1870 (magazine), History
The magazine published its first issue as UWeekly on September 21, 2005. At the time, it was met with a chilly reception from Ohio State's official daily student newspaper, The Lantern, where faculty adviser Sonya Humes instituted a policy banning any members of The Lantern from writing for UWeekly. Despite this initial hostility, both publications continue to co-exist relatively peacefully on the Ohio State campus.


1870 (magazine), History
In 2014, UWeekly became the country's only weekly college publication to publish in a glossy, magazine format.


1870 (magazine), History
In January 2016, the magazine was renamed to 1870 Magazine. The January 2016 issue was labeled the "Inaugural Issue"; however, the magazine's website, 1870 Now, remains at uweekly.com.


1870 (magazine), Content
The sections of UWeekly include Campus News, Ohio State Sports, The Hookup (Entertainment) and Music and are included in the paper weekly. Each edition of the paper also includes an Opinion page, Instagram photos #asseenoncampus, an event calendar and a Fashion column.


1870 Alabama gubernatorial election
The 1870 Alabama gubernatorial election took place on November 8, 1870, in order to elect the Governor of Alabama. Incumbent Republican William Hugh Smith was narrowly defeated by Democrat Robert B. Lindsay.


1870 Alabama gubernatorial election
The run-up to the election was marred by political and racist terrorism by the Ku Klux Klan, in support of Lindsay. This violence included the lynching of four blacks and a white in Calhoun County, the murder of two blacks (one a Republican politician) in Greene County, and the October Eutaw massacre.


1870 Alabama gubernatorial election
In Greene County, for instance, the violence in Eutaw is credited with swaying the vote in that county toward Lindsay: in the 1868 presidential election, Greene County had voted for Ulysses S. Grant by a margin of 2,000 votes; in the 1870 gubernatorial election it voted for Robert B. Lindsay by a margin of 43.


1870 America's Cup
The 1870 America's Cup was the first America's Cup to be hosted in the United States, and the first "America's Cup" due to the trophy being renamed from the 100 Guineas Cup of 1851. It was the first competition after the founding of the "America's Cup" event with the deed of gift in 1857.


1870 America's Cup
James Lloyd Ashbury's yacht Cambria sailed to New York on behalf of the Royal Thames Yacht Club.


1870 America's Cup
The New York Yacht Club entered 17 schooners, and the race was won by Franklin Osgood's Magic.


1870 Atlantic hurricane season
The 1870 Atlantic hurricane season lasted from mid-summer to late-fall and comprised one tropical storm and ten hurricanes, two of which became major hurricanes, (Category 3+). However, in the absence of modern satellite and other remote-sensing technologies, only storms that affected populated land areas or encountered ships at sea were recorded, so the actual total could be higher. An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910 has been estimated.


1870 Atlantic hurricane season, Season summary
The Atlantic hurricane database (HURDAT) recognizes eleven tropical cyclones for the 1870 season. Ten storms attained hurricane status, with winds of 75 mph (119 km/h) or greater. Of the eleven Atlantic cyclones known for 1870 only three made landfall. Although Hurricane One caused damage in Alabama, the storm centre may not have crossed the coastline. Hurricane Nine made landfalls in both Cuba and Florida. Hurricane Two and Tropical Storm Three were both active in the first week of September but neither made landfall, although Hurricane Two did come close to the Newfoundland coastline.


1870 Atlantic hurricane season, Season summary
Later that month two more hurricanes were seen in the western Atlantic. Hurricane Four was an intense category three cyclone while Hurricane Five was a weaker category one storm. More notable was Hurricane Six. This hurricane, known as the Hurricane of San Marcos or the Straits of Florida Hurricane, caused massive flooding in Cuba and south Florida, resulting in 2,000 casualties  and at least $12 million in damages. Hurricanes Seven and Eight were also active in the first half of October, both in the mid-Atlantic. Hurricane Nine made landfalls in both Cuba and Florida and was responsible for some 52 deaths. Hurricane Ten was sighted on October 23 near the Turks and Caicos Islands. The last cyclone of the year, Hurricane Eleven made landfall in Belize.


1870 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane One
The first officially recognized tropical cyclone of 1870 made landfall near Mobile, Alabama, on July 30, though little is known about its genesis or track. According to one report, barometric pressure fell to 931 mbar (27.5 inHg), but this is considered dubious. The storm's passage was brief, with the strongest winds confined to a period of about two hours in the early afternoon. Storm surge flooding damaged coastal installations along the shores of Mobile Bay, and several steamboats were either sunk or blown ashore. The winds uprooted trees, damaged roofs, and severed telegraph wires throughout Mobile. At the height of the storm, a floating dry dock broke free from its moorings and traveled about 8 mi (13 km) up the Mobile River, crushing wharves and boats along its path. Overall, damage from the storm amounted to an estimated $200,000 (1870 USD).


1870 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Two
A tropical storm formed on August 30. The storm moved northwest towards the United States, before it peaked as a Category 2 hurricane. The storm then curved back to the northeast. It travelled parallel to the coast of Nova Scotia until it was last seen on September 4 near Newfoundland.


1870 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Tropical Storm Three
A tropical storm was detected to the west of Cape Verde on September 1. Tracking westward, it was encountered by another ship on September 4. The storm's subsequent progress is unknown.


1870 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Four
This hurricane was first encountered by a ship about 260 mi (420 km) northeast of San Juan, Puerto Rico, on September 9. The storm tracked generally northward, and on September 10, it passed 90 mi (140 km) west of Bermuda. There, the storm produced tropical storm-force winds that extensively damaged banana and other fruit trees. Based on a central barometric pressure reading of 948 mbar (28.0 inHg) from the brig Lizzie M. Morrell, the storm is believed to have achieved major hurricane intensity. Curving northeastward, the hurricane underwent extratropical transition by September 13.


1870 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Five
Numerous ships in the western Atlantic reported stormy weather from September 17 through 20. By weighting these reports according to their credibility and consistency, Partagás was able to construct an approximate recurving track for the hurricane. As the system accelerated northeastward, it probably transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 19.


1870 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Six
First Key West Hurricane of 1870 or Hurricane of San Marcos of 1870


1870 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Six
On October 5, a tropical storm developed south of Haiti. It moved west-northwest, becoming a hurricane south of Cuba on October 6. The hurricane rapidly strengthened to Category 3 with peak winds of 115 mph (185 km/h) prior to hitting Matanzas, Cuba on October 7. After crossing Cuba, the hurricane moved slowly northeastward through the Florida Straits generating Category 1 winds over the Florida Keys. It moved out to sea, last being seen on October 14.


1870 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Six
The combination of sustained high winds, intensive rainfall and two rivers, the San Juan and the Yumuri, bursting their banks destroyed the city and caused the loss of some 800 lives. 1,200 people died in Cuba; It was one of the deadliest hurricanes on record. Damage was estimated at over $12 million (USD).


1870 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Seven
On October 7, a ship, the Horatio Harris, reported a hurricane several hundred miles west of the Cape Verde Islands; this appears to be the only known record of the storm. Partagás considered that the system may have been related to the subsequent tropical cyclone over the northern Atlantic, but determined this to be unlikely, given the rapid speed at which it would have needed to travel.


1870 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Eight
A hurricane was first detected on October 10, more than 800 miles to the east of Bermuda. Based on reports from several ships, it headed east-northeastward over the following day. Little else is known about its track.


1870 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Nine
On October 19 a hurricane was discovered in the Caribbean. The next day it made a landfall in western Cuba as a Category 2 hurricane, causing severe damage in Batabanó and Vuelta Abajo. Later on the 20th, it made landfall in Florida as a Category 1 hurricane. The centre of the hurricane passed over the Dry Tortugas, producing heavy rainfall. It later hit Chokoloskee, crossed the state, and moved out to sea. It eventually dissipated on October 22. Hurricane Nine was responsible for 52 fatalities.


1870 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Ten
Several ships north of Cuba and Hispaniola reported a hurricane on October 23 and 24. No further details about this storm are known.


1870 Atlantic hurricane season, Systems, Hurricane Eleven
The final storm of the season originated from an area of unsettled weather that began affecting ships in the western Caribbean Sea on October 27. It organized into a tropical cyclone several days later, and maritime reports suggest that it achieved minimal hurricane intensity. The hurricane probably curved northward and weakened upon reaching the mountainous terrain of the Yucatán Peninsula. On November 3, a ship encountered the storm at hurricane intensity in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress
The 1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress (officially: First Spanish Workers' Congress) was a congress that brought together, from 18 to 26 June 1870, 89 delegates from workers' societies in Barcelona and in which the Spanish Regional Federation of the International Workingmen's Association (FRE-AIT) was founded. It is considered the founding act of anarchism in Spain.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Background
The Revolution of September 1868 opened a period of freedom in which workers' societies were able to emerge from the secrecy in which they had lived for most of the reign of Isabella II. In October the Provisional Government decreed freedom of association and that same month the Central Directorate of the Workers' Societies was founded in Barcelona, into which those that had subsisted during the clandestinity and other new ones that had survived were integrated. In December 1868 the Central Directorate held a Workers' Congress in which they were represented 61 societies. Among its leaders were men who would later become prominent figures of the FRE-AIT: Rafael Farga and Antonio Marsal Anglora, appointed secretaries of the organization; and Juan Nuet, Jaime Balasch, Clement Bové and Juan Fargas.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Background
Although the AIT founded in London in 1864 was already known in Barcelona, direct contact with it came through the Italian Giuseppe Fanelli, sent by Mikhail Bakunin, who arrived in Barcelona at the end of October 1868 where he met with the leaders of the Central Directorate. After passing through Tarragona, Tortosa and Valencia, accompanied by Élie Reclus, Arístides Rey, Fernando Garrido and José María Orense, Fanelli went to Madrid where he arrived on November 4th.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Background
There he held a first meeting at the home of the lithographer Julián Rubao Donadeu with the group of workers who frequented the cultural group "Fomento de las Artes". From there the initial nucleus of the International emerged in Madrid, made up of twenty-one people: five construction painters, four typographers —one of them Anselmo Lorenzo -, two tailors, two engravers —one of them Tomás González Morago -, two shoemakers, a carpenter, a gilder, a lithographer, a rope maker, a horseman and a journalist. The group was formed on 24 January 1869 but it would not officially become the Madrid section of the AIT until December of that year.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Background
Fanelli provided them with official documents from the International but also from the International Alliance of Socialist Democracy, the secret anarchist organization created in September 1868 by Bakunin. In December the Alliance had seen its request for membership in the AIT denied but Fanelli was unaware of it when he formed the International group, of which eight of its members also joined the Alliance, without being aware that what it was advocating was contrary to what was approved by the International, influenced by the ideas of Karl Marx.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Background
While the International had agreed at its 2nd Congress "that the social emancipation of the workers is inseparable from their political emancipation" and "that the establishment of political freedoms is a principal measure of absolute necessity", the Alliance rejected "all revolutionary action that does not have as an immediate and direct objective the triumph of the cause of the workers against capital" and advocated the disappearance of the State, replaced by the "universal union of free associations."


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Background
At the beginning of 1869 Fanelli arrived in Barcelona where he gathered a group of more than twenty workers in the workshop of the painter José Luis Pellicer, uncle of the typographer Rafael Farga, general secretary of the Federal Center for Workers' Societies and of the Catalan Athenaeum of the Working Class. The group became a Barcelona section of the AIT in May 1869, seven months before the Madrid section. In both cases with the same confusion between the International and the Alliance, as if they were the same thing.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Background
"Thus, the first Spanish affiliates to the AIT believed that the program of the Bakuninist secret society (suppression of the State, rejection of parliamentary politics, abolition of social classes and collectivization of property) coincided with the principles of the First International". This "combination sui generis of Alliance principles and the International" would mark a particular course for anarchist socialism in Spain, providing it with an ideological amalgam that, strictly speaking, was not that of the International Workers' Association. In addition, these first groups were endowed with a double organizational level: one public and the other secret.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Background
However, the majority of the corporate movement continued to support federal republicanism, although the failure of the insurrection of September and October 1869, as well as the failure to fulfill the promises of the Provisional Government to suppress consumption and Fifths, the "anti-political" sentiment grew, which led the internationalists to intensify their propaganda campaign against the Republican Party and against workers' participation in the elections. The harsh police repression that was unleashed on the occasion of the "mutiny against the fifths" in Barcelona in April 1870 also helped to spread their proposals of antipoliticism at the first Spanish labor congress, which took place in Barcelona in June of that year.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Call
In January 1870, the Madrid group, which already had 23 office sections, brought out the newspaper La Solidaridad, whose writing staff included Vicente López, Hipólito Pauly, Máximo Ambau, Juan Alcázar, Anselmo Lorenzo, Francisco Mora and Tomás González Morago.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Call
In its 12 February issue, La Solidaridad proposed holding a workers 'congress in Madrid on the first Sunday of the month of May - which it invited to attend "all the workers' societies, constituted or in project, adhered or not to the International, but that are in accordance with its general statutes", but the Barcelona section claimed that the capital had few workers' societies, and the newspaper La Federación proposed that federal centers be consulted, organizing a vote in which affiliates from 26 towns throughout Spain participated.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Call
Barcelona won, which obtained 10,030 votes, while Madrid obtained 3,370, with far behind: Zaragoza (694 votes), Valencia (648), Reus (20) and Alcázar de San Juan (8). Thus, it was decided that the Congress would be held in Barcelona instead of Madrid because most of the 149 workers' societies that had taken the initiative - and that had 15,216 associates— were Catalan.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Call
The scheduled date of the first Sunday in May was postponed due to the declaration of the state of siege in Barcelona due to the "mutiny of the fifths" that had broken out that spring.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Call
At the beginning of June, a few days before the start of the Congress, the Madrid Section approved the following resolution, clearly Bakuninist: "it is advised that the International completely separate itself from everything that could have a bourgeois political character".


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
The congress began its sessions on 18 June 1870, according to Josep Termes, or on 19 June, according to Manuel Tuñón de Lara, at the Teatro Circo in Barcelona. 89 delegates attended, 74 from Catalan workers' societies -33 from the textile sector and the rest from pre-industrial trades such as tailors, shoemakers or bricklayers-, who would represent 15,000 members. In addition to the Catalans, there were delegations from the Balearic Islands, Valencia, Alcoy, Cartagena, Malaga, Arahal, Jerez de la Frontera, Cádiz, Ezcaray, Valladolid, etc.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
On many occasions the representation of societies outside Catalonia was held by members of the Federal Center of Barcelona - Farga Pellicer himself represented the Center of Cartagena and the tailors, bakers and painters of Cádiz. The presidency was initially held by Farga Pellicer but he handed it over to André Bastelica, a French refugee who a year later would participate in the Paris Commune. The first two days were dedicated to the delegations presenting the situation of their organizations and workers in their localities. According to one of the attendees later, during those first two sessions:


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
many delegates took the floor to give an account of the moral and material state of the working class in their respective localities, the whole presenting a heartbreaking picture of the mistreatment, penalties and miseries under which the class was overwhelmed worker. This was a tremendous accusation leveled against bourgeois society by the victims of its iniquitous exploitation.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
From the first session, the congress appeared attached to the International Workingmen's Association. This was stated by Farga Pellicer in the opening speech: "you come here to affirm the great work of the International Workers' Association ... which contains in itself the complete emancipation of the proletariat ... [ and] under whose banner they are already sheltering of three million workers, white slaves and black slaves." At the end of the Congress Francisco Tomás Oliver spoke to those gathered as "delegates of the Spanish sections of the International Workingmen's Association."


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
Three currents were represented in Congress: the Bakuninists which was antipolitical, anti-state, collectivist and only relatively favorable to the development of the workers' societies; the trade unionists, subdivided into a "apolitical" and a "political" trend, the latter in favor of continuing to participate in the federal republican movement; and the cooperativists, little interested in the declaration of strikes.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
Four major issues were discussed in the Congress. The first was union action - "the resistance" - on which the need to create workers' societies and to declare vindictive strikes - at this point the Bakuninists accepted the postulates of the trade unionists and thus easily defeated the cooperative sector - although the latter were not considered an end in themselves but a means to advance towards the social revolution and thus achieve "The complete emancipation of the working classes" carried out by themselves.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
With this agreement, approved by 47 votes to 2 and 23 abstentions, "the resistance ceased to be an attitude of socio-professional type, to become socio-political, although the expression "politics" was so repugnant to those men". "A new type of union action was imposed, the "solidarity resistance", which meant overcoming the old "societarism" in which each workers' society was solely responsible for its own strikes, which it had to finance with its own funds." This was explained by one of the drafters of the opinion, the Bakuninist Anselmo Lorenzo:


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
So it is not about organizing resistance societies that only have relationships between the individuals that make up society, it is about bringing together the same interests between the different societies that can be founded in a locality In other words, it is about organizing the resistance by associating all the workers...


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
The second topic was cooperatives. At this point the cooperatives were defeated again, since only the existence of the consumer cooperatives was accepted, but not the production cooperatives. Thus, "cooperation was subordinated to the initiation of the workers and to the propaganda for the repeated general emancipation". As has been pointed out Josep Termes, "Cooperativism as a formula for social emancipation suffered, at the Barcelona congress, a severe blow for which it was not compensated." The Bakuninist Tomás said:


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
I think it has been said that cooperation was a direct means to reach the complete and radical emancipation of the working class, with which I am not satisfied ... I believe that so that the workers can reach their full and radical emancipation it is necessary to make a Social Revolution.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
The third great subject treated in the Congress was the one of the social organization of the workers. It was agreed that the base would be constituted by local trade unions, which in turn would federate with those of the same branch of other towns. The resulting federation would be the one that would direct the protest actions.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
Likewise, the trade unions of the same locality would be grouped to form a local workers' federation, which in turn would join the rest of the local federations to constitute the Regional Federation, which would be integrated into the International Workingmen's Association (AIT), whose objective "is to reach the social revolution as soon as possible to achieve the economic and social emancipation of the workers."


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
"The strict anarchists considered that these local and regional federations were the embryos of the future management bodies of the municipalities and the country, and that they foreshadowed the instruments of government that were to be implemented when the State and private property were abolished and collective property would have been established”. The cooperative members presented an alternative reformist opinion calling for the formation of mixed juries, cooperatives, workers' credit unions and the intervention of the State to tackle the social question, but it was defeated. An Andalusian Bakuninist answered them:


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
What brothers! Do you want to join the state when we propose its destruction? ... It seems to me not, because you say in your writing, that in this way we will obtain our emancipation. But do you hope that the state will succumb to give us life? [ ...] All the concessions that we have taken from the state have been truncated; they have been temporary flatteries to contain our most radical aspirations that have to ask for their annihilation ... He has given us, I say, universal suffrage and he is, according to the writing that I fight is clear, the powerful weapon that is wielded by we will give us victory. And what is universal suffrage? A sarcasm for the worker, as long as there is no social equality.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
The fourth and last topic was undoubtedly the most controversial and to which the most time was devoted. It was about determining the attitude to be maintained towards politics. The Bakuninists - who had prepared the proposals in previous secret meetings of the Alliance - tried to convince the "political" union delegates and cooperativists of the virtues of "anti-politicalism" but they continued to defend the Federal Republic.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
In the end, a somewhat ambiguous agreement was reached in which "antipoliticism (that is, global and systematic opposition to political parties, elections and parliaments) was not clearly defined, but rather apoliticalism that, by recommending to the Workers' societies that renounce politics, as collectives, did not impede the political action of their members if they were considered individually.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
The agreement was actually the result of the acceptance by the Bakuninists of the "apoliticism" of the trade unionists who defended that politics should be left out of the internal debate of the workers' societies, in order to group all the workers that they had regardless of ideas, and it meant the defeat of the "political" syndicalists favorable to federal republicanism. Thus, as Josep Termes has pointed out, "the Barcelona Congress did not exactly produce the victory of Bakuninist antipoliticism, but rather that of a coalition of anarchists and apolitical syndicalists".


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
The minority that spoke out against the ruling and defended political participation used arguments such as the following:


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
To successively achieve protection from the state, I believe that we workers must take part in the elections of the municipalities, in the elections of the provincial councils, and even more so in those of deputies to the Cortes, electing workers or people who by their ideas they are known protectors of the working class; because it is clear, citizens, that if the capitalists and the privileged make the laws, they will always make them in their favor, while if the workers took part in the formation of these laws, they would certainly make them in our favor. This is why I believe that workers should take a more active part in these elections.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
The federal republican newspaper La Campana de Gràcia described the delegates who voted in favor of apoliticism as "imbeciles or traitors to the cause of the worker."


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
Francesc Tomàs Oliver thus valued this point in his Historical notes on the birth of anarcho-collectivist ideas in Spain published in La Revista Social between 1883 and 1885:


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
The Barcelona Congress… was the first where the anarcho-collectivist ideas were proclaimed by some 50 of the 85 delegates who took part in its deliberations. [ … ] A part of the delegates who voted with the majority understood that as a society, as a corporation, they should not engage in bourgeois or parliamentary politics, but as individuals they could join any of the political parties. This false interpretation led to many of the internationalists at critical moments being more friends with the bourgeois parties than with that association. [


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
…] When this was held, the federalists exercised a lot of influence and, for some delegates like the Bochons and the Nuet to vote the opinion on the attitude of the International in relation to politics, it was necessary to delete from the preamble the phrases most combative against the Federal Party.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
A Federal Council made up of members of the Madrid section was elected because it was decided to locate its headquarters there. This is how Anselmo Lorenzo, Tomás González Morago, Enrique Borrel, Francisco Mora and Ángel Mora were elected.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
According to Josep Termes, the fact that the Council was not based in Barcelona, as would have been the logical thing to do since it was "the stronghold of workers", possibly due to the fact that most of the delegates from Catalan societies - some 40 out of a total of 74 - had not supported the "apolitical" radical line approved in Congress. This is what would also explain why the following congresses were not held in Barcelona or Catalonia, but in Zaragoza, Córdoba and Madrid, "cities that at that time were hardly relevant in terms of the labor movement".


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
After having decided to hold the next one in Valencia, the congress closed on Saturday 25 June, with a series of events being held the following day, Sunday. At eight o'clock in the morning a parade began with the AIT banner in front, which bore the phrase "No more rights without duties, no more duties without rights", followed by a rally attended by some 10,000 workers that Farga Pellicer closed alluding to "the great work of the International" since "only the Social Revolution could achieve our social emancipation."


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
Shortly afterwards these verses circulated calling on the workers to join the AIT:


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Development
The hour of justice sounds, the symbol of radical reform;  our shield by currency, let it be the International. We will have our shadow sheltered by peace, attention:  that we are going to found, brothers, and our Emancipation.


1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress, Consequences
Not all the workers' societies existing in Spain at the time — some 195 that had about 25,000 members — were integrated into the Spanish Regional Federation of the IWA. Its membership ranged from a minimum of 1,764 in April 1871 to 15,000 in August 1872, making it one of the most important regional federations of the International. The local federations — 13 and 33 in the process of being established — were very unequal in terms of the number of members — the Barcelona one reached 6,000 members, while the Madrid one never exceeded 200.


1870 Barcelona yellow fever epidemic
The 1870 Barcelona yellow fever epidemic was an epidemic that took place in the Spanish city of Barcelona in 1870.


1870 Barcelona yellow fever epidemic, History
This yellow fever epidemic was concentrated in the second half of the year 1870, from August to the end of the year. There were a total of 1235 deaths. Half a century earlier, another epidemic of the same disease had taken place, which had killed an estimated 3,251, 6,244, or more than 8,000 people.


1870 Birthday Honours
The 1870 Birthday Honours were appointments by Queen Victoria to various orders and honours to reward and highlight good works by citizens of the British Empire. The appointments were made to celebrate the official birthday of the Queen, and were published in The London Gazette on 31 May 1870.


1870 Birthday Honours
The recipients of honours are displayed here as they were styled before their new honour, and arranged by honour, with classes (Knight, Knight Grand Cross, etc.) and then divisions (Military, Civil, etc.) as appropriate.


1870 Boston mayoral election
The Boston mayoral election of 1870 saw the election of William Gaston.


1870 Braidwood colonial by-election
A by-election was held for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly electorate of Braidwood on 17 October 1870 because the elections and qualifications committee declared the election of Michael Kelly to be void.


1870 Brecon by-election
The Brecon by-election of 1870 was fought on 13 June 1870. The by-election was fought due to the Succession to a peerage of the incumbent MP of the Liberal Party, Lord Hyde. It was won by the Conservative candidate James Gwynne-Holford.


1870 Bridgnorth by-election
The Bridgnorth by-election of 1870 was fought on 16 February 1870. The by-election was fought due to the resignation of the incumbent Conservative MP  Henry Whitmore. It was won by the unopposed Liberal candidate William Henry Foster. The Liberals would hold their gain at the 1874 general election.


1870 Bruce by-election
The 1870 Bruce by-election was held on 21 March 1870 in the Bruce electorate after the resignation of John Cargill during the 4th Parliament.


1870 Bruce by-election
Brown was nominated by John Lillie Gillies and seconded by Henry Clark; 25 electors were present. As there was only one nomination, he was declared elected unopposed.


1870 Caversham by-election
The 1870 Caversham by-election was a by-election held  on 25 April 1870 in the Caversham electorate in the Otago region of New Zealand during the 4th New Zealand Parliament.


1870 Caversham by-election
The by-election was caused by the resignation of the incumbent Arthur John Burns, on 25 March 1870.


1870 Caversham by-election
The by-election was won by James McIndoe. He was opposed by: William Cutten, John Graham and William Robertson.


1870 City of Christchurch by-election
The 1870 City of Christchurch by-election was a by-election held on 12 August 1870 during the 4th New Zealand Parliament in the Christchurch electorate of Christchurch.


1870 City of Christchurch by-election
The by-election was caused by the resignation of the incumbent MP William Travers.


1870 City of Christchurch by-election
On the appointed day William Sefton Moorhouse was nominated, and as there were no other nominations he was declared elected. He then made a speech which one report said contained "nothing of importance".


1870 Clermont colonial by-election
The Clermont colonial by-election, 1870 was a by-election held on 4 May 1870 in the electoral district of Clermont for the Queensland Legislative Assembly.


1870 Clermont colonial by-election, History
On 4 April 1870, Oscar de Satge, member for the Clermont resigned. John Robinson Benson won the resulting by-election on 4 May 1870.


1870 Colchester by-election
The Colchester by-election of 1870 was held on 3 November 1870. The byelection was fought due to the death of the incumbent Liberal MP, John Gurdon Rebow.


1870 Colchester by-election
The Liberal candidate was Sir Henry Storks, a strong supporter of the controversial Contagious Diseases Acts which provided for compulsory inspection and medical treatment of prostitutes in garrison towns, including Colchester. Opponents of the legislation, including Josephine Butler, supported a rival Liberal Baxter Langley, and used the election in their campaign for repeal. Langley withdrew on election day and the Conservative candidate Alexander Learmonth of Edinburgh, gained the seat convincingly. The gain was retained at the subsequent general election.


1870 Colombian presidential election
Presidential elections were held in the United States of Colombia in 1870. The result was a victory for Eustorgio Salgar of the Liberal Party.


1870 Colombian presidential election, Electoral system
The 1863 constitution changed the electoral system from a direct vote to an indirect vote. The President was now elected on the basis of which candidate received the most votes in each state, with a candidate required to win in at least five of the nine states to be elected. If no candidate received a majority, Congress would elect the President from the main contenders.


1870 Columbia football team
The 1870 Columbia football team represented Columbia University in the 1870 college football season. They finished with a 0–1 record.


1870 Connecticut gubernatorial election
The 1870 Connecticut gubernatorial election was held on April 4, 1870. It was the third consecutive contest between the same two major party nominees. Former governor and Democratic nominee James E. English defeated incumbent governor and Republican nominee Marshall Jewell with 50.48% of the vote.


1870 Costa Rican coup d'état
The coup d'état of April 27, 1870 in Costa Rica was a coup implemented by the military leadership led by Tomás Guardia Gutiérrez and it established, to a large extent, the inauguration of the Liberal State. It also enacted the Costa Rican Constitution of 1871, the longest in Costa Rican history as it remained in force until 1948.


1870 Costa Rican coup d'état
The coup overthrew the de facto president Jesús Jiménez Zamora and was originally set by former president José María Montealegre Fernández, who aspired the return to power by force. A group of soldiers led by the Guardia clandestinely entered the Army Headquarters, then see of the army and took control of it. However, Guardia did not hand over power to Montealegre but to Bruno Carranza who soon afterwards resigns and the Guardia-dominated Congress appoints Guardia directly. Guardia was very popular among the military, especially for his heroic performance in the Filibuster War.


1870 Costa Rican coup d'état
While Montealegre and Jiménez both belonged to the group of antimoristas who had overthrown and executed the hero of the Filibuster War, Juan Rafael Mora Porras, as well as sought to erase his memory of Costa Rican history, Guardia on the contrary had been Morista himself and after the coup he took enormous efforts to connect his own figure and government with that of Mora.


1870 Costa Rican coup d'état
Guard did not belong to the powerful Costa Rican coffee oligarchy, a political elite that had ruled continuously until then. His power was maintained only by the loyal support he had of the troops. Immediately after the coup, Guardia would convene a Constituent Assembly that drafted a new constitution, highly progressive for the time and with strong liberal roots. He abolished the death penalty and torture, "desoligarquized" the political system and carried out many infrastructure works.


1870 Costa Rican coup d'état
The date of the coup was commemorated every year under his regime using music bands that roamed the country, with civic acts in the municipal councils of each provincial capital, military parades, a mass and banquet. Guard would rule as strong man of the country directly or through front men until his death in 1882.


1870 Costa Rican presidential referendum
A referendum on appointing Tomás Guardia Gutiérrez as President with special powers was held in Costa Rica on 8 August 1870. It was approved, and Gutiérrez assumed the presidency on 11 September.


1870 Costa Rican presidential referendum, Background
On 27 April 1870 Gutiérrez had been one of a group of army officers who had deposed President Jesús Jiménez Zamora. Bruno Carranza had become president, but Gutiérrez had held real power. After three months, he replaced Carranza.


1870 Costa Rican presidential referendum, Aftermath
On 15 October 1871 Gutiérrez convened a Constitutional Council, which adopted a new constitution on 7 December. It allowed for the election of a military person as President. Gutiérrez subsequently remained in office until his death in 1882.


1870 Dalmatian parliamentary election
Parliamentary elections were held in the Kingdom of Dalmatia in 1870.


1870 Dalmatian parliamentary election, Members of parliament, Autonomists
Vincenzo Alesani, Antonio Bajamonti, Cosimo de Begna Possedaria (1870–1873), Natale Filippi (1870–1873), Gaetano Frari, Matteo Gligo, Stefano Knezevich, Andrea Krussevich (1872–1873 and 1875–1876), Francesco Lanza (1870–1874), Luigi Lapenna (1872–1873), Pietro Doimo Maupas, Luigi Mery, Francesco Milcovich (1874–1876), Giuseppe Mladineo (1871–1874), Luigi Nutrizio (1875–1876), Giuseppe Piperata (1871–1873), Valerio Ponte (1870–1870), Giuseppe Radman (1874–1876), Simeone Rossignoli (1874–1876), Niccolò Trigari (1874–1876), Vincenzo Vuletich (1871–1876).


1870 Delaware gubernatorial election
The 1870 Delaware gubernatorial election was held on November 8, 1870. Incumbent Democratic Governor Gove Saulsbury was unable to seek re-election. Former State Senator James Ponder ran as the Democratic candidate to succeed Saulsbury and faced Republican nominee Thomas B. Coursey. As Black Delawareans gained the right to vote, Republicans were confident about their chances, and the Democratic Party responded by presenting itself as the "white man's party." Ponder ultimately defeated Coursey by a wide margin, in part because of low Black turnout and a racist backlash against Black suffrage.


1870 Delaware gubernatorial election, Bibliography
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1870 Dominican Republic annexation referendum
A referendum on annexation by the United States was held in the Dominican Republic on 19 February 1870. The proposal was approved by 99.93% of voters, although turnout was just 30%. However, the United States Senate rejected the annexation on 30 June 1870 with a 28–28 vote.


1870 Dominican Republic annexation referendum, Background
The Dominican Republic originally became independent from Haiti in 1844 following the War of Independence. However, in 1861 the country was occupied by Spain following an inflation crisis. In 1865 the country became independent again following the Restoration War.


1870 Dominican Republic annexation referendum, Background
By 1870 the country had significant debts caused by the ongoing Six Years' War. President Buenaventura Báez planned on selling the Samaná Peninsula to the United States for $1.1 million, whilst US President Ulysses S. Grant wanted to annex the entire country. A treaty was signed between the two countries on 29 November 1869. The US would purchase the Dominican Republic for $1.5 million and would lease the Samaná Peninsula for $147,229.91 for 99 years.


1870 Dominican Republic annexation referendum, Background
On 16 February Báez ordered a referendum to be held in the form of a register. Eleven votes against were ordered so as to make the results seem plausible.


1870 Dublin City by-election
The Dublin City by-election of 1870 was fought on 18 August 1870. The by-election was fought due to the void election of the incumbent MP of the Conservative Party, Sir Arthur Edward Guinness. The election was voided because of his election agent's unlawful efforts, which the court found were unknown to the candidate.


1870 Dublin City by-election
It was won by the Liberal candidate Sir Dominic John Corrigan.


1870 Dublin City by-election
Corrigan did not stand for re-election in 1874; his support for temperance and Sunday closing (of pubs) is thought to have antagonised his constituents and alcohol companies. Guinness was re-elected in 1874.


1870 Dublin University by-election
The Dublin University by-election of 1870 was fought on 14 February 1870. The by-election was fought due to the resignation of the incumbent Conservative MP Anthony Lefroy. It was won by the unopposed Conservative candidate David Robert Plunket.


1870 East Devon by-election
The East Devon by-election of 1870 was fought on 9 April 1870. The by-election was fought due to the resignation of the incumbent Conservative MP Lord Courtenay. It was won unopposed by the Conservative candidate John Henry Kennaway.


1870 East Moreton colonial by-election
The East Moreton colonial by-election, 1870 was a by-election held on 19 February 1870 in the electoral district of East Moreton for the Queensland Legislative Assembly.


1870 East Moreton colonial by-election, History
On 17 February 1870, Arthur Francis, member for East Moreton, resigned due to insolvency. On the nomination day for the by-election, 19 February 1870, there were two candidatesRobert Travers Atkin and Robert Cribb (who had previously represented the electorate from 1863 to 1867). In his nomination speech, Atkin made accusations against Cribb, who replied vigorously defending himself. The somewhat unexpected outcome of this verbal exchange was that Cribb announced he would withdraw his nomination. Cribb said that if Atkin believed he could represent them so well, the best thing they could do would be to let him try, predicting that Atkin would either resign or be asked to resign within six months. Being the only remaining candidate, Atkin was declared elected.


1870 East Moreton colonial by-election, History
Cribb's six-month prediction did not come true. However, Atkin did not complete his term, as he resigned on 7 March 1872 due to serious ill health (pulmonary tuberculosis) and died soon after.


1870 East Suffolk by-election
The 1870 East Suffolk by-election was held on 1 June 1870 after the incumbent Conservative MP John Henniker-Major was raised to the peerage as the fifth Baron Henniker. It was retained by the Conservative candidate Viscount Mahon.


1870 East Suffolk by-election
This was the seventh time that the Liberal candidate, Sir Shafto Adair, had been defeated in East Suffolk, although there had earlier been some speculation that he would be returned unopposed.


1870 East Sydney colonial by-election
A by-election was held for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly electorate of East Sydney on 23 February 1870 because Henry Parkes had also been elected to Kiama and chose to resign from East Sydney.


1870 English cricket season
1870 was the 84th season of cricket in England since the foundation of Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC). It was in many ways a bridge between two eras of the game and, in a summer comparable for hot and dry weather to 1887, 1911, 1976 or 1995, saw W.G. Grace for the second of three successive years establish a record run aggregate, late-blooming slow bowler James Southerton become the first bowler to take 200 first-class wickets in a season and the first use of the heavy roller at Lord's.


1870 English cricket season
Although the heavy roller had been patented several decades earlier, its use was never seriously considered by MCC management despite many protests over the danger posed by the Lord's pitch where extremely frequent “shooters” alternated with balls that “flew” over the batsman's head. These dangerous pitches were viewed as a symbol of virility by many amateur batsmen, however; though when remembering one of W.G.’s finest innings – 66 on one of the roughest Lord’s pitches against a very strong Yorkshire attack against Yorkshire – fast bowlers Freeman and Emmett wondered how the champion was not maimed or killed outright.


1870 English cricket season
An unfortunate accident to George Summers which led to his death from head injuries four days after being hit by a sharply rising ball from John Platts that had struck a loose pebble showed that in its first year the heavy roller had not radically altered the Lord’s pitch; though it was to do so from the following season


1870 English cricket season
A number of thrilling finishes occurred, most famously the University Match where a hat-trick by Frank Cobden gave Cambridge the match when Oxford looked certain to win.


1870 English cricket season, Notes
Cambridgeshire, though still regarded in 1870 as first-class, played no inter-county matches


1870 Fijian general election
Abortive elections to a Corporation of European settlers were held in Fiji in 1870.


1870 Fijian general election, Background
The European settlers in Fiji had been seeking to form some kind of government for several years. A leaflet was distributed at a meeting in Levuka on 14 April 1870 proposing the creation of a governing committee. A committee was subsequently set up to produce a constitution, which was published in May 1870. It proposed a Corporation in which each district would be represented by a number of delegates proportion to its European population. Its first meeting was to be held on 16 June.


1870 Fijian general election, Aftermath
As no representatives had been elected from the Northern  Viti Levu, Taveuni, Vanua Levu or Western Viti Levu, the elected members of the Corporation stated that felt they could not make decisions on any matter that would affect the entire European community. Some delegates stated that they were uncertain of what powers they had and that not enough time had been provided to enrol voters.


1870 Fijian general election, Aftermath
In August, it was reported in the Fiji Times that the Corporation had been disbanded due to lack of support.


1870 French constitutional referendum
A constitutional referendum was held in France on 8 May 1870. Voters were asked whether they approved of the liberal reforms made to the constitution since 1860 and passed by the Sénatus-consulte on 20 April 1870. The changes were approved by 82.7% of voters with an 81.3% turnout. However, France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War caused the Empire to be abolished later that year. Despite this being the ninth constitutional referendum in French history, it was the first to have more than 8% oppose the motion, and one of only four to that point to have less than 99% official approval.


1870 Glaukos
1870 Glaukos /ˈɡlɔːkəs/ is a mid-sized Jupiter trojan from the Trojan camp, approximately 47 kilometers (29 miles) in diameter. Discovered during the first Palomar–Leiden Trojan survey in 1971, it was later named for Glaucus from Greek mythology. The dark D-type asteroid has a rotation period of 6.0 hours.


1870 Glaukos, Discovery
Glaukos was discovered on 24 March 1971, by Dutch astronomer couple Ingrid and Cornelis van Houten at Leiden, on photographic plates taken by astronomer Tom Gehrels at the Californian Palomar Observatory in California. The body's observation arc begins with a precovery of its first recorded observation at Palomar in November 1955, or more than 15 years prior to its official discovery observation.


1870 Glaukos, Discovery
This discovery was made in the context of a larger survey of faint Trojans. The trio of Dutch and Dutch–American astronomers also collaborated on the productive Palomar–Leiden survey in the 1960s, using the same procedure as for this (smaller) survey: Tom Gehrels used Palomar's Samuel Oschin telescope (also known as the 48-inch Schmidt Telescope), and shipped the photographic plates to Cornelis and Ingrid van Houten at Leiden Observatory where astrometry was carried out.


1870 Glaukos, Orbit and classification
Glaukos is a dark Jovian asteroid in a 1:1 orbital resonance with Jupiter. It is located in the trailing Trojan camp at the Gas Giant's L5 Lagrangian point, 60° behind its orbit (see Trojans in astronomy). It is also a non-family asteroid of the Jovian background population. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 5.1–5.4 AU once every 12.02 years (4,389 days; semi-major axis of 5.25 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.03 and an inclination of 7° with respect to the ecliptic.


1870 Glaukos, Physical characteristics
Glaukos has been characterized as a dark D-type asteroid by PanSTARRS' photometric survey as well as in the SDSS-based taxonomy. It is the most common spectral type among the Jupiter trojans.


1870 Glaukos, Physical characteristics, Lightcurves
In 2012 and 2013, three rotational lightcurves of Glaukos in the R- and S-band were obtained by astronomers at the Palomar Transient Factory in California. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 5.979, 5.980 and 5.989 hours with an amplitude between 0.27 and 0.37 magnitude (U=2/2/2).


1870 Glaukos, Physical characteristics, Lightcurves
In October 2013, photometric observations by American astronomer Robert Stephens at the Center for Solar System Studies gave the so-far best rated lightcurve, with a period of 5.986±0.003 hours and a brightness variation of 0.42 magnitude (U=3).


1870 Glaukos, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Glaukos measures 47.65 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo of 0.049, while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for a carbonaceous asteroid of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 42.23 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 10.6.


1870 Glaukos, Physical characteristics, Diameter and albedo
Note: missing data was completed with figures from the JPL SBDB () and from the LCDB () for the WISE/NEOWISE and SIMPS catalogs, respectively. These figures are given in italics. Also, listing is incomplete above #100.


1870 Glaukos, Naming
This minor planet was named after Glaucus (Glaukos) from Greek mythology. In Homer's Iliad, he was captain in the Lycian contingent during the Trojan War. and was killed by Ajax, after whom the Jovian asteroid 1404 Ajax is named. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 June 1975 (M.P.C. 3826).


1870 Goldfields North colonial by-election
A by-election was held for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly electorate of Goldfields North on 23 February 1870 because Robert Wisdom had also been elected to Lower Hunter and chose to resign from Goldfields North.


1870 Grand National
The 1870 Grand National was the 32nd renewal of the world-famous Grand National horse race that took place at Aintree near Liverpool, England, on 9 March 1870. This was the fifth and final time George Stevens rode the winner in the Grand National.


1870 Grand National, Media Coverage and Aftermath
In a publicity stunt before this year's race, an athlete by the name of Tom Scott jumped a circuit of the course without the assistance of a horse. At this time the course was still not fully laid to turf and some of the obstacles were still natural hedges and banks making this a difficult two mile cross country run.


1870 Hatfield rail crash
On a frosty Boxing day in 1870 the driver of the 16:25 from London King's Cross to Peterborough noticed an 'uneasy oscillation' as he passed over Marshmoor level crossing, 2 miles south of Hatfield station. He peered back and discovered he had lost his train and pulled up. He reversed back, preceded by his fireman on foot showing a red light. They were met by the white-faced guard who told them there had been a disaster. The driver reversed direction again and sped to Hatfield to warn oncoming traffic and summon help.


1870 Hatfield rail crash
It transpired that as the train approached the crossing the left hand leading wheel of the van at the front of the train had disintegrated and the coupling between the van and the locomotive had parted and the van and two following coaches had run off the rails onto the roadway demolishing a wall, and the crossing gates and posts and killing the mother and sister of a signalman who were waiting at the crossing. In addition six passengers in the two coaches were killed.


1870 Hatfield rail crash
The accident inspector criticized the method of tyre fixing and recommended, not for the first time, the use of Mansell composite wheels on passenger rolling stock.


1870 Honduran presidential referendum
A referendum on José María Medina remaining President was held in Honduras on 26 March 1870. The proposal was approved by 95.15% of the voters. However, two years later he was ousted from power after a revolt by the Liberals.


1870 Honduran presidential referendum, Background
Medina was elected President in 1864. According to the 1848 constitution he was eligible for a second term in office. However in 1865 Medina convened a Constitutional Convention, which adopted a new constitution on 18 September. This restricted the President to a single term in office, as well as making the National Congress unicameral. The Convention made Medina the provisional President, which was confirmed in a December 1865 election.


1870 Honduran presidential referendum, Background
In order to win a second term after the adoption of the new constitution. He convened a new Convention, which approved the changes to the constitution and also elected him President for a second term. However, following protests, he held a plebiscite on the issue.


1870 Isle of Wight by-election
The Isle of Wight by-election of 1870 was fought on 10 June 1870. The election occurred as a result of the death of the incumbent MP of the Liberal Party, Sir John Simeon, 3rd Baronet. The Conservative candidate Alexander Baillie-Cochrane was elected over his Liberal opponent by a margin of 35 votes.


1870 Italian general election
General elections were held in Italy on 20 November 1870, with a second round of voting on 27 November. They were a snap election, called by Prime Minister Giovanni Lanza to take advantage by the Capture of Rome and to give parliamentary representation to the future capital of Italy.


1870 Italian general election
Only 530,018 men of a total population of around 26 million were entitled to vote. They were largely aristocrats representing rentiers from the north of the country, and held moderate political views including loyalty to the crown and low government spending.


1870 Italian general election, Electoral campaign
The Historical Right was led by the Prime Minister of Italy, Giovanni Lanza, a conservative politician from Piedmont.


1870 Italian general election, Electoral campaign
The bloc of the Historical Left was led by Urbano Rattazzi, a liberal politician and former Prime Minister, who led the left-wing for more than a decade.


1870 Italian general election, Electoral campaign
The electoral result was controversial; in terms of percentages, Prime Minister Giovanni Lanza fully exploited the prestige of the Capture of Rome against his parliamentary opponents. However, the turnout further declined after the Non expedit of Pope Pius IX, so that less than 1% of the total population of the country took part to this election. The newly completed Italian State so revealed itself as a strict oligarchy with a deep fracture with its same population, creating a damage which was never really repaired.


1870 Italian general election, Electoral campaign
After the election, Lanza was confirmed Prime Minister by the King.


1870 Kiama colonial by-election
A by-election was held for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly electorate of Kiama on 3 November 1870 because of the resignation of Henry Parkes due to financial difficulties following the failure of his importing venture.


1870 Kiama colonial by-election, Aftermath
Parkes return to parliament was short lived as he was subsequently forced into bankruptcy in December 1870, forcing another by-election.


1870 Liberian constitutional referendum
A referendum on the length of terms of office was held in Liberia on 3 May 1870. After the political dispute that had followed the disputed result of a  similar referendum the previous year, the Legislature agreed to resubmit the proposal to the electorate. President Edward James Roye had the votes counted and declared that the referendum had passed. The legislature, the entity legally responsible for counting the votes, declared that the proposal has not passed because an illegitimate officer - the President - had counted the votes and thus the referendum had failed.


1870 Liverpool Plains colonial by-election
A by-election was held for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly electorate of Liverpool Plains on 29 January 1870 because Charles Cowper had been appointed Premier and Colonial Secretary, forming the fifth Cowper ministry.


1870 Liverpool Town Council election
Elections to Liverpool Town Council were held on Monday 1 November 1870. One third of the council seats were up for election, the term of office of each councillor being three years. Nine of the sixteen wards were uncontested.


1870 Liverpool Town Council election, Election result
Because of the large number of uncontested seats, these statistics should be taken in that context.


1870 Liverpool Town Council election, By-elections, No.4, St. Paul's, 17 March 1871
The death of Alderman Richard Sheil was reported to the Council on 1 March 1870. Councillor Oliver Holden (Conservative, St. Paul's, elected 1 November 1868) was elected as an alderman by the Council (Councillors and Aldermen) on 8 March 1871.


1870 Liverpool Town Council election, By-elections, Aldermanic By Election, 15 April 1871
The death of Alderman John Stewart JP was reported to the Council meeting on 19 April 1871. Peter Thomson was elected as an Alderman by the Council (Councillors and Aldermen) on 15 April 1871.


1870 Liverpool Town Council election, By-elections, Aldermanic By Election, 6 October 1871
The death of Alderman Thomas Dover JP was reported to the Council meeting on 4 October 1871. Former Councillor James Jack (Conservative, Rodney Street last elected 1 November 1864) was elected as an alderman by the Council (Councillors and Aldermen) on 6 October 1871.


1870 Londonderry City by-election
The Londonderry City by-election of 1870 was held on 15 February. It was a ministerial by-election, triggered by the appointment of Liberal Party member of parliament Richard Dowse as Solicitor-General for Ireland. The election was strongly contested by the Irish Conservative Party at a time when such by-elections were increasingly unchallenged. During this period the Catholic population of Londonderry tended to support the Liberals while the Protestant population supported the Conservatives. Dowse won, with a slightly reduced majority, and the result has been cited as evidence for the increasing co-operation between Episcopalian and Presbyterian voters in Ulster.


1870 Londonderry City by-election, Background
Richard Dowse was a Liberal Party politician who was first elected to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom for the Londonderry City constituency at the 17 November 1868 general election. At this election he had defeated his only rival, the Irish Conservative Party's Claud Hamilton, by 704 votes to 599.


1870 Londonderry City by-election, Background
A lawyer by profession, Dowse was appointed Solicitor-General for Ireland in February 1870 which, under the law of the time, triggered a ministerial by-election. The election was scheduled for 15 February and Dowse faced a strong challenge by the Conservative Party's Robert Baxter, at a time when ministerial by-elections (abolished in 1926) were increasingly uncontested.


1870 Londonderry City by-election, Results
Dowse was re-elected, receiving 680 votes compared to 592 received by Baxter. The vote in Londonderry at this time was usually sectarian with the numbers of Protestant and Catholic voters directly correlating with support for the Conservative and Liberal parties respectively. The 1870 result was regarded as indicating an increasing co-operation between Episcopalian and Presbyterian voters in Ulster. This was the last parliamentary election in the constituency before the introduction of the secret ballot in 1872 and registers of all the voters for each elector are still held on record. Dowse stood down as member of parliament in 1872 to take up a position as Baron of the Exchequer, the resulting by-election saw the loss of the seat to the Conservatives as some Liberals switched their support because of the Liberal candidate's record in government and the party's education policy.


1870 Maine gubernatorial election
The 1870 Maine gubernatorial election was held on September 12, 1870. Republican candidate Sidney Perham defeated the Democratic candidate Charles W. Roberts.


1870 Maltese Council of Government referendum
A referendum on whether clergy should be eligible to sit in the Council of Government was held in Malta in 1870. It was approved by 96% of voters. Only 60% of those eligible to vote participated.


1870 Maltese general election
General elections were held in Malta between 13 and 18 June 1870.


1870 Maltese general election, Background
The elections were held under the 1849 constitution, which provided for an 18-member Government Council, of which ten members would be appointed and eight elected.


1870 Maltese general election, Results
A total of 2,732 people were registered to vote, of which 1,908 cast votes, giving a turnout of 70%.


1870 Manitoba general election
The 1870 Manitoba general election held on December 27, 1870, resulted in a victory for Lieutenant Governor Adams George Archibald's governing coalition. Archibald had previously been appointed as the province's Lieutenant Governor by George-Étienne Cartier, and promoted a model of "consensus government," which included members of the province's different ethnic, religious, and linguistic groups.


1870 Manitoba general election
The only organized opposition in the province was the Canadian Party of John Christian Schultz, which demanded swifter retribution against the leaders of Louis Riel's Red River Rebellion. Archibald's coalition won 17 seats, Schultz's party only 5. There were also two Independent MLAs: Thomas Bunn (who seems to have tacitly supported Archibald) and George Klyne (who does not appear to have played a major role in parliament). Edward Hay subsequently became Leader of the Opposition.


1870 Manitoba general election
Formal party politics had not yet arrived in Manitoba, although some candidates were associated with the Liberal and Conservative parties at the national level.


1870 Manitoba general election, Riding results
[ Note:  Louis Riel had been requested to run here; he declined.]


1870 Manitoba general election, Riding results
On March 30, 1871, John Taylor's victory in Headingly was overturned and James Cunningham was declared elected. One of Taylor's votes had been cast too late; the tie-breaking vote was also disqualified.


1870 Manitoba general election, Riding results
Winnipeg and St. John (res. Donald Alexander Smith, January 1874), April 1874:


1870 Manitoba general election, Riding results
The government was dominated by the Lieutenant Governors (Archibald and his successor, Alexander Morris) until July 1874, when Joseph Dubuc's francophone bloc joined forces with the Opposition members to bring down the government. Marc-Amable Girard then served as Premier from July to November 1874, at which time he was replaced by Robert A. Davis.


1870 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
The 1870 Massachusetts gubernatorial election was held on November 8.


1870 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
Governor William Clafin was re-elected to a third consecutive one-year term, defeating Democrat John Quincy Adams II and abolitionist attorney Wendell Phillips, running on the Labor Reform ticket.


1870 Massachusetts gubernatorial election
In the concurrent but separate election for Lieutenant Governor, Republican Joseph Tucker was also re-elected to a third term.


1870 Massachusetts legislature
The 91st Massachusetts General Court, consisting of the Massachusetts Senate and the Massachusetts House of Representatives, met in 1870 during the governorship of Republican William Claflin. Horace H. Coolidge served as president of the Senate and Harvey Jewell served as speaker of the House.


1870 Mayo by-election
The Mayo by-election of 1870 was fought on 12 May 1870. The by-election was fought due to the death of the incumbent Liberal MP George Henry Moore. It was won by the unopposed Liberal candidate George Ekins Browne.


1870 Melbourne Cup
The 1870 Melbourne Cup was a two-mile handicap horse race which took place on Thursday, 10 November 1870.


1870 Melbourne Cup
This year was the tenth running of the Melbourne Cup. The entire carnival was pushed back to a week due to a waterlogged track. This race has become a big part of Melbourne Cup folklore. Ballarat publican Walter Craig bought Nimblefoot from Melbourne bookmaker Joe Thompson. Serval months before the 1870 race Craig dreams of a horse in his colours winning the race but with its jockey wearing a black arm band. Craig told friends about this and was sure that Nimblefoot would win, but he would not live to see the 12/1 shot's tense battle with Lapdog.


1870 Melbourne Cup
Craig died on the morning of 17 August from gout and pneumonia. Craig's dream was recounted in The Age newspaper the day before the cup. At about 4 O'clock Ms. Craig with tears in her eyes reveals to Ballarat that Nimblefoot had won with its jockey wearing a black arm band. The winning time of 3:37.0 was at the time the fastest winning time in the race's history.


1870 Melbourne Cup
This is the list of placegetters for the 1870 Melbourne Cup.


1870 Michigan gubernatorial election
The 1870 Michigan gubernatorial election was held on November 1, 1870. Incumbent Republican Henry P. Baldwin defeated Democratic nominee Charles C. Comstock with 53.71% of the vote.


1870 Mid Surrey by-election
The Mid Surrey by-election of 1870 was fought on 17 October 1870. The byelection was fought due to the succession to a peerage of the incumbent Conservative MP William Brodrick. It was won by the unopposed Conservative candidate Richard Baggallay.


1870 Missouri State Colored People's Educational Convention
The Missouri State Colored People's Educational Convention was held in Jefferson City from January 19 to 22 in the city's resident Baptist church. This convention was brought on by the work of Colonel F. A. Seely and J. Milton Turner, as they had both researched the conditions of public schools for black children in Missouri during the preceding two years. The President of this convention; J. Milton Turner, established the convention out of the sheer lack of public schools and normal schools for blacks.


1870 Missouri State Colored People's Educational Convention
They additionally met to address the deliberate lack of support from local school boards for black public and normal schools. Over the course of the convention, committees were called upon to present the convention's case for equal education to the people of color of Missouri and to state officials. The majority of their points touched on how state funds for schools were used. In the final days, the convention proposed a bill that would be recommended to the Missouri legislature; this bill outlined the need and plan for a state normal school to train teachers of color.


1870 Missouri State Colored People's Educational Convention
This bill guaranteed funds for the school and required the trustees of the school to certify that suitable grounds and resources would be provided for the school under the supervision of the state board of education. The women who had catered the meetings and a women's choir who had performed after a prayer were thanked for their part in the convention. These acts were the only kind of political participation these women could engage in, as women were not allowed to vote or participate in the convention.


1870 Missouri State Colored People's Educational Convention, Systemic corruption in Missouri schools
From 1868 to 1869, Colonel F. A. Seely and J. Milton Turner were asked by the American Missionary Association (AMA), an organization that had played an important role in improving the education for blacks in the US after the Civil War, to investigate the conditions of schools all over the state. The AMA partnered with the Missouri field office of the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, who had been the employers of both F. A. Seely and J. Milton Turner.


1870 Missouri State Colored People's Educational Convention, Systemic corruption in Missouri schools
From their investigation, they found that the lack of schools for black children in many towns was attributed to the often inaccurate count of black children. The state law mandated that a town needed to have 15 children to start a school, and in several towns, the school board would report an inaccurate number. In other cases, school board members would take funds allocated for black schools. There were also cases of black schools being held in churches. In addition to the lack of normal schools for black teachers, some school boards also refused to hire black teachers.


1870 Missouri State Colored People's Educational Convention, Schools and the state
During this convention, a larger argument took place in the Missouri legislature about the role of the state in education. Missouri State Senator Spaunhorst and other lawmakers argued that education was the responsibility of parents alone and that the responsibility of the state was only to fund that education. This argument came about after the Missouri State House was faced with a bill proposing that the state would be tasked with deciding a curriculum for every Missouri school to follow. This bill would decide how involved the state would be in the establishment of schools and the development of students.


1870 Missouri State Colored People's Educational Convention, Schools and the state
Not only would this bill begin to provide black and white students with a similar education, it would also allow for federal legislation to be passed regarding all U.S. schools. Over time, however, this bill would come in direct conflict with the Plessy v Ferguson decision in 1896 that would further distance the quality of education between black and white students.


1870 Missouri gubernatorial election
The 1870 Missouri gubernatorial election was held on November 8, 1870 and resulted in a victory for the Liberal Republican nominee, former Senator Benjamin Gratz Brown, over incumbent Republican Governor Joseph W. McClurg.


1870 Mitchell colonial by-election
The Mitchell colonial by-election, 1870 was a by-election held on 8 February 1870 in the electoral district of Mitchell for the Queensland Legislative Assembly.


1870 Mitchell colonial by-election, History
On 3 December 1869, Edward Lamb, member for Mitchell, resigned. Archibald Buchanan won the resulting by-election on 8 February 1870; however, it emerged he had not nominated as a candidate and had been elected against his own wishes, and he resigned two days later.


1870 Monara colonial by-election
A by-election was held in the New South Wales colonial electoral district of Monara, also called Monaro, on 17 November 1870. The by-election was triggered by the death of Daniel Egan.


1870 Mongonui by-election
The 1870 Mongonui by-election was a by-election held on 30 March 1870 in the Mongonui electorate during the 4th New Zealand Parliament.


1870 Mongonui by-election
The by-election was caused by the resignation of the incumbent MP Thomas Ball on 1 March 1870. The by-election was won by Thomas Gillies.


1870 New Brunswick general election
The 1870 New Brunswick general election was held in June and July 1870, to elect 41 members to the 22nd New Brunswick Legislative Assembly, the governing house of the province of New Brunswick, Canada. The election was held before the adoption of party labels, and was the first since New Brunswick joined the Canadian Confederation in 1867.


1870 New Brunswick general election
The government, a loose coalition of Conservatives and Liberals, was led into the election by George Edwin King weeks after he had been appointed premier following the resignation of Andrew Rainsford Wetmore. King's government was re-elected, but he would resign three days into the legislative session, and a new coalition government was formed by George Luther Hatheway(an Opposition MLA) which included King as Attorney-General.


1870 New Brunswick general election
Of forty-one MLAs, twenty-four supported the government, sixteen formed the opposition, and one was neutral.


1870 New York special judicial election
A special judicial election was held on May 17, 1870, to fill the seats on the re-organized New York Court of Appeals.


1870 New York special judicial election, Background
An Amendment to the New York Constitution, adopted in November 1869, re-organized the Court of Appeals. The first judges were to be elected at a special statewide election to take office on July 4, 1870. The new Court had a Chief Judge, elected as such, and six associate judges. Each ticket could have only four candidates for associate judge so that at least two judges were elected by the minority party.


1870 New York special judicial election, Background
In April 1870, a new city charter for New York City was enacted by the New York State Legislature under instructions from William M. Tweed. The first municipal election under the new charter was scheduled for the same day, with the intention to swamp the strong upstate Republican vote with a heavy Democratic/Tammany vote in New York City.


1870 New York special judicial election, Results
Boss Tweed's plan worked, and all five Democratic candidates were elected, leaving only two judgeships to the Republican minority.


1870 New York special judicial election, Results
Of the seven original judges elected in 1870, only two completed the 14-year term. Four died (Peckham in 1873, Grover in 1875, Allen in 1878, and Church in 1880) and Folger was first appointed, and then elected, Chief Judge, but resigned in 1881. Andrews was then appointed Chief Judge, but lost the election in 1882, and continued on the bench as an associate judge. Rapallo and Andrews were re-elected in 1884. Rapallo died during his second term in 1887. Andrews was elected Chief Judge in 1892, and retired at the end of 1897 after almost 28 years, the longest tenure of any judge on the New York Court of Appeals.


1870 New York state election
The 1870 New York state election was held on November 8, 1870, to elect the governor, the lieutenant governor, the New York State Comptroller, two Canal Commissioners and an Inspector of State Prisons, as well as all members of the New York State Assembly.


1870 New York state election, History
The Republican state convention met on September 7 at Saratoga, New York. Due to the factional struggle between the followers of Roscoe Conkling and Reuben E. Fenton, the Temporary Chairman was not proposed and adopted by acclamation, as traditionally done, but was elected. George William Curtis, the Conkling man, was chosen by the delegates (vote: Curtis 220, Van Wyck 150). Thereupon, Conkling proposed Charles H. Van Wyck, the Fenton man, as President, which was adopted.


1870 New York state election, History
Stewart L. Woodford was nominated for Governor on the second ballot (informal vote: Woodford 153, Horace Greeley 143, George William Curtis 104½; first ballot: Woodford 170½, Greeley 139, Curtis 87½; second ballot: Woodford 258, Greeley 105½, Curtis 20). DeWitt Clinton Littlejohn was nominated for Lieutenant Governor on the first ballot (vote: Littlejohn 196, Sigismund Kaufman 182). Abiah W. Palmer was nominated for Comptroller by acclamation. On September 8, Absalom Nelson, of Erie County, was nominated for Canal Commissioner (full term) by acclamation. Alexander Barkley was nominated for Canal Commissioner (short term) on the first ballot (vote: Barkley: 302, Alonzo N. Welch 82). Littlejohn declined to run and suggested the choice of Kaufman, who was then nominated. John Parkhurst, the Warden of Clinton State Prison, was nominated for Prison Inspector by acclamation.


1870 New York state election, Result
The whole Democratic ticket, made up of the six incumbent officers, was re-elected.


1870 New York state election, Result
65 Democrats and 63 Republicans were elected for the session of 1871 to the New York State Assembly.


1870 Newport (Isle of Wight) by-election
The Newport (Isle of Wight) by-election of 1870 was fought on 23 November 1870. The byelection was fought due to the Death of the incumbent MP of the Liberal Party, Charles Wykeham Martin. It was won by the Liberal candidate Charles Cavendish Clifford.


1870 North Carolina's 4th congressional district special election
A special election to the United States House of Representatives for North Carolina's 4th congressional district was held August 4, 1870.


1870 North Carolina's 4th congressional district special election
The winning candidate would serve in the United States House of Representatives to represent North Carolina in the 41st Congress until the General election on November 26, 1870.


1870 North Carolina's 4th congressional district special election, Background
Incumbent U.S. Representative John T. Deweese resigned his seat on February 28, 1870 before he was censured by the House of Representatives on March 1, 1870, for selling an appointment to the Naval Academy. A special election was held to replace his seat.


1870 North Carolina's 4th congressional district special election, Aftermath
Representative-elect Robert B. Gilliam, died before taking office, necessitating the November 26 special election.


1870 Norwegian parliamentary election
Parliamentary elections were held in Norway in 1870. As political parties were not officially established until 1884, all those elected were independents. Voter turnout was 45.1%, although only 4.7% of the country's population was eligible to vote.


1870 Norwich by-election
The Norwich by-election of 1870 was fought on 13 July 1870. The by-election was fought due to the Void election of the incumbent MP of the Conservative Party, Sir Henry Stracey. It was won by the Liberal candidate Jacob Henry Tillett.


1870 Nottingham by-election
The Nottingham by-election of 1870 was fought on 24 February 1870. The by-election was fought due to the resignation of the incumbent MP of the Conservative Party, Charles Ichabod Wright. It was won by the Liberal candidate Auberon Herbert.


1870 Omata by-election
The 1870 Omata by-election was a by-election held on 27 April in the Omata electorate during the 4th New Zealand Parliament.


1870 Omata by-election
The by-election was caused by the resignation of the incumbent, Charles Brown.


1870 Open Championship
The 1870 Open Championship was a golf competition held at Prestwick Golf Club, Ayrshire, Scotland. It was the 11th Open Championship and the last to be contested for the Challenge Belt. Tom Morris, Jr. won the championship by 12 shots from Bob Kirk and Davie Strath. By winning for a third successive time Tom Morris, Jr. gained permanent possession of the Challenge Belt.


1870 Open Championship
The contest took place the day after the autumn meeting of the club. A published notice for the benefit of prospective entrants to the tournament read, "On Thurs the 15th Sept. the Champion Belt, given by the Prestwick Golf Club, and open to all Members of Established Golf Clubs and Professionals, will be competed for".


1870 Open Championship
Tommy Morris's first round of 47 (3-5-3-5-6-3-3-3-4-3-4-5) was two shots better than his previous record round in 1868. This gave him a five shot lead over Bob Kirk. After a second round 51 he held a five shot lead over Davie Strath. A final 51 extended his lead to 12 shots. His final score of 149 was 5 shots better than the previous record set in 1868. There were 20 starters but only 17 returned scores.


1870 Open Championship
Morris returned to St Andrews by train, late on Saturday evening. A "great multitude" were there to meet him and he was carried, shoulder high, to Mr. Leslie's Golf Hotel, where his health was drunk.


1870 Open Championship, Final leaderboard, Playoff
Kirk beat Strath in a 12-hole playoff, Kirk winning by 56 to 60 and taking the £4 second prize while Strath took the third prize of £2. This was the first time that there had been a tie for prize money since it was introduced in 1863.


1870 Oregon gubernatorial election
The 1870 Oregon gubernatorial election took place on June 6, 1870 to elect the governor of the U.S. state of Oregon. The election matched Republican Joel Palmer against Democrat La Fayette Grover.


1870 Parnell by-election
The 1870 Parnell by-election was a by-election held on 12 May 1870 in the Parnell electorate during the 4th New Zealand Parliament.


1870 Parnell by-election
The by-election was caused by the resignation of the incumbent MP Charles Heaphy on 13 April 1870.


1870 Parnell by-election
The by-election was won by Reader Wood, who had held the seat from 1861 to 1865. As no other candidates were nominated, he was declared duly elected.


1870 Plymouth by-election
The Plymouth by-election of 1870 was held on 15 August 1870. The by-election was held due to the incumbent Liberal MP, Sir Robert Porrett Collier, becoming Recorder of Bristol. It was retained unopposed by Collier.


1870 Princeton Tigers football team
The 1870 Princeton Tigers football team represented the College of New Jersey, then more commonly known as Princeton College, in the 1870 college football season. The team finished with a 1–0 record and was retroactively named the national champion by the Billingsley Report, National Championship Foundation, and Parke H. Davis. The Tigers played Rutgers one time and won 6–2. Alexander Van Rensselaer was the team's captain.


1870 Princeton Tigers football team
In 1871, Princeton College only played games versus Princeton Theological Seminary and there are no records of those games. No intercollegiate football games occurred that year. Princeton and Rutgers played again in 1872.


1870 Queen's County by-election
The Queen's County by-election of 1870 was fought on 4 January 1870. The by-election was fought due to the elevation to the peerage of the incumbent Liberal MP John Wilson FitzPatrick. It was won by the unopposed Liberal candidate Edmund Dease.


1870 Queensland colonial election
Elections were held in the Australian state of Queensland between 27 July 1870 and 15 September 1870 to elect the members of the state's Legislative Assembly.


1870 Queensland colonial election, Key dates
Due to problems of distance and communications, it was not possible to hold the elections on a single day.


1870 Riverton by-election
The 1870 Riverton by-election was a by-election held on 18 March 1870 during the 4th New Zealand Parliament in the Southland electorate of Riverton.


1870 Riverton by-election
The by-election was caused by the resignation of the incumbent MP Donald Hankinson on 2 April 1870.


1870 Riverton by-election
The by-election was won by Lauchlan McGillivray, he was unopposed.


1870 Rockhampton colonial by-election
The Rockhampton colonial by-election, 1870 was a by-election held on 20 June 1870 in the electoral district of Rockhampton for the Queensland Legislative Assembly.


1870 Rockhampton colonial by-election, History
On 7 June 1870, Henry Milford, member for Rockhampton since the by-election in December 1870, resigned, having never taken his seat in Parliament. Milford contested the resulting by-election on 20 June 1870, but was defeated by Alexander Fyfe.


1870 Roxburghshire by-election
The Roxburghshire by-election of 1870 was fought on 2 March 1870. The by-election was fought due to the resignation of the incumbent Liberal MP, Sir William Scott. It was won by the unopposed Liberal candidate Marquess of Bowmont.


1870 Rutgers Queensmen football team
The 1870 Rutgers Queensmen football team represented Rutgers University in the 1870 college football season. They finished with a 1–1 record.


1870 Shrewsbury by-election
The Shrewsbury by-election of 1870 was fought on 21 September 1870. The by-election was fought due to the Death of the incumbent MP of the Liberal Party, William James Clement. It was won by the Conservative candidate Douglas Straight.


1870 South Australian colonial election
Colonial elections were held in South Australia from 28 March to 21 April 1870. All 36 seats in the South Australian House of Assembly were up for election.


1870 South Australian colonial election
Since the inaugural 1857 election, no parties or solid groupings had been formed, which resulted in frequent changes of the Premier. If for any reason the incumbent Premier of South Australia lost sufficient support through a successful motion of no confidence at any time on the floor of the house, he would tender his resignation to the Governor of South Australia, which would result in interested members declaring their intent to run for the vacant position. A parliamentary ballot would then take place, resulting in the member with the most votes being sworn in by the Governor as the next Premier.


1870 South Australian colonial election
Informal groupings began and increased government stability occurred from the 1887 election. The United Labor Party would be formed in 1891, while the National Defence League would be formed later in the same year.


1870 South Carolina gubernatorial election
The 1870 South Carolina gubernatorial election was held on October 10, 1870 to select the governor of the state of South Carolina. Governor Robert Kingston Scott easily won reelection based entirely on the strength of the black vote in the state. The election was significant because it proved to the white conservatives of the state that political harmony between the white and black races was impossible and only through a straightout Democratic attempt would they be able to regain control of state government.


1870 South Carolina gubernatorial election, Union Reform Convention
The Radical Republican reforms and alleged corrupt schemes initiated by Governor Scott after he assumed office in 1868 infuriated the white population of the state. However, the Democratic Party of the state was so thoroughly defeated in the previous gubernatorial election that white conservatives realized the only way to seriously contest the election of 1870 was through the formation of a new political party. They organized a conference in Columbia on March 16 to formulate policies for the upcoming campaign.


1870 South Carolina gubernatorial election, Union Reform Convention
From the results of the previous election, white conservatives concluded that running a white supremacist campaign in a state where African-Americans were in the majority was futile and ineffective. The conference adopted two policies that would recognize African-American equality and ensure their protection under the law. The other resolution adopted was a campaign to wage against alleged radicalism in favor of a perception for a good and honest government.


1870 South Carolina gubernatorial election, Union Reform Convention
A nominating convention was held in Columbia on June 15 to select nominees for the state offices of Governor and Lieutenant Governor. In addition, a committee was formed at the convention to finalize the platform that the party would run on in the fall campaign. The chairman of the committee, Matthew Butler, submitted a paper with positions that would enforce the Fifteenth Amendment, uphold the existing laws enacted by the Radical Republicans, and to restore their perception of honesty and accountability in the state government. Furthermore, it was recommended that the new political party be called the Union Reform Party of South Carolina. Richard B. Carpenter, called a carpetbagger judge by some was from Charleston and considered of questionable reputation, won the nomination for Governor although he had never sought the position.


1870 South Carolina gubernatorial election, Republican Convention
The state Republicans renominated Governor Scott unanimously for a second two-year term at their state convention in Columbia on July 26 and July 27. Policies adopted on their platform included the continuation of support for civil rights and to request Congress to sell public lands in the South to the landless.


1870 South Carolina gubernatorial election, Campaign
Republican support was primarily from recently freed slaves. Reports vary as to alleged black militias drilling into the streets with bayonets fixed, threatening anyone who cast a vote against the Republicans. In addition, leaders of the Union League were influential to many African-American Republicans. As a result, violence erupted within the local communities. Additionally, former Governor Orr advocated for white voters to support the Republican ticket because only through the Republican party would reform be achieved and many of their policies were favorable to the white people.


1870 South Carolina gubernatorial election, Campaign
Even though most African-Americans faced grave threats if they opted to support the Union Reform ticket, many sincerely refused to even consider a candidate other than a Republican. One African-American told  white conservatives that "before the war you wouldn't let me join your party and now I don't choose to." It was virtually impossible for whites to convince African-American voters to vote for their candidates because Republican leaders repeatedly pointed out that whites only recognized black suffrage at the point of a bayonet.


1870 South Carolina gubernatorial election, Campaign
Not only did the Union Reform party have a difficult task at attracting African-American voters, it also faced a disillusioned white electorate. The more extreme base of white voters simply were not willing to vote for any political party that allowed for African-Americans to participate as equals to the whites. Wade Hampton returned from his affairs in Mississippi to rally support for the Union Reform cause, but he encountered lukewarm support at best. It was estimated that less than half of the white voters in the state bothered to cast a ballot in the election.


1870 South Carolina gubernatorial election, Election results
The general election was held on October 10, 1870 and Robert Kingston Scott was reelected as governor of South Carolina. Turnout for the election was high as Radical Republicans sought to discourage any future attempts of an organized opposition by show of force at the polls. The devastating defeat suffered by the Union Reform Party led to its demise and it never again functioned as a political party. Moreover, white men who had participated in the Union Reform effort felt they had disrespected their honor associating with African-Americans as their political equal.


1870 Southwark by-election
The Southwark by-election of 1870 was fought on 17 February 1870. The by-election was fought due to the resignation (Ambassador to Spain) of the incumbent MP of the Liberal Party, Austen Henry Layard. It was won by the Conservative candidate Marcus Beresford.


1870 The Hastings colonial by-election
A by-election was held for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly electorate of The Hastings on 4 July 1870 as a result of the Legislative Assembly declaring the election of Horace Dean was void. Dean had been appointed the postmaster at Tinonee at the time of the nominations for the 1869 election and resigned the following day. The Committee of Elections and Qualifications held that because he had an office of profit under the crown at the time of his nomination meant he was incapable of being elected, or of sitting, or voting, as a member of the Assembly.


1870 The Hastings colonial by-election, Committee of Elections and Qualifications
The petition lodged by Smith raised two substantive allegations, that (1) Dean was an alien, being someone who was neither a natural born subject nor a naturalized subject and (2) at the time of his nomination and election Dean was the postmaster at Tinonee, an office of profit under the Crown.


1870 The Hastings colonial by-election, Committee of Elections and Qualifications
The Electoral Act of 1858 distinguished between a natural born subject, a "person born in Her Majesty's dominions or either of whose parents was so born", and a naturalised subject, a "person who in England is or shall be naturalized and every person made a denizen or having received a certificate" under the Aliens Act 1847 (NSW) and taken the required oath. The qualification to be a member was in section 8 which provided that:


1870 The Hastings colonial by-election, Committee of Elections and Qualifications
8. Every male subject of Her Majesty of the full age of twenty-one years and absolutely free being natural born or who being a naturalized subject shall have resided in this Colony for five years shall be qualified to be elected a Member of the Assembly for any Electoral District unless disqualified by section seventeen or eighteen of the Constitution Act or unless under section eleven or twelve of this Act he would be disqualified or incapacitated as an Elector.


1870 The Hastings colonial by-election, Committee of Elections and Qualifications
The relevant disqualifying clause was section eighteen of the Constitution Act which provided:


1870 The Hastings colonial by-election, Committee of Elections and Qualifications
XVIII.


1870 The Hastings colonial by-election, Committee of Elections and Qualifications
Any person holding any Office of Profit under the Crown, or having a Pension from the Crown during Pleasure or for Term of Years, shall be incapable of being elected, or of sitting or voting as a Member of the Legislative Assembly, unless he be One of the following official Members of the Government, that is to say, the Colonial Secretary, Colonial Treasurer, Auditor General, Attorney General, and Solicitor General, or One of such additional Officers, not being more than Five, as the Governor, with the advice of the Executive Council, may from Time to Time, by a notice in the Government Gazette, declare capable of being elected a Member of the said Assembly.


1870 The Hastings colonial by-election, Committee of Elections and Qualifications
The committee consisted of Stephen Brown, Alexander DoddsAlexander Dodds, Thomas Garrett, John Lackey, William Macleay, William Piddington and William Windeyer. Dean had been born in the United States of America and his naturalisation in South Australia had previously been held to be invalid as based on forged documents. There did not appear to be any doubt that being a postmaster was an office of profit under the Crown and that Dean had resigned after the nomination. The question was therefore whether the disqualification applied at the time of nomination or only at the time of the polling. The final issue was whether the seat should be awarded to Smith, who finished 2nd of the 6 candidates, or if the seat should be declared vacant and a by-election held.


1870 The Hastings colonial by-election, Committee of Elections and Qualifications
In the committee Windeyer moved that the election of Dean was void because he was an alien and the seat should be awarded to Smith, however this was defeated by 4 votes to 3. The report does not identify whether they disagreed that Dean was an alien or whether the seat should be awarded to Smith without a by-election. The committee then resolved, by 6 to 1, that the seat be declared vacant because Dean held an office of profit under the crown at the time of his nomination. The issue of whether Dean was an alien arose again as the central issue in the subsequent re-count.


1870 The Hastings colonial by-election, Result
Dean's margin over Smith increased from 30 votes at the 1869 election to 512 votes.