1920 Woodbridge by-election, Vacancy
The by-election was caused by the sitting Unionist MP, Robert Francis Peel resigning his seat to become Governor and Commander-in-Chief of St Helena. He had been MP here since re-gaining the seat from the Liberals in January 1910.


1920 Woodbridge by-election, Electoral history
The constituency was a Unionist/Liberal marginal. Since the seat's creation in 1885, it had been won by a Unionist candidate six times and by a Liberal three times. The Coalition Government 'Coupon' at the last General Election in 1918 was awarded to the sitting Unionist rather than the Liberal challenger. Despite this, the Liberal vote held up very well;


1920 Woodbridge by-election, Campaign
Polling Day was set for 28 July 1920. Nominations closed to confirm that the election would be a two-way contest. Churchman received the official endorsement of the Coalition Government.


1920 Woodbridge by-election, Aftermath
The result at the following General Election in 1922 was;


1920 World Hard Court Championships
The 1920 World Hard Court Championships (WHCC) (French: Championnats du Monde de Tennis sur Terre Battue) was the fourth edition of the World Hard Court Championships tennis tournament, considered as the precursor to the French Open, and was held on the clay courts of the Stade Français at the Parc de Saint-Cloud in Paris from 22 until 30 May 1920. Organised by L'Union des Sociétés Française De Sports Athlétiques, the Championships had been suspended in the prior five years due to World War I, and thus this was the first edition held since 1914.


1920 World Hard Court Championships, Finals, Men's Doubles
André Gobert /  William Laurentz defeated  Cecil Blackbeard /  Nicolae Mişu, 6–4, 6–2, 6–1


1920 World Hard Court Championships, Finals, Women's Doubles
Dorothy Holman /  Phyllis Satterthwaite defeated  Germaine Golding /  Jeanne Vaussard, 6–3, 6–1


1920 World Hard Court Championships, Finals, Mixed Doubles
William Laurentz /  Germaine Golding defeated  Max Decugis /  Suzanne Amblard, walkover


1920 World Hard Court Championships – Men's Singles
The men's singles was one of five events of the 1920 World Hard Court Championships tennis tournament held in Paris, France from 22 until 30 May 1920. The draw consisted of 30 players. Anthony Wilding was the defending champion, but did not participate. William Laurentz defeated compatriot André Gobert in the final to win the Championship.


1920 World Hard Court Championships – Women's Doubles
The Women's Doubles was one of five events at the 1920 World Hard Court Championships. Suzanne Lenglen and Elizabeth Ryan were the title holders, but did not participate. Dorothy Holman and Phyllis Satterthwaite won the Championship, defeating Germaine Golding and Jeanne Vaussard 6–3, 6–1 in the final.


1920 World Hard Court Championships – Women's Singles
The women's singles was one of five events of the 1920 World Hard Court Championships tennis tournament held in Paris, France from 23 until 30 May 1920. The draw consisted of 15 players. Suzanne Lenglen was the defending champion, but did not participate. Dorothy Holman won the title, defeating Francisca Subirana in the final.


1920 World Series
In the 1920 World Series, the Cleveland Indians beat the Brooklyn Dodgers, then known interchangeably as the Robins in reference to their manager Wilbert Robinson, in seven games, five games to two. This series was a best-of-nine series, like the first World Series in 1903 and the World Series of 1919 and 1921. The only World Series triple play, the first World Series grand slam and the first World Series home run by a pitcher all occurred in Game 5 of this Series. The Indians won the series in memory of their former shortstop Ray Chapman, who had been killed earlier in the season when struck in the head by a pitched ball.


1920 World Series
The triple play was unassisted and turned by Cleveland's Bill Wambsganss in Game 5. Wambsganss, playing second base, caught a line drive off the bat of Clarence Mitchell, stepped on second base to put out Pete Kilduff, and tagged Otto Miller coming from first base. It was the second of 15 (as of 2016) unassisted triple plays in major-league baseball history, and it remains the only one in postseason play. Mitchell made history again in the eighth inning by hitting into a double play, accounting for five outs in two straight at-bats.


1920 World Series
The fifth game also saw the first grand slam in World Series history (hit by Cleveland's Elmer Smith) and the first Series home run by a pitcher (Cleveland's Jim Bagby, Sr.). And in that same game, Brooklyn outhit Cleveland but lost 8–1.


1920 World Series
Cleveland had won the American League pennant in a close race with the Chicago White Sox and the New York Yankees. The Sox's participation in the Black Sox Scandal the previous year had caught up to them late in the season, and their star players were suspended with three games left in the season, when they were in a virtual tie with the Indians. The Yankees, with their recently acquired star Babe Ruth, were almost ready to start their eventual World Series dynasty. For Cleveland, it would prove to be one of their few successes in a long history of largely either poor or not-quite-good enough clubs.


1920 World Series
It is notable that all seven games of the 1920 World Series were won by the team who scored first. In fact, Game 4 was the only game in which the losing team scored a run before the winning team had scored all of its runs. The lead never changed hands in any game.


1920 World Series
This would be the last World Series until 1980 to feature two franchises that had not previously won a championship.


1920 World Series, Matchups, Game 1
Game 1 took a mere 1 hour, 41 minutes. Steve O'Neill supplied RBI doubles in the second and fourth innings in support of Stan Coveleski, who won it for the visiting Indians with a five-hitter.


1920 World Series, Matchups, Game 2
A first-inning run on a Jimmy Johnston single and Zack Wheat double would be all Dodger pitcher Burleigh Grimes would require in a complete-game shutout.


1920 World Series, Matchups, Game 3
Brooklyn scored twice in the first on hits by Zack Wheat and Hi Myers that chased Cleveland starter Ray Caldwell from the game. The only run winning pitcher Sherry Smith gave up in a three-hitter came when Tris Speaker came all the way around on a double that was misplayed in left field.


1920 World Series, Matchups, Game 4
Brooklyn starter Leon Cadore didn't make it past the first inning. His relievers didn't fare much better, Al Mamaux being removed in the third and Rube Marquard greeted by a George Burns two-run double. Stan Coveleski cruised with a five-hitter for his second win of the Series.


1920 World Series, Matchups, Game 5
The Cleveland Times ran the following article on Monday, October 11, 1920, recounting Game 5 and Wambsganss' triple play:


1920 World Series, Matchups, Game 6
Even faster than Game 1, this one was done in just 94 minutes. Duster Mails twirled a three-hit shutout, and the lone run came in the sixth on a Tris Speaker two-out single, followed by a George Burns double.


1920 World Series, Matchups, Game 7
The Dodgers didn't score in the last two games. Their pitcher, Burleigh Grimes, committed an error on a Cleveland double steal that resulted in the game's first run. Stan Coveleski needed no more, but got one in the fifth from a Tris Speaker run-scoring triple and another in the seventh on Charlie Jamieson's RBI double. Spitball pitcher Coveleski won for the third time and the Indians celebrated before their home fans.


1920 World Series, Composite line score
1920 World Series (5–2): Cleveland Indians (A.L.) over Brooklyn Robins (N.L.)


1920 World Weightlifting Championships
The 1920 Men's World Weightlifting Championships were held in Vienna, Austria from September 4 to September 8, 1920. There were 74 men in action from 4 nations.


1920 World Wrestling Championships
The 1920 World Greco-Roman Wrestling Championship were held in Vienna, Austria in September 1920.


1920 Wyoming Cowboys football team
The 1920 Wyoming Cowboys football team represented the University of Wyoming as a member of the Rocky Mountain Conference (RMC) during the 1920 college football season. In its fifth season under head coach John Corbett, the team compiled a 4–5–1 record (2–5–1 against conference opponents) and was outscored by a total of 106 to 58. Milward Simpson was the team captain.


1920 Württemberg state election
The 1920 Württemberg state election was held on 6 June 1920 to elect the 101 members of the Landtag of the Free People's State of Württemberg.


1920 Xalapa earthquake
The 1920 Xalapa earthquake rocked the gulf coast of Mexico on January 4, causing major damage in the states of Veracruz and Puebla. The epicenter was located somewhere in mountainous region of the eastern Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt which triggered massive mudflows and landslides which claimed anywhere between 700 to 4,000 lives. The event produced extreme ground motions reaching causing severe ground effects. The epicentral region of this earthquake was allocated the maximum level of shaking at XII (Extreme) on the Modified Mercalli intensity scale. It would remain the deadliest earthquake in Mexico until the 1985 Mexico City earthquake.


1920 Xalapa earthquake
Shaking was felt as far as Toluca in the State of Mexico and throughout the central regions of the country.


1920 Xalapa earthquake, Tectonic setting
The west coast of Mexico is dominated by a subduction zone where the Rivera and Cocos Plates converge with the North American Plate at a rate of 3 to 9 cm/yr, varying in locations. At the interface of the subduction zone, earthquakes occur occasionally with magnitudes reaching greater than 8.0. These events are capable of producing tsunamis that devastate coastal communities. At the same time, the subducting plates are still seismically active. Faults within the underthrusted slab which accommodate extension as it flexes and dives into the earth's interior can produce intermediate-depth earthquakes that are just as destructive. Intraplate faults in the downgoing slab before subducting can also generate tsunamis.


1920 Xalapa earthquake, Tectonic setting, Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt
This volcanic range stretches from the country's Pacific Coast to the Gulf of Mexico for more than 1,000 km. It does not run parallel to the Middle America Trench where the plates are subducting due to the difference in subduction angle. Along the southern coast of Mexico, subduction is flat-slab where in the northern area, the plates dive steeply. For that reason, the volcanic arc migrate away from the trench in the south. Earthquakes in the volcanic belt may be a result of active crustal extension within the North American Plate. Seismicity of the volcanic belt is usually low, and rarely do these earthquakes reach magnitudes of 5.0 or greater.


1920 Xalapa earthquake, Earthquake
The source of the earthquake has been the subject of debate and controversy. It had a focal mechanism corresponding to normal faulting with some sense of strike-slip, as seen in other earthquakes in the area. A 25 km fault under the volcanic belt was consistent with the damage and shaking intensity patterns. Ground cracks and fissures thought to be surface ruptures were later correctly identified as slumping rather than faulting. In 1546, a shallow crustal earthquake similar to that in 1920 reportedly caused heavy damage in the affected areas. The absence of visible surface ruptures has also led to geologists speculating if this was a blind rupture quake or an intermediate depth event.


1920 Xalapa earthquake, Earthquake, Magnitude
The magnitude of earthquake varies between catalogs with values Ms  7.8 and Ms  6.4 presented. Magnitude 7.8 has been considered far-fetched, and most likely a non-instrumental estimate, biased by reports of damage and intensities.


1920 Xalapa earthquake, Effects
The heaviest damage from the 1920 earthquake was in the vicinity between the volcanic cones of Cofre de Perote and Pico de Orizaba, and around the Sierra Madre Oriental where large landslides triggered by strong ground motions traveled down the Huitzilapa and Pescados river valleys. The flow traveled some 15 km, destroying the towns in the process. The settlements of Acuatlatipa, El Rincón, Mecatitla, and Pet-lacuacán were buried by mudflows, some of them were never rebuilt. Some 300 residents were lost under the flow, and in Barranca Grande, only 80 of the 400 villagers survived. In some places, the mudflow deposits were up to 15 meters thick. It traveled for 80 km before entering the Gulf of Mexico.


1920 Xalapa earthquake, Effects
The churches in Chilchotla, Santiago Lafragua, and Patlanalán were totally destroyed. Little damage was done to the ground and homes as their building material was mainly wood thus structural failures did not claim any lives. In the village of Ayahualulco however, many of the buildings were constructed with bricks and adobe which was destroyed. The towns of Cosautlán and Teocelo although unaffected by the mudflows lost over 150 inhabitants mostly from collapses. In the city of Xalapa, damage was less severe with churches and buildings sustaining some damage. No collapses were reported.


1920 Yale Bulldogs football team
The 1920 Yale Bulldogs football team represented Yale University in the 1920 college football season. The Bulldogs finished with a 5–3 record under third-year head coach Tad Jones. Yale guard Tim Callahan was a consensus selection for the 1920 College Football All-America Team, receiving first team honors from Walter Camp, the United Press, and the International News Service. Yale's other guard, John Acosta, also received first-team All-America honors from Walter Eckersall.


1920 Yukon general election
The 1920 Yukon general election was held on February 25, 1920 to elect the three members of the Yukon Territorial Council. The number of councilors was reduced from ten in the previous election to three following the general decline in population since the Klondike Gold Rush. The council held an advisory role to the federally appointed Commissioner.


1920 blind march
The 1920 blind march was a protest march to London of 250 blind people from across the United Kingdom. It was organised by the National League of the Blind (NLB) to protest poor working conditions and poverty experienced by blind people. In particular the NLB raised concerns over the conditions in workshops run to provide employment to the visually impaired by various charities. The marchers assembled at Newport, Manchester and Leeds on 5 April and marched to London, assembling at Trafalgar Square on 25 April.


1920 blind march
They were greeted by a crowd of 10,000 who listened to speeches from Herbert Morrison and trade union leaders. The march leaders met with prime minister  David Lloyd George on 30 April, who made few promises apart from to pay for the marchers' rail tickets home. A subsequent Blind Persons Act 1920, the first disability-specific legislation in the world, compelled local authorities to ensure the welfare of blind persons and reduced the pension age for blind men. The march served as inspiration for the more famous 1936 Jarrow March against unemployment, in which the NLB also participated.


1920 blind march, Background
A trade union and pressure group, the National League of the Blind (NLB), was founded in 1894 to campaign for the rights of visually impaired persons; a founder-member, Ben Purse, became its first general secretary in 1897. At this time many blind people were reliant on low paid work in charity factories under poor conditions. The charities were often controlling over their employees including restricting if they could marry. It was also alleged that too much of the charities' funds was spent on sighted employees.


1920 blind march, Background
The NLB had little success in furthering the welfare of blind people in the years preceding the First World War, though it held its first strike in Bristol in 1912. After the First World War, in the course of which many servicemen were blinded by poison gas or shells, many blind people were living in poor conditions. The NLB estimated that 20,000 out of the 35,000 blind people in the United Kingdom were in poverty. The NLB held a large meeting at Trafalgar Square in 1918 and disrupted a session of the House of Commons in 1919. Later that year the house failed to pass a bill proposed by Labour member of parliament Ben Tillett, the third attempt to introduce legislation to improve the welfare of blind people. The NLB responded by calling for a march to demand more rights for blind people and fairer working conditions.


1920 blind march, March
The NLB decided that only men would be permitted to join the march as conditions on the route were expected to be poor. Additionally, though it had many members who were veterans of the British Army, it was decided that they would not march as the union did not want patriotic sympathy to be cited as the reason for its success. The marchers would be ill-equipped, carrying only their white canes and with no change of clothes or provisions. This may have been a deliberate move by the NLB to portray the marchers as vulnerable and disprove the popular perception that the charities were looking after them well. The march was led by Purse, David Lawley (the NLB North West organiser) and Patrick Neary (the Dublin branch secretary).


1920 blind march, March
The march began on Easter Monday, 5 April 1920 from Newport, Manchester and Leeds. The 37 Newport marchers were drawn from South West England, the 60 assembled at Manchester came from Ireland and North West England and the 74 at Leeds from Scotland and North East England. The Newport group marched via Abergavenny and Worcester, meeting the Manchester group, who had marched through Stafford and Wolverhampton, at Birmingham. The combined group then marched to Leicester to meet with the Leeds marchers who had travelled via Sheffield and Nottingham.


1920 blind march, March
After joining at Leicester on 15 April the group marched through Market Harborough to reach Northampton and Wellingborough on 17 April and Luton on 20 April. They had grown to 250 in number by the time the march arrived at London's Trafalgar Square on 25 April, where they were greeted by a crowd of 10,000 people.


1920 blind march, March
The marchers carried banners reading "social justice not charity" and were accompanied by music played on drums, toy trumpets and mouth organs. The men marched arm in arm and four abreast or else held onto a rope to avoid getting separated. Sighted guides marched with them and directed the men by means of whistles or shouted signals. In some municipalities the local police provided an escort for the marchers, others put on buses to transport the men. The marchers took a train between Stone and Stafford due to poor weather. The men found accommodation on the route, provided by trade unions and cooperative societies and  in some instances, were allowed to sleep in police cells.


1920 blind march, March
Some towns and cities provided a formal reception for the march with ceremonies attended by local dignitaries and with music from brass bands. In Trafalgar Square Labour Party politician Herbert Morrison and union leaders addressed the crowd whilst the marchers stood on the steps of the National Gallery.


1920 blind march, Aftermath
The marchers requested a meeting with the prime minister, David Lloyd George, which they claimed he had promised them in July 1919. Lloyd George initially declined to meet them, offering the Lord Privy Seal and his effective deputy Bonar Law. The marchers refused this offer and said they would remain in London until they could meet with Lloyd George. While they waited they were invited to take tea at the House of Commons with Lady Astor. Lloyd George eventually relented and met, on 30 April, with Lawley, Neary, Purse and Charles Lothian.


1920 blind march, Aftermath
The prime minister claimed that his budget was limited, due to the costs of the war, and he could not meet their demands of better education, more work opportunities and a financial grant to all blind persons. The government would instead progress the Blind Persons Act and pay for rail tickets for the marchers to return home. Though similar legislation had been debated before the march; both the Royal National Institute of Blind People (RNIB) and historian Francis Salt writing in 2017 say the new act was a direct result of the 1920 NLB protest.


1920 blind march, Aftermath
Though the march did not achieve all of its aims it has been described by the BBC as "a milestone in the history of the disability rights movement". The Blind Persons Act 1920 was the first disability-specific legislation anywhere in the world. The act required local authorities to "promote the welfare of blind persons" and reduced the pension age for blind men from 70 to 50. The NLB feared that the act would simply allow local authorities to sub-contract their responsibilities to the charities that they opposed.


1920 blind march, Aftermath
The NLB later passed a motion of dissatisfaction in the government's response to the march. Purse changed his views and became more favourable to the charities, this was not compatible with the NLB's position and he left the organisation in 1920, founding the National Union of the Industrial and Professional Blind (which continues, as of 2020, as the  National Federation of the Blind advocacy group).


1920 blind march, Aftermath
The march helped inspire the more famous, but less successful, 1936 Jarrow March against unemployment. The NLB joined the 1936 Jarrow March to highlight the plight of unemployment among blind people which had reached 35,000 out of 40,000 during the Great Depression. The NLB merged with the Iron and Steel Trade Confederation in 2000 and is now part of the trade union Community. The RNIB marked the centenary of the march in April 2020. Though their plans were curtailed because of the COVID-19 pandemic the RNIB urged people to use their daily permitted exercise during the virus control lockdown to take steps significant to them and record it on social media.


1920 college football season
The 1920 college football season had no clear-cut champion, with the Official NCAA Division I Football Records Book listing California, Georgia, Harvard, Notre Dame, and Princeton as national champions. Only California and Princeton claim national championships for the 1920 season. Andy Smith's Pacific Coast Conference champion California "Wonder Team" was the first national champion from the Pacific Coast. Princeton and Harvard were undefeated and with one tie to each other. Notre Dame was led by its first Walter Camp All-American, George Gipp, who died before the year was over.


1920 college football season
In the south, fans of either side in Georgia were happy. Georgia and Georgia Tech were both undefeated in Southern play. Georgia Tech lost to Pitt, which was undefeated with two ties. No team scored through Georgia's line, and its backfield was known as the "ten second backfield". Jimmy Leech of VMI's "Flying Squadron" led the nation in scoring. One writer claimed "he is one of the greatest broken field runners the country has ever seen."


1920 college football season
In the Rose Bowl, Cal defeated Ohio State 28–0. Brick Muller completed a 53-yard touchdown pass to Brodie Stephens after receiving a toss from Pesky Sprott, at the time thought impossible.


1920 college football season, Bowl games
California defeated Ohio State, 28–0, in the 1921 Rose Bowl. The first and only Fort Worth Classic was held on January 1, 1921, with Centre defeating TCU.


1920 in Afghanistan
The following lists events that happened during 1920 in Afghanistan.


1920 in Afghanistan, Spring 1920
As relations with Britain have remained strained, a conference between British and Afghan representatives takes place at Mussoorie, which results in steps being taken to reestablish more normal relations and to settle outstanding questions. No further hostilities occur, though there is some fear on the British side that Russian influence is penetrating the country to some extent.


1920 in Argentine football
1920 in Argentine football saw Boca Juniors retain the "Asociación Argentina de Football" (AFA) league title. In the dissident "Asociación Amateurs de Football" (AAm) River Plate ended the run of seven consecutive league titles for Racing Club de Avellaneda.


1920 in Argentine football
In international football Argentina finished as runners up in Copa América 1920.


1920 in Argentine football, Primera División, Asociación Argentina de Football - Copa Campeonato
Club Eureka disappeared when merging with Sportivo Palermo while the Association expanded the number of to 13 clubs participating. Banfield returned to Primera after promoting the last year while Sportivo Barracas came from rival league "Asociación Amateurs de Football". The rest of the teams were promoted to Primera through a resolution by the association, they were Del Plata, Sportivo del Norte (then Colegiales), Nueva Chicago, Lanús, and Sportivo Palermo.


1920 in Argentine football, Primera División, Asociación Amateur de Football - Primera División
The tournament started with 17 teams then expanded to 19 when Lanús and Sportivo Almagro (that had previously left the Asociación Argentina) joined the league. Ferro Carril Oeste returned to the league after being relegated 2 years before. Barracas Central debuted in Primera after winning the Primera B (Aam) title last year. Sportivo Buenos Aires also debuted in the top division.


1920 in Argentine football, Primera División, Asociación Amateur de Football - Primera División
River Plate won its first championship ending with Racing Club run of 7 consecutive titles.


1920 in Argentine football, Argentina national team, Copa América
In 1920 the Argentina national team travelled to Chile to participate in the 4th edition of Copa América. They finished as runners-up to Uruguay for the third time.


1920 in Australia
The following lists events that happened during 1920 in Australia.


1920 in Australian literature
This article presents a list of the historical events and publications of Australian literature during 1920.


1920 in Australian literature, Births
A list, ordered by date of birth (and, if the date is either unspecified or repeated, ordered alphabetically by surname) of births in 1920 of Australian literary figures, authors of written works or literature-related individuals follows, including year of death.


1920 in Australian literature, Deaths
A list, ordered by date of death (and, if the date is either unspecified or repeated, ordered alphabetically by surname) of deaths in 1920 of Australian literary figures, authors of written works or literature-related individuals follows, including year of birth.


1920 in Brazilian football
The following article presents a summary of the 1920 football (soccer) season in Brazil, which was the 19th season of competitive football in the country.


1920 in Brazilian football, Campeonato Paulista
Santos matches were canceled, as the club abandoned the competition.


1920 in Brazilian football, Brazil national team
The following table lists all the games played by the Brazil national football team in official competitions and friendly matches during 1920.


1920 in British music
This is a summary of 1920 in music in the United Kingdom.


1920 in British radio
This is a list of events from British radio in 1920.


1920 in British-administered Palestine
Events in the year 1920 in British-administered Palestine (British-controlled part of OETA territory).


1920 in Canada, Events, Date unknown
Esther Marjorie Hill (1895–1985) becomes the first female architect in Canada when she graduates from the University of Toronto.


1920 in Canada, Historical Documents
Guide to improving your community by understanding its needs and resources


1920 in Canada, Historical Documents
Funding is "not sufficient to meet our needs in buying food," and Indian residential school lacks enough garden space to make up for it


1920 in Canada, Historical Documents
TB patient must follow sanatorium stay with home treatment and lifestyle change, including "winter living out of doors"


1920 in Canada, Historical Documents
Anti -vaccination group seeks "judicial recognition [that] every freeman owns his own body"


1920 in Canada, Historical Documents
Professor calls for better obstetrics training to lower high rate of injury to mothers


1920 in Canada, Historical Documents
School improvements in Nova Scotia include hot lunches, stove polish and pencil sharpeners


1920 in Canada, Historical Documents
Advocacy magazine says present civil servant compensation amounts to economic slavery


1920 in Canada, Historical Documents
Nellie McClung wants newspaper articles about "heroism, generosity, neighborly kindness" more than crime stories


1920 in Canada, Historical Documents
Disposition, care and management of general purpose Canadian horse breed known for its endurance


1920 in Canada, Historical Documents
Witness before Senate committee on Hudson Bay envisions 50 million domestic reindeer on northern pasture, and muskox ranching too


1920 in Canada, Historical Documents
Lawrence Lambe finds Hadrosaur fossil "Edmontosaurus" in good condition near Red Deer River, Alberta


1920 in Canadian football
After a four year absence due to the First World War, the Grey Cup was up for grabs once again as a couple of familiar foes battled for the trophy. The Toronto Varsity Blues defeated the Toronto Argonauts. It was the final time these cross-town rivals challenged each other for the Grey Cup.


1920 in Canadian football, Canadian Football News in 1920
CIRFU and IRFU adopted a four-yard Interference rule while the CRU opted for three yards of Interference.


1920 in Canadian football, Canadian Football News in 1920
ARFU played games with 12 players per side and introduced the snap-back. The reduction in the number of players was done for monetary reasons as train rates were high after World War I. The CRU would make the same changes in 1921.


1920 in Canadian football, Canadian Football News in 1920
The MRFU champion Winnipeg Victorias were unable to field a full team for the WCRFU finals and withdrew from competition. The MRFU wanted to substitute the second place University of Manitoba Varsity team but the SRFU refused to accept the challenge.


1920 in Canadian football, Canadian Football News in 1920
As champions of the WCRFU, the Regina Rugby Club issued a challenge to compete for the Grey Cup. The CRU had already established its playoff schedule and was unwilling to make any changes. At the time, the CIRFU champions had not been determined but McGill had already announced that if they won the CIRFU they would not compete in the CRU playoffs. The CRU ruled that if McGill won the CIRFU then the Regina Rugby Club would take the place of the CIRFU in the playoffs. In the end, the University of Toronto Varsity team won the CIRFU and the west had to wait one more year before it could compete for the Grey Cup.


1920 in Canadian football, Regular season, Final regular season standings
Note: GP = Games Played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, PF = Points For, PA = Points Against, Pts = Points


1920 in Canadian football, Grey Cup Championship
8th Annual Grey Cup Game: Varsity Stadium - Toronto, Ontario


1920 in Chile
The following lists events that happened during 1920 in Chile.


1920 in El Salvador
The following lists events that happened in 1920 in El Salvador.


1920 in Estonia
This article lists events that occurred during 1920 in Estonia.


1920 in France, Events
In the opening of the year 1920, France was in a stronger position than she had been in for several generations. The Allied victory over Germany and the restoration of Alsace-Lorraine to France had placed France in the position which she occupied during the 17th and 18th century - that of the strongest power on the European continent. At the beginning of the year Raymond Poincaré was still president and Georges Clemenceau was still prime minister, but as both senatorial and presidential elections were due in January, important political changes occurred early in the year.


1920 in France, Events
At the general election for the Chamber of Deputies which took place in November 1919, there had been a strong tendency towards Conservatism, the Socialist Party being badly defeated. The elections for the Senate were held on 11 January, and these exhibited the same trend of opinion as had been shown in the previous autumn. Owing to the postponement of elections during the war, two-thirds of the nine-year senatorial seats had to be contested, and altogether 240 senators had to be elected. The elections proved to be an overwhelming victory for the various Liberal and Republican groups, who secured 218 seats. The parties of the Right won 20 seats, and the Socialists won 2.


1920 in France, Events
While these important events were taking place in the internal politics of France, the final stages in the ratifying of the peace treaty with Germany were being passed through.


1920 in France, Events
The Treaty of Versailles was to come into force so soon as it had been ratified by Germany and by three of the principal Allied and Associated Powers; and since it had now been ratified by Germany and by France, the United Kingdom, Italy, and Japan (though not by the United States), it was only necessary that the protocols certifying these facts should be signed by the parties to the treaty, and formal peace would then exist between the Allied Powers and Germany.


1920 in France, Events
The Supreme Council of the Allies decided that this final ceremony should take place in Paris on 10 January. Two delegates were sent by the German government to carry out the signing of the protocol, Baron Kurt von Lersner and Herr von Simson. The ceremony took place at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the Quai d'Orsay shortly after four o'clock on the afternoon of 10 January.


1920 in France, Events
The protocol was signed by Clemenceau for France, by David Lloyd George for Britain, by Francesco Saverio Nitti for Italy, and by Keishiro Matsui for Japan; and, of course, by the two German delegates. The protocol was also signed by the representatives of various minor Allied and Associated countries, which had already ratified the treaty, these being Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Czechoslovakia, Guatemala, Panama, Peru, Poland, Siam, and Uruguay. The formal end of the war was timed at 6:15 p.m. on 10 January, but the actual signing of the protocol took place, as already stated, somewhat earlier on that same afternoon.


1920 in France, Events
On 14 January, Léon Bourgeois was elected president of the Senate. And the election of the new president of France, by a joint session of the two houses of the legislature, was fixed for 17 January. The two most important candidates were Paul Deschanel and Clemenceau. Among the other candidates was Field Marshal Ferdinand Foch, who, however, secured very little support. The rivalry between Deschanel and Clemenceau revealed certain very interesting tendencies in French politics. The contest turned mainly on the terms of peace which had been imposed upon Germany.


1920 in France, Events
Clemenceau's supporters contended that the terms of the Treaty of Versailles were satisfactory from the French point of view; his opponents declared that he had given way too much to the American and British standpoints, and that the peace was unsatisfactory, particularly in respect of the guarantees for the reparations due to France and in the matter of the French eastern frontier. A large body of French opinion had desired that France should secure the line of the Rhine as her eastern frontier. Deschanel represented these critics of the Treaty of Versailles.


1920 in France, Events
A preliminary ballot of the Republican groups gave 408 votes to Deschanel, and 389 votes to Clemenceau; and when this result was announced Clemenceau withdrew his candidature, but his name figured, nevertheless, in the formal voting of the National Assembly on 17 January. Altogether 888 legislators cast their votes, and Deschanel secured no fewer than 734 votes. The success of Deschanel was regarded in France as in some sense a victory for the opponents of the Treaty of Versailles. Deschanel was born in 1856, and had held the office of president of the Chamber of Deputies. Poincaré was to remain in office as president until 18 February.


1920 in France, Events
On 18 January, Clemenceau resigned from office as premier; and Poincaré entrusted Alexandre Millerand with the task of forming a cabinet. Millerand found no difficulty in obtaining the necessary support, and the full list of the members of his cabinet was published two days later. F. Marsal was minister of finance, A. Lefevre was minister of war, and A. Sarraut was minister for the colonies. Millerand, who himself took the portfolio of foreign affairs, was sixty years of age, and had greatly distinguished himself as minister for war during the critical days of 1914. His first reception by the Chamber of Deputies was somewhat stormy, and a vote of confidence on 22 January was only passed by 281 votes to 240. But a second vote of confidence on 30 January was passed by 510 votes to 70.


1920 in France, Events
On 5 February and 6 February, there was an important debate on foreign policy in the Chamber of Deputies; and a long speech was delivered by the prime minister. He said that the new cabinet had every intention of continuing the same foreign policy which had enabled France to surround herself with such faithful allies during the war.


1920 in France, Events
In reference to the Adriatic problem, Millerand said that the only desire of France was to reach a satisfactory solution of the difficulties existing in this part of the world - a solution in perfect agreement with the sister nation of Italy and with the Serbian people. In regard to the Bulgarian question the premier said that on the previous day he had received news that the Bulgarian parliament had ratified the treaty. Passing on to a consideration of the proposed peace terms for Turkey, Millerand answered certain criticisms which had been made earlier in the debate by Marcel Cachin.


1920 in France, Events
France, he declared, had important and historic interests in the East, and these she had no intention of abandoning. "M. Cachin declared yesterday that we appeared to be threatening the independence of the Syrian populations. No French government has ever entertained such a design, and it is a libel on France to reproach her with a policy of conquest which has never entered her mind. The only wish of France is to give these populations justice and a good administration. When yesterday I heard the government credited with intentions which it has not, I seemed to hear an echo of the slanders levelled by the German government at the work of France in Morocco."


1920 in France, Events
Turning to the question of relations with Russia, Millerand said that contrary to the allegations of Cachin, Britain had been true to her agreements, and none of the Allies had entered into any agreement with the Soviet government. In regard to Poland, the French government intended to maintain the closest friendship with that country, and if she were attacked by the Bolsheviks she would receive every support. Finally, the prime minister dealt with the carrying out of the Treaty of Versailles.


1920 in France, Events
He said that the cabinet intended to maintain complete accord with France's allies; and although it was regrettable that the United States had not so far ratified the treaty, yet the Reparations Commission had begun its work smoothly, and he felt no anxiety as to the ultimate adhesion of America to the treaty. He said that Germany had been dilatory in the matter of fulfilling the stipulations of the treaty, particularly in regard to the essential deliveries of coal.


1920 in France, Events
"I mean to avail myself at the right moment of all the means placed at my disposal by the treaty, and I declare, without making any kind of threat, but merely in order that the position may be quite clear and well understood, that we do not intend to claim anything from Germany to which she is not strictly bound under the terms of the treaty, but we shall exact everything she owes us, and to obtain it we shall have recourse to the measures of all kinds provided for in the treaty."


1920 in France, Events
After the conclusion of the debate the house passed a vote of confidence in the government by 513 votes to 68.


1920 in France, Events
After his assumption of office on 18 February, Deschanel sent the usual presidential message to parliament. Deschanel said that there was no higher destiny than that of serving France, and he thanked the legislators for having permitted him to continue to serve her in union with themselves. He hoped to maintain the national unity which had been so conspicuous during the war. "Our first duty is to define clearly our diplomatic, military, economic, and financial policy to the country. We can only build up our policy for the future on sound bases.


1920 in France, Events
I appeal to all the experience and talent of the members of this assembly on behalf of this act of sincerity and moral probity.


1920 in France, Events
To strengthen the unity between all peoples who fought for the right, and who, by reason of that fact, are great, to strengthen the bonds with those peoples whose affinities or interests bind them to us - this is the first guarantee of peace and the basis of that League of Nations to which the Treaty of Versailles entrusted the execution of certain capital clauses, and which we should support by means of effective action in order to spare the world fresh horrors.


1920 in France, Events
France wishes that the treaty to which Germany appended her signature shall be obeyed, and that the aggressor shall not take from her the fruits of her heroic sacrifices. She means to live in security. Today, as yesterday, our policy is an affair of will-power, energy, and faith. The Russian people fought by our side during three years for the cause of Liberty; may it, master of itself, soon resume in the plenitude of its genius the course of its civilizing mission. The Eastern question causes periodical wars. The fate of the Ottoman Empire has not yet been settled. Our secular interests, rights, and traditions ought to be safeguarded there too."


1920 in France, Events
Turning to questions of internal politics, Deschanel said that the work of restoring France to prosperity would be arduous, and he declared that the person who evaded the payment of taxes was acting like a soldier who deserts his post on the field of battle. It was essential that conflicts between capital and labour should be avoided. In his peroration Deschanel exhorted the legislators to follow in the footsteps of the heroic Frenchmen who had won the war: "We shall accomplish our formidable task if we keep in our souls that sacred flame which rendered France the Republic Invincible, and saved the world."


1920 in France, Events
In the middle of February the trial of Joseph Caillaux, the ex-prime minister of France, who had been under arrest for treason since January 1918, commenced. The case was regarded as the most important of the treason trials, of which there had been a long series since the middle of the war. Caillaux was tried before the Senate, sitting as a High Court of Justice, with Léon Bourgeois as president of the court. The prolonged delay in bringing Caillaux to trial was because investigations had to be made in many different parts of the world, including South America.


1920 in France, Events
Caillaux was charged with "having sought to weaken the security of the state abroad by intrigues, machination, and intelligence with the enemy of a nature likely to favour enemy action in regard to France, or her Allies, fighting against common enemies, and thus to advance the progress of the enemy armies." M. Lescouvé (the public prosecutor), M. Moinet, and others appeared for the prosecution. M. Giafferi, M. Moutet, and others appeared for the defense. The trial was extremely long and also in many respects extremely dramatic.


1920 in France, Events
The trial began, on 17 February, with a series of interrogations by the president of the court, and this part of the scene alone lasted for several days. Next there came a cross-examination of the prisoner by the public prosecutor. Many of Caillaux's activities were investigated in great detail and at great length. He was questioned regarding his relations with an enemy agent named Minotto, in South America, regarding his relations with another enemy agent, a certain Count Lipscher, and also in regard to his associations with the traitors Lenoir, Bolo, and Duval, who had already been executed for treason.


1920 in France, Events
The prisoner had also to account for his close association with various schemers in Italy, including the notorious Cavallini. During these interrogations, Caillaux frequently made long speeches on all manner of political questions. In the matter of Count Lipscher little to his discredit appears to have transpired; but apart from the details of the investigation it was obvious that if the prisoner had been entirely innocent of the charges brought against him, he had had a surprising amount of association with undesirable persons.


1920 in France, Events
And it was also established that the German government regarded Caillaux as the right man to approach under circumstances favourable to Germany. Moutet, speaking for the defense, attributed political motives to the accusers, and said that notwithstanding the fact that the world had been ransacked for evidence for many months, the evidence produced was of a ridiculous and trumpery character.


1920 in France, Events
After many weeks of investigation the capital charge of treason was dismissed, and the prosecution did not ask for the death sentence; but Caillaux was found guilty on the minor count of correspondence with the enemy, and was sentenced to three years' imprisonment, ten years' interdiction of rights of voting and eligibility for any public function, and five years' prohibition from appearing in certain places indicated by the government.


1920 in France, Events
It was found that his relations with Bolo and Almereyda did not fall within the penal code, but he was condemned for his friendship with Minotto, Cavallini, and to some extent for his association with Count Lipscher. Having already served more than two years' imprisonment, Caillaux was set at liberty at the end of the trial. The verdict was given on 23 April.


1920 in France, Events
During the spring there were serious labour troubles in France. At the end of February a serious dispute arose on the Paris, Lyon, and Mediterranean Railway system, owing to disciplinary measures which had been taken against one man. A strike was declared on that line on 25 February, and subsequently spread to the state lines also. The government immediately called to the colours those employees who were in the Army Reserve. A general strike of railwaymen was declared on 29 February; but the response was only partial, and an agreement was reached within twenty-four hours.


1920 in France, Events
At the beginning of May another railway strike broke out, and on this occasion the labour agitators hoped to make the strike universal, and it was supported by the General Confederation of Labour (CGT), who called out the seamen, dockers, and miners in support of the railwaymen. The aims of the General Confederation were not only economic, but also partly political; and they announced that they aimed at the international allotment of war burdens, an economic entente of all peoples on a basis of cooperation, at the cessation of all colonial expeditions, and at general disarmament.


1920 in France, Events
The response to the call on the part of the workers was, however, half-hearted and partial, though in certain localities, including Marseille, the strike was almost universal. The strike was extremely unpopular in the country at large, and the government took legal proceedings against the revolutionary ring-leaders. Within a week it was clear that the strike would fail, owing to the apathy or actual hostility of a large part of the working classes, but it was not until 21 May that the leaders of the General Confederation declared the strike at an end.


1920 in France, Events
In February the government issued a new 5% state loan, which became known as the "Recovery Loan". The subscription lists remained open for several weeks, and it was announced in April that the total amount subscribed was 15,700,000,000 francs.


1920 in France, Events
During the spring and summer certain differences of opinion, important but not fundamental, arose between the French and British governments. In a debate in the Chamber of Deputies on 25 March, Louis Barthou, who had once been prime minister and was now chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the lower house, delivered a speech on foreign policy generally in which he took occasion to attack the policy of the British government.


1920 in France, Events
He complained that Britain had profited more than any other country by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles; and that the course of events had recently been such that the hatred of Germany was now directed almost exclusively against France. This was, he said, particularly the case in the matter of permitting Germany to deal with her own war criminals, for which concession Britain had gained all the credit in German eyes.


1920 in France, Events
The speaker made various other complaints against the British government in general and Lloyd George in particular; but it was clear before the end of his speech that he did not carry the Chamber with him. On the following day, Millerand made a reply in which he endeavoured to remove the bad impression created by Barthou's speech.


1920 in France, Events
The prime minister said that there was no "crisis in the alliance"; and he pointed out that the reason the concession to Germany in the matter of the war criminals was signed by the British prime minister was that at the time the note was sent the peace conference was sitting in London.


1920 in France, Events
The premier said, however, that France was determined to see the terms of the Treaty of Versailles fulfilled, and although the British government were in favour of allowing the German government to send troops into the Ruhr District, to suppress the Spartacist insurrection there, France viewed these movements of troops with grave concern.


1920 in France, Events
The differences between the French and British governments were also apparent at the beginning of April, when the German government was suppressing the Spartacist revolt. To the east of the Allied armies in the occupied portion of Germany there was a neutral zone, into which, by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the German government were not allowed to send troops.


1920 in France, Events
During the Spartacist insurrection which followed the coup d'état in Berlin (see 1920 in Germany), the revolutionaries in the valley of the Ruhr, a highly industrialized district which was included in the neutral zone, took advantage of the unavoidable absence of the government forces to seize control of the entire administration of this important part of Germany.


1920 in France, Events
The German government applied for permission to send forces into this part of the neutral zone in the exceptional circumstances which had arisen, as without doing so it was impossible for them to overcome the revolt in the neutral zone itself, or to prevent the successful insurrection in that zone lending important support to the Spartacists farther east.


1920 in France, Events
The British, Italian, and American governments were all in favour of allowing the German government, which in the circumstances existing was a bulwark against the spread of Bolshevism, to send a limited number of troops into the neutral zone until law and order had been reestablished there. The French government, however, interposed obstacles to the granting of any such license to the German government.


1920 in France, Events
The revolt continued to spread, and at the beginning of April German troops marched into the Ruhr Valley to restore order, although no permission for them to do so had been granted by the Allies as a whole. Thereupon the French government, without the consent of the British and Italian governments, ordered their own troops to march forward into the neutral zone - though not into the same part of the neutral zone - and to occupy various German towns as a penalty for the German advance.


1920 in France, Events
Frankfurt, Darmstadt, and Hanau were occupied on 6 April, and Homburg was entered on the following day. Black troops took part in the advance, a point which gave special umbrage to the Germans. This independent action on the part of the French government led to an interchange of somewhat sharp notes between London and Paris, the British government taking exception both to the French advance in itself and still more so to the fact that the advance had been made without due consultation with the other Allied governments.


1920 in France, Events
Within a few days, however, an agreement between the French and British governments was reached. The black troops were immediately withdrawn, and the French government made it clear that in the future they would not act without securing the consent of the other Allies. The British government on their side made it clear that they intended to see the terms of the Treaty of Versailles respected by the German government. After the suppression of the Ruhr revolt, both the German and French troops were withdrawn.


1920 in France, Events
During the spring and summer there were various conferences between the French, British, and other Allied governments, at San Remo, Hythe, Spa, and elsewhere, these conferences relating largely to the reparations due from Germany under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. At these discussions similar differences of opinion appear to have existed between the British and French representatives, the British being more disposed than the French to recognize the difficulties with which the German government were confronted. But these differences of opinion only related to questions of method, and were in no way fundamental. In the middle of May Poincaré, the ex-president of France, resigned his position as president of the Reparations Commission, on account of what he regarded as the undue leniency which had been shown towards Germany. Millerand stated publicly, however, that he thought Poincaré's fears were groundless.


1920 in France, Events
In May President Paul Deschanel became mentally incapacitated; he resigned his office in September. It was soon evident that the great majority of public men desired that Millerand should himself become president. The premier at first declined to accede to these demands, but after some delay he consented to do so. The election took place on 23 September, and out of 892 votes cast, no fewer than 695 were given Millerand. A Socialist candidate, Gustave Delory, obtained 69 votes. Millerand announced that he hoped somewhat to increase the powers of the presidential office, particularly in regard to foreign policy.


1920 in France, Events
Georges Leygues became prime minister and minister for foreign affairs; but otherwise the composition of the cabinet remained unchanged. On 25 September the Chamber of Deputies passed a vote of confidence in the new government by 515 votes to 71. It was notable that in the statements issued both by the new president and by the new government, it was proclaimed that France would do her utmost to make the League of Nations a success. At the end of November Leygues visited London to confer with British and Italian statesmen on the Greek crisis and other matters.


1920 in France, Events
In the middle of November it was announced that the government proposed to reduce the period of military service from two years to eighteen months.


1920 in France, Events
In November Lord Derby, the British ambassador in Paris, retired from that office, and was succeeded by Lord Hardinge. It was also announced that Paul Cambon, the veteran French ambassador in London, would retire in January 1921.


1920 in France, Events
Throughout the year there was considerable, though intermittent, discussion on the proposal that France should resume diplomatic relations with the Vatican; and at the end of November the government proposal to renew relations was approved by the Chamber of Deputies by 387 votes to 210.


1920 in France, Events
The defeat of the Socialists at the general election of 1919 appeared to have caused that party to become more extreme in its views. And after much discussion throughout the year 1920, a great Socialist conference held at Tours in December voted by a large majority in favour of adhesion to the so-called Third International, the international organization of Socialists which was under the control of the Bolsheviks of Moscow.


1920 in France, Events
The financial situation in France gave occasion for most serious anxiety. Among other unfavourable features, the exchange value of the franc had fallen greatly since the end of the war, and, with fluctuations, stood at about 60 francs to the pound sterling during most of the year; and the value of the franc in terms of the American dollar was even lower.


1920 in France, Events
The ordinary budget for 1920 provided for a revenue of 15,885,000,000 francs and for an expenditure of 17,860,000,000 francs. It was anticipated that the extraordinary expenditure would amount to over 7,000,000,000 francs.


1920 in France, Sources
Much of the text in the "Events" section of this article was copied verbatim from The Annual Register: 1920 (London: Longman's Green,  1921). This source was published before 1923 and is out of copyright.


1920 in Germany, Overview
Consider first the territorial changes which had been brought about by the Treaty of Versailles (and also certain internal territorial rearrangements which had taken place as the result of the revolution). By the Treaty of Versailles provinces had been severed from Germany in almost all directions.


1920 in Germany, Overview
The two most important cessions of territory were the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to France and of a large stretch of territory in West Prussia, Posen, and Upper Silesia to Poland. Of these, the territory ceded to Poland amounted to nearly 20,000 square miles (50,000 km2), and, coupled with the establishment of Danzig as an independent state, which was also imposed upon Germany, this loss had the effect of cutting off East Prussia from the main territory of Germany.


1920 in Germany, Overview
Danzig and Memel were to be ceded to the Allies, their fate to be subsequently decided. A portion of Silesia was to be ceded to Czechoslovakia. Also, apart from the actual cessions of territory, the treaty arranged that plebiscites should be held in certain areas to decide the destinies of the districts concerned. Certain districts of East Prussia and West Prussia were to poll to decide whether they should belong to Germany or to Poland. A third portion of Silesia, which was in dispute between Germany and Poland, was to exercise the right of self-determination.


1920 in Germany, Overview
The small districts of Eupen and Malmedy were to decide whether they would belong to Belgium or to Germany. The middle and southern districts of the province of Schleswig, which had been annexed to Prussia in 1866, were to decide their own destinies. Finally, the coal-producing valley of the Saarland, which had been provisionally separated from Germany, was to be the subject of a referendum after the lapse of fifteen years.


1920 in Germany, Overview
The Allied and Associated governments had assumed the task of revising territorial changes and arrangements dating back to the latter half of the 18th century. The conference cancelled completely the expansion of Germany over the past 150 years; but did not cancel the schism in Germany—the exclusion of Austria—which had been incidental to that expansion.


1920 in Germany, Overview
Raoul Hausmann, George Grosz, Hannah Höch and other artists helped establish the Berlin wing of the Dada movement, an avant garde artistic movement that defied the established forms of classical art. Photomontage, a technique Hausmann claims to have originated with Höch in 1918, becomes associated with Berlin Dada style.


1920 in Germany, Events, Internal territorial changes in Germany
The following describes the internal territorial rearrangements which were made after the establishment of the German republic. During the period of the Hohenzollern empire there had been twenty-six states within the German federation. During the war the number had been reduced by one by the fusion of the principalities of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt and Schwarzburg-Sondershausen. After the revolution there was a rapid reduction in the number of smaller states. Alsace-Lorraine was, of course, returned to France, and the two principalities of Reuss—the so-called Elder and Younger lines—united into a single state.


1920 in Germany, Events, Internal territorial changes in Germany
The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha split into two halves; Coburg voluntarily united itself with Bavaria, and Gotha later in the year 1919 entered into negotiations with a number of the other small states of central Germany to bring about a general union of the little republics concerned. Six states took part in these negotiations, which were brought to a successful conclusion at the end of December 1919. The states which thus agreed to unite were: (1) Schwarzburg, (2) Reuss, (3) Gotha, (4) Saxe-Weimar, (5) Saxe-Meiningen, and (6) Saxe-Altenburg. The total population of the United States was just over 1,500,000, and their joint area was just over 4,500 square miles (11,700 km2). The states took the name of Thuringia (Einheitsstaat Thüringen). The town of Weimar was made the capital of the new state.


1920 in Germany, Events, Internal territorial changes in Germany
It will be seen that owing to these various fusions and changes the twenty-six states of the German federation were reduced to eighteen.


1920 in Germany, Events, Political situation at the beginning of the year
In considering the general political situation in the country at the beginning of 1920, it is notable that from the time of the revolution until the end of 1919, the Liberal and Radical parties in combination with the so-called Majority Social Democratic Party had held power continuously, and had been strikingly confirmed in their position by the general election held in January 1919. The chief point of interest in the general election had been the close correspondence of the results with those that used to be obtained in the elections for the old Reichstag in the time of the Empire.


1920 in Germany, Events, Political situation at the beginning of the year
On February 11, 1919, the new parliament elected Friedrich Ebert as president of the German republic. Philipp Scheidemann acted as minister-president during the first half of 1919, but at the time of the signing of the treaty of peace in June he was succeeded by Gustav Bauer, one of the best-known leaders of the Majority Social Democratic Party, who had not been a member of Scheidemann's government. The government persevered but the ministry and the parties which supported them were placed in an unstable and very difficult position.


1920 in Germany, Events, Political situation at the beginning of the year
On one side, the government had to face the extreme hostility of the conservative party, who had been opposed from the beginning to the new republican institutions. On the other side, they faced the extreme revolutionaries, who, for entirely different reasons, had been opposed to the submission to the Entente, and desired an alliance with the Bolshevik forces of the Soviet Union. During 1919 the government had been faced greater difficulties from the parties of the left than the parties of the right, and the extreme Socialists had made several unsuccessful attempts at armed insurrection. The reactionary groups were also capable of making serious trouble for the government.


1920 in Germany, Events, Anti-government agitation
During January and February there were no events of first-class importance, but in March there were kaleidoscopic changes in Berlin, which illustrated dramatically the difficulty of the position of the moderate German government, placed as it was, between the extremists of the right and of the left. During the early weeks of the year certain people in the conservative party were agitating actively against the government, and were endeavouring to find some pretext—preferably a democratic pretext—for taking action against them.


1920 in Germany, Events, Anti-government agitation
One of the most prominent persons in this movement was Dr. Wolfgang Kapp, who had once held office as president of East Prussia, and had been a founder of the Fatherland Party and an associate of the Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz. During January and February Kapp entered into correspondence with the prime minister, Bauer, and brought complaints against the government.


1920 in Germany, Events, Anti-government agitation
The chief of these complaints were that Ebert had remained in power too long, since according to the constitution the president ought to be elected by the whole nation, and not merely (as Ebert had been) by the National Assembly; that the ministry itself had likewise retained power too long, since it and the parliament which supported it were elected and established only for the purpose of concluding peace; that the government's administration had been inefficient and had failed to restore the economic position in the country, which had remained deplorable since the conclusion of the armistice.


1920 in Germany, Events, Anti-government agitation
There was but little substance in any of these charges, except, perhaps, the first; and there is every reason to suspect that they were only put forward as a cover for different, and possibly sinister, designs. Ebert and Bauer naturally paid no attention to Dr. Kapp's demands; and in the middle of March the reactionaries seem to have thought that the time had arrived for them to come out into the open and declare opposition.


1920 in Germany, Events, Anti-government agitation
On March 12 Bauer appears to have obtained information regarding the plot, and possibly it was this which induced the conspirators to act earlier than they had intended and certainly prematurely. Kapp had obtained an important accomplice in the person of General Baron Walther von Lüttwitz, who was the commander of the 1st Division of the Reichswehr. Another commander of the Reichswehr, General Georg Maerker, also appears to have been very doubtful in his loyalty to the government.


1920 in Germany, Events, Anti-government agitation
During the past twelve months both these soldiers had served well under the able, but ruthless, cruel, and traitorous war minister, Gustav Noske, in the work of suppressing the insurrections of the Spartacists, a group of anti-war German radicals. Repression of the German pacifists and internationalists, it would turn out, was an activity in which reactionaries and moderates could easily cooperate without friction.


1920 in Germany, Events, Coup in Berlin
Finding that his plot was discovered, Dr. Kapp attempted a sudden coup d'état in Berlin, which met with fleeting success. Supported by the Marine Brigade Erhardt (the first paramilitary group to use the swastika as its emblem), by the irregular "Baltic" troops (the German troops who had occasioned trouble in Courland in the previous year by fighting independently of any government), who were now stationed at Döberitz, by the former guard cavalry division, and by the Reichswehr troops whom General von Lüttwitz had led, Kapp advanced upon Berlin in the early hours of March 13.


1920 in Germany, Events, Coup in Berlin
Realizing that the generals in command of the Reichswehr had betrayed their trust, Ebert and Bauer fled from Berlin to Dresden, and were fortunate in being able to escape before the Baltic troops arrived. Immediately after he reached Berlin, at 10 am, Dr. Kapp issued a proclamation declaring that the Ebert-Bauer administration had ceased to exist and that he was himself acting as imperial chancellor, and that General von Lüttwitz had been appointed minister of defense. The proclamation also stated that Dr. Kapp only regarded his administration as provisional, and that he would "restore constitutional conditions" by holding new elections.


1920 in Germany, Events, Coup in Berlin
The new government disclaimed any intention of restoring the monarchy, but all Kapp's chief supporters were monarchists, and he had the old imperial colours—black, white, and red—hoisted in the capital. It was also perhaps significant that immediately after the coup d'état much coming and going was reported from ex-Kaiser Wilhelm II's Dutch home at Amerongen.


1920 in Germany, Events, Coup in Berlin
Ebert and his associates were not slow to decide upon the measures to be taken against the reactionaries. They issued an appeal to the working classes to engage in a drastic general strike. The appeal, which was signed by Ebert, Bauer, and Noske, read as follows:


1920 in Germany, Events, Coup in Berlin
The response to this appeal by the working classes was enthusiastic and almost universal. Except in East Prussia and to some extent in Pomerania and Silesia, the Kapp "government" obtained scarcely any support in the country; and the Saxon, Bavarian, Württemberg, and Baden governments all rallied to the support of President Ebert—though notwithstanding the loyalty of the Saxons, the president and the prime minister thought it advisable to remove from Dresden to Stuttgart. Kapp and von Lüttwitz met with the bitter hostility of the working classes in Berlin, who succeeded in bringing to a standstill the whole life of the capital.


1920 in Germany, Events, Coup in Berlin
It was, indeed, apparent after forty-eight hours that the extraordinary success of the general strike would make the new Kapp regime impossible. During the first two days there were rumours that in order to avoid civil war Ebert and Bauer were willing to compromise with the conspirators; but it soon became obvious that any such course would be unnecessary.


1920 in Germany, Events, Coup in Berlin
The feature which hampered Kapp fatally was the complete success of the strike in Berlin itself; and since his writ did not even run in the capital, the usurping chancellor felt compelled to resign on March 17.


1920 in Germany, Events, Coup in Berlin
He endeavoured to cover up his failure, by alleging that his mission had been fulfilled, in that the government had now proclaimed that they would hold a general election within a few weeks, but his protestations notwithstanding, it was obvious to all the onlookers that his real designs had been to displace the old government altogether, and very probably to upset the entire republican regime.


1920 in Germany, Events, Coup in Berlin
A meeting of the National Assembly was held at Stuttgart on March 18, and the prime minister made a long speech dealing with Kapp's escapade, but before then, the crisis had already passed—and had in fact given place to a crisis of a totally different kind. On March 18 some of the members of the government returned to Berlin, and on that day also Kapp's troops—who were known as the "Baltic" troops, although the name properly applied only to a section of them—left the capital. Their departure was unfortunately marked by a most disagreeable incident.


1920 in Germany, Events, Coup in Berlin
As they marched through the streets towards the Brandenburg Gate, the populace which had always been entirely hostile to them, collected in great numbers and followed the soldiers, jeering vociferously. The legionaries were in an ill-humour at the failure of their coup, and being further aggravated by the behaviour of the crowds, when the last detachment reached the Brandenburg Gate they wheeled about, and fired several volleys into the mass of civilians who had followed them. A panic ensued, and a considerable number of persons were killed and wounded. Kapp himself fled to Sweden.


1920 in Germany, Events, Return of government
When the government returned to the capital, they found that the strike which they had utilized to overcome Kapp had now got beyond control; and indeed in the east end of Berlin, Soviets were being declared, and Daunig had declared himself president of a new German Communist republic. The government called off the strike, but a large number of the strikers refused to return to work. On March 19 Spartacist risings occurred in many different places, especially in western Prussia, Bavaria, Württemberg, and Leipzig.


1920 in Germany, Events, Return of government
In Leipzig the rising was extremely serious, and in suppressing this local insurrection the government had to use aeroplanes over the streets of the city in order to intimidate the Communists. The Communist leaders decided to direct the strike, the power of which had been proved against Kapp, against the government itself. In Berlin, with the active assistance of the prime minister of Prussia, Paul Hirsch, the federal government were soon able to gain control of affairs; and in Saxony, Bavaria, and Württemberg the troops were also able to overcome speedily the insurrection.


1920 in Germany, Events, Return of government
But in the west, in Westphalia and the Rhineland, the situation became extremely serious. The position was in this part of Germany complicated by the existence of the neutral zone lying between the territory occupied by the Entente, and the main part of Germany, where the government were of course free to move their forces as they pleased. Apart from a small force for police purposes, the German government were not allowed to send troops into the neutral zone.


1920 in Germany, Events, Return of government
The military police in the zone were quite incapable of dealing with the Spartacist insurrection; and the insurgents speedily took possession of Essen, after a treacherous attack on the rear of the small government force. The revolutionists also seized Wesel. The union of "Red" Germany with Bolshevik Russia was proclaimed. The government took alarm at the development of the Spartacist peril, and on March 23 it was even rumoured that a purely Socialist government—containing several members of the Independent Social Democratic Party—was to be formed.


1920 in Germany, Events, Return of government
This rumour proved to be untrue, but two of the ablest members of the cabinet, Noske and Matthias Erzberger, who were especially obnoxious to the Communists, were asked by Bauer to resign. The resignation of these two ministers was in some sense a concession to the extremists, but the latter refused to consider compromise. Feeling overwhelmed with the difficulty of the situation, Bauer himself resigned on March 26. Fortunately Ebert had no difficulty in finding a statesman willing to undertake the burden of the chancellorship.


1920 in Germany, Events, Return of government
The president asked Hermann Müller, who had previously held the office of minister for foreign affairs, to form an administration. Within forty-eight hours it was announced that Müller had succeeded in forming a cabinet, which included (as did the previous administration) members of all the three moderate parties, the Clericals, the Democrats, and the Majority Social Democrats. The new cabinet was composed as follows:


1920 in Germany, Events, Return of government
Müller's tenure of the Foreign Office was only temporary, and before the middle of April he relinquished that position to Dr. Adolf Köster. At the same time there was a reconstruction of the government of Prussia, Otto Braun becoming premier. The new ministry was constituted on much the same lines as that of Germany, and including members of all the three moderate parties.


1920 in Germany, Events, Ruhr Uprising
As soon as he assumed office Müller had to deal with the pressing problem of the insurrection in the Ruhr valley, and the neutral zone generally. The German government applied to the Allies for permission to send troops into the disturbed districts in excess of the numbers allowed by the Treaty of Versailles. It appears that in view of the situation which had arisen the British and Italian governments made various suggestions for a temporary modification of these particular provisions of the Treaty of Versailles (Articles 42 to 44).


1920 in Germany, Events, Ruhr Uprising
It was proposed, for instance, that German forces might be allowed to occupy the Ruhr valley under whatever guarantees Marshal Foch might think necessary; or that the German troops should be accompanied by Allied officers; or that the matter should be left in the hands of the German government with a warning that if the neutral zone were not re-evacuated as soon as practicable, a further district of Germany would be occupied by the Entente.


1920 in Germany, Events, Ruhr Uprising
The French government, however, raised difficulties; and declared that if the Germans were allowed to send forces into the Ruhr District, they (the French) should be allowed to occupy Frankfurt, Homburg, and other neighbouring German towns, with the sanction of the Allies, during the period that the German troops were in the neutral zone. Owing to these differences of opinion between the Allied governments no quick decision was reached; in the meantime, the insurrection in the Ruhr Valley was becoming daily more serious.


1920 in Germany, Events, Ruhr Uprising
Moreover, the German government themselves hindered a settlement by indicating that they could not accept the French suggestion of a parallel occupation of Frankfurt by French troops. It was obvious that matters would soon reach a crisis, notwithstanding the conciliatory efforts of the British government It came as no great surprise, when, on April 3, German regular troops, of the Reichswehr, entered the neutral zone in force, although no permission for them to do so had been granted by the Entente. The troops were under the command of General von Watter, and they experienced no serious difficulty in dealing with the Spartacists, although the latter possessed some artillery. The revolutionary headquarters at Mülheim were taken on April 4.


1920 in Germany, Events, International intervention
These incidents led to somewhat sensational developments between the French, British, and German governments. Immediately after the German troops crossed the line, the French government itself gave orders to its own troops to advance, and Frankfurt was occupied on April 6 and Homburg on the following day. The French government proclaimed the necessity of this move on the ground that Articles 42 to 44 of the Treaty of Versailles had been broken by the Germans.


1920 in Germany, Events, International intervention
The French advance occasioned extreme bitterness of feeling in Germany, more particularly as some of the occupying troops were black; and the attitude of the crowds in Frankfurt became so hostile, that on one occasion the French troops brought a machine-gun into action, and a number of civilians were killed and wounded.


1920 in Germany, Events, International intervention
The British government also disapproved of the French action, partly because they regarded the advance as an extreme measure which should only have been adopted in the last resort, and still more so because the French move had been made independently, and without the sanction of the other Allied governments. The British held that the enforcement of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles was an affair for the Allies collectively, and not for any single Allied government.


1920 in Germany, Events, International intervention
The Franco-British difference of opinion was, however, of short duration (see 1920 in France); and it was soon made clear that whilst the British government were disposed to think that there had been a genuine necessity to send the German troops into the Ruhr valley, they were equally as determined as the French to see that the terms of the treaty were observed. And the extreme rapidity with which the German troops overcame the revolutionaries tended to bring the whole crisis to an end.


1920 in Germany, Events, International intervention
On April 12 Müller made a statement on the situation in the National Assembly at Berlin. He complained of French militarism, and in particular that Senegalese negroes should have been quartered in Frankfurt University. He laid the blame for the developments largely upon Kapp and his associates; and said that it was owing to the undermining of the loyalty of the Reichswehr by the reactionaries, that the working classes had now lost confidence in the republican army.


1920 in Germany, Events, International intervention
The latest casualty list which had been received from the disturbed area proved the severity of the actions which had taken place; 160 officers and men had been killed and nearly 400 had been wounded. The advance of the German troops into the Ruhr had been necessary in order to protect the lives and property of peaceable citizens living in that district.


1920 in Germany, Events, International intervention
It was true, said the speaker, that according to Articles 42 and 43 of the treaty of peace, the German government were not allowed to assemble armed forces in the neutral zone, because to do so would constitute a hostile act against the signatory powers; but, he asked, was this prescription laid down in order to prevent the reestablishment of public order? By an agreement of August 1919, the Entente had sanctioned the maintenance in the neutral zone of a military police force, and therefore the Entente, including France, had recognized that measures necessary for the preservation of order in the neutral zone did not constitute a violation of the treaty.


1920 in Germany, Events, San Remo meeting
A meeting of the Supreme Council, consisting of the British, French, and Italian prime ministers, was opened at San Remo on April 19; and the Council had to deal, among other questions, with the German invasion of the Ruhr Valley, and with the problem of disarmament generally. David Lloyd George, with the support of Francesco Saverio Nitti, proposed that the German government should be invited to attend the conference; but this was strongly opposed by Alexandre Millerand, and the proposal therefore lapsed.


1920 in Germany, Events, San Remo meeting
The result of the discussions at San Remo on the German question was that a note dealing with the question of disarmament was sent to the German government at the end of April. The note declared that so long as the German government was not taking serious steps to carry out the disarmament clauses of the Treaty of Versailles, it was impossible for the Allied governments even to consider the German request that the permanent force of 100,000 men, allowed by the treaty, should be increased.


1920 in Germany, Events, San Remo meeting
Germany was not fulfilling her engagements either in the destruction of the materials of war, or in the reduction of the number of troops, or in the provision of coal, or with regard to reparation. The Allied governments intended to insist upon the carrying out of the terms of the treaty, though in cases where the German government were faced with unavoidable difficulties, the Allied governments would not necessarily insist upon a literal interpretation of the terms. It was not their intention to annex any portion of German territory.


1920 in Germany, Events, San Remo meeting
So far as the occupation of the Ruhr valley was concerned the above note came almost after the event as the rapidity with which the Reichswehr overcame the insurgents made it possible for the German government to withdraw the troops within a few weeks. At the end of April the foreign minister, Dr. Köster, declared that the French ought now to evacuate Frankfurt, Darmstadt, and Homburg, because the German troops had been reduced to 17,500 which was permitted by the agreement of August 1919.


1920 in Germany, Events, San Remo meeting
On the Allied side, however, it was stated that the force must be reduced forthwith to twenty battalions, six squadrons, and two batteries; and that even this force would have to be replaced entirely by a body of 10,000 police by July 10. The German government made the necessary reductions, and on May 17 the French evacuated Frankfurt and the other occupied towns.


1920 in Germany, Events, General election
The reactionary and Spartacist insurrections having been thus quelled, the German government proceeded, in accordance with their declarations, to make the necessary preparations for holding the general election. The elections were fixed for Sunday, June 6. All the parties undertook active campaigns, but the general public showed less interest in these elections for the new Reichstag than they had shown in the elections for the temporary National Assembly in January 1919. The total number of electors was about 32,000,000, approximately 15,000,000 men and 17,000,000 women; but only about 80% of the voters exercised their rights.


1920 in Germany, Events, General election
In the elections of 1919, the results had been strikingly in accord with the last general election for the Reichstag before the war; and had therefore constituted a remarkable popular confirmation of the attitude of the Reichstag bloc during the war. The present elections yielded different results. The three moderate parties had been in an overwhelming majority both in the last imperial Reichstag and also in the new republican National Assembly. They were again returned with a majority over the right and left political wings combined, but the majority was now very small.


1920 in Germany, Events, General election
The German political parties were now grouped, from right to left, as follows: the National Party (the old Conservatives), the German People's Party (the old National Liberals); the Democrats (the old Radicals); the Clericals (the old Centre, which now included Protestant as well as Catholic Clericals); the Majority Social Democrats; the Minority or Independent Social Democrats; and lastly the Communists or Spartacists, whose opinions were comparable with those of the Bolsheviks of Russia.


1920 in Germany, Events, General election
In January 1919, the Communists, presumably realizing their numerical insignificance, had refused to take part in the polling. On this occasion, however, they decided to enter the contest, and one of the remarkable features of the elections was the utter collapse of the Spartacists. The satisfaction which the rout of the Spartacists caused to most moderate Germans was, however, tempered by the success of the Independent Social Democrats, who had for months been growing increasingly more extreme in their views, and were now, indeed, one of the most extreme Socialist parties in all Europe, outside Russia.


1920 in Germany, Events, General election
The total number of deputies in the new Reichstag was slightly greater than in the National Assembly, being about 470, the exact number being doubtful until the destinies of the plebiscite areas in West Prussia, East Prussia, and Silesia had been decided. The Spartacists won only two seats. The Independent Social Democrats, however, increased their membership of the house from twenty-two to eighty. The success of the Independent Social Democrats was gained, as might have been expected, chiefly at the expense of the Majority Social Democrats, who had been by far the largest party in the National Assembly.


1920 in Germany, Events, General election
Indeed, the reduction in numbers of the Majority Social Democrats was almost exactly the same as the increase in numbers of the Minority Social Democrats. The total of the Majority Social Democrats fell from 165 to 110. The Clerical electorate, whose strength lay in the west and south, was as always a remarkably constant feature. The Clericals returned with eighty-eight deputies, as against ninety in the Assembly.


1920 in Germany, Events, General election
Passing to a consideration of the Liberal and Conservative parties, one finds that on the right wing of politics there had also been a remarkable change. The Democrats fared worse in the elections than any other party. The two parties of the right were returned in far greater strength than they had possessed in the National Assembly. The number of Democrats fell from 75 to 45, which was the more remarkable when the increased size of the house is considered. The German National Party, representing the old Conservatives, and still avowed monarchists, increased their strength from 43to 65.


1920 in Germany, Events, General election
But the most remarkable gains were those of the German People's Party. This party—the old National Liberals—represented chiefly the great industrial interests and had been very influential, though not very numerous, under the Empire. In January 1919, they had been almost annihilated at the polls, and had won only twenty-two seats. Now, however, they returned with over sixty deputies.


1920 in Germany, Events, General election
It will be seen that the elections apparently revealed two diametrically opposite tendencies: a drift from the moderates to the extreme left, and a drift from the moderates to the extreme right. These two tendencies had affected adversely the Majority Social Democrats and Democrats respectively. To some extent this possibly reflected popular discontent with the existing government, with a tendency for the Democrats to vote for the German People's Party and the Majority Social Democrats to drift to the Independent Social Democrats.


1920 in Germany, Events, General election
The exception in this drift to the political extremes was to be found, with the supporters of the Clerical Party, whose political fidelity was proverbial. It was not the most extreme parties, the German Nationals and the Communists, who profited by the ministerial discontent, but the German People's Party and the Independent Social Democrats.


1920 in Germany, Events, General election
The Majority Social Democrats were still the largest party in the country, as in the house, and secured about 5,500,000 votes—nearly 1,000,000 more than the respective totals of the Independent Social Democrats and the Clericals, whose strength was about equal. The Democrats secured a little over 2,000,000 votes; whilst the two parties of the right together secured over 7,000,000 votes, about equally divided between them.


1920 in Germany, Events, General election
The two parties of the right had increased their total vote by some 3,500,000, and the democratic vote had sunk by about the same number. The total poll of the Majority Social Democrats had sunk by some 5,500,000, whilst the poll of the Minority Social Democrats had risen by more than 2,500,000. When allowance is made for the decrease in the total poll, there was virtually no difference in the Clerical poll, as compared with January 1919. It will be seen that as between the non-Socialists and the Socialists as a whole, the position of the non-Socialists had markedly improved, and they had, in fact, slightly increased their aggregate poll, notwithstanding the diminution of the total number of electors who exercised their rights.


1920 in Germany, Events, New cabinet
Owing to the changes in the relative strength of parties, it was several weeks before a cabinet could be formed; and after several politicians had attempted in vain to form a new cabinet, Konstantin Fehrenbach, one of the most respected leaders of the Clerical Party, succeeded in doing so. What might have been an extremely unstable parliamentary position was avoided by the good sense shown by the German People's Party, who were led by Gustav Stresemann.


1920 in Germany, Events, New cabinet
The German People's Party decided to abandon their position of opposition and their association with the Conservatives, and agreed to unite with the Clericals and Democrats to form a government. The Majority Social Democrats would not actually join a ministry which included the German People's Party, but they agreed to lend the new government their general support in the Reichstag.


1920 in Germany, Events, New cabinet
Thus it came about that twenty months after the revolution an entirely non-Socialist government came into power in Germany, though it was true that the new government depended partly upon the support of the Majority Social Democrats, whose moderation, however, made them more comparable to the Radical-Socialists of France and to Radicals in other countries, than to the Socialist parties of most other countries in Europe. Fehrenbach was born in 1852 and entered the Bavarian parliament as a Catholic and a representative of Freiburg when he was about thirty years of age. He was elected to the Reichstag in 1903 and he became president of that house in 1918. And in 1919 he became president of the National Assembly.


1920 in Germany, Events, New cabinet
Fehrenbach was able to form a strong cabinet from the personal point of view. Rudolf Heinze became vice-chancellor and minister for justice, Dr. Walter Simons became foreign minister, Joseph Wirth became minister of finance, Erich Koch-Weser was minister of the interior, and Johannes Giesberts was minister of posts. Noske was not a member of the new cabinet.


1920 in Germany, Events, New cabinet
The new chancellor made his first declaration to the Reichstag on June 28, and declared that so long as the formerly hostile states refused to modify the Treaty of Versailles, the German government could have no other policy than to endeavour to the best of their ability to carry out the terms of that treaty.


1920 in Germany, Events, Spa conference
At the meeting of the Supreme Council at San Remo in April it was decided to invite the German government to a conference at Spa, in Belgium, in order to settle the questions relating to disarmament and reparations which arose under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. The Spa Conference was held during the first half of July, and Fehrenbach himself attended the conference at which Lloyd George and Millerand were also present.


1920 in Germany, Events, Spa conference
Before going into the conference with the Germans the Allies agreed amongst themselves as to the proportions of the total German reparation which should be allotted to each of the Allied countries. Thus France was to receive 52%, the British Empire 22%, Italy 10%, Belgium 8%, and Serbia 5%, the small remaining proportion to be divided amongst other claimants. Apart from her 8% Belgium was to have the privilege of transferring her entire war debt to Germany's shoulders, and she was also to have a prior claim upon the first £100,000,000 paid by Germany. These proportions were settled, but the total amount to be paid by Germany was not decided.


1920 in Germany, Events, Spa conference
The conference was to have been opened on July 5, and a preliminary sitting was in fact held on that day, but owing to the non-arrival of Otto Gessler, the German minister of defense, it was not possible to proceed with the serious consideration of the first subject on the agenda, which was the question of German disarmament. The conference was held under the presidency of the Belgian prime minister, Léon Delacroix, and the Belgian foreign minister, Paul Hymans, also attended. The British representatives, in addition to Lloyd George himself, were Lord Curzon and Sir Laming Worthington-Evans. The chief Italian representative was Count Sforza, the distinguished and successful foreign minister. The German chancellor was accompanied by Simons and Wirth.


1920 in Germany, Events, Spa conference
On the following day Gessler arrived, and he proceeded at once to make a formal request that the 100,000 men, which was the limit of the German army allowed by the treaty, should continue to be exceeded, on the ground that it was impossible for the government to keep order with such a small force. Lloyd George then explained the reasons for the Allies' anxiety. He said that the treaty allowed Germany 100,000 men, 100,000 rifles, and 2,000 machine guns. Germany, however, still possessed a regular army of 200,000 men, and also possessed 50,000 machine guns, and 12,000 guns.


1920 in Germany, Events, Spa conference
Moreover, she had only surrendered 1,500,000 rifles, although it was obvious that there must be millions of rifles in the country. During the discussions on the following days it transpired from statements made by the chief of the General Staff himself, General von Seeckt, that in addition to the Reichswehr there were various other organized forces in Germany such as the Einwohnerwehr and the Sicherheitspolizei. The Einwohnerwehr alone appear to have numbered over 500,000 men. General von Seeckt proposed that the regular army should be reduced gradually to 100,000 men by October 1921.


1920 in Germany, Events, Spa conference
A discussion upon this matter took place between the Allies, and it was decided that Germany should be given until January 1, 1921, to reduce the strength of the Reichswehr to the treaty figure of 100,000 men. The exact conditions laid down were that Germany should reduce the Reichswehr to 150,000 men by October 1, withdraw the arms of the Einwohnerwehr and the Sicherheitspolizei, and issue a proclamation demanding the surrender of all arms in the hands of the civilian population, with effective penalties in the event of default. On July 9 the German delegates signed the agreement embodying these stipulations in regard to disarmament.


1920 in Germany, Events, Spa conference
The later sittings of the conference were concerned with the question of the trial of the German "war criminals", the delivery of coal as a form of reparation, and various other financial matters. It was the question of coal which required the closest attention, largely owing to the extreme need of France for supplies of coal, and the agreement relating to this matter was signed on July 16. It was decided that for six months after August 1 the German government should deliver up 2,000,000 tons of coal per month.