1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Georgia Tech
"The annual North-South struggle with the Golden Tornado of Georgia Tech is the next battle on the hands of the Panthers Saturday at Forbes Field, and that the battle will be a hummer goes without saying. It always is." First year coach Bill Alexander, whose team was 4-0 and had outscored the opposition 209 – 0, "learned all he knows about the game from John Heisman, who is now coaching at Old Penn." His lineup boasts three All-America players: end, Bill Fincher, guard Dummy Lebey and fullback Buck Flowers.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Georgia Tech
The Pittsburgh Sunday Post reported: "This bunch has been coordinated with only the Pitt game in view. Atlanta papers..have been filled with reference to this game for several weeks, and streaming across the top of the pages are such slogans as: 'We Must Beat Pitt – We Will Beat Pitt,' 'Blow the Panther Out of the Way,' ' Watch the Tornado Do to Pitt What Alexia Sterling'Did to Dorothy Hurd,' and similar lines."


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Georgia Tech
Coach Alexander spoke with The Pittsburgh Post: "I think my team this fall is better than any Georgia Tech outfit that has been seen in Pittsburgh, and am sure the Panthers will have nothing easy on Saturday. We are here to win and we are not making any bones about it."


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Georgia Tech
Coach Warner wrote in The Pittsburg Press: "To win Pitt must be on her toes every moment, and put up the hardest fight her players are capable of. If the players do that, I am not afraid of the result." The coach made some lineup adjustments. Charles Bowser started at quarterback for the injured Tom Holleran and Leon Kelly replaced the injured Bill Gourley at tackle. Fullback Orville “Tiny” Hewitt was held out for second half duty, while John Anderson started.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Georgia Tech
Outplayed by a wide margin and trailing by a score of 3 to 0 at the end of the first half, the University of Pittsburgh eleven came back in the second half at Forbes Field yesterday afternoon and defeated the best team Georgia Tech ever has sent here, the final score being 10 to 3. Twenty-two thousand persons witnessed the game and were treated to many a thrill and missed heartbeats as the close contest wore on until Pitt got the break that enabled it to turn threatening defeat into victory.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Georgia Tech
This came in the third quarter, when Sacklowski, the guard, broke through and blocked a punt by Buck Flowers, the Georgia Tech captain, on the 28-yard line and Flowers had to scurry to make the recovery on the 15. A succeeding punt by Flowers went only to the middle of the field and was run back by Red Byers, subbing for Davies at left halfback, to the 24-yard line. From this point on, 'Tiny' Hewitt, the tubby fullback, carried the ball on three plays...to the nine-yard line before the end of the third quarter.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Georgia Tech
On the first play of the fourth quarter, Hewitt plunged through the line again and made a first down on the one-yard line and on the next try he lugged the pigskin over. Davies kicked goal. There in a nutshell, is the story of how the game was won for Pitt.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Georgia Tech
Georgia Tech scored late in the second quarter. Their offense advanced the ball to the Pitt 11-yard line and faced a fourth and seven. Flowers backed up to the 18-yard line and kicked it through the uprights for a 3 to 0 lead for Georgia Tech. After Pitt's fourth quarter touchdown, their defense forced Tech to punt and the Pitt offense moved the ball to the Tech 23-yard line. "Davies went back to the 30-yard line to try a placement goal, Holleran holding the ball. It was good. Score – Pitt 10, Georgia Tech 3." The Yellow Jackets finished the season 8-1.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Georgia Tech
The Pitt lineup for the game against Georgia Tech was Bill Edgar (left end), Harvey Harman (left tackle), James Bond (left guard), Herb Stein (center), John McLean (right guard), Leon Kelly (right tackle), Frank Williams (right end), Charles Bowser (quarterback), Tom Davies (left halfback), Herb McCracken (right halfback) and John Anderson (fullback). Substitutes appearing in the game for Pitt were: John McCrory, Jack Sacklowski, Louis Markowitz, William Gourley, Fred Ewing, Frank Byers, Tom Holleran and Orville Hewitt. The game was played in 15-minute quarters.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Georgia Tech
Immediately after the game the University of Pittsburgh athletic authorities severed all athletic relations with the Georgia Institute of Technology. The statement read:


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Georgia Tech
The break is due to a discovery on Pitt's part that three of the Georgia Tech stars had played more than four years of football allowed by the rules of first-class colleges and specified definitely in the articles of agreement between the two schools.... We at once sent word to the team's manager that we desired a conference. This conference was not held until this morning, owing to the failure of the Georgians to come around. We met them this morning and told them they could not use the three men mentioned (Flowers, Fincher and Staton).


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Georgia Tech
They refused to keep them out and said unless they played the team would not go on the field. Inasmuch as thousands of tickets had been sold and we did not want to disappoint our patrons, we decided to go through with the game but to sever relations immediately after it was over.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Georgia Tech
Pitt and Tech would not meet on the football field again until the controversial 1956 Sugar Bowl.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Lafayette
The Gazette Times was excited about the Lafayette game: "Next Saturday the Warnerites will entertain the Lafayette College eleven from Easton, Pa. at Forbes Field, and unless all signs fail, it will be 'some' party. The Eastonians are coached by Dr. John B. (Jock) Sutherland, one of the greatest linemen the local school ever turned out and one of Pop Warner's best pupils." Lafayette had a 2-2 record, having beaten Catholic University 84 to 0 in their last game. They would finish the season with a 5-3 record.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Lafayette
Coach Warner praised his pupil: "Jock Sutherland knows football" says Pop, "and any team he coaches is a foe to be reckoned with. He has good material, and I know it is well coached. It will be a hard game."


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Lafayette
Prior to the game, Dean Friessell of the Dental School presented Coach Sutherland with a gold watch, a gift from his alma mater.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Lafayette
"The game was played in the first real football weather of the year, and the tinge of autumn in the air helped to keep the fans on edge, but the contest was comparatively featureless." Ralph S. Davis of The Pittsburg Press reported: "It was master against pupil yesterday at Forbes Field and the Old Master won. Glenn Warner's Pitt Panthers tackled Jock Sutherland's Lafayette outfit from Easton, and won 14 to 0. Tom Davies was the outstanding star of the battle. He scored every one of Pitt's points. In the first period on a triple pass, he skirted left end for a 49-yard run across the Eastonian's goal line, and then kicked goal. In the second period on a pass from McCracken, Davies ran 26 yards for Pitt's other touchdown, and also kicked goal."


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Lafayette
The Owl noted: "From tackle to tackle the Lafayette line outplayed the Pitt line, with Schwab as the outstanding star. Time and time again they marched down the field only to lose the ball on downs within our 20-yard line."


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Lafayette
The Pitt lineup for the game against Lafayette was Bill Edgar (left end), William Gourley (left tackle), Jack Sacklowski (left guard), Herb Stein (center), James Bond (right guard), Louis Markowitz (right tackle), John McCrory (right end), Herb McCracken (quarterback), John Anderson (left Halfback), Tom Davies (right halfback) and Orville Hewitt (fullback). Substitutes appearing in the game for Pitt were: R. M. Simpson, Adolph Herskowitz, Dode Thomas, Henry Magarrell, Mike Hartnett and John McLean. The game was played in 15-minute quarters.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, at Penn
The last road game for the 1920 season was a train trip across the state to Philadelphia to do battle with the Penn Quakers, now led by ex-Georgia Tech coach John Heisman. The Quakers owned a 4-2 record, but were on a two game losing streak, having lost to VMI and Penn State. They would finish the season with a 6-4 record. The Pittsburg Press noted: "The Quakers are admittedly in the best condition they have been since their opening game. Several players who were injured have been nursed along, and will be at their best today against the Pittsburghers."


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, at Penn
Coach Warner warned his team: "Old Penn is desperate," he told his charges last night. “She has won lucky games this fall until she tackled Penn State, when she was crushed until the last period. If there is any come-back in the team, it is due to assert itself on Saturday, and we will be the victims of the hardest play Penn has yet shown, I am sure. Our team is battered, and it is going to take herculean work on the part of those who are in shape to stem the tide and bring home the victory." Warner's starting lineup will be minus Orville Hewitt at fullback, Tom Holleran at quarterback and Harvey Harman at tackle.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, at Penn
Perry Lewis of The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote: "The Penn football team lost another decision yesterday, but in losing proved itself to be greater than the University of Pittsburgh eleven, to which it succumbed by a score of 27 to 21. Never did gridiron warriors representing the institution beyond the Schuylkill wage a more amazing and heartbreaking battle than that against Pitt on Franklin Field, and on no page in all the glorious football history of the Red and Blue is there recorded a more inspiring exhibition of fighting spirit than that displayed by the sons of Father Penn yesterday. Yet, Pitt won – won because in her line-up was a super-player, one Davies, halfback extraordinary."


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, at Penn
The Pitt Owl confirmed: "On November 6, Tommy Davies, Pittsburgh's wonder man, defeated the University of Pennsylvania in one of the most thrilling grid battles ever staged at Franklin Field. That tells the story of the Penn game. The Quakers showed a reverse of form and played a strong game. Their aerial attack was a bewilderment and the Pitt goal line was crossed thrice. But that could not beat Tom Davies. For Pitt's first score Davies threw a forward pass to Holleran, who scored. On the next kick-off he ran through the Penn team 90 yards for a touchdown.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, at Penn
In the third period Davies scored again through two 30-yard runs and to finish a good days work in the last period he caught a Penn forward pass and ran 60 yards for a touchdown. Davies had ten other men to help him, of course, but his feats stand out as the greatest single handed exhibition of the year."


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, at Penn
The Pitt lineup for the game against Penn was John McCrory (left end), Jack Sacklowski (left tackle), James Bond (left guard), Herb Stein (center), John McLean (right guard), Leon Kelly (right tackle), Bill Edgar (right end), Cjharles Bowser (quarterback), Tom Davies (left halfback), Herb McCracken (right halfback) and John Anderson (fullback). Substitutes appearing in the game for Pitt were: R. M. Simpson, Tom Holleran, Mike Hartnett and William Gourley. The game was played in 15 minute quarters.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, at Penn
Coach Warner played a trick on the scouts from Wash. & Jeff and Penn State, in addition to unsuspecting Quaker fans. He sent the list of player numbers to the Penn Manager to be printed in the game program, but then on game day he switched everyone's number. Thankfully, the press box was given an updated list.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Washington & Jefferson
David C. Morrow brought his  W. & J. eleven to Forbes Field on November 13 for the annual battle for Western Pennsylvania football supremacy. The Presidents had a 5-1-1 record, having just lost to Syracuse the previous week. The Presidents would finish the season with a 6-4-1 record. Tackle Russ Stein, Pitt center Herb Stein's brother, received All-America mention from noted sportswriters.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Washington & Jefferson
The stadium was expected to be packed as the residents of Washington, PA converge on Pittsburgh for this one day a year. "The rooting duel will be a feature of the game. W. & J. brings more followers to Pittsburgh than any other rival and the singing and cheering will be deafening."


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Washington & Jefferson
The Pittsburg Press reported: "Reports from the Red and Black camp are to the effect that the Presidents are in better shape than at any previous time this season, and that they are fully cognizant of their own prowess and are determined to win the game at all hazards."


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Washington & Jefferson
Coach Warner wrote that the Panthers, with their 5-0-1 record, were not a championship team. He bemoaned the fact that injuries have kept Pitt from both scrimmaging and having its starting lineup in place. He felt his team had been lucky. "The team has yet to show that it is anywhere near championship caliber."


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Washington & Jefferson
Ralph S. Davis reported: "Tom Davies, Pitt's super-man, came through again yesterday – and the Panther scored its sixth consecutive triumph over Washington & Jefferson... The score was 7 to 0." The touchdown came at the end of the first quarter. Pitt was lined up in punt formation on W. & J. 's 43-yard line and the ball was snapped to Davies. "Around left end he ran, then darted to the other side of the field, and down near the sideline, past the Wash-Jeff secondary defense, and across the goal line for a touchdown... Tom kicked the goal making it 7 to 0 and it remained unchanged during the remainder of the game."


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Washington & Jefferson
Early in the game Wash – Jeff moved the ball to the Pitt 10-yard line and the Pitt defense stiffened and regained possession. In the third quarter Pitt advanced the ball to the Presidents' one foot line and lost the ball on downs. Twice more the Pitt offense penetrated the W. & J. ten-yard line but were unable to capitalize.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Washington & Jefferson
"A new football attendance record for Pittsburgh was established on Saturday at the Pitt – W. & J. game at Forbes Field, when more than 31,500 persons passed through the turnstiles."


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Washington & Jefferson
The Pitt lineup for the game against Washington & Jefferson was John McCrory (left end), Harvey Harman (left tackle), Jack Sacklowski (left guard), Herb Stein (center), John McLean (right guard), William Gourley (right tackle), Bill Edgar (right end), Tom Holleran (quarterback), Tom Davies (left halfback), Herb McCracken (right halfback) and John Anderson (fullback). Substitutes appearing in the game for Pitt were: Leon Kelly, Orville Hewitt and James Bond. The game was played in 15-minute quarters.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Penn State
The final game of the 1920 Pitt football season pitted the undefeated Panthers against the undefeated Penn State Nittany Lions on Thanksgiving Day. The game was played on a sea of mud that covered Forbes Field. Third year coach Hugo Bezdek had his team sitting 7-0-1, with a 7-to-7 tie against Lehigh the only blemish. The State lineup boasted four 1920 All-American mentions: halfbacks - Charley Way and Hinkey Haines; and guards – Percy W. Griffiths and Harold Hess.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Penn State
Ralph S. Davis described the past seven years of the rivalry: "The Lion was famished for six long years, and almost died of starvation. His battles with the Panther over that long period were disastrous ones and left him weak and almost lifeless. But, feeding up on smaller victims last fall, he went into his annual tussle with the Panther a rejuvenated jungle king, and tore the Warner-kept beast to pieces. But 'Pop' has a new Panther this year, and a battle royal is assured when it and the Bezdek lion get into the Forbes Field arena on Thursday."


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Penn State
Coach Warner noted: "I do not say that my team will win, but my players are in better condition than for some time and I know they will fight to the limit to win. If we are beaten it will be by a team that we shall be glad to bow to.”  Coach Bezdek added: “We have a fighting chance, and the boys will make the most of it."


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Penn State
Football notables from across the country were in attendance: Alonzo Stagg of Chicago with his assistants, Fred Walker and Hal Medford; Tad Jones of Yale; Bill Roper of Princeton; Chick Meehan and Bill Horr of Syracuse; and Walter Camp.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Penn State
The game was played in 15-minute quarters and after the hour, the final score read 0 to 0. "State carried the ball to Pitt's 15-yard line once whereas Pitt was within the State 10-yard line several times." Tom Davies missed a field goal on one trip and Pitt turned it over on downs the other times. Davies left the game late in the second quarter with a concussion, but Red Byers proved to be a capable replacement. Defense and the muddy field kept both offenses in check.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Penn State
In spite of the inclement weather 32,500 fans attended the game to set a new stadium record.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Penn State
Coach Warner mused: "I would like to have seen that game played on a dry field. Had conditions been ideal, I think the luminaries who came here to see the contest would have been more than satisfied."


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Game summaries, Penn State
The Pitt lineup for the game against Penn State was John McCrory (left end), Harvey Harman (left tackle), James Bond (left guard), Herb Stein (center), John McLean (right guard), Jack Sacklowski (right tackle), Bill Edgar (right end), Tom Holleran (quarterback), Tom Davies (left halfback), Herb McCracken (right halfback) and John Anderson (fullback). Substitutes appearing in the game for Pitt were: Frank “Red” Byers, Orville Hewitt, William Gourley, Frank Williams and Charles Bowser.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Postseason
Tom Davies was elected captain for the 1921 season and letters were presented to: Herb Stein, Tom Davies, Tom Holleran, Herb McCracken, John Anderson, Orville Hewitt, Frank Byers, Charles Bowser, John McCrory, Bill Edgar, Frank Williams, Harvey Harman, William Gourley, Leon Kelly, John McLean, James Bond, Jack Sacklowski and John Clark at the annual banquet on December 2, 1920.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Postseason
Only two lettermen were lost to graduation – John McCrory and Herb McCracken.


1920 Pittsburgh Panthers football team, Postseason
Lawrence I. Klinestiver was appointed Student Manager for the 1921 season.


1920 Pittsburgh Pirates season
The 1920 Pittsburgh Pirates season was the 39th in franchise history; the 34th in the National League.


1920 Pittsburgh Pirates season, Player stats, Batting, Starters by position
Note: Pos = Position; G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in


1920 Pittsburgh Pirates season, Player stats, Batting, Other batters
Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; H = Hits; Avg. = Batting average; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in


1920 Pittsburgh Pirates season, Player stats, Pitching, Starting pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1920 Pittsburgh Pirates season, Player stats, Pitching, Other pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; IP = Innings pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1920 Pittsburgh Pirates season, Player stats, Pitching, Relief pitchers
Note: G = Games pitched; W = Wins; L = Losses; SV = Saves; ERA = Earned run average; SO = Strikeouts


1920 Polish Football Championship
1920 Polish Football Championship was the 1st edition of the Polish Football Championship (Non-League). Abandoned due to the Polish–Soviet War. Winners of five regional groups were to meet in the final tournament.


1920 Polish Football Championship, Regional A-Classes tournaments, Lvovian Group
Only two matches played: Pogoń Lwów vs. Czarni Lwów 3–1 and Czarni Lwów vs. Polonia Przemyśl 6–0. Rewera Stanisławów played no match. Games not finished.


1920 Polish Football Championship, Regional A-Classes tournaments, Lodzian Group
No matches played. Teams entered: ŁKS, Klub Turystów, ŁTSG and (ŁTG) Szturm, all from Łódź.


1920 Polish Football Championship, Regional A-Classes tournaments, Varsovian Group
No matches played. Teams entered: Polonia Warsaw and Korona Warsaw.


1920 Politics (Hawaii)
1920 Politics also referred to as “Jim Crow” circa 1930, was a Democratic  political strategy to reassert the authority of the white race and promote American Anglo-Saxon values, in what was then the US Territory of Hawaii.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Strike of 1920
Before 1920 Hawaii was divided into various nationalist groups of Whites, Hawaiians, Chinese, Portuguese, Japanese, Okinawans, Filipinos, and Koreans.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Strike of 1920
At the time white nationalism by Republicans had been an acceptable position. Since annexation, Hawaii's white-dominated oligarchy comprised three branches: the HSPA and Big Five sugar plantations dominated economics, the Republican Party dominated politics, and the white minority dominated society. These organs supported each other: one important example was that the plantations were a crucial source of Republican votes. On Election Day, the crude election booths allowed plantation management to survey which worker voted Republican or not; those who did not were disciplined or fired. While several workers had the right to vote, they valued their livelihood more than their right to choose their candidate.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Strike of 1920
Racism was not only a social issue but more importantly an economic one. Hawaii’s plantation economy relied on the ready availability of cheap labor to work the fields, and any increase in wages was costly as pay was distributed over the large work force. For the white planters, the two largest groups — the Japanese and Filipinos — rivaled each other, dividing the labor force so that when one group went on strike the other would become strike breakers. But in 1920 the Japanese and Filipinos reconciled their differences and joined in the dual strike of 1920.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Farrington
After the 1920 strike, greater attention was given to the Asian majority. At the time, half of public school students were of Japanese ancestry. The white minority petitioned Governor Charles J. McCarthy for racial segregation to prevent their children for being exposed to what they believed to be the "corrupting influences" of the colored students. McCarthy had little sympathy for the immigrant Asian population and agreed to create English Standard Schools for whites and some Hawaiians, who were given privileges over students attending the more prevalent public schools.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Farrington
Republican Governor Wallace Rider Farrington came to power, stating that the “Racial elements are out of balance and seriously in need of adjusting”. Republicans feared that a united labor force would take over the economy and eventually the political system, overturning the plantation economy, race hierarchy, and social values of Hawaii. The previous strategy known as Divide-and-Control had failed. Republicans created a new strategy to prevent majority rule. Divide-and-Control was unstable since it relied on different ethnicities confronting each other.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Farrington
Instead of Divide-and-Control, where Japanese identity was the center of the Japanese community and the Filipino identity was the center of the Filipino community, the 1920 Politics strategy was to Americanize the Japanese and Filipino communities to disconnect them from their own identity, to adopt a Western identity and to further the power of the white population.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Farrington
The Filipinos were considered a mongrel race, the result of Asian and Hispanic mixing that produced a primitive people of low intelligence. People of Japanese origin were regarded as a pure race and better organized, despite being described as "paganistic barbarians". Armed with this logic, Republicans decided to assimilate the Japanese first and then the Filipinos. The logic of the campaign was that, after the Japanese had been assimilated, the Filipinos, with their limited mental capacity, would be too weak to oppose the movement. If they concentrated on trying to assimilate the Filipinos first, it was likely that they would turn to the Japanese to arrange resistance to the campaign. Even if the Filipinos were broken, the Republicans would still have to challenge the Japanese who had organized the Filipinos.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Farrington, Japanese
Farrington’s strategy was to target the schools and the next generations while the plantations dealt with the adults by promoting Christianity, thereby converting the ethnically Japanese population to the predominant American religion.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Farrington, Japanese
Immigrants to Hawaii usually encountered Christian groups proselytizing to newcomers, but with plantation owners allowing high tolerance for the immigrants’ culture, these immigrants continued to follow their own religions. During the strike of 1920, Buddhist and Shinto churches took the risk of supporting the striking workers. Christian churches on the other hand wanted to maintain good relations with the plantation owners and opposed the strike.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Farrington, Japanese
A solution was proposed by Umetaro Okumura as a means to assimilate the Japanese population: with his father Reverend Takie Okumura, he proposed evangelicalizing the Japanese community. Once converted to Christianity, the planters could manipulate the Japanese through the churches and discourage their workers from criticizing poor conditions, leaving the labor force, requesting pay raises, and creating unions. An additional advantage to Okumura was if he was effective in converting the Japanese community into a Christian fundamentalist society, it gave him the opportunity to become the theocratic leader over the Japanese.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Farrington, Japanese
The white oligarchy believed that Japanese would always believe another ethnic Japanese, this being a primitive but effective defense amongst a people of limited intelligence. Believing Takie Okumura could gain acceptance as a Japanese and infiltrate the Japanese community to carry out his agenda, the oligarchy gave its support to Okumura. He received support from planters brothers William and George Castle, former Republican governors George Carter, Walter Frear, and the governor at that time, Farrington. In exchange for higher productivity the Evangelical churches would be financially secured by the plantations and Republican would give government support in the spread and influence of Christianity.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Farrington, Japanese
Okumura was an avid opponent of the unions, and he refused to shelter or aid strikers following the evictions. His philosophy was that to use labor unions to challenge the white-dominated power structure might produce immediate gains but at a long-term loss, as a hostile relationship with the power holders would cause difficulties in the future. Instead, he believed in enduring the immediate hardships and accepting white-dominated authorities, becoming Americanized and Christianized, so that they could say ‘your country is my country; your God is my God’.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Farrington, Japanese
Okumura believed deeply in the rule of law, and under the Republican administration he made a crusade of ridding Honolulu of prostitution and gambling. Since 1919, labor unions had been categorized as organized crime. To Okumura, they were the rural counterpart to Honolulu’s syndicates and the unionists and pagan priests that supported them were no better than the pimps and gangsters of Honolulu.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Farrington, Japanese
In 1921, Farrington applied new requirements for school emphasizing the teaching of English Language, American History, and democracy. In 1923, the Government passed Act 30, Act 171, and in 1925 Act 152. The Acts limited the range of subjects taught and put financial pressure on Foreign language schools. Okumura was appointed to a committee to regulate the Language school text books.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Farrington, Japanese
In January 1921, Okumura began an “Education Campaign” to coax Japanese into Christianity by attempting to persuade them of its similarities to Japanese culture and to promote a strong work ethic. Okumura initially convinced Buddhists clergy and Japanese businessmen to support the program, believing Okumura was taking an initiative to reconcile tensions between the two faiths and join together to alleviate hostilities between Whites and Japanese.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Farrington, Japanese
The campaign was flawed from the start, since it was known that Okumura opposed the 1920 strike and sided with planters. It was also known that the plantations were providing Okumura and his colleagues with facilities and paying their expenses, Okumura’s close relations with the planters raising distrust amongst the Japanese. The Japanese unionists began to reject Okumura as a “traitor” and “betrayer”. Many did not go the programs and those who did found it taught them to become subservient workers. Amongst Okumura’s teachings was to reject materialism and value their role in society.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Farrington, Japanese
However, this approach met with an adverse reaction from an audience with few possessions and low social status, and Okumura was accused of being a propagandist for the wealthy social elite. Buddhist priests were irate to discover the Christian agenda to convert Buddhists and that Umetaro Okumura was discussing with the planters the ways to restrict Buddhist practices and close Buddhist churches on plantation land. Okumura was also known for his offensive remarks toward Buddhists, in which he described them as “alien” and “pagan”. Instead of attracting the Japanese to Christianity to correct their supposed spiritual flaws, the criticisms deepened their devotion to Buddhism or Shintoism and their rejection of Christianity.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Farrington, Japanese
The integration program was based largely on the Haole-Hawaiian Alliance. Since the missionaries of the 1820s, the Hawaiian religion, which was regarded as "primitive", was easily overcome by Christianity. Hawaiians had disowned their heritage, traded Hawaiian values for American values, and adopted English, driving the Hawaiian language to near extinction. Hawaiians were regarded as the proper colored Americans and model second class citizens, and for this they were given opportunities and rewards for their subservience.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Farrington, Japanese
But in the eyes of the Evangelicals, the Japanese were frustratingly irrational, voluntarily subjecting themselves to unnecessary hardship and discrimination by their refusal to forgo their heritage and religious beliefs. The Evangelicals believed that what they regarded as the Japanese community's mutinous and hostile attitudes were what kept them third-class citizens and barred them for the advantages enjoy by other Hawaiians.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Farrington, Japanese
The foreign languages controversy was decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1927 in Farrington v. Tokushige. A judgement was made on Farrington's and the Republicans' interpretation of American values, that certain people who deserved freedoms should receive them, while those whom they believed to have abused their rights should not. The languages schools were believed to be an abuse of the American freedom to perpetuate un-American views. The case was regarded as exposing hypocritical attitudes and for being an embarrassment, and the Supreme Court disagreed with the Hawaiian government and found Farrington violating the same values he was imposing. For Farrington and the Republicans, Okumura proved himself a liability more than an asset, and they disassociated themselves from him.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Farrington, Japanese
With little progress and after the publicizing of the result of the Supreme Court case, the Planters reanalyzed the Education Campaign and began to doubt Okumura's effectiveness, and complained he had made the Japanese more skeptical of American culture, and more belligerent, than before. The Planters even accused Okumura of being a double agent, because rather than making the Japanese submissive workers and solving the "Japanese Problem", he appeared to have exacerbated the conflict and put Whites and Japanese further at odds. The planters discontinued funding Okumura’s campaign in 1927 and Okumura ended it in 1929.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Judd
Shortly before Lawrence M. Judd became governor, in July 1929, a series of events revived 1920 Politics. In 1928 a ten-year-old white boy named George Gill Jamieson was kidnapped and murdered by a 19-year-old Japanese man, Myles Fukunaga, who was executed after Judd became governor. In 1931, a white woman named Thalia Massie, claimed to have been raped by five or six Hawaiians. In a separate incident on the same night of the rape, five non-white men were put on trial, which ended in a hung jury.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Judd
After the trial, one suspect, Horace Ida, was beaten, and another was shot and killed. The killers of the latter, Joseph Kahahawai, involved Massie’s mother and husband and two other navy men. After pressure from Congress and the white community, Judd communed their sentences of 10 years to one hour in his office. The Japanese compared the petition for clemency of Fukunaga, a colored man, who killed a white person, to Massie’s parents and cohorts: whites, who had killed a colored person. Not even the white community was satisfied with the uneven handling of the two cases. Judd was criticized for giving a commutation, not a pardon, and although the difference in the two rulings was negligible, it was widely believed that Judd was not committed to the belief that Massie’s avengers should be punished for their crime.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Judd
Following these events, Judd and the Republican government had to reassure the white minority in Hawaii, and whites nationally, of their safety. Under Farrington, the Hawaiians were exempted from the 1920 Politics by the Haole-Hawaiian Alliance. But after the Massie Affair, doubts arose over entrusting the power of authority to the Hawaiians. Under Alliance, Hawaiians were able to receive government jobs which had included police officers and prison guards. But, after examining these positions, U.S. Attorney General Seth Richardson found an incompetent police force and sympathetic prison guards. The Hawaiians had betrayed the trust of the white leadership to carry out their demands, were regarded as a liability and phased out by whites. Further pressure to Americanize Hawaii came from a renewed attempt at statehood.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Judd, Japanese
Under Judd, a new 1920 Politics strategy was implemented against the Japanese population, which was to ignore them. This change had several causes. Judd had learned from Farrington’s social attack, which had been intended to subordinate the Japanese community (which largely consisted of manual laborers and domestic servants), instead made them feel anti-American. Similarly, Buddhists and Shintos became anti-Christian. At the same time, whites became increasingly anti-Japanese and Christians anti-Buddhist. The attempted resolution to the problem concluded in a lawsuit that the Territory lost, thereby failing in its plan to assimilate the Japanese community through a policy of subordination.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Judd, Japanese
In addition to avoiding conflict with the Japanese majority was the prospect of future statehood, and the incitement of civil unrest would not represent Hawaii positively to Congress. Furthermore, the statehood committee made a conscious effort to avoid discussion of the unassimilated Japanese.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Judd, Japanese
One of the fears of the failure of the assimilation policy was soon realized: Japanese laborers left the plantations at the earliest opportunity and established their own shops and small businesses, and felt no need to assimilate as they already formed the majority of the population. Another fear arose: that if the Japanese became more politically active, their higher population size meant they would dominate the vote. Senator Hiram Bingham III, grandson of Hiram Bingham I, preferred the islands of his birth to remain in Caucasian hands rather than let democracy shift power into the hands of the Japanese. In 1932, he proposed a possible solution to Congress, in a bill to make Hawaii a military territory under the U.S. Navy. It would have discontinued elections until Hawaii could be settled by Caucasians.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Judd, Japanese
For many Japanese in the 1930s, minimal privacy at the voting stations, voter intimidation by Republicans that risked one’s job and livelihood, and a choice between anti-immigrant Democrats or white supremacist Republicans, resulted in more than 90% of Japanese-Americans deciding not to vote.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Judd, Japanese
Under the new policy, the Japanese community was allowed to practice its traditions, culture, and religion relatively unharassed by the government, planters, and Americanizing Christian organizations, on the condition that they did not interfere with the white community. The Christian movement was met with a strong counter-movement as the Japanese rejected Christianity as a ploy by the Planters to subordinate them. This created a resurgence of Buddhism in the 1930s, which Christians dubbed “re-paganization”. Japanese businessmen helped finance Buddhists and Shinto ministries to move off the plantations to become more autonomous and form a strong Buddhist establishment.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Judd, Japanese
At its height, Buddhists accounted for one-third of the territory's population. Students continued to be subjected to right-wing speakers in schools, and Japanese were rewarded for showing progress in assimilating. Although the situation was judged to be far from satisfactory, the Japanese generally preferred Judd’s neglect over persecution under Farrington. Conversely, Judd received criticism by the largely white evangelical community, that Buddhists and Shintos were allowed to practice their religion freely, even in public, without being challenged or in fear of governmental interference.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Judd, Japanese
By the end of the 1930s, a problem with the Haoles arose: the strategy of ignoring the Japanese meant that whites who were unaware of 1920s Politics did not consider Japanese to be a menace to American society. Some whites became interested in eastern traditions, took a curiosity in Buddhist beliefs, and considered intermarriage with Japanese people. However, concerns were expressed about what was perceived to be the erosion of traditional values by “Japanese Minded” Whites.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Judd, Filipinos
Since the Great Depression, the treatment of Filipinos was particularly harsh, as they were considered the most inferior of the Asian race. As a result, acts of defiance such as striking, unionizing, or protesting were resolved with deportation back to the Philippines. Furthermore, around 6,000 Filipinos were unemployed in Hawaii, further reducing their collective bargaining power. Unlike the Japanese, most Filipinos still worked in the plantations, and without Pablo Manlapit, the labor movement collapsed.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Judd, Filipinos
A product of the Great Depression was the Wagner Act that was signed into law in 1935, despite strong efforts by the Big Five and Hawaii Republicans to lobby against it. In response, Hawaii’s Republican-controlled government flatly refused to acknowledge the Act, claiming that, as Hawaii was a territory, and not a state, the law did not apply. However, in 1937, Hawaii was forced to implement the Wagner Act by the federal government.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Judd, Filipinos
Despite the Depression a successful wild cat strike occurred in Puunene, Maui, resulting in others strikes on Molokai, Hamakua, Kahuku, and Kekaha.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), World War II
Politicians continued to wait for an answer on statehood; the 1930s turned into the 1940s with no decisive answer forthcoming, and any serious discussion of racial inequality in Hawaii remained in reserve of an affirmative decision on statehood.


1920 Politics (Hawaii), Quinn
Under William F. Quinn, who became governor in 1957, senior politicians in Hawaii became open about bringing an end to 1920 Politics. Quinn was not only been a member of the Republican Club, a faction of the Party opposed to 1920 Politics, but had been the second leader of the Club. After the sweeping losses of the election of 1954, Republicans had to change their political strategy in order to survive.


1920 Presbyterian Blue Hose football team
The 1920 Presbyterian Blue Hose football team represented Presbyterian College during the 1920 college football season. The Blue Hose's team captain was Lonnie McMillian.


1920 Princeton Tigers football team
The 1920 Princeton Tigers football team represented Princeton University in the 1920 college football season. They finished with a 6–0–1 record and were retroactively selected as a co-national champion by the Boand System and Parke H. Davis. They outscored their opponents 144 to 23. Bill Roper served in his seventh season  as head coach. Keene Fitzpatrick, Frank Glick, and Jack Winn were assistant coaches.


1920 Puerto Rican general election
General elections were held in Puerto Rico in 1920. Since they were held under the colonial rule of the United States, only municipalities were able to democratically elect their representation.


1920 Punjab Legislative Council election
First Provincial Legislative Council election was held in Punjab in 1920 as mandated by the Government of India Act 1919.


1920 Punjab Legislative Council election, Introduction
The First World War gave the momentum to the growing demand for self-government in British India. Therefore, the new constitutional reforms, under the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms were introduced by British Government. The scheme was implemented through the Government of India Act 1919. The first Council was constituted on 8 January 1921 for the first time. The election for first Council was held in December 1920. 71 members were elected and 22 were nominated by Governor.


1920 Punjab Legislative Council election, Introduction
In 1920 the election was not contested on Party lines thus all elected candidates considered as Independent.


1920 Punjab Legislative Council election, Introduction
The term of the Council was fixed for three years. The council, for first time, was presided by a nominated person designated as President and in his absence, an elected person designated as Deputy President.


1920 Punjab Legislative Council election, Introduction
The first election which was conducted in the house was of Deputy President between Mehtab Singh and Chaudhary M. Amin. Mehtab Singh won election by securing 48 votes, while Amin secured 37 Votes.


1920 Punjab Legislative Council election, Introduction
The First Council had held 98 meetings when the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab dissolved the Council on 27 October 1923 after completion of three years tenure.


1920 Purdue Boilermakers football team
The 1920 Purdue Boilermakers football team was an American football team that represented Purdue University during the 1920 college football season. In their third season under head coach A. G. Scanlon, the Boilermakers compiled a 2–5 record, finished in ninth place in the Big Ten Conference with an 0–4 record against conference opponents, and were outscored by their opponents by a combined total of 103 to 36. F. J. Birk was the team captain.


1920 Queensland state election
Elections were held in the Australian state of Queensland on 9 October 1920 to elect the 72 members of the state's Legislative Assembly. The Labor government was seeking its third term in office since the 1915 election. It was Premier Ted Theodore's first election.


1920 Queensland state election
During the previous term, the Queensland Country Party, had re-emerged from the National bloc, taking half of the Country Party's parliamentary seats with it. A Labor member, Alfred James, switched to the party, and the Maranoa by-election in 1919 saw them gain a seat at the expense of Labor. An additional party, the Northern Country Party, also formed during this time to represent the interests of North Queensland farmers and canegrowers. In order to avoid three-cornered contests with Labor, the three parties agreed upon a division of seats between themselves.


1920 Queensland state election, Results
Queensland state election, 9 October 1920Legislative Assembly << 1918–1923 >>


1920 Queensland state election, Seats changing party representation
This table lists changes in party representation at the 1920 election.


1920 Queensland state election, Seats changing party representation, Party changes before election
The following seats changed party representation before the election due to the split of the National party.


1920 Racine Cardinals season
The 1920 Racine Cardinals season was the Cardinals' inaugural season in the American Professional Football Association (soon to be the National Football League). The team finished 6–2–1, earning fourth in the league. Their final two games of the season against the Chicago Stayms Foresters were played after the APFA season was officially over and did not count towards the standings.


1920 Racine Cardinals season
Although the Cardinals' existence traced back as far as 1899, this was their first season as a member of the American Professional Football Association.


1920 Racine Cardinals season, Offseason
The Chicago Cardinals, who were then named the Racine Cardinals, finished 4–3-1 in their 1919 season in the Chicago Football league Following the 1919 season, representatives of four Ohio League teams—the Canton Bulldogs, the Cleveland Tigers, the Dayton Triangles, and the Akron Pros—called a meeting on August 20, 1920, to discuss the formation of a new league. At the meeting, they tentatively agreed on a salary cap and pledged not to sign college players or players already under contract with other teams. They also agreed on a name for the circuit: the American Professional Football Conference. Then they contacted other major professional teams and invited them to a meeting for September 17.


1920 Racine Cardinals season, Offseason
At that meeting, held at Bulldogs owner Ralph Hay's Hupmobile showroom in Canton, representatives of the Rock Island Independents, the Muncie Flyers, the Decatur Staleys, the Massillon Tigers, the Cardinals, and the Hammond Pros agreed to join the league. Representatives of the Buffalo All-Americans and Rochester Jeffersons could not attend the meeting, but sent letters to Hay asking to be included in the league. Team representatives changed the league's name slightly to the American Professional Football Association and elected officers, installing Jim Thorpe as president.


1920 Racine Cardinals season, Offseason
Under the new league structure, teams created their schedules dynamically as the season progressed, and representatives of each team voted to determine the winner of the APFA trophy. After joining the league, manager Chris O'Brien signed halfback John "Paddy" Driscoll for $3,000. One of Driscoll's young running backs was Ralph Horween, who previously played under the name of B. McMahon at Harvard University.


1920 Racine Cardinals season, Standings
Awarded the Brunswick-Balke Collender Cup and named APFA Champions. Note: Tie games were not officially counted in the standings until 1972.


1920 Rathmines Urban District Council election
Elections to the Rathmines Urban District Council took place on Thursday 15 January 1920 as part of that year's Irish local elections. The election saw Unionists reduced to a majority of 1 on the council. Prior to the election the Rathmines council had been composed almost entirely of Unionists.


1920 Rathmines Urban District Council election
Following the election Robert Benson (Unionist) was elected Chairman, and William Ireland (Unionist) was elected as Vice-Chairman. Mary Kettle, the only Irish Party representative, did not vote for a Chairman, however she voted for Áine Ceannt for Vice-Chairman. Ceannt lost to Ireland by a single vote.


1920 Rathmines Urban District Council election
The Local Government (Ireland) Act 1919 had changed the electoral system for local government in Ireland from First-past-the-post to Single transferable vote.


1920 Republican National Convention
The 1920 National Convention of the Republican Party of the United States nominated Ohio Senator Warren G. Harding for president and Massachusetts Governor Calvin Coolidge for vice president. The convention was held in Chicago, Illinois, at the Chicago Coliseum from June 8 to June 12, 1920, with 940 delegates. Under convention rules, a majority plus one, or at least 471 of the 940 delegates, was necessary for a nomination.


1920 Republican National Convention
Many Republicans sought the presidential nomination, including General Leonard Wood, Illinois Governor Frank Lowden and California Senator Hiram Johnson. Dark horse Harding, however, was nominated. Many wanted to nominate Wisconsin Senator Irvine L. Lenroot for vice president, but Coolidge was nominated instead, because he was known for his response to the Boston Police Strike in 1919.


1920 Republican National Convention
The convention also adopted a platform opposed to the accession of the United States to the League of Nations. The plank was carefully drawn up by Henry Cabot Lodge to appease opponents of the League such as Johnson, while still allowing eventual American entry into the League.


1920 Republican National Convention, Presidential nomination, Convention
At the start of the convention, the race was wide open. General Leonard Wood, Illinois Governor Frank Lowden, and California Senator Hiram Johnson were considered the three most likely nominees. Ohio Senator Warren G. Harding had been a front-runner, but his star had faded by the time of the convention. Many expected a dark horse to be chosen, such as Pennsylvania Governor William Cameron Sproul, Pennsylvania Senator Philander C. Knox, Kansas Governor Henry Justin Allen, Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, or 1916 nominee Charles Evans Hughes.


1920 Republican National Convention, Presidential nomination, Convention
Sproul in particular had been gaining momentum at the expense of Lowden, the candidate of the conservative wing of the party. The issue of joining the League of Nations took center stage at the convention, with some speculating that Johnson would bolt the party if the platform endorsed the League. The convention adjourned for the night after four ballots produced no clear leader, and many states stuck to favorite-son candidates.


1920 Republican National Convention, Presidential nomination, Convention
As the balloting continued the next day, Wood, Lowden, and Johnson remained in the lead, and party leaders worked to find a candidate acceptable to both the progressive and conservative wings of the party. Conservatives strongly opposed Wood, while Lowden was opposed by the progressive wing of the party. Harding emerged as a moderately conservative candidate acceptable to the progressive wing of the party, and as the convention remained deadlocked, Harding emerged as a strong compromise candidate. After the eighth ballot, the convention recessed. During the recess, Harding's managers lobbied Lowden's supporters and others to support Harding. Harding was also helped by the fact that the Democrats might nominate James M. Cox of Ohio, and Republicans did not want to give the Democrats a home state advantage in electorally critical Ohio.


1920 Republican National Convention, Presidential nomination, Convention
Harding jumped into the lead on the ninth ballot, and clinched the nomination on the tenth ballot. Many thought that Johnson could have stopped the Harding movement by throwing his support behind Knox, who could have displaced Harding as the compromise candidate. Johnson disliked Harding's policies and disliked Harding personally, and was friends with Knox. However, Johnson never released his supporters, and Harding took the nomination.


1920 Republican National Convention, Presidential nomination, The smoke-filled room
At the time Harding's nomination was said to have been secured in negotiations led by party bosses George Harvey and Senator Henry Cabot Lodge in a mysterious "smoke-filled room" at Chicago's Blackstone Hotel." Legend says Harry M. Daugherty, Harding's political manager was the mastermind. After Harding's election he became United States Attorney General. On February 11, 1920, long before the convention, Daugherty predicted:


1920 Republican National Convention, Presidential nomination, The smoke-filled room
Daugherty's prediction described essentially what occurred, but historians argue that Daugherty's prediction has been given too much weight in narratives of the convention. The "smoke filled room" was actually a suite rented by National Chairman Will H. Hays. For six hours the leaders considered numerous alternatives, including Wood, Lowden, and Johnson. However, there were objections to all of them. Headlines in the next morning newspapers suggested intrigue. Historian Wesley M. Bagby argues, "Various groups actually worked along separate lines to bring about the nomination - without combination and with very little contact." Bagby finds that the key factor in Harding's nomination was his wide popularity among the rank and file of the delegates.


1920 Republican National Convention, Vice Presidential nomination
Before Harding was nominated, Johnson, Kansas Governor Henry Justin Allen, Massachusetts Governor Calvin Coolidge, Wisconsin Senator Irvine Lenroot, Kentucky Governor Edwin P. Morrow, and Harding himself were all seen as possible vice presidential nominees. Once the presidential nomination was finally settled, Harding and the party bosses asked Johnson to join the ticket as a progressive balance to Harding. When Johnson turned down the offer, they approached Lenroot, who accepted. However, when Illinois Senator Medill McCormick stood up to nominate Lenroot, several delegates began to shout for Coolidge.


1920 Republican National Convention, Vice Presidential nomination
Though initially he had only been nominated after the refusal of Senator Lodge (another Massachusetts man), a groundswell of support built up for Coolidge, who won the nomination over Lenroot; historian Donald R. McCoy called it the first time since the 1880 nomination of James Garfield that "the delegates had taken control of a Republican convention". Coolidge, who was not at the convention during the vice presidential nomination, agreed to join the ticket.


1920 Republican Party presidential primaries
From March 9 to June 5, 1920, voters of the Republican Party chose its nominee for president in the 1920 United States presidential election. The nominee was selected through a series of primary elections and caucuses culminating in the 1920 Republican National Convention held from June 8 to June 12, 1920, in Chicago, Illinois.


1920 Revolution Brigades
The 1920 Revolution Brigades (Arabic كتائب ثورة العشرين Kitā'ib Thawrat al-ʿIshrīn) is a Sunni militia group in Iraq, which includes former members of the disbanded Iraqi army. The group has used improvised explosive devices, and armed attacks against U.S. occupation forces. The group comprises the military wing of the Islamic Resistance Movement. The group is named in reference to the Iraqi revolt of 1920.


1920 Revolution Brigades
As of 2014, the group was actively involved in the MCIR insurgent network, particularly in Fallujah.


1920 Revolution Brigades, Allegiances
A US military spokesman states that the "concerned local nationals" group is now aligned with U.S. forces, while the Brigades denied this in a posting on its web site: "We say to … the occupation and to your followers and agents that you made a very big lie" in linking the group with the Diyala anti-al Qaida campaign. The group maintains that the "Iraqi Hamas" organization, which consisted of members who left the Brigades before the Diyala operation, were the ones involved in the operation. Iraqi Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki has feared such US-armed 'concerned local citizens' are an armed Sunni opposition in the making, and has argued that such groups should be under the command of the Iraqi Army or police.


1920 Revolution Brigades, Activities
The 1920 Revolution Brigades describes its aim as to establish a liberated and independent Iraqi state on an Islamic basis. It has been active in the area west of Baghdad, in the regions of Abu Ghraib, Khan Dari and Fallujah and in the governorates of Ninwi, Diyali and al-Anbar. The name of the group (Literally "Brigades of the Revolution of the Twenty") refers to the Iraqi revolt of 1920 against the British, drawing an implicit parallel between the nationalist movement against Britain with the Iraqi guerrillas fighting against coalition forces in the 21st century.


1920 Revolution Brigades, Activities
They are the military wing of the Islamic Resistance Movement. The logo of the group is a map of Iraq, with a Quran on top of it, and the verse "Fight them, God shall torture them by your hands". In the middle there is a mirrored symbol of an AK-47, with an Iraqi flag attached to it. Between the gun and the flag, a small print says "Islamic Resistance movement", and below, a larger print reads "Brigades of the 20th Revolution."


1920 Revolution Brigades, History
The Brigade first emerged in a 16 July statement in which it claimed that U.S. forces were sustaining higher casualties than were being reported. Since then, it resurfaced periodically, including in graffiti in such insurgent strongholds as Fallujah. This group appears to concentrate on guerilla activity, rather than terrorism, and is sensitive to the opinions of the established Sunni Muslim clergy in Iraq (in contrast to groups such as Al-Tawhid Wal-Jihad). High-profile operations include the kidnapping of American citizen Dean Sadek in November 2004 (he appeared in two hostage videos but was never found) and the bombing of the al-Arabiya television network headquarters in Baghdad in October 2005. It has also shot down several American helicopters in the Fallujah region.


1920 Revolution Brigades, History
Little is known about the group's leadership. On 2 January 2005, the Ministry of Defence (Iraq) reported that Iraqi security forces arrested Hatim al-Zawba'i, whom they identified as a commander of the 1920 Revolution Brigades. In a statement issued on 13 February 2006, the group vowed to "carry on jihad until the liberation and victory or [until they are] martyred.


1920 Revolution Brigades, Organization split
On March 2007 some of its members broke off from the 1920 Revolution Brigades to form Hamas of Iraq.


1920 Revolution Brigades, Organization split
In a statement issued on 18 March 2007, the 1920 Revolution Brigades stated that it had dissolved into two new brigades, Islamic Conquest and Islamic Jihad. Islamic Conquest became Hamas of Iraq and is the name chosen for its military wing. Islamic Jihad took over the name Twentieth Revolution Brigades, promising to uphold its jihadi inheritance.


1920 Revolution Brigades, Relationships with others
The 1920 Revolution Brigade has used bombings, kidnappings, and armed attacks against U.S. forces but does not target non-Muslims or Shiites, staying out of the sectarian war. As a result, it has developed a growing rift with The Jihad Base Organization in Mesopotamia, which has used suicide bombings to often target Shiites which they regard as infidels. The 1920 Revolution Brigade turned down an offer to pledge allegiance to an insurgent coalition group, the Islamic State in Iraq (ISI), established by the Jihad Base Organization in Mesopotamia.


1920 Revolution Brigades, Relationships with others
On 27 March 2007, the leader of the 1920 Revolution Brigade, Harith Dhahir Khamis al-Dari (nephew of the most prominent Sunni Iraqi cleric, Haith al-Dari) was killed in an ISI ambush. Intermittent gunbattles have taken place between fighters of the 1920 Revolution Brigades and the Islamic State in Iraq, and rumors have circulated of negotiations between members of the group and the Iraqi government and U.S. forces.


1920 Revolution Brigades, Relationships with others
Although the group has used bombings, kidnappings, and armed attacks against U.S. forces, on 20 June 2007, The Washington Post reported that, per telephone interview with Lt. Col. Joseph Davidson, executive officer of the 2nd Infantry Division, U.S. forces were now "partnering with Sunni insurgents from the 1920 Revolution Brigades, which includes former members of ousted president Saddam Hussein's disbanded army." The group has since replied that: "We say to … the occupation and to your followers and agents that you made a very big lie" in linking us with the Diyala anti-al Qaida campaign. The group maintains that the organization to which the US military spokesman referred had become the "Iraqi Hamas" organization, which consisted of members who left before the Diyala operation and were no longer associated with the 1920 Brigades.


1920 Revolution Brigades, Relationships with others
In October 2007, The Guardian reported that the 1920 Revolution Brigades would not join an alliance of six other Iraqi insurgent groups. The six groups listed a 14-point political program, including a call for continued action against US forces and a declaration that all laws passed by the Iraq government were null and void. A spokesman for the brigades said it did not join because it did not want to fight with those Sunni tribal groups working with the US against al-Qaida. The spokesman also denied an Economist report that the 1920 Revolution Brigades was working with Americans, and insisted the group was still attacking Americans.


1920 Rhode Island State Rams football team
The 1920 Rhode Island Rams football team was an American football team that represented Rhode Island State College (later renamed the University of Rhode Island) as an independent during the 1920 college football season. The team compiled a 0–4–4 record.


1920 Rhode Island State Rams football team
Prior to the 1920 season, Rhode Island State hired Frank Keaney as the coach of its athletic teams. Keaney served as Rhode Island State's head football coach through the 1940 season. He was the basketball and baseball coach through the 1948 season. In 1960, he was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame.


1920 Rhode Island gubernatorial election
The 1920 Rhode Island gubernatorial election was held on November 2, 1920. Republican nominee Emery J. San Souci defeated Democratic nominee Edward M. Sullivan with 64.64% of the vote.


1920 Rhondda West by-election
The Rhondda West by-election, 1920 was a parliamentary by-election held on 21 December 1920 for the British House of Commons constituency of Rhondda West in Wales.


1920 Rhondda West by-election
The seat had become vacant when the constituency's Labour Member of Parliament (MP), William Abraham, resigned from Parliament. He had held the seat since its creation at the 1918 general election, when he was returned unopposed. He had been the MP for the previous Rhondda constituency from its creation for the 1885 general election.


1920 Rhondda West by-election
The result of the contest was a victory for the Labour candidate, William John, who won with a majority of 4,076 votes over Gwilym Rowlands. Rowlands described himself as "Labour in the Conservative interest", but was an official Conservative Party candidate.


1920 Rhondda West by-election
John represented the constituency until he retired from the House of Commons at the 1950 general election.


1920 Rice Owls football team
The 1920 Rice Owls football team was an American football team that represented Rice University as a member of the Southwest Conference (SWC) during the 1920 college football season. In its eighth season under head coach Philip Arbuckle, the team compiled a 4–2–2 record (2–2–1 against SWC opponents), and outscored opponents by a total of 105 to 28.


1920 Richmond Spiders football team
The 1920 Richmond Spiders football team was an American football team that represented the University of Richmond as a member of the South Atlantic Intercollegiate Athletic Association (SAIAA) during the 1920 college football season. Led by seventh-year head coach, Frank Dobson, Richmond compiled an overall record of 6–2 with a mark of 2–2 in conference play. Next season's schedule was expected to be its "heaviest."


1920 Rochester Jeffersons season
The 1920 Rochester Jeffersons season was the franchise's inaugural season in the American Professional Football Association (APFA) and thirteenth as an American football team. The Jeffersons entered 1920 coming off a six-win, two-loss, two-tie (6–2–2) record in the New York Pro Football League (NYPFL) where it lost the championship game to the Buffalo Prospects. Several representatives from another professional football league, the Ohio League, wanted to form a new national league, and thus the APFA was created.


1920 Rochester Jeffersons season
Ownership, roster, and coaching nearly stayed the same for the 1920 season. The team opened the season with a 10–0 victory over the non-APFA All-Buffalo. The only time the Jeffersons played a game against an APFA team was week six, when they lost to the Buffalo All-Americans. The team ended with a 6–3–2 record, which was good enough for them to finish sixth place in the final standings. The sportswriter Bruce Copeland compiled the 1920 All-Pro list, but no players from the Jeffersonss were on it. As of 2012, no player from the 1920 Rochester Jeffersons has been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.


1920 Rochester Jeffersons season, Offseason
The Rochester Jeffersons finished 6–2–1 in their 1919 season. It lost the NYPFL championship to the Buffalo All-Americans. After the 1919 season, representatives of four Ohio League teams—the Canton Bulldogs, the Cleveland Tigers, the Dayton Triangles, and the Akron Pros—called a meeting on August 20, 1920, to discuss the formation of a new league. At the meeting, they tentatively agreed on a salary cap and pledged not to sign college players or players already under contract with other teams. They also agreed on a name for the circuit: the American Professional Football Conference. They then invited other professional teams to a second meeting on September 17.


1920 Rochester Jeffersons season, Offseason
At that meeting, held at Bulldogs owner Ralph Hay's Hupmobile showroom in Canton, representatives of the Rock Island Independents, the Muncie Flyers, the Decatur Staleys, the Racine Cardinals, the Massillon Tigers, the Chicago Cardinals, and the Hammond Pros agreed to join the league. Representatives of the All-Americans and Rochester Jeffersons could not attend the meeting, but sent letters to Hay asking to be included in the league. Team representatives changed the league's name slightly to the American Professional Football Association and elected officers, installing Jim Thorpe as president. Under the new league structure, teams created their schedules dynamically as the season progressed, so there were no minimum or maximum number of games needed to be played. Also, representatives of each team voted to determine the winner of the APFA trophy.


1920 Rochester Jeffersons season, Standings
Awarded the Brunswick-Balke Collender Cup and named APFA Champions. Note: Tie games were not officially counted in the standings until 1972.


1920 Rock Island Independents season
The 1920 Rock Island Independents season was the American football franchise's thirteenth season and inaugural season in the American Professional Football Association (APFA). The Independents hosted first ever APFA/National Football League contest on September 26, 1920. After the AFPA had been formed on September 17, 1920, Douglas Park was the venue as the Independents hosted the St. Paul Ideals, winning 48-0 in the new league's first contest.


1920 Rock Island Independents season
The Independents entered the season coming off a nine-win, one-loss, one-tie (9–1–1) record in 1919 as an independent team, which the team proclaimed to be the "Champions of the USA". After the 1919 season, several representatives from the Ohio League, another American football league, wanted to form a new professional league; thus, the APFA was created.


1920 Rock Island Independents season
A majority of the team stayed from the 1919 team, including the coaching staff, but Keith Dooley was added to the roster. The Independents opened the season with a win against the St. Paul Ideals, a non-APFA team. This was the first game in the history of the APFA. The team played all but one game at their home field, Douglas Park, and ended the season with a 6–2–2 record, which placed the team tied-for-fourth in the league standings.


1920 Rock Island Independents season
The sportswriter Bruce Copeland compiled the All-Pro list for the 1920 season. Fred Denfield, Dewey Lyle, and Ed Novak made the first-team; Obe Wenig and Ed Shaw made the second-team; and Walt Buland and Freeman Fitzgerald made the third-team. Of all the players on the roster, only Ed Healey has been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.


1920 Rock Island Independents season, Background
The Rock Island Independents finished 9–1–1 in their 1919 season, claiming the National Championship. For the 1920 season, the Independents added multiple players to its roster: Keith Dooley, who previously played from 1912–1916; Fred Denfield, Mark Devlin, and Harry Gunderson, who previously played in 1917; Ed Healey, Polly Koch, George Magerkurth, Ed Shaw, Ben Synhorst, Harry Webber, Obe Wenig, and Arnie Wyman. The team lost Wes Bradshaw, Leland Dempsey, Al Jorgenson, Loyal Robb, Fats Smith, Red Swanson, and co-coach John Roche.


1920 Rock Island Independents season, Background
After the 1919 season, representatives of the Canton Bulldogs, the Cleveland Tigers, the Dayton Triangles, and the Akron Pros met on August 20, 1920, to discuss the formation of a new league. At the meeting, they tentatively agreed on a salary cap and pledged not to sign college players or players already under contract with other teams. They also agreed on a name for the circuit: the American Professional Football Conference. They then invited other professional teams to a second meeting on September 17.


1920 Rock Island Independents season, Background
At that meeting, held at Bulldogs owner Ralph Hay's Hupmobile showroom in Canton, representatives of the Rock Island Independents, the Muncie Flyers, the Decatur Staleys, the Racine Cardinals, the Massillon Tigers, the Chicago Cardinals, and the Hammond Pros agreed to join the league. Representatives of the Buffalo All-Americans and Rochester Jeffersons could not attend the meeting, but sent letters to Hay asking to be included in the league. Team representatives changed the league's name slightly to the American Professional Football Association and elected officers, installing Jim Thorpe as president. Under the new league structure, teams created their schedules dynamically as the season progressed, so there were no minimum or maximum number of games needed to be played. Also, representatives of each team voted to determine the winner of the APFA trophy.


1920 Rock Island Independents season, Game summaries, Week 1: vs. St. Paul Ideals
To start its 1920 season, the Independents played the first game in the history of the league against the non-APFA St. Paul Ideas. This was the Ideals' second game of the season, coming off a 14–7 victory the week prior. Coach Flanigan had Fred Chicken, Bobby Marshall, and Freeman Fitzgerald—the 1919 Independents' main stars—in reserve in case he needed to play them. The Independents shutout the Ideals, winning 48–0. Every touchdown by the Independents were rushing. In the first quarter, Ed Novak and Chicken both scored; Novak and Jerry Mansfield scored in the second quarter. The Independents scored 14 points in the third quarter with touchdowns from Ray Kuehl and Mansfield. In the final quarter, Kuehl scored the Independents' last points of the game.


1920 Rock Island Independents season, Game summaries, Week 2: vs. Muncie Flyers
Rock Island Independents played against the Muncie Flyers after their victory. It is considered to be one of the first games played with two APFA teams. The Columbus Panhandles played against the Dayton Triangles on the same day; however, in 1920, starting times were not standardized. Thus, it is unknown which of the two games started first. In the first quarter, the Independents scored three touchdowns: two from Arnold Wyman and one from Rube Ursella. In the second quarter, Ursella scored kicked a 25-yard (23 m) field goal, and Wyman scored from an 86-yard (79 m) kickoff return. In the third quarter, Sid Nichols had a 5-yard (4.6 m) rushing touchdown, and Waddy Kuehl scored a 7-yard (6.4 m) rushing touchdown. The final score of the game was 45–0. This game was the only one that counted towards the Flyers' standing for the entire 1920 season.


1920 Rock Island Independents season, Game summaries, Week 3: vs. Hammond Pros
This was the Pros' first game of the 1920 season. There were no scores by either team in the first or third quarters, but the Independents scored 13 points in the second and fourth. Back Fred Chicken scored a 1-yard (0.91 m) rushing touchdown; back Ray Kuehl scored two touchdowns: a 5-yard (4.6 m) rushing touchdown and a 35-yard (32 m) receiving touchdown from back Pudge Wyman; and back Gerald Mansfield caught a 20-yard (18 m) receiving touchdown from Wyman. Hammond started to purposely injure their opponents during the game. As a result, Rube Ursella suffered a twisted knee. Duey Lyle was kicked in the face and required seven stitches. Lastly, Ed Healey was kicked in the face and needed five stitches in the cheek.


1920 Rock Island Independents season, Game summaries, Week 4: vs. Decatur Staleys
In week 4, the Independents played the Decatur Staleys. After two games against non-APFA teams, the Staleys played against an APFA team. Late in the first quarter, the Independents' Freeman Fitzgerald forced a fumble on Jimmy Conzelman; Fitzgerald retrieved it at the 49-yard (45 m) line. The Independents drove the ball down the field, and the Staleys' players were tired. As a result, they called a timeout. With possession on the 23-yard (21 m) line, Arnie Wyman rushed for 10-yard (9.1 m), and the Independents were in the Red zone. The first quarter ended there. Wyman took the next snap and fumbled as he was tackled. George Trafton recovered the ball at the 8-yard (7.3 m) line. Later in the quarter, Conzelman scored the only touchdown in the game.


1920 Rock Island Independents season, Game summaries, Week 4: vs. Decatur Staleys
In the third quarter, Fred Chicken intercepted a Staley pass on the Independents' 28-yard (26 m) line. Early in the fourth quarter, the Staleys drove to the Independents' 14-yard (13 m) line, where they lined up for a field goal. Wyman blocked the kick, however. The Independents next possession resulted in a punt, and the Staleys started the possession at their own 7-yard (6.4 m) line. On this possession, Kuehl intercepted a pass. The Independents attempted a Hail Mary pass late in the game, but it was unsuccessful. The game ended a few minutes later with the Staleys with possession.


1920 Rock Island Independents season, Game summaries, Week 5: vs. Chicago Cardinals
Coming off their first loss of the season, the Independents played against the Chicago Cardinals in week 5, with 4,000 spectators in attendance. The Independents out-gained the Cardinals in yards; the Independents had 263 total yards while the opponent had 153. The only score was in the second quarter when Wyman caught a 6-yard (5.5 m) receiving touchdown from Nichols, making the final score 7–0. This was the first loss of the season for the Cardinals.


1920 Rock Island Independents season, Game summaries, Week 6: vs. Chicago Tigers
In week six, the Independents played the Chicago Tigers. The Independents out-gained the Tigers in first downs, 14 to 3. The first score of the game was a 6-yard (5.5 m) rushing touchdown by Chicken; however, the extra point was missed, so the score was only 6–0. The Tigers took the lead in the second quarter after Dunc Annan had a 2-yard (1.8 m) rushing touchdown. Chicken ended up having two rushing touchdowns, and Wyman had another rushing touchdown, as the Independents beat the Tigers 20–7.


1920 Rock Island Independents season, Game summaries, Week 7: vs. Decatur Staleys
On a five-game winning streak, the Staleys played against the Independents again. The game ended in a 0–0 tie. Several injuries occurred throughout the game for the Independents. Sid Nichols, Fred Chicken, and Oke Smith injured their knees on different plays. Harry Gunderson was hit late by George Traften and the former had to get thirteen stitches on his face, and his hand was broken.


1920 Rock Island Independents season, Game summaries, Week 8: at Chicago Thorn-Tornadoes
In the Independents' first road game of the season, they traveled to Monmouth, Illinois, to play the Chicago Thorns-Tornadoes. The Thorns' players decided to have 10-minute quarters. The game was a tie for the first three quarters. In the fourth quarter, however, Kuehl muffed a punt while standing at his own 20-yard (18 m) line. Mooney of the Thorn-Tornadoes picked up the football and ran it back for a touchdown with only 3 minutes left in the game. At this time, Ursella was substituted for Kuehl. After a kickoff return to the 44-yard (40 m) line, the Independents used Novak, Mansfield, and Jordan to help score before time expired. Ursella kicked the game-tying extra point to end the game a 7–7 tie.


1920 Rock Island Independents season, Game summaries, Week 8: vs. Dayton Triangles
For their second game in week eight, the Independents played against the Dayton Triangles. The Independents had six players returning from injuries this game. In the first quarter, Rube Ursella for the Independents fumbled a punt on the 40-yard (37 m) line, and the Triangles gained possession. On that possession, Frank Bacon scored a rushing touchdown. The Independents controlled the football for a majority of the second quarter. On their final possession of the half, they traveled to the Triangles' 4-inch (100 mm) line, but the referee signaled to end the first half. In the fourth quarter, Ed Novack and Arnold Wyman left the game due to injury. The Triangles scored two passing touchdowns in the final 10 minutes of the game; the first was caught by Dave Reese, and the second was caught by Roudebush.


1920 Rock Island Independents season, Game summaries, Week 10: vs. Pittsburgh All-Collegians
In their final game that counted for the standings, the Independents played the Pittsburgh All-Collegians. There were three names for this team, the Pittsburgh All-Collegians, the Wheeling Collegians, and the Washington and Jefferson All-Stars. This game was originally supposed to be played against the Canton Bulldogs, but it was cancelled. Most players from the All-Collegians did not show up for the game, and the coach used people from the crowd to form a team. The first score of the game came in the first quarter when Wenig blocked a punt and returned it for a touchdown. The only points the All-Collegians scored was a blocked punt from Morris, who returned it for a touchdown. This was the only points the team scored all year. The game ended with a 48–7 victory for the Independents.


1920 Rock Island Independents season, Post season
Since there were no playoff system in the APFA until 1932, a meeting was held to determine the 1920 APFA Champions. Each team that showed up had a vote to determine the champions. The Akron Pros were awarded the Brunswick-Balke Collender Cup on April 30, 1921. Ties were not counted in standings until 1972, which is why Akron is credited with a 1.000 winning percentage. The Independents tied for fourth place in the standings. The sportswriter Bruce Copeland compiled the All-Pro list for the 1920 season. Denfield, Lyle, and Novak made the first-team; Wenig and Shaw made the second-team; and Buland and Fitzgerald made the third-team. Of all the players on the roster, only Healey has been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.


1920 Rock Island Independents season, Standings
Awarded the Brunswick-Balke Collender Cup and named APFA Champions. Note: Tie games were not officially counted in the standings until 1972.


1920 Romanian general election
General elections were held in Romania between 25 and 27 May 1920. The result was a victory for the governing People's Party, which won 206 of the 366 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 124 of the 166 seats in the Senate.


1920 Romanian general strike
The 1920 Romanian general strike was a major nationwide strike in the Kingdom of Romania, lasting between October 20 and 28 and involved the participation of most of the over 400,000 industrial workers from across the country. The demands of the workers included the recognition of the workers' factory committees, demilitarization of the industrial enterprises, abolition of the state of siege, elimination of censorship and the adoption of a new legislation regarding labour disputes. The strike was violently repressed by the government using the Romanian Army and the leaders of the workers were sentenced to prison.


1920 Rose Bowl
The 1920 Rose Bowl, known at the time as the Tournament East-West Football Game, was a college football bowl game in Pasadena, California, played on January 1, 1920. In the sixth Rose Bowl, the once-tied Harvard Crimson met the once-defeated Oregon Webfoots at Tournament Park; Harvard won 7–6, with all of the scoring in the second quarter.


1920 Rose Bowl
Crimson halfback Edward Casey was named the Rose Bowl Player of the Game when the award was created in 1953 and selections were made retroactively. It was the first Rose Bowl game following World War I in which college football returned to the Tournament of Roses. The two previous Tournament games had featured teams from the United States armed forces.


1920 Rose Bowl
This game established a pattern of inviting a team from the Eastern half of the United States to face one from the West Coast. Except for the 1944 game during World War II, this continued until the advent of the Bowl Championship Series game in January 2002.


1920 Rose Bowl, Game summary
Following a field goal by future Oregon Sports Hall of Famer Bill Steers, Harvard scored on a 13-yard run by Fred Church on a drive that was keyed by two catches by future College Football Hall of Famer Eddie Casey. Arnold Horween added the extra point, which would prove critical as Oregon could only manage one more score, a field goal from 128-pound (58 kg) Skeet Manerud. Four other Oregon kicks were blocked or missed, including a fourth-quarter Manerud attempt that just missed.


1920 Rose Bowl, Aftermath
The 1919 Harvard team was undefeated, with two close calls; the only blemish was a come-from-behind tie at Princeton on November 8. Oregon finished with two losses; during the regular season, the Webfoots fell 7−0 to Washington State in Portland, also on November 8.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli
The 1920 Royal Navy Mission to Enzeli was a party of thirty-one officers and men of the United Kingdom's Royal Navy sent to Enzeli, North Persia, to assist with White Russian interned ships. The mission was detained in Baku, Azerbaijan, following the latter's invasion by the Red Army and the subsequent change of government. The party was imprisoned for six months until released in a prisoner exchange.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Background
From September 1918 to May 1919, Commodore David Norris RN had built up a flotilla of armed merchant cruisers (AMC) with which, by May 1919, he had wrested control of the Caspian Sea from the Soviet Navy. When Britain withdrew its forces from the area in August 1919, eight AMCs of the Caspian Flotilla were handed over to General Denikin's Volunteer Army. But in March 1920, advances by the Soviet Red Army threatened the flotilla's base of Petrovsk (now Makhachkala) and General Erdeli (whom Denikin had appointed Russian Governor of Dagestan) was compelled to evacuate his forces by sea.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Background
With no other safe port to go to, the flotilla sailed to Enzeli, on the North Persian coast, where a detachment of Norperforce was stationed under the command of General Bateman-Champain. The sudden arrival of fourteen ships (six AMCs and eight transports) on 22 March 1920, had caught both Champain and the Persian authorities unprepared. The Persians responded by interning all the ships and ordering that they be disarmed. Champain had no naval personnel in Norperforce, so he requested Royal Navy assistance. The request was granted by Admiral John de Robeck, the high commissioner at Constantinople, despite his misgivings. He had previously advised the Admiralty in January, about a proposed earlier mission, that it should not proceed unless Baku was re-occupied and the safety of the Batum-Baku railway assured. Nevertheless, a party of volunteers (five officers and twenty six ratings) was assembled from ships at Constantinople.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, The naval mission
Led by Commander B.A. Fraser (later Admiral Lord Fraser of North Cape), the naval party assembled at HMS Julius, the harbour craft base at Constantinople. From its composition of a shipwright, blacksmith, ordnance artificers and engine room artificers, amongst others, it would appear that the party's purpose was the upkeep of the armed merchant cruisers, and possibly their disarmament; the small size of the party precluded any offensive intentions.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, The naval mission
The party sailed from Constantinople in HMS Gardenia, across the Black Sea, arriving at the British-occupied Georgian port of Batum on 21 April, where they awaited further orders. After the arrival of de Robeck next day, and on receiving the report of Commander Luke (the chief commissioner at Tiflis), they were allowed to depart by train on 23 April. Their planned route was by train from Batum to Baku, Azerbaijan by way of Tiflis, Georgia, then by ship to Enzeli.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, The naval mission
After a journey of four days, they arrived at Baku on 27 April at about 16.00, to be greeted with the news that the Soviet 11th Army had crossed the northern frontier of Azerbaijan at 01.00 that same morning. Owing to the general disorganisation at the station due to the need of many special trains, their train was stuck there for several hours waiting to proceed to the docks. Later that evening, a commissar appeared and said they were to consider themselves as prisoners.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Imprisonment
The naval party was kept in the train under guard at the station for four days, until 1 May when a commissar came and said they were to be moved into the town. They were marched a mile to the Cheresvichaika where they were searched and everything taken away.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Imprisonment
The next day, they were moved to Bailov Prison in southern Baku, where they were allotted three small cells, each about 10 feet square, each with a small window high up in the wall and little else. A fourth cell was used to accommodate other British civilian prisoners among whom was the British vice-consul, Theodore Hewelcke.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Imprisonment
There were vermin everywhere, and by way of welcome a packet full of lice was pushed through the grating in the doors of the cells. Sanitary arrangements were practically non-existent, as there were only three filthy latrines for some 350 prisoners. The cells were only opened for half an hour each evening, when exercise was allowed in a small courtyard, in which there was a tap and trough - the only washing facilities provided. For the first two weeks the food consisted of one pound of black bread per head, with a little rice.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Imprisonment
On 5 May, the Admiralty received the news that the naval party had been detained by the Bolsheviks at Baku.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Imprisonment, Life in Bailov Prison
On 10 May Hewelcke was taken and transferred to the condemned cell, waiting to be shot. Twice during the night cars came to take them away, but each time the execution was postponed. Commander Fraser managed to persuade an interpreter to contact the Dutch Consul, and requested him to look after the safety of Hewelcke and to supply the party with food.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Imprisonment, Life in Bailov Prison
After several days in the condemned cell, on 16 May, Hewelcke was taken ill and removed to the prison hospital which had no medicines, nurses or bedding, except what the patients could provide themselves. The food supplied was exactly similar to that given to the remainder of the prisoners.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Imprisonment, Life in Bailov Prison
In the meantime, the Dutch consul had arranged for a Mr. Seaman (one of the few British citizens who had not been arrested) to send in meals for the whole party each day. From about 18 May onwards, the prison regulations were gradually relaxed, until they were allowed in the courtyard from 08.30 until 19.00 each day.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Imprisonment, Life in Bailov Prison
The condemned cell was next to one in which the naval prisoners were held and, at the beginning of June, executions began. Each night, at about 23.00, prisoners from the condemned cell were taken out into the courtyard and shot against the wall underneath the barred window of one of the naval cells.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Imprisonment, Living together
In one cell there were the five officers and five men; the officers taught the men bridge, and the men taught the officers solo whist. Cards were forbidden, but they managed to play in the evenings by leaving a man standing by the door so that the peephole was covered. Later, when released, each man in the cell kept one card as a souvenir, signed on the back by all the others. On St. George's Day, red, white and blue rosettes were made from a signalman's flag. They were questioned about it by the prison authorities, who said no more about it when told it was being done in celebration their national day.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Imprisonment, Living together
Clothing was maintained by a system of borrowing and lending. Most of the sailors had kept their 'housewives' (sewing and repair kits); so when part of one person's trousers required mending, another would cut off the bottom of his, which was then used to patch the worn trousers. Some had also managed to keep a razor, despite the many searches, so that they were able to shave, but most had to grow beards. Knives were confiscated and replaced with wooden spoons. Their bread ration, which was as hard as a brick, had to be broken by hand as best they could. After protests, a knife would be allowed for a few days, then it would be taken away again.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Imprisonment, Health
There were several cases of jaundice and many suffered from boils. Most of the party were suffering from stomach troubles, and the remainder from malaria; but nothing could he done for them as no medicines were available, except to make them comfortable. Their sickberth steward acted as doctor for the party, but with little equipment, he was forced to improvise. He used the blade of a safety razor for minor surgical operations, and extracted teeth with a pair of wire nippers.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Imprisonment, Move to a disused school
In August they were moved from Bailov prison to a disused school which was in a state of disrepair. They were still given only prison rations of 1 lb. of black bread per day; everything else they had to buy for themselves, which they were able to do as the Royal Navy had sent money to them in July.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Negotiations
In the meantime, the efforts of the British Government to have the prisoners released were directed mainly at the Soviet trade delegation in London. Despite British support for the White Russians against them, the Soviets were desperate to acquire much needed goods and, pragmatically, put their animosity towards Britain to one side for the duration, and negotiations began in early June.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Negotiations
The Soviets wanted finished goods such as mining gear, machine tools, electric plant, medical appliances and drugs, agricultural machinery, locomotives and railway material, and in exchange, were offering mainly raw materials such as cereals, oil, timber, minerals, etc. On 6 July, it was stated in Parliament "that it has been made clear to the Soviet trade delegation that until the release of all British prisoners in Russia takes place, no trade will be permitted between Russia and the United Kingdom."


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Negotiations
From its North Russia intervention, Britain had retained about 100 Soviet prisoners, who were taken to Britain to be held as hostages, and were offered, with other prisoners held in Egypt and elsewhere, in exchange for all British prisoners held in Russia. The Soviet delegation accepted the principle of a prisoner exchange, but its leader, Krassin, said that the prisoners held in Baku were not their responsibility, but that of the Azerbaijan government (knowing full well the Soviet 11th Army occupied Azerbaijan, and its government would do whatever the Soviets told them).


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Negotiations
As a result of this pressure, the prisoner's conditions began to improve while negotiations continued. But diplomatic wheels turn slowly, and it wasn't until 13 October that a note was received from the Soviet Government stating that the evacuation of all British subjects is to be carried out without delay in exchange for the Russians in Great Britain, Egypt, and elsewhere, who wish to return to Soviet Russia. It was finally agreed that 300 Russian prisoners from Egypt and Constantinople would be exchanged for all the British prisoners held in Baku. On 31 October, a telegram was received from the President of the Government of Azerbaijan:


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Negotiations
Herewith I beg to notify you that on 28 October the former British Consul in Baku and all the British prisoners were released from prison. They will be sent to Tiflis, where-to the people's commissary for Foreign Affairs of the Azerbaijan Republic has departed, there personally to negotiate the details of the transfer of the prisoners.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Release
On 4 November, the naval party was told to prepare to travel to Tiflis. At 16.00 the next day, sixty one British prisoners boarded the train to Tiflis. They reached Akstafa, a small town five miles from the frontier at 14.00 on the 6th, and waited for a day amidst snow and bad weather, during which time the remainder of their gear was searched again.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Release
Before allowing the train to proceed to Tiflis, the Georgian Government, who were acting as intermediaries, were waiting for confirmation that the 300 Russian exchange prisoners from Egypt and Constantinople had arrived at the Black Sea port of Odessa, Ukraine. Finally, they were allowed to proceed and crossed the frontier at 17.00 on 7 November, arriving at Tiflis the next day, all in good health.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Release
From Tiflis they travelled on to Batum, then sailed first to Constantinople then, on 12 November, departed Constantinople in HMS Heliotrope calling in at Malta where one man was detained in hospital while the others continued on board. The naval party arrived at Portsmouth on 1 December where they were greeted on the quayside by Commander Fraser who had arrived five days earlier, having travelled on ahead to report to the Admiralty.


1920 Royal Navy mission to Enzeli, Release
Twenty four years later, Admiral Fraser, as commander-in-chief of the Home Fleet, was awarded the Order of Suvorov 1st Class by the Soviet Union for his part in the sinking of the Scharnhorst in the Battle of the North Cape.


1920 Rutgers Queensmen football team
The 1920 Rutgers Queensmen football team represented Rutgers University in the 1920 college football season. In their eighth season under head coach George "Sandy" Sanford, the Queensmen compiled a 2–7 record and were outscored by their opponents, 132 to 32. The team's two victories were against Maryland (6-0) and Virginia Tech (19-6). The losses included games against Nebraska (0-28) and West Virginia (0-17). Coach Sanford was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1971.