played home games at Johnson Hagood Stadium.


1928 Times Square derailment
During the evening rush hour on August 24, 1928, an express subway train derailed immediately after leaving the Times Square station on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line. Sixteen people were killed at the scene, two died later, and about 100 were injured. It remains the second-deadliest accident on the New York City Subway system, after the Malbone Street Wreck.


1928 Times Square derailment, Accident
At 5:09 p.m. on August 24, 1928, the last two cars of a ten-car downtown express train, consisting of all-steel cars, were derailed when a faulty switch moved, and the ninth car hit a wall and pillars on either side of the track and split in half; the rear was telescoped by the last car while the front remained attached to the train and was dragged for 100 or 200 feet (30 or 61 m), when the first and eighth cars turned over. Short-circuiting started a fire. A witness in one of the damaged cars spoke of hearing "a terrific grinding noise" then seeing "the car behind ours rip right through a steel pillar". Morris De Haven Tracy of the United Press wrote an account of the crash that had left the city "still dazed":


1928 Times Square derailment, Accident
[The eighth car] "split the switch," and before the passengers jammed within it could raise their cries of terror it was skidding half sideways down the track.


1928 Times Square derailment, Accident
A hundred feet farther on it crashed into one of the great steel pillars which keep the street above from tumbling in upon the tunnels.


1928 Times Square derailment, Accident
It sheared off the pillar, tore loose from the forward seven cars, split itself in two and part of it hurtled forward, tossing passengers against stanchions onto the track, under the wheels of the cars, against the sides of the tunnel, and piling them up in masses on what was left of the car floor.


1928 Times Square derailment, Accident
Sixteen people were killed instantly and 100 or more injured. Additional victims died the following day and on the 26th, as did Jennie Lockridge, an actress who had a heart attack after seeing victims' bodies. One victim was misidentified; the man returned home two hours before his funeral was scheduled to start. It was the worst accident on the New York City Subway since the Malbone Street Wreck in 1918.


1928 Times Square derailment, Accident
Track maintenance workers had discovered the faulty switch where a storage track branched off 85 feet (26 m) south of the platform, but decided not to spike (immobilize) it. The train had been held in the station while repairs were made, and was packed with approximately 1,800 passengers; an empty train was first sent over the switch without incident.


1928 Times Square derailment, Aftermath and investigation
Some newspapers ran a photograph taken soon after the accident, which showed a view into the street where emergency vehicles and police were gathering; it had been transmitted over the telephone to the NEA Service in San Francisco. Approximately 50 doctors used the station platform to render first aid, and the wreckage was then cleared using acetylene torches and hand carts while three blocks of Seventh Avenue were blocked off to enable removal of the debris. Full service on the subway was restored about 12 hours after the accident, but a section of 40th Street west of Broadway remained closed because the crash had damaged its underpinnings.


1928 Times Square derailment, Aftermath and investigation
The accident was blamed on human error, but the precise cause was never established. However, it was known that the switch should have been spiked closed. The maintenance foreman on the scene, William Baldwin, said at the time that someone in the signaling tower located in the tunnel south of 40th Street must have pushed the button to open the switch, but the towerman, Harry King, maintained that no one had, leading to the suspicion that Baldwin had activated it from trackside with his assistant holding down the automatic brake tripper. The New York Transit Commission later took this view.


1928 Times Square derailment, Aftermath and investigation
Baldwin was initially charged with negligent homicide in the then 15 deaths and released on $10,000 bail. However, it was later found that King was actually a clerk, not a trained towerman; in early October, he admitted that he had been using a false identity and was really Harry Stockdale, a man from Baltimore who had been convicted in a stabbing there. The charges against Baldwin were dismissed and King was imprisoned instead.


1928 Times Square derailment, Aftermath and investigation
Mayor Jimmy Walker used the accident together with a fare hike in denouncing the transit companies.


1928 Tipperary Senior Hurling Championship
The 1928 Tipperary Senior Hurling Championship was the 37th staging of the Tipperary Senior Hurling Championship since its establishment by the Tipperary County Board in 1887.


1928 Tipperary Senior Hurling Championship
Boherlahan won the championship after a 5–04 to 2–02 defeat of Clonoulty in the final. It was their ninth championship title overall and their second title in succession.


1928 Toledo Rockets football team
The 1928 Toledo Rockets football team was an American football team that represented Toledo University (renamed the University of Toledo in 1967) in the Northwest Ohio League (NOL) during the 1928 college football season. In their third season under head coach Boni Petcoff, the Rockets compiled a 1–6 overall record and 1–3 in conference.


1928 Toronto Argonauts season
The 1928 Toronto Argonauts season was the 42nd season for the team since the franchise's inception in 1873. The team finished in third place in the Interprovincial Rugby Football Union with a 1–4–1 record and failed to qualify for the playoffs.


1928 Toronto municipal election
Municipal elections were held in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, on January 1, 1928. Sam McBride was elected mayor, defeating incumbent Thomas Foster by a wide margin.


1928 Toronto municipal election, Toronto mayor
Thomas Foster had first been elected to city council in 1891 and was running for his fourth consecutive term as mayor. He was opposed by Sam McBride who had tried, but failed, to be elected mayor on three previous occasions.


1928 Toronto municipal election, Board of Control
There was only one change in the membership of the Board of Control. William D. Robbins  regained the seat he had lost two years earlier to D.C. MacGregor.


1928 Toronto municipal election, City council
Results taken from the January 2, 1928 Toronto Daily Star and might not exactly match final tallies.


1928 Tour de France
The 1928 Tour de France was the 22nd edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 17 June to 15 July. It consisted of 22 stages over 5,376 km (3,340 mi).


1928 Tour de France
The Tour was won by Nicolas Frantz, his second win. He held the yellow jersey from beginning to end, despite an incident three days before the end of the race. Frantz had a mechanical failure between Metz and Charleville and had to finish 100 km of the stage on an undersized women's bicycle, resulting in a loss of 28 minutes. Regardless, Frantz won the tour, with his Alcyon team winning the team trophy and having riders finish in second and third places.


1928 Tour de France
The 22nd tour featured the first appearance of an Australian/New Zealand team, indicating the beginning of a more international sporting field. Their experience was turned into a film by Phil Keoghan, Le Ride, released in July 2016.


1928 Tour de France
Tour director Henri Desgrange allowed teams to replace exhausted or injured cyclists with new riders, to give the weaker teams a fairer chance. However, the experiment backfired, having the opposite effect, so the concept was quickly abandoned.


1928 Tour de France, Innovations and changes
In the 1927 Tour de France, the team time trial format had been introduced, where teams started 15 minutes apart. This was done to make the flat stages more competitive. Although in 1927 this had not been successful, the formula was repeated in 1928; this time the teams started 10 minutes after each other.


1928 Tour de France, Innovations and changes
The team time trial format had been an advantage to the strong teams; therefore the tour organisation invented a new rule, intended to help the weak teams: the teams were allowed to replace cyclists in the beginning of stage 12, halfway through the competition. They were not eligible for the general classification.


1928 Tour de France, Innovations and changes
Another new concept was regional teams. The riders were separated in three groups: there were eight trade teams, nine regional teams of five riders and the touriste-routiers, without teams. Between them, the eight trade teams formed five competing units for the race. Three of them - Alcyon, Armor and Thomann, all of which had sponsorship from Dunlop - combined to compete as a single unit of ten riders. Elvish and Fontan, with Wolber sponsorship, did the same. The formidable Alcyon-Armor-Thomann combination would go on to fill the top five places overall.


1928 Tour de France, Innovations and changes
In other years, the mountain stages, especially in the Pyrenees, had decided the race. To reduce the importance of these stages, the Tour organisation had changed the route of the first mountain stage, that had been the same since 1913. Two mountains, the Aspin and the Peyresourde, were left out of the stage.


1928 Tour de France, Innovations and changes
The tour also saw the introduction of the Australian/New Zealand team, sponsored by Ravat. It was headed by Hubert Opperman, who had been the Australian cycling champion for a few years. After The Melbourne Herald had a campaign to send Opperman to the Tour de France, a team was made. The plan was to add six experienced European cyclists to the team, but this did not happen. Opperman rode some races in Europe and could compete with the European top cyclists, but the rest of his team could not.


1928 Tour de France, Innovations and changes
Because a major part of the race was in the team time trial format, Opperman had no chance to win the Tour. The Kennett Brothers wrote a book about the New Zealander on the team—Harry Watson—that was read by cycling enthusiast and The Amazing Race-host Phil Keoghan, who was surprised that he had never heard of the fellow Cantabrian before. Keoghan decided to celebrate the team's achievement and with a friend, he rode the 1928 stages on period bicycles to the original 26-day schedule. Their experience was turned into a film, Le Ride, which premiered in July 2016 in Watson's home town Christchurch.


1928 Tour de France, Teams
Altogether, 162 cyclists started the race, a new record at that time.


1928 Tour de France, Race overview
In the first team-time-trial like stages, the Alcyon team emerged the best. The individual Touriste-routiers could not compete to the professional teams. The Alcyon team finished first in five of the eight stages. Nicolas Frantz, the winner of the previous tour, crossed the finish line first in the first stage, and was leading the classification, and kept the lead during these stages. After the first eight stages, Frantz was leading the race, followed by his teammate Maurice De Waele at 99 seconds. Julien Vervaecke, the Belgian from the Armor team, followed in third place, 135 seconds behind.


1928 Tour de France, Race overview
In stage 9, the first mountain stage, Frantz did not crush the competition as he had done on previous year. Instead, Victor Fontan, who was more than one and a half hour behind in the general classification, was allowed to escape and win the stage. Frantz still finished second, seven minutes behind, and extended his lead on his direct competitors, and was now leading by more than 40 minutes. In the tenth stage, the Alcyon team-mates Leducq, Frantz and De Waele finished first, and they now had the first three places in the general classification.


1928 Tour de France, Race overview
Next came the alps. Here, Frantz increased his lead. Behind him, De Waele gained time on Leducq, and was now in second place. After the alps, the three Alcyon cyclists still held the first three places in the general classification, with Frantz comfortably leading by more than 75 minutes. In the 19th stage, Frantz bicycle frame broke, when he rode over a railroad track. His sponsor, Alcyon, did not like the bad publicity, and wanted Frantz to go to an Alcyon dealer and get a replacement bike.


1928 Tour de France, Race overview
The team manager from Alcyon was against this idea, because this would cause a major time loss, and maybe even the loss of the Tour de France. According to some sources, they found a bicycle shop that only had one bicycle left, an undersized women's bicycle, and they decided to take it. Other sources say that when they were thinking what to do, Frantz spotted a woman with a bicycle, and persuaded her to give him her bike. Frantz rode the last 100 km on this undersized women's bicycle, and did this with 27 km/h, whereas the winner of the stage had 34 km/h. His lead dropped with 30 minutes, but he was still leading the race.


1928 Tour de France, Race overview
In the 21st stage, Antonin Magne and Francis Bouillet had escaped together, and it was Bouillet who won the sprint. This was a problem for the Tour organisation, as Bouillet had already left the race in stage 9, to start again as a replacement in stage 12. Hence, he was no longer eligible for the general classification, and could not be the winner of a stage. The Tour organisation solved the problem by giving Bouillet the best time and proclaiming him the moral winner of the stage, and making Magne the official winner of the stage.


1928 Tour de France, Results
In stages 1 to 8 and 15 to 21, the cyclists started in teams. The cyclist who reached the finish fastest was the winner of the stage. In the other stages, all cyclists started together. The time that each cyclist required to finish the stage was recorded. For the general classification, these times were added up; the cyclist with the least accumulated time was the race leader, identified by the yellow jersey.


1928 Tour de France, Results, Stage winners
Nicolas Frantz wore the yellow jersey from the start of the race to the end of the race. Since the introduction of the yellow jersey in 1919, this has only happened in 1924, 1928 and 1935. As the winner of the previous year, Frantz also wore the yellow jersey during the first stage; he is the only cyclist to wear the yellow jersey during an entire Tour de France.


1928 Tour de France, Results, General classification
The Alcyon team had all the podium positions. Since 1928, it has never happened again that one team had all the podium positions.


1928 Tour de France, Results, Other classifications
The organising newspaper, L'Auto named a meilleur grimpeur (best climber), an unofficial precursor to the modern King of the Mountains competition. This award was won by Victor Fontan.


1928 Tour de France, Results, Other classifications
There was also a team trophy. The team trophy for teams was won by Alcyon, the Champagne-regional team won the team trophy for regional teams. This team trophy was not the same as the team classification that has been run since 1930.


1928 Tour de France, Aftermath
The team time trial method had not given the desired result; in the 1929 Tour de France it was only used if the previous stage had been too slow, and after 1929 it disappeared. The rule with replaced cyclists did not even make it until the next year.


1928 Tour de France, Aftermath
Some riders had been grouped in regional teams; this was considered successful; in 1930 the system would change to the national team system, where riders were grouped in national or regional teams.


1928 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11
The 1928 Tour de France was the 22nd edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris with a team time trial on 17 June, and Stage 11 occurred on 30 June with a flat stage to Marseille. The race finished in Paris on 15 July.


1928 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11, Stage 1
17 June 1928 - Paris to Caen, 207 km (129 mi) (TTT)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11, Stage 2
18 June 1928 - Caen to Cherbourg, 140 km (87 mi) (TTT)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11, Stage 3
19 June 1928 - Cherbourg to Dinan, 199 km (124 mi) (TTT)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11, Stage 4
20 June 1928 - Dinan to Brest, 206 km (128 mi) (TTT)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11, Stage 5
21 June 1928 - Brest to Vannes, 208 km (129 mi) (TTT)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11, Stage 6
22 June 1928 - Vannes to Les Sables d'Olonne, 204 km (127 mi) (TTT)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11, Stage 7
23 June 1928 - Les Sables d'Olonne to Bordeaux, 285 km (177 mi) (TTT)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11, Stage 8
24 June 1928 - Bordeaux to Hendaye, 225 km (140 mi) (TTT)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11, Stage 9
26 June 1928 - Hendaye to Luchon, 387 km (240 mi)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11, Stage 10
28 June 1928 - Luchon to Perpignan, 323 km (201 mi)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11, Stage 11
30 June 1928 - Perpignan to Marseille, 363 km (226 mi)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 22
The 1928 Tour de France was the 22nd edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris with a team time trial on 17 June, and Stage 12 occurred on 2 July with a mountainous stage from Marseille. The race finished in Paris on 15 July.


1928 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 22, Stage 12
2 July 1928 - Marseille to Nice, 330 km (210 mi)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 22, Stage 13
4 July 1928 - Nice to Grenoble, 333 km (207 mi)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 22, Stage 14
6 July 1928 - Grenoble to Evian, 329 km (204 mi)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 22, Stage 15
8 July 1928 - Evian to Pontarlier, 213 km (132 mi) (TTT)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 22, Stage 16
9 July 1928 - Pontarlier to Belfort, 119 km (74 mi) (TTT)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 22, Stage 17
10 July 1928 - Belfort to Strasbourg, 145 km (90 mi) (TTT)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 22, Stage 18
11 July 1928 - Strasbourg to Metz, 165 km (103 mi) (TTT)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 22, Stage 19
12 July 1928 - Metz to Charleville, 159 km (99 mi) (TTT)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 22, Stage 20
13 July 1928 - Charleville to Malo-les-Bains, 271 km (168 mi) (TTT)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 22, Stage 21
14 July 1928 - Malo-les-Bains to Dieppe, 234 km (145 mi) (TTT)


1928 Tour de France, Stage 12 to Stage 22, Stage 22
15 July 1928 - Dieppe to Paris, 331 km (206 mi)


1928 Tour of the Basque Country
The 1928 Tour of the Basque Country was the fifth edition of the Tour of the Basque Country cycle race and was held from 1 August to 5 August 1928. The race started in Bilbao and finished in Las Arenas. The race was won by Maurice De Waele.


1928 Trinidad and Tobago general election
General elections were held in Trinidad and Tobago in early 1928. Four of the seven constituencies had a single candidate, with voting in the other three taking place on 11 February (Saint Patrick County and Tobago) and 3 March (Caroni County).


1928 Trinidad and Tobago general election, Electoral system
The Legislative Council had 12 official members (civil servants), six nominated members, seven elected members and the Governor, who served as the legislature's speaker. The seven elected members were elected from single-member constituencies.


1928 Trinidad and Tobago general election, Electoral system
The franchise was limited to people who owned property in their constituency with a rateable value of $60 (or owned property elsewhere with a rateable value of $48) and tenants or lodgers who paid the same sums in rent. All voters were required to understand spoken English. Anyone who had received poor relief within the most recent six months before election day was disqualified from voting. The voting age for women was lowered from 30 to 21 prior to the elections, significantly increasing the number of people eligible to vote.


1928 Trinidad and Tobago general election, Electoral system
The restrictions on candidates were more severe, with candidature limited to men that lived in their constituency, were literate in English, and owned property worth at least $12,000 or from which they received at least $960 in rent a year. For candidates who had not lived in their constituency for at least a year, the property values were doubled.


1928 Trinidad and Tobago general election, Results
Five candidates were supported by the Trinidad Workingmens' Association. Four of them – Arthur Andrew Cipriani, Francis Evelyn Mohammed Hosein, Timothy Roodal and Sarran Teelucksingh – were elected, whilst A. Bonnet was defeated in Tobago.


1928 Tulane Green Wave football team
The 1928 Tulane Green Wave football team represented Tulane University as a member of the Southern Conference (SoCon) during the 1928 college football season. Led by second-year head coach Bernie Bierman, the Green Wave played their home games at Tulane Stadium in New Orleans. Tulane finished the season with an overall record of 6–3–1 and a mark of 3–3–1 in conference play.


1928 Tulsa Golden Hurricane football team
The 1928 Tulsa Golden Hurricane football team represented the University of Tulsa during the 1928 college football season. In their fourth year under head coach Gus Henderson, the Golden Hurricane compiled a 7–2–1 record and outscored their opponents by a combined total of 273 to 80.


1928 U.S. National Championships (tennis)
The 1928 U.S. National Championships (now known as the US Open) was a tennis tournament that took place on the outdoor grass courts at the West Side Tennis Club, Forest Hills in New York City, United States. The women's tournament was held from 20 August until 27 August while the men's tournament ran from 10 September until 17 September. It was the 48th staging of the U.S. National Championships and the fourth Grand Slam tennis event of the year.


1928 U.S. National Championships (tennis), Finals, Men's singles
Henri Cochet defeated  Francis Hunter  4–6, 6–4, 3–6, 7–5, 6–3


1928 U.S. National Championships (tennis), Finals, Men's doubles
George Lott /  John Hennessey defeated  Gerald Patterson /  Jack Hawkes 6–2, 6–1, 6–2


1928 U.S. National Championships (tennis), Finals, Women's doubles
Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman /  Helen Wills defeated  Edith Cross /  Anna McCune Harper 6–2, 6–2


1928 U.S. National Championships (tennis), Finals, Mixed doubles
Helen Wills /  Jack Hawkes defeated  Edith Cross /  Edgar Moon 6–1, 6–3


1928 U.S. National Championships – Men's Singles
Henri Cochet defeated Frank Hunter 4–6, 6–4, 3–6, 7–5, 6–3 in the final to win the Men's Singles tennis title at the 1928 U.S. National Championships. It was Cochet's first U.S. Championships title and his fourth Grand Slam title overall.


1928 U.S. National Championships – Men's Singles, Seeds
The tournament used two lists of players for seeding the men's singles event; one list of eight U.S. players and one list of six foreign players. Henri Cochet is the champion; others show the round in which they were eliminated.


1928 U.S. National Championships – Women's Singles
First-seeded Helen Wills defeated Helen Jacobs 6–2, 6–1 in the final to win the Women's Singles tennis title at the 1928 U.S. National Championships. The event was held at the West Side Tennis Club, Forest Hills, New York City. It was Will's fifth U.S. National singles title and her second in a row.


1928 U.S. National Championships – Women's Singles, Seeds
The tournament assigned eight seeded players for the women's singles event. Helen Wills is the champion; others show in brackets the round in which they were eliminated.


1928 U.S. Open (golf)
The 1928 U.S. Open was the 32nd U.S. Open, held June 21–24 at Course No. 4 of Olympia Fields Country Club in Olympia Fields, Illinois, a suburb south of Chicago. Johnny Farrell defeated noted amateur Bobby Jones in a 36-hole playoff to win his only major title. For Jones, a two-time champion in 1923 and 1926, it was his second playoff loss at the U.S. Open in four years and his fourth finish as a runner-up. He won the next two in 1929 and 1930.


1928 U.S. Open (golf)
Jones jumped out to the 36-hole lead with rounds of 73-71, two shots ahead of George Von Elm and Bill Leach. After a 73 in the third round, Jones took a two-stroke lead over Leach and Henry Ciuci into the final round. Five strokes behind Jones was Farrell, who had recorded rounds of 77-74-71. Farrell teed off well before Jones and shot 72 and a 294 total. With Jones still on the course with the lead, Farrell did not believe he had a chance of winning.


1928 U.S. Open (golf)
In his final round, Jones was uncharacteristically erratic on holes six through ten, at seven-over-par for those five holes. He regrouped on the last eight holes and carded a 77 (+6) for 294 (+10). Gene Sarazen informed Farrell in the clubhouse that he and Jones were tied. Roland Hancock, age 21, would have won the championship by two strokes had he parred the final two holes, but he double-bogeyed 17 and bogeyed 18 to fall a shot out of the playoff.


1928 U.S. Open (golf)
This was the first year that the USGA implemented a 36-hole playoff. On the first 18, Farrell shot a 70 to Jones' 73. Beginning the second 18, however, Jones quickly got back to all square after two holes. Jones double-bogeyed the 4th to give Farrell a two-stroke lead once again, but three consecutive bogeys beginning at the 10th knocked Farrell out of the lead. Now trailing by one with six holes to play, Farrell nearly aced the par-3 13th, recording a birdie to tie up the match. At the 16th, Jones missed a short putt to give Farrell the lead.


1928 U.S. Open (golf)
At 17, Farrell hit a superb approach to 3 feet (0.9 m), while Jones was 20 feet (6 m) away. Jones made his birdie putt to put pressure on Farrell, who responded by holing out. At the par-5 18th, both Jones and Farrell recorded birdies, clinching a one-stroke victory for Farrell in the rain.


1928 U.S. Open (golf)
The next playoff at the U.S. Open was the following year, won by Jones by 23 strokes. The playoff in 1931 was tied after 36 holes, resulting in a second 36-hole playoff, which caused the USGA to return to the 18-hole format. The next playoff in 1939 was reduced back to 18 holes, but the top two competitors were tied and it went another 18 holes. Sudden-death following the round was not introduced until the 1950s, and not needed until 1990; it was used again in 1994 and 2008.


1928 U.S. Open (golf)
The four 18-hole courses at Olympia Fields were reduced to two in the late 1940s when the club sold half of its property. Course No. 4 became the North course, and the South course is a composite of holes from the other three.


1928 UCI Road World Championships
The 1928 UCI Road World Championships took place in Budapest, Hungary.


1928 UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race
The men's road race at the 1928 UCI Road World Championships was the second edition of the event. The race took place on Thursday 16 August 1928 in Budapest, Hungary. The race was won by Georges Ronsse of Belgium.


1928 UCI Track Cycling World Championships
The 1928 UCI Track Cycling World Championships were the World Championship for track cycling. They took place in Budapest, Hungary from 11 to 18 August 1928. Three events for men were contested, two for professionals and one for amateurs.


1928 UCLA Bruins football team
The 1928 UCLA Bruins football team was an American football team that represented the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) during the 1928 college football season. In their fourth year under head coach William H. Spaulding and their first as a member of the Pacific Coast Conference (PCC), the Bruins compiled a 4–4–1 record (0–4 conference), finished in ninth place in the PCC, and outscored their opponents by a combined total of 171 to 136.


1928 UK & Ireland Greyhound Racing Year
The 1928 UK & Ireland Greyhound Racing Year was the third year of greyhound racing in the United Kingdom and Ireland.


1928 UK & Ireland Greyhound Racing Year, Summary
The oval track form of greyhound racing continued to rapidly grow with numerous tracks, either in the process of being constructed or opening. The Greyhound Racing Association (GRA) continued to lead the way, opening or having a financial interest in new tracks opening in Ramsgate, Cardiff, Nottingham, Plymouth, Portsmouth, Brighton and Stoke-on-Trent. The GRA also moved venues in Leeds from Fullerton Park to Elland Road Greyhound Stadium which was literally next door.


1928 UK & Ireland Greyhound Racing Year, Summary
Other major tracks to open included three London venues; West Ham Stadium with the capacity to accommodate 100,000 spectators, Clapton Stadium designed by the famous architect Sir Owen Williams and Wimbledon Stadium which would become one of the most prominent tracks in the industry. The latter was owned by Bill (W.J) Cearns. Three tracks also opened in Wales; White City Stadium, Cardiff, White City Swansea and Cardiff Arms Park.


1928 UK & Ireland Greyhound Racing Year, Summary
The National Greyhound Racing Club (NGRC) was formed, the purpose of this organisation was to govern greyhound racing and the body would be responsible for regulation and the rules of racing that came into force on 23 April. The NGRC consisted of twelve stewards usually chosen from military or police backgrounds. The first stewards included E.A.V.Stanley, Lt General Sir Edward Bethune and Major B.D.Corbett. The rules of racing were introduced and updated annually and any track wishing to be associated with them were required to agree to the rules and apply for licences.


1928 UK & Ireland Greyhound Racing Year, Summary
Tracks that were not licensed were called independent or 'Flapping' tracks, the latter description was not welcomed by the independent tracks. Calendars were formulated containing information for all licensed personal and anyone falling foul of the rules was subject to investigation and punishment. A passport or official identity book for every greyhound was introduced and was a vital component to ensure the policing of greyhounds at every track.


1928 UK & Ireland Greyhound Racing Year, Summary
The total annual attendance across the country for 1928 increased to 13 million 695,275 from 5,656,686 (in 1927). With the rise in popularity there was also the growth of opposition to greyhound racing. In March a decision by Salford City Council to cease permitting advertisements of greyhound races on the back of tram tickets was passed by a vote of 26 to 14.


1928 UK & Ireland Greyhound Racing Year, Competitions
Six new major events were inaugurated during the year. The Cesarewitch at West Ham and St Leger at Wembley for stayers and the Scurry Gold Cup at Clapton for sprinters were introduced in London. Three national Derby competitions were started - the Scottish Greyhound Derby at Carntyne, the Welsh Derby at Welsh White City (Cardiff) and the Irish Greyhound Derby at Harolds Cross. The Welsh Derby was not considered a classic event at this stage.


1928 UK & Ireland Greyhound Racing Year, Mick the Miller
The first great champion of greyhound racing emerged when on 18 April, Mick the Miller won on debut at Shelbourne Park but was overshadowed by his brother Macoma five days later. Macoma also trained by Horan broke the world record time for 500 yards beating the existing record holder Kriesler in a time of 28.80 sec. Later in the same month the pair went to Celtic Park to contest the Abercorn Cup and during a gallop Macoma caught his leg in the mesh traps breaking his hock.


1928 UK & Ireland Greyhound Racing Year, Mick the Miller
Mick the Miller finished third in the final but made a name for himself when equaling the world record of 28.80 at Shelbourne, a race sandwiched in between the semi and final at Celtic Park. Then Mick the Miller was struck down with distemper. There were no vaccine available and his chances of survival were slim but Arthur 'Doc' Callanan, who was the manager of Shelbourne Park as well as being a qualified veterinary surgeon on site nursed him back to health. In the August, both Mick the Miller and Macoma were put up for sale by Father Brophy. Macoma was sold for 290 guineas but Mick the Millers reserve was not met, a fortunate moment for his owner Father Brophy.


1928 UK & Ireland Greyhound Racing Year, Ireland
The Irish Derby was unofficial because Harolds Cross decided to run a 'National Derby' without consulting the Irish racing authorities. This was a practice they would continue to do until the formation of classic races in 1932. Also in Ireland it was clear that the 1926 Betting Act passed by the Oireachtas, Dáil Éireann was benefitting the Irish government with funds from the tax it received from gambling. The 5% off course tax and 2.5% on course tax also seemed to be a catalyst for new track builds in Ireland. However a proposed government amendment to tax the unregulated Irish flapping tracks was defeated 66 votes to 48. In Ireland the Harolds Cross Parish Church held sermons called "The Moral Challenge of Greyhound Racing" and the "Religion and the Gambling Spirit".


1928 UK & Ireland Greyhound Racing Year, Ireland, 1928 Unofficial Irish Derby
The winner of the 1928 Irish Greyhound Derby was Tipperary Hills. On Thursday 16 August, Tipperary Hills (Billy Quinn), Curristown (John Shannon) and Happy Man won the semi finals. Tipperary Hills defeated PJ Graham's Battle Island by one length in 30.72 sec, Curristown defeated Gilly Gooly by two lengths in 30.95 sec and the third and final semi final was won by Happy Man (M Hammond) from False Favourite (C Forde) by four lengths in 31.10 sec.


1928 USC Trojans football team
The 1928 USC Trojans football team represented the University of Southern California in the 1928 college football season. The Trojans went undefeated and won the Pacific Coast Conference championship, but declined to participate in the 1929 Rose Bowl, which California attended in their place. Although the team did not attend a bowl, USC claims a national championship, and was ranked first in the Dickinson System rankings for 1928.


1928 United States House of Representatives election in Puerto Rico
The election for Resident Commissioner to the United States House of Representatives took place on November 6, 1928, the same day as the larger Puerto Rican general election and the United States elections, 1928.


1928 United States House of Representatives elections
The 1928 United States House of Representatives elections was an election for the United States House of Representatives in 1928 which coincided with the election of President Herbert Hoover.


1928 United States House of Representatives elections
The strength of the U.S. economy resulted in Hoover's Republican Party victory in the election, helping them to scoop up 32 House seats, almost all from the opposition Democratic Party, thus increasing their majority. The big business-supported wing of the Republican Party continued to cement control. Republican gains proved even larger than anticipated during this election cycle, as an internal party feud over the Prohibition issue weakened Democratic standing. Losses of several rural, Protestant Democratic seats can be somewhat linked to anti-Catholic sentiments directed toward the party's presidential candidate, Al Smith. However, this would be the last time for 68 years that a Republican House was re-elected.


1928 United States House of Representatives elections, Special elections
In these special elections, the winner was elected during 1928; ordered by election date, then by district.


1928 United States House of Representatives elections in California
The United States House of Representatives elections in California, 1928 was an election for California's delegation to the United States House of Representatives, which occurred as part of the general election of the House of Representatives on November 6, 1928. California's House delegation remained unchanged at 10 Republicans and 1 Democrat.


1928 United States House of Representatives elections in California, Results
Final results from the Clerk of the House of Representatives:


1928 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina
The 1928 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina were held on November 6, 1928 to select seven Representatives for two-year terms from the state of South Carolina. All seven incumbents were re-elected and the composition of the state delegation remained solely Democratic.


1928 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina, 1st congressional district
Incumbent Democratic Congressman Thomas S. McMillan of the 1st congressional district, in office since 1925, won the Democratic primary and was unopposed in the general election.


1928 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina, 2nd congressional district
Incumbent Democratic Congressman Butler B. Hare of the 2nd congressional district, in office since 1925, was unopposed in his bid for re-election.


1928 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina, 3rd congressional district
Incumbent Democratic Congressman Frederick H. Dominick of the 3rd congressional district, in office since 1917, was unopposed in his bid for re-election.


1928 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina, 4th congressional district
Incumbent Democratic Congressman John J. McSwain of the 4th congressional district, in office since 1921, was unopposed in his bid for re-election.


1928 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina, 5th congressional district
Incumbent Democratic Congressman William F. Stevenson of the 5th congressional district, in office since 1917, defeated Zeb V. Davidson in the Democratic primary and was unopposed in the general election.


1928 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina, 6th congressional district
Incumbent Democratic Congressman Allard H. Gasque of the 6th congressional district, in office since 1923, won the Democratic primary and was unopposed in his bid for re-election.


1928 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina, 7th congressional district
Incumbent Democratic Congressman Hampton P. Fulmer of the 7th congressional district, in office since 1921, defeated Ernest M. Dupre in the Democratic primary and was unopposed in the general election.


1928 United States House of Representatives elections in Virginia
The 1928 United States House of Representatives elections in Virginia were held on November 6, 1928 to determine who will represent the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States House of Representatives. Virginia had ten seats in the House, apportioned according to the 1920 United States Census. Representatives are elected for two-year terms.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field)
The 1928 United States Olympic Trials for track and field were held between July 3 and July 7, 1928 and decided the United States team for the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. For the first time, women's track and field was part of the Olympic program. The Trials for men and women were held separately; men competed at Harvard Stadium in Cambridge, Massachusetts on July 6 and July 7, while women competed at City Field in Newark, New Jersey on July 4. Three of the men's events were contested in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania between July 3 and July 5.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field)
Both the men's and women's Olympic Trials also served as the annual United States outdoor track and field championships. For the last time, the top four athletes in each event qualified for the Olympics; starting in 1932, every nation was limited to three entrants per event.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field)
Official world records were set in the men's meet by Morgan Taylor in the 400 m hurdles and by Ed Hamm in the long jump.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Qualifying
Athletes qualified for the men's Olympic Trials by competing in preliminary tryouts. There were 14 preliminary meetings in total, including regional tryouts and major collegiate meets (the NCAA championship and the IC4A championship both served as tryouts). So many athletes qualified for the final Olympic Trials that three or more rounds were needed in all sprinting and hurdling events; for the next Olympic Trials in 1932 a more restrictive qualifying system was adopted. Athletes who finished in the top four in their events at the final Trials qualified for the Olympic team, with some exceptions. The marathon was not part of the main Olympic Trials, and a different qualifying system based on multiple races was used for that event.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men
The men's Olympic Trials were contested at Harvard Stadium in Cambridge, Massachusetts on July 6 and July 7, except for three events (400 meters, 400 meter hurdles and decathlon) which were scheduled to be held at the Philadelphia Municipal Stadium in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on July 3 and July 4. Due to poor weather conditions, the decathlon was interrupted on July 4 and continued on July 5 at Franklin Field, also in Philadelphia.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men
The meeting doubled as the annual AAU outdoor national championship; all defending champions from 1927 returned to defend their titles, with the exception of Ville Ritola who was Finnish. Two official world records were set at the men's Trials, by Morgan Taylor in the 400 m hurdles and by Ed Hamm in the long jump; additionally, Lloyd Hahn broke the world record in the 800 m and both Ross Nichols and Steve Anderson equaled the world record in the 110 m hurdles, but their marks were not officially ratified.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men, Philadelphia
The 400 meters final was run in a storm, accounting for the very slow winning time of 51.6 seconds; both Barbuti and Snider had won their semi-finals in 48.0. Emerson "Bud" Spencer, the one-eyed Stanford University runner who had set the world record (47.0) two months earlier, was surprisingly eliminated as he only placed fifth; Spencer and the sixth finalist, Fred Alderman, were named to the Olympic 4 × 400 meter relay team. The other two Olympic relay runners were decided by an extra race for those eliminated in the semi-finals, won by George Baird ahead of John Lewis; however, Lewis was replaced with Barbuti after the latter won an Olympic gold in the individual event.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men, Philadelphia
The 400 meter hurdles final was run before the storm arrived; Morgan Taylor, the 1924 Olympic champion, set a new world record (52.0) but still only narrowly defeated Cuhel. Defending AAU champion Gibson, who held the world record in the 440 yard hurdles (52.6), placed third. The old, still listed world record for the metric hurdles (53.8 by Sten Pettersson) was broken in the heats, in the semi-finals, and by all seven men in the final.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men, Philadelphia
In the decathlon the 1928 Penn Relays were originally advertised as an Olympic qualifying event; Tony Plansky, the 1924 AAU champion, won the Penn Relays decathlon ahead of Doherty and Churchill with 7142 points. In the end, though, decathlon selections were based solely on the Philadelphia meet; Plansky was unprepared for having to qualify a second time and only placed 11th. Defending AAU champion Fait Elkins, who entered the Trials as a clear favorite, was also left out of the Olympic team; he injured himself in the first event (100 meters) and had to withdraw. An appeal by Elkins to be selected in spite of his injury was not upheld; he performed poorly in a test two weeks after the Trials, and the selectors felt he had not recovered sufficiently.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men, Philadelphia
The rain and wind that disturbed the 400 meters final interrupted the decathlon's eighth event, the pole vault; the last three events were moved to Franklin Field and contested the following day, with the pole vault restarted from scratch. Doherty, the Penn Relays runner-up, eventually won from Stewart and Berlinger; he went on to win bronze at the Olympics. Churchill received the fourth spot on the Olympic team after Elkins's appeal was rejected.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men, Cambridge, Track
In the 100 meters four rounds – heats, quarterfinals, semi-finals and the final –  were run in the space of one afternoon. Frank Wykoff, an 18-year-old high schooler, outlasted his opponents, winning all four of his races in 10.6. Defending AAU champion Charley Borah retained his title in the 200 meters; Paddock and Scholz, who placed behind him, had both been among the world's top sprinters for almost a decade and qualified for their third Olympic Games. Roland Locke, who held the world record for 220 yards (20.6), lost the fourth Olympic spot to Cumming by inches. The Americans entered the Olympic short sprints with high hopes, but did not win any medals in either the 100 meters or the 200 meters; in the 4 × 100 meter relay, the American team (Wykoff, Borah, Russell and Jimmy Quinn) won gold in 41.0.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men, Cambridge, Track
1924 Olympian Lloyd Hahn, who had won the 1928 AAU indoor title in a world best 1:51.4 (880 yards), reached the same time outdoors in the 800-meter final; his time was an outdoor world record, breaking Otto Peltzer's previous mark of 1:51.6, but was never officially ratified. In the 1500 meters, defending champion Ray Conger finished fast to set an American record of 3:55.0, with Robinson and Carter following; Orval Martin, who had been in the lead for much of the way, stumbled at the very end and dropped to fourth place.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men, Cambridge, Track
As Hahn was named to the team in this event as well, Martin missed out on an Olympic spot. In the long-distance races the American teams, while not world-beaters, were stronger timewise than the 1924 squad; Joie Ray, also entered in the marathon, set an American record in winning the 10,000 meters.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men, Cambridge, Track
There were two high-profile falls in the 110 m hurdles. Hugo "Swede" Leistner, winner of the Pacific Tryouts, fell while leading his heat; Ross Nichols, who led the semi-finals with 14.8, fell while leading the final. Nichols hit the ninth hurdle and lost his balance; as a result, he crashed into the tenth hurdle, losing his chances of making the team.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men, Cambridge, Track
There was controversy as to whether the ninth hurdle had been misplaced, causing Nichols to trip; a meeting official stated the hurdle had been correctly positioned, and was only knocked out of position when Nichols hit it, but Nichols's supporters did not accept this explanation. Steve Anderson won, equaling Nichols's semi-final time of 14.8; both times also equaled the official world record, but were never ratified.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men, Cambridge, Field
In the high jump Bob King, who was both the defending AAU champion and the 1928 NCAA champion, defeated McGinnis in a jump-off to retain his AAU title; Osborn, who was the reigning Olympic champion and held the world record of 6 ft 8 1⁄4 in (2.03 m), placed third. King went on to win gold at the Olympics, with Hedges taking the silver.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men, Cambridge, Field
McGinnis also qualified in the pole vault – a double that has never been repeated since – after defeating Jack Williams in a jump-off for the final Olympic spot. Reigning Olympic champion Barnes won from Droegemueller and Carr in a competition with a deep high-quality field; the United States was the world's leading pole vault power. Carr, Droegemueller and McGinnis swept the medals in Amsterdam.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men, Cambridge, Field
NCAA champion Ed Hamm dominated the long jump, improving Hubbard's world record of 25 ft 10 7⁄8 in (7.89 m) by a fraction of an inch. In a rarity, three individual Olympic champions qualified for the American team in the same event; Hubbard had won Olympic gold in 1924, Hamm won in Amsterdam, and Gordon went on to win in 1932. In the triple jump Levi Casey won his third consecutive AAU title; he took silver in Amsterdam, the last American to medal in the triple jump until 1976.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men, Cambridge, Field
In the shot put Herman Brix was the in-form man at the Olympic Trials; defending AAU champion Kuck had unofficially broken the shot put world record earlier in 1928, but at the Trials he only placed third. At the Olympics Kuck set an official world record, winning gold ahead of Brix. Bud Houser, the reigning Olympic champion in both the shot and the discus, concentrated on the latter event in 1928; he won at the Trials and successfully defended his Olympic title in Amsterdam, with Corson taking the bronze.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men, Cambridge, Field
The failure of defending AAU champion Eric Krenz to qualify in the discus was a surprise; he made the Olympic team in the shot, but the discus was considered his better event. Some consideration was given by team selectors to adding Krenz in the discus team or moving Anderson to the shot with Krenz in the discus, but these ideas were rejected.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men, Cambridge, Field
The hammer throw was one of the events in which the American team was not as strong as at the 1924 Games. Ed "Rip" Black, the eventual Trials winner and Olympic bronze medalist, was only fifth after the qualifying rounds and the last man to make the final; in the final he improved by almost eight feet and won. Matt McGrath, the 1912 Olympic champion, nearly qualified for his fifth consecutive Olympics; he missed fourth place by less than a foot. In the javelin the top Americans were evenly matched; IC4A champion Hines also won at the Trials, with defending AAU champion Harlow the runner-up ahead of Sager and Bartlett. None of the four made an impact in Amsterdam.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men, Marathon
In the marathon there was no clear qualifying system. Six entrants per country were allowed, and eight races had been named as Olympic tryouts; in the end, the top two from each of the three races with the highest quality were selected. Joie Ray, who also qualified in the 10,000 meters, was considered America's best Olympic hope in both events; in the Olympic marathon he was among the leaders for much of the way, but eventually dropped to fifth.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Men, Other AAU championship events
These events were not part of the Olympic Trials, but were contested at Harvard Stadium as part of the AAU national championships. Between 1911 and 1933 McDonald won the AAU weight throw championship ten times; Matt McGrath, who placed second, was a seven-time champion.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Women
With the inclusion of women's track and field in the Olympic program, women competed at the Olympic Trials for the first time in 1928. The women's Trials were held at City Field in Newark, New Jersey on July 4, 1928. Like the men's meet, the women's Trials also doubled as the national outdoor championships. Elta Cartwright of the Northern California Athletic Club was the leading star of the meet, winning the 50 yards, the 100 meters and the long jump; meeting rules prevented her from entering more events. National records were set by Maybelle Reichardt in the discus throw and Rayma Wilson in the 800 meters; in the shot put, Lillian Copeland equaled her own national record.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Women
Of the twelve events in the AAU championship program, only four were part of the Olympic Trials. The team championship was won by the Northern California Athletic Club with 52 points; Pasadena Athletic Club placed second.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Women, Trials
The 100-meter dash was Cartwright's only Trials event; she won from 16-year-old Betty Robinson, the eventual Olympic champion. Future star Stella Walsh was narrowly eliminated in the semi-finals. The 800 meters was run as a time trial with several heats; both Boeckmann in heat one and Wilson in heat three broke the previous national record. Women's middle distance races were a rarity in the United States, and the three Americans selected were not expected to make any impact in Amsterdam; MacDonald's sixth place in the Olympic final (2:22.6e) was a surprise.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Women, Trials
The high jump title was decided in a jump-off; Wiley, who went on to win bronze in Amsterdam, defeated newcomer Shiley by clearing 4 ft 11 3⁄4 in (1.52 m) a second time. Reichardt, the discus champion, had not competed since 1926 but made a comeback for the Olympics; the American record in this event was relatively easy to break, as in previous years American meets had used a heavier imperial discus.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Women, Other AAU championship events
Cartwright won two more national titles in the 50-yard dash and the long jump; she might have scored even more points, but meeting rules limited her to only three events. Northern California Athletic Club won the 4 × 110 yard relay without Cartwright, and also scored first places in the javelin and baseball throws; in the baseball throw the top three (Hartwick, Jenkins and Gloria Russell) were all Northern California athletes. Lillian Copeland of Pasadena Athletic Club, who won silver in the discus in Amsterdam, equaled her own American record for the eight-pound (3.63 kg) shot.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Selections and appeals
The principle that the top four finishers in each event would be selected for the Olympics was not followed completely strictly. Lloyd Hahn, who only took part in the 800 meters at the Trials, was selected for the Olympics in both that event and the 1500 meters; Orval Martin, who had placed fourth in the 1500 meters, was left out of the Olympic team.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Selections and appeals
Although Hahn was seen as a potential Olympic champion in both the 800 and 1500 meters, the move was still criticized, and failed to pay off as he underperformed in Amsterdam; Avery Brundage, then president of the American Olympic Association, cited the Hahn case as a reason not to give star athletes any special treatment at the next Olympic Trials.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Selections and appeals
In the 10,000 meters Verne Booth and Johnny Zola, who placed third and fourth at the Trials, were left out of the team as too weak; Zola traveled to Amsterdam at his own expense, hoping the selectors would change their mind. American officials did eventually enter him, but the deadline for entries had already passed, and he was not allowed to compete. In the end, the American team in the 10,000 meters consisted of the Trials top two (Joie Ray and John Romig) and 5000-meter runner Macauley Smith, with no fourth entrant.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Selections and appeals
A number of athletes who had placed outside the top four at the Trials and not been selected also attempted to appeal their non-selection. The New York Athletic Club sponsored the trips of decathlete Fait Elkins, sprinter Roland Locke, hurdler Weems Baskin and hammer thrower Matt McGrath to Europe. The appeal of Elkins, who was America's best decathlete but had injured himself at the Trials, was taken seriously; it was only rejected after a test of form in mid-July indicated he had not recovered from his injury.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Selections and appeals
Locke, who held the 220 yards world record, would have qualified in the 200 meters if Charley Paddock had not been cleared of accusations of professionalism; at the time, only amateur athletes were allowed to compete in the Olympics. Paddock's amateur status was challenged after the Trials, and two committees voted to exclude him from the team, but he was reinstated before the final selections were made.


1928 United States Olympic Trials (track and field), Selections and appeals
Hurdler Ross Nichols appealed on the grounds that he had hit a misplaced hurdle in the final; his appeal was turned down as meeting officials denied the hurdle had been misplaced, and footage of the race failed to support Nichols. Sprinter Frank Hussey and hurdlers Hugo Leistner and Clyde Blanchard travelled to Amsterdam as stowaways aboard the U.S. team's ship, the SS President Roosevelt; like the other rejected athletes, they were not allowed to run at the Olympics but could take part in other European meets.


1928 United States Senate election in Arizona
The 1928 United States Senate elections in Arizona took place on November 6, 1928. Incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator Henry F. Ashurst ran for reelection to a fourth term, defeating Republican nominee former U.S. Senator Ralph H. Cameron in the general election. Cameron was defeated in the previous election year, in 1926, by then-U.S. Congressman Carl T. Hayden, leading Cameron to decide to challenge Ashurst in order to return to the United States Senate.


1928 United States Senate election in California
The 1928 United States Senate election in California was held on November 6, 1928. Incumbent Republican Senator Hiram Johnson was re-elected to his third term in office. He defeated Democrat Minor Moore and Prohibition Party nominee Los Angeles City Councilman Charles H. Randall.


1928 United States Senate election in California, Primaries, Democratic primary, Results
Judge Minor Moore was unopposed on the ballot, but some primary voters wrote in Hiram Johnson or Charles Randall.


1928 United States Senate election in Connecticut
The 1928 United States Senate election in Connecticut was held on November 6, 1928. Incumbent Republican Senator George P. McLean was not a candidate for re-election. In his place, Republican State Senator Frederic C. Walcott won the seat against  former U.S. Representative Augustine Lonergan.


1928 United States Senate election in Connecticut, Aftermath
Lonergan would win an election to Connecticut's other Senate seat in 1932; he and Walcott served as colleagues in the Senate from 1933 to 1935.


1928 United States Senate election in Delaware
The 1928 United States Senate election in Delaware took place on November 6, 1928. Incumbent Republican U.S. Senator Thomas F. Bayard Jr. ran for a second term in office, but was defeated by Republica former Governor John G. Townsend Jr. in a landslide.


1928 United States Senate election in Florida
The 1928 United States Senate election in Florida was held on November 6, 1928.


1928 United States Senate election in Florida
Incumbent Democratic Senator Park Trammell defeated a primary challenge from Governor of Florida John W. Martin and was re-elected to a third term in office over Republican Barclay Warburton.


1928 United States Senate election in Indiana
The 1928 United States Senate election in Indiana took place on November 6, 1928. Incumbent Republican U.S. Senator Arthur Robinson, who had been appointed and elected to finish the unexpired term of Samuel Ralston, was re-elected to a full term in office.


1928 United States Senate election in Maine
The 1928 United States Senate election in Maine was held on September 10, 1928.


1928 United States Senate election in Maine
Incumbent Republican Senator Frederick Hale was re-elected to a third term in office, defeating Governor Owen Brewster in the primary. Hale won the general election in a landslide.


1928 United States Senate election in Maryland
The 1928 United States Senate election in Maryland was held on November 5, 1928.


1928 United States Senate election in Maryland
Incumbent Democratic Senator William Cabell Bruce ran for re-election to a second term in office, but was defeated by Republican former Governor Phillips Lee Goldsborough, who had been a failed candidate for Senate in 1916.


1928 United States Senate election in Massachusetts
The 1928 United States Senate election in Massachusetts was held on November 6, 1928, with Democratic incumbent David I. Walsh defeating his challengers.


1928 United States Senate election in Minnesota
The 1928 United States Senate election in Minnesota took place on November 6, 1928. Incumbent Farmer–Labor U.S. Senator Henrik Shipstead defeated his Republican challenger, former St. Paul mayor Arthur E. Nelson, to win a second term.


1928 United States Senate election in Missouri
The 1928 United States Senate election in Missouri was held on November 6, 1928. Incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator James A. Reed did not run for re-election to a third term. Republican U.S. Representative Roscoe Patterson defeated Democrat Charles Hay to win the open seat.


1928 United States Senate election in Montana
The 1928 United States Senate election in Montana took place on November 6, 1928. Incumbent United States Senator Burton K. Wheeler, who was first elected to the Senate in 1922, ran for re-election. After successfully defeating several challengers in the Democratic primary, Wheeler advanced to the general election, where he faced Republican nominee Joseph M. Dixon, the former Governor of Montana who had previously served in the United States Senate from 1907 to 1913. Though the election was closer than Wheeler's first election, he still managed to defeat Dixon to win his second term in the Senate.


1928 United States Senate election in Nebraska
The 1928 United States Senate election in Nebraska took place on November 6, 1928. The incumbent Republican, Robert B. Howell, was re-elected by a wide margin to a second term. He defeated Richard Lee Metcalfe. Howell underperformed Herbert Hoover, who won the state with 63.19% in the presidential election.


1928 United States Senate election in New Jersey
The United States Senate election of 1928 in New Jersey was held on November 6, 1928. Incumbent Democratic Senator Edward I. Edwards ran for re-election to a second term in office, but was defeated by Hamilton Fish Kean in a landslide. This was the third of four straight elections to this seat in which the incumbents were defeated.


1928 United States Senate election in New York
The United States Senate election of 1928 in New York was held on November 6, 1928. Incumbent Democratic Senator Royal S. Copeland was re-elected to a second term, defeating Republican Alanson B. Houghton.


1928 United States Senate election in New York, Democratic nomination, Convention
After speeches celebrating Copeland's support for tolerance for Catholics and immigration reform, his renomination was carried by acclamation.


1928 United States Senate election in Ohio
The 1928 United States Senate election in Ohio took place on November 6, 1928. Incumbent Republican Senator Simeon Fess was re-elected to a second term in office over Democratic Director of Agriculture Charles Truax.


1928 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania
The 1928 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania was held on November 6, 1928. Incumbent Republican U.S. Senator David A. Reed successfully sought re-election to another term, defeating Democratic nominee William N. McNair.


1928 United States Senate election in Tennessee
The 1928 United States Senate election in Tennessee was held on November 6, 1928. Incumbent Democratic Senator Kenneth McKellar was re-elected to a third term in office, defeating Republican Mayor of Knoxville James A. Fowler.


1928 United States Senate election in Texas
The 1928 United States Senate election in Texas was held on November 6, 1928. Incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator Earle Mayfield ran for re-election to a second term, but lost the Democratic primary to U.S. Representative Tom Connally. Connally went on to easily win the general election.


1928 United States Senate election in Vermont
The 1928 United States Senate election in Vermont took place on November 6, 1928. Incumbent Republican Frank L. Greene successfully ran for re-election to another term in the United States Senate, defeating Democratic candidate Fred C. Martin. Greene died in December 1930 and Frank C. Partridge was appointed to fill the seat until a special election could be held in March 1931.


1928 United States Senate election in Virginia
The 1928 United States Senate election in Virginia was held on November 6, 1928. Incumbent Senator Claude A. Swanson was re-elected to a fourth term. This is the most recent U.S. Senate election in Virginia history when a candidate ran completely unopposed.


1928 United States Senate election in Washington
The 1928 United States Senate election in Washington was held on November 6, 1928. Incumbent Democrat Clarence Dill was re-elected to a second term in office over Republican Chief Justice Kenneth Mackintosh.


1928 United States Senate election in Wisconsin
The 1928 United States Senate election in Wisconsin was held on November 6, 1928.


1928 United States Senate election in Wisconsin
Incumbent Republican U.S. Senator Robert La Follette Jr., who had won a special election to finish his late father's term in 1925, was elected to a full term in office.


1928 United States Senate election in Wisconsin
La Follette had to fend off two challenges from his own party, defeating George W. Mead in the party primary and Republican State Senator William H. Markham in the general election. Markham ran as a pro-Hoover "Regular Republican."


1928 United States Senate election in Wisconsin, General election, Campaign
Democratic nominee M.K. Reilly dropped out of the race on October 8.


1928 United States Senate election in Wyoming
The 1928 United States Senate election in Wyoming took place on November 6, 1928. Democratic Senator John B. Kendrick ran for re-election to a third term. He faced Republican Congressman Charles E. Winter in the general election, and a competitive general election ensued. Kendrick ended up winning re-election by a narrow margin, with Winters's campaign likely assisted by the strong performance of Herbert Hoover in that year's presidential election. Kendrick's third term would turn out to be his last; he died while in office on November 3, 1933, about a year until the seat would next be up. Joseph C. O'Mahoney was appointed to serve out the remainder of Kendrick's term and would end up winning the ensuing election in 1934.


1928 United States Senate elections
The United States Senate elections of 1928 were elections that coincided with the presidential election of Republican Herbert Hoover. The strong economy helped the Republicans to gain seven seats from the Democrats.


1928 United States Senate elections
Senate Majority leader, Republican Charles Curtis of Kansas, was not up for election this cycle, but he was elected U.S. Vice President. He resigned March 3, 1929, so his seat was vacant at the beginning of the next Congress (March 4, 1929) until April 1, 1929, when a Republican was appointed to continue the term.


1928 United States Senate elections, Gains and losses
Republicans gained one seat from a Democratic incumbent appointee who had lost nomination:


1928 United States Senate elections, Race summary, Special elections during the 70th Congress
In these special elections, the winner were seated during 1928; ordered by election date.


1928 United States Senate elections, Race summary, Elections leading to the 71st Congress
In these general elections, the winners were elected for the term beginning March 4, 1929; ordered by state.


1928 United States Senate elections, Race summary, Elections leading to the 71st Congress
All of the elections involved the Class 1 seats, unless otherwise indicated.


1928 United States Senate elections, Michigan
On March 31, 1928, Governor Fred W. Green appointed 44-year-old Republican Arthur H. Vandenberg to fill the vacancy, pending a special election. Green considered resigning so he could be appointed to the vacancy. He also considered several other candidates, including former governors Albert Sleeper and Chase Osborn. In addition, Green considered Representative Joseph W. Fordney, who would have been a placeholder until the election for the remainder of Ferris' term. Green finally decided upon Vandenberg, who immediately declared his intention to stand for election to both the short, unexpired term and the full six-year term. Both the special and the general elections were held the same day, November 6, 1928.


1928 United States Senate elections, New Mexico
Two-term Democrat Andrieus A. Jones died December 20, 1927. Republican Bronson M. Cutting was appointed December 29, 1927 to continue the term, pending a special election in which he was not a candidate.


1928 United States Senate elections, New Mexico, New Mexico (Special)
Larrazolo was not a candidate, however, for the next term. After leaving office, Larrazolo died on April 7, 1930.


1928 United States Senate elections, New Mexico, New Mexico (Regular)
Cutting would be re-elected in 1934 but died May 6, 1935.


1928 United States Senate elections, Ohio
There were 2 elections due to the March 30, 1928 death of Republican Frank B. Willis.


1928 United States Senate elections, Ohio, Ohio (Special)
Democrat Cyrus Locher was appointed April 5, 1928 to continue the term, pending the special election, in which he lost his party's nomination.


1928 United States Senate elections, Ohio, Ohio (Special)
Burton, in turn, died October 28, 1929, triggering another interim appointment and special election before the 1933 end of the term.


1928 United States Senate elections in Michigan
The 1928 United States Senate election in Michigan was held on November 6, 1928 alongside a special election to the same seat.


1928 United States Senate elections in Michigan
Democratic Senator Woodbridge Ferris died in office in March 1928. Governor Fred W. Green appointed newspaper publisher Arthur H. Vandenberg to fill Ferris's seat until a successor could be duly elected. Vandenberg won both the special election to complete Ferris's term and the regularly scheduled 1928 election, both held on November 6.


1928 United States Senate special election in Illinois
The 1928 United States Senate special election in Illinois took place on November 6, 1928. The election was held due to the U.S. Senate's refusal to seat 1926 election winner, Republican Frank L. Smith, due to allegations of election fraud. The election saw the election of Republican Otis F. Glenn.


1928 United States Senate special election in Illinois, Election information
The primaries and general election coincided with those for federal elections (president and House) and those for state elections. Primaries were held April 10, 1928.


1928 United States Senate special election in Illinois, Republican primary, Campaign
The Illinois Republican primaries of 1928 were plagued with electoral violence, and were dubbed the "Pineapple Primary".


1928 United States Senate special election in Illinois, Republican primary, Campaign
Chicago mayor William Hale Thompson backed Smith for Senate, while Charles S. Deneen, who held Illinois' other U.S. Senate seat, backed Glenn. Thomspon and Deneen controlled rival factions of the state's Republican Party. Thomspson's faction was vastly dominant at the time.


1928 United States Senate special election in Ohio
The 1928 United States Senate special election in Ohio was held on November 6, 1928 to elect a successor to Frank B. Willis, who died in office in March 1928. Republican U.S. Representative Theodore E. Burton, who previously held this seat from 1909 to 1915, won the open race to succeed him.


1928 United States Senate special election in Ohio, Background
Incumbent Republican Senator Frank B. Willis died in office on March 30, 1928. Governor of Ohio Vic Donahey appointed Cyrus Locher to fill the vacant seat until a successor could be duly elected. The special election to fill the seat was scheduled for November 6, 1928, concurrent with the general election for President of the United States, Governor, and Ohio's other U.S. Senate seat.


1928 United States elections
The 1928 United States elections was held on November 6. In the last election before the start of the Great Depression, the Republican Party retained control of the presidency and bolstered their majority in both chambers of Congress.


1928 United States elections
Republican former Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover defeated Democratic nominee New York Governor Al Smith. Hoover won a landslide victory, taking several Southern states and winning almost every state outside the South. Democrats suffered from voter prejudice against Roman Catholics like Smith. As incumbent President Calvin Coolidge declined to seek re-election, Hoover won the Republican nomination on the first ballot. Like Hoover, Smith also won his party's nomination on the first ballot.


1928 United States elections
The Republicans gained thirty-two seats in the House of Representatives, furthering a majority over the Democrats. The Republicans also increased a majority in the Senate, gaining eight seats.


1928 United States gubernatorial elections
United States gubernatorial elections were held in 1928, in 35 states, concurrent with the House, Senate elections and presidential election, on November 6, 1928 (September 10 in Maine).


1928 United States presidential election
The 1928 United States presidential election was the 36th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 6, 1928. Republican Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover defeated the Democratic nominee, Governor Al Smith of New York. Hoover was the last Republican to win a presidential election until 1952. As of the 2020 election, this is the last time that the party of the incumbent president won without their nominee being the incumbent president or the incumbent vice president.


1928 United States presidential election
After President Calvin Coolidge declined to seek reelection, Hoover emerged as his party's frontrunner. As Hoover's party opponents failed to unite around a candidate, Hoover received a large majority of the vote at the 1928 Republican National Convention. The strong state of the economy discouraged some Democrats from running, and Smith was nominated on the first ballot of the 1928 Democratic National Convention. Hoover and Smith had been widely known as potential presidential candidates long before the 1928 campaign, and both were generally regarded as outstanding leaders. Both were newcomers to the presidential race and presented in their person and record an appeal of unknown potency to the electorate. Both faced serious discontent within their respective parties' membership, and both lacked the wholehearted support of their parties' organization.


1928 United States presidential election
In the end, the Republicans were identified with the booming economy of the 1920s, and Smith, a Roman Catholic, suffered politically from anti-Catholic prejudice, his opposition to Prohibition, and his association with the legacy of corruption by Tammany Hall. Hoover won a third straight Republican landslide and made substantial inroads in the traditionally-Democratic Solid South by winning several states that had not voted for a Republican since the end of Reconstruction. Hoover's victory made him the first president born west of the Mississippi River, and he is the most recent sitting member of the Cabinet to win a presidential election. The election of Charles Curtis as the vice president alongside Hoover marked Curtis as the first Native American and first person with acknowledged non-European ancestry to reach either of the highest offices in the federal executive branch.


1928 United States presidential election
With Hoover's victory, this cycle marked the last time until 1988 in which Republicans have won the presidency three consecutive times. This is also the most recent occasion in which three different presidential nominees from the same party have won the presidency in a row.


1928 United States presidential election, Nominations, Republican Party nomination
With President Calvin Coolidge choosing not to enter the race, the race for the nomination was wide open. The leading candidates were Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, former Illinois Governor Frank Orren Lowden and Senate Majority Leader Charles Curtis. A movement to draft Coolidge failed to gain traction with party insiders or even to persuade Coolidge himself.


1928 United States presidential election, Nominations, Republican Party nomination
In the few primaries that mattered, Hoover did not perform as well as expected, and it was thought that President Coolidge or Vice President Charles G. Dawes might accept a draft in case of a deadlock, but Lowden withdrew just as the convention was about to start, which paved the way for a Hoover victory.


1928 United States presidential election, Nominations, Republican Party nomination
The Republican Convention was held in Kansas City, Missouri, from June 12 to 15 and nominated Hoover on the first ballot. With Hoover disinclined to interfere in the selection of his running mate, the party leaders were at first partial to giving Dawes a shot at a second term, but when that information leaked, Coolidge sent an angry telegram that said that he would consider a second nomination for Dawes, whom he hated, a "personal affront." To attract votes from farmers who were concerned about Hoover's pro-business orientation, the nomination was instead offered to Curtis. He accepted and was nominated overwhelmingly on the first ballot. Curtis was the first candidate of Native American ancestry nominated by a major party for national office.


1928 United States presidential election, Nominations, Republican Party nomination
In his acceptance speech eight weeks after the convention ended, Hoover said: "We in America today are nearer to the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of this land... We shall soon with the help of God be in sight of the day when poverty will be banished from this land." That sentence would haunt Hoover during the Great Depression.


1928 United States presidential election, Nominations, Democratic Party nomination
The memory of the Teapot Dome scandal was rapidly fading, and the current state of prosperity making the party's prospects looked dim. Most of the major Democratic leaders, such as William Gibbs McAdoo, were therefore content to sit out the election. One who did not do so was New York Governor Al Smith, who had made two attempts to secure the Democratic nomination.


1928 United States presidential election, Nominations, Democratic Party nomination
The 1928 Democratic National Convention was held in Houston, Texas, on June 26 to 28, and Smith became the candidate on the first ballot.


1928 United States presidential election, Nominations, Democratic Party nomination
The leadership asked the delegates to nominate Senator Joseph Taylor Robinson of Arkansas, in many ways Smith's political polar opposite, to be his running mate, and Robinson was nominated for vice-president.


1928 United States presidential election, Nominations, Democratic Party nomination
Smith was the first Roman Catholic to gain a major party's nomination for president, and his religion became an issue during the campaign. Many Protestants feared that Smith would take orders from church leaders in the Vatican in making decisions affecting the country.


1928 United States presidential election, Nominations, Prohibition Party nomination
The Prohibition Party Convention was held in Chicago from July 10 to 12. Smith openly opposed Prohibition. Some members of the Prohibition Party wanted to throw their support to Hoover since they thought that their candidate would not win and did not want their candidate to provide the margin by which Smith would win. Nonetheless, William F. Varney was nominated for president over Hoover by a margin of 68–45.


1928 United States presidential election, General election, Fall campaign
Anti - Catholicism was a significant problem for Smith's campaign. Protestant ministers warned that he would take orders from the Pope, who many Americans sincerely believed would move to the United States to rule the country from a fortress in Washington, DC. A popular joke of the time was that Smith sent a one-word telegram after the election to Pope Pius XI saying, "Unpack." Beyond the conspiracy theories, a survey of 8,500 Southern Methodist Church ministers found only four who supported Smith, and the northern Methodists, Southern Baptists, and Disciples of Christ were similar in their opposition. Many voters who sincerely rejected bigotry and the anti-Catholic Ku Klux Klan, which had declined during the 1920s until the 1928 campaign revived it, justified their opposition to Smith on their belief that the Catholic Church was an "un-American" and "alien culture" that opposed freedom and democracy.


1928 United States presidential election, General election, Fall campaign
An example was a statement issued in September 1928 by the National Lutheran Editors' and Managers' Association that opposed Smith's election. The manifesto, written by Dr. Clarence Reinhold Tappert, warned about "the peculiar relation in which a faithful Catholic stands and the absolute allegiance he owes to a 'foreign sovereign' who does not only 'claim' supremacy also in secular affairs as a matter of principle and theory but who, time and again, has endeavored to put this claim into practical operation."


1928 United States presidential election, General election, Fall campaign
The Catholic Church, the manifesto asserted, was hostile to American principles of separation of church and state and of religious toleration. Groups circulated a million copies of a counterfeit oath, claiming that fourth-degree Knights of Columbus members swore to exterminate Freemasons and Protestants and to commit violence against anyone if the church ordered. Smith's opposition to Prohibition, a key reform promoted by Protestants, also lost him votes, as did his association with Tammany Hall. Because many anti-Catholics used the issues to cover for their religious prejudices, Smith's campaign had difficulty denouncing anti-Catholicism as bigotry without offending others who favored Prohibition or disliked Tammany corruption.


1928 United States presidential election, General election, Fall campaign
Those issues made Smith lose several states of the Solid South that had been carried by Democrats since Reconstruction. However, in many southern states with sizable African American populations, the vast majority of whom could not vote due to poll taxes, restricted primaries, and hostile local election officials, it was widely believed that Hoover supported integration or at least was not committed to maintaining segregation. This overcame opposition to Smith's campaign in areas with large nonvoting black populations. Mississippi Governor Theodore G. Bilbo claimed that Hoover had met with a black member of the Republican National Committee and danced with her. Hoover's campaign quickly denied the "untruthful and ignoble assertion."


1928 United States presidential election, General election, Fall campaign
Smith's religion helped him with Roman Catholic New England immigrants, especially Irish-Americans and Italian-Americans, which may have explained his narrow victories in traditionally-Republican Massachusetts and Rhode Island and his narrow loss in his home state of New York, where previous Democratic presidential candidates had lost by double digits, but Smith lost by only 2%.


1928 United States presidential election, General election, Results
The total vote exceeded that of 1924 by nearly eight million, which was nearly twice the vote cast in 1916 and nearly three times that of 1896. Every section in the Union increased its vote although the Mountain, East South Central and West South Central States did so least of all. The greatest increases were in the heavily populated (Northeastern) Mid -Atlantic and East North Central States, where more than 4,250,000 more votes were cast, more than half of the nationwide increase. There was an increase of over a million each in New York and Pennsylvania.


1928 United States presidential election, General election, Results
Hoover won the election by a wide margin on pledges to continue the economic boom of the Coolidge years. He received more votes than any previous candidate of the Republican Party in every state except five: Rhode Island, Iowa, North Dakota, South Carolina, and Tennessee. The Hoover vote was greater than the Coolidge vote in 2,932 counties; it was less in 143 of the comparable counties.


1928 United States presidential election, General election, Results
The 21,400,000 votes cast for Hoover also touched the high-water mark for all votes for a presidential candidate until then and were an increase of more than 5,500,000 over the Coolidge vote four years earlier. The Republican ticket made substantial inroads in the South: the heaviest Democratic losses were in the three Southern sections (South Atlantic, East South Central, West South Central).


1928 United States presidential election, General election, Results
The losses included 215 counties that had never before supported a Republican presidential candidate, distributed as follows: Alabama (14), Arkansas (5), Florida (22), Georgia (4), Kentucky (28), Maryland (3), Mississippi (1), Missouri (10), North Carolina (16), Tennessee (3), Texas (64), Virginia (26), West Virginia (4). In Georgia, eight counties recorded more votes cast for "anti-Smith" electors than either major-party candidate,.


1928 United States presidential election, General election, Results
The electoral votes of North Carolina and Virginia had not been awarded to a Republican since 1872, and Florida had not been carried by a Republican since the heavily disputed election of 1876. Texas was carried by a Republican for the first time in its history, which left Georgia as the only remaining state never carried by a Republican presidential candidate. Georgia would not be won by a Republican until 1964 when Barry Goldwater carried the Peach State. Smith carried traditionally Democratic Alabama by barely 7,000 votes. In all, Smith carried only six of the eleven states of the former Confederacy, the fewest carried by a Democratic candidate since the end of Reconstruction.


1928 United States presidential election, General election, Results
Smith polled more votes than had any previous Democratic candidate in 30 of the 48 states, all but Alabama, Colorado, Delaware, Idaho, Kansas, Kentucky, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, and Washington. In only four of them (Tennessee, Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico) did Smith receive fewer votes than John W. Davis had in 1924.


1928 United States presidential election, General election, Results
Smith received nearly as many votes as Coolidge had in 1924, and his vote exceeded Davis's by more than 6,500,000. The Democratic vote was greater than in 1924 in 2080 counties and fell in 997 counties. In only one section did the Democratic vote drop below 38%, the Pacific, which was the only one in which the Republican vote exceeded 60%. However, the Democrats made gains in five sections; of those counties, fourteen had never been Democratic and seven had been Democratic only once.


1928 United States presidential election, General election, Results
The size and the nature of the distribution of the Democratic vote illustrated Smith's strengths and weaknesses as a candidate. Despite evidence of an increased Democratic vote, Smith's overwhelming defeat in the electoral college and the retention of so few Democratic counties reflected Hoover's greater appeal. Smith won the electoral votes of only the Deep South of the Democratic Solid South, Robinson's home state of Arkansas, and the New England states of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, both of which had a large proportion of Catholic voters.


1928 United States presidential election, General election, Results
His 87 electoral votes were the fewest that a Democratic candidate had won since the 80 votes earned by Horatio Seymour in 1868. Hoover even carried Smith's home state of New York by a narrow margin. Smith carried 914 counties, the fewest in the Fourth Party System. The Republican total leaped to 2,174 counties, a larger number than even the 1920 landslide.


1928 United States presidential election, General election, Results
Third-party support sank almost to the vanishing point, as the election of 1928 proved to be a two-party contest to a greater extent than any other in the Fourth Party System. Until the major split before the 1948 election in the Democratic Party between Southern Democrats and the more liberal Northern faction, no further significant third-party candidacies as seen in 1912 and 1924 were to occur. All "other" votes totaled only 1.08 percent of the national popular vote. The Socialist vote sank to 267,478, and in seven states, there were no Socialist votes.