1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania
After the Sejny Uprising, a Polish revolt against the Lithuanian authorities in one of the disputed border regions, Lithuanian intelligence intensified its investigation of the Polish minority and sympathizers in Lithuania, and uncovered the planned coup. The Lithuanians, not knowing the membership of the PMO, arrested numerous Polish activists and destabilized the PMO network enough to prevent the coup attempt. Later the full membership list was obtained and the PMO in Lithuania was dissolved. The coup further strained Polish–Lithuanian relations.


1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania, Background
Poland and Lithuania formed one state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, from the Union of Lublin in 1569 to the Third Partition in 1795. Both Poland and Lithuania regained their independence in the aftermath of World War I, but both soon became engaged in territorial disputes over the Suwałki and Vilnius Regions. During the Polish–Soviet War, Poland launched an offensive against the Soviet Union and captured Vilnius (Wilno) during the Vilna offensive in April 1919.


1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania, Background
Lithuanians described Vilnius as their historical capital and an integral part of the ethnographic Lithuania, while to the Poles, because of its large Polish population, it was a Polish city. Poland's Chief of State Józef Piłsudski sought a union with Lithuania in hopes of reviving the old Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (see Międzymorze federation). The Lithuanians believed they would lose their sovereignty under the proposed federation and wanted their own national state. Although Polish–Lithuanian relations were not immediately hostile, they grew worse as each side refused to compromise.


1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania, Background
As tensions rose, Lithuania asked the Allied Supreme Council to intervene, and it proposed two demarcation lines to prevent open hostilities, drawn in June and July 1919 (the second one was known as the Foch Line). However, Poland ignored both lines and advanced deeper into the Lithuanian-controlled territory. Faced with pressure from the Entente, Polish Chief of State Józef Piłsudski, who was significantly involved in planning of the coup, did not want open Polish–Lithuanian hostilities, which could lead to much bloodshed and even greater tensions between Poland and Lithuania. Instead, since he thought there were enough Polish sympathizers in Lithuania to stage a coup d'etat, he decided to plan one to topple the Lithuanian government.


1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania, Preparations
The planning began mid-July, 1919. At the time Poland signed a ceasefire in the Polish–Ukrainian War; Lithuania was invaded by the Bermontians from the north and the Saxon Volunteers were leaving the Lithuanian Army. Piłsudski was planning to use a network of the Polish Military Organization (PMO), an underground organization he created during World War I for diversionary and intelligence operations-like purposes. On July 31, Piłsudski and Polish diplomat Leon Wasilewski arrived at Vilnius, then controlled by Poland. Piłsudski's visit had no clear explanation.


1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania, Preparations
He later said that he arrived to negotiate with Lithuanians, led by Augustinas Voldemaras, while Lithuanian historian Vytautas Lesčius suggests he was holding talks with pro-Polish estate owners from the Vilnius Region. On August 3, Wasilewski arrived at Kaunas, the temporary capital of Lithuania, to negotiate with Prime Minister Mykolas Sleževičius. The Polish mission declared that Poland had no plans to annex Lithuania and proposed a plebiscite in the contested territories, allowing local inhabitants to determine their future. The Lithuanians replied that the disputed territories were an integral part of Lithuania and rejected the idea of a plebiscite. Negotiations broke down and Wasilewski left Kaunas on August 7. The negotiations were then used to evaluate viability of the coup, the preparedness of the PMO, and the attitude of Lithuanian diplomats towards a union with Poland.


1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania, Preparations
After the failure Wasilewski's diplomatic mission, Polish newspapers increased their anti-Lithuanian propaganda. They said that the Council of Lithuania was a pro-German puppet, ignoring popular wishes for a union with Poland as such union would break German influence in the state. The Polish media further reported on growing anti-government sentiment among the Lithuanians. This information was in line with the Polish plans to present the coup as an initiative by the local population to free Lithuania from German domination. While the plotters counted on military intervention by regular Polish troops, the Polish government maintained it had not inspired the coup.


1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania, Preparations
The official goal of the Polish plan was to "1) create an independent Lithuania, powerful, truly democratic, connected voluntarily with Poland in a union, with as much internal autonomy as possible and 2) acceptance of the Polish minority in Lithuania as a partner in the Lithuanian government and recognition of the Polish language as equal to the Lithuanian language in Lithuania."


1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania, Preparations
The PMO recruited Lithuanian activists Stanisław Narutowicz, Juozas Gabrys, Jurgis Aukštuolaitis, and Klemensas Vaitiekūnas. On August 20–22, 1919, Wasilewski and Tadeusz Kasprzycki together with Narutowicz and Aukštuolaitis planned out the coup details. During the coup, scheduled for the night from August 28 to 29, the rebels were to capture Kaunas and hold it until the arrival of the Polish regular units invited  to protect the city. The Council of Lithuania and the Lithuanian government was to be  deposed and replaced by a pro-Polish cabinet.


1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania, Preparations
General Silvestras Žukauskas was to be installed as a military dictator of the new Lithuanian government, with Aukštuolaitis as his second-in-command and Narutowicz as the head of the civilian government. General Žukauskas, then chief commander of the Lithuanian forces, was not aware of the coup, but was known for his generally friendly attitude towards Poland and was expected to support the aftermath. Other posts were reserved for Mykolas Biržiška, Jonas Vileišis, Steponas Kairys, Juozas Tūbelis and others, similarly unaware of the coup. Aukštuolaitis was given 800,000 and promised another 300,000 German marks to finance the coup.


1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania, Coup discovered
Eventually, the uprising was doomed by poor communication and the overeagerness of some of the PMO activists. Piłsudski failed to discourage local PMO activists from carrying out the Sejny Uprising in the Suwałki Region. The local PMO disregarded his recommendations and launched the uprising, which while locally successful, led to the failure of the nationwide coup. PMO members in Lithuania stated that the Sejny uprising had damaged their reputation, and many of its former supporters rejected calls by PMO recruiters.


1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania, Coup discovered
The initial coup was postponed to September 1, 1919. However, some PMO units began their actions (cutting telegraph wires, damaging railways, etc.) as scheduled previously – on the night of August 27 to 28. The Lithuanian intelligence intercepted and decoded the order to delay the coup. They had known before that Poles were plotting, but did not know who and when. The Lithuanian government was informed about the cut telegraph wires and intercepted order in the morning of August 28. However, the government did not consider the threat real and did not take appropriate action.


1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania, Coup discovered
A group of 18 Lithuanian Army officers, with tacit approval from Sleževičius, took the initiative. Afraid that PMO members infiltrated the military, they secretly decided to begin mass arrests of Polish supporters on the night from August 28 to 29. Since they did not know who exactly was behind the conspiracy, the Lithuanians arrested more prominent Polish activists in Kaunas. Several dozen Poles were arrested the first night, including Aukštuolaitis and 23 Polish officers serving in the Lithuanian Army. By the second night the number of arrested Poles grew to 200. Kaunas was declared under a state of siege. The Polish press noted mass arrests of Polish activists "to whom no charge can be ascribed other than being Poles" and concluded that this was proof of the systematic anti-Polish policies of the German-ridden Lithuanian government.


1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania, Coup discovered
Because the Lithuanians did not have a list of PMO members, they did not arrest the main leaders. Also, provincial PMO branches remained intact. Therefore, on September 17, 1919, new orders were issued scheduling the second coup attempt for the end of September. This attempt was also discovered. A Lithuanian woman succeeded in convincing Petras Vrubliauskas, PMO deputy commander in Vilnius, to transfer the PMO document archive to the Lithuanians. On September 21, the Lithuanians obtained a full list of PMO members and supporters and arrested them in the following days. The PMO branch in Lithuania ceased to function and was liquidated.


1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania, Aftermath and evaluation
The Lithuanians charged 117 persons during a military trial on December 11–24, 1920. Six leaders received life sentences. Other sentences ranged from 15 years to 8 months in prison. At least 15 individuals were acquitted. By 1928 there were no PMO members in Lithuanian prisons: some were exchanged for Lithuanian prisoners or released early. General Žukauskas was removed from his post as the commander of the Lithuanian Army and had to battle the perceived friendliness to Poland for much of his further career. The Polish government initially denied that there was any coup; later it admitted that locals planned an uprising, but claimed it had no part in it. The coup further strained the Polish–Lithuanian relations, making Lithuanians even more uncompromising and afraid of Polish annexation.


1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania, Aftermath and evaluation
The planned coup was criticized by historians as unrealistic for the following reasons. Piłsudski's plan was based on false assumptions and faulty intelligence, which incorrectly indicated that the Sleževičius government was deeply unpopular, and that the general Lithuanian population was relatively friendly to Poland.


1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania, Aftermath and evaluation
No notable ethnic Lithuanian politicians declared support for the plan; the plan relied on support from General Žukauskas, but his support was never confirmed; Narutowicz, who was to head the civilian government, was a Pole; the PMO was weak and incapable of taking control if the coup met any significant resistance; and intervention of the Polish army would have led to bloodshed and undermined the idea of a voluntary union or alliance with Poland. The only group that supported the coup was the Polish minority in Lithuania, increasingly alienated by Lithuanian government policies. However, according to the Lithuanian census of 1923, the minority constituted 3.2% of the population outside the Vilnius Region. On the ground, the uprising was doomed by poor communication and the overeagerness of some of the PMO activists.


1919 Polish legislative election
Parliamentary elections were held in Poland on 26 January 1919, electing the first Sejm of the Second Polish Republic. The elections, based on universal suffrage and proportional representation, was the first free election in the country's history. It produced a parliament balanced between the right, left and center, although the elections were boycotted by the Polish communists and the Jewish Bund. In the territories where the election took place, voter turnout was from 70% to 90%. Right-wing parties won 50% of votes, left-wing parties around 30%, and Jewish organizations more than 10%.


1919 Polish legislative election, Background
In 1919, the borders of the newly restored Polish state were not yet established. As a result, the government of Poland led by Jozef Pilsudski had problems creating the electoral districts. Upon a decree, signed by Pilsudski on 28 November 1918, Poland was divided into several districts, some of whom were not even part of the country. The list of these districts presents a declaration of Polish territorial claims rather than real situation of late 1918. It covers the whole territory of the Kingdom of Poland (1916–1918), formerly Russian Belostok Oblast, as well as whole former Austrian province of Galicia, even though its eastern part was area of a conflict between Poles and Ukrainians (see Polish–Ukrainian War).


1919 Polish legislative election, Background
The situation was even more complicated in the West, in territories which had belonged to the German Empire. Polish legislators created there several electoral districts, even in lands that never became part of the Second Polish Republic. Thus, apart from districts of Poznań, Toruń, Kartuzy, Katowice, and Gostyń, the government stipulated creation of districts in such locations, as Bytom (Beuthen), Nysa, Złotów (Flatow), Gdańsk (Danzig), and Olsztyn (Allenstein). The 1919 election was not organized in these areas, as they remained part of Germany until 1945.


1919 Polish legislative election, Background
Furthermore, Polish legislators wanted the election to be organized in whole Cieszyn Silesia (see also Zaolzie). Therefore, districts were created there in Cieszyn and Frydek-Mistek. Also, the Nowy Targ district covered several communes of Orawa, and Spisz, with such towns, as Kežmarok, Stará Ľubovňa, and Spišská Nová Ves (these locations had been part of Poland until the late 18th century).


1919 Polish legislative election, Aftermath
The resulting parliament came to be known as the Legislative Sejm (Sejm Ustawodawczy). Among the first tasks of the Sejm was creation of the constitution, and the Small Constitution of 1919 was ratified ten days after the first session, on 20 February 1919. In 1921 parliament ratified the more comprehensive but also more controversial—supported by the Right, opposed by the Left—March Constitution of Poland.


1919 Pontefract by-election
The Pontefract by-election, 1919 was a parliamentary by-election held for the British House of Commons constituency of Pontefract  in Yorkshire on 6 September 1919.


1919 Pontefract by-election, Vacancy
The by-election was caused by the death on 30 July 1919 of the sitting Coalition Liberal Member of Parliament, Sir Joseph Compton-Rickett. He was 72 years old. He had been an MP in the area since 1906 when he was elected for Osgoldcross. He had been Lloyd George's Paymaster General since 1916.


1919 Pontefract by-election, Electoral history
The Pontefract constituency had been Liberal since 1893 and Osgoldcross Liberal since 1885. At the general election in 1918, Compton-Rickett was re-elected with the support of the Coalition Government 'coupon'.


1919 Pontefract by-election, Candidates
The by-election was a straight fight between Isaac Burns for the Labour Party, the nominee of the Yorkshire Miners' Association and 50-year-old Walter Forrest, a woollen manufacturer from Pudsey for the Coalition Government of Prime Minister David Lloyd George, although the Liberals apparently had some trouble in finding a candidate at first. The local Conservatives endorsed the candidacy of their Coalition partners  and the Independent Asquithian Liberals did not bring a forward a candidate.


1919 Pontefract by-election, Campaign, Labour
The health of the coal mining industry was an issue which Isaac Burns particularly sought to make his own against the background of a coal strike taking place in the area. He was hampered by the fact that although coal mining was a major industry in the area, the principal colliery towns had been attached to other constituencies in boundary changes  and mining was not necessarily decisive as there were many other interests in the constituency. Agriculture dominated around Barkston Ash and there was shipping and coastal trades around Goole.


1919 Pontefract by-election, Campaign, Labour
Many in these industries were adversely affected by the coal strike and were unsympathetic to Burns and Labour as a result. Burns stated he was in favour of a number of Labour policies including equal adult franchise for both sexes, pensions for mothers and free secondary education for all. He was in favour of widespread nationalisation of industry and a programme of public works to keep down unemployment. He also wanted Home Rule for Ireland and local government for India.


1919 Pontefract by-election, Campaign, Liberal
Walter Forrest set out his position on a number of questions at his meetings of both the local Coalition Liberals and Unionist parties. He was opposed to the nationalisation of the coal mines and conscription, in favour of some relaxation of the liquor laws for the benefit of working men and improved welfare for men disabled in the war; he was also in favour of the full restoration of trade and commerce as soon as conditions allowed, to increase output and living standards.


1919 Pontefract by-election, Campaign, Liberal
He also strongly advocated economy and retrenchment   but one of the Liberal MPs who visited the constituency to speak for him, Dr T J Macnamara the Secretary to the Admiralty, in a speech designed to protect the position of his Department and no doubt appeal to the patriotic feelings of working class and Unionist voters, was keen to point out that national security must take precedence over economy.


1919 Pontefract by-election, Result
Forrest retained the seat for the government but with a reduced majority.


1919 Portuguese legislative election
Parliamentary elections were held in Portugal on 11 May 1919. The three main parties that boycotted the 1918 elections returned to contest the elections. The result was a victory for the Democratic Party, which won 86 of the 163 seats in the House of Representatives and 36 of the 71 seats in the Senate.


1919 Portuguese presidential election
Presidential elections were held in Portugal on 6 December 1919. Following Portugal's 1911 constitution, the Congress of the Republic must elect the president in Lisbon instead of the Portuguese people.


1919 Portuguese presidential election
There were a total of 7 candidates, 6 from the Republican Party (Portugal) and 1 from the Evolutionist Party. António José de Almeida of the Evolutionist Party won against his opponents and he was elected as the new President of Portugal.


1919 Preakness Stakes
The 1919 Preakness Stakes was the 44th running of the $50,000 added Preakness Stakes, a horse race for three-year-old Thoroughbreds. The event took place on May 14, 1919 and was run four days after the Kentucky Derby. Ridden by Johnny Loftus, the Derby winner Sir Barton easily won the mile and an eighth race by four lengths over runner-up Eternal. The race was run on a track rated fast in a final time of 1:53 flat.


1919 Preakness Stakes
Sir Barton's Preakness would become what is known as the second leg of the U.S. Triple Crown series.


1919 Presbyterian Blue Hose football team
The 1919 Presbyterian Blue Hose football team represented Presbyterian College during the 1919 college football season. The Blue Hose's team captain was J. Y. Richardson.


1919 Prince Edward Island general election
The 1919 Prince Edward Island general election was held in the Canadian province of Prince Edward Island on July 24, 1919.


1919 Prince Edward Island general election
The opposition Liberals led by John Howatt Bell gained eleven seats to defeat the incumbent government of Conservative Premier Aubin E. Arsenault, who had succeeded former Premier John A. Mathieson in 1917.


1919 Prince Edward Island general election
John A. Dewar, a former Conservative member, was elected as an Independent Assembleyman for 3rd Kings.


1919 Prince Edward Island general election, Members Elected
The Legislature of Prince Edward Island had two levels of membership from 1893 to 1996 - Assemblymen and Councillors. This was a holdover from when the Island had a bicameral legislature, the General Assembly and the Legislative Council.


1919 Prince Edward Island general election, Members Elected
In 1893, the Legislative Council was abolished and had its membership merged with the Assembly, though the two titles remained separate and were elected by different electoral franchises. Assembly men were elected by all eligible voters of within a district, while Councillors were only elected by landowners within a district.


1919 Princeton Tigers football team
The 1919 Princeton Tigers football team represented Princeton University in the 1919 college football season. The team finished with a 4–2–1 record under sixth-year head coach Bill Roper. No Princeton players were selected as consensus first-team honorees on the 1919 College Football All-America Team, but halfback Murray Trimble was selected as a first-team All-American by the Reno Evening Gazette, and a second-team All-American by Walter Camp.


1919 Prussian state election
State elections were held in the Free State of Prussia on 26 January 1919. The elections were held a week after the elections to the federal National Assembly, and were the first elections of Prussian institutions held using proportional representation and with women's suffrage. The election was also the first truly free and fair Prussian election, as it was the first election held after the abolition of the Prussian three-class franchise, which greatly overrepresented wealthy landowners and disenfranchised lower classes.


1919 Prussian state election
The State Assembly (Landesversammlung) functioned as both a constituent assembly and legislature. The parties of the "Weimar Coalition", the Social Democratic Party (SPD), Centre Party (Zentrum), and German Democratic Party (DDP), won a sweeping majority. Together they won 74.8% of the votes cast. SPD politician Paul Hirsch, who had been appointed Minister-President of Prussia in November 1918, continued in office, and was succeeded by Otto Braun in early 1920.


1919 Pulitzer Prize, Special Citations and Awards
These awards were made possible by a special grant from The Poetry Society.


1919 Purdue Boilermakers football team
The 1919 Purdue Boilermakers football team was an American football team that represented Purdue University during the 1919 college football season. In their second season under head coach A. G. Scanlon, the Boilermakers compiled a 2–4–1 record, finished in last place in the Big Ten Conference with an 0–3 record against conference opponents, and were outscored by their opponents by a combined total of 104 to 71. K. W. Huffine was the team captain.


1919 Quebec general election
The 1919 Quebec general election was held on June 23, 1919, to elect members of the 15th Legislative Assembly of Quebec, Canada. The incumbent Quebec Liberal Party, led by Lomer Gouin, was re-elected, defeating the Quebec Conservative Party, led by Arthur Sauvé.


1919 Quebec general election
Gouin, who had held office since 1905, resigned precisely one year after the election to make way for his successor Louis-Alexandre Taschereau. Gouin himself had originally come to power in much the same way, after his predecessor Simon-Napoléon Parent resigned soon after winning his final election.


1919 Quebec general election, Further reading
This Quebec history article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1919 Quebec prohibition referendum
The Quebec referendum on the prohibition of alcohol, held on April 10, 1919, considered the legalization of the sale of beer, cider and wine in the province of Quebec, Canada. The 'yes' side won with 78.62% of the votes.


1919 Quebec prohibition referendum, The question asked
The question asked in English on the ballot paper was: "Should sale of light beer, cider and wines be allowed?"


1919 Quebec prohibition referendum, The question asked
In French, the question was: "Êtes-vous d'opinion que la vente des bières, cidres et vins légers, tels que définis par la loi, devrait être permise?"


1919 Quebec prohibition referendum, The results of the vote
178,112 persons (78.62%) voted in favor of the proposal, while 48,433 (21.38%) voted against; proposal was therefore passed with a majority of 129,679 votes. The analysis of the vote by riding reveals that all voted in favour except for seven: Pontiac, Compton, Dorchester, Huntingdon, Brome, Stanstead and Richmond.


1919 Quebec prohibition referendum, The results of the vote
The result of the vote was that the subsequent prohibition law which became effective on May 1, 1919 only applied to spirits. The victory of the "moderate" prohibitionists over the "radicals" did not have immediate repercussion on the legal sale of alcohol for in 1919, 90% of Quebec municipalities were prohibiting its sale locally. Indeed, Trois-Rivières, Lévis, Lachine, Sainte-Agathe, Louiseville, Sainte-Rose and Terrebonne had voted for local prohibition in 1915, while Quebec City had done the same on October 4, 1917. All these regulations had to be rescinded, one municipality at a time.


1919 Quebec prohibition referendum, The results of the vote
Prohibition was finally abolished on May 1, 1921 when the Alcoholic Beverages Act creating the Commission des liqueurs du Québec entered into force.


1919 Reuss-Gera state election
The 1919 Reuss-Gera state election was held on 2 February 1919 to elect the 21 members of the Landtag of Reuss-Gera.


1919 Reuss-Greiz state election
The 1919 Reuss-Greiz state election was held on 2 February 1919 to elect the 15 members of the Landtag of Reuss-Greiz.


1919 Rhode Island State Rams football team
The 1919 Rhode Island Rams football team was an American football team that represented Rhode Island State College (later renamed the University of Rhode Island) as an independent during the 1919 college football season. In its first and only season under head coach Fred Murray, the team compiled a 0–7–1 record and was outscored by a total of 168 to 31.


1919 Rice Owls football team
The 1919 Rice Owls football team was an American football team that represented Rice University as a member of the Southwest Conference (SWC) during the 1919 college football season. In its seventh season under head coach Philip Arbuckle, the team compiled an 8–1 record (3–1 against SWC opponents), and outscored opponents by a total of 190 to 60.


1919 Richmond Spiders football team
The 1919 Richmond Spiders football team was an American football team that represented the Richmond College—now known as the University of Richmond—as a member of the South Atlantic Intercollegiate Athletic Association (SAIAA) during the 1919 college football season. Frank Dobson returned for his sixth year as a head coach, having helmed the team from 1913 to 1917. Richmond compiled an overall record of 5–2–2 with a mark of 2–2–1 in SAIAA play.


1919 Rochester Jeffersons season
The 1919 Rochester Jeffersons season was the final season for the Rochester Jeffersons prior to its acceptance into the American Professional Football Association (now the National Football League). Participating in the loose New York Pro Football League, the Jeffersons resumed full play after playing only two games in 1918. The Jeffersons won the Rochester circuit with a 7–1–1 record, mostly against lower-level upstate teams, only to lose the New York Pro Championship to their regional rivals, the Buffalo Prospects.


1919 Rock Island Independents season
The 1919 Rock Island Independents season was the last time that the team played independently, before joining the early National Football League the following year. The team posted a 9–1–1 record and proclaim themselves "Champions of the USA".


1919 Romanian general election
General elections were held in Romania between 4 and 8 November 1919. The Romanian National Party, which ran mostly unopposed in Transylvania, emerged as the largest party in Parliament, winning 169 of the 568 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 76 of the 216 seats in the Senate. Though both the Socialist Party and People's League decided to boycott the elections, several of their candidates who had registered before the decision went on to win seats.


1919 Rose Bowl
The 1919 Rose Bowl, known at the time as the Tournament East-West Football Game, was a bowl game played on January 1, 1919, at Tournament Park in Pasadena, California. It was the 5th Rose Bowl Game. With the war just over, the game was played with players from the Mare Island Marines of California and the Great Lakes Navy from Great Lakes, Illinois.


1919 Rose Bowl, Teams
With college football teams depleted due to World War I, the Pasadena Tournament of Roses decided to stage the game with military personnel. With approval from President Woodrow Wilson, they invited the team from the Marine detachment at the Mare Island Naval Base for the second consecutive year, while it was the first appearance by a Navy team from the Naval Station Great Lakes.


1919 Rose Bowl, Game notes
Game MVP and future Pro Football Hall of Fame coach and Chicago Bears owner George Halas holds the Rose Bowl record for the longest non-scoring pass interception return of 77 yards. Halas would comment that he coached players to "dive across the goal" upon reaching the three-yard line, in reference to his interception failing to result in a score, and that "anyone who can't dive three yards should play Parcheesi."


1919 Rutgers Queensmen football team
The 1919 Rutgers Queensmen football team represented Rutgers University in the 1919 college football season. In their seventh season under head coach George "Sandy" Sanford, the Queensmen compiled a 5–3 record and outscored their opponents, 115 to 70. The team's victories included games against North Carolina (19-0), Boston College (13-7), and Northwestern (28-0). The team's losses included games against Syracuse (0-14) and West Virginia (7-30). Coach Sanford was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1971.


1919 SAFL Grand Final
The 1919 SAFL Grand Final was an Australian rules football competition. Sturt drew with North Adelaide 5.9 (39) to 5.9 (39). This was the second time in the competition's history that a Grand Final had been drawn, and the most recent. Sturt won the Grand Final Replay a week later, 3.5 (23) to 2.6 (18).


1919 SAFL season
The 1919 South Australian Football League season was the 40th season of the top-level Australian rules football competition in South Australia.


1919 SAFL season
The Grand Final of the 1919 SAFL season ended in a draw between Sturt and North Adelaide. The Grand Final Replay was won by Sturt in what is currently the last drawn SANFL Grand Final.


1919 SMU Mustangs football team
The 1919 SMU Mustangs football team was an American football team that represented Southern Methodist University (SMU) as a member of the Southwest Conference (SWC) during the 1919 college football season. In its third season under head coach J. Burton Rix, the team compiled a 5–4–1 record and was outscored by a total of 162 to 86. The team played its home games at Armstrong Field in University Park, Texas.


1919 Saint Louis Billikens football team
The 1919 Saint Louis Billikens football team was an American football team that represented Saint Louis University during the 1919 college football season. In their second season under head coach Charles M. Rademacher, the Billikens compiled a 4–2–2 record and outscored opponents by a total of 71 to 28. The team played its home games at Sportsman's Park at St. Louis.


1919 Salvadoran presidential election
Presidential elections were held in El Salvador between 13 and 15 January 1919. The result was a victory for Jorge Meléndez, who defeated Arturo Araujo.


1919 San Diego mayoral election
The 1919 San Diego mayoral election was held on April 8, 1919 to elect the mayor for San Diego. In the primary election, incumbent Mayor Louis J. Wilde, and A.P. Johnson Jr. received the most votes and advanced to the runoff. Wilde was then reelected mayor with a majority of the votes.


1919 San Diego mayoral election, Campaign
Incumbent Mayor Louis J. Wilde stood for reelection. Wilde was challenged for reelection by a number of experienced local politicians including former city council member A.P. Johnson Jr., former city council member Herbert Fay, and former mayor Grant Conard. Also contesting the race were local merchant John Gillons and banker I. Isaac Irwin.


1919 San Diego mayoral election, Campaign
In the campaign, Wilde was accused of being an ineffective mayor, attending less than half of the meetings of Council, and allowing immoral behavior to thrive in San Diego. Wilde contested the allegations claiming that he had been unable to enact his preferred policies due to resistance from the Common Council. Johnson, head of the Southern Title Guaranty Company, attempted to run a "smokestack" industrial development campaign similar to what had worked for Wilde in the 1917 election.


1919 San Diego mayoral election, Campaign
On March 25, 1919, Wilde received the highest number of votes in the primary election, followed by Johnson. In the April 8, 1919 runoff between the Wilde and Johnson, Wilde received a majority was reelected mayor to a second term.


1919 Santa Clara Missionites football team
The 1919 Santa Clara Missionites football team was an American football team that represented Santa Clara University during the 1919 college football season. The team compiled a 2–4 record but nevertheless outscored opponents by a total of 130 to 86, on the strength of two 60-point games against the crews of USS Boston and USS Nebraska.


1919 Santa Clara Missionites football team
The team was led by first-year coach Robert E. Harmon. Harmon had played football at Illinois College, University of Denver, and Creighton University, and had then coached teams at All Hallows College (Salt Lake City), Gonzaga University, Davis Farm (now known as UC-Davis), and Illinois College.


1919 Santos FC season
The 1919 season was the eight season for Santos Futebol Clube, a Brazilian football club, based in the Vila Belmiro bairro, Zona Intermediária, Santos, Brazil.


1919 Saxe-Altenburg state election
The 1919 Saxe-Altenburg state election was held on 26 January 1919 to elect the 40 members of the Landtag of Saxe-Altenburg.


1919 Saxe-Meiningen state election
The 1919 Saxe-Meiningen state election was held on 9 March 1919 to elect the 24 members of the Landtag of Saxe-Meiningen.


1919 Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach state election
The 1919 Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach state election was held on 9 March 1919 to elect the 42 members of the Landtag of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach.


1919 Saxony state election
The 1919 Saxony state election was held on 2 February 1919 to elect the 97 members of the Saxony People's Chamber.


1919 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt state election
The 1919 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt state election was held on 9 March 1919 to elect the 17 members of the Landtag of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt.


1919 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen state election
The 1919 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen state election was held on 26 January 1919 to elect the 16 members of the Landtag of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen.


1919 Sewanee Tigers football team
The 1919 Sewanee Tigers football team represented the Sewanee Tigers of Sewanee: The University of the South during the 1919 college football season.


1919 Sligo Corporation election
An election for all 24 members of Sligo Corporation took place on 15 January 1919, using the single transferable vote (STV). Urban districts in Ireland held annual elections on 15 January each year under the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, using plurality voting to replace a cohort of one-third or one-quarter of their councillors. Those elections for 1915–19 were postponed while the First World War was still in progress.


1919 Sligo Corporation election
The Sligo election was held under the Sligo Corporation Act of 1918, a private act passed in the UK Parliament under the sponsorship of the Sligo Ratepayers Association (SRA), an alliance of Protestants and businessmen which opposed the actions of the outgoing corporation. The election under the 1918 act was exempt from the general postponement.


1919 Sligo Corporation election
In the 1919 election, the SRA ran a slate of 18 candidates (11 Protestant and 7 Catholic) and won 8 seats; Sinn Féin, Labour, and an Independent Nationalist had a majority of 13 seats between them. It was the second STV election ever in Ireland; the first was in the University of Dublin  in the November 1918 Westminster election. The outcome was seen as a vindication of STV, which was adopted for all Irish local authorities by the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1919, in time for the 1920 local elections. The 1918 act envisaged triennial elections in Sligo, as the 1919 act did throughout Ireland. In the event, the Irish War of Independence, Irish Civil War, and aftermath meant the next local elections were postponed  until 1925.


1919 South American Championship
The 1919 South American Championship of Nations was the third continental championship for South American national football teams. It was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil from May 11 to May 29, 1919.


1919 South American Championship
The participating countries were Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Uruguay as the defending champion.


1919 South American Championship
After finishing tied in the group standings on points, host Brazil beat Uruguay in the playoff match to win their first title.


1919 South American Championship
The playoff was the longest match in the competition's history, and under current rules, will remain so indefinitely: with the scores tied 0-0 after 90 minutes had expired, both captains and the referee agreed to play an extra time period of two 30 minute periods, meaning the playoff match lasted 150 minutes.


1919 South American Championship, Format
There was no qualifying for the tournament. The participating countries were Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Uruguay. All teams competed between each other in a single group. Two points were awarded for a win, one for a draw and zero for a defeat. If there was a tie of points at the top of the standings, a playoff match would be held to determine the champion.


1919 South American Championship, Squads
For a complete list of participating squads see: 1919 South American Championship squads


1919 South American Championship, Final round
Each team played one match against each of the other teams. Two (2) points were awarded for a win, one (1) point for a draw and zero (0) points for a defeat.


1919 South American Championship, Aftermath
The day after the final, Uruguayan goalkeeper Roberto Chery died of strangulated hernia in a hospital of Río de Janeiro. He had injured after he made a wrong move to stop an attack, during the match v Chile. Because of substitutions were not allowed by then, Chery had to play severely injured the rest of the match.


1919 South American Championship, Aftermath
Brazil and Uruguay teams had scheduled a friendly match ("Copa Rio Branco") for June 19, 1919. Due to the Uruguayan side declined to participate because of Chery's tragic death, Argentina offered to replace the Uruguayan side. After the Brazilian Federation accepted, the match (now named "Copa Roberto Chery" to honor the goalkeeper) was finally played. Argentina entered to the field wearing Uruguay's traditional light-blue jersey while Brazil wore the Peñarol jersey.


1919 South American Championship Final
The 1919 South American Championship Final was the final match to determine the winner of the 1919 South American Championship, the third edition of this continental competition. It was held on May 29, 1919, in Estádio das Laranjeiras of Rio de Janeiro.


1919 South American Championship Final
Brazil won the match against Uruguay 1–0 after two extra time periods, consisting of two halves of 30 minutes each. This meant the match lasted 150 minutes, the longest in the tournament's history, while Brazil won its first continental title.


1919 South American Championship Final, Overview
The 1919 Final was the first played not only in a South American competition but in an international football competition. The tournament system consisted of a single round-robin tournament, where the team with most points crowned champion. As Brazil and Uruguay finished tied on points, a final had to be held.


1919 South American Championship Final, Overview
It was also the first time that a non-Conmebol referee (English Robert L. Todd) was appointed for enforcing the laws of the game during the match. After it finished 0–0, an extra time –consisting of two halves (30' each)– was played. In total, the match lasted 150 minutes, becoming the longest football match ever in Copa América.


1919 South American Championship Final, Overview
Arthur Friedenreich scored the goal that allowed Brazil to win its first international title.


1919 South American Championship Final, Aftermath
Friedenreich's goal had a huge impact in Brazil due to the fact that him was the first black men to have played football in that country. He was also the first black to be called for the national team. Although only better-off sectors in Brazilian society could play football by then, the Federation allowed Friedenreich to play due to his father was a German-native, who had played in SC Germânia, a Paulist club established by German immigrants.


1919 South American Championship Final, Aftermath
Friedenreich was not only the first black men to play football in Brazil, he is considered the first black superstar of the sport, with more than 1,200 goals credited to him within 25 years of career.


1919 South American Championship Final, Aftermath
After this victory, racism in Brazilian football started to drop, with several clubs including black people in their squads and even the national team. The championship also contributed to increase the popularity of the sport in the country.


1919 South American Championship Final, Aftermath
Nevertheless, President of Brazil, Epitácio Pessoa, banned black players from the national team so Friedenreich could not attend the 1920 and 1921 editions in Chile and Argentina respectively. After the failures in those tournaments and popular pressure, Pessoa had to lift the ban and Friedenreich (considered the best Brazilian player) could return to the team. Brazil could win its second South American title in 1922 although Friedenreich can only play two matches before being injured.


1919 South American Championship squads
The following are the squads of national teams that played in the 1919 South American Championship. The participating countries were Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Uruguay. The teams played in a single round-robin tournament, earning two points for a win, one point for a draw, and zero points for a loss.


1919 South American Championships in Athletics
The 1919 South American Championships in Athletics was the inaugural South American Championships and was contested by Uruguay and Chile were held in Montevideo, Uruguay between 11 and 13 April.


1919 South Carolina Gamecocks football team
The 1919 South Carolina Gamecocks football team was an American football team that represented the University of South Carolina as a member of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association during the 1919 college football season. In their second year under head coach Dixon Foster, the team compiled a 1–7–1 record.


1919 South Carolina's 6th congressional district special election
The 1919 South Carolina 6th congressional district special election was held on October 7, 1919, to select a Representative for the 6th congressional district to serve out the remainder of the term for the 66th Congress. The special election resulted from the death of Representative J. Willard Ragsdale on July 23, 1919. Philip H. Stoll, a former solicitor and World War I veteran, won the Democratic primary and was unopposed in the general election.


1919 South Carolina's 6th congressional district special election, Democratic primary
The South Carolina Democratic Party held their primary in the summer of 1919 and six candidates entered the race. E.J. Sherwood emerged atop the first primary election on August 26, but was defeated in the runoff election by Philip H. Stoll on September 9. There was no opposition to the Democratic candidate in the general election so Stoll was elected to serve out the remainder of the term.


1919 South Carolina's 7th congressional district special election
The 1919 South Carolina 7th congressional district special election was held on October 7, 1919, to select a Representative for the 7th congressional district to serve out the remainder of the term for the 66th Congress. The special election resulted from the resignation of Representative Asbury Francis Lever on August 1, 1919. Edward C. Mann won the Democratic primary and was unopposed in the general election.


1919 South Carolina's 7th congressional district special election, Democratic primary
The South Carolina Democratic Party held their primary in the summer of 1919 and six candidates entered the race. George Bell Timmerman emerged atop the first primary election on August 26, but was defeated in the runoff election by Edward C. Mann on September 9. There was no opposition to the Democratic candidate in the general election so Mann was elected to serve out the remainder of the term.


1919 South Wales race riots
The 1919 South Wales race riots took place in the docks area of Newport and Barry, South Wales, as well as the Butetown district of Cardiff over a number of days in June 1919. Four men were killed during the disturbances. Similar riots took place in Glasgow, Liverpool and other parts of England.


1919 South Wales race riots, Background
The port towns of South Wales had attracted settlers from all over the world during the heyday of the docks in the latter decades of the 19th century. By 1911 the proportion of Cardiff's population that was black or Asian was second in the UK to London though, at around 700, the number was quite small and confined to the dock areas. Wages in the docks could be undercut by employing foreign men at a lower rate. The Cardiff Seaman's Strike in June 1911 had become focused on Chinese sailors, with violence breaking out one afternoon resulting in all of Cardiff's Chinese launderies being smashed up.


1919 South Wales race riots, Background
The numbers of non-white settlers was augmented when soldiers and sailors were discharged from service in World War I, increasing the numbers of African, Arab and Asian residents even further. Trade on the docks picked up slowly, but not quickly enough to absorb everyone who had been demobbed from the war. Preference in employment was given to white men, though there were still many without work. There was also a housing shortage, compounded by resentment against non-whites who had bought houses and filled them with lodgers. There was also an antipathy towards non-whites who had married local white women (non-whites were almost entirely men at the time).


1919 South Wales race riots, Background
Tensions erupted into riots in Glasgow, Scotland in January 1919, followed by port towns and cities in England, such as London, South Shields, Hull, and Liverpool in the first half of the year.


1919 South Wales race riots, Riots, Newport
Rioting initially broke out in Newport on 6 June 1919. A black man was attacked by a white soldier, because of an alleged remark made to a white woman. This rapidly escalated, with a mob of white men attacking anyone perceived to be non-white, or anything believed to be owned by non-whites. Houses and a restaurant owned by black people, Chinese laundries and a Greek-owned lodging house were attacked in Pillgwenlly and the town centre. Eight houses in the docks area were wrecked, with furniture from two of them being burnt in the street.


1919 South Wales race riots, Riots, Cardiff
Clashes took place on 11 June 1919 between white soldiers returning from the Great War and local Butetown (Tiger Bay) men of mainly Yemeni, Somali and Afro-Caribbean backgrounds. Riots continued for three days, spreading out into Grangetown and parts of the city centre. Ethnic minority families armed themselves and hid in their houses, some of which were attacked and looted. The main road in Butetown, Bute Street, ended up covered with broken glass and the windows boarded up. By Saturday 14 June, things has quietened down, despite huge crowds being on the streets the day before, and the occupants of a Malay-owned shop having to escape attack by climbing on to their roof.


1919 South Wales race riots, Riots, Barry
Threatening crowds gathered in Barry on the evening of 11 June 1919, following a fatal stabbing in Beverley Street, Cadoxton. Dock labourer, Frederick Longman, had been stabbed by Charles Emmanuel, who originated from the French West Indies. (it later transpired that Emanuel had been told by Longman to "go down your own street" and had been attacked with a poker before drawing his knife). A black shipwright who lived in the same street tried to escape when the mob broke into his lodging house. The crowd caught up with him and pelted him with stones. The crowds didn't disperse until after midnight, but little damage was reported. On 12 June the Fish & Chip shop owned by Mr Gillespie, a black man who'd lived in Barry for 20 years and married a local white woman, was smashed up by a mob.


1919 South Wales race riots, Riots, Barry
Police were reported to have formed barricades on Thompson Street to prevent the attacking mobs reach Barry Docks. On 13 June, 300 soldiers arrived at Cadoxton and set up camp at Buttrills Fields.


1919 South Wales race riots, Deaths
Former soldier, Frederick Henry Longman, died after being stabbed in Barry. Three men died during the events in Cardiff: Mohammed Abdullah, a ship's fireman aged 21, died in hospital from a fractured skull, after being attacked in Butetown; John Donovan, aged 33, died after being shot at a city centre house in Millicent Street; Harold Smart aged 20 died after his throat was slit, though it was unclear whether this was directly related to the riots.


1919 South Wales race riots, Immediate aftermath
As well as the deaths of four men, hundreds of people were injured and dozens were arrested. The damage in Cardiff cost the city council £3000 to repair (equivalent to £138,881 in 2019).


1919 South Wales race riots, Immediate aftermath
The vast majority of people arrested were from the ethnic minority population. In Newport of the 30 people arrested, 27 were black. A total of 18 white people and ten non-white men appeared in court in Cardiff, with the non-white victims being initially dealt with far more harshly than their white counterparts.


1919 South Wales race riots, Immediate aftermath
Nine black men from Cardiff were charged with murder and brought to trial in Swansea but, with the prosecution offering no evidence and reducing the charge to 'shooting with intent to murder', the jury did not even need to retire and discuss the case before finding all the men not guilty. Charles Emmanuel, who had killed a man in Barry, was sent to prison for five years for manslaughter, having been found not guilty of wilful murder.


1919 South Wales race riots, Legacy
Though the riots were clearly remembered by the ethnic minority populations in South Wales, they were largely forgotten elsewhere. So much so, that when the Select Committee on Race and Immigration visited Cardiff in 1972, the police reported they had "no record of any serious disturbance involving the indigenous and immigrant population". Historians did not begin to record the history until the 1980s. There are still no memorials or plaques in Cardiff, Newport or Barry remembering the riots.


1919 South Wales race riots, Legacy
ITV Cymru broadcast a retelling of the events, in the 2018 television series, 'Dock of the Bay". There was a revival of interest the riots at the 100th anniversary of the events in 2019. A group of Cardiff University students re-imagined the reporting of the riots, using 21st-century social media, on Twitter. In Barry, three centenary commemoration event days took place in September.


1919 South Wales race riots, Legacy
A nine month Heritage Lottery Project was launched at Cardiff's Pierhead Building in July 2019 to examine the 1919 race riots.


1919 South Wales race riots, Legacy
In May 2021 the Welsh language TV channel, S4C, broadcast a programme about the Cardiff riots. Called Terfysg yn y Bae (Riot in the Bay) it was presented by journalist and newsreader Sean Fletcher.


1919 Southampton mutiny
The 1919 Southampton mutiny was a mutiny in the British Army which occurred in January 1919 in the aftermath of World War I. The soldiers, after being misinformed that they were being transported to Southampton to be demobilized, were then ordered to board troop ships for France. The mutiny was brought to an end without bloodshed when General Sir Hugh Trenchard threatened lethal force.


1919 Southampton mutiny, Events
On 13 January 1919, around 5,000 soldiers mutinied in Southampton, taking over the docks and refusing to obey orders.


1919 Southampton mutiny, Events
The former Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force General Sir Hugh Trenchard arrived in Southampton in mid-January after Sir William Robertson, the Commander-in-Chief of Home Forces asked him to take charge. Trenchard had witnessed mutinies among French troops during World War I, and was quite prepared to be ruthless in his dealings. After speaking to the ineffective camp commandant and sizing up the situation, Trenchard marched out onto the docks and personally issued a loud summons for the men to assemble.


1919 Southampton mutiny, Events
He then informed the soldiers that he would hear their grievances but only after they had returned to their duties. This resulted in much heckling and Trenchard almost knocked over by the restless surging crowd. Leaving the scene in some disorder, he decided force would be needed, and arranged for 250 soldiers, including military policemen, to be sent to the docks.


1919 Southampton mutiny, Events
Whilst they were en route, Sir Henry Sclater, the General Officer Commanding Southern Command, telephoned Trenchard in the middle of the night, and after hearing Trenchard's plan, insisted that Trenchard must under no circumstances order the security detachment to open fire on the mutineers. Trenchard replied that he was not seeking the G.O.C. 's approval, merely informing him of his intentions.


1919 Southampton mutiny, Events
After the security detachment arrived at the docks, Trenchard spoke to his men, explaining his plan and issuing them with extra ammunition, and ordering them to fix bayonets. The security detachment was then deployed to the open front of the huge customs shed where the mutinying soldiers were gathered. Trenchard ordered the detachment to load and make ready, he then ordered on the mutineers to surrender. In response a sergeant shouted obscenities. Trenchard's military policemen seized the sergeant, none of the sergeant's fellow mutineers resisting in the process. Trenchard re-issued his order for submission, and the crowd gave their assent.


1919 Southampton mutiny, Events
Trenchard spent the rest of the day hearing each man in turn. The majority were prepared to return to France and Trenchard granted such men a conditional discharge from charges of insurrection in military law that they were liable to. He also discovered that they were in fact going to be transported back to France.


1919 Southampton mutiny, Events
Those ring leaders who had been in the customs shed were confined aboard the troop ship. Some other ring leaders were holding out in nearby huts and Trenchard obtained firehoses and had the windows of the huts smashed. The remaining ring leaders were then drenched in ice-cold water and they surrendered, being detained aboard the troop ship.


1919 Southern Branch Cubs football team
The 1919 Southern Branch Cubs football team represented the Southern Branch of the University of California in the 1919 college football season in its first year of existence. The team was coached by Fred Cozens, who was also the basketball coach, and finished the season with a 2–6 record, with victories over Occidental Frosh team and the Los Angeles Junior College.


1919 Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association football season
The 1919 Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association football season  was the college football games played by the member schools of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association as part of the 1919 college football season. The season began on September 27.


1919 Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association football season
Auburn was widely regarded as the SIAA champion, though Centre was undefeated in all its games. Both claim titles. For defeating Tech and due to charges of professionalism aimed at Centre, as Fuzzy Woodruff recalls "Auburn claimed it. "We defeated Tech" said Auburn. "Yes, but we defeated you" said Vanderbilt. "Yes", said Alabama, "but Tech, Tulane ,and Tennessee took your measure. We defeated Georgia Tech, who tied Tulane, so we are champions... The newspapers, however, more or less generally supported the claim of Auburn..."


1919 Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association football season, Awards and honors, All-Southern team
The following includes the composite All-Southern team posted by H. J. Stegeman, coach at the University of Georgia, for Spalding's Football Guide.


1919 Southwark Borough election
Elections to Metropolitan Borough of Southwark were held in 1919.


1919 Southwark Borough election
The borough had ten wards which returned between 3 and 9 members.


1919 Southwest Texas State football team
The 1919 Southwest Texas State football team was an American football team that represented Southwest Texas State Normal School—now known as Texas State University–as an independent during the 1919 college football season. Better known for his basketball influences, Oscar W. Strahan became the university's first athletic director, and led the team to a 4–4 record in 1919. In a career spanning three decades, Strahan's teams posted a 72–52–10 record. This season also marked a departure from "academie football" as they entered the "college class." The team's captain was Bob Shelton, who played quarterback.


1919 Spanish general election
The 1919 Spanish general election was held on Sunday, 1 June and on Sunday, 15 June 1919, to elect the 18th Restoration Cortes of the Kingdom of Spain. All 409 seats in the Congress of Deputies were up for election, as well as 180 of 360 seats in the Senate.


1919 Spanish general election, Overview, Background
The Spanish Constitution of 1876 enshrined Spain as a constitutional monarchy, awarding the King power to name senators and to revoke laws, as well as the title of commander-in-chief of the army. The King would also play a key role in the system of El Turno Pacífico (the Peaceful Turn) by appointing and toppling governments and allowing the opposition to take power. Under this system, the Conservative and Liberal parties alternated in power by means of election rigging, which they achieved through the encasillado, using the links between the Ministry of Governance, the provincial civil governors, and the local bosses (caciques) to ensure victory and exclude minor parties from the power sharing.


1919 Spanish general election, Overview, Electoral system
The Spanish Cortes were envisaged as "co-legislative bodies", based on a nearly perfect bicameralism. Both the Congress of Deputies and the Senate had legislative, control and budgetary functions, sharing equal powers except for laws on contributions or public credit, where the Congress had preeminence. Voting for the Cortes was on the basis of universal manhood suffrage, which comprised all national males over twenty-five, having at least a two-year residency in a municipality and in full enjoyment of their civil rights. Voting was compulsory except for those older than 70, the clergy, first instance judges and public notaries.


1919 Spanish general election, Overview, Electoral system
For the Congress of Deputies, 173 seats were elected using a partial block voting in 44 multi-member constituencies, with the remaining 236 being elected under a one-round first-past-the-post system in single-member districts. Candidates winning a plurality in each constituency were elected.


1919 Spanish general election, Overview, Electoral system
In constituencies electing ten seats or more, electors could vote for no more than four candidates less than the number of seats to be allocated; in those with more than eight seats and up to ten, for no more than three less; in those with more than four seats and up to eight, for no more than two less; in those with more than one seat and up to four, for no more than one less; and for one candidate in single-member districts.


1919 Spanish general election, Overview, Electoral system
Additionally, in single-member districts where candidates ran unopposed, as well as in multi-member districts where the number of candidates was equal or less than the number of seats to be filled, candidates were to be automatically proclaimed without an election.


1919 Spanish general election, Overview, Electoral system
The Congress was entitled to one member per each 50,000 inhabitants, with each multi-member constituency being allocated a fixed number of seats: 13 for Barcelona and Madrid, 6 for Valencia, 5 for La Coruña, Palma, Santander and Seville, 4 for Alicante, Almería, Badajoz, Córdoba, Huelva, Jaén, Lugo, Málaga, Murcia and Oviedo and 3 for Alcázar de San Juan, Alcoy, Algeciras, Bilbao, Burgos, Cádiz, Cartagena, Castellón de la Plana, Ciudad Real, El Ferrol, Gijón, Granada, Jerez de la Frontera, Las Palmas, Lérida, Llerena, Lorca, Orense, Pamplona, Pontevedra, San Sebastián, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Tarragona, Valladolid, Vera, Vigo and Zaragoza. The law also provided for by-elections to fill seats vacated throughout the legislature.


1919 Spanish general election, Overview, Electoral system
For the Senate, 180 seats were indirectly elected, with electors voting for delegates instead of senators. Elected delegates—equivalent in number to one-sixth of the councillors in each municipal corporation—would then vote for senators using a write-in, two-round majority voting system. The provinces of Barcelona, Madrid and Valencia were allocated four seats each, whereas each of the remaining provinces was allocated three seats, for a total of 150.


1919 Spanish general election, Overview, Electoral system
The remaining 30 were allocated to a number of institutions, electing one seat each—the Archdioceses of Burgos, Granada, Santiago de Compostela, Seville, Tarragona, Toledo, Valencia, Valladolid and Zaragoza; the Royal Spanish Academy; the Royal Academies of History, Fine Arts, Sciences, Moral and Political Sciences and Medicine; the Universities of Madrid, Barcelona, Granada, Oviedo, Salamanca, Santiago, Seville, Valencia, Valladolid and Zaragoza; and the Economic Societies of Friends of the Country from Madrid, Barcelona, León, Seville and Valencia.


1919 Spanish general election, Overview, Electoral system
An additional 180 seats comprised senators in their own right—the Monarch's offspring and the heir apparent once coming of age; Grandees of Spain of the first class; Captain Generals of the Army and the Navy Admiral; the Patriarch of the Indies and archbishops; as well as other high-ranking state figures—and senators for life (who were appointed by the Monarch).


1919 Spanish general election, Overview, Election date
The term of each House of the Cortes—the Congress and one-half of the elective part of the Senate—expired five years from the date of their previous election, unless they were dissolved earlier. The Monarch had the prerogative to dissolve both Houses at any given time—either jointly or separately—and call a snap election.


1919 Spen Valley by-election
The Spen Valley by-election of 1919 was held on 20 December 1919. The by-election was held after the death of the incumbent Coalition Liberal MP, Thomas Whittaker. It was won by the Labour candidate, Tom Myers, who had contested the constituency at the 1918 general election. The 1918 contest had been a straight fight between Whittaker and Myers, and had seen the former emerge victorious with a majority of 2,156 votes (11.2% of votes cast).


1919 Spen Valley by-election
The poll came at the same time as a serious split in the Liberal Party over continuing support for the coalition government: Colonel B C Fairfax was nominated as the Coalition Liberal candidate, and Sir John Simon stood as an Independent Liberal. The poll was held on 20 December 1919, but the votes were not counted until 3 January 1920. The result was seen as sensational, with The Times describing it as a "political event of great significance", with voters deserting the government candidate in "a humiliation which cannot be explained away".


1919 Spen Valley by-election
In the view of Maurice Cowling, Simon's defeat by Labour marked the point at which Labour began to be seen as a serious threat by the older parties.


1919 Spen Valley by-election, Aftermath
At the 1922 general election, Simon contested the seat as the sole Liberal candidate, although the Conservatives now fielded a candidate. However Simon emerged victorious  with a majority of 787 votes over Myers. Myers would fight the seat again in 1923 and 1924, but Simon increased his majority on both occasions, most significantly to over 4,000 votes in 1924 when no Conservative opposed him. In the 1930s Simon broke from the Liberal Party, eventually forming his own National Liberal Party which worked in close alliance with the Conservatives. He would hold the Spen Valley seat until his elevation to the peerage in 1940, prompting the 1940 Spen Valley by-election.


1919 Spring Hill Badgers football team
The 1919 Spring Hill Badgers football team represented the Spring Hill College during the 1919 college football season.


1919 St Albans by-election
The St Albans by-election of 1919 was a parliamentary by-election held in England in December 1919 for the House of Commons constituency of St Albans in Hertfordshire.


1919 St Albans by-election
It was the first contested parliamentary election in St Albans since before World War I. Since the previous contest, in 1910, boundaries had been changed and the franchise extended.


1919 St Albans by-election
The Coalition Unionists (i.e. Conservatives) held the seat, but by only a narrow margin over the Labour Party, even though Labour had existed in the area for less than 12 months, and St Albans had previously been a Conservative safe seat.


1919 St Albans by-election, Vacancy
The by-election was held to fill the vacancy caused when the 67-year-old Conservative Party Member of Parliament (MP) Sir Hildred Carlile resigned from the House of Commons on 20 November 1919 by the procedural device of accepting appointment as Steward of the Manor of Northstead. Carlile, who had held the seat since the 1906 general election (and was returned unopposed in 1918), cited ill-health as the reason for his departure from politics.


1919 St Albans by-election, Electoral history
The result at the last General Election in 1918 was;


1919 St Albans by-election, Candidates
The Conservative Party selected as its candidate 47-year-old Lieutenant-Colonel Francis Fremantle, who had previously been adopted as the party's candidate for the next general election, when Hildred Carlile was expected to retire. Fremantle was an army doctor who had served in the Second Boer War and in World War I, and had been a member of the London County Council since  March 1919. The son of a Dean of Ripon, he had been a medical officer for Hertfordshire for 14 years.


1919 St Albans by-election, Candidates
Early reports suggested that the Liberal Party candidate would be a Major Conacher from New Barnet, but in the event the Liberals nominated Milner Gray, a company director who had stood unsuccessfully in Wellingborough at the 1918 general election.


1919 St Albans by-election, Candidates
The Labour Party candidate was John W. Brown, the secretary of the Shipping Clerks' Guild.


1919 St Albans by-election, Candidates
The Times reported on 28 November that there was "possibility, but not a probability" of a fourth candidate, from the right-wing National Party, but this did not materialise.


1919 St Albans by-election, Candidates
Nominations closed on 2 December, with polling set for 10 December.


1919 St Albans by-election, Electorate
The old parliamentary borough of St Albans, which returned two MPs, had been disenfranchised in 1852 after a Royal Commission had found proof of extensive bribery. Deprived of its independent representation, the borough had then been represented as part of the three-seat Hertfordshire a county constituency. When the county constituency was divided in 1885, four new single-member county divisions were created, named after the major town in each area: the St Albans division was one of them, initially including the areas of High Barnet, Borehamwood, Elstree, Welwyn, Wheathampstead, and Harpenden. It had returned Conservative MPs at every opportunity since the 1885 general election, apart from a two-year interlude when the Liberal Party won a by-election in 1904.


1919 St Albans by-election, Electorate
However, the last contested election in the constituency had been in December 1910, and the electorate had changed significantly in 1918. The Representation of the People Act 1918 had nearly tripled the electorate nationally by expanding the franchise to include all adult males and women over 30 who met certain conditions, while boundary changes in the same Act had seen Radlett, Hemel Hempstead and Harpenden moved out of the constituency, Radlett and Hemel Hemsptead having been seen as Conservative strongholds. The result was an increase from 13,929 electors when the seat was last contested in December 1910 to 23,885 at the by-election: a constituency shorn of some of the support base of the incumbent party, where most of the electors would be voting for the first time.


1919 St Albans by-election, Electorate
There was a large agricultural sector in the constituency, and major residential areas in the towns of St Albans and at Barnet. Labour looked for its support to the railway-dominated town of Hatfield and amongst workers in Barnet and St Albans.


1919 St Albans by-election, Campaign
For the Liberals, Gray campaigned for free trade to combat high prices and increase production. He wanted to see an end to government control, and opposed the Anti- Dumping Bill, which he described as a measure to foster higher prices.


1919 St Albans by-election, Campaign
Fremantle's main theme was "peace at home". He backed the Government of Ireland Bill, and hoped for cross-party backing for it, but noted that since the Coalition Government had left "no organised opposition worth speaking of" in the House of Commons, the government "must receive its criticism from the inside". He pledged an independent attitude.


1919 St Albans by-election, Campaign
Brown sought the support of manual workers and trade unionists, particularly amongst the employees of the Great Northern Railway and the Midland Railway. However, he also targeted non-manual workers such as teachers, clerks and city employees who had been hard-hit by profiteering during the war.


1919 St Albans by-election, Campaign
All three candidates were supported by high-profile speakers. The former Home Secretary Herbert Samuel spoke for Gray, while Nancy Astor came to back Fremantle, who also received a letter of support from the Conservative leader Bonar Law. Brown was joined by the dramatist and Fabian George Bernard Shaw, and by the former ministers Sir Leo Chiozza Money and Arthur Henderson.


1919 St Albans by-election, Campaign
However, The Times noted on 1 December that although all three candidates were extremely active, "it cannot be said that the electorate are showing the amount of interest that might be desired". In the early days of contest, Liberal meetings were disrupted by hecklers, but this died away as the campaign progressed. The Times reported on 5 December that indoor meetings were the most successful; open-air speakers received a tiny audience.


1919 St Albans by-election, Result
After polling on 10 December, the result was not announced until 23 December, when the Unionist Fremantle was declared the winner with 45.8% of the votes, closely followed by Labour's Brown with 42.4%. Gray lost his deposit of £150, because his 11.8% Liberal share of votes fell below the threshold of one-eight of the votes.


1919 St Albans by-election, Result
In speeches after the count, Fremantle pronounced himself pleased with the result, and said that voters had sent a message of support to the Coalition for carrying on government "in accordance with the great traditions of the British Empire". Brown said that he was delighted with the result, which showed that the professional classes were coming round to supporting Labour; and Gray said that he could take defeat in a sportsmanlike manner.


1919 St Albans by-election, Aftermath
After his by-election victory, Fremantle held the seat at the following General Election in 1922.


1919 St Albans by-election, Aftermath
He kept it for the next 24 years, until his death in August 1943. He spoke frequently on medical issues in Parliament, and was knighted in 1922. The slim Unionist majority at the by-election was not repeated: a 15.6% margin at the 1922 general election was followed by a 21.2% majority in 1923, and in 1931 Frematle's majority was a massive 56.2%. St Albans remained a safe seat for the Conservatives until it was narrowly won by Labour in 1945.


1919 St Albans by-election, Aftermath
Gray contested Bedford unsuccessfully in 1923, but won the Mid Bedfordshire seat at the 1929 general election. He served briefly as a junior minister in 1931, but lost his seat at the 1931 general election, and never returned to Parliament. He served as Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Liberal Party for 6 years, was made a CBE in 1937.


1919 St. Louis Browns season
The 1919 St. Louis Browns season involved the Browns finishing 5th in the American League with a record of 67 wins and 72 losses.


1919 St. Louis Browns season, Player stats, Batting, Starters by position
Note: Pos = Position; G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in


1919 St. Louis Browns season, Player stats, Batting, Other batters
Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in


1919 St. Louis Browns season, Player stats, Pitching, Starting pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1919 St. Louis Browns season, Player stats, Pitching, Other pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1919 St. Louis Browns season, Player stats, Pitching, Relief pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1919 St. Louis Cardinals season
The 1919 St. Louis Cardinals season was the team's 38th season in St. Louis, Missouri and the 28th season in the National League. The Cardinals went 54–83 during the season and finished 7th in the National League.


1919 St. Louis Cardinals season, Player stats, Batting, Starters by position
Note: Pos = Position; G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in


1919 St. Louis Cardinals season, Player stats, Batting, Other batters
Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in


1919 St. Louis Cardinals season, Player stats, Pitching, Starting pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1919 St. Louis Cardinals season, Player stats, Pitching, Other pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1919 St. Louis Cardinals season, Player stats, Pitching, Relief pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1919 St. Xavier Saints football team
The 1919 St. Xavier Musketeers football team was an American football team that represented St. Xavier College (later renamed Xavier University) as an independent during the 1919 college football season. In its second and final season under head coach Albert B. Lambert, the team compiled a 6–2 record and outscored opponents by a total of 260 to 73.


1919 Standard Oil Company fire
On September 13, 1919, a fire and explosion occurred at the Standard Oil Company in Greenpoint, Brooklyn, New York City.


1919 Standard Oil Company fire, Fire
The Standard Oil Company Campus and former Astral Oil Works was spread out over 20 acres (0.081 km2). A fire broke in Tank No. 36 on the Standard Oil Company Campus around 2:00 p.m., but before the New York City Fire Department was called, the tank ignited, sparking off multiple fires throughout the campus. The yard held large quantities of naphtha, gasoline, oil and alcohol and more 1000 barrels of other explosive and flammable liquids. The fire burned furiously for three days, destroying millions of gallons of oil and caused damage estimated at $5,000,000 ($74,635,300 in 2021). Over 1,000 firemen fought the spectacular blaze, 300 of which were treated for burns and minor injuries.


1919 Standard Oil Company fire, Fire
Standard Oil’s Brooklyn refinery may have been an intentional attempt to clear the land and draw insurance. The fire site is now the location of the Bayside Fuel Oil depot at Bushwick Inlet.


1919 Stanford football team
The 1919 Stanford football team represented Stanford University in the 1919 college football season.


1919 Stanford football team, Season summary
This was the first time Stanford had fielded a football team since 1905. From 1905 to 1917, Stanford played rugby in place of football. In 1918, Stanford did not field an official team due to World War I, though an unofficial squad made up of volunteers from the Students' Army Training Corps stationed at Stanford (some of whom were not Stanford students) hurriedly organized to play several games, all blowout losses.


1919 Stanford football team, Season summary
Bob Evans, who had coached Stanford men's basketball team the previous season, was named coach of the football team to go along with his basketball coaching duties. In his only season as football coach, Evans led the team to a 4–3 overall record.


1919 Stanford football team, Season summary
In their first conference game in the Pacific Coast Conference, Stanford won its first-ever game against Oregon Agricultural College (now Oregon State); the team lost its other conference game, the Big Game against rival California.


1919 Stanley Cup Finals
The 1919 Stanley Cup Finals was the ice hockey playoff series to determine the 1919 Stanley Cup champions. The series was cancelled due to an outbreak of Spanish flu after five games had been played, and no champion was declared. It was the only time in the history of the Stanley Cup that it was not awarded due to a no-decision after playoffs were held.


1919 Stanley Cup Finals
The series was a rematch of the 1917 Stanley Cup Finals and the first since the armistice to end World War I. Hosting the series in Seattle was the Pacific Coast Hockey Association (PCHA) champion Seattle Metropolitans, playing against the National Hockey League (NHL) champion Montreal Canadiens. Both teams had won two games, lost two, and tied one before health officials were forced to cancel the deciding game of the series. Most of the Canadiens players and their manager George Kennedy fell ill with the flu and were hospitalized, leaving only three healthy players. The flu claimed the life of Canadiens defenceman Joe Hall four days later. Kennedy was permanently weakened by his illness, and it led to his death in 1921.


1919 Stanley Cup Finals, Paths to the Finals
The Canadiens won the first half of the 1918–19 NHL regular season while the Ottawa Senators won the second half, setting up a best-of-seven series between the two clubs to determine the NHL title. Montreal ended up winning the series, four games to one.


1919 Stanley Cup Finals, Paths to the Finals
Meanwhile, the Metropolitans finished the 1919 PCHA regular season in second place with an 11–9 record, behind the 12–8 Vancouver Millionaires. The two teams then faced off in a two-game total-goals championship series. Hours before the puck dropped for Game One, Metropolitans leading scorer Bernie Morris was arrested by United States authorities for alleged draft dodging. Without Morris, Seattle won game one 6–1 after Frank Foyston notched a hat trick, essentially ending the aggregate goals series. Vancouver recorded a 4–1 victory in game two, but lost the series to the Metropolitans by a combined score of 7–5. Morris was ultimately sentenced to two years hard labor at the U.S. Military Prison - Alcatraz, though his conviction was overturned after one year when he was granted an honorable discharge from the U.S. Army and sent straight to Ottawa for the 1920 Stanley Cup Finals.


1919 Stanley Cup Finals, Game summaries
All of the games were held at the Seattle Ice Arena. As with previous Stanley Cup series, the differing rules for the leagues alternated each game. PCHA rules were to be used in games one, three, and five; and NHL rules were to be used in games two and four. The actual game five used NHL rules, as it was considered a replay of game four. Seattle dominated Montreal under PCHA rules, scoring two in the first, three in the second, and a further two in the third. Corbeau of Montreal was injured but finished the game and continued to play in the series as a substitute.


1919 Stanley Cup Finals, Game summaries
The Canadiens evened the series in game two with Newsy Lalonde scoring all of Montreal's goals. Montreal took the lead and never relinquished it, although Seattle scored two in 32 seconds in the third to make it close. Joe Hall took a puck to the nose on a deliberate play by Cully Wilson, but the rough tactics did not continue as Seattle tried to catch up.


1919 Stanley Cup Finals, Game summaries
Back under PCHA rules, the Metropolitans won game three, 7–2. Seattle scored four goals in the first to take a commanding lead. No goals were scored in the second. In the third, Seattle prevented any comeback, outscoring Montreal 3–2.


1919 Stanley Cup Finals, Game summaries
Game four has been considered one of the greatest hockey games ever played, ending in a scoreless tie after 20 minutes of overtime, with Seattle's Hap Holmes and Montreal's Georges Vézina blocking every shot. At the end of the first period, the Mets' Cully Wilson scored a goal, but Hall of Fame referee Mickey Ion waved it off, deciding it was scored just after he had blown the period's final whistle. Near the close of the second overtime, Berlinguette of Montreal had a chance to win it but missed by inches. Wilson of Seattle mixed it up with Berlinguette, who had to leave the ice. As players lay collapsed across the ice, the crowd gave both teams an ovation after the game in appreciation of the teams' play.


1919 Stanley Cup Finals, Game summaries
Between games four and five, discussions were made about which rules to use for game five. As game four had finished in a tie, the Canadiens wanted game five to be a replay of game four, using NHL rules, and Seattle wanted PCHA rules. The game was played under NHL rules, and it was agreed that in the future, teams would play overtime until a winning goal was scored.


1919 Stanley Cup Finals, Game summaries
Montreal trailed in the game 3–0 after two periods, but Seattle tired, and Montreal scored three to force overtime. Lalonde had the Canadiens' second and third goals. In the extra period, Montreal's substitute Jack McDonald sprinted on the ice and tallied the game-winning goal in dramatic fashion after the Mets were down a player when Frank Foyston was injured, Jack Walker broke a skate, and Cully Wilson collapsed from exhaustion, leading the Canadiens to a 4–3 victory. The Metropolitans had only one substitute player, and the team was exhausted.


1919 Stanley Cup Finals, Game summaries
On the last play, Cully Wilson went to the bench to be replaced by Frank Foyston. Foyston had scored nine of Seattle's 19 goals in the series, but by that point, he was unable to move and replace Wilson, leaving the team shorthanded while McDonald scored. Some players went to the hospital after the game, while others had to be carried home.


1919 Stanley Cup Finals, Cancellation
The sixth and deciding game of the series was scheduled for April 1, but an outbreak of influenza caused several players on both teams to become seriously ill. With Lalonde, Hall, Coutu, Berlinguette, and McDonald of Montreal hospitalized or sick in bed, with fevers between 101 and 105 degrees Fahrenheit, game six was cancelled just five and a half hours before it was scheduled to start.


1919 Stanley Cup Finals, Cancellation
Kennedy said he was forfeiting the Cup to Seattle, but Pete Muldoon, manager-coach of the Metropolitans, refused to accept the Cup in a forfeiture, seeing that it was catastrophic illness that had caused the Canadiens lineup to be short of players. Kennedy asked to use players from the Victoria team of the PCHA, but president Frank Patrick refused the request.


1919 Stanley Cup Finals, Cancellation
Four days later, Joe Hall died of pneumonia brought about by the flu. His funeral was held in Vancouver on April 8, with most team members attending, and he was buried in Brandon, Manitoba. Manager George Kennedy also was stricken. His condition declined, and his wife arrived from Montreal to be with him. He never fully recovered from his symptoms and died a few years later.


1919 Stanley Cup Finals, Stanley Cup engraving
No official Stanley Cup winner was declared in 1919, and thus nothing was engraved onto the trophy. However, when the Cup was redesigned in 1948 and a new collar was added to include those teams that did not engrave their names on the trophy themselves, the following was added:


1919 Stanley Cup Finals, Team rosters, Seattle Metropolitans
† Morris did not play in the series due to his arrest for draft evasion. ‡ Played rover position.


1919 Stanley Cup playoffs
÷The 1919 Stanley Cup playoffs were played from February 22 to March 29. The finals, between the National Hockey League (NHL) champion Montreal Canadiens and the Pacific Coast Hockey Association (PCHA) champion Seattle Metropolitans, ended  after five games due to the Spanish flu outbreak, with the teams tied at two wins each with one tie. After the series, the Canadiens' manager attempted to award the Cup to Seattle, but the Seattle team refused it; both teams' names are engraved on the Cup as co-champions. It was the only time in the history of the Stanley Cup that it was not awarded due to a no-decision after playoffs were held.


1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles
The 1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles was the most violent revolt against the open-shop policies of the Pacific Electric Railway Company in Los Angeles. Labor organizers had fought for over a decade to increase wages, decrease work hours, and legalize unions for streetcar workers of the Los Angeles basin. After having been denied unionization rights and changes in work policies by the National War Labor Board, streetcar workers broke out in massive protest before being subdued by local armed police force.


1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles, Henry E. Huntington and anti-union leaders
Henry E. Huntington was a notorious anti-labor businessman. His distaste of unions ran so deep that Huntington joined alliance with multiple labor opponents to ensure that unions would remain subdued. Huntington shared like-minded ideas with the likes of David M. Parry, the president of the National Association of Manufacturers (NAM) and Harrison Gray Otis, owner and publisher of the Los Angeles Times. The National Association of Manufacturers was established in 1895 and had originally promoted trade and commerce, but by 1903 it began to side with anti-strike and anti-union ideologies.


1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles, Henry E. Huntington and anti-union leaders
Huntington and Parry worked together to demand legislation for making boycotting illegal and protecting strikebreakers and nonunion workers. Otis had been working to ensure that his publication aligned with anti-unionism policies since the 1880s. He framed supporters of unions in a highly negative light and claimed that strikers were deserters who should not be allowed into the Los Angeles community. Otis utilized the Los Angeles Times to share the ideas of men of power that union men could not be trusted and that labor leaders sought to undermine and destroy companies.


1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles, Henry E. Huntington and anti-union leaders
Huntington’s involvement went beyond sharing ideas with powerful men. He supported and funded organizations that supported companies that fell victim to unions and strikes. He battled labor movements locally alongside the Los Angeles Merchants and Manufacturers Association as well as the Citizens' Alliance. The Merchants’ and Manufacturers Association (M&M) was founded in the 1890s to work with emerging businesses to encourage mediation between employers and its workers. After a union-organized strike against the Los Angeles Times in 1902, M&M shifted its platform and began to publicly attack organized labor. Over 80 percent of local businesses were members of M&M.


1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles, Henry E. Huntington and anti-union leaders
Businessmen were strong-armed into supporting open-shop policies with threats of cutting off bank credit, denying advertisements in the Los Angeles Times, and withholding shipment of materials to companies, forcing them to buy from competitors. The Los Angeles Citizens' Alliance (LACA) was founded in Los Angeles in 1904 and was over six thousand people strong. Members could participate so long as they did not participate in any labor unions. Huntington heavily sent his support to LACA by both joining and financially backing the organization. LACA ensured the safety of its companies from unions and boycotts by providing its members one dollar per day for each worker that walked off from a strike.


1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles, Pacific Electric vs. organized labor, 1901–1903
Huntington faced his first encounter with labor in Los Angeles in 1901 when the Los Angeles Railway's platform men—and motormen—demanded that their hourly wages be increased from twenty to twenty-two and a half cents per hour. In June the employees accepted the company's counterproposal of a progressive wage scale based on seniority men with under four years experience wouldbe paid twenty cents per hour, those with four years twenty-one cents, and those with five or more years at the Los Angeles Railway twenty-two cents per hour. This created a huge setback for union unity.


1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles, Pacific Electric vs. organized labor, 1901–1903
Instead of working for a common cause, each worker sought to work towards personal gain. This dilemma increased once Huntington threatened to fire anyone who joined a union. An effort was made by the Los Angeles Council of Labor in 1901 and 1902 to amalgamate the streetcar workers in the Los Angeles Basin. Huntington trampled the attempts of the council with threats of firing employees caught joining the cause.


1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles, Pacific Electric vs. organized labor, 1901–1903
Organizers from San Francisco came to Los Angeles and organized the Local No. 203 of the Amalgamated Association of Street Railway Employees in 1903 despite Huntington’s work against unions in years prior. The new local gained steam and quickly accumulated over 200 in membership. Previously dismissed employees attempted to call up strikes on two separate occasions in March and April, but Huntington did not tolerate any of it. Managers were ordered to fire employees that participated or sympathized with the strike and police force were used against employees attempting to march out. Huntington rewarded employees that chose to stay loyal to the company with a ten percent wage increase.


1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles, Pacific Electric vs. organized labor, 1901–1903
The following labor clash in April 1903 known as the Pacific Electric Railway Strike of 1903 was caused by the unrest of racial divides in labor practices. The Amalgamated Association of Street Railway Employees decided to assist the Mexican laborers working in the Huntington construction gangs to organize their own union. Mexican laborers were hired to lay track in the southwest because their low wage rate, $1.00 to $1.25 for a ten-hour day, was significantly less than other minorities, such as the Chinese, who collected up to $1.75 per day for the same work.


1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles, Pacific Electric vs. organized labor, 1901–1903
The Mexican Federal Union was formed in 1903 and raised great support in the community. Work on the Main Street line was stopped and demands were made to Pacific Electric for increased wages. Huntington refused to meet these demands and replaced them with black, Japanese, and white laborers while still paying them higher wages than had been paid towards the Mexicans.


1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles, Pacific Electric vs. organized labor, 1910–1917
Clashes between organized labor and Pacific Electric simmered until labor efforts were renewed in 1910. Metal trade workers began a large strike and great tensions were created between employers and workers in Los Angeles as a result. The Amalgamated Association of Street Railway Employees took advantage of the discourse and organized the Los Angeles trainmen and created Carmen's Local No. 410. The organization lobbied the state to create a ten-hour workday for local and interurban railway workers. The movement failed because employers threatened to fire anyone found participating in the movement. From 1913 to 1915, the amalgamated workers fought for lower work shifts and higher wages but found themselves blocked by powerful enemies of labor.


1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles, Pacific Electric vs. organized labor, 1910–1917
Pacific Electric found a new tactic for subduing the labor movement by creating a company union in 1917. Huntington chose General Manager George Kuhrts as the group's president, and other officers were elected by the workers. The union established a board selected by workers to air employee grievances and make employee desires known to management. But it had no administrative authority and served in a purely advisory capacity.


1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles, Pacific Electric vs. organized labor, The 1918–1919 strikes
The most intense strike for the railway workers occurred in two stages between 1918 and 1919. World War I caused great inflation in prices in Los Angeles. Streetcar crews worked over ten hour shifts and pay increases averaged only 50 percent over a period when the cost of living had risen nearly 75 percent. The vice-president of the Amalgamated Association of Street Railway Employees, Ben Bowbeer, began to unionize workers with strong support from federal government wage-adjustment bureaus in 1918. Labor leaders fueled with renewed energy pulled their efforts together to create the Amalgamated Division 835.


1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles, Pacific Electric vs. organized labor, The 1918–1919 strikes
The union applied to the National War Labor Board (NWLB) in the fall of 1918 for an increase in wages and an eight-hour workday. The eight-hour workday was granted, but Huntington did not implement it. Once again, streetcar workers went on strike. This time, the US naval commander sent armed sailors on the Red Cars to threaten the streetcar conductors. The city also served injunctions declaring that workers had agreed to open-shop policies upon their employment and that their demands to unionize were illegal.


1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles, Pacific Electric vs. organized labor, The 1918–1919 strikes
In 1919 the streetcar unions petitioned the National War Labor Board again for union recognition and were denied a second time, resulting in violent resistance. The Mexican tracklayers walked out in solidarity, strikers greased streetcar wheels, trolleys were overturned from their tracks, and a riot broke out on August 20 in downtown Los Angeles. Ultimately, railway workers walked away with a pay increase and the Los Angeles Railway management continued its open-shop policies. Wartime politics would greatly impede organized labor activity in the coming years.


1919 Swansea East by-election
The Swansea East by-election, 1919 was a parliamentary by-election held for the British House of Commons constituency of Swansea East on 10 July 1919.


1919 Swansea East by-election, Vacancy
The seat had become vacant when the Coalition Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) Thomas Jeremiah Williams had died on 12 June 1919, aged 46. He had held the seat since its creation at the 1918 general election.


1919 Swansea East by-election, Campaign
At a Labour Party conference in June, a resolution was passed in favour of using the strike weapon for political purposes.


1919 Swansea East by-election, Result
The Coalition Liberal candidate, David Matthews, held the seat for his party, but with a greatly reduced majority.


1919 Swansea East by-election, Aftermath
David Williams stood again at the 1922 general election and won the seat for the Labour Party.


1919 Swansea East by-election, Further reading
This by-elections to the Parliament of the United Kingdom in Wales-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by .


1919 Swarthmore Quakers football team
The 1919 Swarthmore Quakers football team was an American football team that represented Swarthmore College as an independent during the 1919 college football season. The team compiled a 7–1 record and outscored opponents by a total of 145 to 79. Leroy Mercer was the head coach.


1919 Swiss federal election
Federal elections were held in Switzerland on 26 October 1919. The Free Democratic Party emerged as the largest party in the National Council, winning 60 of the 189 seats.


1919 Swiss federal election, Results, Council of States, Summary
In several cantons, the members of the Council of States were chosen by the cantonal parliaments.